FOR THE PEOPEE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE | Cay. M) te Bt, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY “aide POG OR Beets) te - ae a SF A AL I ae gee a: = ee et tw LS er « = 2S Chef oo on FFE | =z we ‘s > Messarit) Cus, i Per (F “8 e's U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 51-75, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. We eet RN aS LTESSs > WASHINGTON: ' GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFPIOE. 1915. vi (tn | PD i ie are a — < ie Canaan he eon Pte Ae . ee “seaytayeca est 1 Vea rather te CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 51.—A BacTERIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL STUDY OF CoMMERCIAL Ea6Gs IN THE PRopucING DISTRICTS OF THE CENTRAL WEST. MaLOUUCMONS ze Mas ose ete e snot ese red zea ke dks ya Sagem le nm SUD OL A ParEterUneOmo a Salil) fr eo secre a ete ei Sach atlases Bele eee AS dave ieroumistonme oly ba samira. fae, Meo oni ee oe eB ceaslers axis ss cies Mama PeTiVe Mitra etrserare cnt ere bis Meee aint cioia ence Sey hnig a Slay ey sle rein wid pune nies SUEITIITOR DAY Mies cre Shc bars ee 5 Sha Ne eR sO Pret NUEO Co RLY) Sy sae hy 2 eres eee at eS a aS RSS yen pba tes, uence ages DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 56.—A SprcraL FLASK For THE Rapip DETERMI- NATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. ERC ALCEION ee res ee ete fa cro ereicin iiss =! - gates -uit eehaay eta e Re ela oma Mescrpitoniol the: special flasks. st): 2st (oj. ps piclose apie lyse -ieeeae How to make a water test of flour or meal.................. MER Bh Speenications for the; thermometer..;-.2- . 2-6 -< + 9 5 8 mele ere ee Ce mice Se ce wes ee a st 6 Sew owe sc wn ce ae « wie ole (sia)s 6s w/e) =e aie a) ofelatniatalalal Bamananwatertilyy fe: 0... 2... Pe. BEER See 14 DEPARTMENT BuLLeTIN No. 59.—TxHE Tosacco Spritworm. Tntroductioms sk sn ae a Oss EER Experiments on the specific status of the two forms... ................-- Distribution i a i a i ae Food: plants eee te. ee ee Food habits: 2222520)... lei Ae eee Description of stages Life thistory fect... 0 eee ee eee Neasonal-history: 2:06. a eee Parasites’. ct. ete ees ee eee ; Remedial measures! 17.2 ee eee hl aa DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 60.—THE ReEwaTION or Corron Buyine TO Cotton GROWING. i i ee ae ae iar INS HO Pw OO Dee Introduction......2 2... -<0edeten / ORS eee nee eee 1 The need of discrimination im buyimegsee- eee ee eee 2 Varieties deteriorate by losing uniformity.................-......--.--.- 3 Careful farmers deserve the higher prices...........-.-.-----------+---+- 5 Discrimination in buying more important than high prices...........--- 6 Development. of new long-staple districts...................-...-.---.--- 8 Commercial causes of deterioration of cotton................--+++2-+----- ll Deteriorationot Sew Island -cottom crop: =)... 2222-2 oe eee 12 Limitations of the present system of buying. .................--.---+--- 14 Injustice of the present system of buying: /2_ 5... -- 22+) oe eee 15 Uniformity best determined by field inspection.............--...-------- 16 Field inspection in the interest of manufacturers...............---------- 17 Other causes of uneven fiber $22.5... ee 18 Economic peculiarities of the cotton industry....................----.--- 19 Conclusion. .2'.5..450) 265600 ee w-- ES os ee 20 DEPARTMENT BuLuLETIN No. 61.—PorTasH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BAsIN REGION. Geochemical ‘conditions: 2.2.2 220. Sees oe eee 1 Sources ofsalines: : 252002 oS. Re ee 14 Reactions in the zone’ of weathering 222-5222 22 22 ere ees area 20 Collection’ of salines'by surface waters: ..-.00.. /o eee eee ee 27 Saline deposits: 22.22. 2y 0 ee 32 Structural development of a desert basin............--+...------.-------- 37 Playas: i220. eee es EE ee eee 39 Buried deposits of salimes: 2-0 -- . “22 52 2 Ne rene 60 Salines in present lakesHe 2S... Soe. DoS 64 Conclusion: -==- 30 | 0 20 TO cts ree 0 0 | Enlarged hatch spot. 4016 |...do..... 20 0 40 OR Sze erate 0 0| Enlarged hatch spot; bloated yolk. 4018 |.-.do-.... 0 0 30 Op eset 0 0 1912, : ALOSO=7 | Aco Bile epee al ee ae ae pt a 644000 )) So 2eee eee ee Marked shrinkage. ALOSO=-87 | - ss 2-212] 2)5 boise a Eee yee | Sk eee LO ait LOG See welee moar Very weak yolk which broke when egg was opened. ; ALORI—L2 1's OS OE Re IR Sa rae ae ne Se ua ea D4} 000) Sea area ie ae a ALIS INS | SAGO: SEPANG Ie oe Buy percteall tana orci acre e ete 240: OOOH cc eemeleeeeen an Marked shrinkage. ALOSI=19: (2 S2doi cso NS ele eee se ELSE ee Ova 100i). ee eee es Marked shrinkage; yolk broke when egg was opened. AL0R9-90" | 2 2 dOs 2222) acccapets Seeetemelesceer =|: -aeeeee Oat. 200). S22 ees eases Marked shrinkage. AV OSSD 7 |S AOA ee | ee pee yee Ost OO) | eee ee Decidedly weak yolk which broke when egg was opened. ALOSO=28 | OO .P ee os Aaa ade ee | Sat a ee Soe tee Oat LOO. eee seeks Marked shrinkage. ALORS — 35 i S20 sa = a cisioacines | rte aie eters! Pe eee tas ee Oat: LOO Sess fo os | Seer Do. ATORO—-38 NP POs <2 0k \aeue ioe aceon edal see cmencleoneeaee Oat 00) Saee ieee ee eee Do. AOS ON EE AG soso | aS etre tee caeeell ttiiaineen] Geeee ieee (OME H ie 0,0) eS Salle ie Shoe Marked shrinkage; yolk broke when egg was opened. ALUSO-AL |. dO soa Net | 52 See ote c's oton| sane Oat: 100i) 62) Sasa Marked shrinkage, AI OS9 S424 Jb ONS. ci) scat coe ae cae «| SE oles eee Oat: LOO) soso elke saree Do. ALORS ES) DO sia ich Sb comics || bate vdeo ose nell meee Cais) re (O10 eee te As mere ec Marked shrinkage; yolk broke when egg was opened. 41089-45 |... Do. 41089-46 |... 0. 41089-50 |... Marked shrinkage. 41089-53 |... Do. 41089-55 |... Do. 41089-57 |... Do. 41089-58 |... Do. 41089-59 |... Do. 41089-61 |... Yolk broke when egg ~was opened. 41089-62 |... Marked shrinkage. A1089-63 |... 10 at the dilution given indicates that no organisms were observed on the plate. COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. te The bacterial content of these eggs is generally slightly higher than in the earlier stage of staleness unless aging has occurred at the low temperatures of the egg storage warehouse, when the count is as low as or lower ‘ than in new-laid eggs. This type of deteriorated egg is very common in the breakers’ stocks, and, indeed, throughout the market seconds in both summer and winter, due to rapid deterioration from high temperatures in the one case and to the slow deterioration which occurs at 29° to 31° F. in the other. The market life of such eggs is shorter than when dete- rioration is not so far advanced. Hence the egg shipper with a breaking establishment at hand prefers to break and freeze or dry these eggs while they are still edible rather than to risk the certain losses of a haul to the consumer. EGGS CHANGED BY INCUBATION. Table 6 shows typical bacterial findings in eggs where deteriora- tion had progressed along different lines than those described under stale eggs and eggs with settled yolks. In the first group of 20 eggs the development of the chick had not reached the blood-forming stage, which normally occurs in about 24 hours when the temperature is that of the hen, 103° F., but which had gone sufficiently far for the candler to observe a small darkened area on the yolk. This in the industry is known as a “ light spot,” and when the egg is broken it is usually seen as a round area about three-eighths inch in diameter, having two distinct zones, an inner and outer circle (see Pl. II). Such eggs, constantly sold in their shells for food purposes, are used by the housewife without question if the odor is good and if the white and yolk are intact. They do not ship well because the yolk membrane is often weak, and many kinds of spoilage may develop in them on short notice. Hence they are sent in large numbers to the egg breakers in the producing regions. 1 Unpublished results on storage eggs. BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. H re “"]]00 are UexoIg {asvYULIYS poyxiwur ‘]joys uvelo ‘HOA pue oj yeem ‘Sutuedo Wo JOpoO poos :‘jexorm jo ozs yods yo\ey *]]99 118 UWexo1q ‘fesvyuUIIYs peyreM {jays uvelo ‘y[OA pue oj yeem ‘sutuedo uo ee poos ‘jexorm jo ezis yods qoVeVy *][00 Ire Usyord foseYUIYS poyIeUL {[[oys Weed fy[oOA pue oii YeeM ‘{Ssatuedo uo 1opo poos ‘4ods yoyeyY os1e'T *]j90 Ie Weyoig feseyxUIIYS poyieuL {joys Uvopo {yToA pus OTM Hee {Surmedo uo 1opo poos ‘faurrp jo oz1s yods qo}eyy *][90 Iie WexOId SeseYULIYS poyxIVUL SuUBEITO. Ayarey ‘3uraedo uodn 10po poos ‘yods yoyey odie] Alo A *]]00 Ive WeyoId f‘esxexUTIYS poyxieur fey wary {suruedo WO JOpoO poos ‘emp B jo ezjs Jods Yo} ey “1190 Ire aqeAour feseyULIYSs poyxeM ‘oj AIOjVeM fIOpO pooy *]]99 118 o]qBAout Ara A ‘TI99 Me poxtyT ‘asVYULIYS eumoS f{Tjeys AjArp ATVUSTs ‘yods yo,ey [[euIg ‘a]dures yo wordia1oseq eee 0 0 ope Se ee |G 0 0 0 = eb een 0 0 eh ace ee Sc sew Cee (MO 0 0 0 = es 0 0 a. eee Se eee 0 0 OF 08 cys aie 0 0 Set acer She | inte Smee SHG G&% 0 08 Se Ey 0 0 | Se aaa cee eT) 0€ 0 06 ee ee 0 0 es eS Se [Sat See OG ee NORE 06S Or est ot en a Re oT (Cee Fn Grice = ae ie aes Ge |ctoue weeny | Penge O} joe see a la tories 02 Oe te ee Bee ee Pabst Pee ee iee a O er eek 3 eet | ee he aaa G Gs ak os RRS ae Se al se ON eat ere a a ge ae = Cn OY? Soe eee ee [Ono ee Or Sore ) ee aie gens are, OF i oe ee [ie a ae OL OR re Se ee ee ae tae ee aloe oaks ree ie 0 0 liv: ee ew ae ieee eg Oe 09% 0 0 eee toa 0 0 0 0 crs 0 ct cages om (are Maen ae aie Ses oe 0 0 Rae et aed Oe ee ee) 0 02 0 OP Se ae tae ee ae ee alg | ag ame CRS "RS ir ee |e GL F CSP ee pe ao |e ee Altace EAE | (PO RANI = (Eells "| €-80T a aioe Bee ee es 0 (O\viseipe nese | Ao ees eee ng ee ee ser fer Tue camel eee cell nce op> "| @-80T (Tp meman eee ime aes) gies 24 0 (Viet acer Seal appdata Oa orl [fay De T@ eune | T-80r ene eat a 0) 0 Sins tate gee | eee nth eee ca) 092 0 0 €f sunt | Z10r “TIGT ‘SONIU GOOTA DNIMOHS 89DH TVOCIAIGNI “4 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (ie) aaa *T]99 ITB O[ABAOUL ‘aseyULIYS pexIVUI ‘Teys wvofo ATIVE] :sUt. -uado0 10 Jopo s[Bjs ‘plo sAep g ynoqe oAIqMe Ue pouTezMOD *][90 Ite B](VAOUL faseyUIIYS peyx1Veur ‘pextul yjOA pue ozITTM <][eYS Weeo AITey ‘10po e[eis ‘pio shep z Jhoqe oAIqMe Ue pus Poo;q Yonur peurejm0) *][90 ITB o[(VAOUL feseyUIIYS peyxieur qqeys uveyo Ayres ‘poxtur yOA pue ory ‘suruedo moO ped Jou 1opo ‘pro skep Zz ynoqe oAIquis we peuTe} uO) *10PO [ea1oyyO {SUryxOOT Yseay JOU ][oUs {e[pUvo JepUN You]q s}uejzMoo SyoMyo ose] B pourejyw0y *]]90 Ite pexy {pextu HOA pue oy fsur -uado 10 1opo ayB\s AIOA {sade} PUB SI9Y} BOF ITM Poureys pUB PeLBEUIS [JeYS {ULI Poo[d UMOp-WeyxoIg & peuTe}TOD *][99 ITV opqeVAouL ‘g3eyUlIYsS peyieul {[]eyS uBe[o ‘pextTu yloA pues oy Spjo skep ¢ ynoqe oAIqUIe UB PUB poo;d YonuUE peureyu0D *][99 ITV BTGVAOUW ‘eseyUTIyS peyieur ‘{]Jeys Uvela ‘fpextur yjoA pues atyA ‘surmedo uo ped JOU IOpO ‘{SUII poole UMOP-TeyxoIq B pourej}u0D *]]09 Ile O[(BAOUL foxkeBYUTIYS pox1euL ‘TJeUs Wee Ajo} RIOpOUL SHTOA VOHYOI PUB OITA Yea ‘SUT -uado 10 1Opo ped ‘plo sdep g ynoge OAIquIe UB peureyu09 ‘e[dures Jo uorydi10seq, Ob eee oe ss hee nope 3 008 OCT cad eg rice a ees a 9 [aed pO Dad (ON ae ce oes a ee OST Odi angaliaa inepeceae edge gt lea ae ee eg Sea COO ei ae ica 009 ‘F COP Giese san aller ee alee omc Se oe 4s op" ~~ (0) Spec | OS ne Pee Aa | 000 ‘OST COOsO0 Toile aa Seagen anaes Fs Sul cren se alesse > ae -alliegoe op--- Oesteraqa Men het 000 “000‘8z | 000‘000‘8T [~~ Pee ere eae L “AON (feet 2 |e Searels 000 ‘6F OR rete spor eaemanal sce arr cle cea ar ee em op--~ Md | Ose ieee | eaaemeeres ees See ee | O&T Opa cenens eemeconieneea | aca toes os eee a eg I “AON Otten ieee Te eU RIES ae eran ete og ees 0 ce 0 02 et Arne “TIGL & "O) aft 0 00% "OD oL8 "0 002 Oye Gie | Ore0e ae qv payeq | 4e pajzeq | 4B pojed | 4B pozeq | 4B pozeq | ye payed ) “JOR “ONT -nouyt -nout -noul nou -nouy “nou ojOUM. : moje “Iese Uteld UO WARIS 10d BI19}0eq JO IoqWINU [BO J, anak a “OIG OsojOV] UT Wes 10d BII0} -deq SuUTIONpoOId-ses Jo 1oaquInNN “350 o[OU MM 1 “AIOA “OUTLM (TUOW WO SUNOH SF NOILVANONIT) SOAUANA GAVAC HLIM SHO TVOCIAICNI ‘penutyu0j—uoynqnour fig pabunyo sbby— 9 AIAV |, STIP Stly Cllr IIT¥ 60TF cOTP TOLy 8S0F ‘ON eidureg COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. yi Bacterially, these eggs show a wider range and a slightly higher average count than the two types previously discussed. All had the yolk and the white intact. In 11 of the examinations reported the white and yolk were studied separately. Two of the series were sterile and not one showed the presence of B. coli. The fact that the odor on opening these eggs was universally good is to be emphasized The second series of Table 6 is composed of eggs which show before the candle the presence of blood in the germinal disk, and which are therefore equivalent to eggs at least 48 hours old at 103° F. In all of the eggs in this series the embryo was either alive or very recently dead, and the odor of the egg when opened was good. In all of them the presence of blood could be distinguished by means of the candle (see Pl. V). These eggs, in most instances, could be separated into white and yolk. The average count for such eggs showing blood rings, but without disintegration in the structure of the egg itself, is low, and some eggs are sterile. The third series, where incubation had continued for more than the equivalent of 48 hours at 103° F. and where the embryo was dead and the structure of the egg damaged to a greater or less extent, shows a universally higher count than the other series and some indi- vidual counts which are strikingly high. #. coli were noted but once in this series. “ It will be observed that only one egg was separable into white and yolk. The odor was sometimes good and sometimes ae EGGS HAVING DIRTY SHELLS. The egg with a dirty shell is one of the most objectionable factors ' of the egg industry. The contents may be fresh and the egg itself may be large, but the dirt on the shell consigns it at once to the seconds, and it brings a lowered price all through the market. Dirty- shell eggs do not store well and are therefore not available for hold- ing when the surplus production is greatest and when the market can secure more good, clean eggs than it needs. Often they scarcely pay the expense of marketing. The breaker, therefore, removes the dirty shell and endeavors to put the contents into a form in which it can be marketed. The very. objectionable filth on the exterior of the shell naturally inclines one to the opinion that the contents of the egg may also be contaminated. Such outer filth is not conclusive evidence that the contents are infected. Table 7 gives the bacterial findings for 51 dirty-shell eggs of various grades of seconds and worse and 9 small samples, aggregat- ing 1,164 eggs. Winter, spring, and summer eggs are included. The dirt on the shell consisted mostly of chicken feces and some dried mud or dried egg. Some of the shells were stained. These stains, which can not ordinarily be washed off, generally indicate that _ water as well as filth has come in contact with the egg shell. 17625°—14—_2 BULLETIN 51, U. S. 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TOA “OUT MA *aTIq OSOJOR] UI UTvIs IOd VII04 -08q SUlonpoid-ses Jo Jaq win "DO 006 38 "2 oL8 9 poyeqnouy | poyeqnouy “OD 00% 78 pozeq nouy “O oL€ 18 poeyeqnouy ‘Ie3eB UrTey[d WO Vis Jed Bl1oJOe JO IequINU [ej}O 7, "330 970 AA “MIOX “0 002 18 poyeqnouy “OUTTA ‘ponuyuoj—sgoowe TVACGIATANI “penuryuwoj—(J907WL SaUDLQUaUL) S)jays payodio yun shby—'g ATAV I, cx oe Op"*"| Z60F ee op*~*| I60F OT “220 | 060 a aes Op”~*| FLOP "poo Op"*"| €L0F “***°Opt= "| SLOP g “ydeg | TLOF -*+s-op7--| ggop “***°0p"" "| 990F “****op"- "| $90F g¢ -ydeg | 290 61 Ang | TS0F ZI oun | OLOF “***"op" > "| 8-610 “***:0p7 > "| 9-6108 €I “IV | &-610E “TIGL “mor} : Palas ON -CUTUIe XO = Jo a1eq ejdureg N COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. ‘yjeo Ire e[qvAour ‘aseyursys euros ‘4ods yoyvy OU {JOYS WO JAIIP [Vo9y $339 JO 110}40q WO SHOBIO OT IST A *]]90 IIe poxy ‘yjoh yeem {10poO YSedy ‘T[eyS WesTO ‘sxYoVlO 9TCISTA ‘7190 Ale eTqeAoUL ‘eseyUIIYS poyxreu -yjod PUL JIA Yea {10po Ysedj ‘[[OUS WLITO ‘SHOVIO OTGIST A ‘T]e0 IIe poxy ‘gods qoyey @ {1OpO YSodj ‘TJeYS Weed ‘sYOVID OTqISTA ‘][90 Ire pexy ‘esexMIYs ouos ‘yods yoyey Ou {10po ysery ‘sjods ul AqIIp T[eYS -SyoVIO S]qISTA ‘TI90 Ie poxy {gods qoyey ou {10po YSerj ‘TOYS UvOTO ‘SyoeIO S[qIsTA ‘]jeo iv pexy ‘eseyxULIys poyleur ods qoyey OU f1OpoO YSedj ‘TES Weed ‘SHYOVIO BTGISTA ‘7]90 Ie pexy ‘eseyurIys oulos ods Yoyey Tews {1opo poos ‘Tjeys weejo AjMey ‘syovIO O[qISTA ‘Joo are eTqeaour ‘ase -YUlIYS poxrem ‘ods yoxvy OU ‘eq AteyeA 10po poos ‘seoeyd wt Aqitp yous ‘220 Jo do, WO syOeIO OTQIST A “TT99 Are e[qeAom ‘{esexUlIYs somos ‘euIp JO ezI9 yods yo}ey foulqA Yeea {Topo epeys {eys APIIpP ‘syovlo V{qIsTA ‘Jeo die ejqeAour {ese -YULIGS poy1eut {10po oje4s ‘[[oys Wee[o ‘syov1o O[qISTA ‘T]90 Ive e]qeAour feseyulIYs poyleu ‘euip @ jo 9z1s yods Yo ey ‘oyIy AM FROM {10P0 924s ‘][eYS Uelo A[9} VIepOU ‘SYOVIO o[qIST A. SS) ere: er he Se eS) 9T “99d LOTP G60F P60F £60F BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT .OF AGRICULTURE, 26 ‘sjods qoyer 98 | ZL 88 CL GL00 ° 0200 ° 0 000 ‘00z ‘2 | 000‘008‘e |-**"* op"""| 9a FFOIF “sHoX UeHoI 6% +Sjods Yo}Vy FT | 7 #2 TL £800 ° ¥600° or 000‘00¢‘% | 000‘008‘S | e “8nV | 9a SFolr “mexUNIgS | ZL . 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Four eggs have a bacte- rial content which is much higher than that observed in the other 52 eges, ranging from 2,700 to 370,000,000 per gram. In three cases out of the four an objectionable odor was noticed when the egg was opened, and three of these eggs had dirty as well as cracked shells. B. coli, though sought in all but five of the samples, were found in but three instances and then in eggs which showed a high count. Here, again, the whites of the heavily infected eggs show a much higher count than the corresponding yolks. This is quite in line with the origin of the infection. The samples from small lots of eggs with cracked shells bear out the findings from the individual eggs. Where the eggs with cracked shells are of good quality, both chemical and bacterial analyses indi- cate that fact. Where deterioration has begun, the cracking of the shell does not materially alter its course, but it hastens decay. Of course, the protection which the shell affords is lessened by cracking, and bacterial invasion is only a question of time and environment. ® EGGS HAVING THE YOLK SEEPING INTO THE WHITE. During warm weather, when the deterioration of eggs proceeds with great rapidity and in the most diversified fashion, many eggs are received at the concentrating centers, especially those reached by railroad or where the wagon haul is over rough roads, which show on candling filaments of yolk that have apparently found their way through apertures in the vitelline membrane for longer or shorter distances into the white. Sometimes these filaments are very few and distinct, half an inch or more in length; in that case the egg white is usually normal in color, even between the filaments. Sometimes the seepage of the yolk into the white might be better described as diffuse, in which case very numerous and tiny filaments make a yellow zone around the yolk membrane, the outer portions of white remaining clear and the usual color. As the process of mixing progresses the white becomes more and more yellow and the vitelline membrane less and less resistant, until finally the latter ruptures and a complete mixing of yolk and white follows. Even the most careful cracking of the shell at its equator is at times sufficient to rupture the yolk membrane extensively, thus per- mitting the yolk to escape entirely. At other times a fairly clean separation of white and yolk can be made. Generally such eggs ex- hibit, in addition to the filamentous yolk, distinct signs of age, such as shrinkage, and of rough handling, as shown by the movable air cell. Ordinarily the odor is good or somewhat stale, the sort of odor 28 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the housewife terms “ eggy ” or “strong.” If the odor is not bad and if the mixing of the yolk and white is slight, the housewife uses these eggs for general cookery, though when the whites are to be whipped separately to lightness they are not satisfactory. The ego shipper does not attempt to send such eggs on long or hard jour- neys, because this mixing is accelerated by jarring; nor does he at- tempt to store them, because white and yolk continue to mix more and more rapidly. These eggs are therefore used very largely by the breakers. They should be examined very carefully for odor and appearance when broken, as they may be incipient forms of the “sour ega”’ (see p. 61). Table 9 illustrates the condition of this series. TABLE 9.—EHoggs with the yolk seeping into the white. INDIVIDUAL EGGS. Total number of bac- | Number teria per gram oe plain 4 gas- Date of | agar incubated at— producing Sample exami- bacteria Description. rahe nation: - |\Prstisat Galt. Sa Fan BDeR zea in lactose 20° C. 37° C. . bile. 1510. 3006-4 | Dec. 12 77, 000 She OOO. 21 she ee ae 3006-5 |...do._-. 39 ROOM ES 22s os ees 3010-2 |...do.-.. - 25 LSE Fe 3 1911. 4003 June 12]. 10 . 70 0 ae 111-2 | June 21 pata) 15 0 | Marked shrinkage—fixed air cell. TAIK? fos Onrara'- 60 0 0 I-4 |:.-dowse". 5 0 0 M1512 do. 2. 30 0 0 TI=6, |. 2 2dOe 2 10 0 0 A1A—7 |. - lo. '- 0 0 0 122 | June 24 16 0 0 | Early stage. LANs <2d0- 355 5 5 0 Do.- 125 |..-do...- 5 | 0 0 | “Strong” odor. 1912. | 136 | June’ 27 50 30 0 | Early stage. 1911. ZU ay, pu 10 10 0 4103 | Nov. 1 5 90 0 | Clean shell; stale odor; marked shrinkage; movable air cell. 4108 | Nov. 7] 2,000,600 | 1,700,000 0 | Shell clean, but not fresh looking; stale odor; marked shrinkage; movable air cell. SMALL SAMPLES. Total peta heh Percentage . Number ammoniaca zeor 1 Tnplain | ofgas- | Gelatin | _ nitrogen, Per it ai png Sample | Date of | agar incu- | Producing |liquefying Folin method. | cent | Ether N e exami- | bated at— | bacteria | organ- ex- paca nation. per gram | isms per tract. ; ——— ian lactose} .gram. bile. Bacte- ee, Wet Dry - Chem- 20° C.137° C. basis. | basis. ores ical. 1911. Eggs. | Eggs. 115 | June 23 3 3 0 Ob Naps AAI AS| pee bees 72.35 10. 96 12 24 170 | July 3 100 5 0 * 0 | 0.0033 | 0.0111 70.31 12. 45 12 24 1fii4| x -doz 2:2 90 0 0 0 - 0033 -O112 | 70.66} 11.97 1 4 VIIA 200 > o¢ 0 | LOO [oan an Al tee ate waa| eae sean o 0032 | .0114] 71.84] 10.86 1 4 173 |...do....| 100 35 0 0 . 002 - 0103 71.78 | 10.55 1 4 174)|...00. 2.1 180 5 0 0 - 0038 . 0141 73.12 | 10.01 1 4 | COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 29 Two of the eggs show decidedly high counts. The first, Sample 3006-4, was a winter egg and had probably been held by the farmer or merchant for a long time. The second high count, Sample 4108, was a July egg, and its bacterial condition might be explained by the fact that the shell showed signs of much handling, and the egg had acquired a stale odor: The other samples of the series show low counts; there was an absence of B. coli throughout, even in the case of the two high-count eggs. Six small lots of eggs, where deterioration had gone further than in the type just described, were also examined for bacteria and loosely bound nitrogen. The number of organisms was negligible; the amount of loosely combined nitrogen was higher than had been pre- viously noted. All of these eggs would have been discarded by a careful grader because of the yellow color of the white. Just where . to draw the line, however, is not a simple matter. Practical expe- rience would indicate that when the white of the egg was normal in color and when the filaments of yolk were entirely distinct from the white, or when, if the seepage was by the diffuse rather than the localized method, the outer zone of egg white was normal, the bac- ° terial content was low and the loosely bound nitrogen did not rise above 0.0038 per cent. WHITE ROTS. If the egg, where white and yolk are just beginning to mix by ither method of seepage, be held under commercial conditions, it becomes what is known to egg candlers as a “ white rot,” or to some as a “sour rot,” but the latter is a misleading term and should be discarded. The inexpert or careless candler fails to notice these white rots; hence they are too often found in the breaking room; when opened yolk and white are seen to be completely, or almost com- pletely, mixed. Very frequently the mixture is much thinner than the mixed yolk and white of a fresh egg and may or may not have an offensive odor. Its appearance is never appetizing. Sometimes scraps of membrane are seen, suggesting a disintegrated embryo; again, the contents are thin, homogeneous, and pale yellow (see Pl. VIL). The series of eggs given in Table 10 is typical of eggs having these characteristics. 30 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 10.— White rots (individual eggs). Total number of bacteria | Number per gram on plain agar | of gas- incubated at— produc- Sample ing bac- bem, : = peat Sat ate le ay ae en Description of sample. am in 20° C. 37°C. actose bile. 3006-2 | Dec. 12,1910 | 110,000,000 15,000, 000 |---------- Pale yellow contents. 3006-3 |...... (2 0 ee ted poe eee ne 8 80, 000,000 |---------- 3012-4 | Jan. 14,1911 0 Pais | Becenease C 275 | July 3,1911 5,500, 000 3, 300, 000 0 495 | Aug. 10,1911 (4) (1) 10, 000+ 496 |...... does... 0 0 497)|'So38 2 doors 1 1 10, 000+- 498 |___... d0es2 25 . 120, 000 120, 000 ph ee doses: 0 0 HOOPS. dos. (1) (1) 10, 000+- 4070 | Sept. 5,1911 | 180,000,000 | 270,000,000 100+ yea Tees eas shrinkage: mov- able air cell. : 4110 | Nov. 1,1911 160 180 0 | Shell slightly dirty but fresh looking; stale odor; marked shrinkage; mova- bleair cell. . 1 TInnumerable; dilution, 1: 10,000. The bacterial content in 8 out of the 12 is very high. Two of the eggs were sterile and two of them showed a low count. B. coli were looked for 9 times out of the 12 and found 4 times. The high bacterial content of these white rots is quite in accord with their appearance. Why there should occasionally be a white rot with a low count, as in Samples 3012-4, 498, and 4110, or even a sterile white rot,1 as in Samples 496 and 499, remains to be ex- plained. Since these white rots seem to be the logical sequence of the mixed egg, they might easily parallel the latter in their bacterial content, EGGS HAVING YOLK ADHERENT TO SHELL (SPOT ROTS). The “spot rots” of commerce are eggs in which the yolk has become adherent to one or both of the shell membranes and, per- haps, to the shell itself by means of the membranes. When held before the candle, therefore, the yolk is seen as a distorted, deeply _ colored mass pressed against some part of the shell (see Pl. IV). As the egg ages in temperatures which are lower than those causing incubation phenomena, the yolk of either the fertile or the infertile egg settles. If the egg is not moved the yolk finally adheres to the membrane against which it rests and it becomes a “ spot rot” or, as termed in this report, an egg with the yolk adherent to the shell. If the egg is infertile and ages at such temperatures as prevail in summer time, the yolk frequently rises, presses against the air cell, and finally sticks there. Forty-two such eggs are listed in Table 11. When held before the candle some show no marked characteristics except the adherent yolk. Others show distinct evidences of incuba- tion, general deterioration, cracked shells, etc. 1Jn a dilution of 1 to 10, 31 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. ‘oxoA Ul SPTOUT OON‘OLT “OZOF + *D 00% 18 HOA UL SP[OUL OON'ZT “9-FTOE s “000°00T 48 eTAe1etmANUUy g “Zuruedo WO 10po e[e4S ‘]]90 *D of 18 ‘SPjOUr OSE +" 002 98 “SPlour ONG‘SE ‘S-FI0E z “poxTur AOA puv op M 1 Ie eTqeAour feseyUTIGS poyreur ‘ory Aroyem ‘gods yozey OU -[[90 Ie Ivou Yon4s ATOR | +HOT Or 000 ‘OFT 000 ‘OFT 000 ‘26 000 ‘OST ‘yoo ve oTGVAOUL saseyUTIYS poyleul ‘ozIYAr Ayo}BA “]Je0 ITV Ieou yon4s HOA ‘TJous Ald | O OL OL OF 0Z OFZ d *][90 IB OTARAOUL ‘osvYUIIYS poxIVUl -ozITAL Arzoyem {10ds YOVeyY posiv[Ue ‘][90 Ive 1veu Yonys HOA | 0 0 OL OL OT OT ‘od 0 0 0 0g (0) gion dete epg ine ICA mane ey t *‘T[eo Ie e[QvAow ‘esvxUTIYS poysem ‘soya ArozeM * posiepuo 4ods Yoyvy ‘][e0 We Iweu Fons FOX | OY 0 0% GG 02 0% ‘Joo ITB S[QBAOUL ‘aseHUIIYS poyIeU ‘oxy. Aro}VAd “TOYS JO W10}}0q vou Yous HOR | O 0 0 0 0 0 *T[90 IB a[QeAoUL feseHULIYS poyreur ‘oxy AJo}eM SSO] YOOYS ‘TTEYS JO T10}}0q 0} You4ys HOA | 0 0 000 ‘000‘29 | 000 ‘000 ‘2g (s) (c) ‘]]90 dre o[qVAOUL ‘eseYUIIYS poyxleUr -oTG AM Azoyeaw {j0ds Toyey posiepuy | --~ 0 0+ 0 0 0 *][00 Ike o[QBAOUL ‘eseYULIYS poxleut ods qoyey pesivjug | O (0) 0 0 (t) 0 ‘]]20 dre Wy ‘uexunsys A[peg | 0 0 0g 0Z OT 06 ‘muexunIys ATpeq ‘uexo1g jou Ng Yonjs FOX | 0 0 OT 0 0 0 ‘OSBYULIYS poylem ‘MexOId pus TOYS OF Hons HOR | 0€ 02 *T]e0 Ive wou Yonys TOR | -- Oriel So eee Or 0St ‘40d8 OyVy Peploep ‘][O4S HOI | 0 0 Se ON Ek oS sad a i Sl Oe cn aera gar I 5 Shc ns See DR Aaah |: rte 6 6 PES RSE NALA orteae tales Plas Pe Ral ee nce 0 0 P55 2h yl Sor sess aes | ee eee 0 0 CSN UN AU ESL CANO) HEY, GEIS ARTE PPPOE 0 FT[OUSRATAN Lia (bie es el | Fs ak lias mamma a See ee emp te 0 EHO A ToS VAN DIST MAO) ANY THU a} S] PPO SN es ey 0 “]]e0 de veut Fons HOA Sagi urgy ‘Tous Aya || (OYOTUSS{ONOTOvSES{oVe fz pete ueeteamel|c eeee omg cen mice sity ein ements JE oTTTEGLS (HO) LOJOO ouaays) [PPP See 2s] Pees eae es SoSS Sashes SSSR SNS See apes coe 000 ‘000 ‘28 1 [pws Anutige Po OSE ¢ Claes lets Ses OBIE E| Bp Nae aes -40d8 qarp Jepun TeYs 07 yonys HOA ‘yjoys Aq | 08Z z OOSR Scr Ray a: > eo ae bene veaeh hehe a “jods JIIp Jepun [[eys 07 YonyS HOR | 000 ‘00g ‘r | 000‘000‘2 | 000‘000 ‘9s 000 000 OF “TOUS JO OPIS 0} Yonys HOA puw oy |---| 9¢ OOT t ‘D oLE 1B *D 002 1B *D oL€ 78 *D 006 1% ‘yon | ‘ox AA peyeqnouy | poyeqnouy peyeqnouy peyeqnouy -ejdures Jo wor} dr10seq, “1e3e ured Uo Weis Jed vIJe,Oeq JO JequANT {e407 “9[Iq eS040K| UT weis red et104 -oeq sutonpord -se@3 JO JoquInN “HOA “OU M. “Mays 07 yongs yok yp shba jonprrpuy— T{ AAV, &6 “00d ‘OT6T BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. aA of *000‘0T 18 STqeietanUUy ; : ‘TayUNIYS PIY4-0u0 {ysedj Jou 10po {JOYS JO 110740 PIVAMO} SPIIG}-0OM4 HONYS HOA ‘T[oYS Uve]o ‘sy}UOUL XIS ynoqe esv104S UT ‘7190 Te eyqeAour fesexuLIgs pexreur {1opo peq ‘ayy Hee {40ds TO}eY oS1Ly ‘T[AYS WeeTo ‘sy WOUL XIS Jnoqe 98k10}8 UT ‘T[e0 Me s[qvAour {1opo peq ‘][eYS JO oplIs WAMOP SpITT)-0A\4 yonys HOA {ext Apoyo yeom ‘Tays poureys ‘Asvois ‘sy{WOUL XIS JNOGe 93v.104S Poo UT : ‘T1990 die pexy ‘19j7enb jo ozs yods yozey ‘Yysedj Jou AOpo ‘Tjeys Jo apis WMOP SpAIq-0A\4 Yonys HOA ‘syods ur AZAp [TOUS ‘syJUOUT XIS NOG ede10}S Poo UT “‘T[e0 We e,qevAoun ‘TJeYs Jo OpIs WIOI] SpaTyy-0M} Yonys HOA {Toys Weeyo ‘syWOM XS ynoqe 10; OSv10}8 Poo ut doy *Suluedo HO JOpo poos ATATey {90 We sjqvAour {40ds yoyeyY OU fesooT Yooys ynq T]90 Me Ivo yon4s HOA ‘Toys Ajp yeBoay7 *][90 die e_qeAour A19A {9x17 FOAM ‘aSoo]T Yooys ynq yon4s HOA ‘Toys poureys-use1s AynG ‘TJeo Ie pexy ‘esexULIYS o}eJepout ‘asoo] YOOYS /W10}}0q vom Yonjs WOA ‘]jeys wes][O ‘][90 ALe o[(BAOUL ‘esexUTIYS poxIeur ‘oz1YM AJo}VA ‘]]e0 Ie IReu yonys [OA ‘Toys wes[O *]]90 Ire oyqvAoU foseyuULIyS pox1eur sods yoyey ou {suraedo uo JOpo poos ‘yjeys UMOP SpIIyy-0M} 3onyS HOA Toys Aq ‘]]00 Ie oTqBAOW ‘asevyULIYS poyIeUr ‘oI M Aioyem ‘suruedo mo Jopo poos ‘y0ds qoyey edie] ‘T[eo Ie Ivou Yonjs HOA ‘]eYs uvsy{O “ose ULIYS peyxiem ‘sutuedo 10 Jopo poos ‘yjeys Jo 110}}0q vom Yon4s HOA ‘{T[aYS wvoypo ‘poxovig “suluedo HO 10pO poos ‘ese -YULIGS poxreu ‘790 ive e_qeAour ‘yods yo,vy Ou foyITM A19}VM ‘][90 IVe Ivett YOnN4S HO AK ‘Teo Ile e[qBvAOoUL fesexULIYS poxivur ‘sutuedo UO poos jou JOpo ‘Teys Ap “pexoviD *]]00 Ie eyqevAour fase -ULIYS poyreur {oy1M Hurd A19078M ‘Surusdo uo 1Opo peg ‘T[oYS JO W10}40q 1vot JONAS FO A "T1909 Are ejqe* -AOU feseyULIYS peyiem feyiyM A197eM {40ds Yo.vy posielue ‘{JayS JO OpPIs 0} Yon4s HOA ‘e[dues Jo wopjdtsoseq. 02 0 000 ‘000 “6a 0 0 0 000 ‘002 ‘% 0 Ot 0 0 0 OP Sa 000 ‘000 *0ze 0 000 ‘000 “O9T o 2° G) 0 0 000 000 ‘092 Or 000 ‘000 ‘0zz 83 “AON **---op--- 2-+--op7-- er Ajng 0 0 Or 0 0 0 0 ce 0 0 000 ‘Tz 000 ‘F6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OFE G 0 0 000 ‘026 000 “oor ‘T Or pee ere OP: 08 BUA: ii AAD de mae Pe 0 0 BR awes o2ac8 ewok woos ak 0 0 0 0 0 0 One 02 0 0 0 Oar tet 0 0 000 ‘000 ‘OFT! 000 ‘000 “FT 0 0 cg OL 01 e===="1 900 OTL 000 ‘O0T ‘T Diot898 | °O 000 98 pe}eqnouy | peyeqnouy “MIOK | OFT AA *O[IG 9SOJOV] UT mes Jed VI104 -aeq Sstionpoid -sv3 JO JoqUInN "1038 Ule[d TO tivaAs Ted vi1E}OVq JO JequINU [10 Vy, "0 oL€ 98 poyeqnouy "0 02 18 po}eqnouy “MIOX “ONT AA mon] -CUTUIeXe jo 048d ‘ON eijdueg “‘ponuryuoj—ppays 072 yorgs ypok yn sbba ponpriupuy—"TL ATAVY, COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 33 Nine of the 42 eggs—or 21 per cent—show very high counts, the maximum being 320,000,000 bacteria per gram in the white of Sam- ple 4049. The lowest count in these infected eggs is 150,000 per gram in the white and 94,000 in the yolk. Then there is a sudden drop to 1,800 per gram in Sample 3014-5, and the 18 remaining samples—or 43 per cent—which show bacteria present have so few that they may be neglected for practical purposes. Fourteen sam- ples—or 383 per cent—were sterile in both yolk and white. The organisms in Sample 3012-1 were probably from the dirt spot on the shell against which the yolk had lain. Sample 3017-1 had a sour odor which indicates bacterial contamination in quantity ; 3017-2 had a dirty shell; 4030, 4049, and 4157 had objectionable odors on open- ing; 4141 had a stained shell. Samples 3017-2 and 4021 had no distinctive feature except the adherent yolk. MOLDY EGGS. Damp cellars, wet nests, stolen nests, etc., are responsible for the condition of eggs which show, on candling, dense black areas of vary- ing sizes inside the shell. When the eggs are opened these areas are found to be infected with a mold, usually a common green mold, of the Penicillium family (see Pl. VI). Such eggs almost invariably have a moldy odor. If the mold spot is small it may not affect the integrity of the ege structure; on the other hand, it may grow to such dimensions that no distinction between yolk and white can be seen. The products of the growth of the mold may gelatinize the white or liquefy it and may coagulate the yolk into a cheesy mass or render it watery. It is, however, but seldom that a mold in pure culture is found inside an egg; generally bacteria are also present, and some- times in large numbers. Both the white and the yolk of moldy eggs are apt to be discolored, usually becoming brownish. This color is not always confined to the area of visible mold, but may be diffused throughout, as shown by cultures made from white and yolk remote from the visible infection. These and other characteristics are noted in Table 12, where the results of the examination of 45 individual eggs showing mold visible to the eye are recorded. 17625°—14——_3 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 34 ‘e[qer1} PUL 10109 UT FST, Yyeoued yOA ‘Teo We UL prow Ajoom ‘oq A ‘esCYULIYS [4 .idpIsuod ‘nayetd opis oytsoddo woul o}1t4 {339 JO OpIs 9UO HO [90 IB Ul .ployw *pezeinseoo yods pjour 4)veuIepuNn O}ITM ‘T[OYS JO episur Jods pyour suC, *I0po Aysnur ‘fpeyetd yods pjom y}veu -Japun HOA ‘][90 MB’ Ul pou Wed14) “jods pjoul yovyq T[eurg *pozetd [190 NV Ivou OI {pour Aq peyepn3v00 339 Jo 110}}.0q UI OFT AA “aseYULIYS poyieul ‘]]90 Ive Ul Ploul WIM 330 UexUNAYys ATpVg *TIOUS 0} Yonys o.1eM 339 Jo §}]00}T100 elo. 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OG Fs ese ea a ia ae eel eran aan el ~- op" "| Teor ‘TIS9 me pexy ‘feseyurIys juss ‘10po pind ‘yao me mw)8eu yonjs HOA £330 poT[ays-AjuIp ‘]jeo Me UL plop, |---|-----|+00T) °° eae eed sees ae hector ) 0 000 ‘000 ‘06T!000 ‘000 ‘0zz 0 0 000 ‘000 ‘T¢!000 “000 “OUT! « ““op-"*} 620F ‘Teo 118 OIGVAOM ‘esvVYUlIYS poyIVU <[jous AjMp feJIM Yee ‘10pO eye4s ‘ode JO H10}}0q 1weu Yon4s pus Apjour ¥JOX |---|9 (pea | eit ee ae caer (Peete ispecies 0 000 ‘e#|0 000 ‘TT ‘OT 00S ‘Tt \0 0 jas) Dees LCOY, ‘TP99 WB poxy. feseyurIgs JUSS f10po emos ‘yyeo et Ie su Yon4s yok ‘880 payjeys-Ayn¢ |---|9 (0) tara eee ReneS ES eine sc nea 0 0 000 ‘000 ‘0gt|000 ‘000 “SF [0 0 000 000 ‘sTj000‘000*29 | ¢ Ayn | 920% ‘TJOo Ie eyqeAoun ‘mexmniys ATpeq {prour oj 3on}s yok {TOUS JO aie Y}XIS-oUO SI9AOD POP |---|---~~ Yi pear CR ee OE erotica ec ESS PEE Reser were lo epee ae 000 ‘E2 |000 F9}0 0 tI oun | L1OF “poyeid Jods prow yee -lepun yjoA pur eI ‘Tjeus ALiTp 4 ‘piou Aq T[eUS JsuIVse YONIs YOR |---| [oe GOOKOUO Lets ees wore pte ce diene ag te new a ea peer e ee le ee er anal ee a eed eee 9 “Gea | 28108 *poue -YOI) JeUMOEMIOS pUe 10[OO Ut YIvp : SiiyMeAAOT OO PIsMOVOUSplOUnedieapalsrs|sp2eslc ear || ~psallantcmene tts slp over? sages eal sal ae Siaawnae Ss 006‘T |----~~ CO) tieka ie see ie et “7° op" "| G-LI0e *10[09 UT 3aep ag Levee LOR 1a) OURO [OG IOMISH OS) leet |e sairal eens lve sae Sg Ses Sete se Se SS seals tas eg eile 2 es Ose | tes er lec ea pom ODES ete ATS “poeyetd Te me Y}vetiepun HOA ‘sjods Avid JIM pepjjJou 1094vT y j OU} ‘[[PUS JO epIsUT PUL [[90 MV UT pjom ; | eels | et eto (a eee pce cee 000‘2T |7---*" “MONT Sora gvicgs | aroeesall ee hat acre a | ea “| & “Get | §-L10E T “AON | F017 ¢ -4deg | 6907 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, *T]00 WB 9[GBAOUI {9,1 M Aye ‘Toys JO w10}j0q Ut yonys yJoA fej1yA. wo sjods ur yueseid pues x[oA Jo [Ie Ajreeuw SuUII0A00 POW “HOYUNAYS YJY-euo ‘{]e0 Ie Ivew [JeYs JO eps euo WO Yon\s HOA {1100 MB UI OST’ pue 9}IYA Surarofpe uo sjods ut 4yueseid pue OA 0.1} WO JO [[B ATAVOT SUTIOAOD P[OW “aoVYULIYS pexyieur §=foyigm Asses = ‘Arayem $330 9} JO 9[PPIU OY} IvOT [TOYS 07 ONJs SVM TOIT M HOA wo 4Ods ose] B puB [[9 Ys JO opIsur 10A0 [[B sjods plow ‘TJoo IVe eT(vAour ‘foyry A A19jVAM {pyour bv ebey sjods UI paioAod pus UWeHOId “TOYS JO UL0}}0q UT 3ON}S ATO A ‘TOYS JO W10}40q UT yonys yToA ‘Ajao yjoA uo s10ds ur yuesead ploy, *][00 118 WO sods] [VuIs UT} Used plow *poxtur x[OA pus oT MA {Tous JO OpIsul puw ZOA s19A00 POP, *T1@Us wo sjods ul Juoseid pues HOA JO VoIV J[VY-eUO ZUIIBADD PO “OuTTM A10}eM ‘ous jo moyjoq ur yonjs yloA {]9YS Jo opisur pue x[OA s19A00 PTOW OUITTM AOYVAL STTOYS 0} yons HOA ‘Toys JO opisut uo sjods Uy jJUeseid st puv yOA B10A00 POI ‘o,dures yo mop} T1080 (7 “MIOA ‘9]Iq osoj0R uy UIBI8 LC BIO} OVq, suronp -o1d-se3 jo A0quInN (ae | ee a eee Bie ScbOA lagoo Satan eet Wecnee Rais | eninae = emcees | siesta celal Rome eens I cer G 0 000 ‘96 j08r 0 op { F068 i 0 OOS "Er |S 1O}FOPa giie Te Ca Ee OA rat cae aie. ee Sait) a ecco eh ene | eam | Coe op” + a | £-068 000 ‘ZL ST DOE Sa if Le SS aaa Scat | ence ees a Oe | ees | eas ae ik ss tended Soyo ts . | 2-068 Coraay COrayovey A KOTOYSGy yuu mee OSS ace es ah air) ein ean ee AK ie ae ae a ie coir walper ee FI ocr aa ; ‘ 1-068 0 000‘9 |0T Oe anc Esitate | Fares | SRC O RRS B SO ico ep 2 Sai ao aos Heol aaron Pann 'pSs --"-op-**] 9-068 0 000 ‘88 |¢ (ee carer | aa eee i, ee Sere eee com Ca mph chhdiee <->] ekg ak 9 > 20D +1 S-06E 0 0 g Ol eeseaes eed Aeloeat | Garam All| Pats eee | tea cea | ea ma | ae | elias ee | eke ean chau | -***0Op"""| $-06€ 0 000 °T% |Sz 1) Se sera alate Sr cialgl | peat 21 yl lan ate ek 21 [cake SVE «|| deals| bcd or | Saige» || lei calieed Se 7 ~=""op"""| €-068 0 00S ‘SI |09 (VaR py 9S | BS PR OS REE SE S| aN RRR a GP (Sa S| Ned | ~""Op"""| 2-068 0 000 ‘se jore igdoge tial ideal an inert toe CSR sna od cade | 5 bt G1 AON | 1-068: “TIGL HH lon len! coal lors! lon len! » fet Be eo |) ese ieee. | Se eel eae Be | SE SE). Seb ume ws i= we we we | we ws ws ws | ye ws we No oo No on fey on Slo on No on Jo on Ore) os Ox) os os Co) oS oD oS Or crx) 2S As Og ag Oe | Se | ie ers ore Og | Os) OF eg As a a a = |) Shs & =F ae | & & oS TS Wee ‘toysut | ‘ON *SPIOW “BLIOJOVE, , * “SPIOW *VIIOJOVE, *SPIOW *RBILOPOVE -urexe aid el jooeq | ‘weg “1838 Ue[d WoO WIeIs Jed spjout pur BIIOJOVG JO OqUINU [eIOT, 1 | “830 O]0 A “MIO | “OLA ‘ponuyjueD—sbb0 fipjou Jon prarpuy—"GL. ATAV AL, 37 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. “Sp[OUL PUR BIIejORq [eIOL z -AP]OUL 8 0} PUNOF vI0Ar SUCUL IBQUIOAON Ul INO Weye] 010M S830 OY WO AA “OAOCB WOOL OT]} UI KOC SOT OY} UT YVol B SVA\ O.TOT{} eSviois Jo posed oy} SULIMp ‘TT6T ‘Wady Uy esv.10}s UT poorld s330 Ysetiyf 1 ‘Teo Vv 1eow Tous JO opis 03 Yonys HOA ‘71yM BULIOGYSIOU Ul SPURISI Pe}eOSI UT quoseid pure yOA 011}e SUTIAACD PJOW |~ 77-7 7|7 77 0 *TPUS poyovso ‘ueyoi1q pus Teys Jo 0101}0q WI Yon}s YTOA ‘Tjeys Jo opis -U] 18A0 T[@ s}ods psezeTOst ui Jueserd pus yOA o11}Ue SuTIaAOD ATIvEU PTO |0 |°°~>, ~~ 7/0 000 ‘OTT\0 000 ‘08z|0 88 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is interesting to observe that B. coli were found in but 2 of the 45 eggs; that in those cases it was present in small numbers only and then with large numbers of other bacteria. In fact, the mold in Samples 4029 and 4032, respectively, was in the air cell and apparently had not penetrated the egg membrane, though undoubt- edly it would have done so in time. It is also of interest to note that the odor of Sample 4029 was putrid and that of 4032 stale; both had yolks stuck to the shell. Molds, as indicated by the descriptions given in Table 12, may appear in clean and dirty shell eggs. If the shell is dirty, the first visible spot of mold is very often beneath the spot of dirt. Since the mold infections seem to be due almost entirely to shell penetration after laying, one would expect to find the egg—both yolk and white— adhering to the membrane. Such is usually the case if the growth is extensive. . So varied are the visible results upon the egg of the growth of mold inside the shell that much space might be consumed describing individual eggs. The salient points for our purpose, however, are the facts that the eggs which show mold before the candle give a growth of mold when the egg substance is transferred to suitable culture media, and a study of the substance of such eggs shows that the mold is not confined to the area where it is visible, but is com- monly diffused throughout both white and yolk. A moldy egg is also likely to show a large number of bacteria present. BLACK ROTS. Black rots need but short comment here. They are recorded for comparative purposes only. Table 13 gives the bacterial findings in 10 of them. The odor and appearance, both before the candle and after opening, would exclude their use for any food purpose or even for leather tanning. They could be used for fertilizer. TABLE 13.—PBlack rois—individual eggs. Total number of bacte- Number of | Date of ria per gram on plain | gas-pro- | ave O scar inc 1d at— : Sample|oxamina-| 72" ineeteves ee Description. No. |" tion. |——— pees ; gram m 1ac- 20°C. 37°C. * | tose'bile. 1910. | : 5 3007-6] Dec. 21 |} 180,000,000} 140,000,000)....-....... | Thin, watery contents, with bad odor. 3009-5) Dec. 27 49, 000, 000} 1, DOO TO00l =. sasceone Watery contents, with strong odor. __ 8009-6|...do..... 4, 200, 000, 000/6, 300, 000, 000,..........-. Waitery, olive-green, gassy contents, with bad odor. 3010-1! Dec. 28! 120,000,000} 33,000,000 .7......... | Green contents, with strong odor. 1911. t ; B0I2—siwan. le |p etc. see cone #20; 000, 0G0|).-.--=.2- 25 Brownish, gassy contents, with bad odor. 4045] July 11 | 350,000,000} 340,000,060| 1,000,000+| Black under candle; egg had a bad odor before being opened, and a still worse one after- wards; some shrinkage; fixed air cell. COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 39 TABLE 13.—Black rots—individual eggs—Continued._ Total number of bacte- | Number of ria per gram on plain | gas-pro- Date of gar incubated at— ; panple examina- 5a eee Description. tion. gram in lac- 20° C. 37-C. tose bile. 1911. 4059) July 13 677000; OOO|S. Safes 1,009,000 | Black under candle; contents were very gassy and had afrightiulodor; clean shell; marked shrinkage; movable air cell. 4060). ..do....- 11, 000, 000! 5, 400,009) 1,000,000+| Black under candle; bad odor en opening; mh shell; marked shrinkage; movable air | cell. 4087| Oct. 9 | 660,000,000) 180,000,000 0 | Black under candle; sheli dirty and stained in | one spot with a damp feather, underneath. which was a mold spot; balance of the egg | was 2 black rot. 4114) Nov. 7 | 169,000,000} 280,000,000 100 | Black under candle; strong odor of hydrogen | sulphid; inside of sheil and shell membrane black; shell not fresh looking; one-third shrinkage. } The maximum bacterial count was 6,300,000,000 per gram; the minimum 5,400,000. B.coli were looked fcr five times and found four -times—in very large numbers except in one sample. COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF EGGS OPENED COMMERCIALLY IN THE PACKING HOUSE. The study cf eggs opened aseptically in the laboratory is logically followed by a study of eggs broken commercially in the packing house. For this investigation a large number of samples were taken of the various types of eggs encountered throughout the egg-break- ing season of 1912. Tt was hoped that the laboratory results, to- gether with the characteristic appearance and odor of the different classes of eggs, would give a practical working basis for the grading of eggs used in the preparation of frozen and desiccated eggs. The commercial conditions under which the eggs were broken are described in the discussion of D, KE, and-F houses for 1912, in a forthcoming Department of Agriculture bulletin. The method of cpening was in brie as follows: The eggs were broken on a ster- ilized knife edge, the two sections of the shell pulled apart with the thumb and first and second fingers of each hand, and the contents of the egg allowed to drop into a sterile cup. After every infected egg which could be detected by the senses, the operator replaced the knife and cup with sterile equipment and washed and dried her hands. The fingers were kept dry by means cf tissue paper cr-small towels, which were used but once before laundering. By this method the contamination of the liquid egg during the process of breaking was reduced to a minimum. Tf the sample consisted of less than 9 eggs, the liquids were poured directly from the cups to a sterile 16-ounce salt-mouthed bottle, 40 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mixed by shaking, and a small portion of the mixture was trans- ferred to a sterile 4-ounce bottle containing pieces of sterile glass; the large sample was for chemical analyses, the smaller one for bacteriological examination. If the specimen represented 9 or more eggs, the eggs were collected in a suitable container and mixed, a. bacteriological and a chemical sample being taken. The samples were frozen in a sharp freezer 12 hours or less, packed in chilled, cork-insulated boxes especially constructed for the purpose, and shipped by express to the laboratory, where they arrived hard frozen. About 3 hours were required for transportation from E house and about 12 hours from D and F houses. The samples were taken on the successive weekly visits made at D, E, and F houses during the season of 1912. } y S) oO elect cs 5) 5 ° ° 38 & oO Pp 3 nD aR B a = A a4 1912. ; 4837 F 5} July 25 36, 500 3,500 100)0. 0022)9. 0077} 71.50] 30 dozen--.| Kept in chill room 2 weeks. 4843 F 5) July 26 37, 000 37, 000 10} .0022| .0077) 71.60) 12 dozen-. 4883 | D5) July 31 50, 000 41,000).....-- .0019} .0067) 71.56) 84 pounds. A889 D 5) Aug. 1 }10in 1, 000/10 in 1,000 0} .0018) .0063} 71.58) 4 pounds. - 4960 F 6) Aug. 12 950,000} 700,000} 10,000) . 0023; .0074| 68. 89) 30 dozen. - 4975 | F 6] Aug. 14] 430,000] 500,000 10] .0024| .0072| 66. 58)...do...... 41033 | D6] Aug. 21 77,000| 58,900 6} .0019| .0075] 74.59] 44 pounds. 1 Less than 1,000. 17625° —14__4. 50 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 20.—Eggs with blood rings—Continued. SMALL SAMPLES OF EGGS WITH LARGE BLOOD RINGS. S I Percentage 1S & of ammoni- = ge ae os eg ne acal nitro- 5 gr IE Ag gen, Folin| £ Date of S si | method 3 E Sample 3 Lenoir! Size of No. ole S8el— - a sample, aoe ; 2 3 : 6 {dy lees) 2 lee 5 ° ° eae! SATS ee 5 D a 5 = ‘a By 1912. 4292 D1} May 9 1,700 400 O)e8: 2.2] 5. eee an OMBP ES eee Broken yolks. 440) D 2| May 27 100 100 0)0. 0014\0. 0052) 72.97| 12 eggs... - Do. 4402 1B MD 0 Cae 3 bit 750 10) .0016) .0959} 72.71}...do-.. Do. 4430 | D2 May 28 100 150 0} .0019} .0070] 72.71] 5 eggs. .__- Do. 4699 | D4 Aad 9 | 7,100,000 400 0} .0018) .0065) 72.09 8 eggs. Sa ast Do. LARGE SAMPLES OF EGGS WITH LARGE BLOOD. RINGS. 4838 F 5) July 25 | 4,000,000) 1 900, 0001100, 00010. 0022/0. 0077; 71.41) 30 dozen..| Kept dn bull room 2 weeks. 4844 F 5| July 26 | 4,300,000) 3, 100,000 160} .0019} .0068) 72.17) 9 dozen... 4884 D5) July 3i |0in 1,000 Oin 1. O00 Se . 0019} .0063] 70.00) 74 pounds. A883 D 5) Aug. 1 6, 500 | 0in 1,090 10} .0019} .0063] 69. 96) 10 pounds. 41040 D 6 Aug. 22 | 2, 000, 000} 1, 400, 000 10,000} . 0020} .0071) 71.98] 7 pounds. - The results of the first four samples given in the second section of Table 20 showed very few organisms and no B. coli except in one sample. The amount of ammoniacal nitrogen was identical with that found in contemporaneous samples of seconds, cracked, and dirty eggs. 07 syseq AIC | “SIsBq 99MM curerd reg | 2802081 UT 0 oL8 0 00% *aanjstoul SiIsrIOay o: | wes Jad “UOT? ‘ON “mor dt10seqy *a[du1es Jo az1g Joose | gurk ayaa BLLaqOCq -deT]oo =| ‘aomog ardureg -4U90190 *poyjout UIT aEOoS suron pod —4e payeq jo ayeq -O,7 ‘Uaso1ylU [woVTU ? “83 JO “nour rese ureyd uo wes | -OWWIG JO 258] UI0I0g TOQUNN | gad vriaqoeq Jo JequInNN | 59 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. *eIDOUl G1N}[Nd UO YMoIs Surpeeids sayy Aq Pozp1ojoeiVyO 918 TOL SOTMO[OO [eI19}0eq, oIe sIOpveidg z \ *000‘00T Ur JUeseTg 1 “* 7 "PREF Jo SHTOA ZT | 68 “Eo O0TO ° 9700 * 000 ‘000‘8t | 000 for ‘stopwords | 000‘000‘0S_ |" -op"*"| Ga ShEP roy SO} ZI | ES “98 S00" 9000 ° 000 ‘000 ‘FI 000 ‘I zSiepeeids | 000‘000‘00L | Zt APN | ou Prer “-""""668F JOSHTOA | 80 ES 800° OF00 * 000 ‘000 “6 Oy) 000 ‘006 ‘T 000 000‘26. |--7>~ Op" | oa Scar eon eee SoqTYA OT | TZ "98 8900" 6000 ° 000 ‘000 ‘oT 001 000 ‘006 ‘T 000 ‘000 ‘g¢ cl AUN | OW 6G8P ee 908F JO SHOX | BTSs ZOTO* 9F00" 000 ‘09/8 = "7" "="""| 000‘000'8T | O00‘000%EE = | --op"*") BT L08F “7 =" """"soqTYAd ZT | 82 "98 SF00 “0 9000 ‘0 000 ‘000 ‘oz 000 ‘000‘T | 000 ‘000 “ez 000 “000 “09 eI wae 6a 908F ' “GI6T “daLVAVdHS SHTIOX GNV SALIBA, Sia 2020" 9S00° 000 ‘oot “e 000 ‘T 000 ‘000‘¢6 | 000 ‘000 ‘sr T oune | eq SStP 3 uouL f 2381048 Pjoo ut 4ydex ‘peljeys Ay £220" 1900° Se ae sia S400T 000 ‘006 ‘F 000000 ‘002 | 8% “sny | 20 9LOTF 9810" £500" 000 ‘000 ‘ze | OF 000‘000'TS | 000‘000‘OcT | ZT AVN | Ca 6&&F 6800" 0800 ° 000 ‘0006 | 000 ‘OT 000 ‘00062 | 000‘000‘0FE | #1 4APW | Za OZeF PL10° 1#00° 000 ‘002 ‘T 000 ‘000‘T | 000‘000‘FE | 000 ‘000 ‘F9 el AeW | 6 FOS sie ste “7778590 6 000 ‘000 ‘6 000 ‘000 ‘T | 000 ‘000“s8 000 ‘000 ‘66 s AeN | ca 9LGP ee TS ">" "8880 9 000 ‘OTT 000 ‘OT 000 ‘009 ‘¢ 000 ‘002 ‘2 L SW | CoG £9GF 8539 6 000 “000 ‘FE 000 ‘OT 000 ‘0000 | 000‘000‘0FT |-~~~ op---| ea OSG 39 G-F 000 ‘OOF 000 ‘OT 000‘000‘se | 000°000‘0TT |G ARM IT keg OPge 5 eee phos mae Ree **| 000‘T 000 ‘082 , 000‘000 ‘061 | 92 “Idy | Ta S61F (0) 9) ene ee aS (ere ah ar el een epee 000 ‘OT 000 ‘002 ‘F 000 ‘000%89 |= op | Ta Solr wooresesssssqaenb % eee LOOOROT 000 “OOT F 000000'TS | @ EN 1a POrP : SL ‘SDDq TIOHM “ATTIVIOUANNOO GUNADO-GVa@ LON HOCO-SaLIHM NAGUD HALIM S90 FO SHIANVS TIVNS AI = 60 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The samples given in Part I of Table 26 were opened aseptically. The organisms found are, therefore, referable strictly to the egg. The other samples were obtained in packing houses and were opened into sterile cups. It is possible that a few extraneous organisms may, therefore, be included in these bacterial counts, but the error. is small. There is a close agreement between maximum and mini- mum counts in the samples obtained by the two methods. While but 31 individual commercial samples were examined, many of them rep- resent a large number of eggs and a few approximate 5 pounds each. Twenty-six of the 31 samples, or 83.9 per cent, show counts of over 10,000,000 per gram. The predominating organism has been found to be Pseudomonas syncyanea (Migula)* and the color of the egg white is due to the ability of this form to produce a diffuse, green fluorescence in the medium in which it grows. When pure cultures of this pseudo- monas were injected into a fresh egg the white assumed the char- acteristic color in a few days and later developed a fetid odor. The pseudomonas is not, however, in pure culture when occurring in eggs with a green white. B&. coli, as well as other organisms, are generally found with it. The numbers of B. coli, as determined by lactose bile fermentation, varied from 10 to 1,000,000 per gram. The eggs which were physically in good condition and odorless, and some of which were separated into white and yolk, are listed in Table 26, Part III. Others, having an odor but not sufficient to preclude use according to old methods of grading, are given in Part IV. It will be observed that the white of the egg has a much greater number of organisms than the yolk, though the infection in the latter is also extensive. A further indication of a mixed in- fection is the fact that organisms which liquefy gelatin are com- monly present in numbers. The pseudomonas isolated does not liquefy gelatin. It does not grow to any extent at 37° C.; yet the counts at this temperature are frequently decidedly higher than the sum of the number of liquefiers and the organisms developing in lac- tose bile with gas production. Apparently, therefore, these eggs with green-colored whites are recognized by the characteristic color pro- duced by one species, though they are the harbingers of a number of species as well as of great numbers of organisms. This argument is reenforced by the amount of loosely bound nitrogen found. When the egg is not separable into white and yolk the amount of nitrogen is uniformly high—much higher than in eggs commonly used for food. When the degeneration of the egg is not sufficient to interfere with its physical integrity the amount of loosely bound nitrogen is not materially increased. It might 1This organism was identified by Evelyn Witmer, of the staff of the Food Research Laboratory. COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 61 be inferred from these facts that even though the number of bacteria in the egg be very high, as, for example, in Sample 4504, where 210,000,000 per gram were found, the infection is too recent to have produced chemical changes in the nitrogenous constitu- ents. Because of the mixed infection it is not possible to correlate the amount of loosely bound nitrogen with the presumably greater or lower number of pseudomonas individuals, since the accompany- ing organisms may exercise even greater activity in splitting protein molecules. SOUR EGGS. The term “ sour eggs,” or “ sour rot,” is used by the egg breaker to describe an egg that has when opened a peculiar pungent odor. In the sense of a vinegar or common acid odor these eggs, in the earlier stages at least, do not fit the name. In the later stages they may have an odor suggesting sourness in the usual acceptance of the term. They are characterized by causing a prickling sensation in the nose, suggesting the bite of pepper, though not so sharp nor so well defined. These eggs can not be distinguished by candling. Generally, how- ever, there is some visible sign of degeneration as well as the charac- teristic pungency. For example, sour eggs frequently have a tur- bidity in the white, or the yolk membrane may be weak, or even broken, so that the yolk is more or less mingled with the white. The only means of detecting such an egg is the peculiar pungent odor. Table 27 gives the bacterial and chemical analyses of 18 samples of sour eggs. The samples vary in size from 2 eggs to 5 pounds. All were obtained from the current egg supply in the several packing houses, were broken by cracking on a sterilized knife edge, and were emptied into a sterilized glass cup. The grading was such that the eggs in one lot were as nearly identical as possible. BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 62 Ce OSOAa| i see OD eee le TO spe 200° F200" sret7t 755771 +000 '000 ‘OT | 000 ‘000'Z6_—_| 000 £000 ‘oot “ * EBB foo 275 a pee rec|rsctessesciasssess==s""! +000 ‘000 OT | 000 ‘000 ‘0eF | 000 ‘000 ‘Ost se Av | 2d LetP : “GIGT “STISVq, “STSeq aay . ALL JOM te 8) ol O) 00% ‘aydures ‘ony * a ES uy Urea 10 “uOTT ‘ON “uo dps0secq ids ae -s}our Jo Pee surdyonbry | S084 Bur -satjoo | ‘aomnog pained 18 quad Jag poyjou Tumor | ~onpord-ses ‘ ae payeq | Jo o1ea , Ure. Ce HED | yo sequin “nour ese ureyd uo weds “O1j}Ta §=[eoerumour : Jod B10} oBq JO aquUINU [B}O], -Ul8 JO ose} U0dI0T ‘MOdO UNOS ATLINIVA HLIM SODA AO SUTAINVS TTVNS ‘I ‘shba snog—' 1% ATAV, 63 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST, * pol surur YOA pue oj1yM ‘10opo Ayseah pues mos y “mexo1q oA 498] UT OJ oULOS ‘10po £yseoA puv Inos y “queseid s[[o9 4Se8 x ¢ *000‘000‘T Tr JuSSeZg, Bs as tees ae he ak peas ead | nie el pees Hecate eieiers +000 ‘000‘T | 000 ‘000 ‘OFZ | 000 ‘000 ‘OTF Scenes metal stort: val lac lane cake Ia ad () +000 000‘T | 000 ‘00¢ ‘9 000 ‘000 ‘C09 pea alee nne eee = EOS ag ing |n ons) = ee 000 ‘000 ‘oe | +000‘000‘T | 000‘000 ‘091 | 000 ‘000 ‘ong ‘T gr AIng | oa 11 Avy | 6 1, sew | 1a ‘aOdoO UNOS ATGUCIOGG HALIM SYDA TVOCIAIGNI ‘III 64 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. All the samples examined show a high count of bacteria. One sample (4269) has more than a billion organisms per gram and all the samples but three have more than 100,000,000. On the score of numbers of bacteria these eggs rank with black rots. The table gives first a series of eggs in which the odor is but faint and which © might easily be passed by the careless or too rapid grader. Part II gives another series in which the odor was distinct and Part IIT gives three samples in which the odor was pronounced. It will be noted that these last three samples are individual eggs, and that a physical deterioration in two of the three has proceeded so far that the vitelline membrane has ruptured. The bacterial content of the eggs with a faintly sour odor and those with a distinctly sour odor is about the same, with the exception of Sample 4256, in which the bacterial count agrees re the eggs in Part III in having a decidedly sour odor. The great number of organisms invariably present is, however, the noteworthy feature. Aside from the numbers of organisms, the Bacillus colon was found in every sample examined, a condition which, up to this time, has not been observed for any other single type of deteriorated egg. Not only are B. coli present, but the num- ber, as determined by lactose bile fermentation, is usually at least a million, and may be 10 million. In some ‘of the samples listed as showing a million, more may have been present, because the dilutions were not made beyond this point. Had they been it is quite probable that the coli organisms would have been found to be more numerous than the analyses indicated. One sample (41016) was separated into whites and yolks. The count in the whites is double that in the yolks, which may indicate an infection from the exterior, though more work must be done with the two portions of the egg bees accepting this suggestion as a fact. Where organisms liquefying gelatin were sought they were found and in comparatively large numbers. Hence, there is in these eggs a condition very much like that noted in the eggs with a green white, namely, a mixed infection aggregating large numbers of individual organisms and characterized by the presence of one distinguishing species. The amount of loosely bound nitrogen is higher than that com- monly observed in seconds, which, on the average, is 0.0067 per cent on the water-free basis. The range, omitting Sample 4256, which is exceptionally high, is from 0.0102 to 0.0194 per cent, with an average of 0.0134 per cent, all these values being on the water-free basis. The water content of the samples varies from 69.52 to 75.48 per cent, indicating a decided variation in the age of the eggs as measured by shrinkage, COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 65 MUSTY EGGS. The eggs called musty by the bakers have a strong odor, very penetrating and persistent, becoming’ more pronounced when heat is applied. All such eggs are sharply watched for by egg breakers and discarded. Fortunately they are not very plentiful, even in the early spring and late summer, when they are most common. Hot, dry weather seems to lessen their frequency. Sometimes several musty eggs will be found in the same lot; very rarely almost a whole case of eggs will be of this type. They can not be recognized by the candler and very frequently there is no physical sign to indicate that the egg is not good. The sense of smell alone must be depended upon to detect them. The few examinations made of musty eggs do not justify any con- clusions; therefore they are not given here. It is highly desirable © that further and detailed studies be made of this type of egg, which is interesting from practical and scientific viewpoints. SUMMARY. BACTERIOLOGICAL RESULTS OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS OPENED ASEPTI- CALLY IN THE LABORATORY. The first section of Table 28, summarizing the total bacterial con- tents of individual eggs opened aseptically in the laboratory, shows that the greatest percentage of second-grade food eggs examined, the medium stale eggs, hatch-spot eggs, heavy rollers, dirty eggs, cracked eggs, and eggs with yolk partially mixed with albumen, con- tained less than 1,000 bacteria per gram. The occasional high bac- terial content of single cracked eggs, dirty eggs, ete., could, in most instances, be predicted by the appearance of the shell or by the odor and condition of the contents. Such eggs would ordinarily be recog- nized and discarded by the housewife or egg breaker. The second section discloses the rather unexpected fact that B. coli were not present in the whole-shelled second-grade eggs and were present in only 5.9 per cent of the cracked-shelled eggs. Blood rings and the last five types of eggs given in the two sections represent eggs ordinarily discarded as unfit for food purposes. The first section shows that 26.5 per cent of the eggs with adherent yolks, 50 per cent of the eggs with dead embryos, 75.9 per cent of the moldy eggs, 66.7 per cent of the white rots, and 100 per cent of the black rots contained over 1,000 organisms per gram. A review of the second section of the table shows that, with the exception of the white and black rots, B. coli were present in but few of the eggs. 17625°—14—_5 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 66 EPP poeees | 0G Rae geste | Ca oe eatin | TE oe onl HaCcTLS om comets | Be Dome eee = ol Re OT 0“00t! OL ibis stl ia Br eral ee sate | he ed | caeee> IF eteame | ane le caer| at 00g | 9 Geen lak Ps. “Wetgatey 21 eee eo a, ing Meee alte ree Pond SE €8 1G GOL] €& GOL Gaye iliak €'8 1G i £1 aeapat ed Pimat cater pci ta EK bo hled PST |S it Mowat alta! eee Sab 115 LI oe | eal a a BF Mae ua POLS. tee 6° G P Sr ee: SK 7 8 ¢ T F : 4 62 6 ce ¢ LT Lk P| 8 ce ae 6 1g al £6 i &% GG g G i. 9 £ 0°0S | & 2 82 LT P16) 9 z % rail 0°62 | 9 3 x6 ial 8G | 2 ° 6 9 SSS 12S X 8 I G39 | G ‘ 8 il 0°S2 19 6 9 G'S | G 8 z 0°09 | $ II 9 POS | P é ile pe | ee oh | Weer |e en cae eT a he cena SLES aS RO eel gre aap mel lie ~ ag he (Ne | Re Caan |e “| O°O0T) 6 ‘ 6 a LLL | 2 ; *sord ‘sor d “sod ‘sord *soyd “sod *sord *sord ‘sod *sord *yu900 Sauk *ym00 eo) *qu90 ae" *yu900 hos *ym100 oe hey) ie *yue0 ae “yu90 ates “1000 Le “yuen oe Wed-} gaqu Sh | gaq | ML |geq | Pd | geq | 29) seq | ME soq | 4 | toq | M4 | seq |. 4 | aoq | PS |. t0q etOn “Tan nN Win -WWnN -WWnN -wnN Tn “WINN “WN -wnN ‘ ‘garsnjout | ‘oatsnjour | ‘oatsnjour | ‘eatsnjour | eArsnqour | oAtsnjout | . bet 3 oo oon or | 000'000'0L | ‘o00'000'S | ‘o00'00¢ | ‘o00‘00T ‘00°08 Tony ee kee ge eel ip Sa) Ce 82) 100'000°OT | 04 too‘000'g | 03 to0‘000'T | 01 Too‘00T | 04 To0'0S | on too‘Or | on toot | COPFOHTOT! COTO IT | OFOFO WVUD Ud SASINVOUO WO WelaWON “haoyo.ogn) ay? ur hyynoydasy pauado shba ypnprapur fo sznsas Jpoboporwapong fo hinumungy “777777 5308 OTOUM Se we LO Me ee CEE treet est opetse: 777850 [OT A\] yao ay “7* "O37 AA “7 =" "550 O[OU AL 50 OOU AK go> *E MOK 77" OUTTA. 22° "*=-"<839 OTOW AN p's Minas we AION eS “OUT M. “580 opoy A\) TORTI aaa fake eweanee -OIttTA\ ~-""350 OOM weeeeterees MOK sereetee ss =-Qart Atl ESS OVI "OUTTA oie = SeenON | eee S25” SQITOIAN bee S]O1 Youle “777 S}07 OUTLAY srrore oo s="s830 APIOTT *soAIq “W109 PREP WIM sosoL ~*]]OYS 0} 3yoNS SYfO.X “OUITEM ITM poxtut Alypery -ivd yfoA TAA s5ooy $505 Sr Se ae soos A Ta0 CT ~~ sioT[OI AAVO}T nesses ="s390 poyoedy “*""s3utl poorq [Teurg sees" *s350 ods YOUBET *peuTLUENXo do JO UOTI0,] “or oOo oT Vib “S30 yo edAy, COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. oe TOrATED ees ONt Eales ara es SLOT SOVl EA, Woe we ie SLOT OYLT AA. gee ease) ys aa s380 Ap[oyy “SOAIC MIO PVOP TTAL S33 of *]Teqs 0} YONIS AOA YI sss oy UOT] 2 YITAL poxTUL Ayperjaed YOR AIA S38 oP See eee “= >>sss0 AVG SLOTTOL AACOTT 5 Dae eae $330 poxovd) “77 * "=" SsUnI poord [[eurg 5 A aaa sddo yods aye Ay “77> >>> 530 9]R]S TINTpoyy Lae Sal ES Chg es see as? ra at Meee eee || eee eae salen ye eh | 2 glee “| 9 PS Mae BGG GS Sac peso peer ee ae ¢ 0°04 toes] iene eae ates Nd Ione 6 GROGIE AGE: tone =| SP aie? eee OD Sane €1 OROOTE SST ce Geos ae 330 Loma] 9 CAGREE eG eran Ss Se cee AD A 8 0S Oe SSS )S as ea Se -= == ont AN 8 cgokey EP (oypy z 000r | z ~> > sd 9fOTL AA] c 0°88 =| 2 HIOA iia 9°16 | & O}TTLA. iat OSOOR Si Rbr 0 Uh Gamer Sess 5.39 OTOU MA Ge OWODTE SiG R oe oa es aah oe eee 2 aie HIOA\ ce 0°00T | Ge OUT AAS g OROU TE 3 Gage aa a aaa IOA\ 9 ORQO es | O's <= nal paar gua: alent ~ OUT AAS 66 G96 86 $390 OTOT MA a6 63068. 5) i084]: Seen Seas ae os MOA 46 Ciloe a] 0G eae eS oe ee OPAL 01 0°00T | OT 59 9fOU AN L OLO0 Ts VPARP greg SARS Se HOA L 0°O0T L c o'00r | ¢ 6 0°00r | 6 6 0-00T | 6 € o'00T | & g 0°00r | & *soyd *soyd *sord *sord *sord ) *sopd *sord "sald qu80 “Mts “11190 -U1vs "4u99 -U1tS “400 -U1GS "qu90 “ules “(u00 “mes “qUuv0 -UBs -ursjo| 2d Jo 10q 10g JO 10q 10] jo 10q 10 q JO 10q 107 JO 10q IW JO 10q 10 jo 10q “poururexo qequmu -WInN “TIN “WINN -UInN “WINN -UINLN -UInN, $30 Jo UOTPOg [810.1 000‘000‘T 000‘00T 000‘0T 000‘T 00T OT ‘300 JO eddy, “GW USOLOVT NI WVU) Wad SHSINVOWO DNIONGOUd-SyD WO WAIWAN 68 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BACTERIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL RESULTS OF COMPOSITE SAMPLES OF EGG OPENED COMMERCIALLY IN THE PACKING HOUSE. The laboratory results of composite samples of eggs opened com- mercially in the packing house are summarized in Tables 29 and 30 and are shown graphically in figures 1 and 2. From these data the - following conclusions are drawn: (1) The samples of July and August firsts contained very few organisms, and in many cases no bacteria of the B. coli group. SUL ANO AUGUST FIRSTS! ance “ELOOO FINGS.” SEcoMDS"! “Dire Lt CES . 93 9) OPAC CKED Ex CGS. ~ a — EOGS wire OLM PARTIALLY /71HED VITA! WATE. IVT ate S ey LARGE “BLOOD PES, ad , 40.0 ost Bae EGGS V WITH, Okie SLIGHTLY" ADHERENT TO SHELL ee a % 9) 9 ‘2 Weir Ors. C3, 2 Re ee eee e EGGS. wy 7H EZis ata VL LOMERENT 70 NLL 10008 eZ ee Si GOS Wir, OREEN ALBUPTEN. 100.055 ani 2; 5 3 , Ee OLS £665. 100.0 naa a 100.0% make Sit ease oS Fic. 1.—Percentage of samples opened commercially with bacterial counts over 1,000,000 per gram. (2) The majority of the samples of clean-shelled seconds had a comparatively low bacterial content, only 8.3 per cent of them con- taining over 1,000,000 organisms per gram. The number of B. coli varied in the different specimens from none to 100,000 per gram. (3) The percentage of bacterial counts over 1,000,000 per gram in samples of dirties, checks, and eggs with yolk partially mixed with albumen was 16.6, 18.8, and 20 per cent, respectively. No greater number of &. coli was found in these samples than in samples of seconds. (4) The samples of blood rings contained comparatively few organisms. The large blood rings in most instances showed more infection than did the small rings. Most of the specimens contained less than 10 B. coli per gram. COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. 69 (5) The amount of protein decomposition as shown by the am- moniacal nitrogen in the preceding six types of eggs was greater, as would be expected, than that found in strictly fresh eggs, but was no greater than that found in some grocery eggs. FRESH E CGS. 0.0013 § 0.0046 KELME Sel £GG6S.. 0.00/17 Wao Ae Es CRACKED EGGS. . 0.00/8 F O0.006C5E aes ea Ses oe 0,00/f & COGS TS Ton Zl SLY AND AUGUST FIRSTS.’ 0.0012 ea EGG, Ze, “BLOOD FPUNGS) 0.002058 0.0023 B q GOOG | WAVTE FOTS, O.OO3E § ; LAG LOTS. tes 0.0229 B 0.0800 Although a cracked Fic, 2.—Average amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in 14 types of eggs (closed bars, fresh basis; open bars, dry basis). er dirty shell may be a factor in facilitating infection and subse- quent decomposition, the data obtained show that checks and ditties in the producing section are as well preserved as the clean whole- shelled seconds or the July and August firsts. 70 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (6) The eggs constituting the samples of July and August firsts, seconds, dirties, and checks would be used without compunction by the housewife, baker, or confectioner. (7) The majority of the samples of white rots, eggs with yolk lightly adherent to the shell, and all of the samples of sour eggs, black rots, eggs with a green albumen, and eggs with yolk heavily adherent to the shell, were infested with bacteria. 2. coli were pres- ent in most of these samples, forming the predominating organism in the samples of sour eggs. (8) The eggs with the yolk lightly adherent to the shell were, chemically, slightly lower in quality than were the second-grade food egos, whereas the sour eggs, white rots, eggs with a green white, and eggs with yolk heavily adherent to the shell showed much more deterioration. Black rots had five times as much ammoniacal nitro- gen as any of these types of eggs. With the exception, possibly, of the eggs with yolks lightly stuck to the shell, none of the eggs in these samples would be used by the housewife or reputable baker or confectioner. T1 COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. P80 ‘T OY rea eek Saco OF Sega pam | 5) pts ae ee Pitre Giver tof oS aii hematin 1G cate agl ee el .S)) iieeseatal | Seaeesc 16 | fen RAS ee ee T®}0.L I G OOLT | @ | dap ROWS ora a “7 "sol Ov GT 8T (Gress Leh pee ape Sa ie |S ee ge Sete SSR ime | eee el) a armen || ANI py Sapna eames || Recs. > Seat Sere A teeee | ee Bab eel ee [es aes har ep inpoe 77 *Ss80 nog ag 1% (TADS al Ath a pee) Neen eit toes Fl Ra all creamed | a al aeons ey AES | cared ea |B Al S peer eer -oii|| Seo Hea Co "| OHYA Wools B UIA So0 GT € 9 9°99 i eee eh ee nae Te “*SjO.r oO} M ¢ G OOT | & Seen wamtalleae oes ae TIOUS 0} FOTOT -pe ATTA voy YOA TITM S88 ra e Brews rs|eerese as e7eer (1 erga (oleate Sy ee een once ee cae ae eg ae a lela (Eee ei ere Fees igs aloes |e a ** ]]0US 07 que1oypB ATysys oA IM ssaoy 19 OT Sor pester © Eas a(R T 0g g pS te 5 rach ee (anne a g(t Deas Seedy e Fel See aes Can =i | fomege + eee OY) 9 “oo 5 55" *SSUTE Poor os1e7T 611 Dreaee ee ese Peaibees calacee sale ae release salestaes eaceedlel ert | 1 Bia |i Sor | & err iT TUTTI T TT Ssurd poorq Teurg ¢ OT OT [Rte ie hematin nicer ee sen ae OT ERAN | Oita A515) skecnenl | aes oak a eet dt 02 6 06 6 OF y ">" OUT YEA POXTUL Ayerjzed yO YIM sssoy SF 9 pias elu (pes rca rv eater Ferrio Say gor | T ise ete Nice as Pie seclheae ie Erkecees es 9°91 | T Bee ag oe “oo *s8d0 AVG iat 9 Gace v6 9 OT I € ee Cap rge yeae | ea ace Mpa ae 9°9T er, Salas = S51 Ween See Sl Sa a ean tS bates ta poets chil igen ial | ene eae “5 =" stjeys Apjot YIM sss0 poyxovip axe Olga lig atk | ee eet Seoul aeeen Gi al @ Gol 1% Gis ars HO oaaarat a penis | sa hoya GCI 1% S'8— | 8 *sad0 poxovlD 60F hoy i a feces Sa be tad Te ea oe "8 z Gar |e 9° | F ar i 8°02 |S Gira 7 em lie na gece ee Oe spuodes SL g eben Re aac gta | carey eee Glee (mee nga Cle 02 | 1 02 |'T 09 | 8 sysuy ysusny pue Ayn ‘sod *sord ‘sord ‘sod ‘sod “sod ‘sord * | ssord ‘queo | -uivs | “quoo | -ures | “jueo | -ures | -yu00 | -mes | “yue0 | -tmes | “yu00 | -mes | “4yuoD | -mIeS | “yuo | -UIUS ‘PouUIe) og Jog | jousoq | sog | joroq | wog | Joroq | wg | jorq | wq | Joroq | Jog | Jorg |) Jog | fortoq | oq | Jo 104 -xoisue|_ “ol “nN -UINnN, -UWINN -TInN, -TInN -~WINN -TMnN -TInN -z0p Jo | es Jo “330 Jo od4y, requ = JeqUANU vero 1, Te0.L SIND “OAISNOUL *OATSNOUL *OAISNOUL “OAISNOUL “OATSNOUL “OATSNOUL -aAISHOUT pue 100‘000‘0T “000‘000°0T “000'000°S ‘000°000'T “000‘008 “000‘00T “000'0¢ “O00‘0T 01 0 04 100 000 'S 07 100 000 T 04 T00' 00S 0} 100 OOT 04 100 0S 04 T00 01 WVUYD UAd SWSINVOUO AO VAAWON TVLOL I ‘asnoy Buwyond oy wr hyypro1omuos pouedo shba fo syynsau joovbojorajong fo funumung—'6Z WIV J, BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 72 |e Si ie Sangeet ea] Rac Be asa ee UR aca a cae ati oe | a a | GS eae |e eg es coe 1 | er gaan me Hy) a baleen CGre.. Niet ra Lo Se ape ssh eae eerie 1640} PuBIY COCs eel ae tC O L0H Fe | LAC ee nl |< Sie ea Fe Cs | ey in eS] Vi arp mecoen| aaeaeean Tidee ae | Pca mil | f aeca Saee || oa eage po saigeee ie vee thes NS aes *sjO1 youl OL PrierSer are See sche = Pista [P30 04GDG Feo Dae ar “"sss0.mo0g LT 6° T 6°S T 7777 ORTTAN ueels BYALA Ssaoy 9 seiielet hike | delhi Seabee) (Sette Ss AE eee eS ee Stee SOI OVI AA & dyin, a inde | Whar iemai= | ona | ee | ene Ce ek" nd Gagne = eee Tus : 0} JuoIeype ATLA voy YOA TILA Soa gp £ oe Sines sa (reer Ss tesee oe 2 Ae SESS Seeded or SEs **]JoYS 07 jquoleypeV ATT S$ HIOA YALA ssagy 6 aed é t tr POO A Sage cess taunt poojlq esie'T 9 eee z "ee z Ss eas ~-snull poojq [wus 8 cB z Co °Z9 c Nunes oeas legen “7 OUTTAN WLM _pextur Aqrenaed, TOA ABLENN S330 9 eee z SEE) EGS (POS OSaC BES pa ag «Ss $330 Aq 8 GS z G°Z9 Gg "> "s]]oys Apjour YA siso0 poyoulp OL GS f GS Bide a Ale Sees SS OP ee sis0 poyovlp £6 T°9% 9 8°FE 8 PELES eae Wee ar ergy oC sc y ¢ 0% I 09 € "comers ssssssasiy gsneny pues Ane “soyd *sord “sod “sod ‘sord ‘sod “sod ‘sod “yueo | -ules | “yued | -uIeS | “yueD | -UIeS | “yueo | -uIeS | “yu0o | -wes | ‘queo | -ures | “qyueo | -ues | “queo | -uIts ‘sod 10 Jo 10q log Joroq | Jog | Joroq |} dog | Jorg | soq | Jo z0q Jog | Joroq | Jog | Jo rz0q Jeg | Jo a0q | -UIRS JO -wnN “Un : “tn N “umn N | -TOnNy “Wn N -W0N -TUnN, 380 Jo ad4y, requmu 330 Jo adAy 1330 | a *IOAO . ‘ ‘ 7 ¢ ; ¢ 7 ¢ 5 . . pur 000‘000‘01 000° 000'T 000 00T 000 OT 000 T OOT OT 0 “UaTIA ASOLOVT NI WVUO UAd SWSINVOUO DNIONGOUd-SVD AO UWAAWAN TIL ‘ponuryao;)y—asnoy Buryond ay) ur Apynrosauruos pouado shbha fo synsas joorbojzorsajong fo hunmung—'6Z AAV, . COMMERCIAL EGGS IN THE CENTRAL WEST. Vo TABLE 30.—Variation in amount of ammoniacal nitrogen in 17 types of eggs. Per cent of ammoniacal nitro- Number gen, Folin method. Kind of eggs. of samples. Wet basis. Dry basis. IGS GEES. SA polis ye Sats ae ene ee aa ao eee 6 | 0.0011-0. 0015 0. 0040-0. 0054 ANTONI CUS MITSLS2 sa Ac3 cate eS dl ea roe as Re 4 -0019- .0022 -0065- . 0074 Grocery eggs J 20 SRE ABS Be ee Ae ere ee fs Bas A 10 OOLO= 0022) RE eee ia =e -l-=1 Sil) GR ss SERIES De REE ee ee aoe eee ones 3 - 0016— . 0018 -0061— . 0069 BUCOUCSHEE Merci Sse) se nee et oot sities sem qc ame ee oo ene= 17 .0015- . 0026 -0048- .0095 GCTCKE CIE R OSE esos ek 0 ee Se eee a 18 .0014— . 0024 - 0046— . 0083 Cracked eggs with moldy shells.............------------------ 7 .0013— .0025 -0043- . 0088 ID Wi ay Gee OE 8 8 8 SSS Ee ee 22 ee ea pe ee oe ee eae 14 .0013- . 0024 -0061- . 0084 Eggs with yolk partially mixed with white Coe foe a ee 5 5 -0017— . 0023 .0062— . 0078 Shane! joliororel wis AC ane Sek ee esasenae oeSaseesucEdbeobsssese 7 -0018- . 0024 . 0063— . 0077 ECMO LOO MMI ESE ences eee ae Me ee aa Uomesececicns 9 .0014— . 0022 .0052-— . 0077 Eggs with yolk slightly adherent to shell. .......-......------ 3 -0022— .0024 -0077- .0088 Eggs with yolk heavily adherent to shell. ............-.------ 2 0031- .0049 -0108- . 0179 WATE: THOS cs BG ee ae ENS pene a Efe oo 6 0019- . 0061 -0072- .0211 RT SRWMUMMONCCM WIKOS cocci os ok ona nent aco e eee ee selec 12 0016- .0071 -0056- . 0264 SOIR CLASS G8 EME ees ee ey term aN be apis Seer cys oN 12 0029- .0098 .0102- .0323 TERMEYBIE SPORES 5 cc seuees Ss 6 SS eS SVR Pi re eg Na a 1 0229 . 0800 TGS, ery chic ee ean gaa cet et Ny A SGui lea search capper cee eiaste cera A COMPARISON OF BACTERIAL CONTENTS OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS OPENED ASEPTICALLY WITH THOSE OF EGGS OPENED COMMER- CIALLY. A comparison of the results of individual eggs opened aseptically with the results of composite samples of eggs opened under clean commercial conditions shows some apparent discrepancies. For in- stance, only 4, or 7.1 per cent, of the 56 individual cracked eggs opened aseptically contained over 1,000 organisms per gram, whereas 14, or 87.5 per cent, of the 16 composite samples, representing 2,924 “ checks,” opened commercially contained more than this number per gram. It will be observed that the numbers of the latter are far in excess of the former; it will be remembered, also, that eggs vary greatly among themselves. It is possible, iyenekene that the differences between the bacterial findings of individual eggs and composite samples are due, in large part, to the relative difficulty in detecting early stages of infected eggs. It was possible, for instance, to detect by the senses: but two of the four individual cracked eggs which were infected. It has been shown in Tables 26 and 27 that incipient sour eggs, which are de- tected only by the sense of smell, and eggs with albumen just begin- ning to turn green, which are recognized only by the sense of sight, 1 To determine definitely to what extent it is possible to detect infected eggs by means of the senses, and to what extent the bacterial content of a product consisting of large numbers of eggs of unknown history can be minimized by grading, it is necessary to make detailed descriptions of the characteristics of many individual eggs, to open each aseptic- ally and to determine their bacterial content singly and in combination. To find, also, the amount of bacterial contamination acquired during the preparation, studies must be made of the routine methods in use in egg-packing houses to determine the part which each step in the process of preparation plays in the final condition of the product. This subject will be presented as the setond report of this series. 74 BULLETIN 51, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. eentain millions of organisms. It is reasonable to conclude, there- fore, that the earlier forms of such and similar eggs furnish large numbers of bacteria to the liquid product prepared from second- grade food eggs. It is quite probable, also, that these earlier stages of incipient sour eggs are a contributing cause to the presence of appreciable numbers of B. colz in liquid egg of good quality. TECHNIQUE FOR THE BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF EGGS. METHODS USED FOR OBTAINING SAMPLES OF INDIVIDUAL EGGS OPENED ASEPTICALLY IN THE LABORATORY. A. Mercuric chlorid method*—The eggs were washed in running water, treated for five minutes in a 1 to 500 or 1 to 1,000 mercuric chlorid solution, and then rinsed with sterile water. The egg was then placed, large end uppermost, in a suitable holder. A small open- ing was made in the apex with sterile, fine-pointed forceps, about 2 square centimeters of the shell removed, and the membrane punc- tured. About 2 cc of the white were then transferred with a sterile pipette to a sterile tared weighing flask containing small pieces of sterile glass. The opening was made larger and as much of the white as possible removed -with the pipette. With a second sterile pipette the vitelline membrane was ruptured, and about 2 cc of the yolk transferred to ancther weighing flask. When it was impossible to- examine white and yolk separately, on account of disintegration, a sample of whole egg was taken. B. Flaming method.2—The egg was washed in running water, rinsed in sterile water, dried with a sterile towel, and placed, large end uppermost, in a suitable holder. The top of the egg was steril- ized by flaming. Mell5 BULLE IN (OF, THE 1) USDEPARIMENT OPAGRCULTURE & No. 52 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. January 24, 1914. THE ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. By S. M. McMurray, Assistant Pathologist, Fruit-Disease Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The growing of mangos in Florida is beginning to assume some commercial importance. With the increase in size and value of the crops, the mango blight or anthracnose has forced itself upon the attention of the growers and a demand has arisen for remedial or preventive measures. The writer was assigned to the investigation of this disease and spent the seasons of 1912 and 1913 in Dade and Palm Beach Counties, Fla., studying the trouble in the field and laboratory. A careful canvass of the situation was made during the last week of January and the first week of February, 1912, and all the trees and groves that could be located between Key Largo, 40 miles south of Miami, and Palm Beach, 70 miles north, were examined. It was found that practically all of the seedling trees had bloomed heavily during the first two weeks in January, but that none had set fruit. Most of the trees carried the dried peduncles of the January bloom at this time, and many of them remained attached to the trees until the middle of March, at which time a second crop of bloom appeared. Several hundred of these peduncles were collected and many of them while still on the trees showed spores of a fungus in abundance. A number of those that did not show spores were placed in a moist chamber and they all developed spores of the same type in from 24 to 48 hours. At the same time a number of leaves showing small, irregular, grayish spots were collected and placed in moist. chambers. In from three to four days these leaves produced similar spores in the diseased areas. Later in the season young shoots that showed black spots were collected and placed in moist chambers. These also produced the same type of spores from the diseased spots. In the latter part of June, as the fruits were ripening, a number were col- lected, the skins of which were blotched and disfigured, and these likewise produced the same type of spores. (Pl. I.) Portions of 17148°—14 1 — a 2 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this material were examined by Mrs. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who pronounced the fungus to be Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. Hawaiian-grown mangos which were affected by this fungus were received by Mrs. Patterson in 1904, and from time to time during the past four years Miss Clara Hasse, of the Office of Fruit-Disease Inves- tigations, has received mango flower clusters, leaves, and fruits from Porto Rico and Florida which were affected by this fungus. The disease has been reported by several writers. Fawcett! says that the trouble was recognized in Florida by officers of the State experiment station in 1893. It has been reported from Porto Rico by Collins,? Hawaii by Higgins,? Cuba by Cardin,‘ and Trinidad by Rorer.> Of the aforementioned writers, Higgins and Cardin state that the disease may be controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, but their recommendations are not definite and do not give the times and number of treatments necessary, or the experi- mental data on which the conclusions are based. Wester ° reports that he has had successful results in preventing the blighting of the blossoms by spraying. His work was done in Florida and will be discussed in another part of this paper. It is the purpose of this paper to report in detail such data as have been gathered during the past two years in regard to the behavior of the disease and its control, together with an analysis and discussion of the main limiting factor of the mango in Florida. SOURCE OF INFECTION. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is probably one of the most widely distributed pathogenic fungi in the Tropics. In Florida it causes the well-known wither-tip of citrus fruits and is pathogenic on at least several other fruits. . ; Bessey 7 has the following to say in regard to its distribution in Florida: . We see, therefore, that it is not a fungus confined to one or two hosts in a limited area, with which we have to contend, but one of wide distribution and capable of attacking a great many kinds of plants. I have found apparently the same fungus on over 50 plants at Miami, some of them common weeds. This explains why, when the weather conditions or other circumstances are favorable, the disease springs up everywhere without any very apparent center of infection. 1 Fawcett, H.S. Mango. Bloom blight (Glocosporiwm mangiferae). Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1906, p. 25. 1907. 2Collins,G.N. The mangoin Porto Rico. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 28, p. 20, 1903. 3 Higgins, J. E. The mango in Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 12, p. 22, 1906. ; 4Cardin, P. P. Bloom blight of mango in Cuba. The Cuba Review, v. 8, no. 5, p. 28-29, 1910. 5Rorer, J. B. Annual Report of the Mycologist, Board of Agriculture, Trinidad, p. 7, 1910. 6 Wester, P. J. Bordeaux mixture for mangos and avocados. The Florida Agriculturist, v. 34, no. 14, p. 1-2, 1907. 7 Bessey, E. A. Report on plant diseases. Proceedings, 2ist Annual Meeting,Florida State Horticul- tnral Society, p. 97, 1908. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 3 Beneath mango trees the disease can be found on the fallen leaves and, as previously mentioned, the blighted peduncles frequently remain in situ for many weeks. These produce spores when condi- tions of moisture are suitable, and when a second bloom follows before they have fallen the conditions for infection are ideal. Even after they have fallen to the ground they may continue to be a source of infection for some weeks. ‘The mango branch illustrated in Plate II, figure 1, was photographed on March 4, 1912, and shows a persistent, diseased peduncle of the January bloom, with the young March bloom appearing around it. It seems likely that the potential possibilities for infection are very ereat at all times and that all that is needed is a favorable season as regards moisture to produce the disease in abundance. It is probable that the spores do not retain their viability for a ereat length of time. Pedicels showing spores of the fungus were collected the last week in- February, 1912. They were kept in an envelope in a laboratory drawer until July 10 of that year, when attempts were made to germinate them in drops of water on glass slides. A number of slides were prepared on several successive days, but no germination was obtained. Inasmuch as the fresh spores germinate readily under such conditions, it is to be inferred that these spores were no longer viable. Under tropical conditions, however, fresh supphes of spores are being continually produced throughout the year. INFECTION EXPERIMENTS. ‘Infection experiments were planned to determine whether the flower clusters of the mango could be artificially inoculated with this fungus and whether the results of such inoculation would be similar to the natural infection observed. The experiments were limited in size and should, perhaps, be repeated on a larger scale, but taken in connection with the other facts presented, i. e., the constant associa- tion of this fungus and this alone, as no other was found on diseased inflorescences, and the observations of Bessey and Rolfs given later, they seem to be sufficient to remove any reasonable doubt as to the cause of the disease in Florida. A seedling tree in the Subtropical Garden at Miami was selected for this work. Fourteen buds which had just begun to swell were covered on February 26, 1912, with manila paper bags, which were then tied securely around the branches. On March 5 the bags were removed from four buds, which were about 2 inches long at that time. One was sprayed with distilled water with an atomizer, and three with distilled water containing spores of the anthracnose fungus. ‘They were all immediately rebagged. The work was done at 10 o’clock a. m. on a calm day, and no shoot was exposed for more than three minutes. The spores for all the infec- tion experiments were obtained from diseased panicles which had a a 4 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been naturally infected. On March 10 the three panicles sprayed with spores showed minute dark spots. The control was clean. On March 21 the four panicles were removed from the tree. The control was still clean, while those sprayed with spores were conspicuously marked on the peduncles and pedicels. Those showing disease were - placed in a moist chamber, and in two days large quantities of anthracnose spores had oozed out from the infected parts. This experiment was repeated on two other occasions without variation, and the same results were obtained. Bessey 1 conducted inoculation experiments with this same organ- ism and writes as follows: Under Prof. Rolis’s direction, before he severed his connection with the Subtropical Laboratory, inoculation experiments were begun, which have been continued, with some interruption, under my direction since I assumed charge of the laboratory. These have demonstrated that this fungus (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides) is the same one that causes the blossom blight, leaf spot, and fruit rot of the mango and avocado, the tear staining of the mango, and the leaf spots and fruit rots of various other plants. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN THE SPRING OF 1912. It was hoped to determine two points by means of these spraying experiments: (1) Is Bordeaux mixture effective in preventing infec- tion of the flower clusters and fruits, and (2) how frequently and at what times is it necessary to spray to get the best results? Unfortunately for the success of the work, there are no large groves of mangos in Florida. However, the work was done on as large a scale as was possible, and certain results which will be emphasized in other parts of this paper stand out quite clearly. Bordeaux mix- ture was the only fungicide used, and it was made according to the 3-5-50 formula in 1912 and the 4-6-50 formula? in 1913. The spraying outfit consisted of a 50-gallon barrel sprayer, half-inch hose, and 9-foot bamboo extension rods equipped with double Vermorel nozzles. The spraying was done under a pressure of approximately 75 pounds to the square inch. With one exception, noted later, no spray injury was observed at any time, and this 1s significant, as just such conditions existed as might be expected to induce it, 1. e., the weather was moist and showery during the first three weeks in which the spraying was conducted. The experiments were carried on at Mr. Flanders’s place, about 2 miles north, and Mr. Roop’s place, about 3 miles west, of Miami. THE EXPERIMENT IN THE FLANDERS GROVE. The mangos on the Flanders place consisted of a double row of the Mulgoba variety, each row containing 31 trees. They were divided 1 Bessey, E. A. Op. cit. 2 This shows the proportion of copper sulphate (bluestone), lime, and water used in the mixtures. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 5 into 7 blocks, the sprayed blocks alternating with the unsprayed. Block 1 contained 26 trees and the remainder 6 each. Thus, 4 blocks were sprayed and 3 unsprayed. The spraying schedule is shown in Table I. TaBLeE I.—Spraying schedule followed on the Mulgoba mangos on the Flanders place, Miami, Fla., 1912. Dates of spraying. Block. | i March. April. | May. | June. | | ING@h lo sadeteeeasseee Sasso ee eae ee Ee eee eee 8,11,14,19 4,2 13 3,24 INO. Bas soe 2 oe SR eee un ee ant een Seems 8, 12,19 4,29 7 24 INGs Bec cowded ate ene noe ae hepa eee eae eee eee 8, 13,19 4 6 10 INGy Poi Bek Ge Se Ee ee eee tee eee 8,14, 20 4 | 13 24 It was planned to spray block 1 every third day, block 3 every fourth day, block 5 every fifth day, and block 7 every sixth day beginning when the buds began to swell and continuing until the flowers had opened. The treatment was suspended at that time, March 19, until the fruit had set, and then resumed. Thereafter the spraying was to be continued at intervals of three, four, five, and six weeks, respectively, until about two weeks before the fruit was to be picked. It will be seen by examining the dates that the spraying prior to the setting of fruit was varied slightly in blocks 1, 3, and 5. This was due to rainy weather. On June 29 the fruits on all the trees were examined and careful notes made of their condition. Those which showed no blemishes were classed as clean, those but slightly marked as slightly diseased, and the remainder as badly diseased. The fruit counts are shown in Table II. TaBLe I1.—Frwit counts of the Mulgoba mangos in the spraying experiment on the Flan- ders place, Miami, Fla., 1912. Condition of the fruit. Block. E lightly Badly Clean: diseased. | diseased. IS Gin, Th (STS AS Dp RRS aS Re at ee le eee re es > ae 10 1 0 INOS (UITIS TAY CON) hers sya = Seine a es a 5 SS ee 0 0 1 ING. & (Goma Ce) ce BS aes Meee eee ee ee i ea Se eee 71 25 9 INO NAICS DTAVCO) ee te a atl ek ah Bc ne Dee 0 2 11 ING SN (SDreby Cerne ae eee ance oem eed se oe eRe 7 1 0 INOMOK(UMSDIAy CO) peri ee 8S eee. 2. bat tak Bee aa 0 0 0 INKS ERY CCD ote sera one sneer iene Renee eee Las Saya ene os 12 0 0 The trees in this experiment bloomed lightly and irregularly, and the total number of fruits harvested from each sprayed block is not suffi- cient to give any definite conclusions in regard to the relative merits of the various spraying schedules; but the fact that considerably more fruit was. carried through to maturity on the sprayed than on the unsprayed trees indicates that the protecting of the panicles from 6 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fungous infection was decidedly beneficial. This must not be taken as showing that spraying made the fruit set better, for such was not the case. The fruit set equally well on the unsprayed trees, but the dis- eased panicles were not able to carry it to maturity. Of the 136 sprayed fruits harvested, 74 per cent were bright and | clean, 20 per cent slightly diseased, and 6 per cent badly diseased. Only 14 fruits were harvested from the unsprayed trees. Of these, 2, or 14 per cent, were slightly marked by the fungus and 12, or 86 per cent, badly diseased. THE EXPERIMENT ON THE ROOP FARM. Two seedling trees were used in the experiment on the Roop farm, both of which bloomed heavily. One was sprayed according to the plan used in block 1 of the Flanders experiment. They had both bloomed in January, and at the time of the beginning of the second bloom a number of diseased peduncles were still on the trees. (PI. III, figs. 1 and2.) No fruit was set from this January bloom. The dates of spraying are given in Table III. TaB_eE III.—Spraying schedule followed on the seedling mango on the Roop place, Miami, Fila., 1912. ks March. April. May. June. Dates of spraying asses ee eee ee Lo | 29} 2,5,8,11, 14 1,22 13 | 3 The last spraying, which should have been given on June 24, was omitted because the few fruits which remained on the tree were so badly diseased that it was not thought worth while to spray again. The fruit counts were made on June 29 and were as follows: TaBLE 1V.—Fruit counts of the seedling mangos in the spraying experiment on the Roop place, Miami, Fla., 1912. Condition of the fruit. Tree. Slightly Badly ~ Clean. diseased. | diseased. 13 37 0 1 Wo. 1 (sprayed) 2-528: cree = ee beeeo leat ia eee: cee ee eee No: 2'(umsprayed)'. sae ee ee ee kc c a ancien see one e eee i Only one fruit was set on the unsprayed and only 54 on the sprayed tree. The panicles on the sprayed tree showed no sign of disease up to the time of blooming. Most of the blossoms became infected, however, as they opened. The pedicels showed disease as far back as the flowers extended about a week after blooming. These were covered with Bordeaux mixture practically all of the time, but the disease spots developed beneath the covering of the ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 7 fungicide.’ They did not develop on the peduncles, however, which points very strongly to infection having taken place through the blossoms. ‘The panicles on the unsprayed tree began to show diseased spots on the pedicels and peduncles before their growth in length was more than half complete, and practically all of the blossoms blighted, the one fruit which set being in the extreme top of the tree. Plate IV, figures 1 and 2, shows the typical condition of a blighted panicle as compared with one in full bloom which has not yet developed any sign of the disease. SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN THE WINTER AND SPRING OF 1913. As during the preceding season, the mangos bloomed quite gener- ally during the winter. The buds began to swell about December 18. Most of the bloom was shed by January 10 and not 1 per cent of this bloom set fruit. The buds on two large seedling trees on the Roop place were begin- ning to push out on December 24, and one of these was selected to be sprayed every other day to test the efficacy of spraying to control the blossom-blight form of the disease. It was considered that this would be a thorough test, as the blighting of the blossoms is the normal thing with the winter bloom. Mr. Roop states that these trees have bloomed regularly in the winter for the past six years, but have never set fruit from this bloom. Spraying was begun on.Decem- ber 24 and continued every third day until January 16. At this time the fruit had set, and the spraying was continued every fourth day until February 3. At this time the young fruits had reached a diam- eter of one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch, and the next two spray- ings were applied at 7-day intervals. Two more were applied at approximately 10-day intervals and the last on March 22 after a lapse of 14 days, when the fruit was about half grown. The dates on which spray was applied follow: December 24, 26, 28, 30; January 1, By 6,18, 10,13, 16, 20, 24, 28; February 3, 10,17; 26; March 8, 22. While the tree bloomed profusely, only a fair crop was set. By this is meant that the tree could have carried twice as much fruit without being unduly burdened. ~ The blossoms on fully half of the panicles blighted, and all of those on the unsprayed tree blighted. This experiment was carried a step farther in March by spraying a portion of a Totafari tree in the Subtropical Garden at Miami every day from March 17 to April 1; that is, while the bloom was pushing out and developing. This was evidently too much spraying, for, while no disease developed, no fruit was set and the young foliage was scorched. It should also be noted that the fruit on the seedling tree on the Roop place received no spray after it was.half grown, but it was clean and free from disease when harvested the middle of May, almost two months after the last spraying. 8 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. An experiment was conducted on the spring bloom about 3 miles northwest of Miami, on a place managed by Mr. C. O. Hickok. It included a block of 25 seedling trees which bloomed profusely between March 8 and 28. Spraying was begun when the panicles on most of them were about half grown, March 14. The flowers on six trees were beginning to open when the first spray was applied. No-trace of disease was apparent on the inflorescence at that time. Seven trees were left without spray, as controls. The spraying dates were as follows: March 14, 20, 25; April 2. Sprayed and unsprayed trees alike blighted. An occasional fruit was set, but the total number was negligible and the unsprayed trees had quite as much proportionately as the sprayed. DISCUSSION OF THE SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. Mangos come into bloom very irregularly. On March 8, 1912, on the Flanders place most of the buds were just beginning to swell, but a number had reached a length of 4 or 5 inches. This habit of irregular blooming makes it difficult to select a proper time to begin spraying. Spraying before the buds begin to grow is of no value so far as protecting the inflorescence, and later the young fruit, is con- cerned. These must be kept covered with the fungicide while grow- ing if fungus invasion is to be prevented. The difficulty of so pro- tecting the inflorescence is at once apparent. Elongations of the pan- icles continue for a period ranging from 10 to 15 days. Those which were sprayed every third day were practically all disease free when the flowers began to open. This, however, required four sprayings in one case and six in the other. Those sprayed every fourth day showed but little more disease than those sprayed every third day, but those on which the spray was applied at 5 and 6 day intervals had traces of disease, showing that they were less perfectly protected. The spraying of the inflorescence at least three times, beginning when the buds are just swelling and repeating every fourth day until the flowers open, will help to prevent the dropping of fruit caused by the disease on the peduncles and pedicels. The blighting of the blossoms is by far the most serious form of this disease, as it does not lend itself to control by spraying. The inflorescence may be kept in a clean condition up to the time of bloom- ing; but, when this takes place, immediately there are hundreds of points which are not covered by the fungicide and are open to infec- tion. , Observation has shown that infection takes place in this man- ner. A Totafari tree in the Subtropical Garden bloomed heavily in March, 1912. It was sprayed three times with Bordeaux mixture between the times when the buds began to swell and the flowers opened. The peduncles and pedicels showed no trace of disease when the flowers began to open. On March 26 the tree was in full bloom and there was every indication that a good crop of fruit would be set. ——_- 322: ene Bul. 52, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. A SUNDERSHA MANGO TYPICALLY MARKED BY THE ANTHRACNOSE FUNGUS. FLA., JUNE, 1912. PHOTOGRAPHED By J. M. SHULL. (Natural size.) PLATE I. MIAMI, | | Bul. 52, U.S Dept. of Agricuiture. PLATE Il. Fic. 1.—THE END OF A MANGO BRANCH SHOWING A PERSISTENT, DISEASED PEDUNCLE OF THE JANUARY BLOOM, WITH A SECOND BLOOM APPEARING AROUND IT. MARCH, Qe, Fic. 2.—A PEDICEL FROM A MANGO PANICLE WHICH BLIGHTED BE- FORE THE FLOWERS OPENED. MARCH, 1912. (Natural size.) (Considerably reduced.) Fic. 3.—YOUNG MULGOBA MANGO FRUITS WHICH SET ON DISEASED PEDICELS. (Natural size. ) APRIL, 1912. Bul. 52, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1.—A SECTION OF THE TREE SHOWN IN FIGURE 2 OF THIS PLATE, SHOWING THE PERSISTENT, DISEASED PEDUNCLES OF THE JANUARY BLOOM, WITH THE MARCH BLOOM APPEARING AROUND THEM. MARCH 8,1912. Fic. 2.—A LARGER VIEW OF THE SAME TREE SHOWN IN FIGURE 1, SHOWING THE BLIGHTED CON- DITION OF THE SECOND BLOOM 18 Days LATER. MARCH 26, 1912. Bul. 52, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—A PORTION OF A SPRAYED MANGO PANICLE WHICH DOES NOT YET SHOW ANY SIGN OF DISEASE. MARCH, 1912. Fic. 2.—AN UNSPRAYED PANICLE ON WHICH THE FLOWERS HAVE BLIGHTED AND FALLEN OFF. MARCH, 1912. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 9 On March 28 all the flowers were dead and dry, and most of them were still adhering to the pedicels. On April 5 the pedicels showed diseased spots as far as the flowers extended. No infection developed on the peduncles. Both the peduncles and pedicels were covered with Bordeaux mixture at this time. The spots on the pedicels developed beneath the mixture, indicating that infection had taken place through the blossoms. A number of these pedicels were placed in a moist chamber, and they all produced spores of the anthracnose fungus in abundance. These observations coincide entirely with those made on the sprayed seedling tree in the Roop experiment in the spring of 1912. Very little infection occurred in 1913 before the blossoms opened, and this was undoubtedly due to the fact that the weather was quite dry during seven of the first eight days that the bloom was putting out. Resistant varieties seem to be the only solution of the blossom- blight problem in localities that are subject to rainy weather at blooming time. The Mulgoba mango seems to possess this resistant quality in some degree. A single Mulgoba tree on the Roop farm bloomed at the same time as the seedling trees used in the experiment in the spring of 1912 and received the same spray treatment on the same dates, from the time the buds began to swell until the fruit was harvested. This tree was located most favorably for infection, in the midst of seedling trees which bloomed at the same time, but it set a good crop of fruit and carried it through to maturity. No fruit was set on the seedling trees, with the exception of the one that was sprayed. . On the Boggs farm, south of Miami, was found a collection of Mulgoba and seedling mangos intermixed in the planting. Most of these trees bloomed in March, 1912, and none of them were sprayed. The seedlings set no fruit, while the Mulgoba trees set a fair crop. The disease developed, however, quite seriously on the young fruits a week or ten days after they were formed. The peduncles and pedicels developed the disease also, so that none of the fruit was carried to maturity. Plate IJ, figure 3, shows the diseased condition of the pedicels after the fruit had set. Plate II, figure 2, shows a pedicel which blighted without setting fruit. On the Flanders place a similar condition was observed. The flowers on the unsprayed blocks seemed to set fruit quite as well as those on the sprayed blocks, but the unsprayed fruit developed disease a week or ten days after it was formed, and, as the peduncles and pedicels were likewise diseased, practically none of it matured. There is some evidence to show that the Sundersha variety possesses the quality of resistance. Briefly, then, it seems that the mflorescence can be kept in a disease-free condition by spraying often enough, and that after the 10 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fruit is set it can be brought through to ripening free from fungous infection by spraying at certain intervals, but that spraying is of little or no value in controlling the blossom-blight form of the disease and that profitable sets of tors can be eeeeead only during seasons which are dry at blooming time, unless varieties which are resistant to the disease are eo aoara a cultivated. Spraying every day prevented a set of fruit and spraying every other day did not save sufficient fruit to justify the expense involved. There are not sufficient data to make definite and conclusive recommendations as to the frequency with which it will be necessary to spray to get the best results, but it seems probable that the panicles should be sprayed at least every fourth day between the times the buds begin to swell and the flowers begin to open and that after the fruit is set it should be kept covered with Bordeaux mixture during the first 8 to 10 weeks of its development. The fruits ‘are most sus- ceptible to infection just as they are setting. Consequently, it ap- pears that it would be best to make three applications of Bordeaux mixture at weekly intervals, applying the first when about one-half to two-thirds of the blossoms have opened, and following these by | a fourth application after a lapse of two weeks and a fifth three weeks later, making five sprayings for the fruit aa two, or in some cases Aipae for aye panicles. INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHER ON POLLINATION. It has been tentatively suggested by Fawcett? and by Collins that the blighting of the blossoms, which is so uniformly observed through- out the Tropics whenever the mango is subject to moist, showery weather at blooming time, may be due to lack of pollination. It is probable that such conditions interfere with pollination to some extent, but the evidence at hand points strongly to the fact that in Florida, at any rate, the anthracnose fungus 1s chiefly respon- sible tor this phenomenon. Repeated attempts have been made to germinate the pollen, but without success. The fact that the mango fruits heavily in dry localities indicates that its shy bearing in Florida is due to external conditions rather than to any inherent defect in the plant. An exact count was made of the number and types of flowers borne on 10 panicles of a Mulgoba, 10 of a Totafari, and 5 of a seedling mango tree. They were made by going over the flower clusters every day and picking off with a pair of forceps the flowers that had opened, the kind and number being recorded. The mango bears two types of flowers, staminate and eet and only one stamen is found in each flower. The 10 Mulgoba panicles bore a total of 7,038 flowers, of which 4,119 were staminate and 2,919 perfect. The 10 Totafari panicles 1 Op. cit. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 1th bore 9,218 flowers, of which 8,407 were staminate and 811 perfect, and the five seedling panicles bore 2,429 flowers, of which 1,022 were staminate and 1,407 perfect. The flowers are opening continuously throughout the day and night, and after opening retain their fresh appearance for about two days. The staminate flowers wither and drop off the third or fourth day, while the ovaries of the perfect flowers generally begin to take on a dark-green color on the third day, A peculiar condition is observed when panicles bearing freshly opened flowers are removed from the tree. Within 15 to 30 minutes the pistil and stamen of each perfect flower curve toward each other and frequently meet, and in some cases wrap themselves together. Fic. 1.—Complete mango flowers, much enlarged: A, A freshly opened flower; B and C, flowers which have been removed from the tree for 30 minutes, showing the flexing of the stamen and pistil. This condition has never been observed on the tree and is not thought to have any bearing on the fertilizing processes of the flower. Fig- ure 1, A, shows a freshly opened flower, and figure 1, B and C, shows the flexing of the stamen and pistil after the flower has been re- moved from the tree. RELATIONS OF WEATHER CONDITIONS TO THE DISEASE. That there is a very definite relation between weather conditions and the productiveness of the mango has been observed by various writers. Fawcett and Harris,! writing of the mango in Jamaica, have the following to say on this point: Although the mango grows freely everywhere, it is not a fruitful tree in every dis- trict; in the southern plains and the low, dry limestone hills it produces enormous crops year after year, and very often two crops a year, the main crop from May to August, and the second crop later in the year. * * * In humid districts and along the northern coast the tree is not at all fruitful, except in very dry years, and in the wet districts like Castleton it rarely fruits. 1 Fawcett, William, and Harris, W. The mango. Bulletin, Botanical Department, Jamaica,n.s.,v.8, pt. 11-12, p. 161-177, 1901. 12 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Collins,’ discussing the mango in Porto Rico, says: | As to climate, it is much more exacting, and the fact that the tree may thrive well in a given locality and yet fail to produce fruit should be kept always in mind. It may be considered as proven that the mango will be prolific only in regions subject to a considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto Rico the trees grow luxuriantly, but they are not nearly so prolific nor is the fruit of such good quality as on the dry south side, and in the very dry region about Yauco and at Cabo Rojo the fruit seems at its best. * * * In Guatemala and Mexico the mango was found at its best only in regions where severe dry seasons prevailed. This position is amply supported by reports of the mango in other localities. * * * Rains at the time of flowering seem to be especially injurious. Higgins * has observed the same condition in Hawai and writes as follows: ; In connection with what has just been said, it will be recalled that the early months of 1904 were marked by heavy rainfall and almost continuous cloudy, wet weather, while the corresponding months in 1905 were exceptionally dry. This unquestion- ably had much to do with the large crop of mangos produced during the season just passed. Unfortunately, no bloom recoids for Florida prior to 1912 are available, but the conditions that prevailed during that season as regards weather and the failure to set fruit are quite in accord with the observations just presented. The seedling mangos in the region around Miami bloomed during ‘the first two weeks of January, 1912. By referring to the Monthly Meteorological Summary of the United States Weather Bureau at Miami for this month, it is seen that of the first 15 days 9 were cloudy, 3 partly cloudy, and 3 clear. Further, out of these 15 days rain fell on 10, the precipitation ranging from 0.01 to 0.66 of an inch, the total precipitation being 1.94 inches. As mentioned previously, practically all of the séedling trees bloomed heavily, but none set fruit. Most of the second crop of bloom developed during the first 20 days of March, and while some fruit was set from this bloom it was exceedingly light as compared with the amount of bloom. The Monthly Meteorological Summary for the first 20 days of this month shows 10 days cloudy, 9 partly cloudy, and 1 clear. Rain fell on 9 of the 20 days, the precipitation varying from a trace to 1.44 inches, with a total precipitation of 3.17 inches. The situation was quite as bad during the spring of 1913. The blooming period extended from March 7 to 26 and rain fell on 8 of the 19 days. The black areas in figure 2 show the distribution of the days on which rain fell during the blooming periods of 1912 and of 1913. It is seen from the foregoing that the suitability of any region for the successful production of mangos is inextricably connected with 1Collins,G.N. The mangoin Porto Rico. ‘U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 28, p. 13, 1903. 2 Op. cit. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 13 the condition of the weather at blooming time. Given clear dry weather, a good crop of fruit may be expected. Given, on the other hand, rainy weather at blooming time and a failure is practi- cally certain. The only way of telling with certainty that a particular region is suitable for the profitable production of mangos is to have a combined crop and weather record over a sufficiently long term of years to give a fair average. The precipitation records alone are somewhat unreliable. However, the main limiting factor in the suc- cessful production of this fruit on the southeast coast of Florida is the anthracnose fungus, which is induced by rainy weather, so a study of the precipitation records for this locality, together with such crop records as are available, is of considerable value. Figures 3 and 4 show the number of rainy days during the months of Febru- ary and March, respectively, for the period for which a record exists, 1898 to 1913, inclusive, and figure 4 also shows a crop curve for the past four years. The lack of fruit in 1911 was due to the fact that the trees were defoliated the preceding fall by a West Indian hurricane anddidnot bloom. The SOsqs0e0ece Scat oe sole ree pa) ass 5 curvefor the years 1910, 1912, and 1913 shows the relation between the precipitation at bloom- ing time and the crop. There are no bloom records prior to 1912, so to some extent this makes the data unreliable. For example, there might be only five days of rain in a certain month, and it might fall at such a time as to cause no damage; or, on the other hand, there might be five consecutive days of rain at the time that the flowers were open- ing, which would probably be sufficient to cause the loss of the crop. It would seem, however, that such a combination of circumstances might be expected to be a rather rare occurrence and that an opinion as to the suitability of this region might be predicated on such pre- cipitation records as these with a reasonable degree of certainty. The records for Miami which are given in figures 3 and 4 cover a period of 16 years and show the mean number of rainy days for February to be 2.81 and for March 4.56. The number of seasons below normal for this term of years for February is 8 and for March 11. It 1s clearly seen here that the seasons of 1912 and 1913 have been decidedly abnormal as regards precipitation. Wester’s ! experiments, which have been previously referred to, were conducted at Miami during the springs of 1906 and 1907. It will be seen by referring to figures 3 and 4 that these two seasons were comparatively dry, and this undoubtedly accounts for the es |] a i Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the blooming periods, March 1-20, 1912, and March 7-26, 1913. The dark areas show rainy days. 1 Op. cit. 14 BULLETIN 52, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. success which he reports with the use of Bordeaux mixture. He fails to present his experimental data, however, and his statements in this and a subsequent publication ‘ in regard to this disease are so general that they are of practically no value to the grower. The fact that the mango frequently blooms during the latter part of December and the first part of January has been previously mentioned. It is the rare exception when any fruit is set from .this bloom. Aside from rainy weather at the time of blooming, the extremely heavy dews, which are an almost nightly occurrence during the winter months, are, it would seem, largely responsible for this. The dew point is generally reached shortly after sundown, and by 8 o’clock p. m. plants and other outdoor objects are usually dripping with water. Fig. 3.—Diagram show- With such ideal conditions for infection the uni- eee an form blighting of the winter bloom is not to be ruary, 1898 to 1913, in- Wondered at. Cee a ony From a consideration of the data presented, it The mean for this appears that, while total failures may be expected Period is 2.8) days. to occur occasionally, more often the weather con- ditions will be such as favor good settings of fruit on the spring bloom and that this fruit may be brought through to maturity in a clean and disease-free condition by a moderate number of sprayings with Bordeaux mixture. SUMMARY. The production of mangos in Florida is seriously interfered with in certain seasons by a fungus which attacks the flower clusters, fruits, leaves, and young shoots. Infection experiments by the writer and others have shown ‘ : i Na Fic. 4.—A, Diagram showing the number of days that Colletotrichum gloeosporiordes at Miami, Fia., in March, 1898 to 1913, inclusive, Penz. is the cause of the disease with 0.01 inch or more of rainfall. The mean for 5 ; 4 this period is 4.56 days. B,Crop curve. (a) The The blossom-blight form of the _ faiture of 1911 was due to the defoliation of the disease is by far the most serious. trees the preceding fall by a West Indian hurri- : : i cane, the trees not blooming that season. The amount of damage done by this fungus depends on weather conditions, moist, showery weather being ideal for its ravages. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is of little or no value in prevent- ing the blighting of the blossoms during seasons which are rainy at 1 Wester, P.J. The mango. Philippine Islands, Bureau of Agriculture, Bulletin 18, 60 p., 9 pl., 1911. ANTHRACNOSE OF THE MANGO IN FLORIDA. 15 blooming time, though spraying has served to keep the panicles and fruits free from infection. It appears that while total failures may sometimes occur, more often the weather conditions will be such as to favor good settings of o hrrairt: It is probably never so dry but that spraying will have to be resorted to in order to keep the fruits free from disease after they have set, and no amount of fertilization or soil medication will take its place. The production of good crops of mangos in Florida and throughout tropical and subtropical zones generally is very definitely related to the weather conditions at blooming time. Large crops can not be expected when the weather at this time is moist and showery. This may be due to some extent to imperfect pollination, but the trouble is chiefly caused in Florida by the anthracnose fungus (Colletotri- chum gloeosporioides). rN COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy By iciaiat pd fine 3 phish sft ‘adaiedes were fr a9 Ee: a ee hated weet MEL seccosa||seecodea|sos=cocailsoc Secec|scodescscs WOU eeocssas 1, 744 ERIOLUNTIM OTIS! CONCTELE ssa ane etree ele aerate ea cae eleia = |e etsici= letete ol Oe liste oiaie nie = tale inte michal 51 ~ oltre ee 5, 500 Bituminous-surfaced con- z Gl I@ soos 2cosceeee sc ab ede|loosecdod boscesen| boesccdd bobcdood booqsecs| paubodenaolaueemacnis Ss oue 4,178 BipmMinous macadamia — eae sae ease ei== =| alain be eam 45, 832 | 41,551 | 34, 453 |.-..-... 1 Agricultural act, 1914, Public No. 430, 62d Cong., 3d sess. Approved March 4, 1913. 2 Includes experimental roads. ; 176270 Bull, 53— 13-4) 2 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Area, in square yards, of object-lesson roads constructed, etec.—Continued. Material. 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 | 19131 Surines treatment... ------- | - | ewe) wef ele ene fa | Seeemeteee el Gece Eee 10, 831 Macadam...........-- ---| 44,944 | 51,246 | 76,376 | 72,587 | 96, 107 50, 333 | 11,330 | 14,806 | 56, 253 WONG OES oe oe 8 so) | ened Peades=-| Be ssebod) [sescocce|[]aaas soos By eneaGic - | actin Oilasphalt gravel. — << oon ee ena he ena fee eee mene | mm =| eee 0.0 besos - {| baseeege Oil\eravel es = Wes cps e = Heated ee =e | ooo = See tsar 322 [sce eaices|scnsmres| oe cise wre [> wees eed oeice= a= Haslem! |e enehe eta ene ete] neta ee 2, 804 2,607 63, 730 218, 177 |103, 876 | 128, 496 5,337 Pat ated La & 40, 646 160, 932 SS Se eee SS SS SSS Total...........:.-.-| 79,203 | 87,951 |200, 711 |223, 208 (680, 059 1, 007, 569 |485, 102 |722,855 | 488, 331 1Includes experimental roads. During the fiscal year 1912-13 the Office of Public Roads, under the general direction of the chief engineer, Vernon M. Peirce, and the immediate control of the highway engineer in charge, B. F. Heidel, supervised the construction of object-lesson roads as follows: One bituminous-concrete, 1 bituminous-macadam, 7 macadam, 4 gravel, 1 eravel-macadam, 1 brick-cinder, 14 sand-clay, 1 sand-gumbo, 3 shell, and 9 earth. Three other roads begun during the past fiscal year were not completed, and the description of the work on them will be reserved for the next annual report. Exclusive of the assistance afforded by the office in the form of the salaries and expenses of its engineers, the object-lesson roads described below cost the various communities in which they were located $94,323.68. This bulletin includes, in addition to the object-lesson work of the office, a brief account of the experimental work for the past fiscal year, and reports of the bridge work and inspection of object- lesson roads as conducted under the immediate supervision of Charles H. Moorefield, highway engineer, and E. W. James, chief inspector, who report to the chief engineer. BITUMINOUS-CONCRETE ROAD. Curvy CHASE CLuB, Mp.—A driveway through the grounds of the Chevy Chase Club, approximately 1,395 feet long, was graded and surfaced with bituminous concrete on a broken-stone base between May 7, 1913, and June 28, 1913. Three days were lost on account of unfavorable weather and 12? days for other reasons. The road is 10 feet wide for a length of 150 feet, 15 feet wide for 945 feet, and from 20 to 23 feet wide for 300 feet, making a total area of 2,807 square yards. Of this area 2,602 square yards were surfaced with bitu- minous concrete and 205 square yards with Portland cement concrete. The maximum cut was 1.5 feet, the maximum fill 0.5 foot, and the maximum grade remained 7 per cent. The adjacent land is rolling and the soil is mica- clay. The drainage structures had all been constructed before this work was begun and were paid for separately. q OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 3 Four hundred and ninety tons of crushed limestone, all passing a 3-inch mesh screen and retained on a J-inch mesh screen, were used in constructing the broken-stone base. This material was spread upon the prepared subgrade, so that the compacted depth was 43 inches. Sixty tons of sand were flushed into the voids in the broken-stone base by sprinkling and rolling. The bitu- minous conerete was prepared according to the Topeka specifications at the plant of a Washington contractor, and hauled in tarpaulin-covered automobile trucks a distance of approximately 6 miles to the work. The material arrived on the ground at a temperature of approximately 380° F., and was immediately spread upon the completed broken-stone base. It was then rolled, first with a 3-ton tandem roller, and finally with an 8-ton tandem roller, to a compacted thickness of 14 inches. Pieces of 2 by 4 inch lumber, laid flat at the sides of the road, served as forms to retain the bituminous material during the process of laying and rolling. These were removed, however, upon completion of the rolling and replaced with a sodded earth shoulder. A seal coat of pea gravel and a native asphalt emulsion was finally applied to the surface of the concrete and lightly rolled with a 3-ton tandem roller. The emulsion was applied at the rate of approximately one-tenth gallon per square yard and the S207El at the rate of 1 cubic yard to every 200 square yards of surface. Automobile parkways having a total area of 205 square yards were con- structed of Portland cement concrete mixed in the proportions of 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, and 4 parts of crushed limestone. Second-hand 38 by -€ inch lumber was set on edge for forms and the concrete was laid and struck off to a depth of 5 inches, after which the surface was floated with a wooden float. Seventy linear feet of concrete gutter crossings, having a width of 43 feet and a total thickness of 6 inches, were constructed. The concrete for the gut- ter was mixed in the same proportion as that for the parkway, except that the top one-half inch consisted of 1:2 mortar. The total cost of the road, ex- clusive of drainage structures, was $3,461.56, which is at the rate of $1.211 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Grading and preparing the sub- grade, 2,807 square yards at $0.174 per square yard, $490.12; total cost of stone for the base f. o. b. siding, 490 tons at $1.10 per ton, $539; loading and hauling the stone (length of haul 1% miles), 490 tons at $0.623 per ton, $305.30; sand filler delivered on the work, 60 tons at $1.557 per ton, $93.40; spreading the stone, 490 tons at $0.161 per ton, $79.01; spreading the sand filler, 60 tons at $0.106 per ton, $6.36; rolling the broken-stone base, 2,602 square yards at $0.028 per square yard, $59.27; bituminous concrete at the plant, 2,602 square yards at $0.40 per square yard, $1,040.80; hauling the bituminous concrete from the plant to the road, 2,602 square yards at $0.032 per square yard, $82.50; native asphalt emulsion on the road, 2,602 square yards at $0.012 per square yard, $32.50; gravel for the seal coat, 2,602 square yards at $0.011 per square yard, $28; forms for the bituminous concrete, $5; setting the forms for the bituminous concrete, $21.15; spreading the bituminous concrete, 2,602 square yards at $0.089 per square yard, $101.75; rolling the bituminous concrete, 2,602 square yards at $0.024 per square yard, $62.60; cement concrete automobile parkways, exclusive of preparing the subgrade, 205 square yards at $1.237 per square yard, $278.45; cement concrete gutters, exclusive of the subgrade, 70 linear feet at $0.868 per foot, $60.75; miscellaneous expenses, $58.14; and gen- eral expenses, $142.35. The above costs are based on labor at $1.60 and teams at $4.50 for an eight-hour day. el Cr rr CU CO 4 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BITUMINOUS-MACADAM ROAD. SrItverR Sprines, Mp.—The seal coat was renewed on the bituminous-macadam drive extending from Silver Springs station to the Blair estate, the construction of which was supervised by the Office of Public Roads during the year 1912 and described in its annual report for that year. Work was begun on June 27, 1913, - and completed on July 1,1918. The road is 2,776 feet in length and 123 feet wide, making a total area of 3,856 square yards. The road surface was first thor- oughly cleaned with stiff brooms, after which a total of 1,075 gallons of a light water-gas tar preparation was applied to the road directly from the drums at the rate of approximately 28 gallons per square yard. This material was then distributed by means of hand brooms so as to form a uniform coating over the entire surface. Sixty-six tons of pea gravel were spread over the bituminous material at the rate of approximately 0.0133 cubic yard per square yard. The surface was then lightly rolled with a 10-ton macadam roller. Several water-bound macadam patches, aggregating 100 square yards in area, were made. Seven and one-fourth cubic yards of crushed limestone and 4} cubic yards of limestone screenings were used for this purpose. The entire cost of renewing the seal coat was $283.78, while the patches cost $49.07. The cost of the road per square yard for the seal coat was $0.0736. The principal items of cost were as follows: Bituminous material, delivered at the station, 1,075 gallons, at $0.095 per gallon, $102.18; loading and haul- ing the bituminous material to the road, $12.55; pea gravel, delivered at the station, 66 tons, at $1.20 per ton, $79.20; loading and hauling the gravel to the road, $7.05; sweeping the road surface, $8.33; applying the bitumen. $23.83; spreading the gravel, $11.50; rolling, $23.65; limestone for patching the mac- adam, 114 cubic yards, at $2 per cubic yard, $28; labor for patching the macadam, $25.57; coal for the roller, $3.50; and general expenses, $12.50. The above costs are based on labor at $1.60 and teams at $4.75 per nine-hour day. MACADAM ROADS. Buiack Rock, ARK.—Work was begun on a macadam road extending from Black Rock westward toward Smithville on September 25, 1912, and discon- tinued for lack of funds on October 26, 1912, with the loss of 14 days on account of bad weather. The land adjacent to the road is hilly, and the natural soil is clay. The road was graded 30 feet wide in cuts and 20 feet wide in fills for 2,600 feet, making a graded area of 7,500 square yards. The maximum cut was 33 feet, the maxi- mum fill 3 feet, and the total amount of excavation 2,620 cubic yards. Earth was loosened with plows, hauled with drag and wheel scrapers, and spread by band and with a road grader. The average haul for excavation was 75 feet and the maximum, 300 feet. A surface of macadam was laid for 1,300 feet, 12 feet wide, making 1,733 square yards. For 660 feet the macadam was applied in two courses, each 5 inches thick at the center and 4 inches at the sides before compacting, and throughout the remaining 640 feet it was applied in one course. In both in- stances the material was compacted 8 inches at the center and 6 inches at the sides. The material used for surfacing was a hard magnesian limestone with good binding qualities. The run of the crusher was used for both the first and second courses; and the maximum size in the first course was 4 inches and in the second course 24 inches. “ Chats,” or the tailings from a zine mine, were used as a binder in an amount just sufficient to bind the surface properly. This material was similar to that used for surfacing. It ranged in size from one- OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 5 half inch to dust. The stone was obtained under contract from a local quarry, where a crusher having an average capacity of 50 cubic yards per 10-hour day was already located. The average haul of water for the crusher was three- fourths mile. Stone was brought to the crusher in wheelbarrows, crushed, stored in bins, loaded from the bins into farm wagons which were equipped with dump boards, and hauled to the road for an average distance of 3,500 feet, where it was spread by hand with iron hooks. A 6-ton horse roller was tried for compacting the surface, but was found to be impracticable. The hoofs of the mules loosened the surface as rapidly as it was compacted. No sprinkler wagon was available, and, as the road was constructed during a comparatively dry season, it is probable that the surface could not have been properly bonded, even with a more suitable roller. It was, therefore, left in a loose condition. Before leaving the work, however, the representative of the office instructed the local authorities regarding the proper manner of bonding the road when the weather became suitable. Drainage structures were constructed as follows: At station 2+50 the existing concrete abutments of a culvert of 13-foot span were extended and the wooden floor was renewed; at station 10+85 concrete wing walls were added to an existing culvert of 4-foot span, and a new wooden floor was constructed; at station 15-+55 a new 10-foot span reinforced concrete culvert was con- structed; and corrugated iron culverts, 12 inches in diameter and 18 feet long, were placed under approaches to private entrances at stations 4+00, 6+60, 13-+25, and 14++15. The concrete used in the abutments, wing walls, and footings was made of cement and unscreened gravel in the proportion 1:6. In reinforced work cement, sand and screened gravel were used in the proportion 1: 2:4, and the concrete used in the parapets was made of cement, sand, and gravel in the proportion 1: 2:3. The equipment consisted of one 6-ton horse roller, two steel road drags, one road grader, and hand tools. Labor cost $1.50 per day of 10 hours, and teams cost $2.50 and $3. The total cost of the road was $2,153.45, which is at the rate of $1.01 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.203 per cubic yard, $532.25; shaping the subgrade, at $0.0234 per square yard, $40.50; crushed stone, at $0.875 per cubic yard, $405.15; hauling stone from the crusher to the road, at $0.343 per cubic yard, $178.50; spreading stone, at $0.116 per cubic yard, $60; rolling, at $0.04 per square yard, $70; trimming the shoulders and ditches, $46.25; culverts, $1,218.45; and general expenses, $7.50. LOUISVILLE, Ky.—On April 4, 1913, excavation was started on an object-lesson macadam road at Louisville, Ky., and was continued until April 12. The | weather conditions were so unfavorable during this period, however, that very little could be accomplished. About $175 was expended, but on account of the continual rain the results of the work done were practically negligible. On April 12 the work was discontinued, but it is hoped that it may be resumed at some more favorable season and the project eventually completed. JERUSALEM, N. C.—Surfacing was started on a road leading from Jerusalem southeast toward South Yadkin River on October 15. 1912, and completed on December 2, 1912. The road had been graded before the arrival of the repre- sentative of the Office of Public Roads, and no data concerning the cost of grad- ing could be obtained. The land adjacent to the road is rolling, and the soil is sandy loam from station 0-++00 to station 18+-00 and red clay from station 13+-00 to station 20+00. The macadam surface is 2,210 feet long and 12 feet wide, making a total area of 2,950 square yards. The stone consisted of coarse-grained 6 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. light granite for the foundation course and trap or field stone for the wearing surface. ‘The compacted depth of the foundation course was 3% inches, and of the top course, including the screenings, 24 inches. Surfacing material to the amount of 655 cubic yards was used, and of this 364 cubie yards was purchased. Concrete gutters 1 foot wide, 3 inches thick, and dished from 1 inch to 2 inches, were constructed on each side of the road throughout its length. Cross drains 14 feet long, of bell-joint pipe, were constructed at stations 3-+00, 5-+50, 10+75, 18-++00, and 18-++50. The diameter of the first four drains was 4 inches and of the last 6 inches. The ditches for the cross drains in each case were filled with broken stone. Underdrains of 6-inch bell-joint pipe 12 feet, 33 feet, 40 feet, and 16 feet long were constructed at stations 3+00, 5+50, 10-+75, and 13+00, respectively. Concrete drop inlets 10 inches square and 2 feet deep, haying 3-inch walls, were provided for these drains. Three hundred and seventy-four sacks of cement were used in constructing the gutters and drop inlets. The equipment consisted of a crusher having an average capacity of 50 cubic yards per 10-hour day, a 10-ton roller, a sprinkling cart, and slat-bottom road wagons. The crusher and roller were both borrowed, and the only cost in con- nection with their use was the operating and maintenance expenses. The aver- age haul from quarry to crusher was one-half mile and from crusher to road 500 feet. The water for the crusher, roller, and sprinkler was pumped. The total cost of surfacing the road was $2,073.07, and the rate per square yard $0.703. Labor cost $1.40 per day, teams $3 per day, and fuel $6 per ton. The principal items of cost were: Materials for concrete gutters and drop inlets, $192.30; labor for these gutters and inlets, $120.05; drainpipe, $17.16; labor for the drainpipe, $7.07; surfacing material, $273; quarrying, $243.54; hauling to the crusher, $251.52; crushing, $136.88; hauling from the crusher to the road. $153.45; spreading, $140.17; sprinkling, $13.50; rolling, $13.13; hire of the sprinkler, $25; explosives, $99.50; crusher repairs, $25; drill steel,.$28.40; sharp- ening the drill steel, $16.40; fuel, $62.10; lubricating oil, $12.50; loosening old macadam, $16.80; screening, $2.80; clearing, $25.90; and general expenses, $197.40. . Monroe, N. C.—A macadam road leading southeast from Monroe toward Wingate, known as the Lee Mill Road, was started on October 12, 1912, and completed on November 22, 1912, and during this time 33 days were lost on account of unfavorable weather. This road had been graded before the arrival of the office representative, and no data relative to the cost of grading were available. The grade varies from a maximum of 3 per cent to level. The adjacent land varies from rolling to hilly, and the soil is red clay and clay shale. Local sandstone was used for surfacing. This stone possesses guvod wearing qualities, but poor binding qualities, making it a good material for the foundation course, but not well suited for the top course. The total length surfaced was 2,510 feet and the width 10 feet, giving a sur- faced area of 2,789 square yards. The stone was laid in three courses—the bottom course consisting of stone varying in size from 1% inches to 4 inches, the second course from 1 inch to 1$ inches, and the top course from dust to 1 inch. The total compacted depth of the surface was from 7% inches to 9 inches. The crown of the finished roadway was three-fourths inch to 1 foot. Stone to the amount of 1,133 cubic yards was crushed, but only 997 cubic yards was used. The stone was hauled from the quarry to the crusher for an average distance of 175 feet in wheelbarrows, and from the crusher to the road for an average distance of 2,000 feet in slat-bottom wagons with a capacity of approxi- mately one cubic yard. The stone was loaded directly from the bins into the wagous. . Water for the crusher engine was carried 200 feet by hand, and OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 7 thauled 300 feet for the roller. Four tons of fuel was used at the crusher and 5% tons by the roller. The equipment consisted of a stone crusher having 73 cubic yards’ capacity per 9-hour day, an engine, a 10-ton roller, slat-bottom wagons, and hand tools. Convict labor and teams owned by the county were used. The cost to the county per day per convict and per mule was $0.45. The total cost of the road was $647.15, making a rate of $0.282 per square yard. The principal items of cost were: Preparing the subgrade, $22.95; quarrying, $117.45; hauling to the crusher, $66.60; crushing, $50.40; hauling from the erusher to the road, $112.94; spreading the stene, $22.95; sprinkling, $8.11; rolling, $68.95; stacking and loading screenings, $31.05; shaping shoulders. $11.70; loss of time due to bad weather, $57.35; and incidental expenses, $76.70. NoRTHWILKESBORO, N. C.—Work was begun on a macadam road leading from Northwilkesboro toward Wilkesboro on October 2, 1912, and was discontinued on December 21, 1912. Thirteen and one-half days were lost on account of bad weather. A section of road 800 feet in length was entirely completed and an additional length of 494 feet was vartially completed. The section completed follows the Yadkin River, and the entire road is subject to overflow at flood seasons. To remedy this condition the grade of the road was raised and the macadam was laid on a Telford base. The natural soil is clay and sil and the adjacent land is level. There was no cut, and the maximum fill was 3.9 feet and the average fill 2.1 feet. The maximum grade of 5.85 per cent was reduced to 2.5 per cent. A total length of 1,294 feet was graded 30 feet wide. All the material for the embankment was taken from pits located at an average distance of three- eighths mile from the road and in no case more than one-half mile. It was loosened with a plow, loaded with sEoveis on slat-bottom wagons, and spread by hand. A subgrade 16 feet wide was prepared for a distance of 1,294 feet and a Telford base 12 inches thick was laid upon it for the same distance. A macadam surface was laid upon this base to the same width for a distance of 800 feet. The surface was laid in two courses, each 3 inches thick compacted, and each course was bonded with screenings. The stone used on the bottom course eonsiste or pieces from 14 to 3 inches in size, and the stone used in the second course ranged from one-half inch to 14 inches. The screenings consisted of material ranging from dust to particles one-half inch in size. The Telford base and the macadam surface were both made from mica gneiss obtained from the same quarry. This material possesses excellent bind- ing and wearing qualities. It was quarried at an average distance of 14 miles from the road, crushed at the quarry, loaded into dump wagons by means of a ehute rrom the bins, and hauled to the road, where it was spread with forks. The following drainage structures were constructed: One reinforced concrete _ culvert 2 by 4 feet by 29 feet long; one reinforced concrete culvert 2 by 6 feet by 30 feet Icng; one reinforced concrete culvert 2 by 6 feet by 28.5 feet long: and one wooden-box culvert 2 by 3 feet at an intersecting road. The equipment consisted cf one stone crusher with a capacity of 25 cubie yards per day, elevator, bins, one 10-tcn roller, six 13 cubic yard dump wagons, slat-bottom wagons, one turn plow, and hand tools. The labor cost for men was $0.12, $0.133, and $0.15 per hour, and double teams cost $0.30 per hour. The working day was 10 hours long. The total cost of the road was $3,293.29, which is at the rate of $1.8875 per square yard. The principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation and embankment, 979 cubic yards, at $0.40 per cubic yard, $391.60; clearing and grubbing, 2,300.4 square yards, at $0.0017 per square yard, $4; shaping the sub- 8 BULLETIN 53, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, grade, 2,800.4 square yards, at $0.06 per square yard, $189.58; Telford foun- dation, 2,300.4 square yards, at $0.489 per square yard, $1,124.01; quarrying and crushing the surfacing materials, 880 cubic yards, at $1.525 per cubic yard, $579.49; hauling the surfacing materials, 380 cubie yards, at $0.645 per cubic yard, $245.30; spreading the surfacing materials, 380 cubic yards, at $0.108 per cubic yard, $40.93; sprinkling and rolling, 1,422.2 square yards, at $0.15, $213.68; reinforced concrete drainage structures, $473; and general ex- penses, $40.63. The above costs do not include any charge for the use of the stone crusher, elevator, and bins. JONESVILLE, VA.—Between May 1 and October 17, 1912, a macadam road was built under the direction of the office at Jonesville, Va., and during this time 387 days were lost on account of bad weather and 5 days from other causes. The adjacent land is hilly and the natural soil is clay and gravel. The road was graded to a width of 20 feet for 8,200 feet, with the exception of a short section which was constructed 24 feet wide. For 2,200 feet the road was located on the side of a hill, and in this section 50 per cent of the excavation was solid rock. The total area graded was 21,860 square yards, and the maxi- mum grade was reduced from 17 to 9 per cent. The total volume of earth and rock moved was 7,590 cubic yards and the maximum haul 800 feet. A mac- adam surface 6,800 feet in length was constructed upon a part of the graded section, 10 feet wide for a length of 4,500 feet, 12 feet wide for 1,800 feet, and 24 feet wide for the remaining 500 feet. The total area surfaced was 8,735 square yards. The surfacing material—a limestone of good binding but only fair wearing qualities—was obtained from a quarry five-eighths mile from the road. It was crushed at the quarry in a crusher having 50 cubic yards’ capac- ity per 10-hour day, and after being hauled to the road in slat-bottom wagons of 14 cubic yards’ capacity was spread in three courses with forks and shovels. The first or foundation course, 7 inches in thickness before compacting, con- sisted of pieces varying from 2 to 3 inches in size; the second course, 3 inches thick, consisted of pieces from one-half inch to 2 inches in size; and the third or binder course, applied to a depth of approximately 1 inch, consisted of pieces varying in size from 1 inch to dust. Each course was compacted with a 10-ton roller, and was bonded in the usual manner with a sprinkler wagon and roller. Culyerts were constructed of corrugated-iron pipe as follows: At stations 10, 14, and 20, 12 inches in diameter and 22 feet in length; at station 17, 12 inches in diameter and 24 feet in length; at station 20, 15 inches in diameter and 24 feet in length; at stations 28 and 82, 24 inches in diameter and 40 and 26 feet in length, respectively; and at stations 43 and 52, 30 inches in diameter and 26 and 24 feet in length, respectively. End walls of rough stone were con- structed at all culverts. The equipment consisted of a 10-ton roller, a rock crusher, 5 wheel scrapers, 1 turn plow, 1 rooter plow, 2 dump carts, 1 steam drill, and hand tools. Labor cost $1.50 and teams $3.50 per day. ‘The other principal items of cost were as follows: Excavation, at $0.36 per cubic yard, $2,726.95; shaping the subgrade. at $0.024 per square yard, $206.10; quarrying and crushing the stone, at $0.93 per cubie yard, $3,142.47; hauling the stone, at $0.166 per cubic yard, $506.30; spreading the stone, at $0.07 per cubic yard, $228.90; sprinkling, at $0.0075 per square yard, $60.85; rolling, at $0.02 per square yard, $183.70; trimming the shoulders, $31.30; lowering the water pipes and raising the walks, $48; culverts, $261.56; supervision and general expenses, $382.20; making the total cost of the road $7,778.33 This is at the rate of $0.837 per square yard. Norton, VA.—The work of macadamizing the Wise-Norton road was begun on August 1, 1912, and discontinued on December 15, 1912, after 3,860 linear feet or 4,340 square yards had been surfaced. The work was done »y contract, and OBJECT-LESSON AND EXPERIMENTAL ROADS, 1912-13. 9 the grading and culvert work had been finished before the macadamizing was started. Twenty-four days were lost owing to bad weather and 274 days from other causes. The land adjacent to the road is hilly and the soil is yellow clay. The maximum grade is 6 per cent and the minimum 1.2 per cent. Lime- stone, which was used for the surfacing was put on in three courses, having respective depths, measured loose, of 6 inches, 3 inches, and # inch, and a total compacted depth of 63 inches. Surfacing material to the amount of 1,298 cubic yards was used, and of this 1,005 cubic yards was local stone, while 293 cubic yards was purchased and brought by rail. The local stone was quarried and transported 50 feet to the crusher by means of a tram car. After crushing, it was stored in bins having capacities of 50, 30, and 20 cubic yards, and loaded directly into slat-bottom wagons and dump ears of approximately 1.2 cubic yards capacity. The wagons were drawn by teams and the dump cars by a traction engine. The average haul from the crusher to the road was 4 miles. The stone that was shipped was hauled 70 miles by rail. Water was piped 900 feet for the crusher and hauled 1 mile for the roller and sprinkler. Hugo | (> oFurear ily es aban z 707 ELD orp IN yoacon | alll » Placmnte Pes \ com aE t 3 f Merana Woifrado Springs i ZA » | = = ‘ested Butte dy / Wy, qm i) ile >ASO os W Fillmore / . Apesh (he ae NY SON \ +) yaar eee TY PAS \ BS 0 NT \ Y v:xina! | eae PF : | Se ROES IDL | L R ) MEVIEY | Parking \ \ y) WW . puters rh | f i F 7 / Rehsield | ort u xi = McO <| >. wed N a 7 pa ta N Be J \ ee +E V/ win i y | { r on Cann \ ridge pony \ \ i S t | gM =} | ‘i City, : ] u \ = -~. 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JAnanieS =a — eS ll =! | PlVineent va aS aenburet Sa ; | Se, Sant fh ? \ | Seymour / | é sind cece eS H NF ase Hei wae, Lin I ee a le Ji | Garalina |) “= - = | TA eS SIRS Ly © wy | 4 » oe | } a Pe Nicolas \ os ’ U M IN | | PHOEN ia | a : fate \ i \ Ne (AN 3 X | Occansidy | | \ ee |e ee 3 Sal | bay L Ls 1B BR AS 1 BL: amen Be SON Gop Ul @ | (ee) — areca aes an Clementd i a Se EN ee AER Al 1 —— 7 | ‘Millsboro [ we | | S| l tenes th : a We ees Falso Pt | \ | ifs! Z| oSan\prenxo 4 —— . « Shr . n | ! | Plloma te || ee | ile / aly A (SQ jee et \ Wepre 2 \ 7 1 BN — eT jj (0) BE \ Bes 2 ofort Graxtt S OVA I = De yy DIS N AT y if | e S, 1 e ay Salinas oN | ipa 4 i ONS RY, \ A uted we: | \ a | | Shy —-—— lS \ ZY \ | \ ie | ui 1 w ) ee Sg ‘ N ene & | a \ 432 Al ye “a an ning | w ) a s \ | i $ | r ; Tucson \ SS 1 Mion, er ae IN | \ j . 7 | - — ¢ 1 q -. 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F Ae Nene PROX sa Cade ee ee ee : ee : \ “Ij ig | it~ | d 7} + j | = | | 1-4 ji S ) { | | he —S1 fo Divise > | A \ : § | 1 ee J | | . ee el 1- ( > | Se $ ( | oe an | | \ as } ; an , | ‘ ani ie oY ii wie | 7 / Pete | \ | | | i a re eye Ae | ee | ] | 4 | | | | SSS | ——— —+—% pre si yo \ = | | | | | | | | \ ae | SS | | | = = 4 as a ‘\ | ! 120° — = J 2 ee = | : 7] = aN | : 115° == z ! a u | Qe 4 \ 110° 108# Mapped by Edward E, Free BASE MAP IS A SECTION FROM maaan oppo eo 1912 U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY MAP : LEGEND OF THE UNITED STATES | Seale 2500000 > ArenofimAreLy £0 MILES TO | INCH 25 3° Sula se Pre-Lahontan Divides ————_ ag utes Post-Lahontan Divides Internal —— —= —— —_—_ Post-Lahontan Divides From Seam=—=—=—— f ny Oot RUE co Lt - eae = pvel + 3b F TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 3 and where these were available other data have seldom been sought. _ For areas as yet unsurveyed by the Geological Survey, use has been made of the maps of the Wheeler and King surveys, of the maps and notes of the General Land Office surveys, of railway surveys and profiles, of various special maps and reports published by the Geo- logical Survey and by the early Government surveys, of the maps and journals of the early explorers, of many private maps, both published and unpublished, of maps and articles in the technical press, etc. These data have been supplemented by about 25,000 miles of personal travel through the regions in question and by con- ference with official and private surveyors, railway engineers, pros- pectors, and others familiar with the country. It is impossible to acknowledge all these sources in detail, but the writer wishes to make special acknowledgment of the kindness of Prof. G. E. Bailey, of Los Angeles, in tendering the use of his collection of personal maps and notes of the desert basins of California, as well as in communi- cating the various conclusions resulting from his extensive travel in these regions. The topographic data from all the sources mentioned have been collected, carefully compared, and the final conclusions used in plat- ting on base maps the boundaries of the various basins. From these maps have been calculated the areas given in the following pages. Every possible care has been used in the platting of the lines and in the computation of the areas, and it is believed that accidental errors have been almost if not quite eliminated. In nearly all cases the areas as given may be considered accurate within 10 per cent and in most the accuracy is far greater. In a few places, mainly in country of slight relief and where divides are inconspicuous, the position of present and past water partings remains uncertain, and the areas are coirespondingly open to doubt. All such cases are noted in detail in the text and, in general, a perusal of the text will indicate the probable accuracy and assurance of the various conclusions better than could be done by any general statement. THE GREAT BASIN AND ITS DEVELOPMENT. The most important areas of internal drainage in the United States lie within the so-called “‘Great Basin’’ of Utah, Nevada, and Califor- nia. This is by no means a unit, but an area of somewhat complex topography divided into a number of basins of various ages and characters. In order that this topography may be the better under- stood it is necessary to discuss briefly the history of its development, and this is perhaps the more useful since its development has been in many ways parallel to that of other undrained areas which lie beyond its borders. There is scarcely a phase of basin topography elsewhere that has not its counterpart in the Great Basin. 4 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Paleozoic and Pre-Cambrian time the area which is now the Great Basin was alternately above and below the sea, finally attain- ing in late Carboniferous time an emergence which was to be perma- nent. Its Triassic and Jurassic history is recorded only in fragments. Apparently it was largely and more or less continuously above the sea and was probably eroded to a low and mature relief. With the end of the Jurassic came the birth of the Sierra Nevada and with it the move- ments by which the basin was first outlined. The forces and the yield- ing of which the nascent Sierra were the expression did not spend themselves in this alone, but extended far to the east. At first by fold- ing, later by profound and complex faulting, the former region of inconspicuous relief was broken into a series of troughs and ranges limited on the east by the westward-facing scarp of the Wasatch, as on the west by the Sierra. The more prominent lines of fracture being north and south, and the accompanying crustal displacement mainly by monoclinal tilting, there originated the series of north-and- south trough valleys and of parallel, monoclinal ranges so character-. istic of the Great Basin. Extensive faulting is likely to be pictured as cataclysmic, and one is tempted to think of the Great Basin as breaking in a day, like a dropped platter, from its original unity into the hundreds of structural fragments that now compose it. Thisisradically wrong. The present structure of the basin has grown very gradually. The movement initi- ated at the close of the Jurassic has continued ever since and is still in progress. So slow, indeed, has been the development of the relief that many streams have been able to maintain what seem to be their Jurassic channels and have cut the rising ranges as fast as they arose. This did not always happen, and sometimes the streams were turned. It would seem that different displacements were of different ages and have grown with differing rapidities. Neither must it be imagined that the structure is completely simple and regular. The general parallelism of valleys and ranges is quite unmistakable, but details are much more complex. Ranges sink and bend and merge with other ranges; valleys join to other valleys and are cut by transverse uplifts; all to make a structure of extreme com- plexity, but through which the original simplicity may still be dis- cerned. It is impossible to say just when in this slow structural develop- ment the region became a “‘basin;”’ probably not for a long time after the structure had begun to take form. The whole of the Cretaceous and the early part of the Tertiary seems to have been a period of open seaward drainage and energetic erosion—an erosion which has severely modified many of the ranges. In the early Tertiary this erosional period was closed (though not necessarily with causal relation) by a period of intense and long-continued vulcanism which is only now TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 5 drawing to a close and which was marked by extensive and repeated flows of rhyolites and basalts, and by the discharge of enormous quantities of fragmental material. This period was characterized by the existence of a number of scattered and successive lakes, often quite extensive but probably shallow, in which the fragmentary vol- canic material found a resting place. Apparently the region was then cut off partially or completely from the sea, and while most of these lakes probably overflowed, the occurrence of salt and gypsum among their deposits indicates that some of them were saline. The division between this Tertiary period and the present is not a sharp one. With the lapse of time vulcanism has decreased, move- ment has disturbed the Tertiary lake beds, and erosion has doubtless been active; but conditions are essentially the same now as then and the Tertiary lakes find their direct descendants in the present ‘‘dry lakes’’ or playas and in the great lakes of the recent past. In summary, the history of the Great Basin region begins at the close of the Jurassic with crustal movements which have continued ever since. At first these movements did not interfere with seaward drainage or normal erosion, but early in the Tertiary the separation from the sea began to be effective and the ‘‘Great Basin” (perhaps then drained by overflow) was produced. Since that time rising walls and increasing aridity have jomed hands to make the imprison- ment of the drainage more effective. So much for the general outline of the history. It is now necessary to examine its most recent section a little more closely. In a time which is usually correlated with the Glacial Epoch many of the inclosed valleys of the Great Basin contained large and persistent lakes. The beginnings, the early history, even the exact chro- nology of the lakes remain unknown. They were probably preceded by a period of aridity and they probably rose very slowly. All this is yet uncertain and need not be pursued. Starting with these lakes, we find that they were subject to extreme variations of level, probably in response to the climatic fluctuations, now coming to be recognized as both incessant and world-wide. These fluctuations are not yet worked out in detail, but they seem to indicate two main periods of lake expansion separated by a long period of contraction, probably to complete desiccation. The second expansion was followed by a second desiccation and contraction to the present condition. Since the beginning of this double-lake period the structural movements, though continuing, have been slight and have not affected the topography. The detailed history of this lake period—its precedent conditions, its chronology, its various physiographic and chemical relicta—is 1See the books and papers of Ellsworth Huntington, especially the Pulse of Asia (1907) and Palestine and its Transformation (1910). 6 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. among the most interesting of present-day geologic problems, but it can not be pursued here. It will suffice to note briefly a few of the effects of it and the preceding history upon the topography, and especially upon the formation of inclosed basins. In the long period during which the Great Basin has been cut off from the sea the erosional waste of its mountains has been accumulating in its valleys until all are now filled very deeply with such alluvial débris. The character of all is the same. Where the mountain reaches the plain it is surrounded by a broad alluvial slope or ‘‘apron,’’ which stretches outward with ever-decreasing slope until it merges with the apron of another mountain or into the practically level plam which forms the deepest depression of most of the valleys. This plain may carry a tiny lake, but more commonly it has only a clay flat or ‘‘playa,”’ on which waters gather in wet weather or after storms, but which is usually dry. This succession of mountain slope, apron, gradually flattening plam, and playa is typical of all the desert basins. The playa is the place of concentration of all the present drainage and the playa is usually more or less saline, depending upon the amount and character of this drainage and the time during which it has been received. y The alluvial filling of the valleys is not of itself of much impor- tance to this inquiry, but one phase of it is very much so. Where canyons cut back into a mountain range the discharge of detritus is more concentrated and the normal apron grows into an alluvial cone or fan which may extend many miles into the valley. If two moun- tain ranges face each other across a trough-like valley (as they usually do in this region), and if a canyon in one range chances to discharge opposite a canyon in the other, the fans which they build may ulti- mately merge in the center of the valley and gradually build a ridge or dam which rises few or many feet above the general valley level. By this process of “‘ alluvialdamming”’ a valley trough may be cut off at one end or both, or split into sections by dams composed entirely of alluvial mountain waste. Obviously this is possible only where the climate is arid. If the rainfall and run-off are sufficient to maintain a vigorous through-flowing stream the fans can not merge. The detritus will be carried entirely out of the valley, or graded to slopes which permit free egress of the waters. But it is probable that the Great Basin and its environs have been essentially arid ever since the early Tertiary and the processes of fan-building and fan- merging have been everywhere at work. Many valleys structurally open to the sea have been dammed in this way and many of the basins whose major limits are structurally defined have been divided by one or many of these alluvial dams. Some of the alluvial dams are very ancient, some are very recent. The period of lake expansion was, of course, a period of vigorous TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 7 streams, and it is probable that few new alluvial dams were formed. But with the advancing aridity which has caused the disappearance of the lakes many valleys once freely open have been barred by alluvial dams and converted into areas of inclosed drainage. Ob- viously this has great importance from the present viewpoint. A valley where inclosed drainage is a condition of recent origin can not reasonably be expected to have retained important quantities of salts. In cases, therefore, where the boundaries of valleys are alluvial dams it is necessary to determine so far as may be possible the age of the dams, and whether they are sufficiently old and per- manent to have retamed behind them the more plentiful waters of the lake period. The building of alluvial dams has been accompanied by another basin-creating process—the decay of the drainage systems due to an excess of evaporation over rainfall and the consequent failure of streams to maintain themselves over their whole length. In this way local depressions in the valleys become cut-off lakes, and chan- nels or flood-plains become alkaline flats, even without the formation of important alluvial dams. Very much of the West is not so much an area of inclosed drainage as one of no drainage, but thousands of dry stream beds furrow its surface and scores of greater channels ‘bear witness to a time when rivers were not all of sand. Occasional floods may fill these channels for a day; there may be still some constant drainage through them as underflow, but essentially they are dead and the alkali flats which dot their courses mark the places of their burial. Alluvial damming and stream decay mean two things; first that many new and recent basins have been produced, and second, that a large part of the drainage and salt supply of the earlier basins has been cut off; for these processes have been just as active in the regions tributary to the greater basins as in regions once tributary to the sea, and the areas from which salt and water now reach those basins are often but a smail fraction of what was once their compass. This, however, is not a matter of great importance. The answer to it is the same as to the statement—frequently made as an objec- tion to the general potash theory—that the desert basins are too arid for the occurrence of rock decay and the freeing of potash. The basins were not always so arid. The lake period was one of considerable humidity, and we may be sure that during it plenty of potash was freed and carried to the central sinks. The doubt is not whether there is any potash, but where it is and whether it has been sufficiently segregated. There remains to notice one more aspect of the history of the region. It has already been noted that extensive salt deposits are very rare on the surfaces of the present basins. In many of the 8 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. basins no salts at all are visible. There can be no reasonable doubt that large amounts of salts have entered these basins and remained there. Where are they now? To meet this dilemma Gilbert and Russell devised the theory of salt burial and of “freshening by desiccation.”’ Essentially this theory says that when a body of salt is left behind by a desiccated lake on a playa or its topographic equivalent, this salt body may ultimately be covered by inwashed clay and sand without solution, and if a-second lake comes later to occupy the basin the buried salt deposit will be protected by its alluvial seal and will remain undissolved. Certain stagos of this process have actually been observed, and there is little doubt of the essential correctness of the theory or of its applicability to the present problem. Wecan assume quite safely that the salt which must have been in the great Quaternary lakes is now buried beneath the floors of their basins. There arises at once the question of the horizon at which these salts are to be found, and the duplicity of the lake period seems to furnish at least a suggestion along this line. Periods of lake expansion and stream vigor are periods of salt accumulation. It should be con- centrated and deposited when the lakes evaporate. There are, there- fore, at least two horizons at which salt deposits are to be looked for: (1) That corresponding to the drying of the first great lake (the “interlake arid period’’) and (2) that corresponding to the drying of the second great lake; that is, the arid period of the present and the recent past. The few surface salt deposits known in the desert basins are believed to belong (with perhaps one exception) to this second period of accumulation. The “‘interlake” salt—probably far larger in amount—is believed to be everywhere more or less deeply underground, The various undrained areas outside the Great Basin have had their own structural histories, sometimes analogous to that of the basin but more often not. Where necessary these structural histories will be noted briefly in the detailed chapter which follows. The climatic history, however, has been everywhere the same. In particular the processes of alluvial damming and of stream decay have been as active outside the Great Basin as within it, and indeed most of the undrained areas external thereto have originated in this way. The contraction and mutilation of the great drainage systems have left tremendous areas now without seaward drainage and split into inclosed basins of larger or smaller area. The following chapter will furnish numerous illustrations. A brief word as to nomenclature is perhaps necessary. The double period of lake expansion has been variously referred to as “‘Quat- ernary,”’ “Pleistocene,” ‘‘Glacial,” etc. All of these terms carry suggestions of chronology and correlation, the discussion of which TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ) 9 is beyond the scope of the present report, and which it is desired to avoid. It is thought best, therefore, to designate this period simply by the name of the great lake which best illustrates its history, and to refer to it as the Lahontan period. This is meant to include the whole period of deciphered lake history from the initial rise to the end of the second or final desiccation. No implication is intended as to the internal character of this period, and no specific names are applied to its various divisions. THE UNDRAINED AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES. It has already been noted that the Great Basin is not a unit. Its parallel mountain ranges cut it into numerous more or less connected valleys, and about halfway across the basin from east to west is one range in particular—the White Pine-Ruby Range—which has formed a major parting of the waters of the basin. East of this range is the Bonneville Basin, whose deepest depression was occupied by the ancient lake of that name and whose valleys now drain to its rem- nant—the Great Salt Lake of Utah. West of the range the Hum- boldt River cuts across the northern ends of the north-south ranges and discharges into the Carson Sink, once the home of the ancient Lake Lahontan. The basin of this lake then included not only the drainage of the Humboldt River, but also that of the Carson, Truckee, and Walker Rivers, the two latter of which have since been cut off by desiccation. These, with various smaller basins tributary to the early lake, form the Lahontan Basin. North of the whole of the Great Basin and south of the eastern or Bonneville section of it the ranges and trough valleys which char- acterize it merge into wide, dissected plateaus, that of the Columbia and Snake River lavas on the north and that of the Colorado Plateau on the south. The southern limit of Lahontan is very different. The great trough valleys which characterize the core of the Great Basin are diverse in their slope, some draining northward and some southward. Most often, however, they drain both ways from an alluvial divide somewhere near the center. Thus the troughs forming the eastern part of the Lahontan Basin drain into the Humboldt River from their northern portions, while their southern extremities slope and drain either toward smaller basins also inclosed or toward some tributary of the Colorado River. Farther to the west the south- ern boundary of Lahontan is a transitional area of irregular cross uplift in which are a number of small basins, conveniently grouped with those of the Nevada trough valleys that chance to be inclosed. West and southwest of these is the great trough system of California, containing the Owens, Searles, and Panamint Valleys and their smaller analogues, and the great basin of Death Valley, to which 19750°—Bull. 54—14_2 10 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. belong the present and former drainage systems of the Amargosa and Mojave Rivers. The Great Basin contains but one other major division. North- west of the Lahontan Basin, where the zone of uplift and fracture extended into the great lava plateau of eastern Oregon and north- eastern California, a number of small basins were produced. Some of these drain or have drained to Lahontan, some to the sea, — some have been permanently inclosed. Outside the Great Basin there is but one inclosed area where structure appears to have controlled the restriction of the drainage. This is the great trough between the Sacramento and San Andreas uplifts in central New Mexico, and extending southeastward into western Texas. Even here the structural character of the basin is far from certain, as will appear when the region is discussed. The only other large and well-known basin is the Salton, in southern California. It, too, occupies a structural trough which is, however, open to the sea, the only barrier being an alluvial dam apparently built by the Coloradd River. Though the above statements cover all important structural basins and all which have attracted any considerable attention, there remain numerous and extensive areas where seaward drainage has ceased because of the decay and contraction of the river systems. These areas are of considerable diversity, but fall well into geographical groups and will be so discussed. In the detailed discussion which follows all undrained basins of the United States will be treated under the following groups: (1) The Lahontan Basin and its tributaries. (2) The Bonneville Basin and its tributaries. (3) The basins of the Lava Plateau. (4) The trough valleys of Nevada and the basins of the ; Transition Zone. (5) The trough valleys of California and the Mojave Desert. (6). The Salton Basin. (7) The basins of the New Mexico-Texas trough. (8) The trough valleys of Arizona and Sonora. (9) The Lordsburg-Membres region (New Mexico) and the Chihuahua bolsons. (10) The Rocky Mountain basins. (11) The Great Valley of California. (12) The filled lakes of the California ranges. (13) The basins and ponds of the Colorado Plateau. (14) The ponds and coulées of Eastern Washington. (15) The ponds of the Great Plains. (16) Local basins of unusual origin. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. GI This classification, while setting out to be both genetic and geo- graphic, has ended by being scarcely more than arbitrary, but this seems not to be remedied, and it is hoped that the index and the key map will help to cover the lack of a more logical arrangement. Each basin or group of basins has been given a name by which it is known throughout the report and which is, wherever possible, the name by which it is known to residents of the neighborhood or in former geologic studies. These names are given on the accompanying map, in the index, and in the synoptic list of Table I (p. 60) and will enable the ready location of information concerning any basin or region. THE LAHONTAN BASIN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. At the present time the Lahontan Basin contains internal divi- sions, structural and alluvial, dividing it into a number of separate basins of which the major are the Black Rock Basin, the Humboldt- Carson Basin, the Truckee or Pyramid Lake Basin, and the Walker Basin. The studies of Russell! have shown that the water of Lake Lahontan rose sufficiently to unite all of these basins into one water body. At the highest stages of the lake the present Humboldt-Car- son Basin was connected with the Walker through the pass south of old Fort Churchill, with the Truckee through the Ragtown Pass and the pass at Wadsworth, and with the Black Rock through the pass north of Humboldt Station on the Southern Pacific Railway, the latter basin being also connected with the Truckee at the north end of the present Pyramid Lake. Both the Black Rock and the Truckee Basins were connected with the smaller Honey Lake Basin through passes at the northwest corner of the present Pyramid Lake. At this time the drainage area of the Humboldt River was much greater than at present, a large part of it having since been cut off by alluvial damming. The areas tributary to the Truckee and Walker Rivers were also slightly larger than now. The Carson was practically the same. As the waters of the lake went down the first divide to appear was probably that between the Humboldt-Carson and the Allan Springs Basin, a small tributary to the south. Next the Walker became a separate basin, though perhaps continuing to overflow into the Humboldt-Carson. At about the same stage the direct connection between the Humboldt-Carson and the Black Rock was broken, though there still remained the indirect connection through the Truckee. A hundred feet additional lowering saw the appearance of the divide at Wadsworth between the Humboldt- Carson and the Truckee and the separation of the original lake into three water bodies—the Black Rock, Honey Lake, and Truckee 1U.S. Geological Survey, Monog. XI (1835). 12 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. body to the north, the Humboldt-Carson in the center, and the Walker to the south. The divide between the Truckee and the Black Rock was the last of the greater divides to appear, and with its emergence the basin assumed its present major divisions. The total area tributary to Lake Lahontan during the period of greatest expansion was 45,730 square miles. The investigations of Russell have shown conclusively that the lake never overflowed, and conse- quently all the salts received from this tremendous area must be still within it. There follows a brief description of the topography | of the present divisions of the basin. THE BLACK ROCK BASIN. The present Black Rock Basin occupies an area of 8,550 square miles, mainly in Nevada, but with extensions into Oregon and California. Its sink, the Black Rock Desert, lies in the great filled trough east and southeast of the Black Rock Mountains, and, with its extensions southwestward in the Granite Creek, Smoke Creek, and Mud Lake Deserts, covers an area of over 1,030 square miles. The main present tributary is the Quinn River, which enters the Black Rock Desert at its northern extremity. Though the waters of the Quinn River still reach the sink at high-water periods, the stream now possesses scarcely a tithe of its former vigor, and its channel is much choked with débris and contains many alkali flats caused by local evaporation. Other streams which lead toward the sink are either dry except for occasional floods, or lose themselves immediately on entering. the playa. Like other playas, the Black Rock Desert is not exactly level, but in the absence of accurate surveys the position of its lowest sink is not determinable. Probably it contains several local depressions each a few feet below the general surface and each separated from its neighbors by gentle slopes and invisible divides. After seasons of heavy snow and rainfall, shallow bodies of water sometimes stand for several weeks in certain portions of the playa, and these are probably among the areas of greatest depression. From the mountainous country west of the Black Rock Mountains the basin receives the overflow of High Rock Lake, with a drainage area of 670 square miles, and of Summit Lake, which drains about 40 square miles. Water supply to both these lakes is now so far reduced that their overflow, if any, seldom reaches the desert, but essentially they still drain thereto and their drainage areas are included in the area given above. During the higher stages of Lahontan the Black Rock section of the lake was connected with or received the drainage from the Kumiva, Granite Springs, Hot Springs, and Jungo Basins. Including these, its Quaternary drainage area (includ- ing the area covered by the lake) was 10,500 square miles. The Honey Lake Basin, though long connected with the Black Rock, is discussed ds a separate unit and is not included in the area given above. THE KUMIVA BASIN. The Kumiva Basin lies in the small trough east of Kumiva Peak and separated by low alluvial divides from both the Black Rock Desert and the Granite Spring Basin, next to be described. The age of these divides is uncertain, but both were covered by the waters of Lake Lahontan. The divide into the Black Rock Desert is a little the lower, and it is probable that when the Lahontan waters were subsiding the drain- age out of the Kumiva Basin was in this direction. Indeed, it is quite probable that this divide is recent and was formed by post-Lahontan alluviation. The lowest de- pression of the Kumiva Basin contains a playa about,10 square miles in area, but TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 13 because of the recency of outward drainage it is not to be expected that this playa or the basin will contain any considerable amount of salt. The area of the present basin is 445 square miles. THE GRANITE SPRING BASIN. The Granite Spring Basin is essentially similar to the Kumiva, and is similarly barred from the Black Rock Desert by a low alluvial divide which was overtopped by Lake Lahontan. This divide is higher than that which limits the Kumiva Basin, _ and probably it is more ancient, but the previous connection with Lahontan destroys any possibility of important salt concentration. The area of the present basin is 890 square miles. Its lowest depression is occupied by a playa of usual character, cover- ing about 30 square miles. THE JUNGO BASIN. The Jungo Basin is a small depression in the strait which once connected the Black Rock and Humboldt-Carson water bodies north of Humboldt Station. At present the basin is separated from the Humboldt Valley by an alluvial divide west of the Eugene Mountains and from the Black Rock Basin by a similar and inconspicuous divide on an approximately east-west line passing through the Dunisher Hills. This second divide is the lower and the Jungo Basin probably retained connection with the Black Rock Basin some time after its connection with the Humboldt-Carson was broken. Indeed, this northern divide, though now about 125 feet above the bottom of the basin, has probably been considerably raised by recent alluviation and perhaps also by dune movement, and it is by no means certain that the divide existed in Lahontan time. At any rate, there was connection with the larger lake body over the divide and any great retention of salt in the Jungo is not to be expected. The present basin area is 340 square miles, and the typical playa which occupies its lowest depression covers about 5 square miles. THE HOT SPRINGS BASIN. West of the Granite Creek Desert and just north of Granite Peak there is a small pocket in the mountains into which extends an arm of the Black Rock playa. This arm is now cut off from the main desert by a low and recent divide and contains an “alkali” flat which owes its salinity mainly to the evaporation of the waters of several hot springs rising within and around it. Its saline accumulations are probably very superficial and of no importance. The drainage area is 270 square miles and the area of the alkali flat about 10 square miles. THE HONEY LAKE BASIN. The depression which forms the Honey Lake Basin has perhaps closer topographic affiliations with the basins of the lava plateau region than with the Lahontan group, but, chancing to have a low pass opening eastward, it was filled by an arm of the great lake during most of the lake’s existence. The direction of water movement between the two bodies is not fully certain, but that matter is beyond the scope of the present report. The present basin has an area of 2,660 square miles, in which is included the tributary basin of Eagle Lake. The waters of this lake do not now reach the central basin, but they did so very recently. The main present tributaries are the Susan River from the west and Long Valley Creek from the south. The bottom of the basin is an extensive playa diversified by some vegetation and a number of old dune areas. In the deepest depression of this playa is the present Honey Lake, a shallow body of slightly brackish water and very varia- ble in size. East of the lake the playa stretches out in a broad area known as Flan- nigan Flat, nearly level and with few visible drainage lines. Many portions of this flat are now alkaline from local drainage concentration, but the salinity has been 14 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. recently acquired and is unimportant. Little salt is now visible in the Honey Lake Basin. : On the northwest slope of Peavine Peak there is a small basin about 30 square miles in area which contains a small marsh separated from the headwaters of Long Valley Creek only by a low alluvial divide near the station of Purdy, on the Nevada, Cali- fornia & Oregon Railway. During Quaternary time this small basin undoubtedly drained into Long Valley Creek, and it has therefore no importance to the present inquiry. Its area is included in the above figures for the Honey Lake Basin. THE TRUCKEE BASIN. The Truckee Basin consisted in Quaternary time, as it does now, of the drainage ; basin of the Truckee River heading in the Sierras, notably in Lake Tahoe, and empty- ing into the twin lakes Pyramid and Winnemucca. The approach of the river to these lakes is over somewhat dissected alluvium, and the river has flowed at times into the one lake and at times into the other. At the present time it flows into the Pyramid. During the existence of Lake Lahontan the valley of Winnemucca Lake contained a long, narrow arm of water connected with the Pyramid Lake body at its southern extremity, while the northern end of the latter lake joined the water body of the Black Rock Desert. This latter connection was one of the last to be broken when Lahontan disappeared, and it is probable that the Truckee Basin continued to overflow into the Black Rock long after the rest of the Lahontan water bodies had fully separated. The Truckee River, being headed in a region of higher rainfall in the Sierras has suffered less truncation than the other rivers of the Great Basin and has been able to keep its channel fairly clear. Several tributary valleys have lost their free outward drainage and have become somewhat saline, but they are few and insignificant. In the Lahontan period, however, Pyramid Lake received another considerable tributary which entered it from the west through a gap in the Virginia Range, bringing the drainage of the so-called Winnemucca Valley (which has no rela- tion to Lake Winnemucca). This drainage line has entirely decayed, and a large area once tributary to it—the Lemmon Valley, north of Reno—has been cut off by an alluvial divide and become an inclosed basin.whose flat bottom carries a group of playas. This basin has an area of 90 square miles. Just north of this there is the smaller Warm Springs Basin, with an area of less than 20 square miles and separated from the Hungry Valley and the Pyramid Lake drainage by an alluvial divide over 300 feet in height. It is impossible to read clearly the history of this basin from data now at hand. It may be that the divide between it and the Truckee is quite ancient and that the Lahontan period saw it, as now, completely landlocked. However, this question is unimportant, since the basin is too small to have accumulated any considerable salt body. Including the Lemmon Valley, but not the Warm Springs Basin, the total area of the Truckee Basin is 2,975 square miles. THE HUMBOLDT-CARSON BASIN. The Humboldt-Carson Basin is the core of the Lahontan area. Its present bottom is a great playa covering over 500 square miles and containing in its lowest portion the Carson Sink, a shallow and variable lake of brackish water. South Carson Lake, also on the main playa, is a shallow lake produced by the meanders of the Carson River. A slough connects it with the North Carson Lake, or Carson Sink. The Humboldt River enters the playa from the north through a narrow gap near the station of Parran, on the Southern Pacific Railway. During high water of Lake Lahontan a sand bar was built across this gap, behind which Humboldt Lake has been formed. However, overflow has partially cut this bar, and at high-water stages the water of the Humboldt Lake now flows through it and into the Carson Sink. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 15 In its upper courses the Carson River, like the Truckee, has kept some measure of its vigor and retains essentially its Lahontan drainage. Farther down, where it flows over what was once its flood plain at the margin of the retreating lake, it has left many local playas which are now without escape for their waters. All these were either covered by Lake Lahontan or were tributary to it, and have no importance in the present connection. The history of the Humboldt River is very different. More than any other river of the Great Basin, perhaps excepting the Mojave, it has suffered by alluvial damming and by the decay ofits tributaries. Its present drainage area is scarcely a half of that which it once possessed. The description of the Humboldt in detail is unnecessary. Tn general it may be said that it cuts across the northern extremities of the trough valleys in the eastern half of the Lahontan area, draining these valleys north as far as the limits of the Great Basin and south to the alluvial divides which separate the Lahontan drainage from that of the Colorado River and of the smaller basins to the south. Several of these trough valleys, once tributary to the Humboldt, have been cut off behind alluvial dams, creating the Buena Vista, Buffalo Springs, Crescent Valley, Gibson, and Clover Basins. Even where the valleys have not been cut off entirely, the decay of the streams has left them with innumerable local playas and alkali flats but since these are still essentially tributary to the Humboldt they do not require individual discussion. The Humboldt and the Carson are the only important rivers tributary to the basin. A few small valleys tributary to, or filled by, the Great Lake are discussed below as the Fernley, Allen Springs, and Sand Springs Basins. The present drainage area of the Humboldt-Carson, including all local playas and other areas not cut off by actual divides, is 19,300 square miles. Its Quaternary area was 27,575 square miles. Mention should perhaps be made of the Ragtown Soda Lakes, situated on the Carson Playa, about 6 miles northwest of Fallon. These are small depressions, probably of volcanic origin, in the bottoms of which are lakes of brine from which carbonate of soda was once made commercially. From his studies of the lakes Russell concluded that their soda content was probably derived from waters which had percolated through the saline clays of the surrounding playas and acquired salinity therefrom. They are not believed to have any important significance to the present inquiry. The Wabuska topographic sheet of the United States Geological Survey shows another small local depression in the eastern extension of the Pine Nut Mountains about 4 miles east of Lyon Peak. Its nature is unknown to the writer, but it is too small to have any practical importance. THE FERNLEY BASIN. The Fernley Basin is a small depression lying between the Humboldt-Carson and the Truckee Basins, as does the Jungo Basin, between the former and the Black Rock. When Lahontan was high this basin was a strait connecting these two water bodies. On the fall of the waters the connection with the Truckee was broken first, the connection with the Humboldt-Carson, by way of Ragtown Pass, remaining much longer intact. At the present time the bottom of the Fernley Basin is about 100 feet below this pass, but it is not certain that this has always beenso. Recent alluvial deposition must be taken into account and is difficult to estimate. The present bot- tom of the basin carries three playas, the two extreme of which drain toward the central one. All the playas are somewhat saline, but no segregated salt deposits are known. The area of the present basin is 215 square miles. THE ALLEN SPRINGS BASIN. South of the Carson Playa there is a deep, narrow mountain valley which was filled by the Lahontan waters and connected with them through a narrow strait at Allen Springs. The bottom of this valley is about of the same level as the Carson Playa, 16 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but a divide over 200 feet high intervenes. This divide is probably pre-Lahontan and the Allen Springs Basin has probably always been landlocked, except when Lake Lahontan was high enough to overflow the divide. Previous connection with the larger lake is sufficient to destroy the probability of a large amount of salt having been accumulated or retained. The present area of the basin is 235 square miles and that of the pl :xya which occupies its present depressions is 4 square miles. THE SAND SPRINGS BASIN. From its southeast side an arm of the Carson playa stretches into the Sand Springs Valley and is cut off from the main playa by a low and inconspicuous divide which, according to Russell, is due to a small recent fault which cuts across the mouth of the valley. . East of this the surface drainage of the valley has collected in a central depression and deposited there a considerable quantity of common salt derived from the more or less saline clays which floor this part of the playa. This deposit is entirely recent and secondary, and there is no reason to suspect salt accumulations of impor- tance to the present inquiry. In earlier times the Sand Springs Valley was filled by Lake Lahontan, and even the fault-formed divide which now exists is apparently quite recent. The drainage area cut off by this divide aggregates 200 square miles. Just south of the Sand Springs Valley there is another arm of the main playa, also containing an alkali flat and a salt deposit, and probably possessing a similar topog- raphy and structure. These are not known in detail to the writer and the valley has been included with the Humboldt-Carson in all computations. THE BUENA VISTA BASIN. Turning now from those cut-off valleys previously tributary to the main Carson water body to those tributary to the Humboldt River, the’first basin to engage atten- tion is the Buena Vista. This occupies the trough extending northeastward and lying between the Humboldt and East Ranges. Toward the south the basin is barred from the Carson playa only by a low divide, and a similar low divide separates it from the Humboldt River to the north. The latter divide is apparently the lower and is alluvial, whereas King maps the southern divide as of basalt. Both divides were. overtopped by the waters of Lahontan, but the southern was probably the earlier exposed and in the latest Lahontan stages the Buena Vista Valley was probably a tributary of the Humboldt River. The present bottom of the valley is occupied by a playa of the usual character and with an area of about 50 square miles. The total area of the present basin is about 4,000 square miles, but this area is somewhat uncertain, because the position of the alluvial divide at the northern end is not exactly known. THE BUFFALO SPRINGS BASIN. The Buffalo Springs Basin is a small valley lying north of the Battle Mountain range and separated from the Reese River only by a low divide composed partly of alluvium and partly of blown sand. This divide appears to be very recent and there can be little question that the time is short since the drainage of the basin found free egress to the Reese River and thence to the Humboldt. The area of the basin is about 500 square miles, there being again some uncertainty as to the exact position of the recent divide. It contains a playa approximately 25 square miles in area, THE CRESCENT VALLEY REGION. East of the north-south trough occupied and drained by the Reese River and extend- ing eastward as far as the Sulphur Springs Range is an area of rather complicated topography in which the north-south trend of valleys and ranges, while still traceable, becomes less obvious. This area has been very inadequately mapped, and the infor- TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 17 mation at hand is not sufficient to permit a detailed statement of its past and present drainage conditions. However, a brief personal visit indicates that it is divided by the east-west uplift of the Simpson Park and Roberts Mountains into two divisions of different affiliations. South of this uplift le the Monitor, Kobeh, and Dry Valleys, which drain or drained to the Diamond Valley. North of the divide the country was once tributary to the Humboldt River and comprised two northward-flowing stream systems—that of Horse and Pine Creeks to the east and that of the Grass and Crescent Valleys to the west, the two being separated by the Cortez Mountains. Both of these drainage lines have suffered severely by stream decay and have been broken into numerous shallow basins and local playas, the exact limits of which can not be deter- mined from existing information. So far as known there are no areas of considerable or long-continued drainage concentration, and all playas and marshes are believed to be not only local but very recent. The total area of the region believed to have been tributary to the Humboldt is 2,430 square miles. THE GIBSON BASIN. East of the Sulphur Spring Range, which forms the eastern border of the Crescent area, the parallel troughs and ranges again become the distinctive features of the topography. The first of the troughs is mainly occupied by Diamond Valley, which has probably always been landlocked, and will be discussed among the trough valleys of Nevada. East of this, between the Diamond and Ruby Ranges, lies the great trough of the Huntington and Gibson Valleys, which, bending a little to the west, extends southward through the Little Smoky, Hot Creek, and Reveille Valleys, well below the thirty-eighth parallel. The northern part of this trough, containing the Huntington and South Fork Valleys, now drains to the Humboldt. Just south of this is the Gib- son Valley, the northward drainage of which is cut off by a low and poorly defined divide southwest of Hastings Pass. This divide is probably largely alluvial, but may be due in part to minor and local cross-uplift. At any rate, it is believed to be recent, and the Gibson Valley is believed to belong to the former drainage of the Humboldt. Another alluvial divide cuts the Little Smoky Valley just north of the thirty-ninth parallel into two divisions, one of which drains northward into the Gibson, the other southward into Hot Creek and Railroad Valley. This divide marks the southern limit of the Lahontan Basin in this trough. The area of the Gibson Basin, including the tributary part of the Little Smoky Valley, is 1,150 square miles. It contains a long, narrow playa (Newark Lake) having an area of over 30 square miles. This playa is somewhat saline, but the salinity is believed to be recently acquired and the con- clusion of recent outward drainage removes any expectation of extensive salt deposits. THE CLOVER GROUP OF BASINS. The north-south mountain line represented by the Ruby Range is almost every- where the line of the Bonneville-Lahontan divide, but beyond the northeast corner of this range and perched on the very crest of the divide lies the Clover group of three closely connected basins which are believed to have belonged to the Lahontan division. This group consists of two parallel north-south valleys, the Clover to the west and the Independence to the east, separated in their northern parts by the Independence Mountains. To the south these mountains vanish and the valleysmerge. Independ- ence Valley contains two local depressions due to recent alluviation and containing playas of the usual type. Clover Valley has a single depression, which is the deepest in the group and contains the shallow water body of Clover or Snow Water Lake. Inde- pendence Valley is completely landlocked except for its connection with Clover Valley. The latter has two low passes, one north into the Humboldt River, about 200 feet above the valley bottom and the other south into the Ruby Basin and a little 19750°—Bull. 54—14_3 18 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. higher. The former is alluvial and is believed to be recent. The latter is mapped by King as basalt. It is very probable that the early drainage of this group was northward into the Humboldt, and their interest to the present inquiry, accordingly, disappears. The total area of the group is 1,075 square miles. THE WALKER BASIN. There remains for discussion only this one division of the great Lahontan water body. It lies south of the Lahontan body proper, and consists essentially of two north and south troughs lying on either side of the Walker Range. Rising in the Sierras, the Walker River flows northward through the western trough, around the north end of the Walker Range, and into the deeper eastern trough, the deepest depressions of which | contain the present Walker Lake. Structurally, the affiliations of the Walker trough are much more with the isolated trough valleys to the east and south than with the valleys of the main Lahontan area. Only the accident of a low pass to the north enabled the early Walker Lake to overflow and establish a connection with Lake Lahontan. This connection was never a deep one, and the Walker body was the first of the main Lahontan water bodies to become separated when the lake began to fall. It is probable that it continued for a time to overflow into Lahontan, but advancing desiccation must have put an early end to this, and the independent history of the Walker Basin is probably a fairly long one. , Like the Truckee and the Carson, the Walker River has been able to keep its stream fairly vigorous and its main channel fairly clear, but numerous local playas and ‘‘alkali’”’ flats have been formed in the tributary valleys. Most of these are too local and recent to deserve especial notice. The most important is the chain of two basins north of the Gillis Range and now separated from the Walker Valley and from each other by low alluvial divides. Several similar basins border the Walker River in its northward course through the western trough. Along the west Walker River (a branch of the main river) are several basins which are interesting because of their less usual origin, though no more important to the present inquiry. It seems that the upper course of this river was once a series of lake basins apparently of structural origin. In the course of time the river cut narrow canyons through the walls of these basins and drained the lakes. But, this done, the river has sometimes deserted the axis of the basins for a channel along a traversing delta of its own building, leaving to one side or the other depressions still below the river or its outlet. With complete desiccation these depressions have become undrained basins with central playas of usual type. This appears to be the history of the playa in the north end of Smith Valley. The playasand alkali lakes of the Antelope Valley probably owe their origin in part to similar processes, though these processes have been much complicated by fan-building and alluvial deposition. The area of the Walker Basin at the present time is approximately 3,200 square miles. Including all the areas once tributary to it but now cut off by damming or stream decay, it covers 3,850 square miles. Walker Lake has a present area of 104 square miles, but this has varied greatly in the recent past, as is attested by the extensive and complete system of old-shore lines which surrounds it. THE BONNEVILLE BASIN AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. Though somewhat larger than the Lahontan Basin, the Bonneville Basin is much more nearly a unit. In Lahontan time it received the drainage of all the inclosed region east of the Bonneville-Lahontan divide, its deepest portion being occupied by the Great Lake Bonne- ville, with an area at its highest stage of nearly 20,000 square miles. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 19 This early lake and its history have been fully studied by Gilbert,' and the reader is referred to his report for all details. From the pres- ent viewpoint the most important feature of Gilbert’s work is the conclusion that the lake acquired and long retained an outlet into Snake River and thence to the sea. During the greater part of the existence and fluctuations of Lake Lahontan, Lake Bonneville was an overflowing lake of normal character and was undoubtedly fresh. This fact alone is sufficient to remove most of the importance of the basin to the present inquiry. The salt contained in the Great Salt Lake, which is the present remnant of Lake Bonneville, is simply that present in the waters of the early lake at the time when overflow finally ceased plus that added in the drainage since that time. However large, it is probably not comparabie with that which accumulated in Lake Lahontan. The present Bonneville Basin is divided by a low and recent parting into the basin of the Great Salt Lake to the north and the Sevier Basin to the south. Local divides, for the most part recent as well, have cut off a few small basins from the two main divisions. The total drainage area of the Bonneville Basin during the Lahontan period was 57,960 square miles. THE GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN. This basin is the central remnant of the original Bonneville Basin and includes the valley of the Great Salt Lake and all valleys now tributary thereto. The north-south trend of ranges and valleys, though here less marked than in the Lahontan Basin, is still quite distinct and the long parallel ranges form islands in the present lake or divide the trough valleys which drain into it. As in the Lahontan region, des- iccation and stream decay have reduced the vigor of the rivers which once occupied these valleys and many local playas and marshes have been produced. The chief present tributaries of the Great Salt Lake are the Bear River from the north, the Weber River from the east, and the Jordan River and Utah Lake drainage from the south. Having their sources in well-watered highlands, these streams have retained a considerable measure of their former vigor and are, indeed, largely responsible for the persistence of the Great Salt Lake itself. There was once another considerable tributary entering the lake from the southwest through the Snake Valley. This has entirely decayed and the Snake Valley and some of its tributaries have acquired small local playas and brackish marshes of very recent origin. The obstructions to drainage out of the valleys are not considerable even now, and would be overcome and removed by a very moderate increase in average rainfall. The Great Salt Lake has a present area of about 2,200 square miles and a maximum depth of approximately 50 feet, being somewhat variable in both dimensions. It is extremely saline. West and southwest of the present lake is the Great Salt Lake Desert, a broad playa-like flood plain but recently abandoned by the lake and cover- ing an area of over 3,000 square miles. Innumerable local depressions in this plain have become small and shallow areas of inclosed drainage and salt concentration and have come to contain greater or lesser deposits of common salt formed essentially like the Sand Springs salt deposit described on page 16. The divides between these 1U.S. Geol. Sur., Monog. I (1891). 20 BULLETIN 54, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. little basins are indistinguishable and never more than a few feet in height. A very slight increase in rainfall would be sufficient to flood and drain them and wash their salt back into the Great Salt Lake. The present area of the Great Salt Lake Basin is perhaps 25,000 square miles. Includ- ing the Great Salt Lake Desert and the other similar areas of local playas and marshes, but excluding the basins cut off by real though recent divides, the area is 33,760 square miles. Including former tributaries, now the Steptoe and Ruby groups, and the White Valley, Rush, and Cedar Basins, the area is 42,300 square miles. THE STEPTOE BASIN. During the Lahontan period one of the main tributaries of Lake Bonneville headed between the Egan and Schell Creek Ranges, well south of the thirty-ninth parallel, flowed northward. through the great trough of the Steptoe and Goshute Valleys, crossed the Toano Range and entered Lake Bonneville east of the present railroad station of Cobre. Since that time alluvial deposition, probably assisted by local uplift, has barred the pass in the Toano Range and cut off the Goshute Valley from discharge. At the same time alluvial damming and stream decay have broken the former through-flowing stream into a score of separate basins, each with its local playa and each separated from the other. by low and indistinguishable divides. The whole valley has become an area of practically no drainage and no point or points of considerable concentration can be distinguished. This early drainage line still receives the insignificant discharge of what was once a considerable stream from the Antelope Valley, and it once received also the drainage of the Ruby group about to be described. The area of the Steptoe, Goshute, and Antelope Valleys with their tributaries is 3,930 square miles. Adding the Ruby group, the total becomes 6,590 square miles. THE RUBY GROUP OF BASINS. The Ruby group les on the crest of the Bonneville-Lahontan divide, south of the Clover group already discussed and between the Ruby and Egan Ranges. It con- sists of the Ruby Valley to the north, with two parallel north-south valleys, the Butte and*the Murray ! lying south from it and formerly tributary to it. The deepest depression of the Ruby Valley proper les at its western edge under the steep slope of the Ruby Range and contains Ruby and Franklin Lakes. Eastward from this de- pression the valley rises very gradually toward the low gap of the Goshute Pass be- tween the Egan and Pequop Mountains. It is reasonably certain that the Ruby Valley previously discharged through this gap into the Goshute Valley and thence to Bonneville. The topography of the pass is complicated by alluvial deposition and apparently by recent and local movement, and it is not possible to determine with assurance whether the Ruby Valley of the Lahontan period had an unresisted drainage into the Goshute Valley or contained a lake which overflowed thereto over a permanent dam. The writer has not found conclusive signs of lake occupation in the Ruby Valley and hence inclines to the former opinion. In either case the valley lacks interest from the present viewpoint. Of the southern tributaries of the Ruby Valley, the Butte Valley is confined only by a low and inconspicuous divide across its northern end. This divide is alluvial and probably very recent, and there can be little question of the previous free drainage of the valley toward the north. It contains a rather poorly developed playa with an area of approximately 12 square miles. The Murray Valley is separated from the Ruby Valley by divides of similar character, but higher and better defined. They too are believed to be post-Lahontan, and the earlier outward drainage is be- 1 This valley is known locally as Long Valley, but there being numerous other Long Valleys in the Great Basin, and this name being in general use for another basin (sce p. 29), it is impossible to retain it here. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 21. lieved to have been unrestricted. The valley now contains a number of local playas, but no area of considerable drainage concentration is known. The Ruby Valley proper has a present drainage area of 1,200 square miles, Butte Valley has 740 square miles, and Murray Valley 720 square miles, making a total area of 2,660 square miles for the group. THE WHITE VALLEY BASIN. The White Valley Basin is a north-south trough lying between the Confusion and the House (or Antelope) Ranges and directly south of the Great Salt Lake Desert. Tt is essentially structural in origin and is entirely surrounded by mountains or hills. However, the lower hills to the north were overtopped by the waters of Lake Bonne- ville, and even on the recession of these waters it is probable that the White Valley maintained for a time an outflow to the Great Salt Lake Basin, either through the low hills west of the Fish Spring Range or through Sand Pass Canyon between this range and the House Range and leading into the Fish Spring Valley. Both of these passes are now over 300 feet above the floor of the valley, but may have been raised by recent alluvial deposition. In any event, the separate existence of the White Valley Basin can not antedate the final recession of the waters of Bonneville. The area of the present basin is 920 square miles, and it contains two playas separated by a low alluvial divide crossing the valley from east to west somewhat south of its mid- dle. The northern playa is the larger and probably slightly the lower. THE RUSH VALLEY BASIN. The Rush Valley is essentially similar to that last discussed, but lies north and east from it between the Onaqui and Stansbury Mountains on the west and the Oquirr Range to the east. The surrounding divides are entirely structural, but the valley originally drained into that of the Great Salt Lake through a gap in the northern divide just north of the present town of Stockton. This gap was below the waters of Bonneville and the waves of that lake built a sand bar across it. When the waters receded this bar became a dam essentially similar to the one formed by Lahontan, at the southern end of Humboldt Lake, as described on page 14. In this case, how- ever, the dam has never been breached and the drainage of the valley is still retained behind it, forming a small brackish lake in a portion of the pre-Lahontan river chan- nel. The area now tributary to this lake is 700 square miles. THE CEDAR VALLEY BASIN. This is a third basin essentially like those of the White and Rush Valleys. It lies just east of the latter and between the Oquirr and Lake Ranges. The latter range is low and poorly defined and the waters of Lake Bonneville transgressed it in several places, forming of the Cedar Valley a partially inclosed sound separated from the water body of Utah Lake Valley on the east by a chain of islands. There is also a fairly low pass leading westward from the Cedar Valley into the Rush Valley described above, and it is possible that this also was below the highest stage of Lake Bonneville. To the east the connection with the Utah Lake Valley was probably retained until quite late in the recession of the great lake and the inclosed character of the Cedar Valley appears therefore to be quite recent. Its present area is 300 square miles. Tt contains two playas of usual character. THE SEVIER BASIN. Structurally the present Sevier Basin consists of three parallel troughs trending approximately north andsouth. The middle of these, though the largest and probably the deepest, is less well defined than the others. In its northern portion it expands to form the great filled valley of the Sevier Desert. In its middle portion it is com- 22 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. paratively narrow and is further narrowed by the north-south range of the Mineral Mountains, almost equidistant between its sides. Farther to the south it bends westward and again expands into another filled valley, the Escalante Desert. The easternmost of these three troughs is much more regular and stretches almost unbroken from the fortieth parallel to the Arizona line, being bordered on the west by the continuous uplift of the Parowan, Tushar, Pavant, and Canyon Ranges and on the east by the western scarp of the high plateau country. Essentially this valley is but a southward extension of the Jordan and Utah Lake Valleys, the depression which lies just beneath the great west scarp of the Wasatch Range. But only the southern part of this trough belongs to the Sevier drainage, the parting being the local uplift of the Tintic Mountains, and a low divide, probably alluvial, in the Juab Valley at the same latitude. This southern half of the trough is occupied by the northward-flowing Sevier River, which, paralleling the behavior of the Humboldt, turns westward across the north end of the Canyon Mountains through the deep Sevier Canyon and enters the middle or main trough of the basin. The westernmost trough is well defined but less than half the length of the others. It consists of the Sevier Lake and Preuss Valleys and merges to the north into the Sevier Desert. It is interesting mainly because it contains the present deepest depression in the basin, the sink of Sevier Lake, At the higher stages of Bonneville the middle and western troughs were largely filled with the waters of the lake. The eastermost trough is higher and was not filled, except fora small embayment at the northern end. It contained a northward-flowing river, the predecessor of the present Sevier, which emptied into this embayment. When the waters of Bonneville fell low enough to expose the comparatively low divide separating the Sevier Basin fram that of the Great Salt Lake, the former con- tinued for a time to overflow into the latter through a well-marked channel which may still be seen east of McDowell Mountain and which has been described by Gil- . bert.! With increasing desiccation the outflow of the Sevier Valley ceased and its basin attained the inclosed character which it now exhibits. At the present time the central and western troughs have become areas of prac- tically no drainage. The northern end of the former—the Preuss Valley— has been cut off from Sevier Lake by a low alluvial divide, while the Escalante Desert has been similarly separated from the central trough. -The eastern trough has more nearly retained its original character. The Sevier River is still a fairly vigorous stream until it begins to cross the Sevier Desert. Here it loses itself in a succession of meanders and local marshes, reaching the lake only in time of flood. It is probable, however, that this failure to reach the lake continuously is very recent and due to the large use of the waters for irrigation. The Sevier Desert itself is a succession of local playas much like the Great Salt Lake Desert, but less saline and more often having free but unused drainage channels to the sink. Rush Lake and Parowan Valleys east of the Escalante Desert were once freely drained to the main lake body, but have been cut off by stream decay and now contain gmall saline lakes. Round Valley, east of the town of Manti, is a small structural basin of the type of the White Rush and Cedar Valleys above described. How long it has been a separate drainage unit is not fully certain—probably not very long and in any case its area of 170 square miles is too little to give it any importance to thisinquiry. At the present time the area from which Sevier Lake receives even occasional drainage is probably not over 10,000 square miles. During Lahontan time the Sevier Basin, including Parowan, Rush Lake, Round, and Preuss Valleys, the Escalante Desert, etc., had a total area of 16,375 square miles. 1U.8. Geol. Sur., Monog. I, p. 181 (1890). TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 23 THE BASINS OF THE LAVA PLATEAU. The eastern two-thirds of Oregon and the southeastern quarter of Idaho, with contiguous portions of Nevada and California, are covered by great sheets of Tertiary lavas. In its northerly portions the plateau thus formed, though considerably dissected, is substantially level, but its southern portion has been invaded by the area of uplift and faulting which created the valleys of the Great Basin, and has been split into a number of valleys and ranges of purely structural origin. In the main there has been little flexure and the faulting is usually of a simple monoclinal type. As before, the main lines of displacement run north and south, but there has been a significant degree of irregular movement along lines otherwise directed, and the valleys of the region possess only in lesser degree the simplicity and regularity of structure characteristic of the trough valleys of central Nevada. The topography bemg dependent on the monoclinal struc- ture, is everywhere much the same. The valleys are long and rela- tively narrow, with a gentle, somewhat dissected slope on one side and a steep fault scarp on the other. Many of the valleys of this region possessed from the beginning an open drainage to the sea or soon attained it through the breaching of the surrounding divides. (PI. II, fig. 1.) Many of these still retain this open drainage or have lost it only recently. However, the por- tion of the area contiguous to the Great Basin proper has been, like it, a region of low and topographically insufficient rainfall and many of its valleys have never had a seaward drainage. All of the valleys which are now areas of inclosed or restricted drainage are briefly de- seribed below. The Honey Lake Basin, described among the Lahontan group, is not essentially dissimilar to the basins of the lava plateau, and owes its connection with the larger group to the chance occur- rence of a low pass leading thereto. THE CHRISTMAS LAKE VALLEY. The Christmas Lake Valley is the extreme northwest basin of the group and is per- haps the least typical of all. It lies about at the extremity of the region of profound monoclinal faulting and is characterized more by gentle folding and by minor and irregular displacement than by the well-defined fault lines so prominent to the south. The basin is bordered on all sides by rolling plateaus formed by gentle folding of the lava and modified by a comparatively slight subsequent erosion. Undoubtedly these rolling plateaus once possessed more or less well-defined drainage systems, but increased desiccation has entirely destroyed them or reduced them to mere vestiges. The whole region is now one of no determined drainage. This makes it nearly impos- sible to fix accurately the boundaries of the basin. On all sides the plateau is dotted with innumerable small pans or playas each of which receives and retains the drainage of a greater or lesser surrounding area. (PI. II, fig. 2.) Most of these small basins rep- resent irregularities in the folding of the plateau and are therefore structural and original, but there can be little doubt that nearly if not quite all of them once over- flowed either inward toward the Christmas Lake Valley or outward into the surround- 24 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing basins or into the Columbia River. In many cases it isnow impossible to determine the original direction of drainage of these pans and both for this reason and because of the inadequacy of the available maps, the divides have been only very roughly deter- minable and the calculated area is very approximate indeed. This applies particu- larly to the Great Sandy Desert, across which passes the northern boundary of the Christmas Lake Basin. This isa region of very low relief. The slopes are usually not determinable except by precise leveling and most of the drainage channels which once existed have been wholly or partly obscured by dune sand and alluvium. The present floor of the Christmas Lake Valley is a broad plain, apparently flat and diversified by several dune areas, especially in its eastern part. It rises more or less gently to the surrounding rolling plateau and shows none of the usual features of lake or playa topography. It is quite possible that it had once an outlet reaching from its northwest corner through the Fort Rock Valley and the Deschutes River to the Colum- bia. This region has never been mapped and was not carefully examined by the writer. The question must be left open, though the assumption of recent and reason- ably free outlet would explain the absence of playa or lake traces and the general topo- graphic resemblance to a tributary rather than a receiving valley, matters which are difficult to understand on the assumption of continuously inclosed conditions. Christmas and Fossil Lakes, with several other small playas or marshes now present on the valley floor, are mere local depressions formed by wind erosion or dune move- ment, or both, and fed by springs or local drainage. Christmas and Fossil Lakes owe their comparative permanence to supply from springs. Neither has any relation to the earlier topography of the valley. Thorne Lake, in the southwestern corner, is a small enlargement and local depression in the channel through which the overflow of Silver Lake once passed into the Christmas Lake Valley. . At the present time there is no area of considerable drainage concentration in the valley. Peter Creek, rising in the southern slopes of the Pauline Mountains, maintains a well-defined channel for some distance southward, but finally loses its water to the underflow without forming a lake or playa. Christmas and Fossil Lakes receive the drainage of their immediate surroundings only. During the Lahontan period the drainage area was about 2,000 square miles, exclusive of the Silver Lake Basin, next described. Including this, the area was about 2,750 square miles. Because of the difficulty of determining the actual position of the limiting divide, the figure for the Christmas Lake Valley proper is scarcely more than a rough approximation. THE SILVER LAKE BASIN. Silver Lake lies southeast of the Christmas Lake Valley, in a basin of structural origin and bounded by lava scarps and slopes in the manner typical of the region. To the west and southwest its drainage reaches to the crest of the lava plateau and a somewhat indefinite parting from the headwaters of the Klamath River drainage. Between it and the Christmas Lake Valley is the small but steep local uplift of the Conley Hills and Table Rock. ‘There are several low gaps in this uplift, and one of them, south of Table Rock, is only a few feet above the present Silver Lake and con- tains a dry channel through which Silver Lake discharged into the Christmas Lake Valley very recently indeed. The present Silver Lake occupies the southern portion of its valley, the northern portion being occupied by the Pauline Marsh, which empties southward through the Pauline Slough. The lake is very shallow but practically fresh, a fact which is accounted for by the recency of overflow. The lake is somewhat variable in size and is reported to have entirely evaporated in 1886-87. ‘The present drainage area is essentially the same as that of the Lahontan period, and is about 750 square miles. There is some uncertainty in the position of the divides in this area, but the uncertainty is far less than in the case of Christmas Lake Valley. Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—KAMAS PRAIRIE, NEAR LAKEVIEW, OREG. [A typical filled lake. The outlet is through the gap visible in the opposite rim.] Fic. 2.—SMALL INCLOSED PAN ON THE LAVA PLATEAU NORTH OF THE CHRISTMAS LAKE VALLEY, OREG. Bul. 54, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. PLATE III. FIG. 1.—SOUTHEAST CORNER OF ABERT LAKE, OREG. [fhe high-water line of the ancient lake is visible about one-fourth way up the mountain slope nl on the right. ] FiG. 2.—PLAYA OF ALKALI LAKE, OREG. [Showing the Lahontan period lake terraces at the foot of the mountains in the distance.] TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 25 THE CHEWAUCAN BASIN AND ABERT LAKE. The Chewaucan Basin lies between the north-south fault scarps of two outward dipping monoclines. On the west is the Winter Ridge, bounded by the 2,500-foot scarp west of Summer Lake and dipping westward to the valleys of the Klamath and the Deschutes. On the east is the similar scarp east of Abert Lake, and beyond that the gentle eastward slope of the monocline down to the Warner Valley. The two fault lines which determine these scarps come together south of Abert Lake and are lost in a region of general uplift which forms the divide between the Chewaucan Basin and the Goose Lake Basin to the south. Toward the north the fault lines diverge, and the basin is bordered by the rolling lava plateau already described in connection with the Christmas Lake Valley. The drainage of this is scarcely at all determinate and the divides between the Chewaucan and the Alkali and Christmas Lake basins are correspondingly uncertain. The deepest depressions of the basin lie just beneath the greatest heights of the scarps and are occupied respectively by Summer Lake on the west and Abert Lake on the east. Both of these lakes are very shallow. Summer Lake is bordered by a playa area on the north and east and Abert Lake on the north only. Summer Lake is about 200 feet higher than Abert and was once connected with it through the Che- waucan Marsh. This connection is now broken just south of Summer Lake by a low alluvial dam probably due in part to delta and fan formation by the Chewaucan River, which enters the valley just at this point. The divides surrounding the basin asa whole are high and structural and there is no indication of any previous overflow. Abert Lake is surrounded by terraces indicating that the water body has been much larger and deeper than now. (Pl. III, fig. 1.) The heights of these terraces have not been measured accurately, but hand-level and aneroid measurements place the highest of them at about 200 feet above the lake. The terraces can be traced about the Che- waucan Marsh, but not into Summer Lake, the present elevation of this lake being very nearly that of the highest terrace. It is probable that the present Summer Lake was once a shallow bay or filled estuary of the early water body, and that it was then cut off from the main body by wave accumulation and delta building, the details of which have been obscured by subsequent rainwash. It is impossible to determine the date of this separation or whether or not Summer Lake continued for a while to overflow into the Abert body. The present inclosed character of the lake may have originated during the maximum of the lake expansion or it may have been initiated only very much later. The writer inclines to the latter opinion, but, in any case, Summer Lake was once a tributary to Abert, and any extensive salt accumulations should be looked for in or under the latter rather than in the former. The drainage of both Summer and Abert Lakes is now slightly less than formerly, because of the decay of the drainage from the pans of the plateau region to the north, as already described in connection with the Christmas Lake Valley. The Antelope Valley south of Abert Lake was apparently once a small mountain lake which has been drained by the cutting of the gorge of Crooked Creek and at the same time filled | by alluvium. At present it has unrestricted though meager drainage to Abert Lake. Except as water is used for irrigation, the Chewaucan River and Marsh drain freely into Abert. The area now tributary to Abert, including everything except Summer Lake, is about 930 square miles. The Summer Lake drainage totals about 560 square miles, making nearly 1,500 square miles for the two. These figures are open to slight uncertainty because of the indefinite character of the northern divide. The present area of Summer Lake is 75 square miles and that of Abert Lake 60 square miles. 19750°—Bull. 54—14—4 26 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE ALKALI LAKE BASIN. The Alkali Lake Basin is essentially a northward extension of the Abert Lake trough and is separated therefrom by the region of local cross uplift in the vicinity of Euchre Butte. On the east the basin is bordered, like Abert, by the scarp of an east- ward dipping monocline which merges toward the north into the less simple uplifts of Little Juniper and Wagontire Mountains. To the west the basin is separated from the Christmas Lake and Summer Lake Valleys by the usual inconspicuous divide across the lava plateau. It appears that the lake once received from this direction a main tributary which drained the pans and valleys of the lava plateau north of Sheep Rock. This drainage line has now been cut off almost entirely, and the lava plateau has been divided into numerous local basins. The deepest depression of the valley is Alkali Lake, a playa lake of very variable size. In the dry season it is usually reduced to three or four saline ponds occupying wind-eroded depressions in the playa. (Pl. III, fig. 2.) The northern extension of — the Alkali Lake Valley, called ‘‘North Alkali,”’ is now cut off from the main valley by a dam of wave and dune sand and has become somewhat saline. However, this «separation is quite recent and does not affect the unity of the valley. A series of terraces about both North and South Alkali Valleys indicates previous occupation by a considerable lake, and, as all divides are far above these terraces, the lake must always have been inclosed. The drainage area of the lake was about 400 square miles, which has been reduced to perhaps a third of this value by the cutting off of North Alkali and of the pans of the plateau. - THE WARNER BASIN. Mention has already been made of the eastward-dipping monocline the limiting scarp of which forms the eastern boundary of the Abert Lake Basin. This monocline is limited on the east by the scarp of a second monocline of precisely similar nature, and between the two scarps lies the Warner Valley. As usual, the deepest depression lies immediately under the scarp, being accentuated in this case by a minor parallel faulting to the west of the axis of the depression. The depression is a long narrow valley between a high steep scarp to the east, and to the west a much lower scarp from the crest of which rises the gentle monoclinal slope before mentioned. ‘To the north and northwest the valley rises into a rolling plateau like those already described, and across which passes the inconspicuous divide between it and the Harney Basin. At the south the basin is limited by a zone of cross uplift and irregular faulting, beyond which lies the Surprise Valley. The Warner Valley is entirely surrounded by high divides and seems to have been always so inclosed. The surrounding mountains are furrowed by a series of lake terraces of usual character, the highest of which is (by aneroid) a little over 200 feet above the present lake. Several streams descend the gentle slope of the westward. monocline and reach the valley proper through narrow canyons cut in the basalt of the low western scarp. During the lake period nearly all of these streams built typical deltas, the remnants of which may still be seen. (PI. IV, fig. 1.) The present floor of the valley is a flat clay plain, probably once a playa, but now diversified by considerable vegetation and by occasional dune areas or wind-scoured hollows. Shallow depressions hold two main lakes and several smaller ones, the whole being known as the Warner Lakes. All of the lakes are either fresh or merely brackish, but at the southeast corner of the northern or Upper Lake is a small pond containing a nearly saturated solution of sodium chloride. Its salt is believed to be derived from seepage. The separation of the Warner Lakes is very recent. They are still variable in size and are reported to have been considerably larger about forty years ago. ee ay TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. _ 21 The only part of the basin which has suffered severely by stream decay is the long western slope. Here many once vigorous streams have dwindled to little or nothing and, have ceased to overflow a few local depressions. In nearly every case, howeyer, a very slight increase of rainfall would be sufficient to clear and, restore the drainage, and, it can not be believed that the present cut-off condition is of any considerable antiquity. This can not be so surely said of Juniper Lake, east of Adel. ‘The basin of this lake, though small, is relatively deep, and Waring! reports two old strands on its walls. It may have been inclosed for a considerable time, but the small size of the basin destroys any present interest which it might have. At present the area tributary to the Warner Lakes as a whole is perhaps not over 1,500 square miles but during the Lahontan period the drainage area was probably slightly over 2,000 square miles, there being some uncertainty as to the exact position of the northern boundary. THE HARNEY BASIN. East of the Christmas Lake Basin is another of very similar character—the Harney Basin. As before, the divides are inconspicuous and run oyer plains and rolling plateaus of little relief. In the case of the Harney, however, there is no question of the recency of overflow. Russell? explored and described the channel through’ which the basin discharged into the Malheur River, and which is now stopped by a dam of recent lava. Behind this dam the valley is broad and flat and the impounded waters, instead of overflowing the dam, have spread out to form Malheurand Harney Lakes. THE CATLOW VALLEY AND GUANO LAKE. It will be recalled that the eastern side of the Warner Valley was mentioned as bordered by the west scarp of an eastward-dipping monocline, the crest of which forms the Warner Mountains. Still farther east the Steens Mountains form a similar range, but higher and of opposite inclination. In this case the scarp faces eastward, while the gentle slope is toward the west. Essentially the area between these moun- tains is a gentle syncline with its trough running approximately north and south and its flanks cut off by the Warner and Steens Mountain scarps. In detail this simple structure is far from apparent. ‘The region is one of gently rolling lava plains, much like those already described and with its topography modified by local and irregular folding and faulting and possibly by erosion. It is little known and very inade- quately mapped, and desiccation has destroyed or obscured most of its drainage lines. Its division into specific ‘‘basins” is therefore nearly impossible and is not attempted. It is possible to point out only that there are at least two areas of considerable con- centration of drainage, the northern in Catlow Valley and the southern in Guano Lake. The Catlow Valley is of the usual flat-floor type with a shallow intermittent lake. It receives the drainage of Rock Creek from the west and of a part of the Steens Mountains slope from the east. Concerning Guano Lake, scarcely anything is known beyond the fact that it receives the flow of Warner Creek coming from the crest of the Warner Mountains to the west. At its northeast corner a narrow pass opens from the Catlow Valley into the valley ‘of the Donner and Blitzen River, one of the tributaries of Malheur Lake. The present divide in this pass is less than 300 feet above the level of the Catlow Valley, and it is natural to assume that this pass was previously a discharge channel, the present divide having been created or raised by subsequent alluvial deposition. However, Waring * reports that the Catlow Valley is surrounded by old strand lines and that these are below the divide. It may be, however, that the strands belong to a recent 1U.§. Geol. Sur., Water Supply Paper 281, 29 (1909). 2U.S. Geol Sur., Bul. 217, 22 (1903). 3U,S, Geol. Sur., Water Supply Paper 231, 65 (1909), 28 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and transient lake and that the basin was freely drained during the main Lahontan period. This could be determined only by extensive detailed study. Nothing at all is known concerning the Quaternary history of Guano Lake. The writer inclines to the opinion that it previously drained into the Catlow Valley, but the evidence favoring such a conclusion is too insignificant to warrant its acceptance. The present drainage of the Catlow Valley aggregates perhaps 1,000 square miles. During the Lahontan period about as much again is believed to have been tributary to it, making a total of about 2,000 square miles. The remainder of the syncline, including the Guano Lake Basin, has an area of approximately 1,000 square miles, which may or may not have been tributary to the latter. THE SURPRISE BASIN. The Surprise Valley is a north-and-south trough lying immediately south of the Warner trough and appearing at first sight to be a continuation of it. Closer examin- ation, however, casts considerable doubt upon this conclusion. The structure of the Surprise trough is much more complex and has never been studied in detail. The deepest depression and highest range are here on the western side of the valley, and if the structure is monoclinal the inclination is reversed from that exhibited in the Warner. From a cursory examination of the valley and the range which borders it on the west, the writer is inclined to the opivion that folding has had almost as much to do with the structure as has faulting and that the appearance of analogy to the Warner Valley is appearance only. To the north the valley rises rather suddenly to the highlands running east from Mount Bidwell and which separate it from the Warner Valley. The structure of these highlands is also unknown. Southward and eastward the valley rises more gradually to a relatively undisturbed lava plateau, the features of which are due to folding and erosion much more than to faulting. The low and featureless range which separates the Surprise Valley from Long Valley on the east suggests a gentle anticline of north-south axis, but this is by no means certain. The present floor of the valley is very similar to that of the Warner Valley, being essentially a great playa, in shallow depressions of which stand the Upper, Middle, and Lower Surprise Lakes. This plain is somewhat less diversified than that of the Warner and its playa character is more apparent. The lakes are very variable and it is reported that the northern or Upper Lake sometimes evaporates entirely to dryness. The Lower or southernmost lake is connected with the Middle Lake by a narrow slough, the latter being separated from the Upper Lake by a low alluvial divide. A series of old strands of usual character surround the whole valley and indicate previous occupation by a single great lake which stood about 350 feet above the present floor and was permanently without outlet. This lake has left wave bars, terraces, etc., which rival in completeness those of Lahontan and Bonneville. Lake Annie, north of Fort Bidwell, lies behind a wave bar of this kind built across the mouth of a narrow canyon which was an estuary of the ancient lake. On the crest of the northern divide, east of Mount Bidwell, lies the small basin of Cowhead Lake, once a tributary of the Surprise, but now cut off by desiccation. New Year Lake, near the crest of the eastern divide, is of similar character. South of the valley the large basin of Duck Flat, also at one time a tributary and later filled by an arm of the ancient lake, has been cut off by a low and recent alluvial divide to form an inclosed basin. The present tributaries of the valley include only a number of short mountain streams, mostly intermittent in character. The area now tributary to the valley is about 900 square miles. With Duck Flat and the basin of Cowhead and New Year Lakes the area is 1,580 square miles. It is possible that Long Valley, to the east, was also once tributary to the Surprise. If the area of this be included the total becomes 2,350 square miles. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 29 THE LONG VALLEY BASIN. Long Valley lies just east of the Surprise Valley, beyond the crest of the gentle anticline (?) already mentioned. It is a poorly defined valley the detailed structure of which is very complex. On all sides it merges with the folded and dissected lava plateau already mentioned. Its floor is an irregularly shaped playa dotted with shallow and variable lakes, between which are very low and inconspicuous divides. Several low passes lead out of the valley at about the same elevation, one to the Coleman Valley (a tributary of the Warner Basin) and the others either to Duck Flat or directly to the Surprise Valley. Without detailed examination it is not pos- sible to determine which of these, if any, was a channel of ancient discharge. The writer inclines to the opinion that during the Lahontan period there was free or over- flow discharge into Duck Flat and thence to the Surprise Valley, but this conclusion can not be considered certain. The present lakes are fresh or brackish only. It is not possible to determine the present drainage of each. The area of the whole valley is about 775 square miles. THE ALVORD VALLEY. It will be recalled that the shallow syncline of the Catlow and Guano Valleys was bordered on the east by the uplift of the Steens Mountains. The eastern face of this range is a high fault scarp, directly below which lies the Alvord Valley. Like the Warner and Abert Valleys it is essentially monoclinal in structure, though an anti- clinical structure previous and parallel to the faulting has been detected by both Russell and Waring. In the Steens Mountains this anticlinal structure seems to be entirely overshadowed by the much more profound monoclinal movement, but east- ward from the Alvord Valley faulting and tilting have not been so profound and the eastward divide of the basin seems to be determined by the crest of one of the original anticlines. To the south the basin reaches the less regular upliits of the Pine Forest Mountains and Trident Peak. It is separated from the Black Rock Desert only by an alluvial divide across the Pueblo Valley, but this divide is nearly a thousand feet above the valley and is almost certainly pre-Lahontan. The northern extremity of the Alvord Valley is little known and it is possible that there may have been an outlet to the Malheur River, though the considerable salinity of the valley and the presence of old strand lines around it would indicate the contrary. The present bottom of the valley is cut by alluvial divides into the subsidiary basins of Ten Cent, Juniper, Mann, Alvord, and Tum Tum Lakes and that of the Alvord Desert. All of these were covered and connected by the early lake and it is possible that most of the others drained into that of the Alvord Desert for some time after desiccation had begun. The White Horse Basin was also a former tributary and has been cut off by the accumulation of alluvium and dune sand in Sand Gap, through which it formerly discharged. The Thousand Creek and Virgin Creek Valley lying on the lava plateau east of Long Valley, Nevada, seems to have been also a tributary of the Alvord and is now separated thereform only by a low alluvial divide in the gap north of the Pine Forest Mountains. This valley has suffered greatly by stream decay and now contains numerous local playas of small area and very recent origin. The areas of the various small basins into which the Alvord Valley is now divided have not been computed in detail. Their total area, exclusive of the White Horse Basin and the Thousand Creek Valley is about 1,600 square miles. The area of the White Horse Basin is about 300 square miles, and that of the Thousand Creek Valley 1,300 square miles, making a total of 3,200 square miles for the drainage area of the Alvord Basin during the Lahontan period. 30 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE GOOSE LAKE BASIN. South of the Abert Basin, but without any certain structural relation thereto, is * another north-south trough in which lies Goose Lake, between the Warner Mountains on the east and the Modoc lava plateau on the west. The southern portion of this valley is occupied and drained by the Pitt River, the northern, or Goose Lake por- tion, being separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide just south of the lake. This divide is apparently recent and is now only a few feet above the lake. It is probable that the lake has frequently overflowed it, and indeed it is reported that this has occasionally happened within the memory of present inhabitants. Undoubtedly the freshness of Goose Lake is to be thus explained. THE MADELINE BASIN. On the lava plateau-north of the Honey Lake Basin is the very similar basin of the Madeline Plains. The structure of its walls is very irregular and in many places the ~ divides are not exactly determinable. A number of low passes lead both to the Pitt River drainage and to the Honey Lake Basin, and some one of these.may formerly have served asa channel of overflow. However, old strand lines are visible at several points about the basin and serve to indicate the existence and fluctuations of an inclosed lake. Until passesand strands have been studied more exactly and compared with each other it is impossible to read with any assurance the history of this ancient lake or to determine whether it overflowed or how long the overflow continued. Still less is it possible to decide whether the overflow, if any, was into the Pitt River or into Honey Lake. The present floor of the valley is flat and featureless, except for occasional dune areas. There are many small local playas, but no area of general concentration is noted on the available maps or was observed by the writer. The plain is nowhere saline. At its southwestern corner an outlying tongue of the plain has been cut off by a low alluvial divide and forms the Grasshopper Valley. This valley was evidently once a part of the Madeline water body, but its subsequent relations thereto are uncer- tain. Itnowcontainsasmallmarch. The total area of the Madeline Basin, including Grasshopper Valley, is about 900 square miles. THE MODOC LAVA BEDS. West and northwest of the Goose Lake Valley a series of great basalt flows stretches westward to the volcanic uplift which culminates in Mount Shasta. Diversified only by minor faults and foldsand by a few deep and narrow canyons of erosion, the region has not developed any extensive drainage system and advancing desiccation has destroyed what little drainage there once was. The streams are dry and the occa- sional shallow depressions are areas of inclosed drainage floored by local playas. The region is not unlike that surrounding the Christmas Lake Valley as described on page 23, and, like it, has no importance to thisinquiry. The small basins of the lava beds are so tiny and their inclosed condition is so recent that salt accumulation in them is practically out of the question. Thisappliesalso to the basin of Medicine Lake on the western edge of the area near Mount Hoffman, though it is not so fully desiccated as its analogues to the east. THE KLAMATH LAKES. On the northeastern border of the lava bed region are a series of shallow basins holding the Klamath Lakes. The geologic history of this region has not been studied in detail, but a brief examination of the major features has suggested to the writer that the present lakes probably occupy local depressions in the bed of a much larger lake, perhaps of late Tertiary age, which lake has been drained by the cutting of the gorge of the Klamath River. A similar history, on a smaller scale, is to be ascribed TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. oi to two tributaries of the Klamath group—the Klamath and Sycan Marshes. During the Lahontan period the whole of this region doubtless drained freely to the sea, but subsequent desiccation has so weakened its streams and increased fan-building that much of the area is now cut up into small basins and local saline playas. Even the large Tule Lake overflows only intermittently and several of the smaller lakes do not dosoatall. All this, however, is quite recent and essentially the region has been and is one of seaward drainage. THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF NEVADA AND THE BASINS OF THE TRANSITION ZONE. The general character of these basins and their relations to the other divisions of the Great Basin were noted briefly on page 9. There is really no essential structural difference between them and those similar trough valleys which have chanced to drain to Lake Lahontan or to the Amargosa River, but this difference of drainage is quite important from the present viewpoint and makes desirable a separate treatment. The valleys of this division, though much alike in essentials of structure and topography, present an almost infinite variety of detail. It is obviously impossible to discuss them thoroughly, and the following statements are confined to a brief note of location and to those facts essential to the present inquiry. THE DIXIE BASIN. The Dixie or Osobb Valley occupies the first inclosed trough east of the Carson Sink. It now receives the drainage of the Pleasant Valley from the north and the Middle Gate and East Gate Valleys from the southeast. Neither of these drainage lines is now active, but both are freely open and are still traversed by the flood waters of heavy storms. The Fairview Valley to the south was probably once a tributary of the Dixie, but is now cut off by a low ridge the nature of which is not fully certain. The writer regards it as probably due to recent minor faulting, but possesses no con- clusive evidence to this effect. Behind this barrier has been formed a small nonsaline playa known as Labou Flat. The northern end of the Pleasant Valley is separated from the Humboldt Valley by a divide the present surface of which is alluvial, but this divide is high above the bottom of the Dixie Valley and the valley is believed never to have discharged in this direction or in any other. The greatest depression of the valley contains a mud flat nearly 60 square miles in area, in the center of which is a body of loosely crys- - tallized common salt about 10 square miles in area and from 2 to 10 feet thick. This salt deposit is known as the Humboldt Salt Marsh and was once the source of commercial salt for metallurgical purposes. Old strand lines 150 feet and 40 feet above the present surface of the salt bed indicate the existence and fluctuations of the lake from which it was probably derived. The area now permanently or occasionally tributary to the Dixie Valley is 2,000 square miles. The Fairview Valley has an area of 290 square miles, making a total of 2,290 square miles for the probable Dixie Valley of Lahontan time. THE GABBS VALLEY. Gabbs Valley lies southeast of that last described and is the northernmost of the small basins which constitute the transition zone. It is entirely surrounded by mountains of considerable height and has-almost certainly never overflowed. It contains a saline flat with a sandy instead of a mud surface and about 25 square miles in area. There are no traces of an early lake. The total area of the basin is 1,280 square miles. 32 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SODA SPRINGS TROUGH. South of the Gabbs Valley and west of the Pilot Mountain Range is a short trough, now separated by alluvial divides into four small basins—the Acme, Luning, Mina, and Rhodes. Each basin contains a small playa, that of Rhodes being very saline, though the others are not especially so. The present areas are: Acme 130 square miles, Luning 175 square miles, Mina 65 square miles, and Rhodes 210 square miles, making a total of 580 square miles. It is very difficult to guess the topography of this trough during the Lahontan period. Both divides and playas have been raised by post-Lahontan alluvial deposition and it may be either that the whole trough once drained into Rhodes or that it all, including Rhodes, drained northward into Walker Lake. The writer inclines to the opinion that the trough drained partly one way and partly the other, the Acme Basin being tributary to Walker Lake and the Luning and Mina Basins to Rhodes. If so, this may account for the greater salinity of the Rhodes playa, though the writer has been unable © to discover any conclusive evidence of the existence of a Quaternary lake in this basin. On the assumption stated the Lahontan period drainage area of the ‘Rhodes Basin would be 450 square miles. There is also a bare possibility that the Garfield Flat, next to be described, once drained into the Mina Basin and thence to the Rhodes. Including this and the Acme Basin, the Rhodes drainage area would be 670 square miles, which is a maximum value. THE GARFIELD BASIN. Just west of the Mina Basin and north of the main ridge of the Excelsior Mountains lies a small inclosed valley, the deepest depression of which is the Garfield Flat playa. The divide between this basin and the Mina Basin is in one place scarcely 150 feet above the playa and it is barely possible that there may once have been an outlet over or through this divide. The drainage area of the basin is but 90 square miles and this is believed far too small to have attained discharge over a divide of the present height, but the divide may formerly have been lower and subsequently raised by the deposition of alluvium. The question could probably be settled by careful study of the basin, but is unimportant, since the area is too small to give the basin any interest. THE TEELS BASIN. The Teels Basin lies directly south of the Garfield Basin. The lowest pass opens into the Rhodes Basin, but is over 800 feet above the floor and apparently never could have been a channel of overflow. Neither has the basin ever had any tributaries. The only chance of former inflow would be from the Huntoon Basin (described below) and the dividing pass is so high as to render this extremely improbable. The area of the basin is 320 square miles. In its deepest depression is the well-known Teels Salt Marsh, a playa of high salinity and which has unusual interest for the present inquiry because of the reported occurrence of hanksite and other saline minerals associated with the potash deposits at Searles Lake, California. THE HUNTOON BASIN. The Huntoon Basin is another basin quite similar to the Garfield and the Teels and lying west of the latter. The lowest pass leads into Teels, but since it is over 300 feet above the bottom, it is not considered probable that it was ever a line of discharge. The deepest depression contains a playa of the usual type, and not especially saline. The area of the basin is 115 square miles. Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fig. 1.-OLD DELTA OF HONEY CREEK, IN THE WARNER BASIN, OREG. [A delta built into the Warner Lake during the Lahontan period and since much dissected by stream erosion.] Fig. 2.—ANCIENT LAKE TERRACES ON THE EAST SIDE OF THE RAILROAD VALLEY, NEV. Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ; PLATE V. Fig. 2.—CALCAREOUS TUFA COATING ON ROCKS 300 FEET ABOVE THE BOTTOM OF SEARLES LAKE BASIN, CAL., AND DEPOSITED BY THE WATERS OF THE ANCIENT LAKE. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 33 , THE MONTE CRISTO BASIN. East of the Soda Springs Trough and surrounded by the Monte Cristo, Pilot, and Cedar Mountains, lies the Monte Cristo Basin. Its lowest divide is in the gap between, the Cedar and Monte Cristo Mountains and is but little over 300 feet above the bottom of the valley. This divide is not alluvial, but there are some indications of recent movement and it is not impossible that this pass was once lower and the locus of an outflow into the Big Smoky Valley. The area of the basin is but 300 square miles, and, whether it overflowed or not, it is too small to be of great importance. Its deepest depression is now covered by loose blown sand. THE COLUMBUS BASIN. South of the Soda Springs Trough is the north-south trough of the Fish Lake Valley, all of which drains freely northward to the playa called the Columbus Salt Marsh and. occupying the extreme northern end of the trough. The stream which occupied Fish Lake Valley has lost much of its vigor and a number of more or less saline marshes and playas have been left along its course. All of these are recent and unimportant. The lowest pass through which a discharge from the Columbus playa would be possible leads into Rhodes and the Soda Springs Trough, but the divide is nearly 500 feet above the playa, and there is little probability that discharge actually took place over it. The basin has almost certainly been an inclosed one during and since the Lahontan period. There isa system of strand lines of usual character, the highest about 150 feet above the flat. The present drainage area of the Columbus is quite small, but including the part of the Fish Lake Valley recently tributary to it, though now cut off, it equals 1,350 square miles. The Columbus playa is about 50 square miles in area. THE CLAYTON OR SILVER PEAK BASIN. The Clayton or Silver Peak Basin occupies a rather irregular structural depression just east of the Fish Lake Valley. Its lowest pass being 650 feet above its bottom, there is reasonable certainty that it never overflowed, though there is no satisfactory direct evidence that it formerly contained a lake. Its bottom is a very saline playa with many crusts and layers of common salt, both on the surface and in the clays below. The area of the playa is about 30 square miles and that of the basin about 550 square miles. THE BIG SMOKY BASIN. Eastward of Gabbs Valley and the southern end of the Dixie Valley lie three parallel north-and-south troughs, of which the outer two slope and drain southward, while the middle carries the northward-flowing stream of the Reese River. Toward the south the central trough and its limiting ranges pinch out and the two outer troughs merge into a much broader valley which continues to slope southward. These two outer troughs and their southward extension form the Big Smoky Basin. The whole has suffered greatly by stream decay, with the formation of many local playas and the cut- ting off by alluvial dams of the extremities of both of the northern troughs. The deepest depression of the basin is in the extreme southwest corner and is a playa of small salinity and somewhat diversified by small dune areas. Just west of this playa between the Silver Peak and Monte Cristo Ranges is a pass scarcely 200 feet above the playa and leading into the Columbus Basin. The drain- age area of the Big Smoky seems great enough to have filled the depression during the Lahontan period to a depth greater than 200 feet, but there is no evidence of dis- charge over this pass, and the highest of a system of lake terraces which surrounds the present playa is below the level of the pass. It is probable, therefore, that the Big Smoky did not overflow. 19750°—Bull. 54—14—_5 34 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The area now tributary to the Big Smoky playa is probably not over 1,000 square miles, but the addition of the area to the north cut off by stream decay makes a total of 2,140 square mile. With the Kingston Basin, which was formerly tributary to it and is described below, the total area is 3,325 square miles, which was probably the drainage area of the valley during the Lahontan period. THE KINGSTON BASIN. The Kingston Basin occupies the northern tip of the eastern trough of the Big Smoky Basin, as above described. The separation from the Big Smoky is by an alluvial divide of uncertain age, but which the writer regards as recent. The floor of the basin carries a chain of local playas of greater or lesser size, lying along what was probably the old drainage line. These playas are separated from one another by alluvial divides mostly very low and inconspicuous. Their basins have not been individually traced or computed. The total area of the Kingston Basin, including ~ all the local playas north of the, main alluvial divide, is 1,190 square miles, all of which seems to have been formerly tributary to the Big Smoky Basin. ( THE EDWARDS CREEK BASIN. The Edwards Creek Basin lies east of the Dixie Basin above described and between the Clan Alpine Mountains on the west and the Desatoya-New Pass Range on the east. The surrounding divides are all well defined and mountainous, except at the south end. This southern divide, while superficially alluvial, seems to be fundamentally structural, and the writer regards it also as pre-Lahontan. The Edwards Creek Basin has sain long been landlocked. The basin now receives the drainage of the northern end of the Smiths Creek Valley and it seems probabie that it once received the entire drainage of this valley, as described below. The lowest depression is a playa about 15 square miles in area and not known to be especially saline. There are a few suggestions of old lake strands about the walls of the valley, but these are by no means unmistakable. The present drainage area of the basin is about 490 square miles. With the Smiths Creek basin the total is 990 square miles. THE SMITHS CREEK BASIN. The Smiths Creek Basin occupies the northern tip of the western trough of the Big Smoky Basin as described on page 33. Its past and even its present drainage rela- tions are not certainly known. ' It seems that it is limited at both ends by alluvial divides. The southern of these is between 300 and 400 feet above the valley floor and forms the separation from the Ione Valley, a present tributary of the Big Smoky Basin. To the north the end of the valley is structurally defined, but the extreme north end of the structural trough drains westward through the narrow gap of New Pass Canyon and does not belong hydrographically to the Smiths Creek Basin. This northern end is separated from the main body of the Smiths Creek Valley by a low divide which the writer has not examined and concerning which no information is available. It is probable that it is low and alluvial and that the Smiths Creek Basin discharged over it and through New Pass Canyon into the Edwards Creek Basin above described. If this be true the playa, which now occupies about 23 square miles in the Smiths Creek Valley, must be of quite recent origin. The total present drainage area of the Smiths Creek Basin is about 500 square miles. THE GOLDFIELD BASIN. The Goldfield Basin lies west of the town of Goldfield and occupies what is struc- turally a southward extension of the eastern trough of the Big Smoky. It is cut off from the latter basin by an alluvial divide about 500 feet above the bottom of the 44 TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 35 Goldfield Basin and about 600 feet above that of the Big Smoky. There is another divide at about the same elevation in a gap leading into the Clayton Basin. Both of these divides are believed to be pre-Lahontan and the Basin is thought to have beer always inclosed. It has an area of 330 square miles and contains a small playa of usual character. THE DIAMOND BASIN. The Diamond Valley proper is a narrow north-south trough stretching north from Eureka, Nev., between the Sulphur Springs and Diamond Ranges. In itself it has an area of less than 1,000 square miles, but into its southwest corner discharges the remnant of a former great drainage system which drained the southern portion ofthe topographically poorly-defined region mentioned on page 16. The area of this drainage system aggregated 1,870 square miles and included the present Kobeh, Dry, and Monitor Valleys, the latter extending south to the north end of the Ralston Valley (Armagosa drainage system) near the old town of Belmont. Most of this drainage system is still essentially open, though never fully occupied by water. Storm waters occasionally fill part of it, but seem never to reach the Diamond Valley itself. In many places, especially in the southern end of the Monitor Valley, low and recent alluvial dams have been built and have caused the formation of local playas and marshes. None of these have any present importance. The deepest depression of the Diamond Valley contains a very saline marsh or playa carrying a body of common salt of unknown extent and character. The lowest outward pass is Railroad Canyon at the northeast corner and leads into the Hunting- ton River and thence to the Humboldt. This pass is now about 275 feet above the Diamond Valley salt marsh and it is uncertain whether it ever served as a channel of discharge. The writer inclines to the opinion that it did, but that the discharge was by overflow and occurred only during the maximum of the lake expansion. A long subsequent history as an independent valley seems very probable and is directly indicated by traces of old strand lines on the walls of the valley. In this report the valley is classed as landlocked and its area is not included in that of the Humboldt- Carson Basin. The present drainage area tributary to the Diamond Valley playa is perhaps 900 square miles. The Lahontan period area was 2,800 square miles. THE RAILROAD VALLEY. The Railroad Valley is the largest of the inclosed troughs of Nevada and lies just southeast of the geographical center of the State, between the White Pine Range to the east and the Pancake Mountains to the west. The former range is one of the best defined of the Great Basin and, being high and continuous, it has formed a permanent divide between the Railroad Valley and the drainage of the Colorado River. The Pancake Mountains are much lower and less well defined and are crossed by several fairly low passes, through one of which (Twin Springs Pass) the Hot Creek Valley still drains into the Railroad Valley. West of the Hot Creek Valley is the Hot Creek Range, for the most part high and continuous, but cut about its middle by the canyon of the Hot Creek, through which comes the drainage of the southern portion of Fish Spring Valley, lying still farther west. The northern portion of this valley is now cut off by a low alluvial divide, but this is almost certainly very recent. Hot Creek Valley has also two other tributaries—part of the Little Smoky Valley from the north and part of the Reveille Valley from the south. The former is cut by an alluvial divide, north of which the drainage goes to the Gibson Valley, as discussed on page 17. This divide is believed to be pre-Lahontan and to have been a permanent parting between the Lahontan and Railroad Valley drainages. Reveille Valley is cut into three portions by two alluvial divides, the northern portion draining into the Hot Creek Valley, the southern portion into the Kawich (see p. 36), and the middle por- ~ 36 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tion eastward into the Railroad Valley proper. At its northern extremity the Rail- road Valley proper is limited by an alluvial divide across the narrow Newark Valley; but this divide, though superficially alluvial, is really due to the general uplift of this region and is unquestionably pre-Lahontan. The southern extremity of the Rail- road Valley is determined by the eastward bend of the Quinn Canyon Mountains (White Pine Range) to join the Reveille Range, which is the southward extension of the Pancakes. It is probable that the Penoyer Valley, lying south of this divide, was once a tributary of the Railroad Valley, but this will be discussed below. The present deepest depression of the Railroad Valley lies rather north of its center and is a typical playa about 80 square miles in area and not unusually saline. South of this area large number of smaller playas determined by recent alluvial divides and receiving the drainage of their immediate surroundings only. One of these, lying south of the Twin Springs Pass, is of considerable size and is separated from the main valley by a fairly high divide due mainly to the fan built eastward by the Hot Creek Valley discharge as it leaves the Twin Springs Pass. This divide may be of © considerable antiquity and the basin behind it may have had a significant independent history. It is, however, the writer’s opinion that both divide and basin are post- Lahontan. Some of these southern playas are of considerable salinity and about the north end of the main playa are a number of small pans apparently caused by previous dune accumulations and which are also quite saline. The salts of some of these pans contain significant proportions of potassium and the Railroad Valley Company of Tonopah is now (1912) drilling at the north end of the main playa in the hope of finding buried deposits of potassium salts. Hot Creek Valley and its tributaries have suffered less from alluvial damming than has Railroad Valley proper. The channel which traverses it is still open, though seldom occupied, and no significant areas of local concentration are known. A small stream apparently derived from the Hot Creek Valley underflow traverses the Twin Springs Pass, but does not reach the main Railroad Valley playa. There can be no doubt of the permanently inclosed character of the Railroad Valley, and a series of old strand lines and wave bars witnesses its former occupation by a per- sistent lake. (PI.IV,fig.2.) The highest of these strands is 155 feet by aneroid above the main playa. The area now tributary to the main playa is perhaps 2,000 square miles. Includ- ing Hot Creek Valley and its present tributaries and all the playas of the Railroad Valley proper, the area is 4,555 square miles. Fish Spring Valley adds 415 square miles, making a total of 4,970 square miles which is reasonably certain to have been tributary to the valley during the Lahontan period. With the Kawich and Penoyer Valleys, which were probably though not certainly once tributary, the total drainage area would be 6,340 square miles. This isa maximum value. THE KAWICH BASIN. The Kawich Valley has already been noted as lying south of the Reveille Valley and separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide. This divide is now about 400 feet above the bottom of the valley, but has probably been considerably raised by recently added alluvium. The writer is of the opinion that it is post-Lahontan and that the Lahontan period drainage of the Kawich was north, through the middle por- tion of the Reveille Valley, and thence northeast into the Railroad Valley. The pres- ent floor of the Kawich Valley is a flat on which are a number of playas of the usual character. The area of the basin is 370 square miles. THE PENOYER BASIN. The Penoyer Valley lies south of the Railroad Valley proper and is believed to be separated therefrom only by an alluvial divide of recent origin. However, the maps of the region are very inadequate and the writer’s personal examinations have not TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ST been sufficiently thorough to warrant a decided opinion. The bottom of the valley is known to carry a playa, but its nature is unknown. The basin area is about 1,000 square miles. THE GOLD FLAT BASIN. Gold Flat lies west of the Kawich Basin and below the northern slope of the Pahute Mesa. Its lowest side is toward the north and is never less than 600 feet above the flat. The topography is such that it can not be considered entirely impossible for this north boundary to be due to recent alluvial accumulation, but it does not seem probable. The writer is of the opinion that the inclosed character of the basin is pre- Lahontan. The flat carries one playa about 3 square miles in area and several smaller ones. The basin area is 640 square miles. THE EMIGRANT BASIN. The Emigrant or Timpahute Valley lies south and southeast of the Penoyer Basin. No satisfactory maps of it are available, and it has not been visited by the writer. Nearly everything concerning it is uncertain, but it is believed to be inclosed by per- manent divides and to have a drainage area of about 800 square miles, concentrating ina playa about 10 square milesinarea. Thereis, however, great uncertainty as to the position of the divide between it and the Pintwater Basin (see below), and the actual drainage area may be as large as 1,000 square miles or as small as 400 square miles. It is more likely to be smaller than larger than the figure of 800 square miles given above. THE YUCCA BASIN. The Yucca Basin lies directly southwest of the Emigrant Valley. Little is known concerning it, but it is separated from the Frenchman Flat Basin to the south by an alluvial divide less than 100 feet high and is believed to have been tributary thereto. It now contains a small playa. The basin area is slightly less than 300 square miles. THE FRENCHMAN FLAT BASIN. Frenchman Flat lies south of the Yucca Basin in the depression within the crescent of the Spotted Range. There is a pass about 500 feet high opening into the Amargosa Valley, but this divide, though partly alluvial, is believed to be pre-Lahontan, The basin has probably been permanently inclosed. It contains a typical playa. Alone, the area of the basin is about 450 square miles, but including the Yucca Basin (see above), which was probably once a tributary, the area is about 740 square miles. THE INDIAN SPRING BASIN. The Indian Spring Valley is a north-south trough lying east of the Frenchman Flat Basin and between the Spotted and Pintwater Ranges. It is separated from the Lee Canyon Basin by a divide only 130 feet high. This divide is alluvial and almost cer- tainly recent and there is little doubt that the basin once drained into the Lee Canyon Basin and, thence to the Las Vegas Valley and the Colorado River. The area of the present basin is 650 square miles. THE PINTWATER BASIN. The Pintwater or Desert Valley is a trough similar to that of the Indian Spring Valley and lying east of it. At its south end it is separated from the Lee Canyon Basin by a recent alluvial divide only a few feet high. There is no doubt that the basin was very recently a part of the Colorado drainage. The area of the basin is esti- mated at 730 square miles, but the position of the northern boundary is very uncertain and this area is a very rough approximation. 38 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE LEE CANYON BASIN. “The Lee Canyon Basin is of very recent origin, occupying the northwestern end of the Las Vegas Valley, being separated from the main drainage of that valley by a divide less than 15.feet high. It was once the channel of the drainage of the Pint- water and Indian Spring Basins, as above noted. Because of its recency the basin has no importance to the present inquiry. Its area is 300 square miles. THE SHEEP RANGE BASIN. The Sheep Range Basin lies between the Sheep and Desert Ranges and east of the Pintwater Basin. Its northern third has never been mapped and is almost unknown. It may have drained into the Pintwater or directly into the Colorado drainage, or it may have been always inclosed. In any case, its small area of less than 300 square miles renders it unimportant. THE SPRING VALLEY BASIN. The Spring Valley is a trough valley of regular and normal type lying east of the southern part of the Steptoe Valley (see p. 20) and parallel thereto. Its northern end has never been mapped accurately and has not been visited by the writer. It is con- sidered probable that the valley once drained either northward into the Goshute Basin or northwestward into the basin of the Great Salt Lake, but it can not be said definitely that this is the case. The area of the basin is about 1,550 square miles, this area being somewhat approximate, owing to uncertainty as to the position and nature of the northern boundary. THE DESERT VALLEY DRY LAKES: In the Desert Valley, southwest of the town of Pioche, Nev., is a group of small playas or ‘‘dry lakes.’’ These playas and the trough in which they lie were very recently tributary to the Colorado River drainage and are now cut off therefrom only by low alluvial divides. Neither they nor their basin has any importance from the present point of view. THE GANNETT BASIN. Near the station of Gannett, east of Las Vegas, on the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake Railway, a former tributary of Muddy Creek has been dammed by alluvium with the formation of a small and shallow basin of very recent origin. Its drainage area is less than 150 square miles and both this small size and its recent origin render it of no importance. THE OPAL MOUNTAIN BASIN. The Opal Mountain Basin lies in an isolated trough between the McCollough Range and the Opal or Eldorado Range in the extreme southern corner of Nevada. It appears to be mainly structural and those divides which are superficially alluvial are high and probably ancient. The writer is inclined to regard the basin as pre- Lahontan, but has never visited it and can not advance a decided opinion. If over- flow ever did occur it was unquestionably into the Colorado River. The area‘of the basin is 580 square miles. It contains a playa of unknown area and character. THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF CALIFORNIA AND THE MOJAVE DESERT. South of the Lahontan Basin, the western boundary of the Great Basin is still the crest of the Sierra Nevada, which continues to run nearly north and south until just north of the thirty-fifth parallel, where the Sierras bend slightly westward to form the lower and more diffuse Tehachapi Mountains. These merge to the south into another TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 39 _ main uplift, that of the San Bernardino Mountains, but the trend is here northwest and southeast, instead of north and south. These trends of the basm boundary are paralleled by the troughs within it. In the northern part of this division are four great troughs running very nearly north and south and hence parallel to the Sierra. In the southern portion are two similar troughs, but running north- west and southeast in parallelism to the crest of the San Bernardinos. Between the two sets of troughs is a considerable area of more com- plex structure and less pronounced relief. Of the northern troughs the westernmost, under the crest of the Sierra, contains the Owens Valley, with the Mono and Searles Basins to the north and south, re- spectively. The next trough to the east is the Panamint Valley, with what are essentially its northern extensions in the Saline, Eureka, and Deep Springs Valleys. The third trough is that of Death Valley, and the fourth and last is that of the Amargosa Valley, with the Pahrump and Ivanpah Valleys cut off from its southern end. The interme- diate zone of less concentrated uplift is mainly dramed by the Mojave River, though the Kane, Willard, Granite Mountain, and Owl Basins lie within it and seem to have been permanently undrained. The two southern troughs parallel to the San Bernardinos belong partly by the Mojave drainage and partly to the former drainage of the Colorado River, being cut by alluvial divides in the same manner as the trough valleys of Nevada south and east of the Lahontan Basin. THE MONO BASIN. The Mono Basin is here classed as belonging to the westernmost or Owens Valley trough of this division, but its structural affiliations are quite as close with the basins of the Nevada transition zone and the classification adopted is entirely arbitrary. It occupies a structural depression of considerable depth, contains the saline Mono Lake, and has always been without outlet. The Quaternary history of the basin has been studied by Russell,! to whose report the reader is referred for details. One part of the structural basin, the Aurora Basin, is now cut off from the valley of Mono Lake by a divide nearly 300 feet high, but this divide was below the waters of the greater lake which occupied the valley during the Lahontan period, and the independent history of the Aurora Basin is post-Lahontan only. The area of the present Mono Basin is 675 square miles. With the Aurora Basin, the total is 770 square miles. THE OWENS BASIN. The Owens Valley occupies the central and largest portion of the trough just east . of the Sierra. Its general slope is southward and it is occupied for most of its length by the Owens River, which empties into Owens Lake at the southern extremity of the valley. South of the lake is an alluvial divide only 166 feet above the present surface of the lake. This divide is apparently of some antiquity, but it is considered practically certain that the lake overflowed it during the Lahontan period and dis- charged southward into the Searles Basin described below. The independent history of the Owens Basin is therefore comparatively short, and the considerable salinity of Owens Lake acquires unusual interest for the interpretation of the geochemical history of the Great Basin. 1U.S. Geol. Sur., 8th Annual Report, Part I, pp. 261-394 (1889). 40 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At its northern end Owens Valley now receives the drainage of Long Valley, and doubtless once received that of Adobe Valley, now a region of several local depressions. Except for the loss of Adobe Valley the basin has suffered very little by stream decay, having been saved by its proximity to the Sierra. The present area of the Owens Basin is 2,550 square miles; with the Adobe Valley it is 2,825 square miles. THE SEARLES BASIN. The Searles Basin lies directly south of the Owens, and the greater portion of its area is a direct continuation of the Owens Valley trough. The deepest depression, how- ever, lies eastward beyond the Argus Range, which is here cut by a narrow canyon of erosion—Salt Wells Canyon. This deepest depression is the so-called Searles Lake. The tributary area to the west is known in various parts as the Indian Wells, China Lake, and Salt Wells Valleys. The bottom of the Searles depression is a body of white crystalline salts almost 12 square miles in area and with a maximum depth of about 75 feet. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) Under this are saline muds and sands, sometimes more or less cemented. The salts are mainly the chloride, carbonate, and sulphate of sodium, with lesser amounts of borax and of salts of potassium, the latter being largely in the brine which saturates the salt body. The potassium and other salts are believed to be very valuable commercially, and preparations are now under way for their exploitation. — The Salt Wells Canyon is pre-Lahontan, but the lake which occupied Searles during the Lahontan period stood a little over 600 feet above the present salt flat and extended through this canyon and a considerable way into the valley to the west. Both then and since this latter valley has acted asa settling basin for alluvium, and this is believed to have much to do with thé exceptional purity of the Searles salt body. A series of old lake and estuarine beds clinging to the walls of Salt Wells Canyon records a period of some length during which the lake stood at a moderate elevation, perhaps 300 feet above the present surface, and permitted the partial filling of the canyon, which was then an estuary. This same intermediate level and several others, both above and below it, are recorded in a complex peries of lake terraces, tufa deposits, etc., which surround the basin. (PI. V, fig. 2.) These relicta of the ancient lake have suffered much more by erosion than have the similar records of Lakes Lahontan and Bonne- ville, but the significance of this fact is yet obscure. It will be recalled that the Owens Valley probably once overflowed into Stanles through the Salt Wells Valley, and it is quite possible that Searles itself had a period of overflow. The highest of the lake strands about the basin is a trifle over 600 feet above the floor and the divide at the southern end of the basin between it and the drainage of the Panamint is at very nearly the same elevation. It is possible that the lake spilled for a time over this divide into the Panamint. The question could doubtless be settled by a careful study of this divide and the approaches to it, but the study has not been made, and it is not now possible to be certain. In any case, the lake can hardly have overflowed for long, since the divide is not an alluvial dam, and, if anything, has probably been lowered rather than raised by post-Lahontan rain- wash. Furthermore, the series of terraces below the divide indicates a long and varied independent existence of the lake, and the absence of tufa on or near the highest terrace suggests that when the lake did overflow (if it did) it was essentially fresh. At the present time the tributary valley west of Searles has suffered greatly by stream decay and has come to contain a large number of more or less local playas, the most important of which is China Lake. All these are shallow and recent and would again become tributary to Searles if the rainfall were to increase only very slightly. Including them and the whole of its present tributaries the area of the basin is 2,030 square miles. With the entire Owens Basin the area is 4,850 square miles, which almost certainly represents its area during the Lahontan period. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 41 THE PANAMINT BASIN. The Panamint Valley occupies the southern portion of the trough east of that of the Owens Valley, being the second trough east of the Sierra. It has two tributary valleys, the Leach Valley in the southeast corner and a part of the Coso Valley to the north- west, from both of which the drainage is still entirely open. The floor of the Panamint is divided by a low alluvial divide into two sections, each of which contains a playa, the northern one having a present or very recent drainage into the southern. Both of these playas are saline, the southern one especially so. Stream decay has also pro- duced a number of small local playas in both ends of the valley, all of which are recent and unimportant. The most interesting feature in the topography of the Panamint is the possible former drainage from the Searles Basin, as discussed above. However, as there noted, this inflow was at most very brief and has probably not affected very greatly the geochem- ical history of the valley. Excepting the pass into Searles all outlets from the Panamint are high and all are far above any possible lake level. The history of the valley has been essentially one of independence. The present drainage areas of the various playas are impossible of accurate estimation. Very seldom is there any drainage at all. The total area of the basin is 1,950 square miles, including all tribu- taries except Searles. Including Searles and Owens the area would be 6,800 square miles, but it must be remembered that this greater area was tributary to the Panamint only very transiently, if at all. THE SALINE VALLEY. The Saline Valley occupies what is essentially a northern extension of the Panamint trough, though cut off therefrom by a prominent cross uplift. The basin is entirely surrounded by high structural divides, the lowest pass being nearly 4,000 feet above the deepest depression. There is no possibility of overflow since the basin has had its present structure. Inthe southeast corner of the basin are two small subsidiary basins, previously tributary, but now cut off by stream decay and alluvial damming. One of these contains a playa known as the Racetrack. The other contains a very small playa unnamed. The deepest depression of the Saline Basin is occupied by a very saline playa having an area of about 12 square miles and carrying a deposit of common salt, the commercial exploitation of which is now being attempted. The area of the basin, including the small subsidiary basins above mentioned, is 845 square miles. THE EUREKA BASIN. The Eureka Basin lies just north of the Saline Valley (last discussed) and is very similar thereto, except that the only playa it contains is small and not saline. The | lowest pass is over 2,000 feet above the present bottom, all divides are structural and ancient, and there is no possibility of overflow during or since the Lahontan period. This basin and the Saline Valley are perhaps the best and simplest known examples of the inclosed basin of structural origin, and would probably well repay careful scientific study. Cowhorn Valley, in the mountains west of the Eureka Basin, is now cut off behind a _ low alluvial divide, but was formerly tributary. Including this, the area of the Eureka Basin is 590 square miles. It is probable that the Deep Springs Valley (next below) was also tributary to the Eureka during Lahontan time. Including it, the total area is 775 square miles. THE DEEP SPRINGS VALLEY. West of the northern end of the Eureka Valley lies the similar, though smaller, basin of the Deep Springs Valley. In the main, the surrounding divides are high and struc- tural, but: the eastern wall of the basin is breached by the narrow canyon of Soldier 42 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pass, opening into the Eureka Basin. The present divide in this canyon is over 400 feet above the bottom of the Deep Springs Valley, but has probably been raised to some extent by post-Lahontan alluvium. It is not possible to be certain that this canyon ever served as a line of discharge, but the writer considers it probable that it did, especially since the basin drains high and well-watered mountain slopes on which the Lahontan period rainfall must have been quite high. It is probable, therefore, that the basin was once tributary to the Eureka Basin. The drainage area of the Deep Springs Valley is 185 square miles. It contains a small variable lake, fed largely by springs. ; THE KANE BASIN. Mention has already been made of the zone of less concentrated uplift which lies south of the great north and south troughs of Owens, the Panamint, Death Valley, and the Amargosa. . Of the four permanent basins which the zone contains, the largest and westernmost is that of Kane Lake. It lies immediately south of Searles and might be considered a part of the Owens-Searles trough, being separated therefrom by the cross uplift of the El Paso Mountains. The southeastern divide of the basin runs across a region of less definite topography bordering the Mojave Desert, and is fre- quently inconspicuous. It is possible that the basin once discharged over some unde- termined point on this quarter of its rim, but the general difference in elevation be- tween rim and flat is about 600-feet and discharge is not considered probable. The present bottom of the basin isa playa with an area of about 15 square miles and having a considerable salinity. There are also several local playas north, east, and southeast of the main playa, but all are recent and unimportant. Into the southwest corner of the basin opens the high Tehachapi Valley, on the crest of the mountains of that name. Stream decay and alluvial damming have cut off a portion of this valley, with the for- mation of a local playa of little antiquity and slight importance. The area of the Kane Basin, including the Tehachapi Valley, is approximately 900 square miles, a moderate possible error being introduced by uncertainty as to the exact position of the south- eastern divide. THE WILLARD BASIN. The Willard Basin isa small basin lying just east of the Kane and not unlikeit. The divide which separates it from the Mojave drainage is neither well defined nor well known, and previous outflow is distinctly a possibility. The deepest depression is occupied by the playa of Willard Lake, which offers no exceptional features. The basin area is somewhat uncertain, because of lack of exact knowledge of the divides, but is certainly less than 250 square miles. THE GRANITE MOUNTAIN BASIN. The Granite Mountain Basin isa small structural basin south of the Leach Valley extension of the Panamint and between the Leach and Granite Mountains. It is little known, but is believed to be entirely surrounded by high and permanent di- vides. Its floor carries several playa areas, the mutual relations of which are un- known. The basin area is 150 square miles. THE OWL BASIN. The easternmost and smallest of the four permanent basins of the transition group is a tiny mountain valley just south of Death Valley and which contains the Owl Lake playa. It has never been mapped or scientifically studied, and its nature is almost entirely unknown. Its inclosed condition is believed to be structural and pre- Lahontan, but a previous drainage into Death Valley is not impossible. In any case its area of less than 60 square miles makes it of little importance. | TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 43 THE DEATH VALLEY BASIN. East of the Panamint trough lies the great trough of Death Valley, the deepest depres- sion on the continent and with its tributary drainage, the third of the three greater divisions of the Great Basin, the other two being Bonneville and Lahontan. In itself the trough of Death Valley is not especially large, nor is it exceptional for anything except depth. It derives its unusual interest to the present inquiry from the fact that it at present receives the drainage of the Amargosa River and but recently received that of the Mojave River as well. These river systems are briefly described in the two following sections. It is sufficient here to note that they entered the Death Valley trough at its southern extremity through a common channel. The floor of Death Valley is an immense playa occasionally constricted but not broken by tongues of alluvium pushed outward from the mountains. (PI. VI, fig. 1.) This playa is very nearly of one level, but there is apparently a very shallow depression close to the eastern wall of the valley, northeast of Bennetts Wells, and which is usually occupied by a shallow lake of saturated brine. Wet-weather drainage lines reach this sink both from the north and south, the latter carrying what remains of the water of the Amargosa. The whole playa is extremely saline, much of it is constantly moist and muddy, and all ground waters are nearly saturated brines. In places on the playa common salt has crystallized in the surface clays in such a way as to form a broken crust or ‘‘salt reef” not unlike in appearance the “‘ice pillars” produced by frost in moist clay soils (Plate VI, fig. 2). The irregularities of this broken crust have some- times an altitude of several feet and are quite without parallel in North America, though Dr. Ellsworth Huntington informs the writer that similar forms occur on the salt desert of Lob Nor in central Asia. The north arm of Death Valley contains a playa-like flat which is comparatively nonsaline and has a present drainage south- ward. All other tributaries are mountain streams of usual type. The most interesting question concerning the Death Valley depression is that of its age. The Panamint Range, which forms its western boundary, is unquestionably ancient and the great apron which fringes its valleyward slope seems also to be very old. But the Funeral Mountains to the east are apparently much more recent, beds of apparently Tertiary age are prominent within them, and it is quite possible that they and the present topography of the valley originated quite within the period we are discussing. Neither space nor available data permit the discussion of this question in detail. It must suffice for the writer to express his personal opinion that this movement though mainly post-Tertiary and probably still in progress, is essentially pre-Lahontan and has not affected the fundamentals of the valley topography. The drainage area now tributary to the Death Valley flat, including that part of the Amargosa where the channel is still unclogged, is very nearly 7,970 square miles. The cut-off portions of the Amargosa drainage add an additional 5,430 square miles, and the Mojave drainage, past and present, aggregates 10,160 square miles, making a grand total of 23,560 square miles in the entire Lahontan period basin. AMARGOSA DRAINAGE SYSTEM. The main trunk of the Amargosa River occupies the fourth and easternmost of the system of troughs parallel to the Sierra Nevada. In Lahontan times its remotest tributaries headed far north in the trough valleys of Nevada, touching the fringe of the Lahontan drainage at the divides which head the branches of the Ralston Valley. The tributaries from these two branches were joined a little to the south by a third flowing westward from Cactus Flat and the augmented stream continued southward west of Stonewall Mountain and the Pahute Mesa, across the Sarcobatus Flat and through a narrow pass in the Bullfrog Hills into the Amargosa Desert and the valley still followed by the river. Somewhat north of the thirty-sixth parallel the great trough divides, its main branch rising southeastward toward the Pahrump and Ivanpah Valleys, practi- 44 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cally parallel with the Nevada-California line, while a lesser though deeper branch diverges a little to the west between the great Amargosa Range on the west and the Resting Springs and Kingston Mountains on the east. It was this western branch which was followed by the Amargosa River, the eastern trough being occupied by a northward-flowing tributary which joined the greater river near what is now the station of Death Valley Junction on the Tonopah & Tidewater Railroad. Just north of the Avawatz Mountains the Amargosa was joined by the Mojave and the united river turned sharply to the west through an apparently structural pass between the Avawatz Range and the south end of the Amargosa Mountains, thus enter- ing the southern end of the Death Valley depression. This Quaternary Amargosa was a river of no small proportions beside which its present descendant is indeed puny. - Stream decay and the building of alluvial dams have robbed it of over half its length and nearly three-fourths of its drainage area, and the former great valley is cut into a multi- tude of shallow basins and local playas, each with its tiny tributaries and its ‘‘alkali” flat. At the northern end of the Ralston Valley an area of nearly 1,750 square miles has been cut off by an alluvial divide about 150 feet high, itself losing its former tributary from Cactus Flat. Next southward a segment of the early valley has been cut off to form the basin of Stonewall Flat, while just beyond, under the shadow of Stonewall Mountain, lie two other playas, and westward in the formerly tributary valley between Jackson and Montezuma Peaks lies a third, all now cut off behind recent alluvial divides. From these basins south to the Bullfrog Hills is the basin of Sarcobatus Flat, with an area of nearly 800 square miles and carrying besides its main playa many smaller and more local ones, and several once tributary valleys now cut off to form small basins. Once this flat discharged southward through a valley north of the Bullfrog Hills, but this is now closed by two alluvial divides with a small inclosed basin between. South- ward of this divide the channel of the Amargosa proper is still essentially clear, though many more or less local playas and saline flats have been left along the filled floor of the trough and in small tributary valleys. However, another considerable tributary has been lost by the cutting off of over 1,400 square miles of the eastward-trending trough already noticed and which now forms the Pahrump Basin. : Alluvial divides have not only cut this valley from the main drainage, but have split it into three parts, the Stew- art Valley to the north, the Pahrump Valley proper in the middle, and the Mesquite Valley at the south. The divide which bars the latter is of considerable elevation and may conceivably be pre-Lahontan. If so the basin belongs to the class of the perma- nently inclosed, but the writer does not incline to this opinion and prefers to regard it as formerly a part of the Amargosa. South of the Pahrump lies the Ivanpah Basin, but this is probably pre-Lahontan and is separately discussed on page 45. The mutilation of the Amargosa, though due essentially to aridity and stream decay, may quite possibly have been affected favorably or unfavorably by local and recent movement. The detailed history of the valley is extremely complex and, though as interesting as it is intricate, is scarcely germane to the present study. Apparently both Tertiary and Quaternary have seen a chain of lake basins, whose alternate filling and cutting has gone on under the complex interaction of frequent though moderate movement and of continuous and complicated climatic change. These changes have been incessant and are still in progress, but it is not believed that during or since the Lahontan period they have affected the essentials of the topography or caused the persistent concentration of drainage elsewhere than in the Death Valley sink. The area of the Amargosa drainage is given in connection with Death Valley on page 43. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 45 THE MOJAVE DRAINAGE SYSTEM. The Amargosa was and is essentially a single stream occupying a long, narrow trough. The Quaternary Mojave was more dendritic. Rising in the northern slopes of San Bernardino Peak, it cut, like the Humboldt, directly across the main structural features of the region, entered at Soda Lake a north-south trough which is perhaps related to that of the Amargosa, and followed this north to the junction with the Amargosa and the western turn into Death Valley. How far this course was deter- mined by the structure of the country and how far it was anterior to and imposed upon it, it is impossible to say. The writer is strongly inclined to consider it largely the latter. In any case, from each trough that it cut and each plain that it tapped it received its greater or lesser tributaries each with its own dendritic drainage, or per- haps its chain of lakes. All of this isnow changed. Perhaps more than any other American area the Mojave Desert shows the effects of lessened rainfall. Itisa country where lakes are dead and streams are dying and where only the occasional arroyos galvanized into vigor by rare and sudden storms maintain the semblance of a drainage. The Mojave River has lost all its tributaries, and its main stream, though fed by the well-watered slopes of San Bernardino Peak, flows no farther than Soda Lake and seldom even so far. Dams of dune sand and alluvium have blocked the greater valleys and cut the flatter areas into a checkerboard of minor basins. | ‘‘ Dry lakes”’ lie in nearly every township. Indeed, so numerous are they that the writer possesses authentic information concerning nearly 50 of them. It would scarcely be profita- ble to review all of these in detail. Larger or smaller, relatively old or relatively young, all were once part of the Mojave and all are post-Lahontan. Rodriguez, Rosamond, Rabbit, and Harper Lakes in the west, and Coyote, Coolgardie, Cronese, Garlic, and Langford Lakes to the north, are among the most important and all are of the same type. Some of the larger and older playas are somewhat saline, but this salinity is recent and superficial. Even in Soda Lake, which is the present terminus of the Mojave River, waters a score of feet under the surface are practically fresh. North of Soda Lake there is a river channel, but no river. Local rainfall and an occasional brief overflow from Soda Lake have created a small playa at Silver Lake, about 20 miles north. North of this is a dam of recent dune sand and then the valley of the Amargosa and free drainage into Death Valley. It has been considered useless to compute the area of the various basins into which the Mojave drainage has been divided. The total is 10,160 square miles. THE IVANPAH BASIN. The Ivanpah Valley lies*in the extreme southern end of that offshoot of the Amar- gosa trough which carries the Pahrump Basin (see p. 44). However, the divide which separates it from this trough is high and structural, as are all the other divides which limit the basin. It is practically certain that its inclosed and independent condition is both ancient and permanent. The bottom of the valley now contains two playas of usual character and separated by a very low alluvial divide. There are alsoin the northeastern end of the basin two small basins and playas, now independent but believed once to have been tributary either by free drainage.or by overflow, probably the latter. The total basin area is 900 square miles. THE MESQUITE TROUGH. Mention has already been made of the two structural troughs which lie north of and parallel to the San Bernardino Mountains. The southernmost of these is struc- turally continuous and open from the Mojave Desert to the Colorado River, but, like the similar troughs of central Nevada, it is higher in the center than at the extremities, 46 BULLETIN 54, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this elevation determining a water parting, which is superficially alluvial but never- theless quite ancient. This divide crosses the trough in the neighborhood of Wilburs Well, located by the surveys of the General Land Office in township 3 north, range 5 east, San Bernardino base and meridian. West of this point the trough was once a tributary of the Mojave, and now contains a series of playas due to this tributary’s decay. East of the divide the trough once drained to the Colorado River, but alluvial damming has now cut it into a half dozen basins each independent and inclosed and each with its typical playa. It has not been considered necessary to attempt the delineation and study of each of these local basins in detail. The most important are those of Mesquite, Dale, and Palen Lakes. The exact heights of the various. divides are unknown, but all are believed to be recent and the basins they form are thought to have belonged quite recently to the Colorado drainage and to have, there- fore, slight importance to the present inquiry. The total area of present inclosed drainage in this trough and east of the Wilburs Well divide is 3,520 square miles. THE BRISTOL TROUGH. The second trough north of the San Bernardino Mountains is occupied by the basins of Bristol, Cadiz, and Danby Lakes, the first receiving also the drainage of a high valley running toward the northeast between the Providence and Piute (or Pahute) Ranges. The exact interrelations of these lakes and their basins are not fully known, but they are believed to be analogous to those of the trough last discussed, and to have drained quite recently into the Colorado River. The divide between the westernmost or Bristol Basin and the Mojave is the local uplift of Ash Hill and is believed to have originated in connection witha center of recent vulcanism a little to the west. This divide, though of no considerable antiquity, is believed ‘to be pre-Lahontan. The only chance of importance of these basins to the present inquiry lies in the possibility that one or more of them may have been inclosed longer than is assumed and may have been an area of salt accumulation during a considerable period. The surveys of the region are so few and so inaccurate that this possibility can not be absolutely denied; though it is believed to be remote. Danby Lake is known to contain a considerable deposit of common salt, but this is believed to be of recent and secondary origin. The total area of the basins of all three lakes is approximately 4,150 square miles. THE SALTON BASIN. South of and parallel to the San Bernardino Range is another structural trough similar to those north of 1t but deeper, and open southward to the Gulf of California. This trough is now cut off from the Gulf by a low divide of alluvial material and its deepest depression is occupied by the Salton Sea, the surface of which is over 200 feet below sea level. W. P. Blake, who made the first scientific examination of the basin! and discovered its negative elevation, concluded that the trough had once contained an arm of the sea and had been cut off by the gradual out-building of the delta of the Colorado River from the eastern shore. The delta having been built above the water level, the river might have flowed northward into the basin or southward into the Gulf. As a matter of fact it has done both. Being an alluvial river of very variable bed, it has flowed alternately to the basin and to the Gulf, probably many times in each direction. The present Salton Sea was created by an accidental 1 Pacific Railway Reports, Vol. 5 (1856). TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. AY turning of the river toward the basin in 1905 and 1906, a condition which it cost millions to remedy. Had no attempt been made to return the river to its seaward bed, or had this attempt been unsuc- cessful, the basin would have filled until it overflowed into the Gulf or until the Colorado turned southward of its own accord. In either case desertion by the river would have left an inclosed sea to slowly evaporate as the Salton Sea is now doing. That this history was actually enacted in the recent past is indicated by a deeply cut old beach line surrounding the basin at about 40 feet above sea level and - a series of lesser and lower strands marking stages of retreat. The similarity of conditions then and now is attested by the fact that this older series of strands can not be distinguished from the strands which have been formed by the retreat of the present Salton Sea. This interpretation of the recent history of the Salton Basin may require modification in detail. For instance, there has been some degree of post-Tertiary movement along the north side of the basin, and the exposed beds have been found to contain saline strata which exactly simulate beds deposited in continental inclosed lakes or playas. It is difficult to reconcile this with the hypothesis of long marine occupation of the trough. In this and other directions Dr. Blake’s theory may need revision, but its essentials will probably stand. In any case, it is apparent that both the topography and the history of the Salton have been very different from that of the basins previously discussed. The major factor has been, not varying climate but a vagrant Colorado. This difference of history makes the usual criteria of little value. The size and nature of the drainage basin, its mutilation by stream decay, the probabilities of inflow or overflow, are here of little im- portance. Of course, salt accumulation is quite possible either by the evaporation of marine water, the assistance of the river, or the ordinary continental processes, but the problem is in no case one of topography ands therefore beyond the scope of the present paper. A word should perhaps be devoted to the delta of the Colorado.! This is a broad, alluvial plain, of no visible relief, and traversed by a network of bayous. The position occupied by the divide between gulf and basin is entirely indeterminate, and there is no rainfall to developit. The lower channel of the Colorado is exceedingly variable and the delta is dotted with lakes and marshes, which are souvenirs of its presence. So far as known, all of these are essentially fresh, except some small ponds near the so-called Volcano Lake, and the salinity of these is due to recent and present fumarole activity. One of the lakes contains a considerable percentage of potash alum, which will doubtless be developed when transportation and political condi- 1 For information concerning the delta I am indebted mainly to the papers of Dr. D. T. MacDougal and to personal communication from him. 48 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions become sufficiently favorable. Down the west side of the delta runs the so-called Rio Hardy or Hardy Colorado, which is fed by seepages or direct channels from the larger river to the east. West of the Cocopa Mountains and close to this Rio Hardy is a shallow | basin separated from the river only by a wide and flat plain of very little elevation. In times of flood the Hardy sometimes covers this plain and fills the depression. On the retreat of the river there is formed an inclosed lake known as Laguna Maquata. When low it is quite saline, but the salinity is destroyed whenever a flood reconnects it with the Hardy. The area of the Salton Basin can not be accurately computed because of the character of the delta and the uncertainty in the posi- tion of the divide across it. It is probably about 8,000 square miles. THE BASINS OF THE NEW MEXICO-TEXAS TROUGH. The central portion of New Mexico has a structure very similar to that of the Great Basin. A somewhat warped and folded plateau has yielded to great north-south fractures, producing parallel ranges and trough valleys as in Nevada and California. The most prominent of these troughs is that occupied by the valley of the Rio Grande north of El Paso. This was once a.series of separate basins or “bolsons,”’ but the divides have been cut by the river and the entire valley is now essentially drained, though stream decay has recently created a number of local and unimportant playas. Hast of this trough hes another which, not possessing a vigorous through-flowing stream, has not been cut down or kept clean, and contains the several inclosed basins next-to be discussed. THE OTERO BASIN. The middle portion of this trough is occupied by the Otero Basin, lying between the Sacramento Mountains on the east and the San Andreas Mountains on the west. The writer has published elsewhere ! a report of a reconnoissance of this basin from the present viewpoint, and it is necessary here only to review the essentials of the topography. East and west the basin is limited by the high walls of the trough. To the north it merges with the Gallinas highland and the Chupedera Mesa, both high and certainly pre-Lahontan. At the southern end the divide is alluvial and though apparently ancient, is probably less than 300 feet above the present deepest depres- sion. It is quite possible that the basin has overflowed this divide and drained into the Rio Grande, but there is no direct evidence of this, and the writer does not con- sider it probable. In any case, a series of ancient strands about the present bottom indicates an inclosed history of some duration. The present deepest depression is a large and very gypsiferous playa, the southern end of which carries a deposit of hydrous sodium sulphate believed to be of secondary origin. There are several small local playas of no importance. The most interesting and unusual feature of the basin is a great area of gypsum dunes, south and east of the main playa. The study of these dunes has yielded con- 1 Circular 61, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. of Agr. (1912). The reconnoissance was made in the company of Dr. Elisworth Huntington. Bul. 54, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. FiG. 1.—BoTTOM OF DEATH VALLEY, CAL. [Showing the salt-covered mud flat northwest of Furnace Creek Ranch.] FIG. 2.—ROUGH CRUST OF IMPURE SALT ON THE FLOOR OF DEATH VALLEY, CAL. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 49 clusions of some geologic interest but quite foreign to the present subject. The area of the Otero Basin is a little over 7,000 square miles. THE ESTANCIA BASIN.?! The Estancia Valley lies at the northern end of the trough in which is the Otero Basin and where this trough begins to merge with the plateau of northern New Mexico. It is separated from the Otero Basin by the Gallinas and Chupedera uplift and the northern and western boundaries are similarly structural. The eastern boundary is much lower and in several places is less than 250 feet above the bottom of the valley. Overflow in this direction and into the Pecos Valley is possible but not probable. The bottom of the valley is diversified by a number of shallow and irregularly-shaped depressions, believed by Meinzer to have been scooped by the wind from the beds deposited in the bottom of an ancient lake. Some of these depressions now contain salt or brackish lakes. There is the usual series of old strands about the valley. At present the drainage of the valley is almost entirely by underflow and impos- sible to define. The area is about 2,050 square miles. In the northeastern corner is the small basin of White Lake, now cut off by desiccation but once a tributary. Including this the area is about 2,100 square miles. Both of the areas given are only approximate because of the comparatively low relief of the surrounding highlands and the difficulty of accurately defining the divides. THE ENCINO BASIN. The Encino Basin lies east of the Estancia Basin and is very similar to it. The surrounding divides, though poorly defined, are relatively high and the basin has probably been permanently inclosed. It contains the usual saline depression, believed by Meinzer to be wind-formed, and is surrounded by the usual series of old strands. Its area is about 300 square miles, great accuracy being unobtainable because of uncertainty as to the position of the divides. THE PINOS WELLS BASIN. The Pinos Wells Basin lies just south of the Encino Basin and is similar thereto in every way except that the eastern divide is much lower and the lake strands are lacking. The writer is of the opinion that this basin was once tributary to the Pecos Valley and has only recently been inclosed. Itis not impossible that this basin isa part of a former eastward overflow channel of the Estancia Basin and, if the Estancia Basin ever did overflow, it was probably by this path. The area of the Pinos Wells Basin is about 325 square miles. THE SALT BASIN. Directly southeast of the Otero trough, though probably not structurally related thereto is another similar trough which contains the so-called Salt Basin, historic as the scene of the ‘‘salt riots” of 1878. The divides which surround this basin are essentially structural and ancient and though several passes are superficially alluvial, all are over 600 feet above the flat. The basin is believed to have been permanently inclosed. The floor is a nearly level plain dotted with hillocks of dune sand and with small saline lakes and playas. The present drainage is insignificant and the areas tributary to the various lakes can not be computed with any exactness. The area of the basin as a whole is about 8,600 square miles. 1 The description of the Estancia, Encino, and Pinos Wells Basins is drawn largely from the report of Meinzer, U.S. Geol. Surv.; Water Supply Paper 275 (1911). } | 50 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE TROUGH VALLEYS OF ARIZONA AND SONORA. Arizona south of the Gila River and the northern and western portions of Sonora form another region of great parallel ranges and valleys essentially similar to the Great Basin though somewhat more complex in the details of its structure. The trough form of the valleys is especially well developed north of the international line, being typified by the Lechuguilla and Tule “Deserts”? and the Mohawk and Ajo Valleys to the west; the Quijotoa, Baboquivari, and Santa Cruz Valleys in the center, and the San Pedro, Arivaipa, and San Simon Valleys to the east. South of the line the topography is less simple and the dendritic drainage of the Altar River has cut trans- versely across range and valley in a way which strongly suggests the character of the Quaternary Mojave. | The great troughs of the northern section resemble those already discussed in that they are usually higher in the middle than at the ends, thus creating in each a water parting north of which drainage was once to the Gila, while southward it joined the Altar or flowed directly to the Gulf. Without exception the troughs are essentially open in one direction or the other and in the whole region there is no known basin of structural origin. Furthermore, most of the drain- age lines are still open and, paradoxically, because the aridity has been too complete. ‘The process of alluvial damming so character- istic of the troughs of the Great Basin has been impossible because the rainfall has been too meager to move the alluvium. Even the minimum of rainfall necessary for the formation of local playas has been lacking. Two streams, the San Pedro and the Altar, have their sources-in higher and better watered regions, and manage to maintain a precarious existence over part of thew former channels. The Sonoita, the Santa Cruz, and a few other streams have a transient and truncated wet-weather flow. With these rare and shrunken ex- ceptions there is no drainage at all. An occasional cloudburst in the mountains is imperceptible a dozen miles below. Yet because of the very paucity of drainage the region is not one of great salt accumula- tion. It is too arid to be saline. The drainage has not decayed but vanished, and there is water neither for chemical rock decay and salt solution, nor for the carrying to areas of concentration of such salts as do chance to be freed. Such salt accumulations as there are are in the better watered valleys rather than in the worse. The Quaternary history of this region is a field for speculations of peculiar interest, and not without their present importance. Cli- matic changes have been continent-wide and probably world-wide, and the evidences of a previous lesser aridity are unmistakable in the region to the north. Is it not probable, therefore, that the present unmitigated aridity of this southern area has replaced a time of less extreme conditions when a more moderate desiccation permitted and TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. ak caused the formation of playas and alluvial dams? This region then, _ was perhaps what the Great Basin is now, and salt accumulations descended from such a period are by no means impossible. But whether or not these speculations have a basis of truth, they are as _ yet without supporting evidence. No direct indication of such a -moderately arid period has been discovered, and the country is so in- hospitable that it has not invited the efforts of speculative geologists. For the present the matter must remain open and it would seem useless to search here for hypothetical salt accumulations when there are other regions, the promise of which rests less on speculation and more on fact. THE COCHISE BASIN. In the eastern part of the region just discussed there is one basin of more usual type. The Arivaipa-Sulphur Springs Valley, being better watered than its more westerly analogues, has had a history more nearly parallel to that of the Great Basin valleys, and the central portion of it has been cut off by alluvial dams to form the Co- chise Basin. Northward the valley drains to the Gila and southward to the Rio Yaqui. The northward divide is the lower and probably the more recent, and there is little question that the basin once had free drainage in this direction. The area of the basin is approximately 1,250 square miles. It contains a playa of usual character. THE LORDSBURG-MEMBRES REGION AND THE CHIHUAHUA BOLSONS. In the southwestern corner of New Mexico are two trough valleys not essentially dissimilar to the Arizona trough valleys which border them on the west, but of much less regular structure. The western of these troughs contains the present Lordsburg and San Luis Valleys and belongs in many ways with the Cochise Basin and the San Simon Valley, in the group last discussed. Once it drained north- ward into the Gila and it is now cut off thereform only by a low alluvial divide. Internally the valley shows a topography essen- tially similar to that of the valleys of the Great Basin. The struc- tural trough has two branches, each of which once contained a con- siderable stream, the two uniting somewhat south of their mutual discharge into the Gila. Stream decay and alluvial dams have cut these tributaries into chains of shallow basins and local playas, notable among which are the Llano de los Playas, or Playas Valley, lying southeast of the Pyramid Mountains, and the Lordsburg Dry Lake near the railroad junction of that name. All of these sub- sidiary basins are recent and unimportant and their individual areas have not been computed. The total area of inclosed drainage in the trough is about 2,900 square miles. East of this trough is another irregular trough valley now con- taining the valley of the Membres River and the Florida Plains. In this trough the inclination is reversed and the former drainage was southward across the international line. Indeed, there is now searcely any barrier to southward drainage and a very moderate B2 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. increase of rainfall would suffice to reestablish the outflow. Stream decay has produced a few local playas, but none of any importance. Southward of the line the ancient drainage line reaches the Laguna Guzman, which is the sink of the northernmost of the Chihuahua bolsons. The area of the Membres Valley and its tributaries within the United States is over 5,000 square miles. In Mexico an area of 6,800 square miles is or has been tributary to the Laguna Guzman, making a total of about 11,800 square miles for the area of this bolson. These bolsons are wide, shallow basins once tributary to the Rio Grande and now cut off therefrom only by low dams of alluvium and dunesand. They are products of the decay of the drainage sys- tem which once served the broad featureless plains between the Rio Grande and the Sierra Madre. All are very recent and unim- portant. The larger ones contain intermittent or permanent lakes fed by the perennial streams which head in the well-watered high- lands of the Sierra Madre. The region of the bolsons extends from the western boundary of Chihuahua southeastward to the edge of the drainage system of the Rio Salado, about half way across the State of Coahuila, but this region is divided into two parts by the still vigorous drainagé system of the Rio Conchos. The north- western portion is the smaller and contains the bolsons of the Laguna * Guzman (already discussed), the Laguna de Santa Maria, the Rio Carmen, and the Laguna de Patos, as well as many smaller playas and transient ponds. The more important bolsons of the southern division are those of Laguna Palomas, Laguna de Coyote, Laguna Parras, Laguna Viesca, Laguna de Jaco, and Laguna de Agua Verde. Areas have not been computed in detail. The total area covered by all the bolsons, including the Guzman, is probably not less than 125,000 square miles. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN BASINS. The crests of broad mountain ranges are frequently regions of poorly determined drainage and wherever the crest of the Rockies is flat and imperfectly defined, advancing desiccation has left small valleys and local depressions partially or entirely without outward drainage. All such basins are more or less recent and nearly all are small. Only two require specific notice. THE SAN LUIS BASIN. The San Luis Valley or San Luis Park lies in south-central Colorado at the head of the great trough of the Rio Grande. It is separated from the valley of this river by a broad and featureless alluvial plain, crossed by an inconspicuous divide. The present drainage of the valley is not sufficient to overflow this divide, and accumulates 1 Laguna is the Spanish word for lake; rio is that for river. ee TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 53 in a group of small and variable lakes. The inclosed condition of the valley is un- doubtedly very recent and due only to stream decay. The area of the present basin is about 2,800 square miles. THE RED DESERT BASIN. The Red Desert Basin, or group of basins, lies in south-central Wyoming, on the very crest of the Rocky Mountains, occupying a broad plain bordered on three sides by mountain ranges but essentially open toward the south. Atatimeby no means remote thissouthern divide was nonexistent and the basin drained, probably freely but at least by overflow, into the Little Snake River and thence to the Colorado. The present barrier is a series of low divides which are superficially alluvial and probably entirely so. The basin is by no means a unit but is cut by alluvial or structural divides into a complex series of smaller basins each with its playa and its greater or lesser drainage. The past and present relations of these basins are not known in detail, but it is im- probable that their discharge ever concentrated in a single basin or a single channel of escape. The region is more a decayed drainage system than a single basin. None of these basins is ancient, and none would have.any importance were it not for the fact that part of the western slope of the area.is formed by the Leucite Hills, a zone of volcanic activity in which are large masses of leucitic rocks containing con- siderable proportions of potash.!- How fully the drainage of these hills has been localized and retained can not be determined from present data. The writer inclines to the opinion that both retention and concentration have been comparatively slight, but the evidence is far from conclusive, and the region can not be disregarded. It should be noted that the presence of extensive deposits of sodium salts in the basins of the Red Desert and in other small basins both west and east of it is no proof of long-continued concentration. The shales and sandstones which make up the greater portion of the areas tributary to these basins contain large quantities of occluded sodium salts, which rapidly find their way into the drainage and to the places where it concentrates. West of the Red Desert and on the westward slope of the Leucite Hills are several small and local basins now without overflow and which share the topography and geochemical characteristics of the western part of the Red Desert proper. The total area of the Red Desert Basin is approximately 3,600 square miles, but it is apparent from the above discussion that importance lies not in the total area, but in the areas and topographies of the various subsidiary basins and in what propor tion of leucitic country chanced to be tributary to each. These facts can not be determined from the information now available. THE GREAT VALLEY OF CALIFORNIA. Through the heart of California, between the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Range, runs a great filled trough which differs from the ‘basin troughs” east of the Sierra only in its greater size and in the fact that its western wall is breached by the Golden Gate, giving free egress to the sea. Southward through the north end of this valley flows the Sacramento River, and northward from the south end comes the San Joaquin, both rivers uniting to form the Straits of Suisan and entering the sea through San Francisco Bay and the Golden Gate. In essence both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys are regions of free seaward drainage, but rainfall is low, and is insufficient to keep the valleys entirely clear. Local playas and ‘‘alkali” spots 1 See Schultz and Cross, U. S. Geol. Sur., Bull. 512 (1912). 54 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are not uncommon, and, especially in the San Joaquin, shallow local depressions have become small inclosed basins or lakes like Kern and Tulare, which overflow only at times. Here, as in the Great Basin, evidences of stream decay are everywhere. None of these local basins are structural, none have walls high enough to be even directly per- | ceptible, and none have any significant antiquity. The saline accu- mulation gets no further than the formation of ‘‘ alkali” soil, and has no significance to the present inquiry. THE FILLED LAKES OF THE CALIFORNIA RANGES. Tn the mountains of these ranges, as of most others, are many small depressions which are or have been filled by lakes. In the course of time these lakes have been slowly filled by alluvium, and at the same time their outlets have been slowly lowered by stream corrasion, until at last the rising alluvium met the falling water surface and the lakes have become flat-filled valleys with a more or less vigorous original or through-flowing drainage. Examples of this process, locally modified, have already been mentioned—the Antelope Valley in Oregon (p. 25), the Smith Valley in Nevada (p. 18), and the Tehachapi Valley in California (p. 42). Literally hundreds of others in all stages of development may be found in the Sierra, the Coast Range, the Cascades, and elsewhere. Plate I, fig. 1. Where the drainage is sufficiently vigorous, either because through- flowing or for some other reason, these filled lakes do not interest us. In many cases, however, an original drainage, never very vigorous, has not been able to maintain itself and has been imprisoned within the valley. . Probably the most extreme instance of this is the basin of the Carriso Plains in the southeastern corner of San Luis Obispo County, Cal.1_ Nearly 500 square miles of this valley, once tributary to the San Juan Creek, have been cut off by alluvial deposition and stream decay probably complicated by local movement, and have developed an internal drainage concentrating in Soda Lake, which is now a playa saturated with a strong salt solution in which sodium sulphate predominates. Of course this condition is quite recent, and, from the present viewpoint, quite unimportant. THE BASINS AND PONDS OF THE COLORADO PLATEAU, The northern third of Arizona, the northwestern quarter of New Mexico, and adjoining portions of Utah and Colorado make up the Great Colorado Plateau. Subjected to some movement and consid- erably dissected by the Colorado and its tributaries, this plateau nevertheless retains wide areas in which relief is small and slope imperceptible, and over which drainage is at best sluggish and uncer- tain. These areas have suffered greatly from the prevalent desicca- 1 Arnold and Johnson, U.S. Geol. Sur., Bul. 880, 369 (1909). | TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS, 55 tion. Valleys dammed by alluvium, local depressions dried below their outlets, ponds like those of the Great Plains and coulées, as well developed as those of Washington, allabound. Many of these inclosed | areas are of considerable salinity, but all are recent and most are tiny, | and it does not seem necessary to discuss them in detail. In area they vary from ponds or playas that drain a few acres to the large but } shallow basin of the plais of San Augustine in western New Mexico, compassing perhaps 1,500 square miles. This latter basin and the smaller ones in its vicinity probably once drained into the Rio Grande | instead of the Colorado, but otherwise they do not differ from their western analogues. In the absence of full and detailed knowledge of | the entire plateau region it is impossible to deny categorically the | existence of basins, the size or antiquity of which would give them present interest. However, it seems very probable that, with one exception, no such exist. ‘This exception will now be described. THE HUALPAI BASIN. In its southwestern portion the Colorado plateau has been more modified than else- where, both by movement and erosion, and here lies the Hualpai or Red Lake Valley, occupying a depression in the making of which both movement and erosion have had ahand. There is little doubt that this valley once drained northward to the Colorado, but this drainage may have been a long time ago. The present divide, though allu- vial, is high and may be pre-Lahontan. The writer, while inclining to the opinion that it is, does not care to advance any conclusion. The area of the basin is approximately 1,450 square miles and its deepest depression contains a playa which is not known to be especially saline. THE PONDS AND COULEES! OF EASTERN WASHINGTON. The central and eastern part of Washington is largely a great lava plateau, somewhat warped and cracked by the movement which was more pronounced farther south and west, but preserving much of its original character. Being of little relief and in general of poorly devel- oped drainage, this plateau has suffered severely by desiccation and is now dotted with literally hundreds of small inclosed basins, due prima- | rily to inequalities in the lava surface and resembling in every way the | small pans of the Christmas Lake, Abert and Alkali Valleys, as dis- me) | cussed on pages 22 to 26. Some of these depressions now carry per- manent or intermittent lakes, most are slightly or moderately saline, but all are recent and owe their inclosed condition to the decay of the drainage system to which they once belonged. So far as known none drain an area of over a few square miles and none are important. Another and less usual type of inclosed basin is represented by the ‘‘coulées,”’ or long, narrow valleys with steep walls and flat floors, the floors being dotted with lakes. Essentially these are old stream chan- nels, the history of which, stripped of all details, is as follows. When the lava plain was uplifted and warped, numerous cracks formed 1 The word ‘‘coulée”’ is here used as locally understood. 56 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. across it, usually without much vertical displacement on either side. As the rainfall was then (or later) much greater than at present, these cracks determined stream channels and became eroded to considerable depths and. with a steep-walled, canyon topography. Later ice- dammed lakes occupied these valleys and supplied the alluvium which forms the present flat bottoms. With the disappearance of these lakes the valleys again became stream channels but apparently not for long. Desiccation intervened and the once through-flowing streams were split into a series of pools or playas. This is the present condition of the coulées. Some of the lakes overflow and are fresh, others do so seldom if ever and are brackish or saline. In Grand Coulée is one—Soap Lake—which is a nearly saturated brine and contains an extraordinarily large proportion of carbonate of soda. But interesting as is this history of the coulées, it indicates clearly the recency of the lakes which occupy them, and therefore their unim- portance to the present inquiry. None of their areas have been computed. Ne THE PONDS OF THE GREAT PLAINS. The western half of the Mississippi Valley is a great apron sloping imperceptibly upward to the mass of the Rockies. Over this in Quaternary time stretched a complexly dendritic drainage system, its finger tips reaching to the crest of the mountains and to every ridge and hill between, so that each township had its river and every acre its rill, But advancing aridity has respected this greatest river system no more than the lesser ones to the west. Its streams have been clogged and truncated and its remotest and slenderest tendrils withdrawn, until to-day there is a large area at the foot of the Rockies which has nearly no drainage at all. In all this region alluvial dams and sand dunes (the latter much more than the former) have advanced upon the defenseless drainage, damming the little streamlets in a dozen places, cutting off here and there a tributary of more consider- able size, creating tiny and tinier basins now numbered by the thou- sands. These dot the whole plains region of Nebraska and Wyoming, the northwestern corner of Kansas, the eastern fourth of Colorado, the dune areas of southwestern Kansas, and the great plains of the Pecos Valley and the Llano Estacado, but they are perhaps best exemplified in the Sand Hills of Nebraska.t Here alluvium and dunes and have conspired against the drainage and with entire suc- cess. The region is a wilderness of rolling hills, originally dunes but now fixed by vegetation with the intermediate valleys dotted with lakes varying in area from a few acres to 2 or 3 square miles. There is usually an annual fluctuation in level of 1 or 2 feet from a maxi- 1 For much of the information here given I am indebted to Prof. Raymond J. Pool, of the University of Nebraska, TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 57 mum in early spring to a minimum in late autumn. Most of the lakes do not overflow and many of them are brackish. All are un- questionably recent and due to sand accumulations which the drain- age has never since been vigorous enough to clear away. Farther south, where the rainfall is less, are playas instead of lakes, but otherwise conditions are the same. Everywhere the outposts of the drainage system have retreated and their channels have been barred. The bars are sometimes alluvial, sometimes eolian, more often both. The result is the same. Of course none of the basins thus created could ever become the place of accumulation of any large quantity of salt. It is an essential of the process outlined that large basins can not be created, since their concentrated drainage would be sufficient to sweep away the dam. Where a stream of any size is permanently dammed by sand or allu- vium it must be dammed in many places and split into many basins in order that evaporation may be sufficient to balance or overbalance the inflow. In places ponds may become quite saline, but the total amount of salt accumulated is always small. It is of special interest in the present connection to note that some small saline ponds in western Nebraska have been found to contain very large proportions of potassium carbonate undoubtedly derived from the concentration of the run-off of burnt-over prairies. Were there a place where concentration of this kind had occurred for a long time or from a considerable area, a workable deposit of potassium salts might have accumulated. No such place has been discovered and it is probable that none exists. LOCAL BASINS OF UNUSUAL ORIGIN. For the sake of completeness it is necessary to note briefly a few areas of inclosed drainage which have originated from local and unusual causes. These are of two types—volcanic and eolian. The craters of extinct volcanos frequently contain inclosed lakes and there is at least one example of this in the United States—Crater Lake, Oreg. The Ragtown Soda Lakes, near Fallon, Nev., noted on page 15, are probably of similar origin, though the vulcanism was far less vigorous. Apparently the Zuni Salt Lake on the plateau of north- western New Mexico is of the same type.t In both the latter cases the salinity of the inclosed lake is due to the concentration of water received from seepage or springs. Basins due to “‘deflation,” or eolian erosion, have only one promi- nent example in the United States. West of Laramie, Wyo., are three or four isolated depressions, one of which, Bates Hole, is of consider- able size and depth. These have been studied by Blackwelder ? who 1 Darton, U.S. Geol. Survey, Bul. 260, 565 (1905). ? Jour. Geol. 1, 443 (1909)... |. ay ig VUES bys Bac 58 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. regards them as due to wind erosion. The similar though smaller wind-eroded hollows of the Estancia Basin, New Mexico, were noted on page 49, and the writer has seen analogous depressions in the Alkali and Warner Basins, Oreg. Both volcanic and eolian basins . are likely always to be too small to have importance for the present study. This is certainly true of all known American examples. THE POSSIBILITIES OF POTASH. In the preceding pages there are named specifically nearly 200 inclosed basins. Some of these are so obviously unimportant as to require no further mention. One hundred and twenty-six, which are somewhat more important, are given in Table I, with the area and a brief description of each, the arrangement being the same as that followed in the text. It is certain that any basins of possible value for potash will be included in this list, and it is just as certain that many that are included will have no possible value. Many of the latter are easily eliminated. First, it is obvious that no accumulation is to be expected in a basin which has recently overflowed either into the sea or into another basin. Applying this to the list of Table I, it is possible to eliminate from further consideration 62 basins, of which 16 were once tributary to Lahontan, 9 to’ Bonneville, 11 to the Amargosa and the Mojave, 7 to miscellaneous inclosed basins, and 19 more or less directly to the sea. These totals include 10 basins the previous drainage of which is not absolutely certain, though ex- tremely probable. These are the Clover Basin, the Goshute-Steptoe Valley, the Murray Valley, the Ralston Valley, Stonewall Flat, Sum- mer Lake, Long Valley (northwestern Nevada), Duck Flat, the Big Smoky Valley, and the Smiths Creek Valley. The nature of the doubt in each case can be ascertained by reference to the preceding chapter. A second general elimination can be made on the ground of small area. It is difficult to set exactly the limiting area which a basin must have in order to be promising, but it seems probable that basins which cover less than 500 square miles may safely be disregarded. Their potash deposits, if existent, would doubtless be small, and de- tailed prospecting would scarcely be warranted at least until larger basins have been explored. Applying this criterion to the remaining basins of Table I, we eliminate 10 more, Alkali Lake, Garfield, Teels, Huntoon, Goldfield, Sheep Range, Willard, Granite Mountains, Owl, and Encino. It is possible also to eliminate 12 others which were very probably drained, but which, in any event, are smaller than the upper limit which we have set. These are Warm Springs, Allan Springs, Mesquite (part of the Pahrump), Acme, Luning, Mina, Monte Cristo, Kawich, Yucca, Aurora, Deep Springs, and Pinos Wells. The conclusion that these small basins lack practical value does not TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. 59 necessarily mean that they lack scientific interest. For instance, the small saline ponds of Alkali Lake are known to contain about 4 per cent of potash (K,O) in their total dissolved solids, and the Teels Marsh carries a number of the minerals which are associated with potash brines at Searles. It is quite possible that some of these smaller basins may prove to contain potash accumulations of rela- tively high grade, but the amount of the material is likely to be too small to warrant commercial exploitation. It is possible to eliminate two additional basins on special grounds. First, Bonneville, in spite of its great size, can be safely dropped from the list of possibilities. This is true on Swo grounds—previous over- flow and the areal geology of the basin. The overflow in itself might not be sufficient, for there has been a considerable period since the overflow ceased and time has probably been available for extensive potash accumulation. But the Bonneville Basin is set almost en- tirely in sedementary rocks, which can not reasonably be expected to yield any important quantity of potash to the drainage. Further- more, nearly all of the saline material accumulated within the basin is probably now in the Great Salt Lake, and the salts contained in this lake carry less than 2 per cent of potash (K,O). The last basin to be eliminated is the Otero, in central New Mexico. This was possibly once subject to overflow and is set almost entirely in nonpotash rocks, but its elimination is not based upon these facts so much as upon a detailed examination made of the basin specifically from the present point of view, and which resulted in a strongly negative conclusion.* The basins which remain may be divided into three divisions: (1) Those in which the known topographic and geologic conditions are fully favorable, (2) those in which some conditions are favorable and some adverse, and (3) those concerning which there is sufficient uncertainty to render classification doubtful and decision as to promise impossible. The basins of these three divisions are given in Tables II and III and IV, respectively. Of those in Table III the topo- eraphic features are favorable in all cases but one—Owens. In this case the previous overflow into Searles introduces an unfavorable factor which has, however, been partially overcome by the length of time elapsed since this overflow ceased. At the present time the salts of Owens Lake contain approximately 2.25 per cent of potash (K,O). With the other basins of Table III the unfavorable factor is in all cases a lack of potash-bearing rocks in the drainage basin, the Che- waucan Basin being set almosi entirely in basalts and the others in Paleozoic sediments. : Of the uncertain basins of Table IV, the Salton is doubtful, because of the difficulty of interpreting the influence of the Colorado River 1 Free, Cire. No, 61, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. (1912). 60 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. upon it; Rhodes is unpromising, because of its small drainage area and the probability that this area was really considerably smaller than that given, and the uncertainty concerning the Red Desert arises from lack of knowledge of its internal topography. In all other cases the doubt is due to uncertainty as to area or previous Details of all cases are contained in overflow, usually the latter. previous pages. The basins of Table II are, so far as known, all favorable to potash accumulation and, other things equal, they should be promising in proportion to their area. These ‘‘other things” are believed to be really equal so far as accumulation is concerned. Questions of segre- gation and accessibility introduce many other factors which are beyond the province of this report and will not be discussed. It is believed, however, that the introduction of these additional factors into the discussion would find its main effect in altering the order in which the basins stand in Table II rather than in adding basins thereto or subtracting them therefrom. The basins of greatest promise from all points of view are probably contained in Table II, with the possible addition of such of those of Table IV as further investigation may show to be favorable. Taste I.—Areas of the undrained basins. Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description. Sq. m. Mahontan sce 2 -| seme soba se 45,730) ||) Wiatner.. 2-52 sc--e- Landlocked ........... BlackeRock-.e-=-- Part of Lahontan...-- 10,500 |} Harney..-..------- Tributary to Colum- IKumivas- ee 2-2 | see GO Aaraps Sees kee 445 bia River. Granite Spring dosesass2 ees se 890 || Catlow....--..-.-- cee tributary to JOH OS sree OE aaa eee ree 340 4 Harn Hot Springs. Cou eas. ase ee 270 \|Guano! os2e2e- seca Brababie tributary to Honey Lake. COTNe stenoses 2, 660 Catlow. Truckee. 222. COREE Me see eye: 2,975 || Surprise........... Landlocked (max. Lemmon Valley -.- Oss Peseeh See ee 90 Brea) Warm Springs.....|..-.- doztiss2l ast Spas 20 || Long Valley....--- Probably tributary to Humboldt-Carson .|..--. c Co Pr Pe me ee’ 27,575 Surprise. Mermley,-cenee eee llsese Goseee UUN ah 8 9 2150)|(Advord s: tbeesasee) pee landlocked. . Allen Springs..-..-/-.--. dona Rg ae 235 || White Horse...... Tributary to Alvord .. Sand Springs......|...-- (ieee eRe OSE eae ~ 200 |} Thousand Creek. .-]..... GOLA Le ee Buena Vista. ....-. Part of Humboldt} 4,000 |) Goose Lake........ Tributary to Pitt drainage. River. Buffalo Springs.-..|...-- Ca See es eerae 500 || Madeline.......... Probably landlocked. . Gibsons 28 30. 2s ce alee 22 Go peek ne Sh eae dee 1,150 |) Klamath Lakes....| Tributary to Klamath Clover (Snow Wa- |..-.-. COLE eee fete ser 1,075 River. ter) Dixie Valley.......}| Landlocked........... Wraiker. 2... Jo. -255 Part of Lahontan..... 3,850 || Fairview.-........ Partiof Dixie: see. csee Bonneville......-.. Once tributary to | 57,960 |} Gabbs Valley.....- Landlocked.........-. Columbia River. Acme. 22 ota. oes Probably tributary to Steptoe....-....... Part of Bonneville....| 6,590 Walker. — RUDY ene ac- oe = tcf cee Osea ee = os ae 1200) }| Tuning? 22 eas seee Probably epee to Butte Valley......|..-.. Comet tense epee 740 Rh one WIGS Veen ee oes | tee (Glee. Aen es 720 |) Mingiic see cess osodleveecOOsee cemee eee nee White Valley......]..... olen Sea: 2S eee 920 || Rhodes (max. area) Probably landlocked. Rush Valley.......|.. BEES (i. See, - Saati 700)| (Garileldeeee ect cel ememe dO-i. fPebaeae ont Cedar Valley......|..... Cope ten eso se .8 300i Peels 219 ee ee Landlocked.........-.. BOVicl spars wean al een (i (aj ee A Ne 16,5375) ||| Ehuntoone ee aoc s| seco Go? is22) seereerzee Round Valley.....|....- iO eaenee 2. Sod 170 || Monte Cristo... .-.. Doubtfults: ee ses-e.-- Christmas Lake... Probably landlocked..| 2,750 |} Columbus........- Landlocked.........-- Silver Lake........ Part of Christmas 7650/1) (Clayton2)) 22 24|eeeee oe Seg aa siete tare cter= Lake Basin. Big Smoky - 2. .0+ 2 |.AyesdO see sce aeemen se Chewaucan| Landlocked........... 1,500 |} Kingston.......... miipwleEy to Big (Abert Lake). Smoky. Summer Lake..... Part of Chewaucan 560 || Edwards Creek....} Landlocked........... Basin. Smiths Creek...... Probably tributary to Alkali Lake....... Landlocked. aca pep ea t= Edwards Creek. TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE DESERT BASINS. Taste I.—Areas of the undrained basins—Continued. Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description. Sq. m. Goldfield........-- proeaely, landlocked - . 330 || Soda Lake......... Part of Mojave MD TaMMON ere ee kM Oe ses th eos 2,800 drainage. Railroad Valley. . - qemaicewen Gnas area)| 6,340 || Rodriguez Lake ...|..... (0 Koya ees ean Sa Kawichec sso... <5 Probably tributary to 370 || Harper Lake......-]....- (0 (ome pats cher Banh Railroad. Coyote Lake.......|....-. GO ese cadens PONOVEDA ete ae'is = oles = One ee todenee aes 1,000 |) Cronese Lake......]..... CO KG ates eer oe eS Goldilat. . 22.22. - Probably landlocked. . 640 || Langford Lake..-...|..... Oj ae une Wmiigrant...2.-.2-- Probably landlocked | 1,000 |} Ivanpah.........--. Landlocked.......-. (max. area). Mesquite Lake...-. Tributary to Colo- NODE A eee Probably tributary to 300 rado River. Frenchman Flat. Dale Makes ore eee (a Ka ee a ea ar Frenchman Flat...| Probably landlocked. 740 || Palen Lake.......-|..... Co (a ee aan ae Indian Spring. - - -- Tributary to Colorado 650 || Bristol Lake......- Probably tributary River. to Colorado River. Biniwateren. 2... Cc oer Re oa 730 || Cadiz Lake.....--- Tributary either to Lee Canyon. ......|...-.- Gopec eae stseghes 300 Danby Lake or to Sheep Range. .--.- Doub tinleeaete see aeee 300 the Colorado River. SpnimenviatloyjecccsieeeneQOjee.-oeae ace esjeis 1,550 || Danby Lake....... Probably tributary Ganneth. 22222 242-- Tributary to Colorado 150 to Colorado River River. (max. area). Opal Mountain....| Probably landlocked. . 580 |] Salton..........-.- Complicated by ma- MOTOS sues 2. sno. Landlocked..-......-.- 770 rine invasion. JN TWO fi) A eee Part of Mono.......--. 95 || Laguna Maquata..-.| Connected with Rio Omens: ss ys: Once tributary] 2,825 ney (Colorado to Searles. er). Searlessee 2 ora Landlocked(max.area)| 4,850 || Otero.............- Prebably landlocked BaMamMinte see... 4/- Landlocked (areadoes } 1,950 |) Estancia...........-|....- GO ipsa ae not include Searles FETICIN OF eR (0 KO eae ens lie, ees or Owens). Pinos Wells...-..-- Probably tributary Saline Valley .....- Wandlockeds2. 3422-42. 845 to Pecos River. TDYNUife) ih el ae |e Gores eel CUB|\| SEU Geopoadcconosce Landlocked........- Deep Springs Val- | Probably tributary to. 185 |} Cochise...-....-... Tributary to Gila ley. Eureka. G River. Ire aes Se eae 900 |) Lordsburg Dry |..... (6 Fe Ra ery st Lake. iWallanclnseee oe ss arto 250 || Playas Valley......]..... dons eee au ae Granite Mountain . 150 |} Laguna Guzman | Tributary to Rio ONAN Es Bae rn ep do 60 (Membres Val- Grande. Death Valley... --- Landlocked (ine. Mo- | 23,560 ley). jave and Amargosa). Sanihisis Valleyas-s |e eG One-sse eee eee ee Ralston Valley Part of Amargosa | 1,750 |} Red Desert ........ ae tributary drainage. to Colorado River. Stonewall Flat.....}..... ove ae irene) 345 || Carriso Plains... -.. Tributary to Pacific Sarcobatus Flat...|..... C0 oye a el ae 755 Slope drainage. Pahrump Valley...} Tributary to Amar- | 1,400 || Plains of San Au- | Tributary to Rio 2 gosa (max. area). gustine. Grande. Mesquite Valley...| Probably tributary 350 || Hualpai.........--- Probably landlocked to the Amargosa. 61 Area. Sq.m. 900 2, 520 TaBLeE I1.—Basins in which all known conditions are favorable to the accumulation of potash salts, given in order of area. Basin. Area. Basin. Area. Basin. Sq. m. Sq. Mm. NOAM OTb Ae ae ene a 45,730) ||) Warmer: 2.222.052.5226. 25000) ||P Salineseesaaeseeee ere Death Valley..........- 23,560 || Panamint.............-- iL S500 Eine kappa seer eee Railroad Valley........-} 6,340 || Hualpai................. 1, 450 || Mono.........---------- Siai Ges Ee as Ae eae 4,850 }} Columbus...........-..-- fe 350 || Frenchman Flat......--. PAV ONG eee ce Sale er cicncrels BAO NW) CAs a .oyssouetoderces 1 280) iGoldvilateasssseeer eee ee Diamond ayes Steet. 2,800 || Edwards Creek.....-..- ”990 Opal Mountain...-...-.- DURPEISEE Me 22522 -=- 5555 25350)! kane asis 2) ses22 ae 900 || Clayton..........--..... IDWS 1s) 5 Li Spe Seopa eae 2,290 || Ivanpah..-..-..-.--..-- 900 62 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE III.—Basins in which some of the known conditions are unfavorable to the accumu- lation of potassium salts but which cannot be definitely rejected, given in order of area. Basin Area Basin Area. Basin. Area. Sq. m. Sq. m. Sq. m. Salt (Basin @22 eoe-.ce rss 8,600 || Estancia... 2-4) 0. 2,100 || Chewaucan (Abert Lake)} 1,500 Owens: t2522a5oeess: 2,825 || Spring Valley..........-. 1,550 TasLe IV.—Basins the classification and promise of which is doubtful, given in order of area. Basin. Area. Basin. Area. Basin. Area. Sq. ™m. Sq. m. Sq. Mm. Saltonos-s pee n sees 8,000 || Bristol Lake.........--- 2,520 || Emigrant (Timpahute).| 1,000 Danby Wake: 2. 2.4: A150) || CROW soe oe ee ae 2,000 |) Madeline......-...-....- 900 Red Desert. 52. 2.25.22 .5 3, 600"||*Penoyers-cee los ae eee 1 000.9) "Rod ese st Peecseete sees é 670 Christmas Lake........- 2,750 |} Guano Lake.........-.- 1,000 INDEX. Page AS JOXEIELE Tei EL sR es re 25 PAOTT OMEN ASU see ee ya a cislele ee ciclo ie wing a ai 32 Adobe Valley......--.------ Desh ease ied viens a 40 Agua Verde, Laguna de__.......--.--------- 52 PANT OMEN Le Viateraateeisierats Se icles <, my wy bese’ eT he ne ‘ ert: slay PY bert Py Hes ee et fast ; : aie tf SAL Td ne) oye Face abe be ; ee wid en ise eerie et ’ * ae nie | . 1: te aN Fr ace , : Sik ao as niet eeatd ft Md ee £ ma ribae yan WO ROORE e Te ay Pere SENS pe HAMNER niviagd ghrign lat | * Oh * wpe tepg tay TA fais nih sop relat cactaha | atts RRBs, Sos ee aaeers a ee sith. wat ; Ht a mr hi eta MS arta FR iho ‘ af ae 2 Orhan ease aarti one ae MPS 8 yin Rea es - apnats saipra a i ake ern me TY ote me. eas eet lag Ue cen. Dees dos +t a ae ] irc, ; Alias eee ‘calle stil ee oe ee iat remem reat ee br "y é att feo NN RRER OIE ' , i : edhe ver tenn etlignlt ae 7 ¢ ‘ ee ae da'b oe. Fla ba hie ohne ae Codie, SLGhe SR a ‘ + 4 : é x ; , eb: “mi A i \ A + ‘ aN ik 7 o@ é a Aon \ : Z ) 7 y - oH Pd ‘ ‘ ‘ i is ait ; ‘ { 4 a — r des ts . 2 bs H Fite gs y ' ae 1 ¥ a ¢ a 5 "i | rt . * u f “ 1) Ca We ye? “n x \ Cela + ‘ 7; tant M ‘ aly ain , 7 Ae Mee j ‘ i! 4 : ras et y or: P| 3 ‘ ' , eh i ee eae ey ip ae 4 + Bhan tnd ha a H : ~ \ ae ire ; : : sor Al bet | FowSO Oeev an Vetere reed : nO tORHAAW ' ’ P “§ e : } ; . ¢ \ SOE yIN Or Ty HE USDEPARTNENT OPAGRICULTURE * No. 55 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. March 25, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) BALSAM FIR. By RapHarn Zon, Chief of Forest Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The enormous expansion of the pulp industry in this country during the last two decades, with its present annual demand for not less than three and a quarter million cords of coniferous wood, has stimulated the use of balsam fir, which but a few years ago was considered of little value. With the increase in the price of spruce for pulpwood, balsam fir has begun to take its place for rough lumber, laths, shingles, and box shooks. The cutting of balsam fir to any extent for pulp or lumber began only about 20 years ago, as the more valuable species of the northern forests became scarce and as its suitability for many pur- poses for which only white pine or spruce were originally used became recognized. , Balsam fir, though in general inferior to white pine and red spruce, is now a tree of considerable economic importance in the northeastern forests. It constitutes numerically about 20 per cent of the coniferous forests in northern New York and Maine, and is abundant in many parts of New Hampshire, Vermont, and in the swamps of northern Michigan, northern Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Through prolific seeding and rapid growth it readily reforests cut-over areas and attains sizes suitable for pulpwood in a short time. The uses for which balsam fir is suited and the appearance of barked wood, especially after 1t has remained for any length of time in water, are so much like those of spruce that it is commonly sold in mixture with and under the name of spruce, because of a lingering prejudice against balsam fir among pulp manufacturers and lumbermen. This prejudice, formed at the time of still abundant supplies of spruce and Note.—This bulletin deals with all aspects of balsam fir, its distribution, the forest types in which it occurs, the present stand and cut, its economic importance, especially in relation to the paper-pulp in- dustry, methods and cost of lumbering, life history of the tree, characteristics of the wood, rate of growth and yield, and proper methods of management. Balsam fir is found in commercial quantities in the northeastern border States from Maine to Minnesota. : 20137°—Bull. 55—14——1 2 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. white pine, is based partly on the actual inferiority of balsam fir to those species and partly to insufficient familiarity with the wood. To determine impartially the economic value of balsam fir, its dis- tribution, present stand and cut in the various States where it occurs, as well as its qualities and possibilities as a forest tree, was the purpose ~ of two summers’ study in the Adirondacks, in Maine, and throughout the whole of the tree’s commercial range. It was believed that by pointing out the possibility of using balsam fir in places where originally only spruce had been used, and by learning its peculiarities as a forest tree, the heavy drain upon our waning supplies of spruce might be slightly decreased, and that suggestions for the proper management of our spruce forests, in which balsam fir holds an important place, could be formulated. DISTRIBUTION OF BALSAM FIR. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea Mill.) is a tree chiefly of the Northeast, although it occurs here and there in the mountain ridges of southern Virginia and extends westward in Canada as far as Mackenzie River. (See map, fig. 1.) . . Moisture and temperature are the two main factors influencing its distribution. It requires a cold climate and a constant supply of moisture at its roots. A mean annual temperature not exceeding 40° F., with an average summer temperature of not more than 70° F., and a mean annual precipitation of not less than 25 inches evenly distributed throughout the year, are the necessary conditions for its growth. It extends farther north than red spruce, but is left slightly behind by black and white spruce, tamarack, aspen, and paper birch. Though in Canada balsam fir extends almost to the Rocky Moun- tains, in which.it is doubtless supplanted by Alpine fir (Abies lasio- carpa),' it does not occur in continuous large forests west of the one hundredth meridian, and in the United States its western limit is found in Minnesota. One of the principal reasons for this is the increasing dryness of the air which the tree encounters in its westerly distribution. The mean annual rainfall gradually decreases from the east toward the west. In Maine, where balsam fir reaches its best development, the rainfall amounts to 43 inches; in Minnesota, where balsam is of poor development, it is less than 26 inches. Farther west, in North Dakota, the annual rainfall drops to about 18 inches, and no balsam fir is found. While the increasing dryness of the air influences the western distribution of balsam fit, the increasing temperature con- trols its southern distribution, limiting it to higher and higher eleva- tions the farther south it extends, until it gives way to Frazer fir (Abies frazert (Pursh.) Lindl.) on the highest mountains of West Vir- ginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. 1 John Macoun. Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada: Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part I1l—Apetale, p. 473, BALSAM. FIR, 3 The northern limit of balsam fir’s botanical range extends from Labrador and Newfoundland southwestward, crossing James Bay at latitude 54° north and, keeping slightly south of Hudson Bay, _ passing between Fort Severn and Front Lake to Hayes River. From ; 70? EE NIOe Oo. hee | Fig. 1.—Distribution of balsam fir. this point it turns abruptly again southward and crosses Nelson River at the outlet of Sipiwesk Lake; thence it takes a northwesterly direc- tion to the Great Bear Lake region until it reaches and probably crosses Mackenzie River. The most northern point at which balsam fir has been observed is 62°. +L BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Southward balsam fir is found almost all over Canada, particularly . in its maritime provinces—Quebec and Ontario—in northern New England, and in the northern parts of New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and northeastern Iowa. Along the Appalachian Moun- tains it extends through western Massachusetts, over the Catskills of | New York, and through western Pennsylvania to the mountains of southwestern Virginia. The heaviest commercial stands of balsam fir are found in Canada, in Quebec and Ontario. On the Cape Breton Islands, according to Dr. Fernow,! balsam fir forms a solid forest, with not over 15 per cent of spruce and a small admixture of paper birch, covering a plateau of 1,000 square miles.. It is estimated to compose more than 50 per cent of the forest, 150,000 square miles in extent, on the southern slope of the Laurentian shield, south of the height of land. . In the United States balsam fir is found in commercial quantities in most of Maine, the northern parts of New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, and to some extent also in the swamps of northern Wisconsin, northern Michigan, and Minnesota, or, in all, over an area of approximately 35,000 square miles. | FOREST TYPES. The same factors that control the geographical distribution of balsam fir influence to a great extent also its local occurrence. Maine, with an average summer temperature of only 62.5° F., an average winter temperature of 20° F., and a mean annual rainfall of 43 inches, presents most favorable conditions for the tree’s growth, and, indeed, here balsam fir is in general more thrifty than in any other State in which it occurs. This is shown in every way—in the greater height, larger diameter, greater clear length, more cylindrical shape of the trunk, and the smoother appearance of the bark, indicatmg a more rapid growth. The forest types in which balsam fir occurs in Maime, as well as throughout northern New York, New Hampshire, and Vermont, may be classified as swamp, flat, hardwood slope, and mountain top. SWAMP. The swamp type occupies low, poorly drained, swampy land which never becomes ‘entirely dry, and on which sphagnum and other mosses form the predominating ground cover. Jn such swamps balsam fir grows in dense stands and remains exceedingly slender, but is remarkably free from injury by fungus, especially from ground rot and from wind and frost cracks. It often grows nearly pure, though com- monly it is mixed with black and red spruce, white cedar, and tamarack. On account of its small size and slow growth, the balsam fir of the swamps is of little commercial value. This slow growth may be attrib- 1 Forest Problems and Forest Resources of Canada, by Dr. B. E. Fernow, University of Toronto. Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. VII, No. 2, 1912. BALSAM FIR. uted to two causes, excess of moisture and a short growing season. The dense evergreen foliage of the coniferous trees, as well as the eround cover of moss, shields the ice which forms in the ground during winter against the rays of the sun in the sprig. Thawing, and therefore the root activity of the trees, begins later in the swamps, often five weeks, than on the slopes or dry flats. The characteristic ground cover of balsam swamps is made up of mosses, which form about 70 per cent of the herbaceous vegetation. The character of the vegetation and the relative proportion of the . | different species which compose the ground cover of the swamps is as | follows: Mosses (70 per cent): Common— Sphagnum. Fern moss ( Hylocomuim proliferum). Shaggy moss ( Hylocomuim triquitrum). Scale moss. Occasional— Crane moss (Dicranwm fulowm). Fern and fern allies (10 per cent): Common— Spinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa). Cinnamon fern (Osmunda cinnamomea). Lady fern (A spleniwim felixfemina). Long beech fern (Phegopteris phegopteris). Oak fern (Phegopteris dryopteris). Marsh shield fern (Dryopteris phegopteris). Crested shield fern (Dryopteris cristata). Sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis). Rare— Fernata grape fern (Botrychium obliquum). Horsetail ( Hyuisetwm sylvaticum). Flowering plants (20 per cent): Common— Wood sorrel (Oxalis acetosella). Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia). Bunchberry ( Cornus canadensis). Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens). 5 | Flowering plants (20 per cent)—Continued. Common—Continued. Sweet white violet( Viola btanda palustriformis). Creeping snowberry ( Chiogenes hispidula). Clintonia ( Clintonia boreasis). | Wild sarsaparilia (Araua nudicaulis). Twin flower (Linnaea voreatis). Occasional— Chickweed wintergreen ( T'rientalis americana). Painted trillium ( Trillium undulatum). Two-leaved Solomon’s seal ( Unifoliwm cana- dense). Rare— } Creeping wintergreen (Gauttheria procumbens). Indian pipe ( Monofropa unifiera). Underbrush: Common— Green alder (Alnus alnobetséa). Mountain ash (Pyrus americana). Withe rod ( Viburnum cassinoides). Occasional— Mountain holly (Ilictoides mucronata). Fetid currant (Ribes prostratum). _ Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia). Pale laurel (Kalmia glauca). Mountain maple (Acer sprcatum). Hobble bush ( Viburnum alnifolium). FLAT. The flat type is intermediate between the swamp and the hard- wood slope. It includes the low swells adjoining wet swamps, or the gentle lower ridges, and also the knolls in wet swamps. It is fairly well drained, and fern moss replaces sphagnum as the principal eround cover. In essentials it is still the swamp, except that it is drier. Lumbermen, in fact, call it “dry swamp.’ Here balsam grows rapidly, becomes tall, straight, and clear-boled, attains a fair diameter, and, as in the swamp, often grows pure. But the trees in the dry swamp are much more subject to ground rot than in the wet swamp. When it occurs in mixture its associates are red spruce, yellow birch, and red maple—the two latter small and unimportant. It is on the flats that the heaviest stands of balsam fir are found, and here also it grows more commonly in mixture with red spruce, with which it is cut and marketed for the same uses. Of the four types, therefore, the flat is commercially the most important. 6 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The characteristic ground cover of the flat, in addition to leat litter (15 per cent), is as follows: Moss (60 per cent): Flowering plants (20 per cent)—Continued. Common— Occasional—Continued. Fern moss ( Hylocomuim proliferum). Chickweed wintergreen ( Trientalis americana). Scale moss. Rattlesnake plaintain ( Epipactis repens). Ferns (5 per cent): Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia). ae srntioge ahaa d (Dryopteris spinul ate pinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa. Lady fern (Asplenium felizfemina). vr, oe isis (yprpisiuan ‘noMH). Flowering plants (20 per cent). Csmanste Common— ; Wood sorrel (Ozalis acetosella). Hobble bush ( Viburnum lantanoides). Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis). Withe rod ( Viburnum cassinoides). Creeping wintergreen ( Chiogenes hispidula). Mountain ash (Pyrus americana). Clintonia ( Clintonia borealis). Occasional— Sarsaparilla st. (Aralia nudicaulis). Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia). Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens). Mountain maple (Acer spicatum). Occasional— Service berry (A melanchier canadensis). Trillium ( Trillium erythrocarpum). Beaked hazelnut ( Corylus rostrata). HARDWOOD SLOPE. This is the best-drained type.. In it hardwood leaf litter, instead of mosses, forms the chief ground cover. On the slopes balsam fir never occurs in pure stands, but grows scatteringly among red spruce and large-sized hardwoods. The principal species of hardwoods are yellow birch, red maple, sugar maple, and beech. Here balsam fir, provided it is not too heavily shaded, grows rapidly and becomes comparatively large and tall, reaching on the slopes, in fact, its best individual development. It is apt to be very defective, however, and is especially liable to ground rot unless it grows near a brook or spring which furnishes a plentiful supply of water to its roots. The characteristic ground cover of the hardwood slope besides leaf litter (40 per cent) is as follows: Mosses (5 per cent): Fowering plants (26 per cent)—Continued. Occasional— Occasional— Plume moss ( Hypnum crista-castrensis). Two-leaved Solomon’s seal ( Unifolium cana- Crane moss (Dicranumfuloum). dense). Shaggy moss ( Hylocomiwm triquitrum). Sweet white violet ( Viola blanda palustriformis). Mountain fern moss ( Hylocomium proliferium). Twisted stalk (Streptopus amplezifolius). Beas and fer allies (30 per cent). Indian cucumber root ( Medeola virginiana). Common— 2 d 3 : ihe Dalibarda (Dalibarda repens). Spinulose shield fern (Dryopteris spinulosa). Gold thread ( Coptis trifolia), Shining club moss (Lycopodium lucidulum). Occasional— Rare— Hayscented fern (Dicksonia pilosiuscula). Creeping snowberry ( Chiogenes hispidula). Lady fern (Asplenium felizfemina). Indian pipe ( Monotropa wnifiora). Ground pine (Lycopodium complanatum). Rattlesnake plantain ( £pipactus repens). New York fern (Aspidiwm noveboracense). Lady’s slipper ( Cypripedium acaule). ° Silvery spleen wort (Asplenium thelyteroides). Habenaria ( Habenaria). A Underbrush: Common polippod (Polypodium vulgare). Long beech fern (Phegopteris polypodioides), Flowering plants (26 per cent): Common— Hobble bush ( Viburnum lantanoides). Mountain maple (Acer spicatum). Common— Wood sorrel (Ozalis acetosella). Striped maple (Acer Dennaylannsua) Bunchberry ( Cornus canadensis). Occasional— Wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). Beaked hazelnut ( Corylus rostrata). Clintonia ( Clintonia borealis). Swamp honeysuckle (Lonicera oblongifolia). Painted trillium ( Trilliwm erythrocarpum). Service berry (A melanchier canadensis). BALSAM FTIR. fi MOUNTAIN TOP. Higher up the slopes, as the number of sugar maples gradually increases, balsam fir becomes more and more scattering, until it is found only as single specimens here and there, and on the middle slope, the driest portion of the mountain, disappears entirely. Approaching the top, however, at 2,500 or 3,000 feet above sea level, balsam fir reappears, often forming pure stands. Together with black spruce, it is the last to give way to the Alpine flora on moun- tains rising above timber line. Conditions on a mountain top, where the prevailing low tempera- ture retards evaporation and helps the condensation of moisture in the air, are similar to those in the swamp, and balsam fir shows much the same development in both places. The chief difference is that on the mountain top the trees are shorter. The principal ground cover is the same sphagnum moss found in the swamps. Balsam fir of the mountain top has no commercial value, because of the diffi- culty of lumbering it, coupled with its small size and slow growth. Approaching timber line, balsam fir becomes dwarfed, procumbent, or spreading, with a short trunk and long, horizontal branches spreading near the ground. On the lower surfaces of the lower branches touching the ground, roots are often formed. When such a branch becomes detached from the main stock it may even give rise to an independent tree. The capacity to transform branches into roots has also been observed in balsam fir seedlings that have germinated in wet moss. Often in such cases, as the tree grows larger, additional roots are formed at the lower nodes of the stem beneath the moss, where originally branches grew. In Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota balsam fir, when growing in mixture with tamarack, arborvite or white cedar, spruce, aspen, or black ash, under conditions similar to those existing in the swamps of the northeastern States, is of poor development, with a diameter seldom larger than 11 inches and a height of 30 or 35 feet. PRESENT STAND AND CUT. The total stand of balsam fir throughout its range of commercial occurrence may be placed somewhere in the neighborhood of 5,000,000,000 board feet. TaBLeE 1.—Present stand of balsam fir, by States, in million board feet: WUGYTOY RNS, Se SG Ae NB a ee eg dL nee Peat See em mae 3, 000 INGE NEO ESN s Sebes See tees Cal lie eh en oA Sk aa) a ee A im og Sta A 250 INGiya Elerniaielninen tomar slap e517 ht SN ek Or Rage OS NEN Eonar, Mee 400 NViSCOMsitiee remote bp romcr cn ce MUR NL MMR aM bon len Ls ube «0 395 VERE TI ea Te ae psa at de A veer iene yng Mani uerinaes Ln ees AM bd see doe Sra 200 \Y RTE as heh Re oo aC ae me el aa Th a Pan me 110 WED MOWOVERSTO UE eh tk ee Ges ec) Set Re hs i ar ba Ue 1, 000 8 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This estimate is undoubtedly very crude, but even a crude estimate seems better than none. Only within the last four or five years have any records been kept of the cut of balsam fir for various purposes. Growing with spruce, and being used for the same purposes, it always went under the name > of spruce. According to the census reports for 1909, the total lumber cut of bal- sam fir for the United States for 19091 amounted to 108,702,000feet, and according to the census report for 1910, 132,362 cords, or 66,181,000 board feet, for pulp. The total annual cut of balsam fir in the United States at present is about 175,000,000 board feet. At this rate, the present stand, not counting the increment, will last for about 30 years. MAINE. ’ In Maine, balsam fir is most common in the eastern part of the State, especially in the big flat country at the head of the St. John and Penobscot Rivers and their tributaries, and along the coast for about 10 miles inland, where it constitutes nearly one-fifth of the coniferous forests. In the western part of the State, along the Androscoggin and Kennebec Rivers, its proportion in the forest is comparatively small. . : oy? . From actual measurements by the Forest Service, extended over many hundred acres and upon estimates obtained from persons most familiar with the Maine forests, it is safe to assume that balsam fir constitutes in volume for the whole State not less than 15 per cent of the spruce stand. Based upon an estimate by the Maine forest commissioner in his annual report for 1902, which gives the present stand of spruce as 21,239,000,000 feet, the present stand of balsam fir in Maine approximates 3,000,000,000 board feet. Replies to circular letters sent out in 1903 by the Forest Service to all saw and pulp mills in Maine, regarding the use of balsam fir, justify the conclusion that about 70,000,000 board feet of this species is being cut annually for pulp and lumber. ‘This estimate is con- firmed by the statistics of the Bureau of the Census, which show that in 1910, 32,861 cords, or approximately 16,500,000 board feet,? of balsam fir was cut for pulp in Maine, and that in 1909 nearly 50,500,000 board feet was cut for lumber. This would make the total annual cut of balsam fir in Maine about 67,000,000 board feet. The amount of balsam fir used by the sawmills appears to be pro- portionately larger than the amount used by the pulp mills. This is undoubtedly due to the great amount of spruce used for pulp. Pulp 1 The total cut of balsam fir for lumber in 1910 was 74,580,000 board feet, but this figure does not include the cut in the State of New York, and therefore is incomplete For this reason the figures for 1909 were used. 2In converting cords into board feet, 2 cords are taken to be equal to 1,000 board feet. BALSAM FIR. 9 manufacturers can afford to pay stumpage prices for spruce which places it almost beyond the reach of the lumbermen. The latter, therefore, must turn more and more to other species, such as hemlock and balsam fir, at least for those purposes for which they will serve as well as spruce. The amount of balsam fir used by the sawmills has increased within the last 10 years more than 50 per cent, and in some places even 75 or 100 percent. Ten or 15 years ago, in fact, hardly any balsam fir not large enough for saw logs was cut; now it is taken almost as readily as spruce. NEW YORK. In northern New York, balsam fir is abundant in Franklin, Warren, Oneida, Lewis, and Clinton Counties, though it is not lacking in any township throughout the whole Adirondack region. It constitutes. at present about 7 per cent of the “spruce’’ product and about 10 per cent of all the ‘“‘spruce’”’ pulpwood cut in the Adirondacks. Since balsam fir is now cut for pulp as readily as spruce, and practically no discrimination is made between the two, its proportion in the total output of pulpwood serves to indicate its proportion in the standing coniferous timber. Actual measurements over many acres in differ- ent parts of the mountains confirm this representation of balsam fir in the Adirondack forest. A distinction must be made, however, between the numerical and the volume representation of balsam fir. Numerically balsam fir constitutes from 20 to 50 per cent of the total stand, yet, since it never reaches the same sizes as spruce, its propor- tion by volume must necessarily be less. Based upon figures of the United States Census for 1900 on the stand of coniferous timber in the Adirondacks, the present stand of balsam fir in the Adirondack forests must be between 250,000,000 and 300,000,000 board feet. The cut of balsam fir in the Adirondacks in 1910 amounted to 33,504,500 board feet, of which 9,248,000! board feet were cut for lumber and 24,256,500 board feet (48,513 cords) for pulp. The greater use of balsam fir by the pulp manufacturers than by the saw- mills m the Adirondacks is explained by the leading place which New York State occupies in the pulp industry and by the decreased supplies of spruce, necessitating the use of all coniferous timber avail- able for pulpwood. NEW HAMPSHIRE. on New Hampshire balsam fir is found mainly 1 in the northern part of the State—in the White Mountains-and in upper Coos County. In the southern part of the State it is found in any quantity only in the large Swamper around the sources of the Contoocook and Millers 1 This figure is for 1909; as no figures are available regarding the balsam fir cut for lumber in 1910, it is used as the nearest figure available. 20137°—Bull. 55—14-—2 10 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rivers. Altogether it constitutes about 10 per cent of the total so- called spruce cut for pulpwood in northern New Hampshire and from 1 to 5 per cent in the rest of the State. Since 97.4 per cent of the total cut of pulpwood in New Hampshire comes from the northern portion, 9 per cent may be considered a fair average proportion of balsam fir in the total output of pulpwood in the State. The percentage of balsam fir used in mixture with spruce in the sawmills varies, according to the location of the mill, from 1 to 20, being largest in Coos County; but for the whole State it probably does not exceed 5 per cent. Thus, about 5,700,000 board feet of balsam fir were cut for pulpwood (1910) and about 12,200,000 board feet for lumber (1909), making a total of 17,900,000 board feet. Accepting the present stand of softwoods in the four main drain- age systems of northern New Hampshire as in the neighborhood of 4,764,000,000 board feet, the present stand of balsam fir in New Hampshire may be estimated in round figures to be 400,000,000 board feet.? . VERMONT. In Vermont balsam fir is most common in the northern counties, Caledonia, Essex, and Orange containing nearly 20 per cent of the coniferous forests. -In the southern half of the State balsam fir is found in any quantity only in the mountain townships. In 1910 balsam fir made up about 84 per cent of the total cut for pulpwood and lumber in the State. Assuming that it forms only 7 per cent of the spruce forest, the present stand of balsam fir, based on the census figures for the spruce stand in 1900, must be about 110,000,000 board feet. The annual cut of balsam fir, according to the census report for 1910, is about 12,000,000 board feet, of which about 4,000,000 board feet is for pulpwood and 8,000,000 for lumber. WISCONSIN. The only estimate of balsam fir in Wisconsin is that of Filibert Roth,? who placed the total stand in 1897 at 395,000,000 board feet (790,000 cords). In this estimate was included everything from 4 inches up. The yield per acre in all forests where balsam fir occurred was placed at from 50 to 100 board feet, or 4 to 8 cords, per 40 acres, an estimate which agreed with one made by the Chicago & North Western Railway Co. in Forest and adjoining counties. Balsam fir is thinly scattered in most forests of Wisconsin on the more humid loam and clay lands. It is generally less than 12 inches in diameter and below 60 feetin height. Table 2 gives estimates of the stand of balsam fir in the different counties in which it grows. ! Forest Service Bulletin 55, Forest Conditions in Northern New Hampshire. 2 Forestry Conditions and Interests of Wisconsin, by Filibert Roth. Bulletin 16, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, 1898. BALSAM FIR. 11 TABLE 2.—Stand of balsam fir in Wisconsin, by counties, in million feet board measure. SIM ANG eG ete s ol ose eae oe a 5 20 | Oconto 15 emi epee ar Drm Oneida ose os ote oe See ee 10 Pie pe Wass. 22-24. 22.-0 4 3-525 <1 20k RORLASE Jihee Ads 02 LS REN et). eae 5 OISHZ- 2c ocean eee Beer Diilipeti Ce jah ea sys oe aa UY 0 Mag 15 Dugan SOUSA iVelss sca". Stns We a 2 ke Ie 25mm PI CHBINESs Aus ea ee ee ene Wo Sa Wal Oey ssecce oe eee © oe ees a ee BOO DaPe8t. choceca ee pa ee ees 40M eMalors. 28h 6 eee on eee ee 30 rere eee eee ceils eee TO Wialageo. hone ll Bee Se 10 Langlade. -. SO! RAV Od I SEES STOMP ERE 09 5 Ibrrnyeol lin. Oe ee ee ee 25 tee Marathon 25 TO ball asa eR AS eed oso es eae 395 Marinette 10 increasing. In 1910, 4,196,000 board feet were cut for lumber and 8,502,000 board feet for pulp, a total of 12,698,000 board feet. MINNESOTA. In Minnesota balsam fir is confined largely to the northeastern half of the State, extending south as far as Isanti and Chisago Coun- ties. On moist, retentive soils it reaches a fair development. In the northern counties it attains an average diameter breast high of 10 to 11 inches and an average volume of 51 board feet. Prof. Roth roughly estimated its stand in 1897 as 1,000,000,000 feet. While no cut is indicated for pulp, 10,147,000 board feet were cut in 1910 for lumber. MICHIGAN. Balsam fir occurs in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan in mixture with spruce, but there is little prospect of future supply from either species, since they occur scatteringly. Prof. Roth estimated the stand of balsam fir in 1897 at 400,000 cords, or 200,000,000 board feet. The estimates given by Prof. Roth 15 years ago of the stand of balsam fir in the States of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan were considered by him at that time too low, so their applicability to the present stand in Wisconsin, Minnesota, or Michigan may therefore be justified. The cut in Michigan is close to that in Wisconsin and Minnesota, amounting to 10,712,000 board feet in 1910; of this, 5,925,000 board feet were cut for pulp and 4,787,000 board feet for lumber. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. BALSAM FIR PULPWOOD. Balsam fir finds its greatest economic importance as a pulpwood. There is a close connection between the extent of the available sup- plies of spruce in a State and the amount of balsam fir used in the manufacture of pulp and paper. As long as there is a plentiful supply of the former, the use of balsam fir is naturally restricted. 12 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. But where the demand for pulpwood is greater than the available supply of spruce, balsam is the accepted substitute. Out of about 2,220,000 cords of domestic coniferous wood used in the United States by the pulp industry in 1910, 6 per cent, or 132,362 cords. (about 66,000,000 board feet), was balsam fir. The Forest Service, in 1903, sent a circular letter inclosing a series of questions to the pulp and paper manufacturers, lumbermen, town supervisors, and surveyors in States in which balsam fir occurs. Nearly 100 answers were received from pulp and paper mills, which throw much light upon the place of balsam fir in the economy of paper making. About 70 per cent of all the mills that reported use balsam fir in quantities varying from 2 to over 30 per cent of all the pulpwood consumed. The reasons given by those who do not use it are either that they can not get it, or that they do not like to use it ‘af they can detect it,” or that they use some other species exclu- sively. The amount of balsam fir used by each mill varies from year to year, nor can it always be accurately ascertained at the mill. Spruce and balsam are invariably kept together, and the latter, after it has been barked and kept in water for any length of time, can not be readily distinguished. In general, it can be said that a greater percentage of balsam fir is used by the mills of New York (48,513 cords) than by those of Maine (32,861 cords). This is due partly to the ranking position occupied by the State of New York in the pulp industry and its relatively large number of sulphite mills capable of using an unlimited amount of balsam fir and partly also to the comparatively large supplies of spruce in Maine. OBJECTIONS TO THE USE OF BALSAM-FIR FIBER. The principal objection to the use of large amounts of balsam fir in the ground-pulp process is said to be on account of the pitch that covers the felts and cylinder faces. It is admitted by nearly all pulp and paper men that from 10 to 25 per cent of balsam can be used in ground pulp without lowering the grade of the paper produced. A few go even so far as to claim that a larger admixture of balsam fir— from 20 to 25 per cent—is of advantage, in that it makes the pulp “‘free’’; that is, separates the spruce fibers during the manufacturing process and in this way allows the water to be easily drawn from the sheet. Still others claim that a satisfactory ground wood pulp can be made almost entirely of balsam. In chemical pulp, because of the acids dissolving the pitch, any amount of balsam can be used, though some claim that paper made of pulp containing a large admixture of balsam lacks strength, snap, and character. The pitch gives most trouble in freshly cut balsam, while in wood soaked in water over a season the amount is so small that it need not be taken into account. Some of the larger mills claim that after balsam fir has remained in the pond for one year any amount of it can be used. BALSAM FIR. 13 RESIN CONTENTS. The complaints against the larger amount of pitch in balsam fir are somewhat strange in view of the fact that the actual resin content of balsam fir is less than that of spruce. Resin in coniferous wood occurs normally in cells, of which the wood is built up as a house is built of bricks, and in the spaces between the cells, known as resin ducts, running vertically and horizontally through the wood. These resin ducts may be seen on cross sections of freshly cut wood as whiter or darker spots marked by exuded droplets of resin. On radial and tangential sections the ducts appear as fine lines or dots of different color. The difference in resin content of the different genera and species of the conifers depends mainly upon the number and size of their resin ducts. Balsam fir is one of the few conifers that lack resin ducts entirely, a thing which serves readily to dis- tinguish it from the spruces and pines. Resin is found in the wood of balsam fir only in the interior of the cells, where it occurs in the form of small droplets. The bark of balsam fir is very rich in resin, but after the former is rossed off the wood should be freer of resin than spruce, which contains resin ducts and resin cells. Therefore the pitch, which according to all reports is the greatest drawback to balsam pulpwood, must either come from the resin in bark left on the surface of the block or else is formed in the process of grinding, in which case it is not of aresinous nature. In either event, the presence of pitch is apparently not due to any property of the wood itself. A chemical determination of the resin contents of six spruce and of four balsam-fir sections made by the Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture, in 1904, gave the following results: Taste 3.—RKesin contents of spruce and balsam fir. SPRUCE. Total Non- 3 Moisture.| volatile | Volatile | amount Tests ()\ linens uw resins. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. ERG ee ere cl ea TO Si aty AE SUE Muna We aa ae 5. 60 0.88 0.23 1.11 IMC CIGSEC GION alee eau es (ibe UPN a) Sal ea ait 5.66 92 .67 1.59 TEU E STSLOUG COVOV LE Ss yl ONT Da AN aA A a RL HN Ds 6.39 -76 49 1.25 FRG JO rcs Se LO el RONSON WON Maa a Uae ene DO OAR Moras 5.85 1.36 27 1.63 INIT CLL GTSEC TIO Tp noe OPM Per els RE Tea ek ETN PR ANE T ae Pee OR MPL eae 5.57 2.33 50 2.83 PESTLE SOC CIOMNm Seth Urn ian Memos ea ited MN tJ ah a 5. 62 1.48 34 1.82 PAROS a MON AI MUN OR PBI NSA VE IAI BN eH LA ne De te | DN ea YU 10. 23 AVE CTEA 8 MOE ERIM are yt crane SONIA PLD ey Do) ADRS ds PU aN AE de ar A acy dra il NC a 1.70 BALSAM FIR. TBA BUG SOON nas het OF I A ak a a Le a ae epee ak 5.31 1.23 0.19 1.42 MTC GISISEC LION Ue mainte Lia ben hE te eek ia lia ae ee 5.06 - 58 -15 23 BULGE SCChION! su ate. Tae) eigen het ADA I I Se tat ede eS 5.01 citi 19 96 WWEre yale Serer ral SE A Ce AR Te anal apn ay eater UE cae anil anata Ye 4.80 67 48 1.15 ANETTA Nye AI anne At SD ene EGU ES IES LORE fe Oye UNE ORAMAN UUM Sera La LS ease ELI PLAS Yel YN 4.26 EANAV CUCL Camere tN Aah Satay abana trey Shera) M Aya RNQ I UNL SIUUUE SIEM LT SUR CAO Sa MOY A NL A SASS ee ee 1.06 14 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Though the inferior quality of wood pulp containing a large amount of balsam fir can not be denied, it is probably not altogether due to the inferiority of the balsam wood, but to deficient knowledge of how to properly manufacture it into paper. WORKING UP BALSAM FIBER. There is no doubt that the fiber of balsam fir is weaker, shorter, and softer than spruce fiber; therefore the prevailing practice of working up balsam fir with spruce in both mechanical and chemical processes ordinarily results in an inferior grade of pulp, if the admix- ture of balsam is considerable. This is not so perceptible in the sulphite process as in the ground pulp. The wood of balsam fir, being softer, cuts more easily than spruce wood; therefore a stone of a sharpness and at a given pressure to produce good strong pulp from spruce makes poor pulp from balsam fir. With dull stones and light pressure a better quality of pulp could probably be made from balsam. Similarly, in the case of chemical pulp better results could - most likely be obtained if weaker acids more suitable to the softer nature of balsam-fir fibers were used. The different properties of wood of spruce and that of balsam fir naturally suggest a different treatment of their fibers, which could best be accomplished by han- dling them separately. Experiments in this direction would probably open a much larger field for the use of balsam pulpwood than it now has. SMALL YIELD OF WOOD FIBER. Another drawback to balsam as compared with spruce is its smaller yield in pulp and paper per cord of wood. Being lighter than spruce when seasoned, it contains less wood substance per cord and so yields a smaller amount of pulp. The following figures regarding the yield of chemical and mechanical pulp per cord of spruce and balsam are based on actual experience and may be considered as average: | Guard ate pulp. | (ulphite). Pounds Pounds per cord. per cord. [3] 3) 10 (1 ee Oe oe ee S- ae een nM Ee Mee tees tint so 55.5 eo - 1, 800 ils Balsam fir. ......-.. «PO OMEDS< > JAIEOd 5c OSHS a ORmnE | Pose dseet s+. doe eee 1, 500 1,000 This drawback, however, would not exist if the stumpage price of balsam pulpwood were proportionately lower than instead of being nearly the same as that of spruce. Some mill men even claim that the only objection they have against balsam fir is its smaller yield in pulp, which, at the same stumpage price as spruce, makes its use unprofit- able and discourages any attempts to improve methods of utilizing or manufacturing it. BALSAM FIR. 15 UNSOUNDNESS. In comparison with spruce, balsam is a short-lived tree, and is apt to become defective by the time it reaches large size. A log from a large tree which may seem apparently sound will, when cut up into blocks, often show heart rot in some portion of its length, or, still more frequently, the fibers at the center will be of soft texture, making its use uneconomical. Decayed heart is not so common in young, small-size trees, and since small logs contain more sap and produce better fiber than large ones, balsam of small diameters is not only suitable for pulpwood, but is to be preferred to the large sticks. Knots, though more numerous in small sticks than large ones, are not a serious objection. They can be cheaply removed by passing the chipped wood through a tank of water, in which the knots sink and the wood is carried off from the surface. Balsam fir cut m winter produces firmer and harder paper than when cut in summer. The general tenor of nearly all the answers to the circular letter was that balsam fir is undoubtedly inferior to spruce in every respect, but that it has come into the pulp industry to stay. Ti fills a place in the economy of paper making, and its drawbacks are of such a nature that they may be to a great extent, if not entirely, overcome by intelligent effort. BALSAM FIR LUMBER. The increased demand for spruce by pulp men, who were able to pay higher prices for it than the lumbermen, compelled the latter to turn their attention to hemlock and balsam. Hemlock enters now more and more into building operations, supplanting spruce; while balsam fir, not being as strong as spruce, is relegated to uses for which strength is not a prime requirement. The total cut of balsam fir for lumber in 1909 was reported as 108,702,000 board feet. Balsam fir is softer and more brittle than spruce; it decays rapidly in the ground, and when green does not hold nails well; but being light and tasteless it makes a very desirable box material, especially for foodstuffs. It is extensively used for cheese-box headings, staves for fish and sugar barrels, sardine cases, butter boxes, and the like. It is easily worked, and is well adapted for molding, novelty, bevel, and drop siding. It is of straighter grain than spruce, and in seasoning is less subject to warping and twisting, which makes it the better of the two woods for fence boards, small joists, planing, scantling, laths, and shingles. Its white color often makes it desirable for house finishing, and some consider it superior to spruce for violins. It saws easier, dries quicker, and is claimed to hold paint better than spruce. It has also been found to be suitable for rough lumber, flooring, ceiling, studding, crating, furniture, sheathing, children’s carriages, toys, small frames, matches, square timber, excelsior, etc. In the form of 16 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. box boards it yields about 10 per cent of material more to the cord than does spruce. In 59 out of 141 sawmills which answered the circular letter, the use of balsam fir in the past few years has not perceptibly increased. Thirty-four mills now use from 10 to 40 per cent more than formerly, 30 mills from 40 to 75 per cent more, 13 mills from 75 to 100 per cent, while 2 mills use four times as much as they used three or four years ago. Only three mills report that the amount of balsam used by them has decreased. LUMBERING BALSAM FIR. In the Adirondacks, as well as in Maine, New Hampshire, and Ver- mont, the methods of cutting balsam and spruce for pulpwood differ somewhat from those used in getting out saw logs. Pulpwood is cut largely in summer and autumn, and is usually limited to a diameter of 8 inches on the stump and to 4 inches in the top. The trees are sawed close to the ground, the stump height seldom being over. 1 foot. The logs are usually cut in lengths of 4 feet. ADVANTAGES OF CUTTING INTO 4-FOOT LENGTHS. Cutting into 4-foot lengths, when the drive is short and the stream shallow, has decided advantages over cutting long logs. The short sticks dry better, and for this reason few are lost through sinkage during the drive—a loss more common with balsam than with spruce. Green balsam logs do not float readily, and on a long drive may become water-logged and sink. Balsam logs, apparently sound at both ends, often contain rot in the center, and by having them cut into short lengths the buyer of pulpwood guards himself against defects. The owner of the forest, too, gains by cutting into short lengths, since it allows a fuller utilization of each individual tree. Thus, if the mer- chantable length of a tree that can be used for pulp is 22 feet, and the logs are cut into 12, 14, and 16 foot lengths, the most that could be used in such a case is a 16-foot log, leaving the remaining 6 feet to waste. On the other hand, by cutting into 4-foot lengths, two-thirds of the 6 feet would be turned into useful material. On a large cut this sort of waste may be considerable. It is true the short logs in the water will not support a man’s weight, and so in many places are harder to drive, but since they seldom form jams and a smaller volume of water is needed to float them, the cost of driving 4-foot sticks for short distances is less than the cost of driving long logs. In one particular case, by changing the log lengths from 12 feet to 4 feet, the cost of driving over the same distance has been reduced from 44 cents to 10 cents per cord, besides lessening the loss through sinkage and undetected defects. BALSAM FIR. 17 DIFFICULTIES IN LOGGING. - Compared with spruce, balsam fir is difficult and expensive to log. It is small, and therefore a gang working in a pure stand of balsam can not cut in a day as much as when working in spruce. When green it is heavier than spruce and therefore harder to snake out and handle, especially in summer in the swamps. It yields a greater per cent of cull, and in many cases the presence of rot can not be detected until the tree has been felled and cut into. It floats heavily, and many logs become water-soaked and sink, making the driving very difficult. To offset these disadvantages, and to make the use of balsam more profitable, its stumpage price should always be lower than that of spruce. STUMPAGE PRICE AND LOGGING COSTS. NEW YORK. The ruling price in the Adirondacks for cutting and skidding pulp- wood (long logs) is about $1.50 per cord. In this price the cutting of roads is included. The extra cost of resawing the long logs into 4-foot lengths and piling them along the log road is ordinarily 40 cents per cord, and requires, in addition to the regular crew of six men, two a sawyers on the skidway. The logs, which in such cases are cut into lengths that are multiples of 4—as 12, 16, and 20—are snaked to the skidway, where they are sawed into 4-foot sticks and piled. A gang of eight men will cut, resaw, and pile from 9 to 12 cords per day. In cutting 14-foot lengths a gang of six men will cut and skid from 14 to 16 cords a day. The price of hauling varies with the distance. For | two or three trip hauls per day, with 2 to 3 cords per sled, the charge 4 is ordinarily $1.60 per cord. If the distance is short and several trips are possible the price is less. The stumpage price is a very variable quantity, ranging all the way from $2 to $3.50 per cord. Such pulp- wood is supposed to contain, besides spruce, 10 per cent of balsam and 10 per cent of hemlock. As a rule, however, the percentage of | balsam runs much higher. Since balsam pulpwood is hardly ever | bought by itself, the price could not be determined, but it is probable : that pure balsam pulpwood would command from 50 cents to $1 per cord less than the ordinary pulpwood now offered on the market. The average cost of driving -can hardly be ascertained, being de- pendent upon the kind of stream, distance, number of logs, etc. MAINE. 1 In Maine balsam fir is taken for pulp along with spruce, the only requirements being sufficient size and soundness. The scaler culls | balsam closer than spruce. While a good deal of pulpwood is cut in | 20137°—Bull. 55—14——3 18 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. winter and sawed into 4-foot sticks, which are piled and later hauled to water or rail on sleds, there is generally no difference in the methods of logging for pulp or lumber, except, perhaps, that the former is_ marked by closer utilization. The trees are usually cut down and topped off with the ax. Stumps run from 1.5 to 2 feet in height; most are cut pretty close to the root swelling. Logs may be even lengths up to 40 or 50 feet. In a pulp cut, however, the lengths are not carefully measured. : The stumpage price of balsam when not cut with spruce is in the neighborhood of $3.50 per 1,000 board feet, while spruce stumpage ranges from $4 to $7, a conservative average being about $5. Timber more than one-half mile from a landing is yarded; that is, put in piles of 20,000 to 50,000 board feet, and is hauled in February and March, when the snow is good. Hauling costs 50 cents per 1,000 board feet > permile. In addition, it takes four men at the yard to shovel snow off the piles and help load. Three men are required at the landing to mark and roll the logs. Each logger within one-half mile of a landing hauls as many logs as possible direct to the landing without yarding: this saves the cost of handling the logs twice. Thus, while the cost of hauling direct to the landing may not be over $4 per 1,000 board feet, yarding and then hauling increases the cost of getting out the logs to the landing to about $7 per 1,000 board feet. This cost, however, varies with the number and size of the logs, the distance to drag or haul, and the ease with which the timber can be reached. Dense undergrowth, necessitating the addition of one or more swampers to the crew, will, for instance, increase the cost of getting logs to the landing. From $6.50 to $7 ought to cover, on an average, the cost of getting logs to the landing. Long drives, interrupted by large stretches of dead water, make driving an important item in Maine. ‘There are two kinds of log drives, brook and river. In a brook drive the logs are driven by the individual lumberman; river driving is done by a corporation composed of the lumbermen who have logs in the river. Balsam is driven along with spruce and, except for its greater sinkage on long drives, behaves in almost the same way. it seldom causes a jam, for if a balsam log gets crosswise in a bad place it usually breaks. Spruce, on the other hand, would hang and perhaps start a jam. NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT. In New Hampshire and Vermont methods of logging essentially resemble those of Maine, but in places acquire some of the New York features of pulpwood cutting. Occasionally both are modified to meet local conditions. BALSAM FIR. 19 WEIGHT PER CORD OF BALSAM FIR AND SPRUCE. In order to ascertain roughly the weight of a cord of green and dry balsam and spruce pulpwood, five balsam firs and five spruces were felled, and three sections, each equal to a quarter of a cubic foot, were taken from the bottom, base of the crown, and top of each tree, and their weights determined at the time of cutting, and again two weeks and three weeks later. From these weights the ‘average weight of 1 cubic foot of green and half-seasoned spruce and balsam wood was obtained. At the same time balsam and spruce were piled sepa- rately, and the actual cubic contents of solid wood in a cord deter- mined. By multiplying the average weight of 1 cubic foot of green and half-seasoned balsam and spruce by the number of cubic feet of solid wood in a cord the weight of 1 cord of green and half-seasoned balsam and spruce pulpwood was obtained. From figures for weight per cubic foot given by Prof. C. S. Sargent, the weight of 1 cord of air-dry balsam and spruce was determined, respectively, as 2,252 and 2,662 pounds. The results of the different weighings are presented in Table 4. Tasie 4.—Weight per cubic foot of spruce and balsam fir. Green Half seasoned (Sept. 5). (Sept. 26). No. of tree. Spruce. | Balsam. | Spruce. | Balsam. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Wend odin abro eG MSGS SS SEES SEE Ne Ee eee i ea PI Ses 49. 00 52. 00 35. 25 37. 06 JU cide ba pec Sao Oe Ee ae IIe Cee a owe eee ee ere 50. 75 52. 25 380. 75 36. 25 WU sgesbe be do Ba ARS ES a eo Seatac SP aee el ea Sep SRA Seca 44.75 55. 00 30. 50 37. 75 b cic Genera GS Cicte Ceara Ee LS Peo ee ear are Ce aon APS e es 51.00 51. 25 35 34. 00 We abe so SO OC Hci ts ey CISTI Ate II Eels name setetet ay ent ae Unie ane eae 44.25 46. 00 32.00 32. 00 Average weight per cubic foot............--..--..--.----- 48.15 51. 30 32. 70 35. 41 Average welght per COnd. lie fess S5-- ei -a-cinie es cena =< 4,543.00 | 4,858.00 | 3,094.00 | 3,354.00 Thus, balsam weighs about 7 per cent more than spruce when green and 18 per cent less when dry. The sections taken from the butts of the trees weighed the least; the sections from the tops were the heaviest, due undoubtedly to the proportionately greater amount of sap and larger number of knots in the tops. Pulpwood never becomes entirely dry in the woods, and though by the time balsam is drawn to the river it loses about 30 per cent of its weight, it is still probably from 5 to 6 per cent heavier than spruce. MEASURING PULPWOOD. In the Adirondacks pulpwood is now measured almost exclusively by the cord. A cord contains 128 cubic feet of stacked wood, repre- sented by a stack 4 feet high, 4 feet wide, and 8 feet long. In order 20 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to find the number of cords in a stack of other dimensions the length of the stack is multiplied by its width and height, and the result divided by 128. Thus, a stack 4 feet high and 8 feet long made of 12-foot logs contains 3 cords, the same as a stack 4 feet high and 24 feet long made of 4-foot sticks. CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE SOLID CONTENTS OF WOOD IN A CORD. LENGTH. Though the number of cubic feet in both stacks is the same, the actual contents of solid wood is not. Logs are never entirely straight and smooth, and between them in the pile are cracks which increase in size with the length of the sticks. Thus, if 3 cords of 12-foot logs were resawed into 6-foot lengths there would not be enough wood to measure 3 cords, or a stack 4 feet high and 16 feet long. The stack would be smaller and the shrinkage even greater were the 12-foot logs resawed into 4-foot lengths. Thus, the shorter the stick the more wood is required to make a given number of cords. Careful investigation abroad showed that the difference in the solid contents of a cord made of 12-foot logs and one of 4-foot sticks amounts to at least 6 per cent. -Pulpwood in the Adirondacks is cut mostly into 4, 12, and 14 foot lengths. It ought, therefore, to be of great practical interest to the owner of a forest tract, as well as to the buyer of pulpwood, whether the wood is cut and stacked into 4 or 12 foot lengths. Twenty thousand cords are frequently cut from a single tract during one year, and the choice of 4 or 12 foot lengths means a difference of 1,200 cords, or, in money (at stumpage price of $2.50 per cord), of $3,000. | DIAMETER. The diameter of the logs also has a decided influence upon the volume of solid wood in the stack. The smaller the logs the less the amount of wood, for the more sticks in the cord the greater is the number of cracks. The difference in solid volume of two stacks, one composed of sticks twice as large as those in the other, may amount to 13 per cent, and if of sticks four times as large to even 25 per cent. From 6.26 cords of pure balsam fir pulpwood, cut into 4-foot lengths, all sticks 7 inches and below in diameter at the upper end were selected and piled separately from the sticks with a diameter of more than 7 inches. To find the volume of solid wood in the two stacks the volume of each 4-foot stick was determined. The stack made of logs 7 inches and less in diameter averaged 116 sticks and 91.4 cubic feet of solid wood per cord. The stack made of logs above 7 inches in diameter averaged 56 sticks and 95.75 cubic feet, or 5 per cent, more of solid wood per cord. In another case 8.68 cords of balsam, piled and measured in the same way, gave relatively similar results, BALSAM FIR. 21 FORM. The smoother and straighter the logs the fewer the air spaces between them, and consequently the greater the solid contents of the stack. For this reason the clear trunks of trees yale more solid wood per given space than the tops. SEASONING OF WOOD. As freshly cut wood dries in the air the stack shrinks, resulting in an increase of solid wood per given space. In drying, it is true, the wood cracks, and the bark becomes detached, which tends to coun- teract the shrinkage of the stack, but not enough to neutralize it entirely. It therefore makes a difference how soon after felling the stack is measured. Softwood in thorough air-drying shrinks from 9 to 10 per cent, consequently stacks of dry softwood have from 9 to 10 per cent more of solid volume than similar stacks of green wood. MANNER OF PILING. The volume of solid wood in the stack is also affected by the way it is piled and fixed. The higher the stack, the less closely it can be piled and the less wood it will contain per given space. Stacks higher than 4 or 4.5 feet can not be piled conveniently. The heavier the log the less close is the piling and the less solid wood there is in the cord. In order to hold the pile together one or two stakes are used at each end. The volume of solid wood per cord is higher when one stake is used at each end of the stack than when two stakes are used, since in the latter case the ends of the sticks can not reach much outside the stakes. There always remains some space between the stakes and the wood, so that the fewer the stakes used for the total amount of wood corded (i. e., the longer the stacks), the higher is the solid volume per cord. Efficiency of labor, moreover, has its effect. If the branches are not trimmed close to the body of the log, if the logs are chopped instead of sawed, if the laborer is careless in piling, there is less solid wood per given space. HOW THE STACK SHOULD BE MEASURED. The length of a stack should be measured half way up from the ground, since the top is usually longer than the bottom, due to the _ spreading of the end stakes. The top length would give more and the bottom length less than the actual solid volume. The height of the stack, which is seldom uniform, should be measured at several places on both sides, and the average taken. ACTUAL SOLID CONTENTS OF CORDS OF DIFFERENT LENGTHS AND DIAMETERS. No correct comparison can be made, then, between stacks contain- ing the same number of cords, but composed of logs of different lengths, diameters, or shape, unless the actual solid volume of the . bo 2 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. two stacks is known. Only by knowing this can one avoid paying the same amount of money for different amounts of solid wood. Table 5 gives the solid volume of wood -in a cord according to size and length of the sticks. Other factors which influence the solid - contents are variable, and are therefore not considered. Sticks with a diameter of more than 7 inches at the upper end are usually derived from the lower part of the trunk, are free from branches, and cylindrical in shape. Sticks less than 7 inches in diameter come usually from the upper parts of the trees. The mixture of these two classes is typical of most of the pulpwood offered on the market. TABLE 5.— Volume of solid wood per cord. | Small aoe First and diameter iameter second Length. over7 |from7to4| classes inches. inches. mixed. Feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. 4 96.7 92.4 94.9 8 91.6 87.2 89.7 12 86. 2 81.6 84.3 16 80.2 75.5 78.3 Table 5 is presented as a basis for specifications in contracts for pulpwood. Designating the money value of 1 cord of 4-foot logs of the third class as 100, the value of 1 cord of logs of the lengths and diameters given in table 6 will be as follows: TABLE 6.—Relative money value of cords composed of logs of different lengths and diameters. Smal pm First and iameter iameter second Length. over 7 from 7 to 4 classes inches. | inches. mixed. | Feet. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. - 101.8 97.4 100.0 8 96.6 91.9 94.6 12 90.9 86.0 88.9 16 84.6 79.6 82.6 LIFE HISTORY OF BALSAM FIR. GENERAL APPEARANCE. Balsam fir (Abies balsamea (Linn.) Mill.) is a small evergreen tree, seldom reaching, in the State of New York, a height of 85 feet and a diameter of 18 inches breast high. (Plate I.) In Maine occasional trees attain a height of 95 or 100 feet and a diameter of 25 or 30 inches. As arule, however, mature trees are from 12 to 16 inches in diameter and from 70 to 80feethigh. Of all the northern softwoads, balsam fir is probably one of the most symmetrical trees. The bole has a very uniform and gradual taper closely resembling a cylinder in form. BALSAM FIR. 248 The crown of a normal tree is always conical, since the lower branches are longer than the upper ones. The main branches are arranged in whorls of 4 to 6, with here and there scattered solitary branches between. The lower branches of a mature tree are long, slightly pendulous, those near the middle of the crown horizontal, and the upper short branches ascending. As with white pine, the branches readily die off, but remain on the trunk for a long time. The crown, therefore, may begin very high up the tree, but the clear length in the lumberman’s sense is comparatively short. This explains to a large extent why balsam-fir lumber has, as a rule, more knots than spruce lumber. : FOLIAGE. The needles differ in shape and arrangement, depending upon their position on the tree. They are sessile, narrow, linear, notched at the apex, and from half an inch in length on the upper branches to an inch and a half on the lower ones. On the lower branches, while actually spirally arranged, they are twisted so as to form but two rows, horizontally spread on each side of the branch. On the upper branches they retain their ascending spiral arrangement. They are dark green above and silvery white beneath on account of the many stomata which are arranged in lines and appear as minute, shiny dots, and are especially conspicuous in newly formed leaves. This arrangement of both branches and foliage is simply a response of the tree to light conditions. The top of a tree normally receives light from all sides, and needles and branches, therefore, stand out in all directions. At the bottom of a tree in the forest light comes mainly from above, hence the branches and needles there are ar- . ranged in a horizontal plane with their functional surface upward. Trees that are suppressed have feathery and spray-lke foliage, also due to light conditions. The foliage of balsam fir persists for from 8 to 13 years, depending upon the amount of shade and the thriftiness of the tree. Dense shade and rapid growth cause the needles to drop earlier; abundance of light and slow growth allow them to remain on the tree for a longer time. LEAF STRUCTURE. The leaf structure of balsam fir, as of the entire genus Abies, is very similar to that of the pines. It consists of three parts—the outer or cortical part, the chlorophyll-bearing or mesophyll part, and the fibro-vascular part. The outer part is composed of an epidermis and strengthening cells lying directly beneath. The chlorophyll part is composed of parenchyma cells, among which are distributed the resin ducts. These ducts either lie directly beneath the epider- mis close to the periphery of the leaf surface or else are surrounded 24 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by the parenchyma nearest to the center of the leaf. In the former case the ducts are termed peripheral; in the latter, medial. The fibro-vascular bundles lie in the center of the leaf and are surrounded by an imperfect bundle sheath. The leaf structure affords a reliable means for distinguishing one species of fir from another. Only Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and Fraser fir (Abies frasert) are likely to be confused with balsam. The range of balsam touches that of Alpine fir in the West and that of Fraser fir in the South. These three species are readily distinguished Fic. 2.—Leaf structure of Abies grandis: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; M, meso- phyll; £, epidermis; S, strengthening cells. from the rest of the firs, such as Abies grandis (fig. 2) and Abies con- color, by the position of the resin ducts. In balsam fir (fig. 3), Alpine fir (fig. 4), and Fraser fir they lie nearer the center, while in the other species they lie close to the periphery of the leaf, as observed by cut- ting through a fir needle and observing the exudation of the resin. Balsam is distinguished from Alpine and Fraser fir by the presence of only a few or the entire absence of strengthening cells, which, in the two other species, occur in considerable number.’ 1 The Resin Ducts and Strengthening Cells of Abies and Picea, by Herman B. Dorner. Proceedings of Indiana Academy of Science, 1897, p. 116. Bul. 55, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. BALSAM Fir, ADIRONDACKS, NEW YORK. BALSAM FIR. 25 BARK. The bark on the stump of a mature balsam fir is seldom thicker than 0.7 of an inch and.-in the top, at a diameter of 4 inches, seldom more than 0.3 of aninch. In volume the bark amounts to about 10.5 per cent of the whole tree. On thrifty trees it is very smooth, except for swellings or “blisters,” which contain a clear liquid from which the so-called Canada balsam is obtained by distillation in water. In abundant seed years balsam blisters are very small, probably due to the tree’s use of most of the foodstuffs for the production of seed. Abnormally thick, rough, or scaly bark of an ashy color, accompanied Fic. 3.—Leaf structure of Abies balsamea: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; UM, mesophyll; £, epidermis; S$, strengthening cells. by swelling of the bole, is an almost infallible sign that the tree is rotten at those parts. The natural color of the bark in young trees is a dull, faded green, mottled with patches of gray. With age the bark becomes entirely gray and slightly scaled, but not the dull ashy gray of a defective tree or the shaggy moss and lichen-covered scale of a slow-growing balsam in the swamp. - ROOT SYSTEM. Whether grown in deep or shallow soils, balsam fir produces a very superficial root system, penetrating to a depth of about 2 or 2.5 feet. Taproots, if developed at all, soon die and rot away, especially in 20137°—Bull. 55—14—4 26 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soils lacking an abundance of moisture, and often become points of entrance for destructive ground rot. The strongly developed lateral roots extend horizontally in all directions for a distance of 4 or 5 feet, and even more. The bark of the roots is bright red and comes off in thin scales. FLOWERS. The female and male flowers (cones) occur on the same tree in the top at the outermost ramifications of the branches. The female flowers occupy the extreme top near the ends of the upper branches and are borne perpendicularly in the leaf axils on the upper sides of Fic. 4.—Leaf structure of Abies lasiocarpa: D, ducts; B, bundle sheath; F, fibro-vascular bundle; M mesophyll; £, epidermis; S, strengthening cells. the previous year’s branches, while the male flowers are borne mostly on the under or lower sides. The cones, which are violet in color, cylindrical shaped, and from 2 to 4 inches long, do not turn downward after fertilization, like the cones of spruce, but remain erect. They ripen in one year, about the end of September. The mere opening of the erect cones does not liberate the seeds, but the flat, smooth scales of the cone and the scale bracts themselves drop off, carrying the seed with them, and leaving the axils of the cone on the tree for years. The deciduous scales of the cone are broad, round at the top, and narrow to a wedge at the bottom. Within each scale are two BALSAM FIR. ite winged seeds. Outside of each scale, at the bottom, is a bract + resembling a transformed, winged fir leaf, the end of which, on a mature cone, seldom protrudes enough to be noticed. These bracts furnish a means of distinguishing balsam, Fraser, and Alpine fir. In general, the relative lengths of the cone scale and this bract are means to distinguish between the different native firs, but in the case of balsam the value of this distinction is lessened because of the occur- rence of forms with slightly exserted or protruding bracts. The classification of Fraser fir as a distinct species rests not on the protrusion of the bract, but on its spatulate and reflexed form. The forms of balsam fir with slightly exserted bracts need not, therefore, cause any confu- sion, for though these do protrude a little, they are not different in shape from the included form, and are neither spatulate nor reflexed. (Hig. 5.) Since the bracts of Alpine fir never pro- trude, this variant character in balsam is of value in distinguishing it from Alpine fir. Furthermore, the cone scale of Alpine fir is larger than that of balsam, as shown in Fig. fie. 5—cone scale and bract, + OEE aa (i) ML; Abies fraser This distinction, however, can not always = (Pursh.) Lindl; c, Abies lasio- be relied upon, because the size and form of —©2"Pa (Hook.) Nutt. the cone scales of Alpine fir vary. It is safer, therefore, to distinguish Alpine from balsam fir by the form of the bract, which in the former is conspicuously long pointed. REPRODUCTION. Under favorable conditions balsam fir bears fruit when about 20 years old and 15 feet high. Regular production of seeds, however, does not begin before the age of 30 or 35 years. On high mountains, above timber line, scrubby balsam begins to bear seeds in large quantities when from 23 to 25 years old. The amount of seeds borne by individual trees depends, of course, on the size of the crown. Asa rule trees in a dense stand bear less seed than trees in the open. Ina mixed, forest the dominant trees are prolific seeders, the intermediate trees moderately so, while the suppressed trees produce no seed at all. Although balsam fir produces some seed every year, plentiful seed years occur only at intervals of two, three, and even four years. 1 Discussion and Drawings of Cone Scales and Bracts, by William H. Lamb, Forest Service. 28 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FREQUENCY OF SEED YEARS. An investigation of the ages of seedlings on several reproduction plots in the Adirondacks revealed the fact that of the total number counted the per cent of ages from 1 to 11 years was as follows: Per cent. IP year Ol (A902). See: oe ee 46.1 2 yearsloldteu..7hi: SEW SO ee eee oO, 5 years olfleewus.2u2slendotugs ta. Fee Ve ea eR eee w2 A years Olds. os .soe kn hoe. As pl ee ee es 1.2 5 years old.\(1898) 2 =o. o0 02 ced 2 og 6 ogee ee 51.1 G years.old. oe. coe) ee aes See sly Zyears Old oo. - enc i O oe e nal! Sryears Midetees. he. OR ee 5 Sryears Oldk wo Sos Ae. Se eee. GS ee ee 2 Wyears old~ ete eee a ES et ae Bi syears old. 6822. 2025 oon ee ay a ee .2 The large representation of seedlings 1 and 5 years old serves to indicate an occurrence of plentiful seed years in the Adirondacks at intervals of four years. Other seed years can not be readily determined by this study, since the seedlings after reaching an age of 6 years do not stand the dense shade very well, and few survive. In. Maine a similar study has shown the occurrence of good seed years every other year. In one instance the seed years were traced back to 1882, all of them occurring in the even years. In New Hampshire good seed years were found to occur every third year. QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF SEED. As determined by the Forest Service, the number of seed per pound averages about 36,000; the weight of a thousand seeds, 0.39 ounce (12.4 grams); and the germination per cent, from 20 to 30. * GERMINATION. Since the seeds are scattered late in the fall, when frosts have already occurred, they lie dormant through the winter and come up the next spring. Hardwood leaf litter, duff, moss, mineral soil, rotten logs—all present an equally good germinating bed, if moist. Balsam differs from spruce in this respect, requiring more moisture, as may be inferred from the fact that spruce seedlings are found im drier situations, both on logs and on the ground. A rather dry and high log will have plenty of spruce seedlings and very few balsam, while a well-rotted moist log will have a great number of balsam seedlings. The same is true of stumps. The number of seedlings that come up on the acre varies with the type of forest. Thus on the hardwood slopes in the Adirondacks, BALSAM FIR. 29 where balsam fir occurs scatteringly, the number of seedlings per acre is small, often only 700 to 1,000, though occasionally, if there are a number of large balsams, the number may reach 50,000. The number of seedlings is, of course, largest in pure stands of balsam, where they may be 300,000 and more to the acre. In mixture with spruce in the swamps and flats the number of balsam seedlings will vary from several thousand to 200,000 and more, according to the number of large seed-bearing helenae 4 in the ad TOLERANCE. Balsam fir requires less light than tamarack, white pine, and white cedar, but more light than either red spruce or hemlock. It will, however, endure more shade on deep, moist soils than on poor, shallow ones. In mixture with spruce, mature healthy balsam invariably towers above the former. Similarly, in a mixed hardwood forest, balsam fir, when fully developed, is the dominant tree. For the first five or six years of its life, balsam will grow in dense shade, but as it develops it demands more and more light. On moist soils, how- ever, it may thrive without being in the top story of the forest, and beneath white birch and poplar, also, it often remains apparently healthy and vigorous. But where it comes in under a hardwood forest already established, its leader is usually stunted or killed when it enters the hardwood foliage. A broken limb or leader often affords the means of entrance for rot, and though balsam, especially on deep, moist soil, is capable of recovery after a long period of suppression, it is apt in such cases to be unsound. Many trees were found to be rotten in the middle at the point of suppression, with no visible point of entrance for the rot. Others were found 100 years old, with a height of 18 feet and a diameter of 3 inches, which, after 66 years of suppression, retained sufficient vitality to grow rapidly after again receiving the light. SOIL AND MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS. Though their demands upon soil are very similar, balsam fir requires for its best development a richer and moister soil than does spruce. With its more northern distribution it seeks the cool and moist north and east slopes in preference to other exposures. In the Adirondacks it is hardly ever found on the abrupt, rocky, southwest slopes, with thin soil, on which spruce often forms a pure stand and reaches a good development. Balsam fir attains its best growth and largest sizes on the flats, the soil of which is usually a moderately moist, deep, sand loam. In the wet swamps with acid soils, as well as on pure sand, it thrives but poorly. 30 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO DISEASE AND INJURY. FUNGI. Balsam fir must be classed as one of the most defective of our northeastern conifers. Its chief enemies are fungi, and the weakest - point of attack is the heartwood. According to its place of origin, the rot is known as top or ground rot, and is caused by two different species of fungi, Trametes pina and Polyporus schweimtzvi.1 The latter affects the merchantable portion of the tree, and therefore does the most injury. Even when the rot does not extend far up the trunk, the tree is nevertheless lost in lumbering, since the choppers, finding the butt rotten, will in many cases leave it partly cut through, to be broken down by the first wind. Thus is the whole tree wasted, although at a short distance from the ground it might be perfectly sound. The roots are the chief points of entrance for ground rot. Ground rot is especially common in balsam on slopes in mixture with hardwoods. Its relative infre- quency in the swamps is most likely due to the excess of water and poor aeration in the soil, as well as the antiseptic effect of bog water. Ground rot may also find entrance through wounds on the lateral roots. Being near the surface and extending for several feet from the base of the tree, these are readily injured in logging by falling trees or by logs dragged over them. Roots may also be wounded by sharp rocks, or they may be broken by a strong wind, or insects may puncture them. In many cases ground rot was found to be associated with deep frost cracks and holes made by ants. Top rot, affecting the upper and less merchantable part of the tree, is less common than ground rot. It was especially noted in sup- pressed trees, the tops of which are often injured by rubbing against other trees, though any kind of a wound in the top may afford an en- trance to the fungus. Balsam fir beneath hardwoods is often sup- pressed for many years, and is therefore likely to be affected by rot in the top. The same is true of dense, pure stands, in which sup- pressed trees eventually die from the top. Not many opportunties were afforded to study the rate at which the rot spreads, because it was impossible to tell when a frost crack or an insect wound was made. Only wounds made by falling trees, the axe, etc., could be used. The heartwood on the stump was, as a rule, completely rotten if the wound had been made low down upon the tree from five to seven years before. During that time the rot had extended upward for from 5 to 10 feet. The rate of spreading at the top was less rapid. 1 Hedgecock, George G. Notes on Some Diseases of Trees in our National Forests, II. Phytopathol- ogy 2: 77-78, April, 1912. BALSAM FIR. Bal Since the fruiting bodies of the fungi, or, as the lumbermen call them, “punks” or ‘“conks,’”’ appear on the fir after the tree is con- siderably rotten, it is exceedingly hard to tell merely by the appear- ance of the tree whether it is sound or not. Being short-lived, balsam fir at the age of 80 to 100 years is already old, and especially susceptible to rot of any kind. Therefore one seldom finds an old balsam that is perfectly sound. “GLASSY ’’ FIR. During the winter months balsam fir logs often have on cross section a “glassy” or “‘icy” appearance, which some lumbermen consider an indication of defect. When cut by the crosscut saw, the wood shows irregular areas which are perfectly smooth and shiny as if planed. A microscopical examination of the wood,' however, did not reveal any signs of decay in the smooth areas, and the struc- ture could not be distinguished from that of the ordinary rough areas. During winter the water present in the wood of balsam fir is mostly frozen, and the shiny, smooth spots are therefore not due to any disease, but to the frozen condition of the wood. That this is so is further shown by the fact that the same section of wood when cut in an unfrozen condition appears rough over its entire area. The ice formed in the wood acts as reenforcing material and prevents the usual tearing of the wood fiber. FIRE. Balsam, fir is very sensitive to fire. Its superficial roots are easily affected by surface fires, and the flames reach its cambium through the thin, tender bark, killing the tree. In a balsam injured by fire the lower foliage first turns brown, and finally the top. The dying in some cases is very slow, but is none the less certain. WIND. Balsam fir does not suffer from windshake, but it is easily uprooted and broken by wind because of its shallow root system and slender, brittle bole. i THE WOOD. GENERAL STRUCTURE. The wood of the balsam fir in external appearance is strikingly like that of eastern spruce, and it is often necessary to go to the gross and minute characters of its anatomical structure in order to distinguish it. Balsam fir is ordinarily close-grained and, like 1 Glassy Fir, by Hermann von Schrenk. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Missouri Sotanical Garden, pp. 117-120. St. Louis, Mo., 1905. a 82 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spruce, has no distinct heartwood and sapwood. Its narrow pith rays of a pale or whitish color are scarcely visible. Air-dry wood of balsam fir is ight, weighing 24 pounds per cubic foot, as compared with 28 pounds for spruce. When completely dry, it has an average density of 0.38, and loses about 4 per cent of its volume in seasoning. COMPARATIVE LENGTH OF eee FIBERS OF BALSAM FIR AND SPRUCES. Table 7 gives the average, maximum, and minimum lengths of the wood fibers of balsam fir and the northeastern spruces. TABLE 7.—Average, maximum, and minimum lengths of fibers of balsam fir and the northeastern spruces. | Length of wood fiber (millimeters). Species. Average. |Maximum.} Minimum. Balsam fir (Abies balsqmea) ee... ee eee 2.518 3.750 1. 680 White spruce icea canudensts 2 = as eae 3.556 4.704 2.520 iRed' spruce (Picea Tubes) ks eee Se EN eee 3. 233 4.158 1. 890 IBlackispruce (Freee Marne). 2% 5s> Ae Ss a ee 2. 599 3.738 2.142 GROWTH. Balsam fir is a fairly rapid growing tree, fhough not as rapid as tamarack and white pine. HEIGHT GROWTH. Balsam fir has a period of comparatively slow growth, which, under favorable light conditions, lasts only for the first five years of its life; a period of rapid growth then sets in and continues until the tree is 60 years old. From then on the growth in height begins to decline, and at 80 years the growth is practically at a standstill. At 150 years it stops altogether. The most rapid growth in height takes place between the twentieth and fortieth years. The slow growth of balsam fir for the first five or six years is an inherent characteristic of the species, and occurs even under the best light conditions. Beneath the shade of other trees, however, the period of slow growth is often extended to 25 years or more because of the retarding effect of the shade. BALSAM FIR. 33 TapiE 8.—Comparative growth of balsam fir seedlings, in Franklin County, N. Y., in 2 i the shade} and in full light.? Height of 1 f G é shes tae pelea average trees Hole Age (years). peas under full Age (years). ee eee under full tions of shade. light. tions of shade. Bere Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. 1h peas a Se ieee 0.1 CORALS I OS Pea ie as SU aka 1.6 3.6 GPA ORB AD ULL pa ane aiace SO SIS COS OT 1.9 4.3 a8 API DISD ere ers yar Aneel ahs an, 2.1. 5.1 mo) Hd (MFRS af Sad keg ney ate) 2.4 5.8 .6 USO ay ee Baa eel ae Pie 2.6 6.6 7 IPI abe han sey Uses eee 2.8 7.4 9 AAG HIN OT Gebks eure eis NS at ee 3.1 8.2 steal PAGAN Lugs hss econ oui Scotian a ee eat On) 8.9 1.3 Pei 0) | ia lish tise cea eM aap meee ees Bn) 9.7 1 Based on 324 trees. 2 Based on 104 trees. Thus, with conditions of growth obtaining under forest manage- ment, the growth in height of balsam fir would be increased more than two and one-half times during the first 18 years of its life (9.7 feet as compared with 3.5 feet). Tables 9 and 10 give the average growth in height on flat, swamp, and hardwood slope in the State of New York, based on age. TasLE 9.—Height growth of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of age, on flat, swamp,. and hardwood slope. Flat. Swamp (Based on 248 trees.) b Hardwood slope. (Based on 158 trees.) (Based on 277 trees.) Age (years). Maxi- | Mini- Maxi- | Mini- Maxi- | Mini- mum, | mum. |“VYe?@8e-| mum. | mum, |“Vel@8*-| mum. | mum, | 4Verage- Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. Feet. 5 10 3 4 8 3 5 7 9 15 6 7 15 6 9 11 14 19 8 ii 22 9 14 15 19 24 10 15 28 13 19 19 23 28 12 19 34 17 24 22 27 32 14 23 40 21 30 25 31 36 16 27 45 25 35 27 35 39 18 30 50 29 39 29 38 42 20 32 54 32 43 30 41 45 PAL 34 58 35 47 32 43 48 23 36 61 38 49 33 45 51 24 38 64 40 52 34 47 53 25 40 66 42 54 35 49 55 26 Al 68 43 56 36 51 57 27 43 69 45 57 37 52 59 28 44 70 45 58 38 53 60 29 46 71 46 59 39 54 62 30 47 72 47 60 39 55 63 30 48 73 47 61 40 56 64 31 49 73 48 61 4) 57 65 32 50 74 48 62 42 58 66 32 51 74 49 62 42 59 67 33 52 75 49 63 43 59 68 34 52 75 49 63 44 60 69 34 53 75 50 63 45 60 70 35 53 76 50 63 46 61 70 35 54 76 50 63 46 62 71 36 54 76 51 64 47 62 72 37 55 76 51 64 20137°—Bull. 34 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 10.—Average growth of balsam jir in New York, on the basis of age, on flat, swamp, and hardwood slope. Flat. Swamp. Hardwood slope. (Based on 248 trees.) (Based on 158 trees.) (Based on 277 trees.) Age Annual Annual Annual (years). Growl owt Gnome eo rowel growth . in height C) - in height | m hei in height | in height Height. every 5 witha Height every 5 | within hi Height. every 5 within years. 5-year years. eee years. 5-year period. period. period. ———<—————— fs SF eee eee ee eee Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. NOD aces. e Dijl hersictes Serna saereeeeee BI) to aisnla dl ctell Sree site bee ats Oi] bee errata is le Srsjctac a Ibias sarc 9 4 0.8 7 3 0.6 9 4 0.8 20 ce wtecaks 14 5 1.0 11 4 -8 14 5 1.0 7 ate 19 5 1.0 15 4 8 19 5 1.0 31 ees 23 4 -8 19 4 8 24 5 1.0 Son bie esce= 27 4 8 23 4 8 30 6 1.2 40 ise sae 31 4 8 27 4 8 35 5 1.0 2 Ue ee 35 4 8 30 3 6 39 4 -8 D0 eats 38 3 6 32 2 4 43 4 -8 bes Se aoee 41 3 6 34 2 4 47 4 .8 (i areas 2 43 2 4 36 2 4 49 2 4 Ooeiceenaas 45 2 4 38 2 4 52 3 -6 WO eke HE 47 Z 4 40 P 4 54 2 4 (ELE u esa 49 2 4 41 1 2 56 2 4 adie Gates 51 74 4 43 2 4 57 1 a4 Boer sec 52 1 2 44 1 2 58 1 2 O0 Fe ocane 53 1 2 46 2 4 59 1 2 1 es aaa 54 1 “2 47 1 2 60 1 «2 LOOSE Se 55 1 +2 48 1 2 61 1 2 LOD Ae aise 56 1 2 49 1 2 61 0 -0 AIO tees 57 1 2 50 1 2 62 1 473 iii ceeeas 58 1 574 51 1 2 62 0 -0 120 {Seer es 59 1} Bp Goll a Nae 1 2 63 1 574 1 DYE eee 59 0 0 52 0 0 63 0 -0 dO eae 60 1 2 53 1 2 63 0 -0 Bue ae 60 0 0 53 0 0 63 0 -0 iV eee 61 iJ a7 54 1 2 63 0 0 45S Pere. 62 1 oY} 54 0 0 64 1 ar 150 52254202 62 0 0 55 1 2 64 0 20 In New York balsam fir grows in height at an average rate for all types of 0.4 of a foot a year. On flats the growth between the ages of 20 and 45 is nearly 1 foot a year. At 60 years the current annual growth equals the average annual growth, namely 0.4 foot, which indicates that at this age the annual growth begins to decline. At the age of 85 the current an- nual growth is only 0.2 of a foot, and at 125 years has practically stopped. In the swamp the growth in general is slower and on the hardwood slope faster than on the flat, but on the whole it culminates and begins to decline at about the same age im all three types. In Maine (Table 11) the average tree grows faster than in New York; namely, at the rate of 0.7 of a foot a year. The period of most rapid growth is longer from the twentieth to the fiftieth year and the total height is greater. BALSAM FIR. 35 TaBLeE 11.—Height growth of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age, based on 456 trees. Height of tree (feet). | Annual Height of tree (feet). | Annual sow Brows within withi Age (years). Ss Age (years). f Salk a lytic | Mui.) Ayer, 2 ples axi-| Mini- | Aver- | > 235 mum. | mum. | age. {teet). mum. | mum.| age. (feet). NG) eels 8 0.5 69 21 52 0.7 22 6 14 1.2 72 24 56 oof 33 7 20 2.2 74 27 59 -6 42 8 25 1.0 76 31 61 a) 49 10 30 1.0 78 35 64 a) 55 12 36 1.0 79 38 66 4 60 14 | 40 1.0 81 41 68 4 63 16 45 1.0 82 45 70 4 67 18 49 8 83 48 71 2 Table 12 shows the relation between the height and diameter growth for all types together in New York, Maine, New Hampshire, and Minnesota. TaBLE 12.—Comparative height growth of balsam fir in different States, on the basis of diameter breast high. Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). New York.! Maine? | Mantes Minnesoita.! 9 12 15 8 17 20 24 16 26 27 31 23 33 35 37 31 40 42 42 37 46 48 46 43 51 54 50 48 54 60 53 53 58 64 56 58 60 68 59 62 63 72 61 67 65 75 (Billsoeeo so bwenace 67 78 65 70 81° GiNeooe 72 84 69S ee 74 86 ((i)l Bececeoe 1G) eee teee OSs Hat (ZN leseaeseeeeee ne 1 All types, based on 1,138 trees. 3 All types, based on 326 trees. 2 All types, based on 456 trees. 4 All types, based on 165 trees. These figures indicate again that the tree reaches its best develop- ment in Maine and its next best in New York. Growthin Minnesota, though apparently more rapid than in New Hampshire or New York, on the whole is poorer than in any other State. The actual number of trees on which the figures for Minnesota are based is not large, while the figures for height growth in New Hampshire are based not on actual measurements of felled trees but on those of standing trees by means of a height measurer. If the measurements in the two States had been taken in the same way and on the same number of trees, the difference in favor of Minnesota would have been eliminated. 36 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DIAMETER GROWTH. Balsam fir makes its most rapid growth in diameter between the ages of 25 and 70 years, during which time the average rate is about 0.11 of an inch a year, or 1 inch in 9 years. On less favorable situa- tions it grows at the rate of about 1 inchin 10 years. After the sev- — entieth year the diameter growth begins to decline, and at 75 years the current annual growth falls below the mean annual growth. Tables 13 and 14 give the growth of balsam fir in diameter on differ- ent stations in the Adirondacks. TaBLeE 13.—Diameter growth, in inches, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of age. Hardwood slope. Flat. Swamp. (Based on 277 trees.) (Based on 246 trees.) (Based on 158 trees.) Annual Annual Annual Age (years). Diam - Grog ora he Diam- Growin prow Diam- Growin gr oun eter : - | eter 2 "| eter i | in di- nest ameter | ameter breast ameter | ameter breast ameter | ameter Taneie every | within hich every |within hich. | ©Very within 85+ | 5 years.| 5-year | “U8"- |5 years.) 5-year | “87 |5 years.| 5-year period. period. period. OF eo ae |bm aeeinee i | eg eel ae (Wh Se ee .8 0.4 0.08 8 0.4 0. 08 .6 0.3 0. 06 1.3 5 -10 1.2 4 .08 1.0 .4 - 08 pei) 6 ai i 5 .10 1.4 .4 . 08 2.6 7 .14 2.3 6 aD, 1.8 .4 . 08 3.3 7 .14 2.9 6 .12 2.3 «5 .10 4.0 7 .14 3.6 7 .14 2.8 -5 .10 4.7 7 .14 4.3 7 .14 3.3 Bi) .10 5.4 7 .14 4.9 6 .12 3.8 -5 -10 6.0 6 si? BE 6 12 4.4 -6 .12 6.5 5 .10 6.0 5 . 10 4.9 -5 -10 7.0 5 . 10 6.5 .5 240 5.4 -5 -10 7.4 4 . 08 6.9 4 -08 5.8 .4 - 08 7.8 4 . 08 7.2 -3 -06 6.1 aS) . 06 852 4 .08 7.5 -3 . 06 6.5 4 . 08 8.5 3 . 06 7.8 .3 . 06 6.8 -3 . 06 8.9 4 . 08 8.1 .3 . 06 oe .3 . 06 9.2 3 . 06 8.3 2 - 04 7.4 3 . 06 9.5 3 . 06 8.6 .3 - 06 7.6 2 .04 9.8 3 . 06 8.9 .3 . 06 7.9 .3 - 06 10.1 3 . 06 9.1 2 . 04 8.1 22 . 04 10.4 3 . 06 9.4 .3 . 06 8.4 3 - 06 10.7 3 - 06 9.6 2 . 04 8.6 2 .04 11.0 3 . 06 9.9 3 -06 8.8 2 . 04 ils" 3 .06 10.1 2 . 04 9.1 3 - 06 11.6 3 . 06 10.3 2 04 9.3 2 . 04 11.9 3 . 06 10.5 2 . 04 9.5 2 . 04 122 3 06 10.8 3 . 06 9.8 3 . 06 IDA 3 . 06 11.0 2 - 04 10.0 2 . 04 Tapie 14.—Number of years required by balsam fir in New York to grow 1 inch. Hardwood slope. Flat Swamp. (Based on 277 trees.) | (Based on 246 trees. ) | (Based on 158 trees.) Diameter breast high (inches). Years Years Years Age required Age required Age required (years). to grow (years). to grow (years). to grow 1 inch. 1 inch. 1 inch. 1 ee eee ee ey ae ee 17 17 18 18 20 20 Dia ae ales doe dies able dat ow Genie’ © 26 9 28 10 32 12 O55 2 ea ee eho Seat See ee 33 ff 36 8 42 10 1 PEE ARE EN 2 SE ey TOL. ee 40 i 43 rd 52 10 ee Be APL Ee ee ee ea oar 47 7 51 8 61 9 (Soe SS cee ad Es 55 8 60 9 73 12 ee Ti ceade iss et tries. 4 65 10 72 12 89 16 (SOR igh SRN SE ERI RO Ad eR ALR 78 13 89 17 108 19 Soe Sees eee eew ich. reed ee 93 15 108 19 129 21 De eet tia mat a ro dale e Butane Mok Bowes 108 15 128 20 150 21 1 1 WA oh PRN Be Oye eae ee ie a 125 17 150 QD Neiswwiods whe aleeete eee aya ois Bul. 55, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE STEM OF A YOUNG BALSAM FIR TREE, SHOWING ANNUAL RINGS OF GROWTH, @. 7. NATURAL SIZE. BALSAM FIR. 37 As shown by the tables, the best growth is made on hardwood slope; the poorest in swamps. Table 15 shows the diameter growth of balsam fir in Maine for all types. The average growth here equals the best growth in the Adirondacks. On the whole, however, the periods of most rapid and slowest growth coincide. TABLE 15.—Diameter growth of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age. (All types, based on 456 trees.) Annual Annual Growth | growth Growth | growth Diameter | in diam- | in diam- Diameter] in diam-| in diam- Age (years). breast eter eter Age (years). breast eter eter high. every within high. every within 5 years. 5-year 5 years. | 5-year period. period. Inches. | Inches. Inches. Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 1 SS ORE eee - OZ a eee eee neenee Boe eeisOusiianeise ee 9.4 0.5 0.10 PS ste AAS aaneaee = 1.2 0.8 0.16 GOR aoe eee eeeecet ee 9.9 .o .10 2 See a oe 2.0 .8 .16 (SSS en Teeter 4 10. 4 At) -10 DOSS cee Rican occa 2.7 Si EAR LOO Ee eo eid i tee 10. 7 53) . 06 31 Sates CS ea ee 3.4 Sui BAT eal O ait) Se ees toy eee 11.0 .3 - 06 OD ES ee ee Wee eas 8 4.1 ml Peek 17 eae anes 2 Oe ea 11.3 53 . 06 NGA ae eae ee ER 4.8 Sa BA LNG iss pa As 11.6 a3 . 06 (US er a ee 3 5.5 sz WALL ZO 9 Se 11.9 5) . 06 SEG BERS eee o 6.1 6 1A Sap ays eee te eae ee 2 12.1 a . 04 BOS aes ees oie ck 6.7 .6 a 2h PSO eine RR ene 12.3 o2 . 04 (i) Jaa eee 8 7.3 .6 ps 1A ah 2 US aya meer Sale area 12.5 2 . 04 7A) Se fas er ts 8 7.9 .6 U2 wl 40 aes eee eee eee 12.6 ail . 02 an es Pil es 2! 8.4 ol Site ele eaeeaTecBeSEae ae 12.8 574 .04 BO ee eee ok a 8.9 -5 eelOg lOO eerie cece 12.9 gil . 02 SUMMARY. Ny yeas i eats. A . . ge require : “oh (i ge require Diameter breast high (inches). (years). | to grow Diameter breast high (inches). (years). | to grow 1 inch. 1 inch. lies is Sa el ee ame te ea ee 19 TE) PNB SSH NaS ie eS pe er nee UE 71 9 Ci) OCG. 3G GRAF NEOSE Se Tees 25 CG) HH ee es eg crete eae oa eg a a 81 10 S565 SOS ae een ee mien 32 CE ATID ae Se ae I areal ape oa 91 10 (i SG be ade Gee Se Sees 39 A AW SAU US SY ety A Saas Ue 105 14 ene ee See ie ela oe eaicinida pe ene 47 (2) Hl] Nal Pores Se, Ne Salers ieiea ace eae Picts 123 18 G5 38 Suc o ss Se Gane Re ee eee 54 CA i AS i ee a ee 152 29 Vasineclcas so SS eee ee eee eee 62 8 EFFECT OF OPENING UP FOREST UPON DIAMETER GROWTH. That the diameter growth of balsam fir is stimulated by opening up the forest is indicated by measurements of trees growing on uncut and on culled land (Table 16). TaBLE 16.—Diameter growth of balsam fir, la Diameter, in inches, breast high after Present diameter breast high| 10 years. (inches). Uneut Culled land. land. sso OE ESOC EA aOPereR ae ® 6. 54 6.80 Us 2 SEE SOROS EBS CESS 2 SE ema (SNe aaa 7. 80 Biers ieee es Monies oalsee Late 9. 26 9. 56 er Sa ae abel a ershnicintolaresc ts o's 10. 20 10. 60 Galen County, N. H., on uncut and culled na. Diameter, in inches, breast high after Present diameter breast high 10 years. (inches). Uneut Culled land. land. 11.18 11; 40 11. 88 12. 34 12. 88 13. 34 BRS HS Pa spr acl NN = aie [nr festa Rea 14. 34 38 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPARATIVE GROWTH OF SPRUCE AND BALSAM FIR. Since spruce and balsam fir nearly always grow together, and any plan of management for one species must necessarily imclude the other, a comparison of the growth of the two species is essential. In Table 17 is contrasted the average growth in height and diame- ter of balsam fir and spruce in the State of Maine. TaBLE 17.—Comparative growth, in height and diameter, of balsam fir and red spruce in Maine. GROWTH IN HEIGHT. l Height (feet). Height (feet). Diameter breast high R Diameter breast high 2 ed Balsam ; Red Balsam (inches). spruce. fir. (inches). spruce. fir. (Based on) (Based on (Based on|(Based on aa trees.) 456 trees.) 485 trees.) |456 trees.) 7 12 52 68 14 | 20 55 72 21 27 58 75 28 35 60 78 33 42 63 81 37 48 65 84 41 54 67 86 44 60 BB ion rase 48 64 OY tetera GROWTH IN DIAMETER. Diameter breast Diameter breast high (inches). high (inches). Age (years). Red Balsam Age (years): Red Balsam spruce. fir. spruce. fir. '(Based on| (Based on (Based on|(Based on 274 trees.)| 456 trees.) 274 trees.)|456 trees.) | 0.1 2 90: no Rgaoe eae eee PT 9.9 -6 Ze Flt LOO Sia is alos iaeaeis ae eee eee 3. 2 10.7 8 4510 |, 110223 nde pee Soe meee Sern) 11.3 1.1 © AI 120. ..os: eee ae ee 4.3 | 11.9 1.5 65:71 130-5 -cagens cee oe eee ee eee 4.9 | 12.3 1.8 16921) 140 oie tee eae eee 5.5 12.6 2.2 8.9) 150 ee oak co coe ea 6.2 12.9 Red spruce grows in height much slower than balsam fir for the first 70 years. At a diameter of about 8 inches its rate of growth in height is approximately the same as that of balsam fir. At a diame- ter of 12 inches balsam fir reaches almost its full height, while spruce is still far below its fullest development. From that time on spruce continues to grow at a uniform rate for a long period, while the growth of balsam fir is rapidly declining until at a diameter of about 16 inches it practically ceases. The same is true of the growth in diameter. At the age of 100 years spruce is only 3.2 inches in diameter breast high, while balsam fir has made nearly two-thirds of its entire diameter growth. After BALSAM FIR. 39 the age of 70 years the annual growth of balsam fir declines, while that of spruce shows a gradual increase. After the age of 150 years spruce - catches up with balsam fir, and finally surpasses it both in height and diameter. On the whole the rate of growth of balsam fir is more rapid during its entire life than that of spruce. The growth of spruce is, however, more persistent, and does not exhaust itself as early. It is this persistent growth and its long life which enable spruce to reach larger dimensions. This difference in growth is also apparent on cut-over land. Meas- urements in New Hampshire during 10 years following cutting gave the results shown in Table 18. TABLE 18.—Comparative growth in diameter of spruce and balsam on culled land in Grafton County, N. H. : Diameter breast Diameter breast high after 10 | high after 10 Diameter breast high at time | Years (inches). Diameter breast high at time | years (inches). of cutting (inches). of cutting (inches). Spruce. | Balsam. Spruce. | Balsam. Soe ry een, 5 ORNS EE Sy 2), ae 8. 82 Oe Sw le Laeger pe 7 Ce Mee | okes WUC eco cence OSes eet eee Sue ae eres 10. 00 MOG Oe || eae eee eB ns sg see eam i049 see OSE aE Re eee eee 11.00 TAO RU Giese Sucre aM tel Sen mt ieee O64 ese eae Wea ES ee eee ere aeons 12.00 ONO AR lie et eitlare eee ha ee eee UO ess eee UB 5 Sea ee a eae eee le 13.00 TB eoZeE HT Re se ate Sse Re VSG645 2 ees eee eee eon oak feN ek 14. 00 14. 34 Balsam fir up to 13 inches in diameter responded to increased light and space more vigorously than spruce, but did not go beyond the limit of 14 inches, while spruce continued to show a slower but a uni- form increase in growth of 1 inch for each 1 inch in diameter up to 18 inches. VOLUME GROWTH. Tables 19 to 23 give the increment of balsam fir in cubic feet and board measure for the three different types in New York and in cubic feet for all typesin Maine. The tables of volume growth, more than the tables of height and diameter growth, bring out the better devel- opment of balsam fir in Maine than in New York and other States. The annual increment in Maine is practically twice that in New York. Similarly, the volume-growth tables bring out more clearly the differ- ences in the increment of balsam fir in different situations. Thus, in the swamp the increment is less than in the flat or on the hardwood slope but is more persistent, illustrated by the fact that at the age of 150 years it still continues at an increasing rate. In the swamp the growth of balsam fir resembles more nearly that of spruce. On the hardwood slope the volume growth of balsam fir shows the same tend- ency as that in height and diameter. It reaches its climax compara- tively early and is greatest between the ages of 80 and 95 years. After 40 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that it begins to decline. On the flat the maximum rate of volume growth is reached at an age between 50 and 85 years, after which it slightly declines and remains stationary until a very old age. The increment in cubic feet becomes noticeable much later than the growth in height or diameter; namely, when the tree is 40 or 50 years old. This is still more marked in the case of the increment in board feet. Thus, up to 70 years, even on the hardwood slope, where the growth is fastest, no increment in board feet is noticeable. It reaches its highest rate at the age of 125 years, and continues at a fairly steady rate practically to the limit of the physical life of the tree. On the flat the increment in board feet starts at about 80 and in the swamp at from 90 to 95 years. TaBLe 19.— Total volume, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of diameter and height. - Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 20 30 = 40 50 60: =) 47a 80 | | | Total volume (cubic feet). _ Aaa HAT Been te Me Ve IME ASUS » | pose] 30.81 bses. CRORE eases erect. yh = 7 eee: © Yt shanee ke Sapa set 5 ere ry ae ne, ee A064] 11.43) ||) A914 2522s bo crepenatatats ezeemselbee ice o Ae EPA RE e ey emai y Sie Sk aes 6s CR! PEG5 5 | AB RGOY | Soest le oes Nd Sa 5 nah a eh ke eerie: ene kn mee ee <15)} 4.195. SiR | Tee eh Bee Be eee Slept oats oe EE a a 4.24 5.63 COL || > Boer: 9.72 11.07 ee en a ie NPs Shes cn ae a hy | La en aS | 7.25 | 9.01 | 10.76 | 12.51 14.24 Bee g Sa ceweckt Bane Jc 2 vs a SPE ae es reke i icaeones peas § 11.19 | 13.38 | ©15.55 17.71 es Seat ty eee ee rele Seen [Bape aa a5 * 13.59 93| 18.86 | 21.47 TOS Sie re 8c uk. See. See ates, bas ee © el ae eee 16.10 | 19.25 | 22.36 50 See ee en ae a oa Se a] ree ce a ee | 22.38] 26.06] 29.72 See ne. Ved ec tek e ak - epee see: becca ee Se ee er ee eae | 25.71 | 29.94 | 34.14 ae eal ge celine Sie nl Rpegape eine BNE cae tual | Ee ele we 29.12 | 33.98] 38.74 Bh crid ce be eee Leen ds & $e 5od eee te PEELE: ao Se. SRS ann: ye eee 32.77 | 38.14 43.59 || Papi ae nia gli epi meine pe ay pe iter Ty ed ed te a oe ot 36.53 | 42.52] 48.59 | | TABLE 20.—Total volume, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of diameter and height. Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Total volume (cubic feet). 9. sess). 22 Se pS bo» cts Mee 5.68 7.20 8.76 TUE Fe ara Tee a a NE a EE wd Se oe 7.22 9.17 11.12 13.22 15.33 Gi cisdesdye4 - cod eo ate 08 Me eee BR 8.87 11. 26 13.75 16.33 18.98 Benois obese ater cee dash ee eo 6 each Saas eee ae 13. 20 16. 49 19.66 22.91 A ie. Hice! = pee BAD bebe ee eee eee 15.77 19. 40 23.15 27.03 EVES — pn gti RTS fis ang eM cea. . Seen ema eR ee spel = 2) [Ss Ae 22.38 26. 83 31.42 jE rept ee eee ae | eee eS Se eke, Soe ee oe 25.44 30. 58 35.91 Be Pe aca 8 on dins e's ocak ne eae ic mee So > on on'c'e'es se eo Oe SSE OEE Piao eee 28. 48 34.35 40.45 BB ah Bo 3s en en eens 2 htc pss ils eS eee 31.52 38.14 45.06 16 | 34.52 42.03 49.71 >» BALSAM. FIR. 41 TABLE 21.— Volume growth, in board feet, of balsam fir in New. York, onthe basis of age. Hardwood slope. Annual Growth| growth in vol- | in vol- ume ume every | within Age (years). 5 years.| 5-year period. Or Or CUR O1O1 Or Ore BP Pe COR OO 0 SOOO OC 0 00 00 00 0000 DOOM Lbebelath-& ino Flat. Swamp. Annual : Annual Grow th exowih Grow ty cromtty in vol- | in vol- in vol- | in vol- aol: ume ume ok ume ume * | every | within * | every | within 5 years.| 5-year 5 years.| 5-year period. period. DAU RESO SE SG Mperated HOSE sae cSeaese bepErooS 23 3 (UGS ORE Sere eee Paces 26 3 BU Beebeeee bemomcod Gaconote 29 3 .6 16) pases sect S seersests 32 3 -6 18 2 0. 4 34 2 4 20 2 4 37 3 6 22 2 .4 40 3 .6 24 2 4 43 3 6 26 2 4 46 3 -6 28 2 4 50 4 8 31 3 6 53 3 -6 33 2 .4 56 3 6 36 3 -6 60 4 .8 38 PAL .4 63 3 6 41 3 -6 66 3 -6 43 2 4 TaBLeE 22.— Volume growth, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in New York, on the basis of age. Hardwood slope. Annual Growth] growth in vol- | in vol- ume | ume every | within 5 years.| 5-year Age (years). Flat. Swamp. Annual Annual Growth |growth Growth] growth Vol. | invol-|invol-| yj. | in vol-| in vol- te ume ume | ume ume ume * | every | within * | every | within 5 years.| 5-year 5 years.| 5-year period. period. period. 1.09 | 0.218 int jal epee aenceeced Gaawesas Eoscoaesl ensoses 1. 09 . 218 1.92 0.83 | 0.166 O98 |e oe eee Sees 1. 09 . 218 2. 80 . 88 . 176 1.47 0. 49 0. 098 1. 09 . 218 3. 67 . 87 . 174 2. 01 . 54 . 108 1.10 220 4. 57 - 90 . 180 2. 60 . 59 118 1.10 220 5. 47 - 90 . 180 3. 21 - 61 122 1.10 . 220 6. 36 . 89 - 178 3. 88 . 67 134 1.10 220 Te P33 . 87 - 174 4. 56 . 68 136 1.10 220 8. 09 - 86 2172 5. 24 . 68 136 1.13 226 8.91 - 82 . 164 5. 92 . 68 . 136 1.11 222 9. 74 . 83 . 166 6. 59 . 67 134 1.11 222 | 10.56: . 82 . 164 7. 26 . 67 134 1.08 216 | 11.40 . 84 . 168 7. 94 . 68 136 1.07 214 | 12.23 . 83 - 166 8. 62 - 68 136 1.05 210 | 13.09 . 86 ee 9. 30 - 68 136 1.05 .210 | 13.94 - 85 -170 9. 98 . 68 136 1. 05 .210} 14.80 - 86 172} 10.66 . 68 136 1. 04 -208 | 15. 64 . 84 -168 | 11.34 . 68 136 1. 04 . 208 | 16.50 . 86 LT2 2s 02 . 68 136 1. 06 212 | 17.34 . 84 - 168 | 12.70 . 68 136 1.05 . 210 | 18.20 . 86 -172) 13:38 . 68 136 1. 03 . 206 19. 04 . 84 - 168 14. 09 6 Cal 142 1. 06 212 19. 90 . 86 _ Ue 14. 80 Stil 142 42 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 23.— Volume growth, in cubic feet, of balsam fir in Maine, on the basis of age. | Growth in | fyi in Age (years). | Volume. volume volume every 5 within 5 years. oe year period. Goxeises See chize soe een: SOM. Fake ae ees a eee BOL. ceeceeseralper eee cdas<- 1 EER errs Foe ey ee ao te ae a Be a 10. 64 1.83 0. 366 MO ie SRE en ee EOE osc) Secon se ieee eee ene ee 12.55 1.91 - 382 OE Sasa BER ISOGo SOS O ee A SEB aE aT eS CHE EOS eOe es a a4ase Seems ceos 25 14. 50 1.95 - 390 Sse ee eee ee Eine a nee ee ete oe nn ee oe eee em Rela nam cian eae 16. 51 2.01 - 402 UNS 65 Sat Bee en sao MSS ISOe OSE Seais Joc OS pont sOBO Sa SseEeEenaco tao 18. 60 2.09 - 418 IL «RES AR pm ECT os Ea SE MY Be AC ROD. UNE Ce ch 20. 73 2.13 | - 426 HONE ioe ee ea a ek tk eee ee oe 22.90 2.17 | . 434 TAPER. Tables 24 to 29 show the taper of balsam fir in different situations in New York and Maine, expressed in inches and in per cent of the diameter breast high. The diameter breast high inside bark is taken as 100, and the diameters inside bark at 10, 20, 30, ete., feet from the ground expressed as fractions. These taper tables furnish a basis for the construction of volume tables im any log scale or in cubic measure, and serve in general to indicate the development of the bole under various conditions of growth. Thus, they show the more spindling development of balsam fir in the swamp than on either the flat or hardwood slope, and the better development, on the whole, in Maine than in New York. TasBLe 24.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on swamp. [Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.] Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 20-foot trees. eee cin bene oan ceee Mcp eae 100 0 ee dy Seeesosin0) Saotic soos | lnesich wet RR Rorhs oes cre Dees bc ob oe bin's wasn eee ee 100 V4.1 WASsc 2 8 E | K 3 ee ena eee nt ee TES Sens Se Sa Ca 2 100 70.3: ete. .5. 88S: Lee eee | Sas Bald aa 30-foot trees. tae clo nice coe eae samt aeES 100 84.2 52. 6 |. - pdcescahecee bere el eee ee ee eee are Dee ede cee cok Geaghomern sabe © 100 85. 7 £5 ap a eae are Sie ne IC ee hae he ee Be occa cee nee e Sapeceae Ck esegets 100 86.5 56S ilcie'e 2 ai oe ae be he eel ence en ee ee oes Spee toe ees = tea ens ae es 100 89.1 5B. Zihere co oc Saad bls dic cis Sal ae nec Ie es ane ee Gee Sek re ee Sasa a cents o 100 87.5 5S. Ol ise ond ade bales Sel oe eed ee eee To Copan Rae moh: Se Tae hie | nets ate ond Nt eee 100 89.2 60.0) [cs occ Sale dao cd. SB, eee es 40-foot trees. ok Fa seco d cue coe wow sauce 100 89.5 68.4 42.0 || :.s2.5.cceo eee et eee nee ee ee Dees ed cee acwenie sce wa veee cna 100 89.3 71.4 42.9. |. 0s dsiewen Ube eme ee taeeer ae fe 7 a i a eee een 100 91.9 73.0 A302 1. cn a wosceh | teen Beene ee eerie SUPE ais cinleis tcibidie cing Ueie o:ele are 100 91.5 72.8 A i BBE se) Sono see joss Ree eee un sob os ousce oan 100 91.1 73.2 46.4 [22 .0c.ceen| ceceneEee oleae ees 1 fg OREO, 100 92.3 75.4 46.2 |. 2.0. dec cel bene eee ee eee en eto miace Sik sisiaje owes 100 92.0 74.7 46.7 |. 0. ccce neni eee tee eee er Dre eee ie diver stesacevese'd 100 91.8 72.9 ATL |. 02k ee cen eee eee eel eee eee BALSAM FIR. 43 Taste 24.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on swamp—Continued. Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 50 60 50-foot trees. 4. So cman ie Cale ee GE eee 100 92.1 78.9 63.2 os He ee Ee eee eae 100 93.6 80.9 61.7 Oo sone Ree SEE Deas eeaee 100 93.0 17.2 59.6 Hocac cocoa peo OC e Boe Cree 100 93.9 78.8 59.1 Be ow ice ne Cee NE Eee 100 93.3 78.7 58.7 @) a at alels S sic CEE eae eae cree 100 91.8 77.6 57.6 1D sc eime ok SROC RAR Oe eee aee 100 91.5 Wet 57.4 1 so cte. PES SUC SCE SSE eee aera 100 92.2 Fale 57.3 WW che. note eine CBE CEE Eee 100 91.2 77.0 56.6 1B) AG ae neo See eS mee ese Ch ieee 100 91.0 76.2 56.6 60-foot trees. Bop ne oe CU LGU R ESSE CHASE STeSse 100 94.7 82.5 66.7 47.4 DBGN eee seca We oats c0e TOCE EOE Cee 100 93.9 81.8 66.7 47.0 QASIM SE cai vers foie as epee eae seas SU atlas 100 93.4 81.6 65.8 46.1 Del ee eoeese rs ry ates, Toya aS reins ay Sie 100 92.9 81.2 65.9 45.9 PB lays |e reyes sone WO) Ue Ns Geet, epee eerste 100 93.6 80.9 66.0 45.7 DOWa || Be Silene ye TW) Seeds GoM OR eEee eae ees 100 92.3 80.8 65.4 46.2 Dalia Val laos ate se Whe 6 Gee See SE ereco ee Ts a eee ees 100 92.0 80.5 65.5 46.0 2309 Nhe Aenea 1G} s SiS GOse s SOCEM RUE ene ee ears 100 91.1 79.7 65.9 46.3 Payal esemece ce 70-foot trees. Ont bocme antes Coe eRep epee eESoO 100 94.8 82.8 67.2 50.0 31.0 13.8 Woe bcecs sonal eeceae caceeueesce 100 94.0 83.6 68.7 52.2 32.8 16.4 Deeper secccpeceeseassmscecoes 100 94.7 82.9 69.7 52.6 35.5 igor Descent cesoeeceveossceesuecesee 100 94.1 83.5 70.6 55.3 36.5 17.6 WO ec ooescete se cdepucepderecensac 100 93.7 83.2 70.5 54.7 37.9 18.9 Uo et acoceessccseceeensecosorcan 100 93.3 82.7 71.2 55.8 38.5 20.2 essa coneveh Coe aor ReneEeaceEaer 100 93.0 82.5 (flail 56.1 38.6 20.2 IS swe coesdesseuooeee cu AuesESoneE 100 ile) 82.3 71.0 56.5 39.5 21.0 TasBLE 25.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on swamp, at different heights above the ground. {Based on 341 trees. ] Height above ground (feet). | Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 10 20 -[alels Diameter inside bark (inches). 20-foot trees. DEP Re ee ree Let 8 a etl 1.8- GDS) | eee es rh a |e ces ean | ye el RT > ra Ae ieee NE nen tise cl ae Le See PA DAO ig | pars eee aye Whe eas [pea ey ae (Ec ener 4, set de ce ee 3.7 PG ees Se Pee ake emene eae OPER ete Name aon’ | 30-foot trees. > | De odie SOO a aN | 1.9 1.6 ARON | eer eames 2 i 8 a ae SO ee ae ere aie | 2.8 2.4 MEG RAS eee tesccerete shoe cee ae [Bere eee dhe P Crate Re gerne One eae eae enn gS 3.7 3.2 Ore |i siete nes CLE US ooh ee heme ee Bc ed eS SE Pe en ed 4.6 4.1 QUA ESB ee Se |Pters aoe Se | Nace eae ee loosecter Bae OMe e eo. feces cans 5.6 4.9 poy 1 CAR are cd aS Urea ea IR ei uel ee ea CP earns Gian eae eee | 6.5 5.8 BED Peralta ae] Sees ecto ts arte Stee eae 44 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 25.—Diameter inside bark, wn inches, of balsam. fir in. New York. on swamp, at different heights above the ground—Continued. Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 Diameter inside bark (inches). 40-foot trees. "ipl SE RNS SORE WR 8 Bye Bee ia 1.9 Hey 13 0.8 Saf ae ale RE Set pls am 2.8 2.5 2.0 AD ve eee Seema ree Nis Spent | Senven 2 3.7 3.4 O24 1.6 RR REM STE CED age Ne ie 4.7 4.3 3.4 25 (Tih Sidon Tee cs Reh Sees the Sie eagriee 5.6 5.1 4.1 2.6 ip he terete 5. beteetees x3 Lely Besar Ta. 6.5 6.0 4.9 3.0 Ae Shia et ES Ae) 0a Ew op a | 7.5 6.9 5.6 3.5 LI aN Soe I Sy = Nhs ty) 8.5 7.8 6.2 4.0 50-foot. trees. MDs a aidte Sing aia Das Dede eee 3.8 3.5 3.0 2.4 ER rae cate | rotcccister wie ee ne Ne a ie Ban yen wed 4.7 4.4 3.8 2.9 LeDh [emma loses oie ws Ee etal 0,8 cas pas ine, pt Se a ay rf 5533 4.4 3.4 U Depp jal faa ea al banc iol alte (ae Serie S = Sapa ee a8 Rae ge 6.6 6.2 apy) 3.9 ENS eee eral eee ae ers De nae ieee re ae eee Tat 7.0 5.9 4.4 DEO Ret ac eiser tee eis xc ok tS EE aie pe iy wR Bete “Bate b 8.5 7.8 6.6 4.9 PASto | |Meat [ners a ea 1) = so gant tet aceiig ers Mee: mete nie. 9.4 8.6 758 5.4 J By |p ha a be ie aes cit Ey See Oe 2 SSN Se oe eee 10.3 9.5 8.0 5.9, Bs Sell i ee A ees closes 14575 Se the Ss ORNS fone ee i 53 as} 10.3 8.7 6.4 Seed eae || es ai [Ris en RRR eas eae Des ae PO Ce eerie 9.3 6.9 35 Ol apes GS IE Pha. |s 60-foot trees. GES Pde Seach te A |e Sn te 5.7 5.4 4.7 3.8 PRY 1) ye rep ae as cans Sees aed + a ee No wat 6.6 6.2 5.4 4.4 3.1 Listy eens gh aes oS ee ance be Spt AMS a ee ont CSTD SR, 7.6 Gal 6.2 5.0 3.5 Weta Leeper ete A es ag BS ap a a Ll on 8.5 7.9 6.9 5.6 3.9 7B cl ese ey sees MU ee cee gt at Went eee 9.4 8.8 7.6 6.2 4.3 Deodleeaniecce 2. ME es SS sce Meee 10.4 9.6 8.4 6.8 4.8 yO eae SE ode ene ee 11.3 10. 4 9.1 7.4 5.2 DV ple aa Goeae SSE econ vay Rte DT as 12.3 Thy 9.8 8.1 5.7 OARS ae meee 70-foot trees. 5.8 5.5 4.8 3.9 2.9 1.8 0.8 6.7 6.3 5.6 4.6 3.5 2a2 1.1 7.6 Ge2 6.3 5.3 4.0 207 1.3 8.5 8.0 (eat 6.0 4.7 3.1 1.5 9.5 8.9 7.9 6.7 5. 2 3.6 1.8 10.4 9.7 8.6 7.4 5.8 4.0 2.1 11.4 10.6 9.4 8.1 6.4 4.4 2.3 12. 4 11.4 10. 2 8.8 7.0 4.9 2.6 TaBLe 26.—Taper of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat. [Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.] | Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 10 | 20 | 30 40 50 60 70 20-foot trees. | eee See oeialaets haan" 100 77. 8 | ese cae Doe pica oie, old | eo letatelelartew aio aise ais sie one eerie der 1 EE Ne op eS 100 2 BR) Bee na Rae ner moore oo mocion ingress 7 hg ee prs Tees ae er 100 Te oi ane Pm peemnnnn | eo imnameny Smee Sa te ae See eee eee 100 78. 3 Lee en | Leeeeeceed| sactee vocal disntten onee DeReEReEee Meee eete ee BALSAM FIR. 45 TABLE 26.— Taper of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat--Continued. Diameter breast high (inches). Height above ground (feet). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 40 | 50 60 30-foot trees. 100 84. 2 Allis GAR OSS 56 Oe MASE OM OE Bete cers Mel at ester anaes | PPOs Oe 100 89.3 ESHGP IES Seca cial Eee e eee eRe ro ce ie Cee see |esececsene 100 89. 5 (OG). wensceanel acesete tee Cesee Sees Heaeeete eS lneoasaacs 100 91.5 (TS SRS) es Me SE ae |e ea ee Eee eee pene LAE pte: a 2 100 91. 2 GPR) 2 SR a 9 A A ge a ge Iie aes ica Wee tal ee 100 92. 4 (SHO SOE see AALS een | Se Oe Ol eae eee faba | 40-foot trees. 100 94.7 73.7 100 92. 9 75. 0 100 92.1 73. 7 100 91.7 75. 0 100 93. 0 75. 4 100 91.0 74. 6 100 92.1 76.3 100 91.9 75. 6 100 91.6 76. 8 50-foot trees. 100 93.9 81.6 65. 3 Pa tsi ial farses ee Stan PEN Sie areca FE nara 100 93. 1 81.0 63. 8 Bl Oil ees ass ea ee senate 100 94.0 80. 6 64. 2 CY PRGA espana esc eect aetis eres Banc Nhe Ee 100 93. 4 81. 6 64.5 SGRSA aches syste | as een nine eRe nna 100 91.9 80. 2 62. 8 BOS OR ees y eee te eee oe Re eee 100 92. 6 80. 0 63. 2 SOSH ese Pa ee ee A | eee 100 92. 3 79. 8 63. 5 BESO Sere Sone ee SOEE Cel Meenas Sa 100 92.1 78.9 63. 2 BAYS Pal eae bi Bie dl Ieee tech Soiege oy Wen eae ia, 100 91.9 79. 7 62. 6 BOSOM eS: Ce Ree silos See Ee Se 60-foot trees. 100 94.8 86. 2 72. 4 53. 4 PAT SCSG| Pee eae term cats | Perla see 100 95. 5 86. 6 71. 6 53. 7 DASSNC 3] [esc ies eae acel eens (are eee 100 93. 5 83. 1 70. 1 51.9 ORS ye esas apna 3 ak 100 94.2 83. 7 69. 8 51. 2 Da Si (s'| eee i in oid ely 100° 93. 7 83. 2 69. 5 50. 5 2630 a see a sell eee eee 100 93. 3 81.9 69. 5 50. 5 QO Tees eco | tea elo 100 93. 0 81. 6 69. 3 50. 0 ZG ES il eerste | Croany aa 100 92.7 82. 1 69. 1 49. 6 QB Ouse areas Pet wee 100 91.7 81. 2 68. 4 48.9 DDG ES So he Lite eee 100 91.5 81. 7 68. 3 48.6 Oe Mh Us cane eden | |S 100 91. 4 81.5 68. 2 49. 0 Ds | te Oe 8 er ALES 70-foot trees. 100 94.8 87.0 75.3 61. 0 42.9 2324 ieee ees 100 95. 3 86. 0 75. 6 60. 5 43. 0 DDE aes od he 100 94.7 85. 3 74. 7 60. 0 42.1 22 1G aaesare eS 100 93. 3 83. 8 74. 3 59. 0 41.0 QO eee sees 100 93. 9 84. 2 73 7/ 58. 8 40. 4 Plea bel eee eae 100 92. 7 83. 1 73. 4 58. 9 40. 3 DAIS VES herein es 100 92.5 82.7 72.9 58. 6 39.8 7) EE ees 82 100 92.3 82.5 2 7 58. 0 39.9 QOE S| Gees eee 100 92.1 82.9 73. 0 57.9 40.1 7 URC meio 80-foot trees. 100 95. 3 88. 4 80. 2 67. 4 Ph ai 34.9 16.3 100 94.7 87. 4 78.9 66. 3 51. 6 34.7 16. 8 100 94, 2 86. 5 _ 77.9 66. 3 51. 0 34. 6 WES 100 93. 9 85. 1 76. 3 64.9 50. 9 34. 2 7 100 93. 5 84.7 75. 8 64. 5 50. 0 34.7 17.7 100 93. 3 83. 6 75.4 63. 4 50. 0 34. 3 17.9 100 93. 0 83. 9 74.8 63. 6 50. 3 35. 0 18. 2 100 92.8 83. 0 74.5 63. 4 49.7 35. 3 18. 3 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 46 TABLE 27.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat, at different heights above the ground. \ [Based on 1,109 trees.] Height above ground (feet). Diameter inside bark (inches). 20-foot trees. Diameter breast high (inches) a Taichi ecm cen eA a A : A hate 21 ty eee |i een concn (OPTS Der al}, SL cat ar eae a) h Tite al ||| eco ncy eames n et eel le, Beene beret otter Claes Pine ee ‘ nepal i a t : erat Seaewetiae aD 7 Ce ' etait ail ta a eee Cae Caen) at treavenetsy We Wibeae oatlh | ae anctal gah Sntehes vs Seas all) Ree bel te atene- on Ge cas et Mae etn | mie ot ete Serer Tate weet Se Gece k AP = be Decent nec ative eta st Past Re eet so ee etal |S Raat Me taene ecetcaeG 1 ie Gr Se ells eet ce ge RH roe Tae? ee eel eCard US OG rete Tee Le ewO EE Rta eer OM re ohO Sor Titeal Lee eae at MAE -aie a er er i -C CeCe OPR Teal PNM He tceo ey, cee eae | ee lle creceiey Come [Ate ko ee ole camea area ae o ete eI cae te espace igiern Tee tack tee oe | rae cat Yee tsar Cota ih hye ila |t She Set any “tee te, ae faite i ‘ 1 a cnen , 7 Se esc Tes | A ealicaed [tock rig aaa aieais ge Nee Prien |Pe roan Pontews eke lag Oo Gettnt oe Scere gs hea Cone Ae) oe ranarsigamaomen F ccrtam het el hace shh (ike Mth eh cake atta 2 na boval a> ue? ea hed grb sete si ge fet NG = ifent aiean he a 5 14 Od ian ttm meal lara as Eien hae eran ian ioe We a be oo Petar il Heernl adl Ree Stes Cyiaa Ce le 0 neg rel ieee ee om ed eee ee ok sueecll(ee e'sfecremiear ee ty eerie eS ily ee ered Cente ta ee lene aad ald pees tue cite abe Cse| |, b geaet| ae Bee neous o eT noo 6 Pinedo min Pei it il r rel Rs 72 Gato ath a On Srna at en Aen a ta aan Oo HA DO in tones mANNSD mt NOD “Hid 6 CO OOo lorie oe o} eye) rN oD st mA oD Hid ’ ‘ Crain ois ce omy oe EG: iOcatesnaieraa)™ ge ras a8 el ae RD ee as ape binvet an ee ee a eT etic NOC Ome O atl Gee a ge pet ile woe awNel te AAS Cala Mae ee me Fee i be Oe ari ete ve EANe NO ge ae ee Sug ers la, Ci ee Te Pe on kee aslen neat oe TLE i ee ee pis tie aha Ce ee Fn! p Se erie et MI loan kD eee SOR ALN heel On Shc sp em eerie a aT y wae fe isi} 1a ESE Retain tient ie pricey. ee fe ein era ae ie eee ON Terie ates ae ' Deh i, re were are ‘ . . No9 tap 40-foot trees. CORY se rere rere t= Fie Mo afi ce a ete Tem Detect sce ten rh reo Cech et lietrcumer rt ce to Ch oP ie oth ce Cafe Otel ttre OS OO One mae Sh en Ont ecKu ceo yum 0 WMiny Wy te tent, weet ay: POG an) Ish Caen Va ae Gaal SaLmeCe aT ot 61) esha ohy amon ad mata Ot eh ae Ao Ueis ei cose Te ot 6 To Woy oo Oo C OG O90 Ooi a 6 Othe te ae ft gauss ee aU ated) athe oC CT) RES eR COP eC CN eA sheet oth Sn TANN OO HH Hr DO © 0019 OD MAN OD H19 19 Ok “Moi tndontt TAN OD HID SOL I~ OO ‘2? 00 00 CO I- OO1D (puis a) OO BG Ct Gee Coe (oth TO i DG CHUL air tho Kener he ot Tue Dasel Hee Oo harsh G0 te ote O Get ty 3 0-0 D2 YP Boo fe a 6 OT) tee) te or Os cr (ete Hope Os othe both oO or oS Of Fr tithe te Oe O° tetera 6 ey Coen ao O ag O tad oo ap ke GG O° 026 Tee Oa 8 On UO Pere 4 50-foot trees. mA NI 6D OD oD SH SH AM~MDAHOONE OD CF SH SHAD CO COE Sh HANDOMOO tan OOM DAD SO HOD 4 S200 19 OD 1d Ole ke ORDO nae DH CO © cig HH oD see 60-foot trees. MANNA N OD OD 09 09 OD AOCOMMOMI FINO 00 OD SH SH Hid 1d OO COE ADAMOOMAIOAE Ht OOP ODAODS = SHHNAOMHOOOD IDIBSHNABSSHA Se I oon Boe ef INWATADDHNS CO IDS ADASANS ODS Se BE oe De oe | OrroinintenAd IGSMOASHA SS Hus SASS Set Chak as Toa EM Ce a 1D be 6 so Sen See Wark Vane Fee! Ciel To” lines Vi) Dues fen te y os te oC Ne eh, 1 Ds ot Ua oe) aN 2 RaW ee) US Nas On Pie bee we hy mel Yoms eWay 1 Be we eis ee OL RS SR BALSAM FIR. 47 TaBLy 27.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in New York on hardwood slope and flat, at different heights above the ground—Continued. Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 70-foot trees. Wall 1.3 6.7 5.8 4.7 3.3 D8 geste 8.6 8.2 7.4 6.5 5.2 3.7 UA a een ete ca 9.5 9.0 8.1 Coal, 5.7 4.0 2.1 10.5 9.8 8.8 7.8 6.2 4.3 2.2 11.4 10.7 9.6 8.4 6.7 4.6 2.4}. 12.4 11.5 10.3 9.1 7.3 5.0 2.6 |. 13.3 12.3 11.0 9.7 7.8 5.3 2.8 14.3 13.2 11.8 10. 4 8.3 5.7 2 ae age see 15.2 14.0 12.6 11.1 8.8 6.1 Gy eS aaaaricas 80-foot trees. 8.6 8.2 7.6 6.9 5.8 4.5 3.0 1.4 9.5 9.0 8.3 7.5 6.3 4.9 3.3 1.6 10.4 9.8 9.0 8.1 6.9 5.3 3.6 1.8 11.4 10.7 9.7 8.7 74 5.8 3.9 2.0 12.4 11.6 10.5 9.4 8.0 6. 2 4.3 2.2 13.4 12.5 11.2 10.1 8.5 6.7 4.6 2.4 14.3 13.3 12.0 10.7 9.1 7.2 5.0 2.6 15.3 14.2 12.7 11.4 57 7.6 5.4 2.8 TaBLE 28.—Taper of balsam fir in Maine. [Expressed in per cent of the diameter inside bark breast high.] Height above ground (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 4.5 10 20 | 30 40 50 60 70 80 40-foot trees. OHiosSsonanseneae Resi a yee 100 94. 7 80. 7 DOE ese cella, 2.5) sheletall iseevacesis rail eteteai sera eee CotiGOCR OEE SCC OCT Ee 100 91.0 77.6 EO CAN ele al pS SE [apts Seat ee egal aya Berle ery events loin csi elatim\or sjake 100 90.8 76.3 COS Val RO eaeaoe lacaeaeer eaemeaal earner ncate see 0) 50 Soda den caeeAsee ee E seas 100 90. 6 76.5 MOT Aylin cae eel eects ulster scine! eam aa le eterna MO eins iseicleie suninveie aicre inns eae 100 89. 5 74.7 CGY eee naioa ere cette Rae moma ane apaloepaeties 50-foot trees. Gerataycistnicver sieicineisieilercisisieya) siete 100 94.7 82.5 64.9 SONS eee See eee eae te Sees USS Sa CaSO RCO Oe Ee eer tree 100 92.5 80.6 64. 2 BT ertedl ae Sic Renee Reece SEaeacer Sere tereerre eeasatsiarctaleiticis, isratsveisre 100 92.1 80.3 64.5 Cet eew esol loosen une Geareeaa Meacenose Opp de cecuob tase SoBe Baee eae 100 91.8 81. 2 63.5 Ria OU aes teed emer ere bh reeled a eal lery NOM ee oeneo see eee se 100 91.6 80. 0 64. 2 Chest estes ers (en at i epee ses! tia eto Ue ek isc hee eee Gee 100 91.3 79.8 63. 5 BL eG dl Bempenael anecreel GEaraoeel sceaceee La eee ieactae ee Seciie aisle, hos 100 92.0 80. 5 63.7 Foto Fats) | (RES S| Eee aae [eis eH net at 60-foot trees. O. o Dade DOURORA AOOSOOnS EAC 100 94.8 86. 2 75.9 56. 9 S208) lvcthewa ce [AG2 Bee mnilleis Somers Upper sete oie josie raratsie aie 100 94.0 85. 1 74.6 56. 7 BY-Atsit Go paeeen seesoder lanoceBe Bera ester sisicloe ane sieiisitele ce 100 94.7 85. 5 73.7 55.3 GEG Papadera|bascoaccllaabcace « On. adde Sone een ene 100 93.0 83.7 72.1 54.7 Bie ol Secor beaaeenalacactoss WCE SSSA decent saan Sens oer 100 92.6 83. 2 71.6 54.7 SOUS Aas we ets eter ey ae es Re eae ass Sein erie sito eiecee seme 100 93.3 82.7 71.2 53.8 Gl bran menace Peamacon lseemorta 4 CBRE CARE ee eee a eee 100 92.1 81.6 69.3 52.6 PRS BEE Bas Ee eBpEce ISaaasacre Serer craete ste srcrate Ra ieehe ile ore oa ais 100 91.9 80.5 68.3 52.0 7A el ated Mace ine amare Ua ee ere Rey Rete eieicie eee bate he 100 91.7 79.5} | 67.4 52.3 PAS ae Iheatazes tel leeieceaRe al ene ya 48 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 28.—Taper of balsam fir in Maine—Continued. Height above ground (feet). sage mo high ~ (inches). | 4.5 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 so | o | wo | m 70-foot trees. 100 96.1 89.5 80.3 68. 4 48.7 PAROS trent &| ae 100 94.2 87.2 77.9 65.1 47.7 1 Aa Ee ann ay eee 100 94.7 86.3 76.8 64.2 47.4 2. CH, elope] Bs See 100 93.3 84.8 73.2 62.9 46.7 7) ES | le eal | 100 93.0 84.2 74.6 62.3 45.6 DAV GMS 3 sole ec cle 100 92.7 83.7 74.0 61.8 44.7 2a An ee ee ae 100 92.5 82.7 72.9 60.9 43:6 78a SE eS) eee SLES 100 92.3 81.7 71.8 59.9 43.0 OP Bilis race atone ek 100 92.1 80.8 70.9 59.6 42.4 PLES ee eee aan eene eee Se 80-foot trees. 100 97.4 92.1 84.2 72.4 57.9 40.8 100 95.3 89.5 82.6 70.9 57.0 39.5 100 94.7 88. 4 81.1 69.5 56.8 38.9 100 94.3 | 86.7 79.0 68.6 Done 38.1 100 93.0 | 86.1 78.3 67.8 54.8 37.4 100 93.5 85.5 77.4 67.7 54.8 sy eu 100 93. 2 85.7 77.4 68.4 54.1 36.8 100 93.0 84.6 76.9 67.8 53.8 37.1 100 | 92.8; 84.2 77.0 67.8 53.9 36.8 ay 2 90-foot trees. ADS re Sie oe ret eee ees cee 100 94.8 88.5 80. 2 69.8 58.3 42.7 26.0 11.5 LU bs Ree eae er Pee 100 95.2 88. 6 81.0 71.4 59.0 43.8 27.6 12.4 1 eR ee es ais 100 94.7 88.6 80.7 72.8 60.5 45.6 28.9 1322 5 BE Oo See eee eee 100 94.4 87.9 80.6 72.6 61.3 46.0 29.8 13.7 8 hn ate Se oo a OEE SS 100 94.0 87.3 80.6 73.1 61.9 47.0 29.9 14.9 Bes ee se ee 2. oe 100 93.8 86.8 80.6 73.6 62.5 47.9 30. 6 14.6 AGS ae Seoeas 2S oe: ee ee 100 93.4 | 86.9 81.0 74.5 63. 4 49.0 32.0 ibys | Tasie 29.—Diameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir in Maine, at different heights above the ground. [Based on 885 trees.] Height above ground (feet). Dee breast high 45 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Diameter inside bark (inches). 40-foot trees. r ete EB SR I ie coe Se | 5.7 5.4 4.6 2.9.4e.... cee OS eee eeee eel amemeeoli ets ace o AS ip yee See eee EE ONS Bete 6.7 6.1 5.2 Boks. 24 See Poe ease Aamo cies = oes Bt Se Seti Jn ASN ENS 7.6 6.9 5.8 S284) 5.5 achat mes ence ee a eleTe ee eeaibeee eer. De he ae ee Seah 8.5 bh 6.5 yA teenies | ee ee Ae oe o> ene ee eae. eee ae set oe 9.5 8.5 pel 7 fe Weegee | Ce rat pu = | 2 Seve? | eee | Creare | ) 50-foot trees. oe Ae a eT ee eee By 5.4 4.7 3.7 Qo... Aes cele epee eel eiaeiete ered Senereeene oD Leal foe Rakin ee aimee te 6.7 6.2 5.4 4.3 23M) Ils wn cw cod lee rm pee Saeed ere estar ae eee sae ie Union ae Sia 7.6 7.0 6.1 4.9 268: o. a awenl pee eet nl CeeaEEEe Jnveeeeee ee er Ss re eta 8.5 7.8 6.9 5.4 ey Te en Re eee) RE I et Wires See ga 9.5 8.7 7.6 6.1 rt ee ee a a leaitacdH Re ese Ie ae caee as ae 10.4 9.5 8.3 6.6 | Yh Ot es, ie EE eet Me ee eo m3) od} 81) 72) 45 Poe posse fies | bec 49 BALSAM FIR. TABLE 29.—Duiameter inside bark, in inches, of balsam fir, in Maine, at different heights above the ground—Continued. Height above ground (feet). Diameter inside bark (inches). 60-foot trees. Diameter breast high (inches) Ow wv wr o 0 yO Dt 0 Ta an Oop ob 0 On eu Of 0 O Ho bea oO i G0 Df @-0-0 829 mo SO oo a G G eo Oo wor glo d O00 0 Oo vi 600 ee Ce ne ee CT Ooh oo oO 2 Wo nf oO U GO nN OF Oo D nm o 0 0 o op Aon GN Oo wo a oD TO Oa ty Ge ttro yO Go Mote 0 moO 0. tee oa rey 0 0 % DG bsp oo 0 0 0 Oboe Oo Non. OVER eth Sous Oo 0 0.0 0 0 (a a Cif paaeAD puis) petceetie Cac (hese te Oe. Oo Uiett 20 HANAN I 09 69 0 OD MONr-ANOCOSHD OD oD SH SH A 19 6 OO HOONOMAH HH HD 19 SO b= E00 00 SOM1IDN DOO O10 POEL I Coenen) 1D OO © OO P10 OO 4 IDSrOHDASHA an Or Ooint to Soe Eh oo Eo | 70-foot trees. G9 0- Do hi) “8-0 Deo ooo 0 GO & O uO Yo G70 Ho 0 GU uo Oo An 0 OF fo o- 7% 0 0 WN O° A apo (PE A=aGe sO: Uae cree ot WR Ce RO ay eat CUAL fu. oo Oo Oe Os 600 0 00 0 u a ( O-0 OG 2 0 Ou o ved Osho nooo ooo OO GO tf O od A 0 oe MMINOOMOAN OD ANNAN AN 0 OD OD R419 DOI CO i oH OD SH OSH SH ad 19 19 6 SO NOM OAOn10 © 1D 19 CO CO b= + 00 CO OD AMOI AL OO ORMDOO nae DWANUDOMOON Or~-WORSnnN monn MAOWOHODH KAAASHAMOD mniner (© O19 19 Hoo AI bs oO oe Bn ea 80-foot trees. the Ose Mos =U a0? SD Ta) vO bo WY om Oo ng S08 Che AP se trenDe Oy 8 0 2 oe 0 U0 1 00 Ci yUh nserCh athe eth ier ath fit oo 6 vb ay Oa 8 pte DUS Ge oe poids 6 MARR NNNNN mtr OMOM MO oT GG Littl ap elas OD OD OD SH SH SH Hig ad Ho HOOMD CONS AN HSH 19 10 6 COE E00 IN HCO NOOO Hr OD MED}EO RCO) E-s Es 00 191 C3) HH MOOMoOr SHrosascin Se hon heal On HHO H oO ReOBSSHAN be Fh noon Eh on HANCMORONMH MOBASHAG Be Ih on OO oe On aE O19 19 19 HOD OD OT Se ae hu UD Ul neo o ooo oO 0 & Poo a Hog 0 wo oh fe Oo) o Yoo oOo Ff Oo hoo a G0) So fe a oe Gi Peo tte oo oe. o Oo a ot 0 8s oe iG otha Th ee hh 5 ou oo fn ff Ww wed V0. Co erin: 85 bo 6 0B eno 0 Gs 0 0 W fet 6 bof 0 00) Dr te oD (mC Ga Lae Tene) boo Oo 0 OO u Oo °8 Woo oo OG Om acd. Meh 40h Othe nO ro woo of oo 8 GO ro oo Oo Deo 1 (eetntm O> eOh tah sethes Chaat G00 p Oo 8 ) O-O G-0 0 0 0 -@ oy 6 co Goo we 0 F&O Coo o ob ooo DO -o oO Oto? ae a. WO i ea wt) ote ett Oa ces Dearth 90-foot trees. MH SH 1 6 SO WONDOMOMr ID CO Ob COD 19 09 © 00 OH OIr~OWRWROR no MinNonoost KOSaSSoHA Sh oe on 1D OD rH OD B= 19 OD Se oes Oh oe Bo Bo Gola oon Abad O A oo0 0. th Ou con OF tf a0 OO 0 Nt a 6 Co 0 0 oO ea 0.0 0 Wo oO 0 0 0/0 oOo 0 roo 0 0 oo DD oo ua 0 OG 0 gogo nf oo 9 no tf ou fu fon 0 a Sooo Chua) COC st Le oct OO Mh na a WO G4 aud Ho Go oo OG oO we do Ga) Go (Oo Oo & Gu ot oO OO 0 Dead Te 9G CUBIC FOOT VOLUME. Tables 30 to 32 give the merchantable volume of trees of different diameters and heights to a top- ing de the bark in cubic feet, cutt diameter limit of 4 inches in Maine and New York and to 6 inches in New Hampshire. . insi 50 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 30.— Merchantable volume of balsam fir in New York, in cubic feet inside the bark, on basis of diameter and height. [Average top diameter, 4 inches; based on 947 trees.] Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 1 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Merchantable volume (cubic feet).- GR eee Be ota Be ee net Sine oe crete 3.5 BON Oss sc ae eee Pee eee oniscish Mis Gio aces See es cists cts Bede oa eee ee Se eee anes tore 4.5 bal DA0U | Reseriee ol peecn ck se REM ea)! adda LACE oe wees geet ays Oe ey rae en | 5.9 6.8 8.0 C1 [same ane ta Siege ete aaa anes ar en Sk oR ay ea Se NA a Ce 7.6 8.9 10. 4 On eee ee NORE tee eee he oar eaten atk copreicc- aoe ots oe gee ers a A 11.2 13.0 14.8 16.6 De eo re etetera aye aictos Wise oks Sie ie eis SI Se SI Se ee tos Se ae 13.6 15.6 17.6 19.8 1 DS Se Se nee Sn nO Se eee ESS SAE E NL oy doo So 256 18.3 20.9 23.6 DS yarns Ste cociarn ole Ses Sie ees Se Rpts wets ae aie ec che ie an EL a ee ey ae | ee ee 21.1 24.5 27.7 A ee ee ee ee er en Sa eer hy (Arenas A sere Soc] cima cicia 7S 28.4 32.2 Leas Seen IaEenO nr See Soneaaa So Seem aL eacoeeEmea lS cee seca bemos acc sakicdacosoce 32.9 37.5 WG see aes. ose c.caiete soe sce ee seine wie oe eat emcee albeeese cel tee ener | Seer meee 37.8 43.2 TaBLE 31.— Merchantable- volume of balsam fir in. Maine, in cubic feet inside the bark, on basis of diameter and height. [Average top diameter, 4 inches; based on 330 trees. ] Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high’ (inches). 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 Merchantable volume (cubic feet). ea a: Rey me MRR a, FAR een Wenn Oat Asey Re ae ole Weal 9.3 10.7 aED4 acer tee gi tatens = tlie ate ieee FS. ad seace a Se seas 9.4 11.3 13.1 OO) ae ae Ue ee epi eer res See Degas eS Is Bet eS ea 11.3 13.7 15.9 TS lt ee eee To oe ene eee Poe ae saan ics ioe noms Se ere ey 18}555 16.4 19.1 21.6 6 De ee ee ane oat pete bose apa eg/ Sheena yes Dee ee tne | Galen eee 19.4 22.4 25.4 PHT Se ey oe a ENS Set ED Vc ee ae J 22.9 26.1 29.4 32.4 4 ee snow eas Lis Sei cncid CSR ee ee estas 5 ate | ee oe ae | Oe eee ae See oe 34.0 37.8 1 ae eee ee Pl er een meen he mee ye Pet. Lalo desbosos 39.0 44,1 TasLeE 32.—Merchantable volume of balsam fir in Grafton County, N. H., in cubic fect inside the bark, on basis of diameter and height. [Top diameter, 6 inches.] Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 40 | 50 | 60 Merchantable volume (cubic feet). UME SPM PESO Bn 25g Ee DOOBOC AAG: + SPROEHRC Ce ebOl ste Sab. Schabos sce Iooe sc 1.9 Qed Peres. le eee ee Eee BOO OAC A SOUS pa: - ABR SAE RAS OpeR ee a5. ce ctacasoras 3.9 4.4 5.0 LE Eo Ghana EO OE 0 UTEIIC 37 Ae SUPE JOEEUO BE SIC ACO C SAIS EIS 16 vccIIt 5 6.0 6.8 7.8 UC SEE SEO: SEP ER ee ACU ORE En: - SERRE eeertncne Nahe SE OME Shab. 8.3 9.5 10.9 OEE eben! Ae Oe en ENG... GRRE Ea ae eer ei ticm net ann Lisobmmcsoace 10.8 12.3 14.2 i le oe EOE Be Spee OOP OLE SUdIO eS eOE ae ASB Ione tossoc ls occceeaecacacee 13.5 15.3 17.6. eee octane ieee Pralels Paid siecle wine welais,tis «n\niaa sn th oplbslclets tenis =, eer aee eels See ere ee ee 18.5 21.2 1 Cele Aeon ane Dy Rane) ae See aren eh ommer ie aMerecnnwosSdc| JA. scoot S 23.7 25.0 ES UR AD eet tae De EOE See CIES] ope AMear 4 eee a aeon Speen ICS EeBE Acsaercerso:ccs sellecrc acc tee 28.8 MD Me tatioss cite laisiora aie cgintwinso oforwiv'ai@ Giara/Sjereloatele = «isto Ber = sist wale) «1 cate See’ oat eee steerer | er rr 32.9 BALSAM FIR. 51 CORD VOLUMES. Tables 33 to 35 give the merchantable volume of trees of different diameters and heights, in cords, for New York, Maine, and New Hampshire. Table 36 gives the number of trees of different heights and diameters per cord for Maine and New York. In New Hampshire the top diameter is 6 inches and in New York and Maine 4 inches. Taste 33.—Total volume of balsam fir in Maine and New York, in cords, of trees of different diameters and heights. [Based on 2,171 trees.] Height of tree (feet). Diameter breast high (inches). 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Cords per tree. By eee ae es ee ee 0. 005 OS008), | ek ses Soo S| Be Rees ie eee, Paes eee | iy is BO gu £9 ile co Des SRO parent See eae 009 . 016 ORO 22 is cacecan Seem omcies| Aa setae eyecile eee ee Bosc oie See ee ee 016 024 033 OX042" | inch eg eal! ely! evens. kee ee ap ne yall] Seren miwis OS 034 045 - 057 QROGS!:| sees ooeoere |see eee eckson oe dec RE EO ee Dee 045 060 - 075 - 089 O81053 | eae Seeeeeeier yt Mi aie FL kde Wo. oldawaaee [ Based on taper curves, scaled: as § and 16 foot logs. Stump height assumed, 1 foot.] SCRIBNER DECIMAL C. Swamp. Hardwood slope and flat. : e ; Height of tree (feet). Wisk Height of tree (feet). are Diameter breast high Sine ae (inches). | sate | eves . : s inside } E S inside 40 50 60 70 inal 40 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 Teale Seen RIN MARTA Gi. aa peretes inc ; c 5 Volume (board feet). ( és) Volume (board feet). ates) | 5.8 13 19 Pe rae ee | Se 5.8 5.9 21 26 33 fC) [ee 5.9 6.1 29 34 41 48 56 6.0 6.2 38 45 52 60 70 6.1 O:4hle eae 56 65 7. 86 6.2 6260 Gene 69 80 92 107 6.3 6.8) Ss2eee 82 95} ill 130 6.4 i111 132 155 6.4 127 153 182 6.5 144 | 174 209 6.6 DIMICK. Volume standards. Volume standards. (LSA ME ORL RRS ih a 0.09 | 0.10 | 0.12 | 0.15 5. 8.| OVlL MOs18s 04155) Saeed beeeenee 5.8 ly ee ee fee 3 eee ROD Sip ae 13 15 18 aAl 5.9 .15 -18 2) | O24 Seeeence 5.9 EE 6 ee ey 17 201) 24s le 528 609 23)\|, 028)! «aioe 0.39 6.0 LTD Sees Oy pane one a ae Seema Mais, SA 26 -ol . 36 6.2 . 24 29 35 41 - 48 6.1 LN IS i Ev een Sea [esniae s02)| 200.) «Ad 6545 he eore 36 43 | .50 .58 6.2 Ao ee ee ee renters Al ease 38 . 46 .59 B56Al soos 44 51 .59 . 68 6.3 Re Ne as tater aia ell ee ae ie .44 .54 rid G28: [Poser 52 . 60 70 . 81 6.4 | .94 6.4 1.09 6.5 1.25 6.6 | BALSAM FIR. 55 TABLE 42.— Volume of trees of different diameters and heights—Bangor and Maine rules. BANGOR RULE.! Height of tree (feet). Diameter inside Diameter breast high (inches). 40 50 60 70 | 80 | 90 Rane of 0 (inches). Volume (board feet). SBC RCRS He oe ere nee aces 5.9 50 G4; aes 6.2 62 They Me eet ea 6.4 76 93 109 6.6 94 110 129 6.8 113 132 154 7.0 135 160 185 tell 159 191 223 1.2 186 226 268 ite 215 262 317 | 7.4 MAINE RULE.2 eee eae Sujata a eisik 15 21 Dt aac ees ag sys cel eign ea 5.9 Cee eee ee nse looses lee. 24 32 40 50 GONE eeeeersee 6.0 Q). eee eee Cae ee ee 34 44 54 65 | (A ye Oe 6.1 LO. ces ctace a ae eee 46 57 69 81 94 106 | 6.2 Nip ene Ssh Sel bh Su Seiee cite 71 85 99 114 129 6.2 eee SN PNM ee s|eciececece 86 102 120 138 157 6.2 Le ee oe ae ese ie tec elk | uke es ocied te eeeeeees 121 143 167 193 6.3 ida ae tn co den uESE SS Co ee oe [oes Oana een ae a 140 166 200 236 6.3 Woe ese seca stees Coe Oe See Sete eee eer (er Eee ee mee pee 191 236 283 | 6.3 Ue cotien Sec eee Boe BEES E Cee] EERE SCE Sri MRepiarie ts = rsr] [5 emanates 215 271 333 6.4 1 Based on taper curves, scaled as 16-foot logs. 2 Based on taper curves, scaled as 8 and 16 foot logs. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. RATIO BETWEEN BOARD AND CUBIC MEASURE. Table 48 gives the ratio between board measure (Maine rule) and cubic feet. TaBLeE 43.—Ratio between board measure (Maine rule) and cubic feet (merchantable contents). [Based on 330 trees.] : Diameter | Board feet || Diameter | Board feet breast high | per cubic || breasthigh| per cubic | (inches). foot. (inches). foot. | 7 3.0 12 Saat 8 3.2 13 3.4 9 3.3 14 3.5 10 3.3 15 3.5 11 3.4 16 3.5 56 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CLEAR LENGTH AND USED LENGTH. Tables 44 and 45 give the clear length and the used length of trees of different diameters in Maine and New York. TaBLe 44.—Clear length and used length oft balsam fir of different heights and diameters in New York. Hardwood slope. | Flat. Swamp. Diameter breast high = | (inches). | Total | Clear | Used | Total | Clear Used | Total | Clear | Used height. length. length.* height. length. length.4) height. |length.5|length. ¢ Feet Feet. Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. 48 19 rh 48 24 26 45 17 Bas 53 22 31 52 25 30 49 21 28 57 24 35 56 26 33 52 23 31 61 26 38 60 all 37 55 24 33 63 27 42 62 28 40 58 25 36 - 66 28 44 65 29 43 60 25 39 69 29 47 67 29 46 62 25 43 71 30 49 70 30 48 64 25 46 7. 31 51 | 72 31 50 (27a ek pe ee ae 75 32 52 | 74 33 52) ee Pe eer ae 78 32 | 54 7 34 53 5 Based on 344 trees. 6 Based on 202 trees. 3 Based on 386 trees. 4 Based on 333 trees. 1 Based on 440 trees. 2 Based on 560 trees. | TABLE 45.—Clear ee and used lenaa oy balsam fir of ae heights ae diameters in - Maine. [Clear length based on 407 trees; used length based on 379 trees.] Diameter breast Total Clear Used Diameter breast Total Clear Used high (inches). height. | length. | length. || high (inches). height. | length. | length. ! | Feet. Feet | Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. iD ee ae ete Gy eR en ae eRe er eee Ie Seater, See. 73 40 29 Deran SESS aE eee eee 57 38 2) Taz hs ae ee ee 75 40 30 Sy ene aan Lk 62 39 | 7A | jet a Bee 77 40 31 Gee oe A seeese 65 39 28 Woo a eee eee ee eee 79 40 32 TO EOE AEE Pee | 68 40 | 26.) T6siioc 2 < Sea ae 80 40 33 Tif eS ae gs 71 40 | 27 | (MONE BESTS Se 82 40 34 PER CENT OF CULL AND WASTE. The average cull within merchantable dimensions, that is, for the portion of the trees from stump to 4-inch top, constitutes on the aver- age about 11.2 per cent of the merchantable yield. The top and stump form about 8.4 per cent of the total volume; the bark, 10.6 per cent. In other words, about 19 per cent of the total volume of the tree at present remains unutilized. Of the remaining merchantable part of the tree, 11.2 per cent must be allowed for cull. BALSAM FIR. 57 YIELD. ON SMALL SAMPLE AREAS. The yield of balsam fir fluctuates within wide limits. Since it grows with spruce and other species, its yield naturally depends upon the degree of admixture. An idea of what can be expected from balsam fir may best be formed from pure stands in the swamps or flats. For New York a good average for large flats, cutting for pulp to 7 inches diameter breast high, is 15 cords to the acre. Exceptional areas have cut as high as 40 cords. In swamps, while the stands are usually dense, the individual trees are of small size, and the yield per acre on the whole is smaller than on the flats. Ten cords to the acre may be considered a good average. On the hardwood slope the yield varies more than for any other type; on an average it runs about 7— cords to the acre. In Maine the yield runs much higher than in New York. Pure stands of balsam fir on flats will yield, as a general rule, about 25 cords to the acre and occasionally as high as 30 cords for stands from 70 to 100 years old. On the hardwood slope the yield is only half of that on the flat, about 12.5 cords to the acre. Tables 46 and 47 give the results of actual measurements of yield im the Adirondacks and in Maine. TaBLE 46.— Yield of balsam fir in New rae based on 10 sample plots, covering an area of 9 acres. SWAMP. Average number of Mean annual Total yield per merchant- | increment per Average age of merchantable stand (years). Bone able trees acre. per acre. Cubic feet.| Cords. Cubic feet.| Cords. De once An HR ARE SCN MIST TE Ap MERA A SE EE San 922 10. 2 88 11.5 4 FLAT. Bs Sc Cee es TL RI USAC RIE ADO gS RU Ry 1,270 13.2 102 ASG ea COs ox ASAE OB CE ET oe ee ere a thee aie Aa ea 1,312 15.3 110 14.6 PS CD ie Se SCE CET RT tea a eae cys 30 ee Re Md cet 1, 443 15.0 140 16.0 4 ERSTE) UU EEA A IN TNE SL eee aed 1,342 14, 4 117 14.9 4 HARDWOOD SLOPE FAD esi, ech che CEI ae oy 2 en ET LB EE Es oS a Oe 444 4.6 36 CHO EES ok ose, TD ser bo dest test ee Se SIE TNE rE pe otc SUN age 685 ea 60 Co eta [Ae Ades cin coe seen aN wg NS SEOs aL Ee ON 760 8.0 49 1OK9 4 Se See BOS SOG EEA EEN Eee aU AS IRR aetna Pea 713 WoW 55 SEO eas Pee Tein bee te eRe Sasa ly IR STS Se ae Soe ect 607 6.4 46 SHi7i\ eee 7D cicrrercech ee a aan Ge ORES ESAT Ag Ne nO LN ane eU 928 9.7 86 Reese eee oe 58 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 47.— Yield of balsam fir in Maine, based on 22 sample plots, covering an area of 6 acres. FLAT. Plot No Ageot | Treescut | Total | .ihont | Merchantable volume annual ace stand. per acre. yield. bye Me - | increment : per acre. Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. | Cubic feet. Cords. Cubic pe 22. 26. UR UR eae 90 152 2,395 2,156 2,149 2.6 2 AGERE Sa ae ee 90 144 2,763 2,501 2, 460 25.9 30.7 Saeinecgcecer eases 7 160 2,543 2, 268 2,330 24.5 36.3 BERN Aa 22 70 100 1,357 1,212 1, 239 13.0 19. 4 aoe see eee 80 168 2,937 2,614 2,704 28.4 36.7 OS. 5. s23ee Se 90 200 3,739 3,364 3,504 36.8 41.5 Ta aes Nas 7, 690 160 3,010 2, 674 3,010 31.6 33.4 gee eaar a set 90 132 2,936 2,627 2,675 28.1 32.6 Dee ae emcee see 90 136 2,789 2,473 2,512 26. 4 31.0 AD PES. ost at 90 86 1, 408 1, 261 1, 259 13.2 15.6 LE a eee 70 144 2,811 2,435 2,590 28.3 40.1 ‘VSS eee 43 90 120 2,115 1,896 1,910 20.0 23.5 RSheen aes eee 90 168 2, 689 2,388 2,497 26. 2 29.8 Averages Net ee 144 DESY (3) |S aere eye | o Sts h N 25.0 130.5 HARDWOOD SLOPE. 1 Seen ass See 90 80 1, 666 1,490 1,547 16.2 18.5 a8 SU Sas are 80] - 83 1,342 1, 214 1, 240 13.0 16.8 NG Soe eae esses 80 60 1,034 930 957 10.0 12.9 | aoe 80 68 963 868 881 9.2 12.0 1 eS eee ae 90 96} . 1,861 1, 668 1, 683 LAT 20.6 ie eee 90 122 2,165 1,945 1, 933 20.3 24.0 2 ee ee ei 80 48 534 485 480 5.0 6.6 else tenses bse 100 62 1,170 1,040 1,050 11.0 te 7, Ps SI eet 90 52 1, 226 1,085 1,112 11.7 13.6 INV CTAPC nl. eee S 75 Wl B20 See cece eee al aoe ee eee 12.6 215.2 1 Equals one-third cord. 2 Equals one-sixth cord. OVER LARGE AREAS. The figures in Tables 46 and 47 represent the yield of carefully selected small areas of balsam-fir stands. Over large areas, including all types of land, the yield is much smaller. The results of measure- ments of nearly 60,000 acres in three townships of Hamilton County, N. Y., gave an average yield per acre for all types of coniferous lands of 4.4 standards, or 1.5 cords (Table 48). BALSAM FIR. — 59 TABLE 48.—Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Hamilton County, N. Y. [Cutting to a limit of 10 inches and over in diameter breast high.] Total yield |_,Verage Type. Area-(acres). yield per acre (standards). (standards). Township 5: Swamprandsspruceiland-.22. 5... ----.--- 2 cess eeeeesn- 10,376 39, 676. 58 3. 82 D 4,405 22,677.90 5.15 2,072 10, 675. 35 5.15 6, 960 19, 585. 20 2. 81 1, 869 6, 397. 76 3. 42 10, 982 57, 755. 88 5. 26 CTBT 2 Sooty Girls vipa Ce a Se apa ag 19, 811 83, 738. 84 | SE ae a ANCOR OOP EXOD SO gidecee n= te coe nBer Goat se sees] Gel Soee ner OneneE 4 Se Heeesecosdes 4,20 - Township 6: Swanlpanmdisprucelandl: \ 2) 2 22252820. h2cc2s sess sesese 122 52.92 -43 IDs oc See c EB SSE ee wae CHOC Oe Be EDC > eae eae 12, 156 55, 374. 84 4. 56 IDO) 5 SSCA BEES RS or aS NE SOE peace rt rape ee 3, 609 15, 618. 26 4.33 IDO) 3 a Se Amer eset oer ee IEEE ae Can raed aap eas a 2,779 18, 391.98 6. 62 i) OMe Coe ile hel a id ab Aa ALY shee Seles be Coe 1,332 5, 740. 92 4.31 DOM ea oe Ceol fares hfe Soom ernest eto e gece e 1, 464 4, 832. 88 3.30 Ho talaga nies os tee ys pi 624 wba. BOI. Sk tie acs 21, 462 NCO Omi BO |ecescecatooose PANY CHAP EMD EE ACEC pate setraicte eae a mse aaa esse acetate eects Semis eee ermetce Gate 4.70 Measurements of nearly 17,000 acres in Herkimer County, N. Y., gave an average yield for all types of coniferous land (both virgin and cut-over) of only 1.4 standards. The yield for swamp land, which is largely balsam-fir land, ran on an average as high as 5.42 standards, or nearly 2 cords to the acre. (Table 49.) TABLE 49.— Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Herkimer County, N.Y. [Cutting to a limit of 10 inches in diameter breast high.] Average Total : mene Area yield | ile per ype. (acres). (stand- ( Bees ards). ards). Spruce land: Virgin._.-..-. eee 3, 732 4,105 1.10 Cut-over ...- 4,158 5, 073 1,22 AIO TE oe scare Serr Rats OCI CLO EES SIE air ore COE ETN ORS 7, 890 9,178 1.16 Swamp PARE WTI 5 ore Cha aa TOO ore SEI ore Re Eee ere Ne Ae Ne ee me as ae 210 1, 187 5. 65 (COIROWS? 2 oceoscescocn seaosadocescdncaseoredsccosaconossbeccsobeus 161 824 5. 12 ETicrtst en PRA vor ME GE Aro MNO TEE? Ube tid OEE 371 2,011 5.42 eeranidttotaleee. weet einem e AMR WEY VRiRe te EAE OE 5 o7ai|| MRI ER eee. z INS OTAGO reraiere whe asaya se crsiamion SER EIS sie sees aetae seease piers Se SS oe [eer as ce oe eed sNeee hee 1.40 60 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In New Hampshire, measurements of over 2,000 acres gave an average yield of 482 board feet for balsam and 1,772 board feet for spruce (New Hampshire rule), or nearly 0.8 of a cord of balsam fir per acre, forming about 27 per cent of the entire spruce yield. | (Table 50.) Tasie 50.—Average yield of balsam fir over large areas in Grafton County, N. H. [New Hampshire log rule.] Total yield. Average yield per acre. Area (acres). Spruce. Balsam. Spruce. Balsam. Board feet. | Board feet. | Board feet. | Board feet. L(y SR ins SSE ea Seen 82 a Lg we omar Censet 124,97 63, 879 , 168 597 PORE EES gale SIE Neel a i ee 840 93, 520 44 5 A se Fo) Beet hoe ee ees Pe ee eee 2 94, 645 10, 925 823 95 MAD oe om woe poe ne oe nn eee rm eee eee meies Seeem esis es 170, 235 14,715 1,261 109 AA oe eon Sen See oe Sea ue ce Tere Bie ME 38, 2 846 M00 Fee anes 2 eee ee oc eee Poets de 651, 510 67, 260 3, 429 354 BAe 0 3 Bd Me MCE te eth cots eee amine 1,402, $56 392, 616 2,444 684 OEE oo see ee ee ae oe ae te ine abe ee ee eee 437, 192 172, 494 1, 688 666 AGNEW BREE 0. 0 I 2 SRE aga 17, 264 174, 386 1,384 391 Lb Oe ee aa oe OA ee Sn cicena Ise 146, 146 84, 700 550 Total: (2;233) 25 Job 2 5 tes Sen esses eee es 3,956,875 | 1,075,341 1,772 482 INCREMENT. The sample plots in New York and Maine (Tables 46 and 47) showed that mature stands of balsam fir produce annually from one-sixth to one-third of a cord of wood per acre. At such a rate the poorest land produces 10 cords per acre in 60 years, and the better land 10 cords of pulpwood every 30 years. This annual increment is very low as compared with the yields obtainable under forest manage- ment. The increment should be at least two-thirds of a cord, or possibly 1 cord a year. MANAGEMENT. EFFECT OF PAST CUTTING. Balsam fir is so closely associated with spruce wherever it occurs that it is impossible to outline a system of management for one species that will not at the same time affect the other. Both species are almost constantly contesting for the occupancy of the ground. If left to themselves the greater tolerance and more persistent growth of spruce would undoubtedly in the long run secure for it the pre- dominance in the present forests as they formerly did in the virgin stands, before the interference of man. Lumbering, however, has turned the scale of the struggle between the different species in favor of trees of smaller commercial importance. Thus, white pine, the most valuable species of the northeastern forests, was taken first, with the result that it was unable to hold its own against its competitors. Then came the turn of spruce. The latter, in many BALSAM FIR. 61 cases, is now being cut for the third time, smaller logs being taken at each new lumbering. Balsam, on the other hand, has been spared until recently and thus given a chance to spread at the expense of spruce. These facts are well brought out by measurements taken in Maine on 20 acres of virgin and 20 acres of forest cut over once. The difference in the representation of the two species in virgin and cut-over forest is especially striking in the trees of small diameters, since not enough time has elapsed after cutting to affect in any great degree the large trees. TaBLE 51.—Average number of spruce and balsam fir up to 12 inches in diameter breast high on an acre of virgin and cut-over forest in Maine. Virgin. Cut-over. Diameter breast high (inches). Spruce. | Balsam. | Spruce. | Balsam. ovens iE a ie ah EP IS oe eR ae 29.2 12.8 13.0 35. 2 Bo sold dicta COMI CERO GEIS AEE ORES yt Ente pe lee a Nine oy oe eb es 51.0 12.0 8.6 23.4 Bh 3 oe DEE SE OOO Ie ELIS I i on ee 44.2 11.8 7.4 21.4 Bech be adres eee CEI COS AE PREIS EO ae OR ta te es Eo eee ee 39.4 8.6 5.4 19.8 Quon cca tec dee ORO GES Ae REN Soe ret et aos eae OLE eee een 24.4 7.0 4.4 17.6 Geos cab en oe eS e Ses Bis eg es pata ae Grates Heya nto GaT eet an Om SOE 23.2 6.4 4.2 14.6 Baccus ale amin ined eee Be AIOE IE ae ae RED TRL Sear RAR Chm ps 17.8 6.4 4.0 13.0 Doc dec dee cle cob Gee IS Cate rE ER a RICE OTR ttf CEO nC 17.4 252 3.4 10.2 i pa ree oe pa I IN ON aioe einialnis bee mee e/qeeiaermainic 14.2 2.0 3.0 9.8 FL Sempra ee ao OS IY Ie 8) My IS, ochre velerciarare ive te arcyossiers/ arene 9.2 1.6 2.6 4.6 Ws cece bets Oe COREE RO ae Ce Ane tH Ee. nae 6.4 1.2 2.6 4.0 IEG HEU LS 3 pei Va eR a en Rd ae OR UR 276. 4 72.0 58.6 173.6 The rapid spreading of balsam over cut or burnt spruce land is due chiefly to its prolific seeding, love for light, and rapid growth. In this respect, as in many others, balsam occupies the same place among the northeastern conifers as aspen does among the deciduous species. It is the first of all conifers to take possession of openings, burnt or cut-over land, and at present outnumbers spruce in the young growth and smaller diameters throughout the northern woods. Table 52 shows the number of spruce and fir trees on an average acre, based on actual measurements of 955 acres in the forests of Maine. The measurements were taken on the slope type, where spruce is more at home than is balsam. TABLE 02.—Number of spruce and fir trees on an average acre, based on 952 acres in Maine. Diameter breast high (inches).| Spruce. Babew Diameter breast high (inches). | Spruce. Bakan P&L 8 ee 9.1 ES LORE AS: Be Wee PERN EO REY 4.0 6.1 Bot Geo Ok A ae ee eae ae 9.9 USE O7 (ert | kot I a ce eo et Ue Ne abs 3.6 3.9 ARPA See AS O80 af Vad ce 9.1 ESR PL ea a NGS Lh cana Ne ay 203 8 IE 3.4 | 23 Heb SO Gel e EERE Eee ee Toe 15.9 Gin 9 oe aCe Aare ee eee a pees ae ae 5.8 13. 2 MOG SD Ce PP y faye te au 66. 1 124.6 Tf ebice ORE ea aS oe aa 5.4 11.2 Bie See ad Se tea ae a ae ea 4.6 9.6 |j Trees, 2 inches to 8 inches, Oe, LORE DER Se eee eee neuen 4.0 “9 HOCUS socgdseecvcescesos 51.1 104. 4 62 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SILVICULTURAL SYSTEMS OF CUTTING. Upon the methods of cutting adopted in spruce stands will depend whether the future forest will be chiefly spruce or balsam or whether there will be future growth at all. In discussing these methods the economic limitations and specific conditions which may affect their application are not considered. These must necessarily differ for each particular forest tract. In a general discussion of the silvicul- tural system adapted to spruce and balsam it is possible to lay down only general principles. 5 Natural reproduction may be secured in spruce-balsam fir stands by two methods: (1) Clear cutting and (2) gradual cuttings. CLEAR CUTTING WITH NATURAL REPRODUCTION. In clear cutting, natural reproduction from stands adjoining the cutting must be relied upon to restock the area. The size and form of the clear-cut areas are therefore factors in the success of the repro- duction. If natural reproduction is desired, the greatest width of the 3 is z £0) g ED S A = 0 E eee e oD = Sees eb: A “10 9 8 7 6 Fic. 6.—Results secured by logging on the leeward side of balsam fir-spruce stands. The youngest stands are found on the windward side and deflect the wind upward, preventing windfall among the older trees. area to be cut clear in spruce-balsam fir stands should not exceed double the height of the adjoining stand from which reseeding is expected. For example, if the average height of a spruce and balsam-fir stand is 75 feet, then the width of the area which is to be cut clear should not be greater than 150 feet. The length of the area does not affect the natural reproduction and should depend, there- fore, upon the amount of timber to be cut, convenience of logging, and similar considerations. In general, then, clear cutting with natural reproduction in spruce-balsam fir stands should take the form of long narrow strips. Since both spruce and balsam are shallow-rooted trees and there- fore subject to windfall, logging operations should as far as possible always begin on the leeward side of the mature timber, and proceed against the wind. -If logging were to begin on the windward side there would always be danger from windfall in the stands adjoining the logged area. When the entire forest is cut over in this way, the youngest stands will be on the windward side, their tops forming a gradual ascending plane (fig. 6). The wind is thus deflected BALSAM FIR. 63 upward, without breaking into the older stands. Logging from the leeward side also permits the seed to be carried by the wind from the mature stands to the logged-over area. Successive strips—No matter how narrow the strips are made, they should not be cut one after another every year, unless there is sufficient young growth to insure a full stand. Spruce and balsam do not bear seed every year, but at intervals of from four to six years. If the strips are cut one after another every year, the logged areas could not be reproduced for lack of seed. The stand adjoining the logged area should be cut only after the latter has been fully reseeded, or at the end of four to six years. With this method of cutting the logging will have to be scattered over a fairly wide territory. Alternate strips.—To avoid too great a scattering of the cuttings, which necessarily increase the cost of logging, the strips may be cut Fic. 7.—Cutting in alternate strips. During the first half of the rotation only alternate strips are cut. The remaining strips are cut over during the second half of the rotation. At the time the remaining strips are cut the first strips are 75 years old and are capable of reseeding the adjoining clearings. alternately instead of one after another, at an interval of from four to six years. In applying this method, the entire tract is divided into strips narrow enough to insure natural reproduction. The tract is cut over twice. The first time only alternate strips are cut; the second time, the remaining strips. Every year as many strips may be cut as are needed to secure the desired amount of timber. Under this method the timber tract, after it has been entirely cut over, would consist of strips of timber in which two adjoining strips would differ in age by as many years as it took to cut over all of the alternate strips. If 150 years is decided upon as the rotation for a mixed stand of spruce and balsam fir, the entire tract would be cut over in 150 years, and the alternate strips would be cut over within the first 75 years. The strips that were cut first would then be 75 years old when the adjoining strips are cut. At the age of 75 years both spruce and balsam bear seed prolifically, and will readily reseed the adjacent clearings made by cutting the remaining strips (fig. 7). Cutting in alternate strips tends to concentrate logging, since as much timber may be cut per acre as under the present methods of 64 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. culling the forest of trees of certain diameters. It requires, however, great regularity and exactness in logging operations, and may there- fore present difficulties, although it is being practiced to a considerable extent in private and State spruce forests abroad. Thinned and partially cleared strips—Another modification of the system of clear cutting in strips is especially applicable to large stands of mature timber. Watersheds, or other logging units large enough to allow logging on the same area for a period of five or six years, are divided into strips, all of which are cut over within the five or six year period, but only for two-thirds of their full width. Thus, if the width of the strips is 150 feet, each strip is cut only 100 feet. On the remaining 50 feet of each strip the timber is merely thinned (fig. 8). As logging operations on the area will go on for five or six years, there should be one or two good seed years during which the logged areas will be reproduced from the adjoiing 50-foot Fic. 8.—Partially cleared and thinned strips. Each strip is cut only for two-thirds of its width. On the remaining one-third the timber is only thinned. Reproduction takes place on the adjoining clearings and under the thinned stand. When reproduction is secured, the remaining one-third of the strip is ecutclean. The entire logging area is reproduced within five or six years. F strips of timber. Since 50-foot strips are thinned, reproduction will occur on them. As soon as young growth appears on the clear- ings and under the trees left uncut, the 50-foot strips are also taken, and the entire area is thus cut and reproduced within a few years. This method of cutting is simple and, under favorable conditions, practical as a logging proposition. The great danger is from windfall, to which thinned stands are particularly susceptible. While often, as in cutting for pulp, clear cutting in strips is the best method, even with the greatest precautions cleared strips often fail to reproduce naturally with the desired species. No matter what modification of the system is practiced, the narrower the strip the greater are the chances for successful natural reproduction. When abundant young growth exists under the old trees, clear cutting need not be in the form of strips, but may cover the entire area bearing reproduction. Clear cutting in strips must naturally lead to an increase of balsam in the second growth, since it is a prolific seeder and requires more ene, te te te or a # 7 rr. se re BALSAM FIR. 65 light than does spruce. This is especially true in the case of alter- nate or successive strips. With partially cleared and thinned strips, however, which are cut practically at the same time, the reproduc- tion of balsam fir can be reduced in favor of spruce if thinning is confined largely or exclusively to balsam fir, thus decreasing its par- ticipation in reseeding the ground. CLEAR CUTTING, WITH ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION. Still another silvicultural method to which both spruce and bal- sam fir are adapted, particularly for pulp, is clear cutting, with sub- sequent planting. Such a system, however, presupposes intensive management and a considerable initial outlay of money. The planting of red spruce and balsam fir would be hardly advisable for both silvicultural and financial reasons, because of the former’s extremely slow growth and the latter’s comparatively inferior quali- ties. If planting is to be done, it would be better to use more val- uable and promising species, such as Norway or possibly white spruce. The cost of establishing a stand artificially is the same whether valuable or inferior species are used. For these reasons clear cutting, with artificial reproduction, would hardly be a profitable undertaking, at least for the balsam fir. The justification for retaining balsam fir in the future stands must be in the ease with which it can be reproduced naturally and cheaply. GRADUAL CUTTING. Selection 1n growps.—Spruce stands are best managed by gradual cuttings. This is essentially the method used in the old-time logging operations, when only the largest trees could be used, and is in vogue now on a number of large spruce tracts owned by pulp and paper companies. Only the larger mature trees or trees of a certain char- acter are taken, and the rest left on the ground for future logging. Natural reproduction of spruce and balsam is readily secured under this method of cutting if the following rules are observed: 1. In logging, the trees should be removed not singly but in small groups. The removal of such groups of trees will make small open- ings, or ‘‘holes,” in the forest, which are more readily stocked than openings made by the removal of single trees. When single trees are cut, the openings are soon closed by the growth of side branches of the neighboring trees, and the young growth that appears is soon dither shaded out or stunted. Openings, or “‘holes,’”’ in the forest formed by the removal of groups of trees a quarter of an acre or less in extent receive abundant seed from the surrounding trees, yet have enough light for a vigorous and normal development of the repro- duction that springs up. 66 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. Thesame ground should not be logged too often; say, not oftener than every 10 or 20 years. Frequent logging over the same area prevents the firm establishment of young growth. 3. Keep out fires from the logged-over areas. ; This system of gradual cutting, which may be called a selection system in groups, is decidedly the most practical, simplest, and safest so far as securing natural reproduction of spruce and balsam isconcerned. Under it, spruce reproduction is favored at the expense of balsam, since the openings are small and the light conditions more favorable to spruce than to balsam. The greatest advantage of the system, however, is the protection which it affords against windfall—a very important consideration in all spruce cuttings. The system differs from the method of logging practiced 25 to 30 years ago only in that the trees are cut in small groups instead of singly. Many of the old cuttings, when fires were kept out, have been cut over for the second and third time. Experience shows that no forest has ever been ruined by such a method of cutting. It is the recent logging, which amounts to practically clear cutting, especially when followed by fires, which has reduced large areas of timberland to a state where artificial planting or ae is the only means of bringing them back-to forest: By clear cutting small groups, opportunity is afforded for utilizing all the merchantable timber, especially if the openings are made in the older and more mature stands. At the same time, forest con- ditions are preserved which are favorable for natural reproduction. The danger from windfall under this method is almost entirely avoided. | . Cutting to a diameter invit.—Cutting in strips or selection cutting in groups requires a careful selection of the logging areas and expert technical knowledge. Wherever such knowledge can not be had, light cutting over the entire logging area may roughly answer the requirements of natural reproduction of both spruce and balsam fir. The higher the diameter limit for both species the more favorable will be the conditions for natural reproduction. The diameter limit should be raised in thin stands and lowered in dense ones, the main point being not to open the stand too heavily and destroy the con- ditions under which natural reproduction takes place. Although by cutting balsam fir to a lower diameter than spruce some advantage may be given spruce in reseeding the ground, yet under such a rough system it is difficult to control the conditions under which one or the other species can best come up; the preponderance of spruce or balsam fir in the future stand must therefore be left largely to chance. BALSAM FIR. 67 ROTATION. The difference in the rate of growth of balsam fir and spruce has a direct bearing upon the choice of rotation or proper time of cutting the two species. From the tables it is evident that balsam fir, if its growth is to be utilized to the fullest advantage, should not be cut before it reaches an age of about 100 or 125 years, or a diameter of 12 to 14 inches breast high. Cutting balsam fir below 6 or 7 inches means utilization of trees which are still making a fair growth. Spruce, on the other hand, should not be cut before it is 175 or 200 years old, since most of its growth is made at the age of from 100 to 200 years. The rotation for balsam fir, therefore, should be about ‘100 years, and for spruce at least 175 years. These rotations, of course, would be applicable only if balsam fir and spruce were grown | separately. Since they usually grow together, the practical applica- tion of these different rotations would simply mean that in cutting over a virgin stand of spruce and balsam fir, the fir should be cut to a younger age, only the older spruce being removed. SUMMARY. 1. Balsam fir forms, on an average, from 10 to 15 per cent of the entire red-spruce stand, or 5,355 million board feet. 2. Under present methods of cutting, balsam fir is increasing at the expense of red spruce in the second growth throughout the entire range of the two species. 3. Balsam-fir wood, while to some extent inferior to spruce for construction material, has a definite place in the pulp and lumber industries. 4. Balsam fir grows much faster throughout its entire life than spruce, but is shorter lived and reaches maturity long before the latter. 5. Balsam fir should be cut at an age of from 100 to 125 years, while spruce, as it grows at present in the wild wood, should be cut at an age of from 175 to 200 years. 6. The annual increment per acre of balsam fir throughout its range varies from one-sixth to one-third of a cord, or 1 cord in from three to six years. 7. The best silvicultural system of cutting is that of selection cutting in small groups. The natural reproduction of both spruce and balsam fir is assured under this system, with the possibility of increasing the proportion of spruce in the new stand. 68 BULLETIN 55, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ANDERSON, ALEXANDER P. Comparative Anatomy of the Normal Diseased Organs of Abies Balsamea, Affected with Aecidium Elatinum. (Botanical Gazette, Nove, pp. 1897, v. 24, pp. 309-344.) Balsam Fir, il. (Hardwood Record, Apr. 25, 1908, v. 26, No. 1, pp. 16-17.) Criark, J. F. On the Form of the Bole of the Balsam Fir. (Forestry Quarterly, Jan. 1903, v. 1, pp. 56-61.) Dorner, Herman B. The Resin Ducts and Strengthening Cells of Abies and Picea. (Indiana Academy of Science, Proceedings, 1899, pp. 116-129.) ENGELMANN, GrEorGcE. A Synopsis of the American Firs. (Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, 1878, v. 3, No. 4, pp. 593-602.) Huntineton, A. O. Balsam Fir. (New England Magazine, Oct. 1904, n. s. v. 31, p- 225.) McApam, T. The ‘‘Human Interest” in Firs. (Garden Magazine, Aug. 1909, v. 10, No. 1, pp. 12-14.) Mryake, K. Contribution to the Fertilization and Embryogeny of Abies Balsamea. (Beihefte zum Botanische Centralblatt, 1903, v. 14, pp. 134-144.) Moore, B., and Rogers, R. L. Notes on Balsam Fir. (Forestry Quarterly, March 1907, v. 5, pp. 41-50.) Rornrock, J. T. Balsam Fir. (Forest Leaves, Feb. 1910, v. 12, No. 7, p. 105.) von Scurenk, HermMANN. Glassy Fir. (Missouri Botanical Garden, 16th Annual Report, 1905, pp. 117-20.) ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C AT 10 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN OF THE J.) USDEARIENT OE MRICULTRE No. 56 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. January 28, 1914. A SPECIAL FLASK FOR THE RAPID DETERMINATION | | OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. By Joun H. Cox, Assistant in Grain Standardization. INTRODUCTION. The special flask which is described in this bulletin is used in con- nection with the Brown-Duvel tester described in Circular No. 72 of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, entitled ‘‘A Moisture Tester for Grain and Other Sub- stances and How to Use It,” by Dr. J. W. T. Duvel. The special flask, shown in figure 1, has double walls and was developed for commercial work so that a quick and accurate test could be made of finely ground material, such as flour and meal. The single- walled flask described in the circular mentioned is not suitable for testing finely ground substances, as it does not always give accurate results. The meal when tested in such a flask frequently burns badly at the bottom, and the flask does not clean well and seon breaks, while the double-walled flask may be cleaned without trouble and does not break easily. One of the principal causes why corn meal and other finely ground materials deteriorate is the water which they contain. The manu- facturers of these finely ground products can largely eliminate the excess water in their meal and flour by proper precautions. The amount of water in flour or meal can easily be tested in a few min- utes by the use of this special flask, thereby determining whether they contain too much water for safe transportation or storage. The tester consists of two or more compartments, so that one or more duplicate sample tests can be run at the same time. There is a flask for each compartment and a gas, alcohol, or gasoline burner beneath each one. Figures 2 and 3 show an external view of a standard 6-compartment water tester ready for use. 19612°—14 2 BULLETIN 56, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIAL FLASK. The flask, the dimensions of which are shown in figure 1, is double walled and can be made of copper or glass. The inner flask has a capacity of approximately 900 cubic centimeters and the space a 2INZ ge OAT, “10% Ti A WE Sey i TOTAL LENGTH OF THEFRAIOME TEP? (32/NCHES iN between the two walls should hold not less than 250 nor more than 300c.c. If the flasks are made of copper, the thickness of the copper before it is spun should be 22 thou- sandths of an inch or 16 ounces to the square foot. The copper flasks will have to be made in two sections and soldered together in the middle with a very hard solder. The soft solder commonly used by plumbers is not suitable for this work. Success with these flasks has been attained only when they were soldered together with a silver solder. The neck of the flask must be of but one thickness of copper, for if it is too heavy it will melt 4 NO 5S ONE HOLE the rubber stoppers 5 23] AUBEER STOPPER. The glass flasks when made in ac- cordance with the proper specifications will give as accurate results as the copper Lr.;- ones. They should — | be made of the best N2 3 ONE HOLE RUEEEP? STOPPER? FOR CONNECTING W/777 CONDENSER TUBE, is0eo2 Fy} ysose on ; grade of resistant glass and well an- Fic. 1.—A distillation flask, showing its dimensions and the correct adjustment of the thermometer. nealed, andthe necks should besufficiently heavy to stand tight corking. When 150 c.c. of oil is poured in between the two walls, the top of the oil should be about halfway up the sides of the flasks. If the flasks do not meet these specifications they should not be used. HOW TO MAKE A WATER TEST OF FLOUR OR MEAL. To make a water test pour 150 ¢. c. of oil in the inner flask and then 150 c. c. of oil between the two walls. Weigh an average sample of 50 grams on scales that are sensitive to at least one-twentieth of a FLASK FOR DETERMINATION OF WATER IN FLOUR AND MEAL. 8 gram and put it into the inner flask by means of a long funnel, so as to drop the material well down into the mner flask; otherwise, the material will collect around the neck and will be liable to fill up the tube which leads from the flask to the condensing tube. SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE THERMOMETER. The thermometer should be approximately 13 inches long and nine thirty-seconds of an inch in diameter, with a bulb approximately three-fourths of an inch in length. The thermometer should be grad- wiping Il 4 ll ii S| Ii Wh Fic. 2.—A 6-compartment Brown-Duvel moisture tester. uated in whole degrees from 0° to 210° C., with the graduations etched on a stem having a white background. ADJUSTMENT OF THE THERMOMETER. The thermometer is more easily adjusted in the copper flask by first putting the bulb in flour, leaving a fine white coating of the substance on the thermometer. It is then put into the flask and quickly with- drawn, so as to see the height of the oil on the bulb, which should be so placed in the flask that it is approximately three-fourths covered with oil, as shown in figure 3. If the thermometer is not properly adjusted, the results will be inaccurate. DESCRIPTION OF THE GRADUATE AND HOW TO READ IT. The special graduate shown in figure 4, used when a 50-gram sample is tested, is just one-half the volume of the graduate in regular eee aa ee ees 4 BULLETIN 56, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. use and gives the percentage of water direct without multiplymg by two, which must be done in employing the one commonly used. _ Usually a small quantity of oil is carried over into the measuring cylinder and collects on the surface of the water, so that the readings should be made at the bottom of the meniscus between the oil and the water, as shown in figure 4. After the test has been made the graduate should be emptied and wiped dry. ON el} || yet | &|{||% bit SHIFTING LEVER ‘y\\\|o ‘i WG s S YS"ANIR PYRE WATER O/S- CHARGE PIPE —_-WELL CASING i<—LOW WATER LEVEL ING REASEFA VR" PIPE WATER CYLINDERS =) YA DISCHARGE PIPE ly K Q ly = N Wy NO6 rs Ny) WUTO - PNEUMATIC rt & PUIP & |: \y ty |: : Re R ES | SIDE ' VIEW B A Fie. 17.—Working parts of an autopneumatic pumping system: A, Front and side view; B,entire working system as used in bored or cased wells. required height in the building is recorded on the pump gauge placed on the air-pipe line between the reducer and the pump. ‘The following table shows the number of gallons of water that can be WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 21 drawn from faucets with the pump under working ‘pressures varying from 25 to 65 pounds and total starting pressures in a 1,000-gallon air tank varying from 40 to 100 pounds: Pumping capacity of a 1,000-gallon air tank, in gallons, under varying internal pressures. Work . Total pressure in air tank at start. pressure on pump guage. 40 pounds. | 50 pounds. | 60 pounds. | 70 pounds. | 80 pounds. | 90 pounds. | 100 pounds. Pounds. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. 25 375 259 833 1,075 1,310 1,548 1, 786 30 221 |. 442 663 884 1,105 1,326 1,548 35 102 306 510 714 924 1,123 1,327 FAQWO Tan Eon neta 187 374 561 748 936 1,123 EAE EN ob Besa bean Co aes 85 255 425 596 765 936 GU) og | 3 Smee by ata lem aera eo ge 153 306 460 612 765 | ENG} cI OR Sead REED Its Ae ae 68 204 330 476 612 | GO ayes ees Yeepeepesies cleneeea (RS ea 119 237 375 476 at 3d IE ee aa Ti ie allege 51 153 255 a5 | | ZB rh q [EEE a paaaer eye ae al Z = =< —_—=imerie SYVvS.- — = - Se re RS Oe eee ee A =) Z <—— | sommes] THE | OOS. AeA Ty © Iii LL dA 5 WN CELESTE LI a? et eh ee HARRY Wo Vey Cnt te A Me, TM LLL J RIMM YASS ———. rw ——— — A153 A ZZZ_ZZZZZEZZZZEZ AT TF Parone sh AIP COMPRESSOR |G fee tie ay a NN /_ZZZZZZZZZZ_E_ZEZEZEZE WELL WATER ANUVLAARLRARARRYRAANY} ee cite i eo tl N i EX ZA AUTOPNEUMATIC PUMP |B AUTOPNEUMATIC PUMP i] Ul be || ARAN AANA ARARARARLEALNERURRUR ARANIR [RAT .' Fig. 18.—Application of autopneumatic system to a farm home. For air tanks of other than 1,000-gallon capacity divide the figures in the table by 1,000, move the dectmal point three places to the left, and multiply the result by the capacity of the tank in gallons. Assume, for example, that the height to which the water is to be raised and the pressure required to operate the pump, including friction, make necessary a working pressure of 40 pounds on the pump. Then if the initial pressure in the air tank is 50 pounds, 187 gallons of water can be delivered at the faucets before the pressure in the air tank becomes too low to operate the pump. The autopneumatic pump can be used in wells, springs, or lakes where the water is free from sand and mud and does not have to be 22 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lifted more than 100 feet, or where the working pressure on the pump does not exceed 65 pounds. Figure 18 illustrates the application of this system to a farm home. PUMP FRAIIES PLUNGER OR FORCE PISTON DOUELE ACTING PULP CYLIVOER LIFTING FUSTOM WITH VALVE Fic. 19.—Force pump with cylinder submerged in shallow well. PUMPING. The water level in shal- low wells is usually near enough to the surface to be within the limits of suction. The limiting practical suction lift for a pump is about 20 feet, although it will vary with the elevation above sea level. This: means that the pump cylinder which raises the water by suction in lift pumps and which raises by suction and also forces the water in force pumps should not be more than 20 feet above the water level in the well. To practically eliminate suction lift the cylinder may be submerged as shown in figure 19, thus making the cylinder and pump frame separate and connected only by a sec- tion of pipe. This pre- vents the valves from dry- ing out and makes the pumpself-priming. Force pumps often have two cylinders, and in deep wells it is necessary that the lower or suction cyl- inder be either submerged or within at least 15 feet of the water level. In the figure shown the forcing cylinder is within the suction cylinder. The suction of any type of pump must be air-tight. WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 23 To find the approximate discharge at each stroke of a pump in gallons use the following table: Table of capacity of pumps. Length of stroke in inches. Diameter) —_ 7 of cyl- : ae ay aN 8 inder in ; | inches. ) | 10 | 12 14 | 15 | 16 Capacity per stroke in gallons. 1 0.017 | 0.020} 0.024] 0.027} 0.031} 0.034} 0.041 | 0.048) 0.051 | 0.054 ips - 022 - 026 - 030 - 034 - 039 - 043 - 052 - 060 -065 | .069 i - 027 - 032 - 037 - 043, - 048 - 053 . 064 - 074 -079 | .085 13 - 032 - 039 . 044 - 051 - 058 064 077 - 089 -096 | .103 ity - 038 . 046 - 054 - 061 - 069 077 - 092 - 107 115] .122 1} | ..052 . 063 073 - 083 - 094 - 104 125 - 146 -156 | .170 2 - 068 . 082 - 095 - 109 - 122 . 136 . 163 - 190 -204 | .218 24 - 086 - 103 121 - 138 - 155 172 - 206 241 -258 | .275 2s - 106 - 128 . 149 -170 - 191 213 - 255 - 298 -319} .340 23 - 129 - 154 - 180 . 206 . 231 257 - 309 - 360 -386 | . 411 3 - 153 . 184 214 ~ 245 275 - 306 - 367 - 428 -459 | . 489 3 179 215 - 251 - 287 -323 - 309 - 431 - 503 -539 | .575 3s - 208 - 249 - 292 - 333 -375 417 . 499 - 583 -625 | . 666 + - 239 - 287 +339 - 382 - 430 - 478 574 - 669 717} =. 765 i 272 - 326 381 - 435 - 490 - 044 - 653 - 762 -816} .870 4} 307 - 368 - 429 - 491 - 553 . 614 137 - 860 -921 | .982 45 344 413 - 482 ool - 619 - 689 - 826 -964 | 1.033 | 1.102 43 384 - 460 +537 - 614 - 690 . 767 -920 | 1.073 | 1.150 | 1. 227 5 - 425 -510 - 595 - 680 - 765 -850 | 1.020] 1.190) 1.275 | 1. 360 be - 469 - 062 - 656 - 750 - 843 937 | 1.124] 1.311] 1.405 | 1. 499 os -ol4 - 617 . 720 - 823 -926 | 1.029] 1.234) 1.440] 1.543 | 1.646 52 - 562 - 674 «787 -899 |} 1.011) 1.124) 1.348} 1.573} 1.686 | 1.798 6 612 734 - 857 -979 |} 1.102} 1.224] 1.469) 1.714) 1.836] 1.958 The discharge per stroke as shown by the above table may be multiplied by the number of strokes per minute to find the discharge in gallons per minute. The power required for pumping will depend on the number of gallons per minute one wishes to pump and the total lift. The total lift is the vertical distance from the surface of the water in the well to the highest faucet or to the storage tank plus the friction loss in the pipes. If the length of distribution pipe is over 100 feet the loss by frictional resistance in feet of lift should be determined and included in the total lift. The following table gives the frictional loss in feet of lift per 100 feet in pipes from ? to 4 inches in diameter, discharging from 5 to 40 gallons per minute. Fractional loss in feet for 100 feet clean iron pipes. Gallons 5 j 14 14 2 oR 3 3h 4 Dike d inch. | 1 inch. inches. inches. inches. | inches. | inches. | inches. | inches. 5 7.6 1.9 0. 71 0. 27 0. 09 0. 05 CUS) DIS I ered Se eee 10 29.9 7.3 1.4 1.0 - 28 - 09 - 05 ONOU A Fee aes 15 66. 0 16.1 5.5 2.2 or 18 - 09 - 05 0. 02 20 115.0 28. 0 9.5 4.8 - 96 -32 13 -07 03 25 179. 0 43. 7 14.7 6.0 iL? - 48 23 09 05 30 264. 0 63. 2 21.0 8.6 2.1 - 69 -30 14 07 35 372.0 85. 1 28. 9 11.6 2.7 - 92 39 20 11 49 461.0 110.0 37. 0° 14.9 3.7 1.2 - 53 25 14 1 Kilis and Howland’s experiments. 24 BULLETIN 57, U. S..DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Water weighs 62.5 pounds per cubic foot and there are 7.48 gallons in a cubic foot. Divide the number of gallons pumped per minute by 7.48 to get the cubic feet pumped per minute. Multiply the cubic feet by 62.5 pounds to get the weight of water pumped per minute. Multiply the weight by the total lift, which will give the foot-pounds of work per minute; 33,000 foot-pounds per minute equal 1 horsepower. Divide the foot-pounds per minute by 33,000 and the result will be horsepower. The horsepower as computed from the quantity pumped per minute and the total lift should be doubled, as a pumping outfit usually has an efficiency of about 50 per cent. In general, from 1 to 3 horsepower is all that is required for ordinary farm pumping. In cases where water for the house only is wanted, 4 to ? of a horsepower is sufficient. TYPES OF PUMPS. There are several types of pumps which may be used in farm pumping. The most common are the ordinary lift pumps which simply raise the water to the ground surface from a shallow well. For elevated tank systems and pneumatic tank systems the combination lift and force pump is necessary. If a special air pump or compressor is not employed it is necessary that a combination air and water pump be used for pneumatic tanks, especially in pumping from deep wells. There are many types of hand force pumps for shallow and deep well pumping which may be applied to either elevated tank or pneumatic tank systems. Figure 15, page 18, shows a deep-well wind- Fic. 20.—Pumping jack foreither mill pumping outfit applied to a pneumatic deep or shallow well pumping. tank system, and figure 13, page 16, shows a shallow well windmill pumping outfit supplying water to a tank on the windmill tower. Figure 20 is a pumping jack which may be connected with a deep or shallow well pumping outfit applied to either system. This jack may be operated by gas engine or electric motor. Figure 21 shows two other types of windmill force pumps, A for shallow wells, and B for deep wells. In obtaining information from the manufacturers of pumping equipment as to the particular equipment which will suit certain needs, the power required, etc., it is well to send data on the follow- ing: The source of water supply, whether a well, spring, or surface WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 25 supply; imside diameter and total depth of the well; the distance from the ground surface to the water level in the well; the flow of the well; the number of gallons to be pumped per hour; the relative positions of the water supply and the point to which the water is to be forced; the position in which the pump is to be placed; one’s pref- erence as to pneumatic tank, elevated tank, or autopneumatic sys- tem; the kind of power to be used, and whether or not power is already available, such as electric motors, windmills, or gasoline engines, with a com- plete description of the power, its revolutions per minute, voltage, cycles, phase, direct or alternating cur- rent, etc. Where a supply of pure water may be obtained in the imme- diate neighborhood, which is so situated that a considerable fall may be obtained with a reasonable distance, a hydraulic ram may be used for pumping. THE HYDRAULIC RAM— HINTS ON INSTALLATION AND OPERATION. The hydraulic ram is a simple though wasteful machine, which utilizes the mo- mentum of a stream of A B water falling a small Fig. 21.—T wo types of windmill force pump: A, For shallow wells; B, for deep wells. height to elevate a portion of that water to a greater height. A complete installation consists of a drive pipe, ram, and delivery pipe, and the ram itself consists of an air chamber, dash valve, delivery valve, and body pipe. The hydraulic ram is usually used to elevate water from a pure spring. Water may be elevated from streams to stock tanks, but this water should not be used for household purposes. The flow of the spring should not be less than one-half gallon per minute. It is necessary that there be considerable difference in elevation between Ad 26 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the level of the supply and a convenient location for the ram within a Figure 22 shows a cross section of a simple type reasonable distance. Figure 23 shows the usual relative positions of of hydraulic ram. spring, ram, and storage tank. Wilittttsstpeprerth, sstatsssseettten Moy, ZZ eS Ly Ly = SWS See ee i Fic. 22.—Cross section of simple type of hydraulic ram. The operation of a ram may be briefly explained as follows: The water flowing down the drive pipe acquires a certain energy due to its weight and velocity and upon entering the body pipe of the ram strikes | LIFT, 1, WILL VARY WITH READING ON PRESSURE GAUGE. POUND OF PRESSURE (5 EQUAL ~ 70 2.3 FEET OF HEAD. RAST FIT ear Fig. 23.—Hydraulic ram pumping to a pneumatic tank supply system, showing usual relative position of spring, ram, and storage tank. the open dash valve with considerable force, which js sufficient to close it. The resuJt is that the water piles up and exerts an interior pressure, which causes the delivery valve to open, admitting water WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 27 into the air chamber. (See fig.22.) The water then rebounds back up the drive pipe until forced down again by the weight of the water in the drive pipe, and the operation is repeated. During each momen- tary reflow a small quantity of water is forced into the air chamber, compressing the air. The resulting air pressure forces water up the delivery pipe to the point of delivery. The operation of a ram is continuous, once started, until the valves become worn. The ordi- nary small ram completes its cycle about 60 times a minute, the length -of stroke of the dash valve governing the number of pulsations per minute. The length of drive pipe is most important and is governed by the ratio of the fall to the elevation. If too long or too short the auto- matic supply of air is interfered with and the efficiency impaired. The length of drive pipe is usually about 7 times the height of fall, although this may vary between 5 and 10, depending on the height and distance to which water is to be delivered. The diameter of the drive pipe is usually twice that of the discharge pipe. DELIVERY VALVE BSO2PY PIPE Fig. 24.—Double acting hydraulic ram, showing method of using a turbid creek supply to pump clear spring waiter. The proper size of ram to suit certain conditions depends on the followmg: (1) The flow of water from the source of supply,. deter- mined by the time necessary to fill a vessel of known capacity or by welr measurement; (2) the difference between the level of the supply and the lowest point within a reasonable distance for the location of the ram; (3) the distance between the source of supply and the pro- posed location of the ram; (4) the difference in level between the ram location and the highest point to which water is to be delivered; (5) length of pipe necessary to conduct the water to the point of delivery. In purchasing a ram this information should be sent to manufac- turers. Sometimes a double-acting ram is installed where there is a spring too small to operate a single-acting ram but located near a brook from which an ample supply and fall can be obtained to operate the ram. These are so constructed that if properly installed under a fall of at least 2 feet below the spring and 3 feet below the brook it is impossi- ble to deliver anything but the spring water. Figure 24 illustrates 28 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this method. If this method is preferred, it should be so stated in purchasing. The following table gives approximate sizes of hy- draulic rams to suit certain conditions. Sizes of hydraulic rams. Dimensions. | Quantity _| Size of Size of | per minute} Least fall | Number. | drive | delivery | required recom- to operate | mended. P rs pipe. pipe. | Height. | Length. | Width. engine. 5 | Ft.ins.| Ft.ins.| Ft.ins. Ins. Ins. Gallons. Feet. 102. tars | 2.2 2 10 0 12 13 2 2- 6 2 1 fe ea es ore 2.2 oan 0 12 13 2 6-12 2 2 aes 2 eo 3 iL 692 2 1 8-18 2 25 2 5 3 4 fh 23 1 12-28 2 30 soe reed 2a od, iS} 3 14 20-40 2 Hos! 76: BPE 4 9 1 8 4 2 30-75 2 There are four separate problems connected with the hydraulic ram. These, with practical examples, are described by W. C. Davidson + as follows: (1) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of water desired, find the necessary supply at spring. (2) Given the lift, quantity of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find the fall required. (3) Given the fall, lift, and quantity of drive water, find the quantity of water supplied to the storage tank. (4) Given the fall, quantity of drive water, and quantity of water desired, find how high this water can be pumped. The computations which follow are hased upon an approximate rule, which is stated as follows: Multiply the fall in feet by the quantity of water supplied to the ram in gallons per minute, divide the product by the height the water is to be raised, and the result will be in gallons per minute. This may be expressed in an equation as follows: OxH af, H=fall in feet from spring to ram. h=height of storage tan!: above the ram in feet. g=quantity of water pumped in gallons per minute. The result should be reduced by about one-third to allow for friction. Example i. It is desired to find the quantity of drive water in the spring necessary to raise 8 gallons per minute to a height of 60 feet, when the head of drive water on the ram is 8 feet. Sub- stituting in the equation @ sige gallons per minute. In this case about one-third of the result should be added to allow for friction in pipes, valves, etc., making the necessary drive water supply 80 gallons. , in which Q=supply of spring in gallons per minute. 1 Missouri Bd. Agr. Mo. Bul., 10 (1912), No. 2. WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 29 Example 2. It is desired to find the necessary fall from the spring to the ram in order to supply the storage tank with 2 gallons per minute, when the drive water supply in the spring is 10 gallons per minute and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation H= “xa a oe =8 feet. Add one-third to allow for friction, making the total fall necessary 10.66 feet. Example 3. It is desired to find how much water will be delivered into the storage tank if the drive water supply is 6 gallons per minute, the fall is 10 feet, and the height to which the water is to be pumped is 40 feet. Substituting in the equation poe 1b gallons per minute. Deduct one-third of this result to allow for friction, making the quantity delivered per minute 1 gallon. Example 4. It is desired to find how high 1 gallon per minute can be pumped if the drive water supply is 4 gallons per minute and the fall is 15 feet. Substituting in the equation pee =x* 60 feet. Deduct one-third to allow for friction, making the result 40 feet. The above computations are only approximate, but should give a good general idea of the operation of a ram. The following table gives commercial estimates of the quantities of water delivered in 24 hours under certain conditions: Capacity of hydraulic rams. Power Pumping head in feet— head iE in | | feet. | 4 | 10 | lo | 20 | 30 | 140} 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 100 | 120 | 140 | 160 | 180 | 200 2 | 540 | 192) 128) 96) 64; 43] 29 Bi |josoue 301 | 192 | 144) 96) 72] 58 Ay rc oes 432 | 256 | 192 | 128 | 96] 77 ON eei= 26 540 | 345 | 240 | 160 | 120) 96 @) Saowalleeeer 432 | 302 | 192 | 144 | 115 | es aT 505 | 378 | 235 | 168 | 134 &|Ssocelloondolleadee 432 | 270 | 192 | 154 Oi ABuecloacos pecee 485 | 300 | 216 | 173 10. e 5 8 eecealicsoc 540 | 360 |1252 | 192 WA Vocosollesage cogs||osa55 430 | 301 | 230 oe lecaeel EGce Sesee 505 | 353 | 270 LG | 3 seaeel eas ol ea ches aa 432 | 323 USS TSS isthe hei i es es Nisan alleles 486 | 390 AO Cee Spee Sea aeee peed 540 | 430 PA ARS nc Fee Kee es aE a | CAS ito ips Ns 475 le Pie Co ESE Bllbe Seale mee ieee a 520 | 405 | 346 | 288 | 256 | 230 | 192 | 164 | 144 | 128 |115 ASS ees Ese (oes |e acca tes Sl ei 470 | 375 | 3828 | 278 | 250 | 208 | 178 | 156 | 139 |125 2S Nice disp ose|scocelossos lasaie feeeeet iene 505 | 480 | 354 | 300 | 269 | 224 | 192 | 168 | 149 |134 SLO ese A Ra 1 os IT es Pea see | 540 | 465 | 405 | 336] 288 | 240 | 206 | 180 | 160 |144 I ! Multiply factor opposite ‘power head”? and under “pumping head” by the number of gallons per minute used by the engine and the result will be the number of gallons delivered per day. Example: With a supply of 6 gallons per minute, 10 feet fall, 40 feet elevation, No. 10 or 15 engine wiil deliver 1,512 gallons per day; 6 252=1,512. This table will give only approximate quantities since the results will vary with the length of delivery pipe. Due consideration of pipe friction will give more correct results. The efficiency developed is governed by the ratio of fall to pumping head, being greatest for a ratio of 1 to 2% or 1 to 3, and the ram will not usually work well when the ratio is over 1 to 25, friction in the delivery pipe being duly considered. 30 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The spring should be walled in to form a reservoir as shown in the discussion of springs, page 12. If a stream is used it should be dammed back until a sufficient flow and fall is obtained. Rams may be obtained to supply water for both elevated tank and pneumatic tank systems. In purchasing a ram this should also be specified. In order to obtain the desired fall it is often necessary to convey the water a greater distance than the length of drive pipe used. Figure 25 illustrates two methods of securing the necessary fall. It is necessary to provide a shelter for the hydraulic ram to prevent freezing in cold weather. The pipes should also be placed below the frost line. In setting a ram the foundation should be firm and level. The drive pipe should be laid on a perfectly straight incline without SUPPLY 7TANPT DRIVE TANA, a WATER LEVEL SPRING PAI PIT Fic. 25.—Two methods of securing the necessary fall in drive pipe. bends or curves, except where the pipe enters the ram, and this should be made by bending the pipe. Fittings should not be used. The upper end of the drive pipe should be sufficiently below the sur- face of the water to prevent air suction—at least afoot. A good open strainer should be provided at the upper end also. Above all things the drive pipe should be air-tight. The delivery pipe may be laid with the necessary bends, according to the usual practice in laying water pipes, but all pipes should be connected before starting the engine and they should be left uncovered until all leaks are stopped. However, there should be as few bends and elbows in the delivery pipe as possible in order to reduce friction. Manufacturers of hydraulic rams should supply directions for the proper installation, operation, and care of their particular rams, and these directions should be carefully followed. WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. ol PLUMBING. IMPORTANT POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED. The important points to be considered in the arrangement of a plumbing system are (1) durability of material and construction, and (2) simplicity. Avoid any complication of pipes and arrange the water pipes so as to carry the water to the point of discharge in as nearly a straight line as possible. The use of lead pipe or lead-lined receptacles for drinking water should be avoided in small private systems. WATER PLUMBING. The main pipe from the supply tank should be about 14 inches in diameter and never less than 1 inch. It leads to the kitchen range and then branches. One branch conveys cold water to the fixtures and the other conveys water through the heater, through the hot-water tank, and thence to the hot-water fixtures. The hot- water pipe should parallel the cold-water pipe but should not be so close to it that the temperature of either will affect that of the other. The arrangement of water pipes, hot-water tank, etc., is shown in figure 14. The hot-water pipes are shown in black. All water pipes should be put in with red lead and all fittings should be screwed tight. The natural direction of travel of hot water 1s upward, and this should be aided, in arranging the hot-water pipes, as much as possible. The sizes of pipes generally used for supplying water to the various fixtures are given in the following table: Size of water pipes in building. ays | Low | High Low High | pressure. | pressure. Supply branches. pressure. | pressure. Supply branches. ) | Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. fol 4 aN To bath cocks...............- 3 || To water-closet flush pipes...- 1 el en To basin cocks.......-.-..---- £ 3-4 || To kitchen sinks____/__2.-._._. 5 3 i § To water-closet flush tank -._. 3 3 Moy panithyacinkee ee seeelennes a g-4 To water-closet flush valve. -- 1-14 SET |i) UNO Slo SMG oho bbe ocasaacbe 5 3 1 8 All water pipes should have sufficient slant to drain them back into the tank or drainage system, and a drain pipe and cock should be provided at the low point in the system, so that in extremely cold weather the system may be drained into the sewer or drainage system to prevent freezing. This necessitates a stop cock on the pressure- tank outlet to prevent draiming the tank. . Pipes should be kept from the outer walls to prevent freezing, and pipes located where they are in any danger whatever of freezing should be boxed in sawdust or some other nonconducting material. Since a plentiful supply of hot water is convenient and a large quantity retains heat for some time, it is well to provide a fairly large hot-water tank. However, the size of boiler depends on the existing eae. 32 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conditions, such as the water supply and the size of buildmg. A safe rule is to allow a 35 or 40 gallon boiler to a building having one bath- room and to add 30 gallons additional capacity for every extra bath- room. One hundred square inches of water-back heating surface is sufficient for a 40-gallon boiler. Boilers should be galvanized inside and out, particularly inside- Copper boilers are preferable if properly coated inside with block tin. These are classed as light, heavy, and ex- tra heavy, the latter being tested to 150 pounds water pres- sure. Ordinary steel I or iron boilers are tested to 150 pounds water pressure and extra heavy ones to 250 pounds pressure. The latter should be used when the gauge pressure is more than 40 pounds per square inch.. The following table gives standard sizes of galvanized boilers: rad poe Fic. 26.—Sewer trap at house foundation, showing ventilator. Standard sizes of galvanized boilers.” Capacity. Length. | Diameter. | Capacity. Length. | Diameter. | | | Gallons. Feet Inches. || Gallons. Feet. Inches. 18 12 48 14 21 34 12 | 52 5 16 24 4 12 | 53 4 18 24 3 14 63 6 16 27 4h | 12 66 5 18 28 34 14 | 79: 6 18 30 5 12 | 82 5 20 32 4 14 | 98 6 20 35 5 13 | 100 5 22 36 6 12 120 6 22 36 4h 14 | 120 5 24 Peres 5 14 144 6 24 42 4 16 | 168 7 24 kite 47 43 16 | 182 8 24 SEWER PLUMBING. he sewer plumbing serves as a drain for the water plumbing. The drainage system should be so constructed as to carry away com- pletely everything emptied into it, and it should be constantly vented, frequently and thoroughly flushed, and have each of its openings into the house securely guarded. All drains, soil pipe, and waste pipe should be water-tight and air-tight. The soil pipe or house-drainage main begins at the sewer opening and passes up through the house as nearly vertical as possible and out through the roof for free venti- lation. It should be at least 4 inches in diameter, of extra heavy cast iron, and all joints should be tightly calked with lead and oakum. All discharge from the wash basins, sinks, and toilets empties into WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 33 the soil pipe, and connections should be tightly made. The sewer inside the cellar wall should always be soil pipe; tile should never be used except outside of the wall. A soil-pipe trap should be provided at the house foundation, as shown in figure 26. Every fixture should have a trap to prevent foul air from coming back through the waste pipe. Vent pipes should be provided on all waste pipes to prevent siphonage and the consequent destroying of the traps. Figure 27 (p. 34) shows a good arrangement of sewer plumbing.’ Note the traps and vent pipes on each waste pipe. The least sizes of waste and vent pipes are given in the table below. Sizes of waste and vent pipes. Namie of pipe. Diameter. Name of pipe. Diameter. | | Inches. | Inches. Main and branch soil pipe ..-..--.-..- 4 || Wash tubs, 14-inch waste pipe to 2- Main waste pipes: (2320. . seit se 2 iravela\ (sez 0) HOw D WbIOSS oooecussoeceace- 14-2 Branch waste pipes for kitchen sinks. . 2 Waste pipe for 3 or 4 tubs...-....---.- 2 Bath or sink waste pipe.......-------- 13-2 Main vents and long branches. .....-.. 2 Basin waste pipe. .-....--------------- 1{-1, || Branch vents for traps over 2 inches... 2 Pantry sink waste pipe...-.--.------- 14 || Branch vents for traps less than 2 inches G NOeLE-CLOSCLULAD I= = cee ieee ee elise =e 33-4 All plumbing should be tested by filling with water or smoke to detect leaks. SEWAGE PURIFICATION AND DISPOSAL. The problem of the purification and disposal of farm sewage by small private systems differs somewhat from that of city sewage dis- posal, owing principally cto the extreme fluctuations in flow, small size of the system, fresh character, and variation in the quality of the sewage. The process of sewage disposal is partly mechanical and partly bacterial, consisting of (1) preliminary or tank treatment and of (2) final treatment, which is application to a natural soil by surface or subsurface distribution or to a specially prepared filter. PRELIMINARY OR SEPTIC-TANK TREATMENT. The exact nature of the action which takes place in a septic tank is a subject of dispute among sanitary experts and bacteriologists. Several theories have been advanced, but it is apparent that no definite conclusion has been reached. Some authorities advocate the use of open ventilated tanks, others advocate the use of air-tight tanks. Experience has shown that, in a small sewage disposal system, a dark, air-tight tank of sufficient capacity and so constructed that sewage may remain in it entirely at rest for a period of from 18 to 24 1 Univ. Mo. Engin. Expt. Sta. Bul. 3. 34 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hours gives the best results and the least annoyance. The solid matter settles out in such a tank and, according to the theory at present accepted, it is partially liquefied, deodorized, and destroyed Yertilation a S| ee ree Sol Pipe- #4 PAS ——— Water Closet Ew S gor Via. 27.—Plumbing system for sewage disposal. by countless numbers of bacteria, which thrive in filth and live without air. Some authorities assert that these bacteria also slightly affect the dis- solved organic matter in raw liquid sewage. In such a tank a thick scum forms on the surface of the sew- age, which protects the bacteria from the incoming air and is evidence of good bac- terial action. The breaking up or dis- turbance of this scum will destroy the bac- terial action for the time being and is likely to cause con- siderable annoyance by bad odors. FINAL TREATMENT. It isfound that the septic tank effects only about 40 per cent purification. The liquefying action in the tank, however, makes it possible to subject thé sewage to a final treatment by _ filtration or distribu- tion in a natural soil. This final purification is effected by means of bacteria which work in the air. Therefore it is necessary that the sewage be applied to the final disposal system in latermittent doses so that the system may have a chance to air out. WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 35 If the sewage is applied continuously and in such quantities that the system is kept saturated, the filter or disposal area becomes water- logged and ‘‘sewage sick”’ and ceases to be effective. It is therefore necessary that the final treatment system be of sufficient capacity to dispose of each dose of sewage quickly. DOUBLE-CHAMBER SEPTIC-TANK SYSTEMS. The septic tank for a small sewage-disposal system should ordi- narily consist of two chambers. In this type of tank the sewage is received, settled, and partially purified im one chamber and collected and discharged from asecond chamber. This type of tank if properly designed should give satisfactory operation, since the sewage in the settlmg chamber suffers little disturbance, and the discharge to the final disposal system may be made intermittent by means of an auto- matic siphon placed in the discharge chamber. DESIGN. Practice indicates that the settling chamber of a small septic tank should have a capacity of from 5 to 15 cubic feet or from 40 to 80 gallons per person in the family. Some allow an average of 10 or 11 cubic feet per person. The best results are obtained when the capacity approaches the larger limit, so that 18 to 36 hours’ sewage from the house may be held at one time, thus causing the sewage to remain in the tank and undergo sedimentation and bacterial action for this length of time. But care should be taken not to make the tank so large that liquefied sewage will remain in it more than 36 hours, for in that event putrefaction is likely to set in. For this reason one should make an accurate estimate of the daily sewage flow, which will be practically equal to the daily water consumption. Although a depth of 3 feet may be sufficient for some classes of sewage, it is better to have the depth from 4 to 8 feet, according to the number of people, in order to give the sludge a good chance to settle and liquefy. The width of the chamber may ordinarily be about one-third or one-half the length, although this may vary for economy and convenience. The width should not be less than 3 feet, however. The inlet from the house should be provided with an elbow, so that the discharge will be at least a foot below the contained sewage, thus preventing disturbance of the surface scum. The outlet from the settling chamber should be equipped in the same way. Where the entrance and discharge velocities are very strong, baffle walls of wood or concrete should be placed before these openings to break the current. These precautions are especially beneficial in the smaller- sized tanks. | 36 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The discharge chamber should be of such capacity and depth as to discharge about every 10 to 12 hours. It may be desirable to dis- charge at more or less frequent intervals, according to the nature of the soil in the disposal area, and this may be controlled by the arrangement of discharge chamber and siphon. Where little outlet fall is available it is possible to so construct the discharge chamber that its floor will be considerably above that of the settling chamber. The capacity and depth of discharge chamber and the size of siphon will depend on the number of persons served and the means of disposal. If a sand filter is used or a distribution system in heavy loam, the discharge chamber must be larger and deeper, in order that the discharge interval may be lengthened and the distribution system be given ample time to aerate. If the distribution is in sandy or very porous soil the discharge may be more frequent. . The following table of dimensions of septic tanks suggests sizes of settling and discharge chambers and the corresponding siphon sizes to apply to various average conditions. The depths of siphon cham- ber given are the minimum allowable. Dimensions of septic tanks. al | Siphon chamber. : 3 Settling chamber. Pee arae i ae at | ee an er or heavy | Sandy or porous soil GS SS \ YY I S Se DIWERTING MANHOLE. M yy RWS DISTRIBUTING i V4 TROUGH SEWER FRO/T PESIDENCE SETTLING TANA Fig. 35.—Sand filter for eight people. ity than for the double-chamber tank system, in order to prevent the continuous discharge from waterlogging the system. If a single-chamber tank is used it should be designed and con- structed on the same basis as the settling chamber of a double- chamber tank, with the elbows at inlet and outlet and baffle boards before these openings to break up the current. Figure 36 shows a single-chamber tank for a family of six. This tank has a continuous discharge, and it is necessary to use a switch or diverting gate, as shown in figure 37, so that the liquid sewage may be intermittently diverted from one part of the disposal sys- tem to another. " 44 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The disposal system should be divided into at least two divisions for intermittent application, and the capacity of the system should be 10 to 15 per cent larger than for a double-chamber tank system. The single-chamber septic tank system requires considerable at- tention, since there is no provision for automatic discharge. Fig- ures taken from the work of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station show that im the long run there is little difference in the cost of the single and double chamber tank system. ON LEVEL GROUND — fee THIS OUTLET. TOP VIEW. Fig. 36.—Single-chamber septic tank for six people. THE GREASE TRAP. The grease trap acts as a separator of the grease and sewage from the kitchen sink or dairy room. If grease is allowed to enter the sewer it accumulates and eventually clogs the system. Figure 38 shows a grease trap.! Two large, glazed sewer tiles are placed in the ground. The inlet is usually a 2-inch iron pipe. The outlet must be so arranged that the mouth of it is at all times below the surface of the sewage. The grease, being lighter, naturally floats upon the water, and is thus prevented from entering the out- let. The outlet is made of 4-inch glazed sewer tile and is connected with the sewer inlet of the septic tank. A concrete cover is provided, and grease and dirt which may accumulate are removed when necessary. 1 Wisconsin Sta. Cire. Inform. 34. WATER SUPPLY, PLUMBING, ETC., FOR COUNTRY HOMES. 45 SUGGESTION ON OPERATION. Contrary to the usual opinion, small sewage systems require some watching and care. It is well to study the system and watch the action in the entire plant for any signs of clogging or waterlogging. In this way one will soon become acquainted with the conditions of location and soil best suited to his needs and will be able to oper- ate his plant on a satisfactory basis. CAST /RON COVER. @) n eNo rn NLL IIL TTT TNT aN CAST /FON CYLINOEP? DIAIIETE Fe 12 5 PPT ILLIL LLL LLL LLL LLL ZZ LR SISYINVANS : a 38" C.1. GATE >| 8SOTTO/N PLAN. Fig. 37.—Plan and section of sewage diverting gate. CONCLUSION. It is hoped that the foregoing discussion has presented informa- tion of a nature practical enough at least to indicate the general Tequirements to be met in planning sanitary systems adapted to the average farm home. Nevertheless, should the farmer feel that, though desirable, such an installation is beyond his own skill, the matter is still of such importance as to make it advisable to amlay 46 BULLETIN 57, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a reliable pump expert, plumber, or sanitary engineer, local prices of labor and materials and other conditions permittmg. Enormous expenditures are being made by progressive cities in the installation of sanitary systems to protect the health of their people, and similar protection is surely due the country resident. It is urged, there- fore, that the questions discussed in this bulletin be considered of prime importance in planning or improving the farm home, instead © CONCRETE COVER [7] | \ S, ZAMNASIS D WSS Se WZ —] Mh resanseanaen, LE )) SA Wwe All Nj THEW) LALTITTI LITT LLL LT 7 LL SS ,, 5 SA Ly WO NS a N RAE 7 & NS = SH N , aN RK I NI -R ON N 4 aS NZ = g A SM WK S SS Z% & aN ZA Z, < SS NZ y ES Sy A oR ease ae 7 YA i “ MLS =A Al UMS GND CRE)NEWAN\e NY PSSST WY, SY EX hy 5 , m 8 y g S S| Sy IS Sy S Fic. 38.—Grease trap. of being postponed to a time when other matters do not press for attention. i No costs of material or labor have been quoted, since these will vary with time and locality. Suffice it to say, however, that noth- ing has been recommended in this bulletin which is not considered to be an economical investment for any progressive farmer. It is believed that convenience, comfort, and economy may be combined in the practical application of the suggestions made, providing com- mon sense and proper care are exercised in the installation, opera- tion, and maintenance of the conveniences. DDITIONAL COPIES of this publication - may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy BULLETIN, OF (| THE ze) USDEPARIMENT OFACRICULIURE % No. 58 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. @ February 7, 1914. FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. By W. L. McAtex, Assistant Biologist. Numerous requests for Circular No. 81, containing information on the value, appearance, distribution, and propagation of three impor- tant wild-duck foods, namely, wild rice, wild celery, and pondweeds, attest the widespread demand for knowledge about plants attractive to wild fowl. The data gathered by the Biological Survey relating to duck-food plants has been widely used by State game commissions, game protective associations, and individuals interested in the pro- tection, preservation, and propagation of our native species of ducks and geese. To make available further information of this nature the present account has been prepared, which treats of five other plants of great intrinsic value. Though at present of local importance, all of them are suitable for propagation over most of the United States, and there is no reason why they should not be introduced and take rank among the staple foods of wild ducks in many localities where now unknown. DELTA DUCK POTATO. VALUE AS DUCK FOOD. In the latter part of January and early February, 1910, the writer, under authorization of the Biological Survey, visited the Mississippi Delta, La. One of the principal objects of this trip was to find out what it is that attracts large numbers of canvasbacks to this shoal- water region, the shallow ponds and lakes of which are so different from the comparatively deep water bodies frequented by canvas- backs in the northern States. The attraction was found to be a species of Sagittaria (S. platyphylla), which is known to the hunters of this and other parts of Louisiana as wild potato or wiid onion. From an examination of a large number of stomachs it was found that about 70 per cent of the food of the canvasbacks collected consisted _ of the tubers of this plant, as did also more than 65 per cent of the food of the mallards. The pintail also was found to feed upon the tubers. The gullet of one canvasback was filled to the throat with the duck potatoes, 24 entire ones being present, besides ground-up remains of several others. Other individuals had 14 to 17 of the tubers in their gullets. There is no doubt that Sagittaria platyphylla is an impor- 19610°—Bull. 58—14—1 | 2 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tant food for the larger species of ducks not only in the Mississippi Delta but throughout the whole range of the plant. . DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. The Delta duck potato (fig. 1) when well developed stands about 18 inches above the soil. The broadly elliptical leaves have a char-_ Fic. 1.—Delta duck potato. (Scale is 18 inches long.) acteristic firm appearance and a beautiful clear green color. Like all plants of its genus, this species produces the flowering peduncles | from about the center of the group of leafstalks; these peduncles bear FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 3 flowers in whorls of three, and the mdividual flowers each have three white petals and a yellow center. The petals soon fall and the small green balls of immature seeds remain. These enlarge during the summer, and when ripe are brown and nearly half an inch in diameter. They are easily crushed, separating into hundreds of thin triangular seeds. ; The tubers are of irregular globular shape and vary up to an inch in diameter. They are formed at the ends of runners (thicker than the roots) and bear on the side opposite the attachment to the runner a scale-sheathed bud which may be an inch or more in length. Run- Fig. 2.—Tubers of the delta duck potato. (About two-thirds natural size.) ning around the body of the tuber are two or three darker lines from which originate fibrous sheaths. A glance at the-illustration of the tubers (fig. 2) of this species shows the aptness of the name wild potato. It should be explained, however, that normally the tubers would be more widely separated than is the case with those on this particular specimen, which was grown in a flower pot. DISTRIBUTION. In ancient times the Mississippi River emptied into a vast bay which extended at least as far north as the region now known as 4 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. southern Illinois. Its actively growing delta (which is still apparently in full vigor) made thick deposits of silt over some thousands of square miles of this area while the remainder was being slowly ele- vated. Sagittaria platyphylla is so nearly confined in its distribution to this ancient basin, and is so characteristic of the present delta, that the name delta duck potato is eminently fitting. The outlying points of the range of the plant as now known are San Antonio, Tex., Lake City, Mo., Chattanooga, Tenn., and Mobile, Ala. (See fig. 3.) PROPAGATION. The delta duck potato undoubtedly can be propagated from seed, but all things considered, transplanting the tubers is probably much the better method. This insures a large percentage of success, the Fig. 3.—Range of the delta duck potato. plants will be larger, and as they will produce other tubers the first year they are much more valuable. Extraordinary precautions to prevent drying are not necessary, but the tubers should be kept cool and well exposed to the air to prevent heating or fermentation. To plant, embed the tubers in mud bottom where the water is not more than a foot deep, preferably not more than 6 inches. Itis better to err on the shallow side. The plant will grow thriftily on soil never covered by water but which has plenty of moisture. In such situa- tions, however, the tubers are not available to ducks unless over- flowed in winter. The delta duck potato is not injured by a slight amount of salt in the soil. The plant is probably hardy anywhere in the southern half of the United States and may prove to be so farther north. FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS, 5 WAPATO. VALUE AS DUCK FOOD. The tubers of wapato (Sagittaria latifolia and Sagittaria arifolia) have been known to white men as an important food for wild fowl since the time of the Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804-1806. These famous explorers state that in the Columbia River Valley large num- bers of ducks, geese, and swans occur where this plant is abundant and that the swans in particular feed extensively upon the plant. A corre- spondent of the Survey, George W. Russell, of Gaston, Oreg., writes that the wapato is fed upon most by the diving ducks, as the canyasback, redhead, and bluebills (scaups), and that they seek it whenever they are present in the country where it grows. Prof. David Dale Owen in his report of a geological survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minnesota notes that these tubers afford much nourishment to the larger aquatic fowls. The vernacu- lar names swan potato and duck potato that have been applied to these plants give further evidence of their value to wild fowl. Other local thames are swamp potato, muskrat potato, Chinese onion, andwater nut. The Biological Survey has found various parts of Sagittaria plants in stomachs of the following species of waterfowl: Mallard, widgeon, green-winged teal, blue-winged teal, spoonbill, pintail, canvasback, little bluebill, ruddy duck, Canada goose, and whooping swan. Fig. 4.—Young eastern plant of the wapato with sin- gle tuber. (Two-thirds natural size.) DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. The general relations of the stems, flowers, and tubers are the same in the wapato (fig. 4) as in the delta duck potato. The shape of the leaves, however, is entirely different. Both S. latifolia and S. arifolia have arrowhead-shaped leaves. These vary greatly in the length, width, and shape of the point and barbs and in the degree of 6 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. divergence of the latter. Various forms of leaves are illustrated by figure 5. The wapato plant sometimes reaches a height of 4 feet. The appearance of the flowers and seed balls is much the same as in the delta duck potato. : The tubers of S. latifolia (fig. 6), from six to nine in number per plant, are formed on runners in the same manner as those of the delta duck potato, but they attain a much larger size.. The largest speci- men examined by the writer is 2 inches in its longest diameter and 1 inch thick. Including the bud and ashort stalk at the base, the entire tuber may measure as much as 5 inches in length. The mature tubers of plants from the northwest are more or less flattened, the shape being comparable to that of the ordinary edible crab. The smaller tubers are more nearly spherical (varying to ovoid), and this is the shape of even the largest tubers of eastern plants that the writer has seen. The sheaths of the tuber being of a darker color than the body are conspicuous. AbAM Fig. 5.—Various shapes of wapato leaves. (About one-tenth natural size.) DISTRIBUTION. Sagittaria latifolia is found from the Altantic to the Pacific coast, its range covering practically the whole United States. Areas from which it apparently has not been reported are peninsular Florida, the southern two-thirds of Louisiana and Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern California. The northern limit of its range is marked by the following localities: Vancouver Island, Saskatchewan River, and southern Ontario and Quebec. Sagittaria arifolia is confined to States from Michigan and Kansas westward. Its range is largely included in that of latifolia, although it has been collected in New Mexico. The two species are only distinguishable with certainty upon the basis of mature seeds, and for all practical purposes may be considered as one. (See fig. 7.) PROPAGATION. Wapato may be transplanted by means of both seeds and tubers, but the latter are the most reliable and give the quickest results. They may be set with the bud just beneath the surface in mud bottom under a foot, or preferably less, of water. The plants will grow in FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 7 wet soil, but the tubers are not available for duck food in such places unless overflowed in fall and winter. The tubers of this plant are known to retain their vitality when dried, but more uniform success will probably be had if drying is not Fig. 6.—Wapato tubers. (About two-thirds natural size.) carried to an extreme. We recommend that the tubers be shipped promptly after gathering, in well ventilated packages, and that they be planted immediately upon receipt. Wapato is suitable for culti- vation in practically all parts of the United States. ae —_ : 8 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHUFA. VALUE AS DUCK FOOD. Like some of the other duck foods mentioned in this circular, chufas are at present known to be of only local importance. Those best ac- quainted with conditions at Big Lake, Ark., one of the most famous ~ hunting grounds of the South, believe that the chufa, or nut grass, as itis there called, is the principal element in rendering that lake so attractive to waterfowl. Examination of stomachs from that local- ity seems to justify this belief. Six out of a series of nine mal- lards collected at Big Lake in December, 1910, had fed on sedge tubers, the average percentage of which in the total food of the nine 2 eo 35" 130° 125° 120" ise Le = 90° 80° joa 60° aX 45° — = 50 IE NNR, heen | TS LN OS Wien’ ‘ ¢ ELLIE MASS LIE ECS WHALE LEI Fic. 7.—Range of the wapato. was 56. Tubers of this species or others of its genus have been found also in duck stomachs from Florida, Ilinois, Minnesota, and California. The species of ducks now known to feed on chufas are the wood duck, mottled duck, mallard, and canvasback. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. The chufa (Cyperus esculentus) (fig. 8) belongs to the group of plants known as sedges. These are grass-like and usually classed with the grasses by nonbotanists. Many of the sedges, however, including the chufa, have triangular, not round, stalks. The members of the genus Cyperus have a group of leaves at the base from which rises the stalk bearing the flowers and seeds. In the chufa these stalks are from 1 to 3 feet high. Several flower clusters on peduncles of FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 9 varying length rise from the top of the stalk. I’rom the same point three rather long grass-like leaves project below the fruiting clusters. Many members of the genus have a very similar appearance and it is not expected that nonbotanical observers can distinguish them. This is unnecessary, however, as tubers of the chufa for Fic. 8.—Seed-hearing and immature plants of the chufa. (Much reduced.) propagation may be obtained from most seedsmen. The tubers of the chufa are formed at the ends of scale-covered rootstocks. The plant is extremely prolific, cultivated forms usually producing 100 tubers to the plant, and instances are known in which more than 600 tubers were produced in one season from one tuber planted in the spring. 19610°—Bull. 58—14——2 10 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Well-developed tubers of the cultivated variety average about three-fourths of an inch in length by three-eighths of an inch in diameter when dried. Tubers from wild plants are usually much smaller and have a greater proportion of fiber. The general appear- ance of chufas and of tubers from a wild sedge are well shown by figure 9. Chufas are known also by the vernacular names, earth almonds and ground nuts, and the plant as nut grass and cache-cache. Fic. 9.—Tubers of wild Cyperus and cultivated chufas. (Natural size.) DISTRIBUTION. The northern boundary of the natural range of the chufa is marked by the following localities: Southern New Brunswick, southern Ontario, northern Nebraska, New Mexico, Arizona, and the Columbia River Valley. The plant seems to be absent from most of the Great Basin and Rocky Mountain regions. From the northern line specified the plant ranges southward over the remainder of the continent. (See fig. 10.) It is widely distributed in warm climates over the entire world. FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. fat PROPAGATION. Although the chufa seems not to grow naturally in a large area in the western United States, there is no doubt that it can be cultivated everywhere except in the higher parts of the Rocky Mountain region. It is said to do fairly well at the altitude of Denver. Chufas can be obtained from most seedsmen and are so cheap that it will pay sportsmen to buy new stock every few years, if earlier plantings show degeneration in size of the tubers and hence reduction in value as duck food. Chufas do best on light or somewhat sandy but rich soils. They are only available for duck food when planted oO (OL eeTS UIT: IS SN hl Noo \ SASK ASRS Ae J ‘ Fic. 10.—Range of the chufa. on land dry in summer and overflowed in winter. In the open they should be planted thickly so as to give the plants a better chance in competition with weeds. In timbered land they need not be planted so thickly, but they will do well only in rather sparse growths, where considerable light penetrates to the ground. When possible the land where planting is intended should be broken up and freed from weeds. Plant the tubers just beneath the surface in spring. WILD MILLET. VALUE AS DUCK FOOD. Wild millet (Echinochloa crus-galli) is an important food for ducks in widely separated regions of the United States. At Mud Lake, 12 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ark., the writer found seeds of this plant to constitute more than 10 per cent of the food of the 41 mallards collected; at Belle Isle, La., it made up more than half of the food of the few mallards examined, and at Cameron, La., over 75 per cent of the diet of a collection of 50 ducks of the same species. Pintails, teal, and other shoal- water ducks are almost equally fond of it. Geese eat the stems and leaves of the plant, as also do ducks when they are hard pressed. Testimony as to the value of the plant has come from Wisconsin and Oregon, and the Biological Survey has found seeds of wild millet in duck stomachs from Massachusetts, South Dakota, Missouri, and Nebraska in addition to the States above mentioned. The plant is popularly known throughout lower Louisiana as wild rice and is given about the same rank as a duck food as the plant (Zizania aquatica) known by that name in the north: Other popular names referring to the preference of wild fowl for the plant are goose grass and blue vine food. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. Wild millet is a coarse, leafy grass which grows from 1 to 6 feet in height. The stems and foliage are not especially remarkable, but the fruiting head has characters which enable us easily to distinguish this from other species of native grasses. The chaff or outer seed coverings is set with rows of short, stiff, outstanding spines. These project beyond the general outline of the body of the seeds and give them an easily visible spiny appearance (fig. 11). The inner scale of the chaff terminates in a spme which is always stouter and longer than the others. This spine or awn may be very short or it may be from 2 to 3 inches Jong or more, surpassing by many times the length of the seed. One of the oie scales also may bear a long spine at the tip. The prickly character of the seed coverings is referred to in the name cockspur grass. The longer awns in particular and sometimes the whole fruiting heads may have a deep purplish color. This, no doubt, suggested the name blue duck food used in the Mississippi Delta. The long-awned form has been given the varietal name longearistata but for present purposes we may consider all the types illustrated in figures 11 and 12 under the same name. Itis probable also that the form named Lchinochloa walteri is fully connected with crus-gall, by intergrades, and deserves only varietalrank. This form has the lower or all leaf sheaths rough hispid. DISTRIBUTION. The northern limit of the range of wild millet so far as known to us does not much surpass the latitude of the northern boundary of the United States. From there the plant ranges indefinitely to the southward, occurring generally in rich moist soils or swamps at least to Central America. FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 13 Fic. 11.—Part of fruiting head of wild millet. (Natural size.) 14 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PROPAGATION. Wild millet is easily cultivated and reseeds itself. It requires a moist and preferably a rich soil, such as the edge of a marsh or lake, and it will grow in water at least a foot in depth. Break up the soil (mainly for the purpose of discouraging other plant growth) and sow thickly in spring. Once established, the plant will take care of itself. The nearer to water it is planted the more available it will be for duck food. It is a splendid plant to use for low lands that are flooded in winter. The seeds are sold by most seedsmen under the name barnyard grass. A variety has been widely advertised as Japanese barnyard Fic. 12.—Fruiting heads of wild millet. (One-third natural size.) millet or bilion-dollar grass. The plant is also known as cockspur grass and sour grass. It may be cultivated in any part of the United States having the proper soil conditions. BANANA WATER LILY. VALUE AS DUCK FOOD. The writer has investigated the value of the banana water lily (Nymphea mexicana) as a food for wild ducks in only one locality— Lake Surprise, Tex. The proofs of its importance are so great, how- ever, that they should be brought to the attention of American sportsmen. At Lake Surprise the banana water lily alone made up FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 15 nearly half of the entire food of the 10 vegetarian species of ducks occurring there at the time. This showing is much more significant from the fact that sago pond weed (Potamogeton pectinatus) also was abundant in the lake. The latter plant, in the writer’s opinion, is the best all-round duck food + in North America, yet at Lake Surprise it furnished somewhat less than 29 per cent of the food of the ducks in comparison with more than 48 per cent supphed by Nymphea mexicana. Thirty-seven canvasbacks collected at Lake Surprise had eaten various parts of this plant to the extent of 71.6 per cent of their diet. This is a second illustration of the unusual phenomenon of the canvas- back’s being attracted to shallow water by a highly prized food. Six ring-necked ducks or blackjacks made more than 91 per cent of their food of this plant, and two southern black ducks (Anas ful- vigula) 98 per cent. The parts eaten are the rootstocks, stolons, tubers, and seeds. Mr. Charles W. Ward has sent us rootstocks of Nymphxa mexicana from Avery Island, La., with the information that this plant and wild celery (Vallusneria spiralis) furnish the bulk of the food of canvasbacks in that locality. DESCRIPTION OF PLANT. For the purposes of field identification the water lies of the United States may be divided primarily into two groups according to the shape of the leaf. Two genera, the water shield (Brasenia)? and the American lotus, or water chinkapin (Nelwmbo),? have entire circular leaves with the leaf stalks attached at their centers. The remaining two genera have more or less heart-shaped leaves or a circular or oval leaf with a cleft or sinus from the edge to the point of attachment of the leaf stalk. Of these two genera, one (Nuphar),? including the spatterdocks or toad lilies, has the top or more of the ovary plainly visible when in flower, the other has the ovary practi- cally hidden by the very numerous stamens. To this last group belongs Nymphza mexicana, and it is the only native species of the genus that has yellow flowers. Both the leaves and flowers of this species may either float on the surface of the water or stand a few inches above it. The leaves are ereen above with brown mottlings and vary from greenish to purplish red below with small black markings. The edges of the cleft of the leaf are either somewhat separated or overlapping (fig. 13). The plant springs from an upright rootstock (fig. 14) which bears some resemblance to an unopened pine cone. The rootstocks vary in size up to 2 inches in thickness and 12 inches in length. The smaller ones (at least up to 1? inches in length. by three-fourths of an inch in thickness) are swallowed by ducks. _1See Biological Survey Circular 81, pp. 11-17, for full account. 2 The seeds, at least, of all these plants are eaten by many kinds of ducks. 16 BULLETIN 58, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tender white stolons or runners extend in various directions from the rootstock. These runners are from a quarter to half an inch in diameter. During the active growing season they give rise to new plants, but in autumn they form peculiar hibernating bodies. These consist of the short modified tip of the stolon, which bears several. (1-7) upwardly-directed buds on one side and a cluster (2-17) of thick tuberlike roots on the other. The appearance of these (fig. 15) is strongly suggestive of a miniature “hand” of bananas, and for this reason the name banana water lily is proposed for this plant, which Fic. 13.—T wo types of leaves of the banana water lily. (The larger outline half natural size.) at present has no distinctive vernacular appellation. The name has the additional merit of suggesting the yellow color of the tubers and of the flowers. DISTRIBUTION. The banana water lily has been known chiefly as a native of Florida and the plants of that State have long gone under the name Nym- phea flava. Plants identified from a few localities in Mexico and from Brownsville, Tex., have been called N. mexicana. Dr. H. S. Conard, who has monographed the genus,' unites these species, as he 1 Publication No. 4, Carnegie Institution, 1905. FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK Fic, 14.—Small rootstocks of the banana water lily. FOODS. (Natural size.) 1 18 BULLETIN 58, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is fully justified in doing on the basis of their possession in common of characters unique among water lilies. The new records of the plant from Galveston, Tex., and Avery Island, La., go far toward bridging Fic. 15,—Hibernating bodies of the banana water lily. (Two-thirds natural size.) the previous apparent gap in distribution of the plant and to cor- roborating Dr. Conard’s views. The accompanying map (fig. 16) shows the probable natural range of the species. Fic. 16.—Range of the banana water lily. PROPAGATION. Although the banana water lily is native to only a small portion of the United States, it can be successfully grown over practically the whole country. The plant has long been familiar in cultivation and is sold by most dealers in ornamental aquatics. The water lily expert of one of the largest firms in the United States has informed us that FIVE IMPORTANT WILD-DUCK FOODS. 19 Nymphexa mexicana is perfectly hardy: as far north as New York City when covered with a foot of water and he believes that if covered with 2 feet of water it would be hardy at Boston. The banana water lily needs an abundance of sunlight, water from ‘1 to 3 feet deep,! and a mud bottom. It is not injured by a trace of salt, as is shown by its growing in lakes very near the coast The rootstocks may be planted by weighting them with stones and drop- ping where desired. They have great vitality; they may be shipped with only moderate precautions to prevent them from drying, and may be transplanted at almost any time of the year. 1 When established it will spread to places where the water is even 5 feet deep. [OEE Os COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing . Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1914 Se A BULLETIN OF THE > ))USDEDARINENTOFARICUTRE 4 No. 59 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. January 19, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. By A. C. Morean and §S. E. Crums, Of Southern Field Crop Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The following account of the tobacco splitworm (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller), although not complete, contains data not hereto- fore published. The life history notes, description of stages, etc., were made by the junior writer. Credit is due the senior writer for the observations made in Florida and for the recommendations under the heading: ‘‘ Remedial measures.’ In California this insect is a serious potato pest, and Dr. F. H. Chittenden + reports that m 1912 two growers at El Monte, Cal., lost $90,000 and $70,000, respectively, on the crop of that year. Although quite generally distributed over the Southern States, this insect has caused serious loss to tobacco growers in only one locality, viz., Dade City, Fla. The injury at that place was severe in 1906, more severe in 1907, and culminated in 1908 in a conservatively estimated loss of $150 per acre—a loss totaling $12,000 for the 80 acres of shade-grown tobacco. The injury since 1908 has been very light, due in part to the early planting and in part to the very, careful and very thor ough remedial measures employed. The variation in food habits, which is noted later, had created the suspicion that the form online upon potatoes might be specifically distinct from the one attacking tobacco. During the summer of 1913 experiments were conducted to determine this point. EXPERIMENTS ON THE SPECIFIC STATUS OF THE TWO FORMS. The potato-tuber moths used in these experiments. were of the habitual potato-feeding type from Whittier, Cal., kindly furnished by Mr. J. E. Graf. The splitworm moths were of the habitual tobacco-feeding type from Florida, North Carolina, and Virginia. 1 Chittenden, F. H., 1912. The potato-tuber moth. A preliminary account. (Phthorimaea operculella Zell.). U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Cire. 162, p. 2. Chittenden, F. H., 1913. The potato-tuber moth. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 557, p. 2. ; 19794°—14 1 2 BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Larve of the potato-tuber moth were reared on potato tubers and on the foliage of Solanum carolinense, eggplant, Physalis sp., Datura stramonium (‘“jimsonweed’’), and tobacco; they also mined the leaves of Solanum nigrum until the plant died. Larve of the tobacco splitworm moth were reared on’ potato tubers and on the foliage of Solanum carolinense, eggplant, Physalis sp., Physalodes physalodes, Datura stramonium, and tobacco. There was no per- ceptible difference in the period of development, in habits, or in behavior of the two forms on a given food plant that could be ascribed to the different origins of the individuals. A male potato-tuber moth of the habitual potato-feeding type and a female splitworm moth of the habitual tobacco-feeding type, reared from isolated pupz and caged together, produced larve that reached matu-ity upon tobacco. The earliest stages of the two types show no appreciable differences except in the case of the larva, and here the differences, excepting size, are entirely colorational. The larva on potato is larger, grayish, and has the mesothorax and metathorax pinkish, while the habitual tobacco feeder is green and has the mesothorax and metathorax deep maroon. By reversing the two food plants the larve can be made to approach each other in coloration, but even after two generations on tobacco the habitual potato feeder is less green and has the thorax distinctly paler than the habitual tobacco feeder; also, the coloration of the latter type persists when reared upon potato tubers. The larve of the crossed moths were intermediate in coloration between the two types just discussed. The rather persistent color variation noted in the two larval types under discussion, while probably of sufficient constancy to warrant a varietal separation, is not, the writers believe, of sufficient mmpor- tance to justify a specific separation. Potato-tuber moths reared from potato are usually somewhat larger than splitworm moths reared from tobacco. This difference disappears when the potato-tuber moth is reared on other plants. Potato-tuber moths reared from potato tubers, Physalis sp., Solanum carolinense, tobacco, and Datura stramonium, and splitworm moths reared from tobacco, potato tubers, and Physalis sp., were submitted to Mr. August Busck, who reported that he could find no _ specific differences. DISTRIBUTION. In the United States the species occurs in California and southward from a line connecting the District of Columbia and Colorado. The definite localities include Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, and Texas. Reports of more northern occurrence are probably due to the shipment of infested potatoes into these THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. 3 localities. The known range also includes Cuba, Costa Rica, Peru, Hawaii, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Sumatra, Transvaal, Algeria, and southern Europe. COMMON NAMES. Phthorwmaea operculella when working upon tobacco is known as the tobacco splitworm and the tobacco leaf-miner; when working upon potatoes it is known as the potato-tuber moth and the potato moth. FOOD PLANTS. The known food plants of Phthorimaea operculella include Solanum torvum, S. verbaserfolium, S. carolinense, S. nigrum(*), eggplant, potato, tomato, Physalis peruviana, Physalis sp., Physalodes physa- lodes, Datura stramonium, and tobacco. — FOOD HABITS. The larva occurs as a borer and also as a leaf-miner. The former is probably the original habit, examples of which have been ob- served by Quaintance in the fruit of eggplant, by Kotinsky in toma- toes, and by C. W. Howard and Oliff in the stems of tobacco. Dr. L. R. De Bussy considers this the more common form of injury to tobacco in Sumatra, where the larva forms a gall in the stem. C. W. Howard reports a similar habit of the larva in the Transvaal.' In Cuba and the United States the insect is known on tobacco as a leaf-miner only. A boring tendency is still apparent, however, as noted by Houser, in that the larva usually tunnels the midrib or a vein in addition to mining the membrane of the leaf. In about 50 mines examined by us the larva had also tunneled the midrib or a vein in almost every case. Only the older tobacco leaves are affected, unless the infestation is very severe; and in these, the lower leaves, grayish, irregular blotches are produced, which later turn brown and become fragile, so that the tobacco is unfit for wrappers. At Clarksville, Tenn., where the infestation is very shght, the larva in most cases begins work in the “ruffles” along the midrib and may afterward migrate and form mines in various parts of the leaf. In forming its mine the larva begins by spinning a tent of silk between the midrib, or between the vein and the surface of the leaf. Under this protection it soon forms a shelter between the leaf sur- faces by consuming the parenchyma. The mined leaf becomes more or less distorted, and this is especially noticeable on leaves, 1Gnorimoschema heliopa Low causes similar injury to tobacco in India, Ceylon, and Java. 4 BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. such as those of Solanum carolinense, which the larva is more cap- able of manipulating, but there is no tendency to form a firm, cylin- drical, silk-lned tube, as is the case with the blue or bluish-green larva of Phthorimaea glochinella Zell., which feeds upon some of the same plants as does Phthorimaea operculella. DESCRIPTION OF STAGES. THE EGG..- The egg is pale, translucent, yellowish gray, and strongly irides- cent; it is oval, 0.45 mm. long, 0.35 mm. broad at the middle, mem- branous, and without apparent sculpture. The side upon which it is deposited is slightly flattened. THE LARVA. The full-grown larva is 7 to 14 mm. long. The head shield is 0.80 to 0.86 mm. broad and fuscous brown. The cervical shield is darker brownish fuscous, with a pale mid-dorsal line, shining, the posterior margin medially straight. The anal shield is brown. The mesothorax and metathorax are deep maroon. The body varies in color through green and gray and is overlaid dorsally with purplish as the larva nears pupation. It is slender, tapering from the meso- thorax posteriorly and set closely and uniformly with minute gran- ules each bearing a minute point, the granules of the thorax and the last abdominal segment being the larger. The tubercles and their sete are inconspicuous, brownish; tubercle HH is slightly larger than I. The legs are deep fuscous; the prolegs, green. The larva which has just emerged is light grayish, with strongly contrasting dark head and cervical shield. Larve which have been reared habitually upon potatoes are of a larger average size than those reared upon tobacco, and the maxi- mums of the foregoing measurements are from potato-feeding larve. The larva on potato is more grayish on the body than the tobacco miner and has the mesothorax and metathorax pinkish instead of deep maroon. THE PUPA. The pupa is yellowish brown, 5.5 to 7 mm. long and 1.5 to 2 mm. broad; it is broadest through the metathorax, tapering both ante- riorly and posteriorly. The head is rather distinct and slightly nod- ding. The abdomen, excepting the last three segments, is set with very minute spinules; it bears at the tip mid-dorsally a short, curved, erect, pointed horn flanked by about four pairs of long hooked spinules, and ventrally a pair of blunt, rounded lobes beneath which are about four pairs of long hooked spinules. Each abdominal seg- ment is set with a transverse row of spinules near the anterior margin. THE TOBACCO SPLITWORM. 5 As in the case of the larve, the pupz of the habitual potato feeder are larger than those from the habitual tobacco feeder and the maximum measurements in the foregoing description are from potato-reared pupe. The adult is a slender, inconspicuous moth with dark grayish wings bearing indefinite yellowish streaks and having an expanse of about 20 mm. LIFE HISTORY. At Clarksville, Tenn., the spitworm requires 25 to 30 days in sum- mer for completing its development from egg to adult. _ Of this time 4 days are spent in the egg stage, 15 to 17 days in the larval stage, and 6 to 9 days in the pupal stage. The length of these stages is consid- erably affected by temperature, as is indicated in detail in the accom- panying tables. By reference to Table III we see that at an average mean temperature of about 81° to 82° F. the minimum pupal period is obtained, and that when the average mean temperature falls below about 68° to 70° F. the pupal period is very greatly lengthened. Eggs are deposited singly upon the foliage of the host plant. Moths begin to oviposit two or three days after emergence and con- tinue ovipositing for several nights. The largest number of eggs obtained from a single moth was 46, but this probably does not represent the maximum oviposition under normal conditions. The larva is very active, is capable of prolonged exertion imme- diately after hatching, and clings very tenaciously to the foliage. The frass is either stored in a particular part of the mine or is cast outside where, in the case of those working upon potato tubers, it forms masses held together by silk. The larva pupates in a slight but somewhat tough cocoon of silk and débris among clods or rubbish at or near the surface of the soil. TaBLE I.—Length of egg stage of tobacco splitworm. Average Eggs deposited | Eggs hatched | Egg mean night of— night of— stage. | tempera- ture. Days. |. ° F. June 15,1910 | June 19,1910 4 77.3 June 17,1910 | June 21,1910 4 79.5 June 22,1910 | June 27,1910 5 80.5 July 3,1913 | July 77,1913 4 82 July 3,1913 | July 7,1913 4 82 July 4,1913 | July 8,1913 4 80.9 July 5,1913 | July 49,1913 4 79.7 Aug. 5,1913 | Aug. 8, 1913 3 88.6 Aug. 6,1913 |1Aug. 10,1913 3h 88 Aug. 21,1913 | Aug. 25,1913 4 72.6 Sept. 11,1913 | Sept. 15,1913 4 81.9 Sept. 12,1913 | Sept. 16,1913 4 82.4 1 Forenoon. BULLETIN 59, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE II.—Length of larval stage of tobacco splitworm. ps die Average Egg hatched Ayr a Mt Larval | mean Food night of—. pe aay stage. | tempera- plant. ture. Days. SoH June 21,1910 | July 6,1910 15 78.7 | Tobacco July 9,1913 | July 25,1913 16 81.1] Do. Aug. 25,1913 | Sept. 10,1913 16 S182) Dos Aug. 25,1913 | Sept. 11,1913 17 81.1 Do. Sept. 27,1911 | Nov. 3,1913 37 64.4 Do. | The lengths of the larval stage given above are corroborated by about 25 records giving the combined length of the larval and pupal stages. Tasie II].—Lengqth of pupal staae of the tobacco splitworm. Number Average QanaGhe Larva pupated}| Moth emerged} Pupal| mean Food plant of “s 2 night of — night of — | stage. | tempera- larva. viduals. t ure. : Days. eel 2 | Apr. 21,1909 | May 14,1909 | 23 65.1 | Tobacco. 4 May 22,1910 | June 5,1910! 14 67— Do. 1 | July 6,1910 | July 14,1910 8 83.3 Do. 1 | July 25,1913 | Aug. 1,1913] 7 85.1 13 | Aug. 19,1913 | Aug. 28,1913] 9 77.1 | Potato. 1 Uae ee GOlssae =, sca , f ‘ | ; hy c i” 4} iT td) ou \ hay “Wig bP , BULLETIN OF THE {> USDEDARIMENT OFACRICULTURE “a No. 61 Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief. June 30, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREATZBASIN REGION.'* By G. J. Youna. GEOCHEMICAL CONDITIONS. INTRODUCTION. The area under consideration in this bulletin embraces practically the entire State of Nevada, the southern part of Oregon, the western part of Utah, and certain sections of eastern and southeastern California. It is confined on the north by the watershed of the Columbia, Snake, and Klamath Rivers, on the south and southeast by the Colorado River, on the west by the Sierra Nevada, on the east by the Wasatch Moun- tains, and on the southwest by the mountains bordering on the Mojave Desert. It includes the drainage of the Humboldt, Truckee, Carson, Walker, Quinn, Bear, Weber, Jordan, Salt, Sevier, Beaver, Amargosa, Mojave, and Owens Rivers and their tributaries, besides numerous smaller creeksand streams. It isconsidered as a unit because it has no surface drainage to the sea. Climatologically, it is a part of the arid region of the West. The total area is estimated at between 208,500 and 210,000 square miles. The term ““Great Basin” has received such widespread use and acceptance that we may consider the designation fixed, although it must not be considered as a single basin, but rather as a series of individual basins separated by mountain ranges. These basins are roughly of north-and-south trend. Five major systems may be separated and desig- nated as the Bonneville; the Lahontan; the Amargosa and Death Valley; the Owens, Searles, and Panamint system; and the Oregon Lake system. Of the other lake basins not included in these systems the following may be named: Rhodes Marsh, Teels Marsh, Columbus and Fish Lake Valley, Clayton Valley, ‘Alkali Lake (Paradise Val- ley, Cal.), Big Smoky Valley, White River, Mono, Saline Valley, Ivanpah, Bristol, Cadiz, and Danby. A complete list of the individual basins making up the Great Basin has been prepared by E. E. Free, and the following table is taken from his ae (The Present and Past Topography of the Undrained Areas of the United States): Basin. Description. Area. Basin. Description. Area. Square \ Square miles. : miles. To eilaveraly ewe) = eee Wk en eet ep 47,600 || Humboldt-Carson.-| Part of Lahontan...| 27,575 Blacks Rocks <2: -- Partof Lahontan= oie 105500) Hemleym sass 22 sels ee GOr ee oeetes 215 LEG viea hye ee Se ie een Oise pepe ieee 445 || Allan Springs_.......|..-.-. COs Beet ase 235 Gr AMILe) SEIN esau |e ne AO see ere 890 || Sand Springs......- Sioslen 6 LO eeeseies sais ae 200 LIVE OF ree Be Te a ies CORE SEL eye 340 || Buena Vista........ Part of Humboidt 4,000 LOMO putes! \5 122. Se a 32 GORA 270 drainage. Honey Lake........|...-- OS Seg ne a gn 2,660 || Buffalo Springs.....]....- Gone seo ah sis 500 PHC HCG ws fp ke San C6 Koya ar 2U9 75. \\) GDSOMier : ease eee ee ee GOS pee sees 1,150 , Lemmon Valley....|-.-..- ORE ae een mae 90 || Clover (snow water) |... .- do. See aa 1,075 Warm Springs......|..... GO Ea SS) CUTS 201! | WHA C ras Seer ae Part of Lahontan...| 3,850 * This bulletin embodies the results of investigations carried on in cooperation with the United States feological Survey and the Mackay School of Mines, Reno, Ney., with a view to determining the existence _ “or nonexistence of sources of potash salts in the basin region. ai BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 Basin. Description. Bonneville. ........ Once tributary to Z Columbia River. Stepioc. .2..-e=s-~. Part of Bonneville. . LT ges = seas seyan Banas Ono ens a Nase Butte WVallpys.2ccssi=s55= GGor en scceostmes Murray..-2::-...-2/ 4222.2 dozen ss- aeeet White Valley....-..|..-.- MOvinskisssceccoe Rush Valley........|.-..- de pid ccaneecebe HevViels...- = -cs2s0--|22---00-..- a -s-cscee Christmas Lake. ... Probably landlocked Silver Lake......... Part of Christmas Lake Basin. Chewaucan........- Landlocked ......... Summer Lake...... (Abert Lake). Part of Chewaucan asin Alkali Lake.......-. -Landlocked......... Warner) 22.-4-22-—-}oec5= doo 53-5 a eeee Harmnoyses 7-5 ace Tributary to Colum- bia River. Watlow =~ -2-==----- Probably tributary to Harney. GHANO! een sete Probably tributary to Catlow. DUTPTISe <2. --s-<5-- Landlocked (maxi- mum area). Long Valley.....-.-- Probably tributary to Surprise. Prick.4at-= 2-223. Tributary to Sur- Klamath Lakes..... Dixie Valley. --..-.-. WATEVIOW 2.25 a/.=<\= 22 Edward’s Creek.... Gabbs Valley....... MACHO. is 3o5. cco MINS oo cect esses Clayion':-o2se-psn-= Big Smoky......-.- Smiths Creek....... Kempston ios sjecae Goldfield........... Diamond yee Railroad Valley. .. KawWiICOs 222 5c acose The areas given 1n this table are understood to be approximate. prise. Probably landlocked TUNA to Alvord. Provably landlocked Tributary to Pitt River. ~ Tributary to Kla- math River. Probably tributary to Walker. Probably tributary to puedes: Probably landlocked (maximum area). Probably landlocked Landlocked ......... Landlocked (includ- ing Big Smoky). Landlocked ......... Probably tributary to Columbus. Probably tributary to Big Smoky. Tributary to Big Smoky Probably landlocked Teapot (maxi- mum area). Probably tributary to Railroad. Area. Square miles. 57, 960 6, 590 1, 200 Basin. Description. Area. Square miles. Penoyers.. cee oeeee Probably tributary 1,000 to Railroad. Gold Plat... 22422 Probably landlocked 640. Mimiprant. ssa pee Probably landlocked} 1,000 (maximum area). WAU COS 2s eee sees Probably tributary 300 to Frenchman Flat. Frenchman Flat....| Probably landlocked 740 Indian Spring...... Tributary to Colo- 650 rado River. Pint Water .-2-e|secee Oey setae sae: 730 Lee Canyon........|..... GO} Se paseeces cnc 300 Sheep Range.......| Probably landlocked 300 Spring Valley. -....| Doubtful._.......... 1,550 Gannetts/..eess-oe Tributary to Colo- 150 rado River. Opal Mountain..... Probably landlocked 580 Mono. 232-2 sesceates Landlocked ...---..-..- 770 AUT OL alse cee ee nee Part of Mono.....-.-. 100 OWwensee eee eseeeoee Once tributary to 2, 825 Searles. Searles. jie 5o sees Almost always land- 4, 850 locked (maximum area). Panamint.........- Landlocked (area 1,950 does not include Searles or Owens). Saline Valley......-. Landlocked........- 825 Eureka Valley...... Probably landlocked 550 Deep Springs Landlocked........- 190 Kamien = seen Be Probably landlocked 900 Willard#22. Aves | |e on sees ues eee 250 ee am Mountains -|..... do EE ea Seine oe 150 sc smebiiy siid= teen | Rtas OO. Qoeae semadeers 60 Death Valley....... Tandtoceed (includ-| 23,160 ing Mojave and Amargosa). Ralston ss see Part of Amargosa 1, 756 drainage stonewall lates. c| see eOO- ee ae eee 343 Sarcobatus Blat- 2. |. Soeidossse 5. see eee 755 Pahrump Valley. ..| Tributary to Amar- 1, 400 ee (maximum Mesquite Valley....| Probably tributary 350 to the Amargosa. Soda Lake.......... Part of Mojave |........ drainage. Rodriguez Lake.-...}....- GOMER eae seca saliote soon Harper Lake <= 22s] see ee Copa see tee leete sec Coyote Lake-...-...|..-.. (6 CSREES eek Ye | ee Cronese Lake... SOLO pA ME sta, ee a Ca hp Langford Lake.....|...-. GOt RIGS Eee Lvanpah.-eeeeeeceee Landlocked.........|...-...- Bristol Lake........ Probably tributary |........ to Colorado River. Cadiz Lake......... Tributary either to |........ Danby Lake or to the Colorado River. Danby Lake........| Probably tributary 4,150 to Colorado River (maximum area). Mesquite Lake....- Tributary to Colo- |........ rado River. Dale Lakes. s2eceeee|seaes (6 (ce es etary aes 4 For a description of the basins given the reader is referred to the bulletin already cited. Recent interest in the development of the potash resources of the United States has directed considerable attention to the possibilities of the Great Basin as a source of thiscompound. The Bureau of Soils and the United States Geological Survey have maintained investigators in this region for some time. Under the direction of the United States Geological Survey a bore has been sunk in the Carson Sink area to a depth of 985 feet. bores. Many of the smaller basins have also been explored by shallow Through the Bureau of Soils a study of the general conditions in these basins, POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 3 and particularly dealing with the geochemical features, has been made. In order to widen out the field and stimulate prospectors and others to direct their attention to this mineral, the Bureau of Soils, the United States Geological Survey, and the Mackay School of Mines established a joint laboratory for the examination of mineral and other naturally occurring substances suspected to contain potash. The results of the United States Geological Survey investigators have been presented from time to time in bulletins.! The results of the work of the Bureau of Soils are, in part, presented in a paper by EK. E. Free (The Present and Past Topography of the Undrained Areas of the United States).2_ The purpose of the present paper is to present a review of the information now available on the subject of the occurrence and origin of the salines of the Great Basin region, as well as the chemical data which have been accumulated by the Bureau of Soils and the Cooperative Laboratory. Naturally a review of the geo- chemical features of a region of this extent will not be complete, but it is belicved that such a review will be of value at this time and will indicate quite clearly the lines along which future investigation should be directed. For an adequate conception of the geochemistry of a region it is necessary to know the principal facts concerning climatology, topography, geology, the surface and under- ground waters, the evaporation from ground and surface waters, and the distribution and pal character of the rocks. These subjects will be treated in the order stated. CLIMATOLOGY. The Great Basin is spoken of as an arid region, and just what is the significance of this term may be gathered from the tables in the Appendix. These tables have been compiled from Weather Bureau reports on precipitation and temperature. They are grouped in four divisions: Weather stations in Nevada, weather stations in western Utah, weather stations in the part of the basin region included in Oregon, and weather stations in that part of the basin region included in California. The altitude and mean annual rainfall of each station isgiven. (See Appendix, TableI.) The average (arithmetical mean) annual rainfall of the stations in each group is, for the Oregon group, 13.59 inches; for the Utah group, 12.8 inches; for the Nevada group, 10.34 inches; and for the California group, 4.43 inches. The mean annual precipitation for the entire basin region is 10.31 inches. In arriving at this average the mean for each of the above groups and the area occupied by each group were taken into consid- eration. The variation of the mean annual rainfall with latitude in the basin region may be approximated from Table II. (See Appendix.) Latitude is less a factor in controlling precipitation than altitude. The basins of the Great Basin in general are characterized by a small rainfall. The higher mountains receive a much greater rainfall. An area of high aridity may be marked out, and this includes the Mojave Des- ert, the Amargosa Basin, the Owens, Walker, Mono, Pyramid, Carson, and Black Rock Desert regions. In this area the mean annual precipitation 1s less than 6 inches. An inspection of the weather reports for the basin region shows that some precipi- tation takes place in each month of the year. December, January, February, and March are the usual months of maximum precipitation; while June, July, August, and September are the months of minimum precipitation. There is, however, much irregularity in the monthly distribution of the rainfall, and the weather charts do not give an entirely clear conception of the situation. Rainfall may be divided into two classes—the normal winter precipitation and the precipitation which usually occurs in August and September. The latter is in the nature of torrential rains and cloudbursts and is conspicuous in the more arid portions of the region. The normal winter precipitation contributes but little run-off im the arid portions, but the August and September precipitations often result in heavy local run-offs which are important agents in the movement of detrital material from the mountains to the plains. As might be expected, precipitation of this nature is very irregular. Several years may elapse without sufficient rain to even moisten the desert watercourses. Then a period of heavy rains results in turning such watercourses into torrents. Stream flows of this nature are of short duration, but the local work of erosion and transpor- tation may be very great. Were it not for these rains, erosion and deposition in the more arid portions of the basin region would be somewhat inconspicuous and limited principally to the action of wind. The influence of these torrential rains extends over the whole arid region described above. But little study has been made of these 1 Bul. No. 523, Nitrate Deposits. Bul. No. 530-A, The Search for Potash in the United States; Potash Salts—Summary for 1911. Bul. No. 511, Potash Saits—Their Uses and Occurrence in the United States; Alunite. Bul. No. 530-R, Exploration of Salines in Silver Peak Marsh, Nevada; Press Notice No. 97, Feb. 10, 1913; Prospecting for Potash in Death Valley. 2 Cire. No. 61, Bureau of Soils, An Investigation of the Otero Basin, New Mexico, for Potash Salts; Cire. No. 62, Bureau of Soils, Report of a Reconnoissance of the Lyon Nitrate Deposit near Queen, New Mexico. 4 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. storms, their distribution, and frequency of occurrence. As might be inferred, the weather reports would not reflect this phase of the precipitation to any marked extent. The mean annual temperature and the highest and lowest temperatures are given in Table III (See Appendix). It is worthy of note that the temperature range in the basin region is great. Extreme cold often prevails in the northern part and extends well down to the south. Extreme summer heats are characteristic of the southern portions and extend well up to the north. Asa consequence of this, rock disintegra- tion would be a not inconspicuous feature of the higher mountains. TOPOGRAPHY. The dominant bounding ranges of the basin region are the Sierra Nevadas on the west and the Wasatch on the east. The area between these ranges may be considered as a plain intersected by mountain ranges of a predominantly north and south trend. The plain, which is really a great system of more or less connected intermountain valleys, maintains its elevation of between 4,000 and 5,000 feet altitude over practi- cally the entire northern half of the region. The northern half contains three of the main drainage basins—the Bonneville, the Lahontan, and the Oregon Lake basins. These basins are’all close to or within the 4,000-foot contour. The south-central half of the plain slopes gradually to the south, reaching two points of maximum depres- sion—Death Valley on the southwest and Las Vegas Valley on the southeast. If we consider the Salton Lake area as a portion of the Great Basin, we have another point of low depression in the Salton Sink. The principal river within the basin is the Humboldt. This river flows across Nevada and feeds Humboldt Lake, in the Lahon- tan basin. Of minor importance are the Quinn, Amargosa, Reese, and White Rivers. From the Sierras and the Wasatch Mountains many important streams feed the lakes lying in the Bonneville and Lahontan basins and along the base of the Sierras. Many minor streams flow from the short, steep canyons of the higher mountain ranges of the basin. The mountains of the basin region are in many instances characterized by steep scarps on either or both sides. Short, steep canyons cut to the summits are the rule. Only in a few instances are gently rising slopes to the higher summits to be found. The topography of the mountains belongs to an intermediate rather than a mature or juvenile type. ; The valleys are wide and often of great north and south extent. Fringing the valleys are alluvial fans or cones. They are less noticeable in the north, but become conspicuous in the south, where they reach enormous proportions in the Death Valley region. FAs attempt has been made to determine the proportion of mountain and inter- mountain area. The Sierra Valley, Reno, Wadsworth, and Carson topographical sheets were measured and the areas occupied by mountain, outwash slope, silt, playa, and lake determined by planimeter measurements. A more or less arbitrary division was made between mountain and outwash areas, and between outwash and silt areas. Outwash areas include the alluvial fans or cones fringing the steep slopes of the moun- tains. Where the contours indicated a 2° to 4° slope, the beginning of the silt area was assumed, while the blue dotted line upon the topographic sheets surrounding the ~ lowest area of an intermountain space was taken as the playa area. Similar measure- ments were made upon the topographic sheets of the Amargosa River. The results of these measurements, as well as those made in the Owens River Valley, are given in Table IV (Appendix). Figure 1 graphically illustrates the comparison of the areas measured, with the exception of the Owens Valley area. The measurements given may be taken to represent a close approximation to the conditions within the basin region. The mean of the measurements of the Carson and the Amargosa region is: Mountain area, 48.3; outwash slopes, 19.1; silt area, 26.8; playa and water area, 5.5 per cent. The mean may be taken to represent approximately the basin region. The figures may be interpreted to mean that over approximately one-half of the basin region erosion is active, while on the remaining half deposition is taking place, greatest in amount on the outwash slopes and least in the playa and flat portions of the inter- mountain areas. The material constituting the outwash slopes is, in the main, coarse and angular. It is itself more or less subject to erosion. The fine silt and sand coming from the mountain areas, as well as the eroded material of the outwash slopes, finds its way into the playa areas. GEOLOGY. An extensive review of the geology of the basin region would he out of place here. Briefly, all of the geological divisions, with the exception of the pre-Cambrian, Per- mian, and Cretaceous, are to he found. For our purpose we may consider these geo- logical time divisions in three groups—pre-Tertiary, Tertiary, and post-Tertiary. ee ee eS ee en ee ee , ! POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 5 Pre-Tertiary rocks embrace a comparatively large area of the basin region. The chief formations are: Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic, and Jurassic. Pre-Cambrian formations have been described by King, Spurr, and Ball, but are rela- tively unimportant. The eastern and southeastern part of Nevada is characterized by Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous rocks. These rocks are quartz- M7OUN TALN Qe eee ee] oes Sei SIEFRPRA VALLEY ——— WADSWORTH GARSON H /IOUNTAIN AREA TUM ras ane alia kn - Ss SILT AREA PLAYA ANO. WATER ARLA AMARGOSA REGION Fig. 1.—Diagrams showing the proportion of mountain and intermountain area in the several districts. ites, slates, limestones, and sandstones. Triassic and Jurassic formations are rela- tively less abundant and occur in widely distributed patches in the west-central and southwest portions of the basin region. They consist of limestones, slates, shales, and thin beds of quartzite. In the Triassic are also found beds of gypsum. Post-Jurassic orogenic movement, accompanied by granitic intrusions, ushered in a period of land elevation and erosion, which continued throughout Cretaceous time. 6 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The conspicuous absence of Cretaceous formations in the basin region, excepting in the Wasatch Mountains and the Iron Spring district of southern Utah,! has been noted by many geologists and confirms the conclusion that the basin region was a land mass in Cretaceous time. The pre-Tertiary was ended and the Tertiary begun by orogenic movement, accom- es by volcanic eruptions. Evidence is not conclusive as to the exact geologic ivision, but opinion seems to predominate that the beginning of the Eocene marked the beginning of Tertiary volcanic activity, which extended through the Tertiary and into the Quaternary. Following the early volcanic activity of this period, na no doubt, preceded by crustal movements, was the Tertiary lake period (Miocene)— King’s Pahute Lake. During this period the western half of the basin region was occupied by one or more lakes of great extent and irregular outline. Some parts of this lake were, no doubt, of great depth, and the lake period was of long duration, as is shown by the great thickness of sediments exposed in many places (notable examples: Furnace Creek and the Silver Peak quadrangle). The period of lake formation was also a period of vulcanism. A period of great orogenic movement succeeded the late Tertiary, and during this eriod the basin ranges were formed and the present topography took its main outlines. he Miocene lakes disappeared. The late-Tertiary is obscure and has yet to be worked out in detail for the region. King was of the opinion that the Miocene lake period was succeeded by another lake period, Pliocene, but Russell has shown that, in so far as the Pliocene sediments (Humboldt formation) mapped by King are concerned, they belong to the Lahontan Lake period. Russell’s conclusion is confined to the western portion (Map 5, Geological Atlas, Fortieth Parallel Survey) and does not necessarily include the eastern half of the basin region. Succeeding the late-Tertiary was a period of erosion and continued uplift. The Pleistocene fresh-water lakes were formed. The detailed study of these lakes has shown during this time at least two eriods of flooding and an intermediate desiccation. Fluctuations of the Pleistocene ake elevations have been noted also as a conspicuous feature in the history of these lakes. Glaciation in the Sierra Nevada and Wasatch Mountains coincide with the period of the Pleistocene lakes. In recent time desiccation of the Pleistocene lakes taken place and minor crustal movements have continued. Our inquiry has for its object. the study of saline segregates—their nature, occur- rence, extent, genesis, and probable commercial utilization. The basin region has always been considered a favorable place in which to look for saline deposits. The a eae of volcanic and eruptive rocks indicates a source from which salines might e expected to come. The decomposition of these rocks, the solution of the salts resulting, and the fact that this region possesses no outside drainage have caused _geolo- ists to conclude that saline segregates would be found in many of the basins. There is much evidence, which will be discussed in a later part of this paper, to justify this conclusion. Turrentine has summarized the geological formations and principal localities in which saline segregates have been found. The following table indicates these: Geological formations and principal localities in which saline segregates have been. found.? Geologic period. Locality. HLOCORG 2: cat jtececie «cin cae eee Kirghiz steppes; Arabia; South America; Dead Sea; Great Salt Lake, and numerous other ancient lakes in western United States. DOraly sone sa ecans eae see Cardona, Spain; Wieliczka and Bochnia, Galicia; Siebenbiirgen; Asia oe Armenia; Rimini, Italy; Petit Anse, La.; California, Utah, and Nevada. Cretaceous: 4 cq ceases. ote e | Westphalia brines; Algiers. PNM oer eweeee epee acces Rodenberg on the Deister; Bex in Canton of Waadt, Switzerland. K:BUBOL ssn tu sae secre | Lorraine; Hall, Tyrol; Hallein and Berchtesgaden (near Salzburg). Trias { Muschelkalk...........- Wurttemberg; in Thuringia, Ernstthall, Stottenheim. , Buntersandstein.-....... Hanover, Schoeningen near Brunswick, Salzderhelden; Cheshire, Eng- land; Kansas and Texas. POrvIMIAUoe- ooo esc aor Leena =e Gera, Artern (Thuringia); Staasfurt, Halle, Sperenberg; Segeberg (Hol- | stein); Kirghiz steppes on the River Ileck; Kansas.‘ Carboniferous. 22-0... --/.. Kanawha and New River, W. Va.; Durham and Bristol, England. BBV ONT es ee ore icro inna Winchell, Mich. Wpper siliivian 2c oscecss ss tee New York; West Virginia; Saginaw, Mich.; Goderich, Canada. 1 Bul. No. 338, U. S. Geological Survey, Iron Spring District of Southern Utah. 2 Turrentine, J. W. The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States, Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils, U. 8. Dept. of Agr., 1913. 4 Haworth, Geol. Survey, Kansas; Ann. Bul., 1897, p. 56. Harris, La. Geol. Survey, Bul. 7, p. 94. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. vt In pre-Tertiary formations salines have been reported from the upper Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. These for- mations, excepting Permian and Cretaceous, are represented to a greater or less extent in the Great Basin. In spite of extensive search on the part of geologists and rospectors, no beds of salines of commercial importance other than gypsum have hea discovered. Louderback! notes the occurrence of gypsum beds in the Triassic at Mound House and Lovelock. Spurr? notes the occurrence of massive gypsum in lenticular masses in the upper Carboniferous at Cottonwood Springs. Rowe ? notes shales and gypsum beds overlying the upper Carboniferous in the hills north of Cot- tonwood Springs. A review of the literature leads one to conclude that in the pre- Tertiary formations, excepting the gypsum deposits and minor occurrences of salinif- erous layers, the prospects of finding salines of commercial importance are not good. In the Tertiary formations of the basin region saline segregates have been found. The most important occur in Miocene lake beds. Borates, gypsum, and salt are the important minerals that have been noted. Of these, the borates have been commercially exploited and produce the borax supply of the United States. Up to the present there has been little utilization of the gypsum beds. Concerning the salt beds our information is scanty. G.E. Bailey * describes a bed of rock salt 12 to 16 feet thick in the Saratoga district, San Bernardino County, Cal. He also describes saline beds occurring on the north slope of Avawatz Mountains in the same county. These beds are, without much doubt, in the Tertiary lake series. So far as known no potash salts, at least in commercial quantities, have been reported from the Tertiary. The Tertiary beds are not looked upon by the writer as of any great importance as a source of supply for potash salts. It must be said, however, that comparatively little systematic work has been done upon them. The Tertiary lake beds, as a whole, have contributed by their erosion a large amount of salt and other salines to their tributary basins. The Quaternary lake beds and the lakes accompanying the Quaternary lake basins hold the most important supplies of salines and are the most promising fields for prospecting. Pre-Tertiary and Tertiary formations have supplied the salts which we find as accumulations in the recent drainage basins and lakes. Quaternary and recent geologic history has been studied in detail in several of the more important lake basins, and we have in the monographs of Russell and Gilbert ample information of the changes in conditions which have resulted in the formation of saline deposits in these basins. The complete list of the Quaternary lake basins has perhaps not yet been made. From the literature and from personal notes I have compiled the following table: List of Quaternary lakes. Name. Elevation. Remarks. Bonneville: 5 Present lakes— Feet. Great Salt Lake....... 4,200 | Maximum depth 1,050 feet. Witahelialkes tek ae tee ee oe Overflowed. SKN GIP A Dp eee Se | eee Peer ae Lahontan: 6 Present lakes.............. 4,405 to 4,414 Honey and Eagle 3,949 | 326 feet deep. Lakes. Pyramid Lake...._... 3,880 | 886 feet deep; 525 feet above 1882 level. Walker Lake........-_- 4,083 | 435 feet deep. Winnemucca Lake. ... 3,875 | 530 feet deep. Humboldt Lake....._. 3,929 | 500 feet deep. Carson Sink........_.. 3,900 | 526 feet deep. South Carson Lake.... 3,916 | 510 feet deep. Owens Lake?7._................ 3,569 | Old beach 190 feet above present level. BeEABlesib ae Wasa ko So xy ae oe 1,700 | Shore line 600 feet above flat. ananmning) 99s. oes 5 Slo 1,046 | 1,000 feet above valley floor are wave-cut terraces. Mono L0e es AE eed oot ete 6, 426 euate any area 316 square miles; beach 670 feet above ake level. 1 Bul. No. 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, Gypsum Beds of the United States, p. 118, 2U. 8. Geological Surveys West of 100th Meridian, vol. 3, p. 166; and Bul. No. 208, U. S. Geol. Survey, Geology of Nevada south of fortieth parallel survey. 2 Bul. No. 208, U.S. Geol. Survey, Geology of Nevada south of the fortieth parallel, p. 170. 4 Bul. No. 24, California State Mining Bureau, p. 126. 5 Monograph I, Lake Bonneville. Gilbert. § 11th Annual Report, Lake Lahontan. Russell. 7 Bul. No. 24, Cal. State Mining Bureau. 810th Annual Report, Cal. State Mineralogist. ® Bul. No. 200, U. S. Geol. Survey. Campbell. 10 8th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey. 8 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List of Quaternary lakes—Continued. Name. Elevation. Remarks. Feet. Columbus!....... Spay eee 4,559 | Shallow lake 50 to 60 feet deep. Railroad Valley 2............-. 4,700 | Highest shore line 300 feet above flat. gE 0.a (cy eas Be Ee ads 3,500 | Highest beach line 150 feet above floor. Surprise Valley: 8 Upper, lower, and middle 5,190 | Highest beach line 550 feet above present level. Two alkali lakes. high-water lines. Hake 'Alvord’#2.5 272-5.) -- = 4,200 ee beach line 100 feet. Four well-marked and 2 faint ines. Catlow Valley 4 .........----- 4,600 | Highest beach 75 feet. Three well-marked beach lines. Warmer Uake's (eto oe soctemee 4,600 | Highest beach line 225 feet. : Abert, Lake: 3 Chewaucan Marsh......-- 4,400 | Beach line 260 feet above Chewaucan Marsh. Summer Lake..........-- 4,300 | Beach line 300 feet above Summer Lake. wamper Wakes see een cee acne e 4,400 | Two shore lines 30 and 60 feet above present lake. mong Valley sc act bees 5,945 | Shore line 250 feet above present level. Silverdale . J5-: Eps - 4,340 | Beach line 100 feet above present level. Christmas Make, 58235 3 ZONE OF RETAINED WEATHEAING BY PLANTS GROWVD CARAIED DOWN AND DISTAIBUTED ' DAA/NAGE FREOVA CIOUNTAIN 70 SIN-AT FOUN - OFF SLEPAGE FETURNED EY WIND FETAINED 43-7 PLANTS BSPROUGHT BY CAFPILLAFR/T 70 SUPFACE : RETURNED a F 2, . ‘ \ ABSORFTION BY JO SINIC CLAKS-SILTS WELLS-—SPAINGS FETAINED BY FLANTS AETAINED BY ABSORPTION IN CLAKS- SILTS WIND SINC BAINES QEPOHTION {Sao Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the factors of loss during the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering zone to the sink. as the phosphate, carbonate, or silicate of calcium, iron, ete. Such precipitation takes place primarily from alkaline solution, because the acids that have the greatest tendency to form insoluble compounds are weak acids, whose salts are hydrolyzed by water.? * * * “Sodium silicates and alumino-silicates are less stable in contact with water solutions than the corresponding potassium compounds. Evidence of this is 1 Bul. 312, U. 8. Geol. Survey, p. 28. 2 Tbid., p. 30. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 23 found not only in the laboratory, but also under natural conditions. The replace- ment of sodium in silicates by the potassium of a dissolved salt takes place far more readily than the reverse reaction. A similar reaction, although perhaps not quite so marked, exists between magnesium and calcium silicates. The transformation of a magnesium silicate by calcium chloride into calcium silicate is more difficult than the reverse change.’’! The most significant fact of absorption phenomenon is the greater susceptibility of potassium to be absorbed than any of the bases and the greater resistance of potassium compounds to the action of percolating waters. The acid radicals, with the excep- tion of carbonic, bicarbonic, and phosphoric, are unaffected in quantity. The restricted and irregular rainfall of tne basin region would result in more con- centrated solutions being received by the seepage zone, and would result, therefore, in a greater relative amount of absorption than with the less concentrated solutions of humid regions. A further fact must be kept in mind, and that is that a considerable part of the basin area receives such a scanty rainfall that only on comparatively steep slopes do the percolating waters reach ground-water levels and add their quota of soluble material to underground circulating waters. The greater part of the intermountain area acts like a sponge and receives and retains the waters and their dissolved salts. Capillarity raises a part of the water, together with such soluble material as escapes absorption. Vegetation also plays an important part. It is a well-known fact that plants absorb potassium salts from the soil and seepage water. The amount of potassium removed annually in this way from ground waters must be large. We are justified in the conclusions that in the basin region a large part of the soluble salts is retained in the interstitial or pore spaces of the soil; a part of the soluble material is changed to insoluble, and potassium is more likely to be retained and in greater relative amount than any of the other bases; a precipitation of the more insoluble carbonates, such as lime and magnesia, takes place in the upper part of the soil; that the stronger acids, such as chlorine, sulphuric anhydride, nitric, and boric (excepting sulphuric and boric in the presence of soluble lime salts) are © practically undiminished by absorption phenomena. Combined with various bases they either remain in the soil or are leached away in the ground water. Soluble salts reach the sinks or lowest parts of the intermountain areas in two ways— by underground waters which gravitate to the low points and by the rtn-off waters which accumulate in the same places. It is evident that in the passage of the seepage water to the sink absorption continues and only a final residuum, which may be only a small part of the original total of soluble salts, reaches the sink. The run-off waters are diminished on their way to the sink by seepage waters with consequent loss of a part of the dissolved salts. Figure 2 illustrates the various losses which we may expect in the movement of a soluble salt from the weathering zone to the sink. I have taken potassium as the base to best illustrate the point. The quantitative side of the problem can not be determined and consequently the figure does not involve this feature. The case for sodium would be simpler than for potassium. Little or none of this base would be retained by plants or by chemical absorption, and the only loss would be that portion retained and brought by capillarity to the surface or retained simply by the soil. The greater part of the sodium, either as sulphate or chloride, would eventually reach the sink. The case for lime and magnesia isalsoa simple one. Only that portion in the run-off waters would reach the sink. The remainder would be found distributed from and within the zone of weathering to the sink. The greatest part would be nearest the belt of weathering. A nominal amount would reach the sink through the agency of ground waters.” 1 Bul. 312, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 22. 2 Calcareous hardpans are not infrequently found in the Great Basin. In the vicinity of Las Vegas, Nev., there is an especially good illustration of the development of a thick layer of calcareous material. This in some places forms the surface and in other places is covered by a thin soil. The rocks of the neighboring mountains are sandstones and limestones. An analysis of this hardpan shows the following (analysis by J. A. Cullen, Bureau of Soils): . Per cent. TASTES GO) Ve Re cis eR ac al a cee ce A PS aegis ts 34 RU ae ae, Cs 2 lee pete Se ent ee ee 7.6 LAist @ropxito Vena valle ibbeabbaysiee ete oe oe ee eee oe eens oe Mer ee or een Raeeree ETE DS ee - 46 SE LETT CRN OUL Daas oh Pe Sh Ee ee MRE 2 ET A at aly nt bel ea net Sc aes eee Wey Cee 37.20 J ALI rT (SISTENT Fe es eg i at Lace ec a a aE Eo a IE 12.65 BING Ui O GAS TI Ste aoe eer eA ie tare sere Sites seine crete atc te eS SINT reciente x SOLE aregeie -30 ROU ANSO GaN e heh eyt rey sere ea ee Rds aie A ale ee leaned (A Se ee aR .39 HHA be MAGIC Sac SUE pe eae See cae ee Gen ei oe, eel oa oe eae - 03 I have also noted many instances where the material of gulch dumps in the basin mountains has been. cemented together by calcium carbonate. y E In the alluvial fans it is not uncommon to find the material removed by the burrowing of smallanimals to be coated by calcium carbonate. 24 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The factors influencing absorption are the rate of movement of underground waters, the concentration of solutions, the chemical nature of salines and salts, the distances to be traversed to outlet if spring, or to sink if there is no surface outlet. In the case of saline solutions retained locally the time factor is greatly increased and, conse- quently, absorption may proceed to practical completion. The conditions in any one case are so variable and the difficulty of definitely determining the quantities involved so great that we can not determine the extent of absorption. Evidence goes to show that potassium in some cases is almost completely retained. The com- arison of underground waters with surface waters and the comparison of soils from fea and arid regions can, in a measure, be relied upon to show the character of the changes. The two succeeding sections deal with these subjects. UNDERGROUND AND SURFACE WATERS. In Table XI (Appendix) are given a number of analyses of well and spring waters from the Nevada experiment station records, obtained through the courtesy of S. C. Dinsmore. Accompanying are two tables, Nos. XII and XIII (Appendix), giving analyses of waters in Death Valley and Amargosa regions. The average ratios of sodium to potassium are as follows: Ratio Well and spring waters in western Nevada...............---...- 43.1 Waters from. Death) Valleys 2:22.20 22a ty oye ee Ese 47. 4 Watersitrom: thie Aimancosae. = eee ee cee epee eee gee ee 9.9 The Truckee, Humboldt, and Weber Rivers..-.............--.. 3. 6 The basunlaikkes . ob ae eas, pean e e ae e 20. 0 Seepage originates in part from run-off waters. The absorption of potassium would be indicated by a greater ratio of sodium to potassium in underground waters as com- ared to the run-off waters. This is indicated by the above ratios. The ratio for the asin lakes is intermediate between these for ground and surface waters. This is to be expected, since the lakes receive seepage as well as run-off waters. SOILS OF HUMID AND ARID REGIONS. Clarke! gives the average analyses of a number of soils from humid and arid regions. From these analyses the sodium-potassium ratio has been obtained and for purposes of comparison the same ratio for the igneous rocks of the basin is given. Ratio of sodium to potassium in soils and rocks. Ratio of potassium in— GbR cuba letsronH {= eemiay = Nap aMOn a: CSISREMNR SITE Teealih a Oh Si a ease 0. 39 A id Sodas so cre icPh spice ap Wisse ea a ae weil IA CIGETO CIES Se) cat aso ee ae fe WEE tee a eee iS Basie rocks!) 2-82 <6 See ot ee eee 1. 50 Mean, acid and basic... -..s26cs soda ee Se ee eee 1.14 The figures obtained do not give a fair basis for comparison. In the case of the soils the sodium and potassium are determined in the solutions obtained by decomposition with hydrochloric acid. In the case of the analyses of the rocks the sodium and potassium represent the total percentage of each in the rock. If we assume that the insoluble residue obtained from the humid or arid soil would be of practically the same constitution the ratios would be of some value in indicating absorption. The arid soils show a greater proportion of potassium than the humid. If our assumption is correct, this is due to absorption. It may also be due to differences in the degree of decomposition. Comparing the soils withthe rocks indicates the removal of sodium at a much greater rate in the weathering process than potassium. If we compare the percentage composition of the mean arid with the mean humid soil, we find the fol- lowing interesting ratios: Ratio arid to humid percentages of constituents soluble in hydrochloric acid. Acid soluble: 1 Bul. No. 491 U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 467. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 25 Acid soluble—Continued. BQacos setts bade sceeecen sdeut éoader dba todeasebiaccnansues 12. 6 JAG bal £1 oe a a re a ane Re a ae aA Ba) Dies beagle be-all SSD AT Ol, A lial ly I eae de 1.0 De ede ei ug eae RNS Vere AUN eR ae tae) oye cueio ns Se oe ae, Svabe 8 Total acid soluble: Arid (per cent)......-- NEUSE ET ATA a ionic BE eee eer nA 29. 5 1 Ebr yams Rarer FA sen a IN eI oe ip eae 16. 0 These ratios indicate a much greater proportion of soluble material on the whole in the arid than in the humid soils. The greater proportion of soluble silica and acid soluble alumina would indicate more favorable conditions for the absorption of alkalies in the case of arid soils. The greater proportion of alkalies and alkaline earths indi- cates that absorption either by chemical reaction or by simple retention of soluble salts is a marked feature of arid soils. While absorption by chemical reaction is of undoubted importance, absorption by retention of soluble salts is of much greater importance and is characteristic of the soils of the basin region. Whitney and Means state! that the soluble salts for soils of a sandy nature “approximate 50 pounds per acre-foot (0.0015 per cent), for heavy soils from 3,000 to 4,000 pounds per acre-foot (0.09 to 0.12 per cent), and the average amount for soils of humid areas somewhat less than 1,000 pounds per acre-foot (0.03 per cent). Hilgard ? states that very few of the upland soils in the arid regions of California contain less than 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of soluble salt per acre in the first 4 feet. In the soils of the lowlands the content of soluble salt must be considerably greater. No general numerical statement can be made for the soils of the basin region, but we know that in many cases the amount of soluble salts must be many times greater than that contained in the soils of humid regions. Table XIV (Appendix) gives the content and chemical composition of the soluble salts for a number of soils in the basin region. I have taken most of these from three widely separated localities. The first set are from soils in the vicinity of Fallon, Nev.; the second from soils in the vicinity of Salt Lake, Utah; and the third from southern Oregon. The average content of soluble salts for the Fallon soils is 1.23 per cent and for the Utah soils 1.8 per cent. It should be noted that the examples given are un- doubtedly from localities more or less heavily impregnated with soluble salts. The average for the Fallon area can be obtained from figures presented in the advance sheets of the field operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1909.2 The content of alkali and the acres affected in each instance are given: 82,624 acres contain less than 0.2 per cent alkali. 38,784 acres contain from 0.2 to 0.4 per cent alkali. 8,768 acres contain from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent alkali. 8,128 acres contain from 0.6 to 1.0 per cent alkali. 12,096 acres contain over 1 per cent. The average content for 150,400 acres is ().4 per cent. - While the results for the Fallon section can not be taken as representative of the basin region, still it can be said that they show the results for one important area. The conditions in other portions of the basin, and particularly south of the Fallon area, can not be much different. In fact, as we proceed south the evidences of soluble salts become more and more common. Many of the flat valleys which characterize southern and central Nevada show that the conditions are very favorable for the retention of the soluble salts. The physical conditions influencing the retention of salts by and their movement in soils merit some discussion and the succeeding section covers this subject. RETENTION AND MOVEMENT OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY SOILS OF ARID REGIONS. The factors controlling the retention of soluble salts are underground drainage, character of the soil, slope of soil surface, and rainfall. With good underground drainage, even under arid conditions, there is a gradual movement downward of the soluble salts. Underground drainage i is dependent upon the character of the soil and the slope of the soil surface. With compact, heavy soils much seepage water is retained and drains away very slowly, or not at all. Capillarity acts in fine-textured soils to return the ground water, in some cases back to the surface, or in others to some interme- diate level. With porous, open, and coarse-textured soils capillarity may act to a small 1 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 22. 2 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13. 3 Soil Survey of the Fallon Area, Nevada, p. 43. 26 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extent, but only very locally, and the seepage water drains speedily away. Where impervious layers occur, ground water may be retained and by evaporation leave its burden of salts within the soil at varying depths. Where soil surfaces are sloped, underground drainage is facilitated, and, if the soils are not too coarse textured, or capillarity not an important factor, the soluble salts are drained away and deposited in the level portions of the valleys. With moderate rainfall salines are distributed in sandy soils with the least propor- tion at the surface and greater amounts or accumulations at intermediate points: Under arid conditions these accumulations would be nearer the surface, and in regions of extreme aridity would be very close to and even at the surface. With heavy soils (slow movement of ground water) the accumulations of salines would be nearer the sur- face for moderate rainfalls and much closer to the surface for small rainfalls than for the porous soils. Means ! discusses the conditions under which alkali salts move within the soil and his conclusions are pertinent here. He states that— (1) ‘‘Movement of alkali salts is caused by diffusion of the salt mixture; (2) “‘By the force of gravity in moving the salt mixture downward; (3) “‘By surface tension or capillary action which moves the salt mixture in j any direction.”’ Means considers that the effects of the diffusion are practicably negligible. The second and third causes may best be placed in his words: (2) ‘‘ Force of gravity —When water is applied to the surface of the soil the force of avity, assisted by surface tension, pulls the water down into the capillary spaces. Soils will hold a certain percentage of water by capillary forces alone, and any excess over this percentage will drain away. This excess is called gravity water. When the surface of the ground is flooded, both surface tension and gravity act in pulling the water downward. Since the rate of flow of water through capillary spaces depends upon the size of the space, the flow through the large capillary spaces, root holes, worm borings, and animal burrows is very much greater than that through the true capillary spaces. When water is applied, the downward movement by gravity is almost entirely through the larger noncapillary spaces, while the true capillary spaces are filled by surface tension from the noncapillary spaces. In this way the salt which is dissolved by the descending water is probably to some extent drawn back into the capillary spaces, where there is very little downward movement, and remains there, only escaping out into the channels of downward movement by diffusion. The amount of salt which is washed downward by a heavy flooding is therefore not so great as would be expected. (3) ‘‘The greatest movement of alkali salts is due to capillarity which operates through surface tension. When water moves by surface tension, the films around the soil grains move. As soon as the gravity water has drained away, the movements become entirely by surface tension. A loss of water due to evaporation changes the curvature of the water films and starts a capillary movement toward the point where the evaporation takes place. But when water moves by capillary action it is the water in the smaller spaces that moves, and not the water which is in the larger non- capillary spaces. Therefore the water which was drawn back into the capillary spaces and which carried some of the alkali salts as it flowed down into the soil starts upward and carries with it the salts in solution. The evaporation of an inch of water on the surface of the soil accumulates on the surface all alkali salts which were contained in that inch of water, while, on the other hand, the same volume of water leached down through the soil would probably not leach out an equal amount of the salts. From this it will be seen that the tendency of the alkali salts under irrigation is to move upward perhaps more rapidly than downward. ‘‘From the above discussion it appears that surface tension or capillary attraction, as it is commonly called, is the most important agent in the movement of alkali salts toward the surface of the soil. Therefore, a soil which would permit the most rapid movements would be the most likely to accumulate alkali salts upon the surface. If two soils with different capillary powers were placed side by side, with the level of standing water the same, the soil which raised the water to the surface the more rapidly would the sooner accumulate an alkali crust.” THE POSITION OF MAXIMUM SOLUBLE SALT CONTAINED IN THE SOIL. The following table summarizes certain observations which have been made con- cerning the depth at which soluble salts form accumulations. 1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 13. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. Depth of accumulations of soluble salts in soils. 3-inch rainfall, Imperial Val- ley, Cal In virgin soils greater part of soluble salts at a depth of 18 inches. 27 8-inch rainfall, Fresno district. Sandy loams 3 to 4 feet; coarse sands 4 to 8 feet.1 12-inch rainfall, Yellowstone Park. 15-inch rainfall, Ventura County, Cal. 20-inch rainfall, cee ee pals, Heavy soils 4 to 6 feet; sandy soils 7 to 11 feet.2 Bulk of soluble salts at 5 feet.1 Greater part of soluble salts below 3 feet.1 1 Bul. No. 35, Bureau of Soils, p. 15. 2 Bul. No. 14, Bureau of Soils, p. 27. Two important actions take place in the movement of saline material in soils. Rainfall penetrates the surface soil and percolates down to certain depths. In its passage downward it dissolves a portion of whatever soluble salts may be present and thus leaches the material at the immediate surface. The extent to which this leach- ing would take place would be determined by the proportion of gravity water to water of capillarity and the penetration of the water. This is determined largely by the texture of the soil. With a porous soil this leaching action would be especially notice- able. In the leaching of a soil in the manner described above, it is evident that the ~ more soluble constituents would be first dissolved and carried to the greatest depths. Underground water soon reaches a position of equilibrium which may be within the permanent ground-water level or within the zone close to the surface. Capillarity begins to act. The ground water moves toward the point at which evaporation takes place. It should be noted that when this water reaches its equilibrium position it has dissolved a large amount of salt. When the solution is returned by capillarity these salts are carried with it and deposited at the point where evaporation takes place. Capillarity may not return these salts to the surface, for evaporation may take place below the immediate surface, and the capillary water column may terminate at vary- ing distances from the surface. The height to which the water is raised by capillarity would determine the position of accumulated salts. It has been shown in another place that where ground waters are deeper than 10 feet from the surface little or no evaporation from them takes place. This would indicate that ground waters at depths greater than 10 feet could not be concentrated by evaporation, and consequently there would be little or no opportunity for the separation of salines under such conditions. NATURE OF SALINES IN SOILS. Calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium are the bases almost invariably present. Sodium in almost every instance is the dominating base, while calcium and magnesium are usually the smallest in amount. Potassium is much less than sodium. In the Fallon soils sodium is 12.6 times potassium, while in the Utah soils it is 5.6 times. The acid radicals of chlorine, sulphur, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and phosphorus are inva- riably present. Chlorides and sulphates usually predominate, although in some soils carbonates and bicarbonates are in greater abundance. The Fallon soils contain sul- phates in greatest amount, while in the Utah soils chlorides are in greatest amount. Bicarbonates are usually present in greater amounts than carbonates. Phosphates and nitrates are present in most cases in traces, although in some exceptional cases nitrates may be present in appreciable amounts. Two Fallon soils showed over 2 per cent nitrate in the total solids. The basin soils would present many variations from the examples given. Borates, for instance, are common in many playas. COLLECTION OF SALINES BY SURFACE WATERS. RIVER AND LAKE WATERS. Rivers being the main collecting agents for gathering salines from a given area and transferring them to the lakes and lake basins, the content and nature of the salines as well as the amount collected can be determined from the analyses of the river waters. It should be noted that the rivers receive a certain proportion of seepage water and consequently the chemical analysis reflects not only the nature of the salts collected from the weathering zone, but also the salts received from underground waters. It is to be regretted that analyses of composite samples taken from basin rivers over long intervals of time are not available. What analyses are given represent single samples. The results must be used with caution. The lake waters represent the saline accumulations during present times. It should be noted that certain compounds are precipitating out continuously and consequently the composition of the waters represents an approach to equilibrium conditions for the particular time. Variation in climatic conditions results in the raising and lower- ing of lake levels. The fluctuation in lake levels, together with the continual acces- ee ee ee ee ee 28 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sion of saline material, accounts for the variation in the analytical results often noted in the reports of analyses of lake waters of the basin. The fluctuations of lake levels would also produce a change in concentration and, consequently, the equilibrium conditions would be changed also. The more soluble salts are accumulating in these lakes while the more insoluble are precipitating out. The principal data concerning the chemical content of river and lake waters of the basin are given in Table XV (Appendix). Much detailed chemical work has been done upon the California rivers by Van Winkle and Eaton,! and on account of the close proximity of this State to the basin region the results of their analyses are of importance. They are given in the table which follows: Mean analyses, California rivers. [Per cent of anhydrous residue.] Humid (22 Semiarid (16 Constituent. rivers); rain- | rivers); rain- fall, 15-+-+inches. | fall, 15— inches. Per cent. Per cent. 8.95 7. 14. 91 37.02 31.27 18. 87 12.53 12.34 15. 52 12. 83 5.37 5. 76 0.12 0. 02 11.33 5.27 100. 00 100.00 16.5 62.7 From the study of the results the following conclusions are of importance to the present inquiry: The total soluble salts in a river water under normal conditions varies with the stream flow. They are a minimum for a maximum flow and a maximum for a minimum flow. .Normal conditions may be assumed to be those for a humid region. The components of the total salts also follow the above rule. If we take the Yuba River as an example and apply this rule to the various soluble con- stituents, we find that chlorine, the sulphate radical, carbonic acid, sodium, and calcium follow this rule. Potassium fluctuates; magnesium shows little fluctuation; silica remains practically constant. In an arid or semiarid region soluble salts tend to accumulate during periods of low water. When the first floods come the river water gains in total solids and sometimes to a very marked extent, due to the washing out of these accumulated salts. Certain rivers, such as the Santa Ynez and the Owens River, maintain the amount of total salts at practically a constant figure. Concerning the comparison of the mineral content of waters in semiarid and humid regions Van Winkle and Eaton state: First. “The average mineral content of waters in semiarid regions is, roughly, four times that of waters in humid regions. Second. “Difference in percentage composition of the anhydrous residues shows that the waters in semiarid regions contain about two-thirds the proportionate amount of silica, less calcium; four-fifths as much carbonates, and twice as much sulphates as the waters of the humid regions. Their constituents are similar in amount. In regions of abundant rainfall disintegration of rock material can not keep pace with solution, erosion, and chemical decomposition. The more soluble constituents of the rocks are rapidly removed as they become exposed to the action of water, and their total amount in a given quantity of the solvent water is seldom great. In arid or semiarid regions, however, chemical action is frequently less marked than physical disintegration. The soluble materials of the disintegrated rock masses accumulate through periods of drought, allowing the water from subsequent rainfalls to take into — solution a greater relative amount than is found in waters from more humid regions. “In the waters studied the average amount of mineral in streams from the semiarid regions was 627 parts per million; in rivers of the humid regions it was 165 parts per million. The greatest average mineral content, 2,412 parts per million, occurred,in Santa Maria River, which flows through a sandstone country receiving barely 10 inches of rain a year. The smallest amount of mineral matter was found in Merced River, 65 parts per million, or about one-fortieth of the amount for Santa Maria River. “As the silica content is apparently unaffected by the amount of the other dissolved constituents, it may be expected that the percentage of silica in rivers of high dis- ' Water-Supply Paper 237, U. S. Geol. Survey. | : POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 29 solved solids will be correspondingly low. This is true in California waters, the average silica for the humid-region rivers being 13.4 per cent and for the semiarid- region waters 8 per cent of the total mineral matter in solution. The principal effect, then, of climatic condition on silica content is a negative one and it is apparently due merely to change in total mineral content. “By the decay of the abundant organic material in humid regions carbonic acid is set free, being dissolved in the surface waters or entering the air as carbonic dioxide. This carbonic acid, uniting with the carbonic acid of the alkaline-earth carbonates, produces the bicarbonates which are readily dissolved, so that surface waters in regions of abundant rainfall carry large amounts of the bicarbonate radical and of the alkaline earths. In regions of deficient rainfall, on the other hand, carbonic rocks are attacked to less extent and the gypsum and alkaline sulphates that are present are brought more largely into solution.”’ The conclusions of Van Winkle and Eaton may be applied to basin conditions. A somewhat different grouping of the basin rivers 1s desirable, and I have attempted this in the following. This grouping is not accurate, for the reason that some of the basin streams rise in the higher mountains and under conditions similar to many of the streams upon the western slope of the Sierras, while the lower courses of these see are in the valleys and under semiarid or arid conditions. Three groups are made: (1) Streams which have watersheds under humid conditions. These are Mill Creek, Leevining Creek, Rush Creek, the mountain streams tributary to Owens River, and the short streams of the higher ranges of the basin. (2) Streams which have watersheds partly under humid conditions and partly under arid. These are the Truckee, Carson, Walker, streams tributary to Great Salt Lake, and streams tributary to the southern Oregon lakes. (3) Streams which have watersheds under arid conditions. These are the Quinn, Armagosa, Humboldt, Reese, and Owens Rivers. Streams of the first group are comparable to such rivers as the Yuba and the Tuo- lumne, and the California streams for humid conditions generally. Streams of the second group are comparable with the California streams under semiarid conditions. Streams of the third group are in a class by themselves, and, in the absence of detailed studies, can not be properly characterized. The streams tributary to Great Salt Lake are characterized by high chlorine content, while the streams of the Lahontan Basin have a high sulphate content. Owens River is the only stream in which a noticeable amount of nitrates has been reported. Lake waters are similar in composition to the river waters. There are some differ- ences, and in order to show this I have worked out certain ratios which are given in the accompanying table. Ratios between certain soluble constituents in lake and river waters. : i Na Ca Cl H CO3+CO3 Source of sample. iv Mg SO; C1480, Rivers: Oy eT Crepes se pete DE ay a Bie tos Aiea tical ey eA Rv ig ope eeellos atc se 2.6 4.12 1.16 WME erie sees 2 2.8 1.50 1.74 Calo els aes 2.1 3.97 -93 Jordan’ syPs Se. 8.1 DES | Sees ee ae Humboldt 3.9 15 2. 45 PRETAT COSA et eee oss ee se cent to ee et TQ Ye 52 30 ARES eae reine Pl eri hr eta a ae pal ine eC 6.0 1.11 1. 28 Ue or en es ey SVS EIS Le ees err ner Se aE 3.2 58 1. 63 3.5 56 2.35 A ce OER CIEL ans eee Cr ase Mm catctt, cy tua ny 2.6 -61 2. 42 Lakes: 14 9:20) | 5 =< URS 1.10 12.73 -18 beef aS rE ehh ee = Sa etn eo ape 10 7.81 - 30 7 9.73 61 - 56 Lstih -38 - 40 1.81 . 64 2.00 2.50 . 70 Saas ipa 3.50 -73 mike Ces ep ae sie Ee ee te at are pene | bce 47S | Nl Peat eee 18.9 54 EA ape Ses BSS Sea E ESE ED SOC OS HORT ACEO pees a5 bel Saas ee ance - 04 4 Oi | etacteer eee CALIFORNIA RIVERS. | MEATROMILVEIS AM Semiarid Lesion 222.522 feo. 8 se | 2.51 0. 21 0. 83 Me inieOGi yell NUM FeMOMY a2 seem ese eee eso er | 2.88 | . 69 2. 64 30 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sodium-potassium ratio has been discussed in another section. The calcium- magnesium ratio shows a marked decrease for the lake waters as compared with river waters. This can be explained by the fact that calcium readily precipitates as car- bonate or sulphate, or may be removed by the agency of vegetable organisms+. The removal of calcium would leave the magnesium In greater relative amount. There is no doubt that magnesium is also precipitated as a carbonate, but is not eliminated at as great a rate as calcium. Chlorides are more abundant than sulphates in the lake waters as compared with river waters. This is undoubtedly due to the precipitation - of the sulphate radical by lime. Carbonates and bicarbonates are in less relative proportion in lake waters than in river waters. This is accounted for by the precipita- tion of calcium and magnesium as insoluble carbonates. : Borates are conspicuous in Owens, Mono, and the lakes of southern Oregon. The waters of Owens Lake are noteworthy on account of the content of nitrates and arsenic compounds. Certain regional characteristics become noticeable in a comparison of the chemical content of lake waters. The lakes of the Bonneville Basin are conspicuous for their lack of carbonates and bicarbonates and their high content of chlorides. Sulphates are present, but in moderate amount. The high content of these lakes in salines is to be noted also. The regional rocks of the Bonneville Basin are, for the greater part, sedimentaries. Limestones are common. The lakes of the Lahontan Basin have a much lower saline content, and contain chlorides, sulphates, and carbonates. Chlorides usually dominate, but in Pyramid, Winnemucca, and Humboldt Lakes carbonates are somewhat greater in amount than chlorides. The regional rocks are characterized by a greater area of igneous rocks than the Bonneville Basin. Owens and Mono Lakes contain chlorides and carbonates in greatest amount. Chlo- rides are greater in amount than carbonates and sulphates are least. These lakes are characterized by a high saline content. The regional rocks are predominatingly igneous. The southern Oregon lakes are low in sulphates and have about equal amounts of chlorides and carbonates. In the case of only one lake are the chlorides exceeded by the sulphates. The regional rocks are igneous. ANNUAL SALINE. CONTENT OF RIVER DISCHARGES. The rate at which salines are accumulating at present in the basin lakes can be calculated approximately from the mean annual flow of the principal rivers and their saline content. As has been mentioned before, the chemical data are insufficient, and, consequently, the conclusions give only approximate results. It is believed that the figures are conservative and rather under than overestimates. In Table XVI (Appendix) are given the tons of salines discharged by the Owens, Humboldt, Truckee, Walker, and Bear Rivers. The total salines discharged by these five rivers into their lake basins is-1,692,153 tons per annum. An approximate determination has been made for four basins and is given in the accompanying table: Discharge of salines into four important lake basins. cars eet eae of Salines fuel Trun-o . . annual | totalrun-| ,- salines Basin. per Peyets aca ofrun-| ow of | off to Spr oa discharged annum & Me these | flow of oe avers, | Per annum for basin. rivers. Trivers. y * | into basin. Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. Tons. Tons. ONUCVING = 5. seated: S42 3,080 | BeSie reese seas eee 1, 860 1.9] 1,259,235 2,392,546 ahontart ss. 2) gas as on sea 2,406 | Walker, Humbolt, 1,504 1.6 286, 019 457, 630 and Truckee OWENS soon os ne peed eee Bp i| CXWERSE «pico sock oe 306 1.0 102, 228 102, 228 Southern Oregon lakes. ... a24)\ TTUCKCC > on. cccn sce 1,030 ay A 155, 335 108, 734 1 Bul. No. 108, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, p. 94. s POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 31 The total salines collected by the rivers of these four basins approximate 3,061,138 tons perannum. ‘The contribution per square mile is given in the following table: Quantity of salines collected by rivers tributary to four important lake basins. : Quantity Basin. Area. per equate mile. Sq. miles. | Pownds. orm elle tapers eis seis aoe Shes et ese eee Qe MEN OL ON ee awn hi ee Aen oh 49, 500 96, 600 SLND GVAERD 6 oo hes DA a eT i 1 an I VS OE Reo a a a 40, 000 22, 880 ONICDS 5 on doash 6 CEHOSOE NEES SES CATS HS CSE Sto Ra A aE tll LRU ales sn SS Oe 3, 200 | 63, 800 HOuUlMerneOneronual -begee Sees ory. Salt, crystalline, hard, containing layers of black clay mixed with salt crystals 1 to 4 inches in thickness at intervals of about 2 feet............--------------- 8.5 Maud... <2: 42.02 ites ewe 2d clieg? 452s. See ee ee ee ee ee .5 Salt, crystalline; apparently solid 222.5. 2:4: 222-264 epeee-eed = see eee 13.0 Avid 322 05 -b2 Jsdce oi disco lane aac eee ee Bae ee ee eee eee oer 2.2 Salt; crystalline: ...-j22.2c02 = sedk dosh. : 226. eee Bee aoe eee 3.8 Clay, black.....5,----5.-2.---.- lepeeuei nee 2 bee eee ee eee 1.0 Salt, erystalline—. 22:2 isowaie 2. sien ale bs osc et Sed -e oee eeeeeee 2.0 Qlay, black, containing salt erystals-: -22-22 52.-=-t i-S Eee aes see ene 10.5 (No water encountered in the lower part of the well.) Totals. 2oducu - wes). 25o0) sid aid SEs See ee eo 96.0 POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. Analyses of potash in natural brines from Death Valley, Cal. [W. B. Hicks and R. K. Bailey, analysts.] Al dena cee Potash (KO) C Depth in feet ignited resi- otas 2 KCl expressed RANA F ’ |due) expressed | expressed as as percent- Description of sample. Bie asec as percent- |» percentage of | age of original age af ee ignited residue. solution. solution. Ground water in the salt crust at the COGS Tae EOS HA eae ae ee a a Rae 0.5 28.19 3. 43 1.53 oe in open ‘“‘pothole’”’.........--..- Ar) 27.47 1.20 .52 Pee nl zoe ctettie yd Vc hlsyaret nd 9.5 27.48 1.18 .51 U. Sal Ged Survey well No.1. 6 27.87 2. 80 1.27 on SA I ya a ee a PE ge 24 28. 64 2. 22 1.01 De SSSI GSCI SCT el a ae 29 28. 96 2.35 1.09 TD) OFS page asc eee SRD eas ea 8 52 28. 66 2.01 91 U.S. Geol. Survey well No. 2........-- 32 28.33 1.54 - 69 Ea 38 29.16 1.78 - 82 Bynes Reale tara natu, ee nal el ts 70 29. 96 2. 48 1.18 iWe g. Gel. Survey well No. 3....--..-- 1 27.78 2.05 - 90 el Ce AEE RRS one rer 30 27.91 1.68 .74 U.S. Gest. Survey well No. 4.......... 32 28.77 24. OB} 1.02 2 Oe it LRG SHE SHE SEO SEE eos 38 28. 73 2.12 -97 PASVET AD Clea cence aoa ae cA UE I ala STS ao Li8 28. 42 2.08 94 Gale comments upon these results as follows: “No shore markings or other evidence of former deep submergence of Death Valley have yet been discovered. It appears that the deposits laid down in this valley have been chiefly the results of temporary shallow submergences and alternate desicca- tions. Thus the deposits that make up the floor of this valley are supposed to have been built up layer by layer, the salts having crystallized from the water evaporated from the temporary shallow lakes and having been occasionally buried in mixtures of sand and silt, including more or less saline material swept in by occasional floods. This is the process that is going on at the present day. ‘“‘A vast amount of saline material is accumulated in the bottom of this valley, but the mode of its deposition probably is not favorable to selective crystallization on a large scale. Segregation of potash or any other portion of the soluble constituents of the waters may have taken place to slight extent in the individual salt crust layers, but under the conditions described any such differentiation is likely to have been restricted to the individual layers as units, and therefore has occurred on a scale so small as to be of doubtful practical impor tance. It seems evident that unless a vast body of saline material has been deposited at one time during a single period of des- iccation that there would be little chance for the various dissolved constituents to become segregated one from another ona large scale. There is no record of the drying up of a single large lake of saline waters in Death Valley. Although it is possible that the shores of such a lake might have been completely buried, the assumption that this may have happened must be purely a matter of speculation.” The potassium content of the saline residues from the brines obtained from the United States Geological Survey bores is lower than the average for the brines obtained from the surface potholes, the figures being, respectively, 1.73 and 2.63 per cent. There is practical agreement in the results since some concentration of the potassium salts might well be looked for in the surface brines. While the results of the Survey’s work in Death Valley are disappointing, they are of considerable importance, as they give much information concerning deposits of this character. The conditions at depths greater than 100 feet are unknown, but it is fair to presume that they are not unlike those within the first 100 feet. Salines in vast quantity have collected in Death Valley, but concentration of the most valuable salines has not taken place on anything more than a very local scale. For the con- centration of these salines extreme conditions of aridity must be looked upon as unfavorable. A deep lake, existing for some considerable time and then quickly drying up, appears to be the condition necessary for the concentration of the most soluble salines. MARSHES OF THE SECOND TYPE. Marshes of the second type have a special interest in that the presence of a former lake indicates a much greater run-off, and consequently a greater amount of saline accumulations. The desiccation of such a lake would be more apt to produce worke a eS eae ee Oe ee 48 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. able beds of salines than marshes of the first type. Descriptions of Searles and poe ue Marshes, Railroad and Dixie Valleys, Sand Springs Flat, and Sevier Lake ollow. SEARLES MARSH. Searles Marsh lies in the northwestern part of San Bernardino County, Cal., about 30 miles northeast of Randsburg. It lies in a drainage basin of 4,850 square miles. area. ©. E. Dolbear states that the area of the central depression is about 62.5 square miles. This would give a ratio of 77.6 square miles of basin area to 1 square mile of central depression area. The lowest part of the depression is 12 square miles in area, and is occupied by a smooth, hard floor of salt (Pl. III, fig. 2). Portions of the area are covered by débris; other portions by efflorescences and crusts from a fraction of an inch to several feet in thickness; and other portions are covered with clay muds which are in part dried out and firm and in part are soft. Plate IV, figure 1, shows a trona reef in-the northeastern part of the marsh. De Groot! reports results of a boring and shows a section of the marsh. Dolbear * quotes the results of two bores, one in the central salt area and the other in the marginal area outside of the salt bed. Section of Searles Marsh (De Groot). Depth. 2 feet......Salt and thenardite. 4 feet......Clay and volcanic sand with some hanksite. Sects to Volcanic sand and black clay with bunches of trona. 8 feet...... Melee sand containing glauberite, thenardite, and a few crystals of anksite. : 20 feet .<...-- Mud smelling of hydrogen sulphide and containing layers of glauberite, soda, and hanksite. 28 feet....-. Solid trona overlain by a thin layer of very hard material. 230+-feet....-.. Clay, jurzed with volcanic sand and permeated with hydrogen sulphide. z: Analyses of samples from borings in Searles Lake. [Analyses by Dolbear.] Depth. Insol. NaCl. | NaeSO,4. | NagCOz. |NaHCOs3.|NaeBs07.| HO. Feet. P.ct TEN P.ct. P.ct. Pct: P. ct. P.ct. 0-18 0. 2 79.7 7.6 3.2 0.0 Tr. 3.3 | 18-25 1.4 44.0 30.5 14.8 2.5 1.0 5.8 25-30 1.4 47.3 28.1 10.6 .0 2.0 10.6 30-35 3.0 42.7 17.1 19.1 5.9 2.0 10.2 35-50 1.4 43.5 22.3 7 9.5 2.5 5.5 15.3 50-65 Tr 82.8 10.6 3.2 8 Tr. 2.6 65-79 Tr. 19.0 7.3 40.3 18.5 5 14.4 Analyses of samples from borings outside of salt-bed area. [Analyses by Dolbear.] Depth. Insol. NaCl. NagSO4. | NasCO3. | NaHCO3.| NaeB,O7.| HeO. Feet Pct. P. ct Lei each P.ct P. ct P.ct 0-13 Midi}. fie SAME Oe Oe ee es Se eae er | er eee 13-20 8.3 66.8 1.0 11.7 5.0 0.4 6.8 20-25 Tr. 98. 4 .8 1.8 .0 .0 .0 25-30 1.4 15.3 4.7 38. 7 24.4 Tr. 15.5 30-35 15.0 39.6 2.3 16.4 3.4 5. 56 12. 74 35-40 33.4 17.5 3.9 14, 85 4.7 5.6 20.05 40-45 36.0 9.8 2.9 12.5 4 6.57 26. 28 45-50 32.5 9.0 2.6 21. 2 3.8 30.9 50-53 30.7 8.3 2.8 23.3 7.6 Tr 27.8 53-55 | 31.0 9.0 2.8 21.2 10.9 0 25.1 55-60 | 26.9 5.8 1.9 26.5 14.3 Tr 24.6 60-65 on2 4.5 38.0 28.6 10.1 Tr 10.6 65-70 6.8 5. 1 6.8 43.5 21.0 Tr 16.8 70-75 7.6 4.0 2.8 53.0 16.0 0 16.6 110th Annual Report, California State Mining Bureau, p. 535. 2 Engineering and Mining Journal, Feb. 1, 1913, p. 260. Bul. 61, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1.—PotT HOLE, DEATH VALLEY—EAST SIDE; EAST OF BENNETTS WELLS. Fic. 2.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. MAIN SALINE DEPOSIT. Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fic. 1.—SEARLES MARSH, CAL. TRONA REEF IN NORTHEAST CORNER. - . Fic. 2.—RAILROAD VALLEY, NEV. SALT PAN AT NORTH END. Bul. 61, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. TN Fic. 1.—LAVA PLATEAU WEST OF ALKALI LAKE, OREG. SMALL INCLOSED PAN. Fig. 2.—ABERT LAKE, OREG. SHORE AT SOUTHEAST CORNER. PLATE VI. Bui. 61, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. ‘ANV7] Yaddf} JO VAVId “‘D3SYO ‘ASTIVA SSIYdYNS POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 49 Through the kindness of Dennis Searles, HK. E. Free obtained the samples from a bore put down over 600 feet in the area northwest of the central salt area and near the road leading from the plant of the California Trona Co. southeast of the salt area. The exact location of this deep bore is not known. The series of samples is not com- plete, and the notes accompanying them are also somewhat incomplete. The results of analyses upon these samples are given in the accompanying tables. Table XXV (Appendix) gives the total sodium and potassium, soluble sodium and potassium, ad insoluble sodium and potassium. Table XX VI (Appendix) gives the ratios of soluble sodium to potassium, of insoluble sodium to potassium, and of total sodium to potassium. Tables XX VII (Appendix) and XXVIII (Appendix) show respectively the percentage composition of the samples, and of the water-soluble material con- tained in the samples. Accompanying is a brief description of a petrographic study (Table XXX, Appendix) upon the samples of the deep bore by J. C. Jones. It is unfortunate that the record is incomplete, but incomplete as it is, the results of our examinations are of sufficient interest to warrant presentation. Before discussing the foregoing data, it is necessary to establish certain criteria by which we may determine the nature of the events which took place during the history of this lake. The progressive or fractional crystallization of brines and salt solutions has been thoroughly discussed by Turrentine.! On account of the-similarity of conditions, I have deemed it best to take the results which T. M. Chatard obtained in his experi- ments upon the waters of Owensand Mono Lakes. These results are shown graphically in figure 6.2. The waters from both lakes are similar in composition. Mono Lake water has a slightly higher percentage of sodium sulphate than Owens. The water in both cases contains carbonates, bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and borates; also sodium, potassium, and minor amounts of silica, calcium, magnesium, alumina, and ferric oxide. The temperature conditions in the evaporations range from 18.3° C. _ to 37.8° C. The two sets of experiments indicate similar results. The following are the criteria from these experiments: 1. At initial stages of evaporation calcium carbonate, mixed with more or less ferric oxide, would be precipitated. 2. Saturation would be indicated by a crystalline deposit in which carbonates would predominate. Sulphates would be least and chlorides would be present in moderate amount only. Potassium chloride would be less than 1 per cent of the saline deposit. The ratio between sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in the deposited salines would approach unity. 3. Succeeding stages would be marked by decreasing amounts of carbonates and increasing amounts of sulphates and chlorides. The ratio between sodium carbonate and bicarbonate would rapidly increase. At an intermediate stage sulphates would reach a maximum. Sodium chloride would remain in about the same proportion, or would be slightly increased. 4. Approach to final desiccation would be indicated by the separation of a large proporiou of sodium chloride and a small increase in the proportion of potassium chloride. 5. Final desiccation would yield relatively small amounts of sulphates and a larger proportion of chlorides and carbonates. Some borates would be present. The sodium- carbonate and bicarbonate ratio would reach a maximum value, and relatively large proportions of potassium salts would characterize this state. aoe terms may be designated to indicate the progressive stages, and in their natural order are: (1) The trona period—sodium carbonate and bicarbonate in about equal amounts preponderate; (2) The sulphate period—separation of sodium sulphate; (3) The sodium chloride period—maximum proportions of sodium chloride; (4) The complete desiccation period—maximum percentage of potassium chloride and presence of borates. In the case of the uninterrupted desiccation of a saline lake the successive stages mentioned above would grade insensibly one into the other. The actual case would be further complicated by temperature variations, seasonal and periodical, by inter- ruptions caused by the dilution of lake waters, by rainfall and stream discharge, and by silt, mud, and ceolian deposition. Wind and wave action would tend to thicken the shore deposits. The thinning out of the lake waters at the margin would set up there more favorable conditions for crystallization than in the deeper portions. In 1 The Occurrence of Potassium Salts in the Salines of the United States. Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils, U.S. Dept. of Agr. 2 Data for this figure were taken from Bul. No. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 59-65. 20814—14-_4 50 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the marginal portions silt Sore would be greatest, and the salines deposited here would be characterized by a large proportion of insoluble material. In a single large basin the lake during evaporation might be divided into several smaller lakes, and each would have its individual conditions and in each case would form saline deposits differing from the others. Lastly, the nature of the salines would be expected to differ in different lake basins. The proportions between chlorides, sulphates, carbonates, My R Wy NN . NS X SHE ly eS nS RS aks XN ° se 88 i” Sones HG SR cK DiS o' OWENS LAAE ae ae zo = ae re FS Ve ve ‘Song AK Cs SUCCESSIVE CROPS OF CRYSTALS (Ve Ca3 _ eye rongR ZZ Sl =a a nose ro / Z =] ye ie Sog. SUCCESSIVE CRORS OF CR KSTALS o 10. VZORIBO 40 50 «60 = @0 90 700 PEP CEIVT- r Fia. 6.—Order of deposition of salts in Owens Lake and Mono Lake. bicarbonates, and the basic ions present would vary somewhat from the two samples chosen for establishing our criteria. Another condition requires discussion, Salines are deposited upon and in lake bot- toms. The lake sediments would include saline waters and, as desiccation proceeded, the lake sediments would include waters containing oradually increasing amounts of saline material. When saturation is reached not only would brine be expected but individual crystals of the different salts would also be so included. If crystallization da Resin faster than sedimentation, the lake sediments would contain larger and er proportions of saline material. If sedimentation proceeded faster than crys- tal ization, smaller proportions of saline material would ne expected. It is evident POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 51 that crystallization must proceed at a comparatively slow rate under natural condi- tions at the beginning of desiccation, and, as desiccation proceeds, the rate of crystal- lization must increase to a maximum. Final desiccation of the mother liquors must be a long drawn-out process, if at all completed. It is not impossible to expect that at this stage of desiccation sedimentation by xolian action might proceed rapidly enough to absorb the final mother liquor. The crystalline mass formed during the final stages of desiccation would also absorb portions of the mother liquor at the end. The saline content of a mud, assuming that it has absorbed a brine which is saturated and at point of crystallization, has been calculated in the following: A wet mud with a specific gravity of 2 and composed of mineral particles 2.6 would have a void space of 37.4 per cent by volume. lf 1 cubic foot were filled with a brine of specific gravity 1.25, the brine would weigh 29.3 pounds. Chatard’s experiments on the Owens Lake water showed a brine of 1.26 specific gravity at incipient crystallization; and this contained 30.56 per cent by weight of salines. The brine filling 1 cubic foot of the mud would contain approximately 9 pounds of salines. This would be equiva- lent to 8.1 per cent of the weight of the dry mud.! Dry mud samples containing an excess of 8.1 per cent of saline material would indicate saturated solution conditions with some crystallization and deposits of salines; less than 8 per cent it would be con- cluded that the mud had captured an unsaturated brine. If it is assumed that the mass of saline crystals would contain a void space of 30 per cent of its volume and the resulting mother liquor had a specific gravity of 1.3, the weight of the brine solution contained in 1 cubic foot would be 24.4 pounds. If we assume the specific gravity of the salines to be 1.9, the weight of the brine absorbed would be 29.0 per cent of the weight of the dry saline material, or 22.4 per cent of weight of brine and salt. This would not be sufficient to absorb all of the mother liquors at the final stages of crystallization. Interpreting the chemical data obtained by the deep bore and the three surface bores, and using the criteria which have been established, I have reached the con- clusion below. The initial stages of Searles Lake were similar to Lake Lahontan. The lake at this period might have been over 1,200 feet in depth, and there is no reason to suppose that it was other than fresh. The drying up of the lake must have extended over a great length of time. The first part of the record, 600 to 627 feet, indicates that the lake had reached saturation and had begun to deposit salines. The brines at this stage deposited salines low in carbonates, high in chlorides and sulphates, and notice- ably high in potassium. Either sedimentation proceeded at a rapid rate or crystal- lization must have been slow. The latter is more likely the case. At a depth of 586 to 596 feet the brine was diluted sufficiently to stop crystallization. The saline content of this brine figures out as follows: Per cent. Rotassimxchilondes sme Ae se) ee Se See ee es Ache aee 5. 48 Solna "ela overs ees ches eh ee yt eee ae Ey in el ees rar Bae 59. 15 SocmmnMysul plate: Mikes Mek SIRS The oka yeear eg meat OG dele as nie 29. 04 SOaMuMMcanbonMatertiaiawee Lew ete ee ay Pie ee eee Heol Soaium-sbicarbomatesee eas Moke se yh ee Se ins 2. 44 During this stage carbonates were accumulating in the lake waters. Concentra- tion of the water followed and salines were again deposited (575 to 580 feet; samples Nos. 223 and 224). From 427 to 540 feet salines were steadily deposited and inclosed by the sediments. The brine at this stage must have approximated in composition evaporated Owens Lake water, for carbonates are found in increasing amounts. The conditions must have approximated the trona period. During this period the rate of crystallization exceeded sedimentation. The content of potassium ishigh. From 227 to 427 feet the record is lacking. At 227 feet conditions approaching the sul- phate period are indicated. ‘The salines are low in carbonates and high in sulphates and chlorides. Potassium still remains high and amounts to 3.72 per cent of the saline residue (sample 211). From 80 to 227 feet the record is lacking. The central bore of the Dolbear series indicates that at 65 to 79 feet depth the trona period occurred, followed at 50 to 65 feet by the sodium chloride period, and this was followed by a sulphate period at 35 to 50 feet. An interruption is indi- cated here. More than likely a humid period diluted the lake and stopped crystalli- 1 From experiments upon slime cakes formed by vacuum filtration, I have found that the densest por- tion ofa slime cake, formed under a pressure of 11 pounds per square inch, has a specific gravity of 1.84, and a water content of 27.9percent. Using these figures and assuming a brine of 1.3 specific gravity and a saline content of 30 per cent by weight would give a saline content for the dried cake of 13 per cent. This figure can be used comparatively with the one obtained by calculation. I am inclined to use the figure obtained by the previous calculation, since the slime experiment does not take into account the time element nor the greater pressures to which mud in the bottom of a lake would be subjected. 52 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. zation. From 18 to 35 feet a sulphate period followed, and this in turn was closed by the chloride period. Two periods of desiccation are indicated in the closing stages— the present one and one (recent geologically) at some unknown time before. The marginal bore also indicates an interruption in the desiccation. A passage from the trona to the sulphate period was followed by a trona period. The last trona period passes gradually into the chloride period, with possible indications of another interruption at 25 to 30 feet depth. More or less sedimentation marked this portion of the deposit. The final capping with a mud layer 13 feet thick closed the cycle of events at this point. The important question of what became of the residual mother liquor which must have covered the saline bed at the close of the last desiccation period has not been discussed. The suggestion by J. Walther, quoted by Clarke,! that residual bitterns might be absorbed by wind-blown sands, and by capillarity brought to the surface, wind eroded, and carried away, occurs as a plausible explanation. Undoubtedly some such action took place locally, but it could not have been on a sufficient scale to account for the removal of all of the mother liquors. The fact that the upper portion of the central bed contains a large proportion of sodium chloride and a brine lower in potassium content than the brine beneath suggests that the closing stages of desic- cation must have closely paralleled present conditionsin Death Valley. Searles Lake, in passing through the last stages of desiccation, must have deposited sodium chloride, as well as other salts, over a much larger area than that occupied by the present cen- tral bed. The shallow lake of mother liquor occupying the central depression must have received periodic accessions of saline material from these marginal deposits. Continued over a long time the effect would be to build up a bed of saline material in which the content of potassium salts would not be conspicuous and which would contain the diluted original mother liquor absorbed in its interstices. Continual accession of salines from the margins would result in a top bed of saline material comparatively poor in potassium salts. This explanation appears to me to be the most reasonable. The central salt bed over practically the whole area of 12 square miles contains in its interstices a brine which, below the top bed of sodium chloride, is characterized by a relatively high content of potassium. According to Dolbear, the brine con- taining the high content of potassium salts is confined to a vertical horizon of some 47 feet. Below this horizon the brinés contain relatively less potassium salts. The following is an analysis of the rich brine taken from bore hole A7 on the N-S center line and just south of the center of the salt area: Analysis of brine from Searles Lake, expressed in percentages of the anhydrous residue. [Sampie collected by E. E. Free; analysis by W. H. Ross, of tha Bursa of Soils.] Constituent. Per cent. |) Constituent. Per cent. Constituent. Per cent. 33.57 Miri oo oe oS ee es | None.) eee csedantsebeseeeee 0. 004 6: 064 Cn asst pee ee None m): SO¢ssa22 7-02 ee eee 12.96 O10) Pa Oy ae £0124) COsc-wacweneeiesaeiecs 6.70 Notte, jl Fe2Og. 5 22a sone ae 0038 (PO ete eee 30 None: || (SiQs2 =. 2248 ora- 2 eee | SO2BANOZ a2 see None None: {| Chere 223. 54S Se 37. 02 AsOs: 022.2 SER Se 0 Traces dle BE: tse eaacey eee eeY 2094; |}eBiOz, hase Bee cB: 3.00 This is of the nature of a residual mother liquor. It consists of chlorides in greatest amount, sulphates, carbonates, practically no bicarbonates, and borates. It is con- spicuous by the presence of bromine, iodine, and arsenious oxide. The sodium- tassium ratio in this brine is 5.5. The average of 14 of the samples from the deep oring, omitting results upon crystals and Nos. 217 and 215, is 15.5. This would indi- cate that the water collected in the early stages of Searles was not unlike that of the present lakes in which the sodium-potassium ratio is 20. Supplementary analyses by A. R. Merz upon samples collected by E. E. Free are given in Table X XIX (Appendix). The brine body is contained in a mass of coarsely crystalline material, more or less honeycombed. The portion occupying the central mass of salt is richest in potassium Poe pe borates below the upper salt crust of 18 feet thickness and above the 65- oot level. 1 Bul. No. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 224. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 53 Dolbear! presents the following estimate of quantities for the 47-foot bed of brine and crystallized salts: In brine: Tons. Potasstumiehlonide sad tie Suiyeid See! eho te ts Ta as 6, 455, 600 NMUMVOLOUS WONA eee Ma ct Mae ae yee se Leia. anus 1, 900, 000 SodMimmcarhonateme ss. vee eS hare ern 6, 630, 000 In saline material: TELay ee FSISUIRT Ta 0 OT Ke) fea I Se RS 23, 900, 000 POMOC MOUS MOLAR 4 823s Se Re ak Pek ee 15, 200, 000 SOcumncanWonate sperms sae ky ms Lee NN ee Ok Sly ee 108, 500, 000 OCU bicarhonatessomeecgh Mn. he) oes se eeehy 42, 700, 000 AYRE Mh ONE Loven Vey ee ict ae a ha eee BUM YA ee et ear 144, 000, 000 NVSTe iG HO nt Seal terrae Rie ae val ieaeh ss eh iokates SIR ARSE AS lee 656, 000, 000 The figures given are conservative. Dolbear states that the brine contains 4.49 per cent of potassium chloride. The result upon the Bureau of Soils samples is less than this, 3.51 per cent being obtained by their analyses. Comparison of saline residues. [Per cent of anhydrous residue.] Ca. | Mg. | Na K. Cl. Br. I. | SO4. | COg. | PO«. | AsOs. | BsO7z. Searles........- 0.0 Trace.| 33.57 | 6.06 | 37.02 |0.094 |0.004 |12.93 | 6.70 | 0.30; 0.083 3.00 Death Valley....| .002 | 0.003 | 36.12 | 2.63 | 53.70 |....-.|...-.- BPA G1) eee cealioskcacck Present Silver Peak...... 1.05 -64 | 35.14 | 2.94 | 58.86 |......)...... EPA A BOUA eee Seile saa ce Trace. Owens! 2.........| .02 -O1 | 38.09} 1.62 | 24.82 |......)...... 9.93 |24.55 il 05 14 Mono?........-.- . 04 10 | 37.93 | 1.85 | 23.34 |....../.....- 12.86 |23.42 |.....-|.------- 32 Great Salt Lake?.} .33 | 2.22 | 33.31 | 1.92 | 55.36 |......|...-.- 6. 53 WA REnen el ANS Oger Encscoasen Pyramid 2.......- -25 | 2.28 | 33.84] 2.11 | 41.04 |......]...... O20 FEE 28 5 | rarer rst ara etovotelsieteisiate Winnemucca?. 55 49 | 36.68 | 1.94 | 47.88 |......]...... 35 00, OBB) |boascclicssssccsllooctoconse Walker?......... 90 | 1.56 | 34.83 |....... 2B OU Soe Sel soouce PAP AAR Vath llnharcs saacbeal bnoencocde 1 Owens Lake, nitrate=0.45 per cent. 2 Clarke, Bul. No. 491, U.S. Geol. Survey, pp. 144-146. Comparison of the saline residues from residual brines, from lake waters in which concentration has proceeded to a considerable extent and from lake waters in which concentration is in initial stages is shown in the accompanying table. Regional dif- ferences are, of course, apparent, and must be considered. With the exception of the calcium and magnesium content, the saline residue of the Death Valley brine closely approximates that from Great Salt Lake. Silver Peak is lower in sulphates but more nearly approximates Death Valley. Mono and Owens Lake closely compare and, save for the higher proportion of carbonate, approximate the Searles brine. The residues of Pyramid and Winnemucca are relatively higher in chlorides and lower in sulphates than Mono and Owens. The residue of Walker Lake is high in sulphates and carbonates and lower in chlorides than Pyramid or Winnemucca. Little concen- tration of potassium is indicated in the last two groups, but decided concentration is shown in the first group, and borates are progressively concentrated from the third to the first group. Nitrate is concentrated irom the third to the second group. Great Salt Lake is the only water in the second and third groups in which precipitation of a is taking place. This residue can be considered intermediate between groups land 2. COLUMBUS MARSH. Columbus Marsh is near Coaldale, Esmeralda County, Nev. The area is 32.5 square miles. It receives the drainage of Fish Lake Valley from the south and the basin immediately surrounding the marsh. Two shore lines are present, one about 60 feet above the flat and the other, reported by E. E. Free, at 104 feet. The lake could not have been of much greater extent than the marsh. The comparative shallowness would indicate a relatively small amount of salines. The present surface is a broad plain roughened by very small, more or less rounded, hummocks. There is very little salt in the form of crusts. The surface is dry enough at most times to support a road 1 Eng. and Mining Jour. cited before. 54 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. across the central part. The marsh has some of the characteristics of Rhodes Marsh. No chemical data are available, except those published by the United States Geological Survey in the press bulletin noted below.'! In this report Gale describes the dis- covery of a mud at depths from 18 to 38 feet, containing a small percentage of soluble salts, and a high content of potash in the soluble salts. The analyses follow: Analyses of samples from Columbus Marsh, Nev. [W. B. Hicks, analyst.] Percentage of total soluble salts. Total No. ofsample. Depth. | soluble salts. K K:0. KCl Feet. | Percent. DE eee Roce ae mmaeie nae see icc se nig aRle aici at GEESE 1 17.20 1.67 2.01 3.18 ~ {Ree oP OSS RSA Ea ieee oo RY ees Bee Be ae, 43 be 3 9.07 2.55 3.07 4.85 Deck cn acnm se ooce bonnes iceed sadies - Saeete eee Sees 44 8.88 2.48 2.99 4.73 CNA Ee ae ce mere see te tay nein es eee et BEES 10.15 2.95 3.55 5.62 US Fe Sees Senet ren GER ee Mec ge ee Nees he ae 12 1.93 @) (4) 1) Be Sa son see oe eke ce eclecieense bees eee ee Ee 18 5.17 16.64 20.05 31.72 ie a Bo peinn pate e He oe BOERS Ace eee eee tae eee Betee aE 27 6.30 20.90 25.18 39.83 eee Leb EA ee WRLC eee een eiseerer 30 6.17 13.69 16.49 26.09 Bee arse Soe eee rene ae eee ete SE eaten 33-38 6.22 17.12 20.63 32.64 1 Not determined. The results are unlike anything as yet reported and their full significance can not be determined without further investigation. The low saline content, 6 per cent, together with the average potassium content, 17.09 per cent (average of results from 18 to 38 feet), would give a potassium content of 1 per cent on the original material dried. The conditions very much suggest that in this occurrence we have a sample of the absorption of a residual mother liquor by wind-blown desert material. It is a matter of doubt whether this mud and brine could be_utilized. The removal of a brine from a mud would be attended with greater difficulties than would be the case with the Searles brines. In the latter case the brines are contained in a coarsely crystalline mass and there is comparatively free movement of the brines. In the for- mer case (a more or less compact mud) there would be slow movement of the brines. The most significant thing is not so much the workability of the muds as their high potassium content and the possibility of a larger brine deposit equally rich in potas- sium at depth. The results of further work in this locality will be awaited with interest. Marsh deposits of borax were worked at Columbus, but at present nothing is being done.- These deposits do not show any points of special interest. DIXIE VALLEY. Dixie Valley, called Osobb, or Salt Valley, in the Fortieth Parallel Survey Report, lies just east of the Sweetwater range in Churchill County, Nev. It was occupied by a shallow lake which at its maximum covered the present valley to a depth of 150 feet. The Railroad Valley Co. explored this area for potash salts by a number of bores, some extending to 100 feet in depth. The bores showed in the central de- pression a bed of salt 11 feet thick, mixed with mud, and below this a bed of black mud, 33 feet thick, containing a few crystals of gaylussite. The brine body under- lying the salt contains salines composed of 92 per cent sodium chloride, 4 per cent sodium carbonate, and from traces to 0.5 per cent potash. The saline efflorescences consist of sodium carbonate and sulphate, but no potash. The highest content of potash found was 1 per cent of the soluble salts. Through the courtesy of the Railroad Valley Co. and E. E. Free the results of several bores and the chemical examination of the brines from the bores are pre- sented in the following table: Record of drill hole No. 1, Dixie Valley. [Located slightly northeast of the center of sec. ae 23 N., R.36 E., being the southwest corner of claim 0. 42.) Feet. Date 4 SAE Se SAL. oe Ieee Le ee Orn) tow Black malty mad... fre gils steel Soe ee Lraton2 Salt with some: mud)? 2e0e JS. ws ee Se a ee ee 2ae to. Pd 1 Press Bul., U. S. Geol. Survey, Feb. 12, 1913. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 55 Feet. ekg with scattered Salt ChYStAlS +. be 10.5 to 14.5 Thin layer of salt with some flow of water........------------------- 14.5 to 14.7 Yellow clay somewhat gritty in upper portion............-.-..-...--- 14.7 to 18 eRe ye ene ae CEPE! GHEE BON LES SALE BB RODOL AE pele eee TO 18 to 25 Black mud becoming dry and tough in lower portion...........-.--- 25 = to. 83 Analyses of brines from drilled holes. Conventional combinations, grams per 100 ¢c.c. Total . solids on | K20, per evapora-| cent o Sample. Depth. Total by tion, total NaCl. | NagSO«4. | NasCO3. | KCl. addition. (2228 Per solids. “| 100 c. c. Hole No. 1: Feet. ce Surface. 27.01 5.02 3. 83 0.41 36. 27 37. 62 0. 69 PAE Oe, Ee 4 26.37 4.39 4.12 - 46 35.34 38.70 15 Ll Oo Sse Seen eee 26 26. 91 4.03 2.65 -19 33.78 35.10 34 EO) ices echt Rie ee in 64 25.08 4.37 3.30 28 33. 03 32. 80 54 URGE SC Eka ste TA ene re] ferris ces Sse) [ete aay [es at ab adr a ae 34. 48 38 RID batiedae avast SLM hatie seek cmal abate ame saa eee) eer ok bed ie eemne Bee Es 34. 64 42 EMM Se eae Sat tee 91 23.71 3.73 3.48 24 31.16 31.57 48 Gh aos eae Nase Rae 8 OF llserad tes sell | Sener eel 1S ee wes | OCH 8 SON ae ee RR 8 31.70 41 Hole No. 2 Die ance ose Noe SESSE G2 A ae Be 5 | SS AC He Sco EAE a eet) Ee oe 36. 48 54 Hite en Oo eee eS Ee oe Guo Beeesssace Saas cece cclbseee Sse 4] Sees Ge wet tec 35. 82 47 i Suiiece SESS Seo aeee OS om | Beem ce saree | ose ee ee So eee es eee tale cees es oae 35. 63 43 GS aa Re ee ore PO | ee Be re one eaae seme eeoecel cece nes Semeceeess 35.19 33 Ne ibe ae ae Less OTS isc aeee otal Ge caticaaelal teebie ace toee anal tae pecnee 35.50 40 56 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Analyses of brines from drilled holes—Continued. Conventional combinations, grams per 100 c.c. Total solids on | K:0, per evapora-| cent of Sample. Depth. Total by tion, total NaCl. | NasSOu. | NasCO3. | KCl. | saqition.|@fams per| solids. ‘| 100 c. e. Hole No. 2: Feet. Gand Soseeasoosases Bios | bepaseoner| Po-eandsed Peacadicaca|bsss-- s2)lsoscceoees 33. 24 Ch ee Ase 55 28. 02 4.69 3.25 0.31 36. 27 36. 29 Mp act eeuitceededonoe (/ hel Soaaecdees Pacecuerpe Pstecsos-s\asotds-|seh-en 30-6 35. 66 GSjh sco gantonboocost (/ | PEP SAAR ees aan aeiaremes Pec caaooaeiseeete soso secs 36. 47 Too ostosshsosrensad COPS BaePeesoce SEAaE Pr Snel Ror mr mcosa| soca otc Se soceske- 34.34 GP aceeseeeeee oases OTS) fo UES EES See hee | eee 36.02 (ids acpceslceeanadess 94.5 27.79 4.56 3.53 33 36. 21 37.16 Hole No. 3 Wi Meee SRR GESE OSE IBS| Beer Sooe as Pe cneose ss borcm bons: |Sbaaoe s4ieeS- cae. 34.99 . 28 GSo tee cle on occ intaias 2.5 28. 99 3.65 1.77 15 34. 56 34. 81 .27 GOn a ee ener BB) Boseeeecrol Ccacancses| |asesoearc cllstocaoss|iscicatcoese 35. 00 -27 (Al bp es Ae ae Bb WS acca rma] eoels Jetie | sitet roll tere ee Peete eee 35. 60 +25 ipl & Set Ge amor ose 1453. ace e doe ee | Soccer sa] = ae Shee ta| sepa eae 33. 92 25 REE se necomenee tl) SANS eoeeseee ae beseshossa| bassoobatS| Sat sso cllste-4---- 35.79 -23 oer epee phe Bene oesbcel Benet eaSel Haas oStal lp ashocdllsasascaene 34. 65 -19 (he ABA e ee eater 45 28. 42 4.68 2. 21 16 35.47 35.30 -29 ifm ae Seep Ssaeoe SHY | eoceteneeellpsocmceseclsosnnecscsleoseccosisetoccocce 35.77 35 WO rebates Se Seles sees 63) | ajeisinte ewicint lee oe «ls femeleis a ota | See Oe eee eee 35.01 -30 Wiseeke eeeeoebsesbe (hell Bone aA sal eae Salise Se eaeedel bee te sels eessubs se 28.70 25 LSE EAE Ane pearics de| poets esse 26. 92 4.34 3.12 28 34. 67 34.96 -40 The section shown by the borings indicates very much the same conditions and history as were described in the Silver Peak Marsh. - We have here the case of a shal- low lake passing through alternate periods of desiccation. At times desiccation pro- ceeded to such a point as to, cause concentration of the lake waters and deposits of salt. More than likely each salt bed was marked by the-evaporation of the lake and the formation of a salt playa. RAILROAD VALLEY. Railroad Valley is in the northeastern part of Nye County, Nev., about 130 miles northeast of Tonopah and 80 miles southwest of Ely. It is 10 to 20 miles wide from east to west and somewhat over 100 miles long north to south. The flat, central por- tion of the valley has an area of about 200 square miles. The drainage basin is about 6,000 square miles. Free states that shore-line indications show a lake level varying from 50 to 300 feet above the present bed of the dry lake. A number of playas, covered by thin salt crusts, occupy the bed of the present dry lake. (Plate IV, fig. 2.) Analyses of these crusts and the accompanying brines have been given in a previous section, and many of them show a high potassium content. The Railroad Valley Co. put down a bore 1,204 feet deep on the east-west half-section line of sec. 2, T.8 N., R.56 E. The bore is about one-fourth mile west of the west north-south line of sec.1, same T. The log of the bore is herewith presented. Log of potash drill hole No. 1, Railroad Valley, Nye County, Nev. [Drilling commenced Mar. 17, 1912; ceased Aug. 27, 1912. All operations in charge of D. H. Walker.) Feet. Mixed clay and sand, mostly sand (fresh water, not artesian).........- 1l- 32 Quicksand (iresh-water)-... 41. .... 2202). 23.8 a eee apes 32-103 White clayy. ss) pipe sige 25 2s eel bd ee LE ie ee 103-104 Alternations of quicksand and clay. Some fine gravel among the quick- sand (artesian waters in sands, especially at 128 feet)....--.....----- 104-136 Cla EP) oo uA tb co Sue eee < bo, ee ehis one epee eee 136-178 Very fine quicksand (artesian water, especially at top of division)...... 178-214 Gye iat. LN Bs ON 214-220 Quicksand with fine gravel (artesian water)...............--..-------- 220-222 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clays (artesian water in most of the'sands? especially at 250 feet).:-:2 2.2202 se ae 2 eee 222-255 Cie ee Seek Ae an a ne ann nmin Seamer E ec 255-260 GUICKSAT S2 ae cle wider cjbecicdne vs see eno bl tee eee eee 260-264 POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 57 Feet. Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay..........--...-.--------- 264-275 LEP iUE TG) BUS Sats A eS go: Vk les 8 eh a A a 275-285 Sand with coarse and fine gravel, including pebbles ? inch in diameter RESUME WALOE) Ease Deemer cap ais Rone Sense scite la wie ele ae 285-290 Renn cuDrowmMIsmsanGeectse ses ee kee hee Lec eee ete cee 290-305 “272 SIRES LENT 5 26 scoce Seco do doee Ae oekledusucasueneuesesse4aopeee 305-336 Rapid alternations of clay and quicksand, the latter containing a little Hnestenvelartesial Water). i ssoews oe eo 336-340 "Letty hese OULD TR SLU CUE AE ane i UL UP sae et 340-350 Quicksand, probably with occasional thin layers of clay.........-.---- 300-375 Np LETS IPRS GLENS ee ia Esp ee ee 8 a ee Mea 370-390 Giekeand (small astesian flow): i. 050025) oo oie eee itt. 390-391 DEIR GoD Nes Ras Se al eo aa a 391-418 Gimekcand (smallartesian flow)-:2 2222-222 22. eee ete 418-419 LST GIID) ChE Asie iS SSA AAI a i a SS a a Oe 419-429 pamansmalbatbesian NOW )o. soc005 st oci. S ees eek eee eos cn gees 429-430 Hard brown clay with occasional very thin sand streaks.............-- 430-445 CSTE CL DAV So Cis MASI Ree OATES RA Sy aac am nen nf Pa RS Ye a na 445-459 Rictecotimvelowish Claye i 2: Ss eee ie pe Oh ON NS en 459-461 Guaeksane: (artesian* water) 222-62 l eee ee ee et 461-462 Wianiecest te Kavala ey te as So ee Eh kan VES DS Eales 462-463 PRI EUREETILCLAY Meu npie eteie tise te sta. Sarat Nr ee ee ee eee 463-470 Veryiine quicksand (artesian water)....--... 02 5/.00020.-2-4.0222225-- 470-471 DME Te eOORCUUG Ae Nec eae ie eee a eS wren Mane oe tec oie ar 471-478 MPDEEGT TNE ENIAC |e ee at ees ae aN A Al Aap A I ee ee gg 478-479 13 1 RSSSEg SETTER Fae SO em ae eG, = Rn a 479-480 Rie Ne INGA Um ee Ree IR TMT IR Nun ia ha tele gids ee 480-490 Blue-green clay with occasional thin sand streaks.........----..-..-.-- 490-493 SeTNURGN YP PN Eee Sey. PTS aieinias Siders ws cinta fad dleia cs 6 ose ore 493-500 Blue-green clay, with occasional thin streaks of coarse sand.........--- 500-504 White clay, fragments showing jointed structure..............---.----- 504-511 MC TMPE NTO; OTEOM CIA on ssa sc. ha ce ee a ae eae ee sien Ab Gest 511-519 Quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) ......... 519-520 (GARDE? CLE obo 6 Semicon en ar ae a een SU este 520-523 Gray clay with occasional thin strata of sand (artesian waters in all sands. Waters smell of sulphuretted hydrogen)...........------------------ 523-529 CIP (Cl ENT SG aise RRS 8 Gd A ae NST LRM ORE HESS le 529-533 Very fine quicksand (artesian water smelling of sulphuretted hydrogen) - 533-534 HME emCON CLAYS <2 0 jac Lis ee oe) ale me SEY pages emote dar te Ble 534-539 Quicksand with some rather coarse gravel (strong artesian flow. Water . carries no sulphuretted hydrogen)..-.-..-.-...-.-2-----2--+----+-+-- 539-541 yLdekaumere Oo waAshyelavian ne shih Saal oe Oe a Se toe Pa AE 541-549 “LESTE DPMS) Gl i cae I aha Ss ay ar SE 549-554 PERE ETIBCL AR ier cis cy aie er aieee/ ue 'cy ola tae ue ERA ye eat Cra Ray op ene 504-556 Menmvatauohswitite clay 20 5545. oe. le ea See se eS Os 506-560 CG point el aspera Ls 0 Py an ee i MP a ley a 560-561 1 BSN Y= RESID CE NPT ol gh Ra eg NUD ee ARSC 561-583 NANTES CLES hh Li ek te ae I Ui aM Der. coe NE 583-586 Puiekcsands(smallartesian flow) 2... ~ 34 Ge 5. ee ee Ns 586-587 CIBAP 5 ) Sue ade 746-759 Rapid alternations of sand with brownish clay (small artesian flows in CHOHRATIOS) oo oe Tl Doe at icia eis Je che eine ieee « Eee 759-771 ardunrawrhishiGlay.. 02.6 st ss ges se Shee ene Sodas er 771-785 Ouicksaneartesian water). .20 00. $002. Te eee 785-786 BV Naga ate inj a Dictate cis asish, sim ajinres © Sale A ober eae Re oe 786-790 Sand (amall artesian flow)...:..-..5-- 0. seo 790-791 mews Clay Fo Fae isa nie ayepaimie scene's, 5.8 5, ee 791-798 api alternations of sand and clay... -.. 7225-77-22 e saeco oe eee 798-805 Hard brown Clay ice ae aes hae o-oo) ee ee 805-816 Quicksand and gravel (artesian water).......-.------- iMag ON, at eaphet 816-822 Hard iwhite clay S202 se a See 8s 822-824 Rapid alternations of brownish quicksands and clays. Some gravel # inch in diameter in the sands (very strong artesian flows in sands. Temperature’ of water,’ 22°C.) 220220220 b 2 2 8 ane nce ee 824-846 Browuush: elay.2. 5200 f2 00 loool ss 2 ee 846-850 pandvand.pravel. if 32. 2 i205 ee Oe 850-855 Rapid alternations of sand and clay. ---. 2-2 -ase oe ee 855-858 Wery.dine sand 2 252! 23. b a ne oe noe he ee ee 858-862 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish OY. oc. 2-32 ee eee 862-865 Gra vGlay.2.2 fools eee ee ee 865-876 Coarse, gravel (artesian water). 2.005.002 -. (2 22. Soe see eae 876-878 Wery fine sand 2.0. 56 $65 ooo ee le been nee bn ns 878-882 Rapid'alternations of clay and sand’<22 52). 232. 2kee ee er nee 882-886 KaranGlay es. lose dace: ow bee gaa Aon eee ae ee 886-889 Hine quicksand (artesian water) ° 7.005255... ee eee 889-892 Rapid alternations of sand and brownish clay........--....--.--------- 892-899 MRPAY, Clay. os bso ie UL i ee 899-908 Sand nd. coarse gravel (very strong artesian flows)....-.-..-..-.-.---.- 908-910 Very, dinesand.: . osc. sos t ss Se ee eee oe 910-922 Sand and coarse gravel (small artesian SOW) aio ec oe sees ee ee eee 922-924 Light-gray clay..:---.---.--+---. SiS anit ae seiere aie PRR aos art pear ae 924-924 Hainersand 4082400 02 TS ov ae a 934-941 AGN A CLAY 0-2 oo 8- Noe teed eee Sol ainie afB aia yee eee 941-945 DANG S25 soe ein Soe eis ae cee eee een ee ee ee 945-947 EUW, Clays: sc2.. 20 ees 2 an cin eye, oeie =e oe ee ee 947-953 Gray Clay en ne ee ee eee ee 953-967 Sand and gravel (small artesian flow). .....--.---:-----------.-.-.-.- 967-969 Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of at So la ee ee 969-980 Brown C1BY. . 222 - eieo Pyarsyadin ree: cre Hates eee ee Cee ee 980-1, 002 Hine, sand (Gry). oie oe ne ee ee ee ook tn ee ee 1, 002-1, 003 PALA MOWMACIAY...o coe ptate aa ee eae eee Te eae Ce eae 1, 003-1, 049 Dang. (dry)... oo em ce in Ae eee oe en a an 1, 049-1, 050 TOWN, CLAY 2. os os eign eee oe ae ape ae e aler ne 1, 050-1, 078 Quicksand (probably dry) 2-9 -- 502-2 ee i 078-1, 079 Brown clay with occasional very thin streaks of sand.................- rh 079-1, 085 (ough brown, clay... (fo 52 2 oc at eee ns oe eo ee ee L 085-1, 131 Very thin sand sea (diy) a nee eek oe ee oe ee a L, 131 Brown. clay... 2. coc ce mile ode mao = ate ees a oe el 1, 131-1, 140 Sand cemented by calcium carbonate, believed to be lake tufa........- 1, 140-1, 144 PPLCKY. CTA: CLAY mnie tae ge min ei ey ain ee 1, 144-1, 165 Rapid alternations of clay and sand. <-.-.--. 1222-25. s- oso 1, 165-1, 175 Lime-cemented sand. Probably lake tufa........-...-..........-.-- 1, 175-1, 190 Reddish clay with occasional very thin sand streaks (dry). .....-...-.- 1, 190-1, 204 Hine. sand, propablyuquicks. 00. eee ee oe eee 1, 204 The casing having stuck hopelessly in the cemented sand between 1,175 and 1,190, it was impossible to carry the hole deeper. The bore does not show either beds of salines or brines. The material obtained consists of muds, silts, clays, and quicksands. Artesian water was encountered at many points. The nonpenetration of saline beds by a single bore hole is not surprising when one considers the area of the central depression. The fact that artesian flows were encountered would argue that the bore was considerably without the central mud area, or the area of lowest depression. The former lake in evaporating may have separated into several parts, and thus we might have several saline beds of moderate thickness in the central area. The general silting of the whole area would render it POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 59 extremely difficult to locate these beds. Until proved otherwise by a number of bores, Railroad Valley must be looked upon as a possible source of buried salines. The question as to whether these salines will be characterized by a high potassium content is an open one. The finding of surface crusts and brines of relatively high potassium content proves nothing as far as we know at present about the buried salines and brines. A possible explanation of the high potassium content in the surface salines and brines may be found in the fact that there are a number of hot springs in this area, and these may have been responsible for the surface salines. Until analyses of the waters of these springs are available this is only conjecture. SAND SPRINGS FLAT. Sand Springs Flat areais described on the United States Topographic Sheet as ‘‘ Hight- mile Flat” and ‘‘Fourmile Flat.’’ It was called ‘‘ Alkali Valley” in Russell’s Mono- graph on Lahontan Lake. It lies 11 miles southeast of Fallon, in Churchill County, Nev. The area is about 37 square miles. It has a peculiar interest in that a bay of Lake Lahontan once occupied the area. The highest level of Lake Lahontan was 439 feet above the present flat, elevation 3,961. The desiccation of Lake Lahontan would have left a shallow lake upon the flat, and this, on evaporation, would have left a bed of salines. Russell states that the salt bed is from 3 to 5 inches thick near the margin and in the central portion is not less than 3 feet thick. Rain water has collected the salines in the southeast end of the flat. Russell! states that after rains a shallow brine lake of several inches depth and about 15 square miles in area occupies this Sopa No notable amounts of potassium have been reported from the salines of this area. SEVIER LAKE. Sevier Lake is in west-central Utah, Millard County. It is of some interest in that it was formerly a part of Lake Bonneville and for a long time was occupied by a shallow lake, which in recent times has dried up. Gilbert? describes the history of this lake. From his account I take the following: Sections of the saline beds in the central and marginal portions of the dried lake. Central. Marginal. 1. Top. Sodium sulphate, 2inches ...........-..- 1. Top. Sodium chloride cr:st, + inch. 2. Sodium sulphate with some sodium chloride, 1 | 2. Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate and mag- inch. Ss sulphate—free crystals mingled with water, 14 inch. 2 3. Sodium sulphate, 2 inches..............-...--- 3. Sodium sulphate with sodium chloride, a crust of coherent crystals, 4 inch. 4, Gray clay containing woody fiber, 2 inches..... 4, Sodium chloride with sodium sulphate; incoherent crystals mingled with water, 14 inches. 5. Fine sand containing fresh water shells, 6 | 5. Sodium chloride, with sodium sulphate, chemically inches. identical with No. 2, but fine-grained and with the consistence of an ooze; color white above, with oc- casional passages of pink and green beneath, 4 inch. Ga Gray Clayieetaes 4255915 nSsceseaeteccceeeets 6. Dark-gray mud, 2 feet. The analyses upon these from the same reference are given in the succeeding table: Constituent. Center. | Margin. | Brine. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Seal srian Sine ee Oe ee Se Se es See eet ae ee eee ere oe 84.6 14.3 15 SOMITE AL OM TiO epee ee aah maa sears 4 yaictesisise ine SE CIE sioner SOMRITITG HIOEIG Cees eerie Serie Pte ns Nol Seino a2 aotearoa ee WAICTIMUSUILPHALGs: cacti. es eee Re ee Seok eS Le eee EER eee Sa peeee MEOTESLMMUSULp abet cere ee eee eee aoe beateeeenete center ee. MAD MeSIITIMNCHIOLIG Gao eae oe teins scene nicchcteeccaoeesceer eee eee Potassium sulphate.... WVDOINSS cra. seen ersten o HERI) Oxee eague se av EES tage uBR SS SSUES HER RR EE EHGaeeeE 100.00 100.00 100.00 1 Monograph No. 11, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 235. 2 Monograph No. 1, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 244. 60 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The accumulation of sodium sulphate in the center is of interest. The absence of potassium compounds in the brine and the low content in the marginal deposits are conspicuous. The accumulations in Sevier Lake are undoubtedly due to compara- tive recent action. Deeper bores would have revealed more of the history of the basin and perhaps beds of salines characteristic of the Bonneville period would have been discovered. BLACK ROCK DESERT, NEVADA. The Black Rock and Smoke Creek Deserts are of notable extent. The northern extension of Lake Lahontan occupied this area, but no surface deposits of salines have been discovered. Some saline crusts can be found, but these are of little importance. A 500-foot well was put down at Sulphur, on the line of the Western Pacific Railroad and on the edge of the mud flat, but neither oil nor salines were found. West of Gerlach, salt is produced in small quantities by the evaporation of brines obtained from shallow wells. ; But few data of a chemical nature are available for this area. In the vicinity of Gerlach samples of mud were obtained from a shallow auger hole. From the same vicinity water samples were also obtained. The analytical results are given below. The muds show a high content of salines, and these consist of chlorides and sulphates, together with small quantities of carbonates. The potassium content is about what would be expected. The mud isa tenacious clay. The waters are somewhat similar in composition to the salines contained in the clays. ; Analyses of saline crust and muds from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada. Percentage of total soluble salts. Total solu- Sample and depth. Pigicalts: Ca. | Mg. | Na K. | CO3. | HCO3.| SO4 Cl F c Peck P. Ch. |B ct. | Peck (Pact ex Chaa eee to) eenGee IEAGE See erst. eS ee 5 Sees soya ces 1.56 | 0.02 | 34.41 | 1.12 | 0.05 | 0.10 |21.36 | 40.99 59. 68 uds: : Ga Pailee hs Soi che Seer ecieeEaeee -78 | .02 | 35.90 | 2.32 -16 .33 | 6.85 | 53.63 18.31 1 P2T OLS (ool A eR oe LR a ae see aril -03 | 36.09 | 2.06 | Tr. .66 | 7.84 | 52.57 23.19 PAS YY 0 (ol Re REET Se ln acc ee . 63 -02 | 36.32 | 2.28 0 -49 | 4.97 | 55.37 24. 83 aie (lo) ae ee eee ee re -68 | .03 | 36.48 | 2.33 0 .35 | 4.07 | 56.03 34. 47 1 Average ratio Na to K in muds is 16. Analyses of waters from the Black Rock Desert, Nevada. of total soli ion. Percentage of total solids on evaporation Seids on: Sample. Te | CES Ca. | Mg. | Na. | K. | COs. |HCOs.| SOy. | Cl. tion. ~ Parts per Pi eb. | Cks | ear Che | eCh. \cbte| be Cie eeencran eects 100,000. Water from surface trench..........- 0.48 | 0.08 | 36.03 | 1.49 | 0.10 | 0.46 | 4.64 | 55.11 5, 209 Average, 4springs...--.------------- rt -06 | 32.08 | 2.73 -19 | 2.97} 8.13 | 47.57 428.4 Balinese Hopspriripccs = en -- tssoe ee 2.48 | Tr. | 32.63 | 2.70 0} 1.35 | 11.25 | 47.93 444 {Saline clays and crust from point 1.5 miles northeast of Gerlach, Nev. Wate1 from surface trench from same place. Samples by W.S. Palmer; analyses by J. A. Cullen.] The waters from the four springs averaged were taken 0.25 mile from Gerlach. The temperature of these springs ranged from 16.1° to 32.2° C. Samples by W. S. Palmer: analyses by 8. C. Dinsmore. + The rer spring was three-fourths mile northwest of Gerlach. Sample by W. S. Palmer: analyses y J. A. Cullen. BURIED DEPOSITS OF SALINES. The deposits resulting from the desiccation of Searles Lake are exposed on the surface and their discovery was a simple matter. Geological reasoning indicates that the conditions exemplified by Searles must have been repeated at other places in the Great Basin. Evidences of Quaternary lakes are to be found in a number of places, but not in all places do we find the expected saline deposits. The largest Quaternary lake basin, excepting Bonneville, is Lahontan, and it is now occupied by Pyramid, Walker, Humboldt, Carson, and Winnemucca Lakes. Unlike Mono, POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 61 Owens, and Great Salt Lakes, the waters of these lakes are comparatively fresh. Geo- logical evidence goes to show that Lahontan Basin must have been the locus for an accumulation of salines for a long period. The inconsequential surface accumulations of salines in this basin, coupled with the anomalous condition of the present lakes, led Russell! to propose the following hypothesis: ‘‘After the last great rise of Lake Lahontan there was a long-continued episode during which its basin was more arid than at present. Evaporation during that, time is thought to have been equal to precipitation, and the residual lakes were reduced to the playa condition—that is, the remnants of the great lake gathered in the lowest depressions of its basin were annually or occasionally evaporated to dryness, and their contained salts were precipitated and either absorbed by the clays, etc., deposited at the same time, or buried beneath such mechanical deposits. This process may be observed in action in many of the valleys of Nevada in which ephemeral lakes occur. The broad naked playas of Black Rock, Smoke Creek, and Carson Deserts, as well as the level floors of the basins occupied by Pyramid, Winnemucca, and Walker Lakes, are in support of this hypothesis. Should the lakes just mentioned be evaporated to dryness, playas would be left similar to those in neighboring valleys of less depth. “Tt is pened the level floors of these valleys and lake basins that the more soluble salts once dissolved in the waters of Lake Lahontan are buried. Borings at certain localities might reveal the presence of strata of various salts, but in most cases they are probably disseminated through great thicknesses of clay, sand, and other mechan- ical sediments.”’ Russell’s? admirable discussion of the freshening of lakes by desiccation, together with the later review in the reference cited above, leaves little to be added. Under the discussion of the present and past rate of accumulation of saline materialit was hown that over some 95,000 square miles area a present accumulation of approximately 3,000,000 tons of salines per annum is taking place, and that in the humid period of the Quaternary this rate might have been more than four times as large. No even approximate estimate of Quaternary time for the basin has been made, and conse- quently no estimate of the probable quantity of salines can be made.? That it was large goes without saying. While absolute proof of Russell’s hypothesis has not been made, its probability is almost beyond question. If we admit it, the pertinent questions arise: Where are these deposits, and what is their probable value as a source of salines? The answer to the first question has been given by Russell. The answer to the second is given in part by the chemical studies of the deposits in Searles and Columbus Marshes, Death and Dixie Valleys, and the partially concentrated solutions of Mono, Owens, and Great Salt Lakes. Gilbert shows that Lake Bonneville overflowed and discharged its waters, together with their salines, into river waters which eventually found their way to the ocean. On account of the prevalence of older sedimentaries in the Bonneville basin and the low content of potassium in the brines of Great Salt Lake, together with the above fact, the Bonneville basin is not looked upon as a very favorable place for the discovery of the more valuable salines. On the other hand, Lake Lahontan and the Quaternary basins of the west, central, and southwest parts of the Great Basin have never reached an outlet. The regional rocks are largely volcanic, and consequently these Qua- ternary areas have been looked upon favorably as a possible source of valuable salines. Ti we consider that the present topography of the Lahotan Basin is, in a measure, a counterpart of the topography at the end of the final desiccation period, then we must conclude that the present lakes are holding within their shores the former areas of maximum depression, and, consequently, a part of the saline accumulations is buried in the sediments and beneath the waters of the present lakes. The remainder must be sought for in the mud playas and basins contiguous to the present lake basins. An examination of Russell’s map of Lake Lahontan at its highest water stage? indicates a division of the lake into five major lakes, Carson Lake, Black Rock Desert, Pyramid, Winnemucca, Walker, and Honey Lakes, given in the order of their mag- 1 Bul. No. 530 A, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 16. 211th Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, Wy 244. 3 Russell estimates the duration of the post-Lahontan period to be less than 300 years. Gilbert estimates that at the present rate of accession some 34,000 years would be necessary to account for the sodium chlo- ride in Great Salt Lake. I-have calculated the following: At present rates of accession it would take 18,576 years for the chlorine accumulation in Owens Lake; 9,028 years for the chlorine accumulation in Mono Lake (assuming the same per square mile annual rate of accumulation that was determined for the Truckee Basin); 4,529 years for the chlorine accumulation in Pyramid Lake; 840 years for the chlorine accumulation in Walker Lake, and 6,452 years for the nitrate accumulation in Owens Lake. The impos- sibility of determining the average rate of accumulation renders such determinations of little value. 4 Eleventh Annual Report, U.S. Geol. Survey, pl. 5, p. 32, and the U. S. Geol. Survey topographic sheets, Granite Range, Nev.; Disaster, Nev.; and oney Lake, Cal. 62 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nitude. Each of these lakes on evaporation must have left deposits of salines. It is not improbable that in some cases several separate deposits were left. The Black Rock Desert is at present a comparatively level plain. As far as known, no notable ap pene of salines have been discovered. That they exist in some places beneath the desert sand or absorbed within the muds is probable. The great area of this desert (1,600 square miles approximately within the 4,000-foot contour) and its extreme flatness would render the search for these deposits difficult. Pyramid Lake, the deepest of the present lakes, is 360 feet deep. This basin must have been TRUCKEE FP. PYAALI/O 0 : IE BE ee se WALAER PF. WALAEP “ae 5 . ae PS ot at ee CHEE WINNELAUCCA nN. re Pi ier a ee WW Yoo : eo 200 ss Ses Sts BB eee VO COTES ——— Fic. 7.—Profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono, and Walker Lakes. the deepest of the Quaternary basins. It is an open question whether the waters of Black Rock Desert or those of Carson Lake drained into this basin. Present topo- graphic conditions would indicate no particular drainage from either place. In fact, if we consider that Pyramid Lake receives the largest stream we would conclude that the overflow from this lake during the intermediate stages of evaporation would have been into the Black Rock Desert and into the Carson. Topographic conditions seem to indicate that Walker Lake did not drain in the direction of Carson Lake. The lowest pass between Carson and Pyramid Lakes is at Ragtown, and at an elevation of 4,100 feet. If we assume that the Carson and Truckee Rivers had flows relatively the same as at present, we should expect Pyramid Lake to discharge some of its con- tents into the Carson. There are no present evidences as to the direction of flow from POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 63 one lake to the other, and perhaps the assumption that there was no considerable flow from one lake into the other is the nearest to the fact. This would lead us to conclude that in each of these basins we might expect salines at depth. The present depth of Pyramid and Walker Lakes, needless to say, would preclude exploration work in these localities. The profiles of Pyramid, Winnemucca, Mono, and Walker Lakes are shown in figure 7. These profiles show the deepest portions of the lakes to be in the central part or away from shores or inlet streams. Topographic evidence goes to show that the saline deposits in Black Rock Desert must*have been spread over a great area and must have been relatively thin. The difficulty of pros- pecting or exploring has been commented upon. Carson Lake is comparatively shallow and would not offer serious obstacles to exploratory work. The fact that the Carson Sink receives the drainage of both the Humboldt and the Carson Rivers, each of which drains relatively large areas, as well as the extent of the Quaternary lake, makes this basin comparatively attractive for exploration. The greater area of the Carson Desert and the difficulty of securing accurate information from surface studies as to the probable structure of this basin would render a search for salines almost as difficult as in the Black Rock Desert. The U. S. Geological Survey put down a bore in the Carson Desert at what was hypothetically assumed to be the axis of the deepest depression in the Quaternary lake basin. The site of the bore is close to the north end of Timber Lake in sec. 30, T. 21 N., R. 30 E. The bore was sunk to a depth of about 985 feet and failed to penetrate either saline beds or brines. The log of the bore to a depth of 320 feet is | (A) BEGINNING OF DE. S/OCCATIONV i Fic. 8.—Cross sections showing probable conditions existing in Carson Lake at different stages of desiccation. published in the bulletin noted below.1 Sand, clay, and quicksand were the prin- cipal sediments penetrated to this depth. Artesian water was encountered at a num- ber of different levels. Examination of these waters showed them to be of low saline content. Certain samples showed from 0.10 to 0.22 per cent potassium.” Other water samples showed from traces to 0.1 per cent. At greater depths than that established by the record it is said that no notable quantity of saline material was found. A study of the Carson topographic sheet, together with the information shown by this bore, indicates that the bore was put down in the delta material deposited by the Carson River. That this delta deposit is of great thickness and outside of the area of possible occurrence of saline beds is not an unwarranted conclusion. We would expect sedimentation to be most active at the mouth of the Carson. Examination of older and more recent maps indicates changes in the position of the Carson River where it enters Carson Lake. The delta formed by the Carson during the Quaternary lake period must have been eroded in part and must have supplied the alluvial mate- rial of the present delta. The probable changes which took place during the evapora- tion of Carson Lake in this delta material and in the deeper portions of the basin are represented by figure 8. Three stages are indicated. In the first stage, or the begin- ning of desiccation, a deep lake is represented, in one end of which is a considerable delta deposit. The finer sediments and silts carried into the lake are represented as a thick bed upon the bottom. As the lake evaporated, erosion began in the former delta deposit and a new delta began to form from the débris of the old. This new delta would be expected to reach out as the lake evaporated and, as it were, push the lake farther and farther down its bed. The end of the desiccation period is represented in the } sketch. On the resumption of greater rainfall we would expect silts and sediments to be brought down from the erosion of the remnants of the older delta. Under certain conditions the saline beds would be closed over by this mate- rial. The bottom diagram, figure 8, shows the conditions at the end of the third period. An examination of c section would indicate that the saline deposits would be removed at some considerable distance from the remnants of the old delta. The flatness of the Carson Desert and its extent, particularly to the east, needs to be seen to be appreciated. 1Bul. No. 530A, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 18. 2P.obably on to’al soli’s. 64 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The shore lines in the bottom of the basin, which appear with great distinctness, indi- cate the slow recession and evaporation of the waters. Sufficient time is indicated for the development of a structure similar to that shown in sketch 6. Wind erosion, no doubt, played an important part in the closure of the saline beds. The soft char- acter of the Lahontan sediments and the fact that the prevailing winds are from the west would indicate favorable conditions for solian action. The east end of the Carson Desert, and particularly that portion along the flanks of the Sweetwater Range, is conspicuous for the large sand dunes which have resulted from the wind action of the present. The general features involved in the search for the buried salines of the Carson Sink may well be considered. A study of the probable structural relations attending the formation and closure of a saline deposit such as might have taken place in the Carson Sink has shown that the most favorable area is removed from the delta area, either old ornew. In the particular case of the Carson Desert a line might be drawn at the present mouth of the Carson and extending southeast and northwest. Southwest of this line is the delta area. Northeast is the area considered as most favorable for the search of a saline deposit. The area between the line established above and the lowest con- tour—3,900 feet—inclosing the present lake is about 350 square miles. The main deposit of Searles Lake occupies an area having a ratio of 1 to 404, as compared with the area of the whole present basin including fhe salt deposit. The drainage area of the Carson and Humboldt Rivers is 27,575 square miles. Using the above ratio would give a probable area of saline deposit of 68 square miles. The extent ofa saline deposit would be determined by its thickness. Consequently the above area might be larger or smaller. Again, the deposit might be divided, which is not at all unlikely in the present case. The prospecting problem would be to locate by boring an area greater or less than 68 square miles in an area of 350 square miles. The nature of the saline bed, if it were discovered, might be similar to that in Searles, or the salines might be distributed in a relatively thick bed of eolian sediments. Respecting the probability of potassium little can be said. Gale’s discovery in Columbus Marsh opens up possibilities which in my judgment would warrant explora- tion in this area. , The only other instance of exploration for buried salines is in Railroad Valley, Nev., where a 1,200-foot bore was sunk, but without results. The valley is unlike the Carson Sink in that no large stream discharges into it, and there is no lake of consequence. The results of the bore have been discussed. SALINES IN PRESENT LAKES. The composition of the waters of the more important lakes of the basin region are given in Table XV (Appendix). The three most important lakes from the standpoint of concentration and amount of salines are Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes. The computed quantities of the more important salines in these lakes are given in the table which follows: Quantities of salts in Great Salt, Owens, and Mono Lakes. Lake. NaCl. NazSO.4. KCl. NazCOs. | NasBs07. Tons. Tons Tons. Tons Tons GreatSalbths enti selon eek: 400,000; 000:|!:: 80, 000; O00;).e820'. cach eared ieee ea OWens 4.955582 ceaie camboaate oe cecaacte 20, 000, 000 22,000,000 | 2,140,000 | 22,000,000 |......--.-.--. iT Ge Mapes 2 Recah Liar, Sepa 86,099,600 | 47,586,400 | 10,538,000 | 92) 101, 100 945, 100 1 Monograph 1, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 253. fs 28th Annual Report. Quaternary History of Mono Valley, Cal., pp. 295-296. Potassium sulphate has been recalculated to potassium chloride in the case of Owens Lake. Salt is separated from the brines of Great Salt Lake and at Owens Lake sodium carbonate and bicarbonate have been separated by solar evaporation and crystalliza- tion for a number of years. At Large Soda Lake, Nev., soda was also separated. Out- side of this, there has been no other commercial utilization of the waters of the basin lakes. Only two other lakes in the basin approach the three mentioned above in degree of salinity—South and Middle Alkali Lakes, Oreg. (Pl. V, fig. 1.) The saline content of the remaining lakes is of little present importance. No important concentration of potassium salts has taken place in the present lakes, excepting incon- sequential cases which have been mentioned before. Later investigations have not supported the earlier estimates of notable concentrations of potash salts in Abert Lake and the Surprise Valley. (Pl. V, fig. 2, and Pl. VI.) POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 65 CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS ABOUT THE SHORES. Tufa deposits have been found about the shore lines of many of the Quaternary lake basins. They are not so conspicuous in Bonneville as at Lahontan or Mono. They have been reported from Searles and Owens Lakes. The origin of this tufa, its composition and mineralogy, have been discussed by Russell and Gilbert,! and it is not important that they be repeated here. The significant feature of these deposits is their potassium content. Gilbert quotes analyses from the Fortieth Parallel Survey which show 0.22 per cent potassium. This is significant, as it indicates one way in which potassium compounds separate out from lake waters. The deposits are of no commercial interest. They have been an important means of interpreting the events of the Quaternary history. POTASH-RICH MINERALS. Of the soluble potash-rich minerals kalinite and niter are the only two known as min- eral species in the basin region. Undoubtedly potassium chloride and sulphate are associated with the bedded salines, but no distinct mineral species has been reported. The insoluble potash minerals, with the exceptions noted below, are associated with other rock-forming minerals in igneous rocks. Rocks containing notable quan- tities of potash-rich minerals are inconspicuous. Ransome? reports a leucite basanite from the Bullfrog district, Nevada, but this rock contains a very low percentage of otash. » The occurrence of alunite has been discussed already. Jarosite contains from 6 to 9 per cent potash. This mineral is not uncommon and has been reported from Tono- pah, Goldfield, and Bullfrog, Nev. Itisassociated with quartz and, in the occurrence at Goldfield, it is found in an altered tuff. It does not occur in quantity and is of no economic importance. Orthoclase has been reported, but, so far as known, no notable amounts of this mineral are available. Adularia has been reported from Jarbridge, Nev. Theanalyses show a potash content ranging from 11.84 to 15.12 per cent. The ‘mineral occurs associated with quartz in veins. With the exception of the alunite deposit noted in a previous section, the possibility of finding workable deposits of potash-rich minerals or rocks is not good. GYPSUM. Three types of gypsum deposits are found in the basin region—rock gypsum, gypsite, and lake gypsum. Rock gypsum occurs in Nevada at Mound House, Gerlach, Love- lock, Table Mountain, the Ludwig mine in Mason Valley, and at Arden, Clark County. At Mound House and Lovelock the gypsum is associated with limestone. At Mound House, Gerlach, and the Ludwig mine the surface gypsum passes into anhydrite at depth. Probably in all cases the rock gypsum is associated with rocks of Triassic age.® At Mound House gypsite occurs in thin beds upon a number of low, crescent-shaped terraces which are a part of the alluvial slope between the rock gypsum deposit and the Carson River. It has undoubtedly been derived from the erosion and partial solution of the rock gypsum deposits above. Seepage and surface waters have caused the concentration of the gypsum in beds varying from 2 to 3 feet in thickness. The material is of a pulverulent nature. Analyses taken from several of these beds and at a number of different points are given in the following table: Analyses of samples from gypsum deposits. [Samples collected and analyses made by G. J. Young.] Sample No.— Constituent. 1 2) 3 4 5 6 8 Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. GyPSHM Aer esse a. 59. 79. 68. 20 79. 51 53. 94 50. 43 1, 82. 9 79. 81 72.37 Calcium carbonate. . - 14.01 12. 83 8.72 12.58 13.58 6.35 8. 82 5.21 Insoluble............. 26.13 8.72 11.78 33.48 35. 98 10. 80 11.33 22.39 1 Monograph 1, p. 167, Gilbert; 11th Annual Report, p. 187, Russell; Bul. No. 108, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 94, I. C. Russell. 2 Bul. No. 407, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 58. 8 Professional Paper No. 66, U.S. Geol. Survey, p. 108. 4 Bul. No. 497, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 52. 5 See G. D. Louderback, Bul. No. 223, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 118. 2081414 5 66 . BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. F. L. Hess! describes the occurrence of gypsum in recent lake beds in the Mojave Desert, Cal. The beds occur in a periodic lake in the vicinity of Amboy, Cal. Bristol Lake is the name given to the area. The gypsum occurs in the lake bottom close to the shores of the lake. The bed is of variable thickness and its maximum thickness has not been determined. In one place gypsum was found to a depth of 9.5 feet, the upper layers being more or less mixed with dirt. A brine is reached in the lake bed at a depth varying from 8 to 10 feet. Prospect holes show the deposit to be confined from within one-half to 1 mile of the old shore line. Thegypsum is of a granular nature. Hess ascribes the localization of a deposit of this kind as being due to the greater evaporation rate of the lake waters near the shore. Capillarity in the marginal material also undoubtedly has contributed to the local concentration of the gypsum. Rock gypsum is being mined at Mound House, Arden, and Ludwig. The deposits are of considerable commercial importance. The gypsite deposits at Mound House were worked for a time, but have been idle for some years. They are of doubtful value. The gypsum at Bristo] Lake is reported by Hess as being exploited by the Pacific Cement Plaster Co. CONCLUSION. Repeated reference has been made to the Stassturt deposits of Germany in connec- tion with the search for potash salts in the United States. While this has served a useful purpose in stimulating the search for salines, it perhaps has resulted in the opinion that similar deposits might be expected in the Great Basin. Such a view can not now be held. The German deposits are in the Triassic and they, as well as the associated sedimentaries, have been folded and tilted. They represent complete ‘desiccation and more or less secondary action before, during, and after tectonic dis- turbance. Omitting from present consideration the deposits of the Jurassic and Tertiary, the saliniferous deposits of the Great Basin may be said to represent com- paratively recent geologic activity. They are confined to the Quaternary lake and desert basins. The older deposits were formed in earlier periods of desiccation, but desiccation did not reach extreme conditions. The present deposits are in process of formation. Very little disturbance of the Quaternary and recent sedimentaries has taken place. More or less secondary action, such as solution, recrystallization, and movement of brines, is taking place. It may be said that the basin deposits already discovered represent the initial stages of what in time might result in deposits rather remotely similar to Stassfurt, but of much less magnitude. The influence of regional rocks has been commented upon and the prevalence of volcanics in the Great Basin has caused geologists to turn to this region as a place in which to look for potassium salts. Regional differences, caused by the prevalence of different types of rocks, are manifest In the presence of alkali carbonates and borates in the -western part of the Great Basin and the presence of chlorides in the eastern portion where sedimentaries predominate. In the case of potassium, no such marked difference is shown. The potassium content in the saline residue of the water of Great Salt Lake is not much less than that of Mono, Owens, and Pyramid Lakes. Humboldt Lake, North, Middle and South Alkali Lakes, it is true, show a higher content of potassium, but these are relatively unimportant. The resistance to.weathering of the potash-rich minerals and the ease with which this element is absorbed and removed from surface and underground waters might well account for the low content of potash in all of the lakes. With the exception of the crusts and efflorescences about hot springs and in soils, no notably high potassium content has been reported from salines taken from beds. The potassium content in, material of this nature ranges from less than | to 2 per cent. It is not in the salts which have crystallized out, but in the residual brines or mother liquors that concentration of potassium has taken place, and it is to these that we must look for potassium salts. As desiccation approaches completion, so will the residual brines increase in proportion of potassium. A near approach to complete desiccation would give a brine hie in potash. The fortuitous absorption and sealing over of such a brine would protect it from further changes, except those produced by circulating underground waters. It is evident that the above action might occur at different stages of desiccation, and brines varying in degree of potash content would be absorbed and sealed in the same way. Sealing would not necessarily have to be caused by the formation of impervious layers, although this would be more effective than alayerofsand. A layer of sand, subsequently flooded with water, would deplete by diffusion the partially concentrated brine beneath and, in time, a much weaker brine would result. It should be noted that the absorption of saline waters which 1 Bul. No. 413, U. S. Geol. Survey, p. 128. \ f POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. P 4 Bet Neen eee qe -entration sufficient to produce ¢ry: have no AC X peentrat. . + yovassaav1uil UL SULUG UL t reached co.” “14 gy no concentration of potassium, The absorption compounds would give lituc tA oe ; . = ve a weak and vy. “s br val such a solution by desert sands wou. ™: Se ne oes ne Doubt. aise eALEC aADOVe, further investigation will show many of the .. oi HEC diae ae Two general types in the desiccation phenomena ma, .° @8!4Nguished, the Seay type, in which a large, deep lake was evaporated, and the compa.c™Vely thick b¢ of saline material, restricted in area and saturated with residual brine, was form and a second type, which is best illustrated by Death Valley, in which case we h: the building up of a mass of muds and silts with interbedded salines, by the repea formation and desiccation of a shallow lake. To the latter type belong most of - desert, dry lakes, or playas. The line between the two types is not a sharp one. The possibility of deposits at depth is still not completely disproved. The geolo, cal evidence goes to show that several periods of desiccation occurred. Each perio might have been characterized by deposits of the kind described above. Such evi dence as we have, and it is meager, does not indicate deposits of this nature. The evidence goes to show that the larger Quaternary lakes existed for a long time and desiccation was a feature of their final stages. This would place the period of saline formation at the end rather than at an intermediate time, andl would argue for deposits at shallow depths rather than otherwise. On the other hand, the geological evidence is not necessarily complete. The obliteration by erosion of older lake lines than the present ones is notimprobable. Only by systematic deep boring could such a question be settled. As the larger Quaternary lake basins are, in almost every instance, occu- pied by lakes of considerable size and in some instances of considerable depth, the difficulties of such work are apparent. The question of deep deposits being uncertain, the field becomes narrowed to the deposits which might have resulted from the desiccation periods of the most recent Quaternary lakes. Only in Searles have we surface deposits of this nature. In all other basins, if older deposits than those at present forming exist, they must be sought for at depth. The size of such a deposit would depend upon the area of the drainage basin and the area and depth of the Quaternary lake occupying it. Desert basins showing no signs of former lakes might well be placed in a separate and unimportant class. Such basins can not be said not to have saline beds at depth, but the existence of such beds and their value are doubtful. Upon the criteria stated above I have grouped the desert basins in the following manner: Grove I.—Basins formerly occupied by Quaternary lakes. A. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was over 300 feet in depth: (in order of magnitude on the basis of area): Square miles. Parsoieandee iM pOldtanapastocsce Aes sae een eae os eicier lawn eee 27, 575 Black ock andsmolky Creel: -Desertas- 2 4. 55. a2 Se cece cic ies Se 10, 500 Beatles (anearimechiud eda OW ens))eey at. aes cise A ce eee ey Soe eee 4, 850 ESA APTN ee eee ee reir fers peer Re aa Oe a hey eS gs a ee rene 1, 950 B. Basins in which the Quaternary lake was 300 feet or less in depth: TESA COBKOS NYU IEA ae eae A Se re atom ea Oe ag Speen ayes reine eh ie eee oe 6, 340 Columbus Marsh (including Big Smoky Valley).......................-- 5,225 Buena Vista (part of Caron and Humboldt)...............-..-...--.----- 4,000 HD Tox Fea NM set ars rte we pen rey yeh EE Sc Sr paral oe eg ocd ROS ge ERR |e to ieeens 951091) “49 || 96°1g 686 ‘S JeSe ese eS same OOSIO arr | aes a as Kita. \SeSsaoReresaisc pepseg || '2 ‘IT OOD 0 one ean nega “-aToold || 7g °z) CEOMbS ao lktseti os woxuey ong |} &4 “eT DUCBERE aI ose ee SoteA Addex (gigasl su ae mojereg || e9°8t | 0099 [ttt oyemmted || ppg | aee‘g | ttt Torte prow. || 08 "PT | OR alee a Faia ynaren 1K A Asad ae One ORE aavyoyy || 9P °S G8 b “77> *WouBy sey VOW || 10 ‘6p Che tells oe ae xejfoo ||_STAT COey eee |e ee eee DO LAOLG TT Ve a es raja0 x || 96'S OSb ‘f “dousta || ¢6 "pe 2 tae eee oar ae wmqny |} p$ ‘21 OG Oe aloes Sees 6 SIISH. CSCaeT ST TODS" = Bipaar ae se as emt ouo’y || Sp"9S OCLC Ge eae ae O[VPAIOUIUING: || SP “Sz QiCh-ks wea peer ae UIP |} ST “0% Li) Me My le cane 9 ag puelysy LOGCG Ae lremrcas= eouepuedopuy || 1Z ez Chile niee |eaee oe STT@AL paorsyy || 08 61 10 ie aR acres ae OFMOULBIO’S || 02 BE GOB a ilies oe lt ssvd s}UBID “JaaT *SayOuUy “1007 “Sayoury “1007 *sayouy WLLL & qdioord || -qayoora dood “m0r} pe -1d 1001 *mOT} - . -1d1001 wor} E : -1dtoar “mOr} : ~BAOT TT Tones jenaae | -eAo[q MOTHS jenuue | -eAopor TOH8IS tenuue | -vAopsT Tones Tee, || weep fous) iE “oL€ 0} 9S8 OPN}I}EL TION “o88 0} oL€ OPNFIT}S, GON “oOP OF 068 OPN] TION “o&h 0} .Sh OPNIN] GION ‘apnjyn) 07 burp.ovon pobunisn “uisng ynaLH ay) Ur suOYD)sS Wn}120 7D UOYnpdwald yonUUD UDayy —TT ATA], POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 73 TasLE III.—Statistics of temperature. Range Mean Mean Mean maxi- Ses temper- | maxi- mini- mum | humid- ature. mum.! mum.? | to mini- ity mum. : 2 ib, °F. eu ihe Quit. OB Firs \WiGSHiOTn LOITEIAG] Cee ec Seat BEER e ene son ae eae a aees 47.4 103.6 —18.2 121.8 52 INJEC ES. 2 Sets Seu Messen ea a IS ay) ee 47.2 105.8 —17.4 113.2 51.3 (OR@EOTE 452 ARES Oster BEES See eae e ret eel ie aoe 46.8 106.1 —22 128.1 361 RYOTE nee BREE See ee I Sete ee tae at em oo 63.8 112.5 10 102.5 436 1 Highest annual temperature of each station. 2 Lowest annual temperature of each station. 3 Baker City, Oreg. 4 Independence, Cal. TaBLe IV.—Proportional area of mountains, outwash slopes, silt, playa, and water in the Great Basin region. Sierra- | Wads- Amar- Owens ville, Rene, worth, Carson, gosa, Valley,! 1,344 5 ware | 1,344 sitiene 8,307 3,300 square ice square ice square | square miles. miles. : miles. miles | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. MIO WIN TING 6 Seeeccseaccee Le eceECEereEeseee 75.4 76 61.4 41.3 5.8 35 Oultwashslopest a. -c-ces2--2222ssee- 22s |o- ses cee <= |Seemee Sean |temenseces 13.7 24.5 46 Lee ee oe eae ea hs Seatone cs ceobaes 2350 18.2 32.4 35.5 18.2 14 TPES) eh See he eae Sa Se Se Du a .6 4 5.1 1,7 5 WIGS Renee Gea EB OE TORS See Seren ee ieee eee -8 | 5.2 5.6 4.3 0), 1h: 2eaeeee 1 Water-Supply Paper No. 294, U.S. Geol. Survey. TaBLE V.—Run-off of the basin region. P Mean an- | Run-offper| Depth on River. Drainage nual run- square drainage Pength @ ; off. mile. area. r Western Utah: Sq. miles. | Second-feet.| Second-feet.| Inches. ‘Years. Wie DeTUEVivielewes coer os Ge umosicncce es eames sea cere Erich )al Nica MR Ct S| Dae ie ee 2 2 IBGRI RUIN (Gl tye tur CH GHASC REGS aE HOME HEeE 6, 000 1,860 0. 308 4.19 9 WO GATIBRAV CE stake hee 2 ae 218 339 1.56 21.18 6 SPaMIShHPH OMS a seme peee se ce cones 670 157 - 234 3.18 4 Sevier River-.. Ss 3, 990 208 - 052 . 70 5 LONG PEUEV. CE ae mola oa oe ee eeiacte Sees 640 433 . 676 9.16 6 Nevada: CaTrSOM mat pane oneee sees ete sciestee eines 988 454 . 461 6. 25 6 PRTC K OC 2 ahte nis cl tele a ee see oaituciaee 1,520 1,030 .677 9.18 6 Bast. Mork Walkers)... 5022<-:2t2-2.2- 1,100 213 . 193 2. 63 3 Humboldt at Oreana.............--.-- 13, 800 261 -019 Bo 7 Humboldt at Palisade................. 5, 010 448 - 089 1. 23 4 California: OMONSHR Ver semes seeecarcince tect accealee te os ee ee QUE laa leet =r eis eae [eae misses Mojave River at Victorville....... Beee 400 78.1 .195 2.65 5 Susan River at Susanville...........-.- 255 151.9 SPO lero meaeess 2 1 Water-Supply Papers, Great Basin region. 74 TaBLE VI.—Run-off of the basin region. BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TRUCKEE. Tahoe (519 square} State line (955 Vista (1,519 Derby (1,740 Pyramid (2,130 miles). square miles). square miles). square miles). square miles). Year. 7 Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off | Run- | Run-off off. |permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile.| off. | permile, Sec.ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. | Sec.-ft.| Sec.-ft. 205 0. 40 753 0. 79 786 00525 |S ase | eoeeec anes 859 0. 40 589 1.14] 1,420 1.48 | 1,610 1506 iis2 ae ese a | error eraeteter ere Be Sn ie eee (ar IEPs Ae a io ean [Pees hse teted [mana pene [SSS Ria G26 die see AS ee eae eterel ie aeestaleleral sie 488 92 | 1,530 hiGOoles-seecx) sees 1, 550 OU B92 aioe raat ere avait saree HUMBOLDT. Elko (1,150 square | Golconda (10,800 Oreana (13,800 miles). square miles). square miles). Year. Run-off Run-off Run-oft Run-off. | per mile. | RUD-Of- | per mile. | RUD-Of- | per mile. Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet.| Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. BS (0 so Sie, eee ee el a Cn Ca ae eee Se Nh la Ul eA nel era de ie 171 0. 0158 121 0. 009 NGG See tere ae OS oS ee ee Se oe oe 210 0. 183 373 . 0384 303 . 022 LOO acetate oa crate la bays ievvoetovemter Aas eee 248) 2 2isiiselssie OO Boeke ieee (PIA ee Sees OOS ATES Cee cies cert ace ee S LOBM anes eae 29S oss eaees 1G 4a eee eee a LQOOSS ens rss Rah ee ABE See Soe et leone aes 235 - 03 287 . 021 WALKER. . Coleville (306 Yerington (1,100 Wabuska (2,420 square miles). square miles). square miles). Year. Run-oft Run-off Run-oft Run-off. | yer mile. | Runoff. | per mile. | RUD-Off- | per mile. Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. MODS oa preice i= se SSSR mind ae SES Ey HR 2 Oe ee |e te a oem ee 170 0. 0704 LOOG Recor ee estos oS ccc a see eee 582 1.90 322 (Os PAB aes eel iss Slats Ae eee Ne ea are NSS ce as, gah RS lng etl ee a ie nel ea BOO |e ASS ieee ees | Bey ac CARSON. Woodfords (70 Empire (988 square square miles). miles). Hazen Year. Run-oft Run-oft Run-off Run-off. | ner mile. | RUD-Off- | per mile. Run-off. per mile, Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. | Sec.-feet. GOS oe ss cee Sai ee ete = bcs atasate Se eto rc ane as | ile ac eera ome meine 429 OSA4B ss oe Seccreea ata LOD Go eC TS pp oR SS soe sic fen tease eee 231 3.30 798 807 (len eer Se PRE ote G0 B oo ciivinn baa e oe pare WARE oie sian slates | Se nero aoe Abr ee ae ae PAPA kee ke elles sabe hi Sls cid OPIS 909 below iapecletlde vets AH aes So hss Bake he cee Oe ee ae 678 . 686 45H) REE 2. TasLe VII.—Run-off in the Oregon Lake region. } Area of Flow per watershed. | Mean flow. | cuare mile. Sq. miles Sec.-feet. Sec.-feet. MS LNGUT Tea KO aire ate e cee Merrie ten nel «dave. kutod ccd eign al pomib ieee 364 0.37 Hamoy ake silver Creeki(RiUey,)). cre sne 2 sme ss nbieece aoc. selene neta INN Ease eee DIV OrePaKO ASI etn on a irtyrsic th aaieta ate ane ete couche ene mater eames 221 55.2 625 POT ARO oes SIT Saye ysis sop iw mid ren erate tee Cie Slee oie ce al heodta e Perale ateseiets lle eerapnee eee 189 . 694 1 Water-Supply.Paper No. 212, U. 8. Geol. Survey. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 75 TaBLE VIII.—Jist of lakes, with elevations and drainage area of the basins. ibsine. Basin Lake Ratio basin. area. area. to lake. Elevation. Depth. Sq. miles. | Sq. miles. Feet. Great Salt Lake (including Utah and 52, 000 2, 498 20.8 4,200 | 49 feet av~ Sevier Lake). erage. EareLEM AL TED Net pers ae ts eee ae ne ol 2 | IRI EIR 722 cn oe Sees Eee SORE Cee Eee Ee ami 11, 200 | 105 11.4 5, 950 g. | 3,880 | 361 deep~ } 310 9.6 est. 3, 875 | 87 deepest. 3, 929 195 141.4 3,900 | Variable. | 3,916 | 4 feet, very shallow. 118 32.6 4,083 | 118 feet ay erage. 85. 5 9.0 6,426 | 61.5 aver- age. 111 4.6 6, 225 | 1,635 deep- est. 100 33 3,569 | 40 average. 111.6 23.8 3,949 | 18 inches. 125.6 5.5 4,088 | 10 feet. 4.9 653 4, 200 LEyare| 33.3 4,340 |very shal- 81 24.6 4, 600 low. 60 | 15 4,400 |;}None_ ex- SUETTLTTTIDTE Se gee 7 ann eel A ape ror ee 550 60 9.1 4,300 ceed 25 HOES ae 6c Ape eh eaten a ee Mae eet Sa eae 1,065 190 5.6 4, 800 feet. Srinpriscavalloyer ts ooo Sok tli ee els 2,350 137 feat 4,640 Square miles. Bet pers eRSUDIAC Ca pst Maer a ye oe w nee Ree oe cosas ase oni RSet ee al OR IERIE GIES » 6 ahaa S So Oe ICS Re SE ELST a ESP ret Sr pel a ieee ne pee a aN ee ua cent ware 210, 0600 PET Beg ¢ ng ee CSO REC CAO eS ESS REE Ee yee aie Po ie A ae ee ORD ean te gE ese 50 tol 1 Free’s table of basin areas. 2 Water Supply Paper No. 294, U. S. Geol. Survey. TasLe 1X.—Distribution of different rocks in Great Basin region. | | Map V, Clarence ae z eae panic) Gee Truckee folio (910 square miles), | | Square | Per ail | Square || Per 7 miles. cent. | miles. || cent. Quango © 352-2 | |, Granodiorite... .| 180 || Granodiorite | IROLpHYTY. 2-22: - j1s129 Alluvial and jeDiabaseen.e..] } | andrhyolite..| 22 *Granite......... || _ Sediment... .- 67.0 || Porphyrite...-. | Basalt_..-.-.--| DIOEILe= 4-5-5. - = Basal ia saee ae jAtipitome = ees 18 || Andesite....... 45.1 Diabase......--- 103.9 || Andesite......- 14.2 Porphyry ...--. | Diabase--...--- Syeniters 2222-2. DOTICC) hohe 2 a ; Gabbro...----.- 6 || Metamorphic. ..| 6.15 pbrachyte=2- 2. 2: Rhyolite.....-- \ 18.6 | Bhyolite......- 20 || Sediment.-.--- 14.3 AM@eSIte).2 = 5... 336.6 || Granite. .-...-- “< || Andesite....... 3a2)|| Waters. -2 eee oe 12.5 Prophylite.-....-. ioBasalipgese oes oe | 54 || EOYOMEeS 22 2.2 1,810.0 | eolatee eee ee | ASALEAO ae onc 2,005.8 | j;@hert2 = === pete 4 Carboniferous | Quartzite....... and Archean ..| 561.0 | | Metamorphic... | PETIASSIC 22 uo 2 JuLataSs ee \ 52 Tertiary, Hum- | Shist slate--..-- boldt and} | Neocene lake Truckee. .....- | eds sees 5 Quaternary and | Pleistocene. .--- 125 Wecent.,-.2-...- Wiater= ise 114 BAe er cere te a? | Maps IV and V, King (35,200 square miles): Per cent. SR ERUEL CO Sige seo Se ee ep ane Sa as ees art a SES is eae EROS pe, SAIN ce rer AS eee 10 Euinyolitesan dkinachiyiie=p mee neem seiee cre eee se mice cene cin eS ee eRe en Seen ao ec oe. see es 23 Be ASal hy ANG ANG CSILG {Sees stone sea nioc io aio a tisideiee wisn a ae ee we Se a mis Sense Nas 14 PERE WIA ATIC SC CLIT C Muerto 5 ar Sa ase see oe Senne S Sajna eee ae Sas och awa Sos Saennecseese 53 Southwestern Nevada and eastern California (8,685 square miles): OBER rie nie ese Sos eee ON ER Sl onie en See Maan a Se aS es Sak ane iy So acwia we niecene tebe cesses sei PAIN ESLOME sea uke eee Andesites and basalts. . oe Ra a Aa ae cara Cana Rl caries CO a Ti A i TABLE X.—Composition of rocks of basin region. 76 Gran- | Rhyo- | Ande- ( ite £1 ( lite ar site ; = av. of | (av. of | (av. o Constituent. 113 103 131 analy- | analy- | analy- ses). ses) ses). Per ct. | Per ct 71.55 61. 29 13.90} 15.16 1. 20 PAT . 94 2.86 . 60 2.99 1.56 4.84 3428 3.30 4.17 2.93 - 92 - 63 ie 7A! 1.42 .30 - 56 03 - 02 13 . 26 - 09 lid - 03 -05 04 .09 Beasts merle -07 Br te -08 eee dt . 56 Bye eit See AMR mies - 03 100.00 | 100.00 1 Compiled from: Vol. I, Fortieth Parallel Survey, Bul. No. 4 XI, U.S. Geol. Survey; Bul. No. 491, Data of Geol. Chemistry, Dacite | Diorite (av. of | (av. of 44 85 analy- | analy- ses). ses). Per ct.| Per ct. 65.31 | 58.84 15.37 | 16.06 2.45 1.97 1.13 3.79 1.34 3.93 3.35 6. 27 Bpahy 3. 62 2.85 2.17 1.18 - 20 2.29 1.31 “38 - 67 01 -01 £1053 ae .09 - 08 04 -03 05 - 08 . 02 -16 .18 - 03 LD S| es cs -07 51 OAM eaten (Ody i ees 100.00 | 100.00 Dia- Sand- base tok stone (av. of 110 (av. of 19 avieil 55 analy- on analy- ses). ses). Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. 52.04 | 51.29 | 70.55 | 15.89] 15.65 5. 80 2.48 3.10 1.06 6. 84 5.98 2.53 5.95 8.37 1.16 8. 43 8.78 5. 33 3. 20 2. 81 1.82 oe ls 26 1.32 2.17 |~ 1.78 | 28 1.06 1.01 39 . 00 yO1| eee 23 Au 17 16 OB ER Ate oer 01 OLR ane - 09 Bla) eee epee aie ese S08) iceecceoe ties Oda Meneeas ate Teese - 49 6. 74 Bergh SHR in ea) 5alz/ 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lime- Shales stone (av. of (av. of 16 _ | analy- en ses). Per ct.| Per ct. 8. 82 ar er . 89 2. 93 1.01 2.81 3.58 3.18 44.35 4.47 1.65 ro 2 1 Ly 3. 44 Ne aa - 62 Ginn iGAibe - Geet Meieeaarcts - 08 Bae i” Naa 37 Se/407|" 7.93 Bermaal sores 34 100.00 | 100.00 U.S. Geol. Survey. 19, U.S. Geol. Survey; Monographs I and 1 POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. if gg chee” OS'st | 6L°eZe | HFSS | L8°061 | I8°ST 0°S61 | o'r TaCGe see LESCCS. |e eames OD i omed |leere ean OLLTOUQUAB He lea GG a) a pee ea NO, — PReessee ge |e aloes ae “| Leh | @9°9SF ESOP patas PIPEUPIOD |°~- “TSsT (ORC Teena se ems | Seca ee SS aes we | FL'SIP sore eee [OAN |luaee ane aie OLLOS Te bem OG ET 8°06 omit if Stuy Q°LT gee | AL Cen | 0OV les | 2 eae ss Sulidg |-uoljounL seu |**~ “FPET 68°22 | 26°2 | OL'S9T | 22°91 89L | L% Zr | SL '68h ESS] Oe es Sein es “""*-ONLA |" °° SPST 6S°00T | S8°ST | 1S °6T 0L°6S | S%°%6 | OS°s os‘zg¢ | 06°¢Sr 5 AoTTBA SULEPEN |" “FEST 1E°3eo =| LO-ST | ES°0F9 | 48°22 | Se-e6e | 09'8 Gre || GA) eee “TOM [777777 OXI | 7 OST 99°69 | 26°93 | TP'Tse | 28°01 | Ga°s9 | S2°8 oS | WBANgS = ee Ajddns uo, “eprqgMey | “Test ZS'9F8 | 90'S | 16'S 80'9 °C 0°9 OBR |) ARO Re cece sessesoes "Te -“-UOTTBA j°~” “8Z8T Go'S9 | 06'8F | 82°F 69°8 61s | AL 0°¢6 | 20°6P8 | A Se oes ~--syaedg |"~~ 6181 “I AA OCs 0818 bees eg ep O0°SZE | QL'PRL‘T | TL‘OL | Fe'srE | 68 °9F FIST | 278 O1'89 | OF '029‘%| eA HOM SGA OGSG6O TE |esestso se eee (eee es OFLLT | 48°386‘T | 2TT | 89Tse | sE°s ee. || Ae 2°29 | OF LoL ‘Z| ~~ “Joye Yooy TeysAID “STIOAA Te}SAIO, fobaee 0s GOTT ese ena a as | OCENG I NOhaSOGal ey2aG) ol CORGLEl 4]. 191c 09g | FZ 2°02 | 9°81 ‘e| Wor oTyur iy ae z ns eee IL ‘FST | S40" OZI‘ | 00°08T | 66°SS8‘T | 2°6 | FEEEe | 21% zee | 8h T‘8¢ | $99"¢e99‘z| Joye STIoAA TeISAID (F\S 3 a ea ‘aATSSeOX GT | OTT | OG*6IT | 69 Tg POSE Cran ie ie “OuON Oy. AL 1°29 PS GOL “Jovem [TOM oe 96°6SE‘T | IO'FE | PL°9OT‘T| S$ 6IL | STFS | OL IT gee | 16'10e‘e Se STON eee aes oa ouey | ~~ 08éT GL-2eL | S89T | Slr O1'T oag | Ge OAD || MesPrhyye _|P2see2os>= SEO Dr seae eas mee O Diet aod as PLOT IL'82o | SL°@E | "Shr | 02°82 b9FL | FP PPS | P9E'CC8 | “Ayddns rye M | = 2OPr ee a ese SLOT ogeze | Ses | OL°T6 PI'S O'l@ | 8°OT Ose Gio PLES COO| as ersten ed OP een cee aes Op | CLT c619g | 10'TS | 0S°26 8°S pre | 8°01 ge || O2%aw) Pores ~"JOYBM [JOM | “"PleUPIOD | ~* TLer C1688 | GO'rr | 2e7649‘Z| SE I9T‘T| 2°e88 | 8°89Z OsZys [S06 682C| ss oes “Ayddns Joye |"~**--** “yedouoy, |" OLeT 09°Le 8201 | Z0°8T 8"9 18% | &F cpg | GL°LST |-7°7 7 [eM UeIseRTWy | ~-ouey |" ” -S9CT gece L191 | 78S | 60L°T 19g | 2°38 L°FOT | 609688 ‘T voto t oo sysedg |" "> 2921 L807 | 16°% Scr | 80°T csr | 6°9 €°0zT | 989°880 ‘T ere so shorg |” ~~ T9GT 3P LT “LL 0S'679 | 96°% T'8¢ | 0°F 78g | 8LL°006‘T "-ouyAvod JUNO |" ~-09ZT 8T 0S 9°LT | SO°TTZ 9°T ee | 2% 218 | P98 Far pees "12 a (4 6P FIL | °2T | S°etg | L9F- 0°89 | 1°9 Z TOT | £8628, “77777 W0\SuTIO X |" "8901 o°seg‘T | S'2T | 1'6E a €°09 | T‘9L vgs BOGP F UlBUNOW o7}98A hol ‘o1OUISUT |. “ermomme | “eI “*O1V “Spryos ONE *%09°H | OOH pioua -OULMIB "1(9) ‘O8RN- | “OF “OS “O31 0)-70) pue %OI8 1210.1 “sxTeute y “Aqrye00'T eouelejo wy rundTy | seq 20°07 [ezomsurd *9 “g Aq sashqeny *000‘000‘T 10d s}1e4] ‘suajom burids pun yam fo sashjpuy— JX Lav, 78 BULLETIN 61, U. $&. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.. TasLe XII.—Analyses of waters from Amargosa Valley. [Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.] No. of | ‘Total Ca. Mg. K, Na. Cl. S04. €0s.. | HCOs. sample. | solids. | ee Yo | ee eS 24 ee ee 105.6 6.9 6.0 | 5.8 10.4 8.5 27.9 1:2 22.0 Vee { 1,692.2 ar niet 44.8 534.4 285.0 544.3 96.0 155.6 22) oe 101.6 6.7 3.0 4.3 18.3 17.0 30.7 1.12 20.7 -~..2 Ee ee | 49.8 10.2 10.8 12.8 132. 1 101.3 160. 8 4:8 65.9 2962 So 93. 2 5.1 3.3 3.9 17.0 8.5 30.0 2.4 25.6 237. Water Willow Creek at railroad bridge south of Morrison’s. 238. Water Amargosa River, same locality. 284. Shoshone, Cal. Water from warm spring. 295. Well at Fairbank’s house, Shoshone. 296. Water spring in railroad cut south of Tecopa, Cal. TABLE KT Analyses of water from Furnace Creek and Death Valley. [Parts per 100,000. Analyses by J. A. Cullen.] No.ofsample.| Dotal Ca. Meg. K, Na. SO.. cl. | COs | HEOs. + eee ee | 64.8 2.4 1.4 1.0 14.5 14.2 10.6 2.4 14.6 MOTE oot | 20,360.0} 175.0 50.3| 152.7] 7,500.0] 9874.0| 11,525.0| Tr. 11.0: Aine ae | "490. 4 71.4 37.0 #5 75.6| 173.0| '147.7| Tr. 17.8: pinesenas 65.2 4.8 3.0 1.5 7.7 19.2 49| Tr. 20.0 Sie eee | ad41-6 los 36 3.3 9.0| 321.1] 646.0 29.6| Tr. 19.5: 305. Slough at first crossing, road from Furnace Creek to Bennett’s Well. Water from surface. 307. Water from hole 18 inches deep 1 mile north of sink (saline pond’northeast of Bennett’s Well).. 325. Water from main water hole at Bennett’s Well. 348. Water from Texas Spring, Furnace Creek Ranch. 349. Water from well in Furnace Creek Canyon, 13.5 miles east of Furnace Creek Ranch. Note.—A trace of borax is found in all samples. Taste XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in sotls. > Total Percentage of total soluble salts. Location and No. of solu- : sample. ble | salts. | Ca. | Mg. | Na. K. SO. Cl. | HCO3.| CO3. | NO3.| PO. Fallon, Nev., alkali soil: ! |Per ct. Crust Nosoeesse 4.10 1.51 | 56.98 First foot, No. 10....- 3.57 1.62 | 49.72 Second foot, No. 11...| 3.33 1.62 | 51.44 Third foot, No. 12....| 1.70 3.65 | 41.65 Fourth foot, No. 13...) .93 6.22 | 38.85 Fifth foot, No.14...... 78 4.61 | 37.18 AV OUALE oe Pe at, 2.40 3.20 | 45.97 Fallon soil. <- 5. sees Gee: 41.34 .30 | 56.23 .89 2.10 | 34.08 1.18 1.27 | 42.82 1.18 1.13 | 44.07 1.41 1.07 | 48.55 1.81 1.28 | 54.73 1.54 5.05 | 53.20 . 24 3.77 | 25.94 1.01 7.54 | 37.26 1. 60 6.46 | 45.95 44 2.12 | 15.38 -bl 2.01 | 19.64 1.94 4.31 | 35.11 . 66 3.58 | 32.08 1.65 | .84 | 40.42 1.80 1.50 | 50.20 .49 3.10 | 18.28 . 80 2.43 | 38.95 1 Records of Bureau of Soils. POTASH SALTS AND OTHER SALINES IN THE GREAT BASIN REGION. 179 TaBLe XIV.—Analyses of soluble salts contained in soils—Continued. Location and No. of sample. Wallon soil. 2222252. 2.-2- Average.......-..-.. Swan Track, Utah: ! No. 724 Iii), LTE ese eB INCE eee Elsmore, Utah, 1 Redfield clay, iN (Oa Ye eee Salt Lake City,! soil No. Cornine, Utah,! No. 1129a. Salt Lake City, sola. ass Silver Lake, Oreg.,1 No. MOS OO ie Macias Narn Ss 2 INVICTAP CR ome a= saan Harney County, Oreg.,? B=OeCbe oe cece ae ass 5-6 feet Lake County, Oreg.,3soils: 1. Thousand Spring Walleye sean ee WMTAS MUA ye a 3 TMAS Ake merase 5. North end of sink of Peter Creek....- STI a ee ho Rept) ae 7. mile east of Cliff postiofice. =. 2.22... 8. Center of north al- iealictlatees ses os ste 9. Western arm of al- Nevis asta tee ei 2 Percentage of total soluble salts. Cl. 1 Records of Bureau of Soils. 2 Water-Supply Paper No. 231, p. 53. 8 Water-Supply Paper No, 220, p. 72. ‘eory “a “@ Aq po}0eT[00 sojdumes uo ‘sjlog Jo neomg ‘qyIUIg “H “¢ Aq powJoj1od oFOM yoy “MoAOS 4se] BuIydedKe “Te{-ppT ‘dd ‘Aoamg yeo}so[00H “sg ‘A ‘16h “ON ‘Mg Wor soshTeuy—aALON 0069 ‘8 It’ 80° 99 'T 69°88 shoot ee fe eee 99 “8 &L°% ¥6 ‘PF “*"" TRBATY WyNOS 0'019 FT £0° 10° GL'S GI PE TL, IJ, 8Z G6 ST SL FE 09 ZI “oeee*" HEALY SIPPIAL A 0°01S ‘6 60° he an TS “9€ AL Ny Zi 6F 12 19 ‘OT $8 9% “eerr es TBAT GON [ea] 0°OLF ce 'T 40% SIs 00°28 TL “AL AL 8L°8Z 62 ‘ST 98 "LT SoSe Sees ee ts ease ULSI iam 0°010 ‘2 (0) GST 09°T 8F LE “AL “AL Ir" €2 ‘81 29 °S 8 'PE Cee ee ee pee ee ae LOBOu Be 0°009 a 91% LL'T 61 9 “AL “LL “QL 61°22 OL °LT 96ST a ae --" Jom Y 0°069 ‘T £0° LET , PLT GP LE ND “AL 16° 90°92 69 °2, 68°SZ aan aaa olde ete A 1) YC) Sy 0 ‘OLE ‘TZ 10° c0* 69 'T GI '8E tI° cr Il’ oS FS £6 °6 C8 FS Pa ae OBR GOD 3 0980 ‘Ez ara GOT OL'T £6 “SE ae? age ol ee erie aan eit!) 69 °S¢ sian ic aecteccinaba paicin =) AN iC: f42Lap 0) O'OLE‘IT | Fo" eee ee epoG. 10'S £998 OG. ee alle SRE ee 8 oll 1-1 bt! 9€ ‘OT TS 98 PERE E MES Sar eee mg) <1 0 '0F9 ‘8 ae er aioe 10°€ (4 mealieeage _ “""") 88 °OT 99 °Z¢ ; aoe "77" * TOTAGS 0°02 ‘2 62° 10° Z0° 84.2 €8°L8 8° SUNS Spe By Pen eer aos 966 19°SZ Pee PE Ree a eee SOM fy O'LIT‘S PL’ (0) i #0° ‘T 86 "LE (Ayo cena tela) ~ cil it <4 tt 98 ZI PE "EZ OER S hese se252 535" = S5. O00 mT (o) Z'L16‘E 29° ae. abel (om iy RSs Slee eee D €€ "68 yo alee Sop aa lee eee AOR 06 °T #0 ‘9E Cee SLATE | SR ae oe ALO 0098 ‘T LZ° ween a. | (ane aR at 40) To G06 “QL ap wach ae “AL 8L°28 $2 SL 89°L Ue eee eee eae mentee se aL eT z L°Lb0‘T 82" 10° eo ae maa elit 82°98 “| L8°SS L9°L 09°26 Soke rr ae “>>> AOUIBAT A 0 °16r g9° 93° 83° FPS 62 °SE “| ¢¢ 61 LL°0% 92 0% a Petia a otape eC TLR @ ‘098 Lee ge head 6F° q¢° P6°T 89 °9€ “| €6°2 92°¢ 88°LP we eeeee ss = BOONULOUUT MA 9'8SFE G6 ° Crash 82 °% GS * IL ’% PROM eso we ruc s etme ad he || aes oi Sore Ge°S FO TF pee a seee eee a sD Pataed fe 0°082% Te Aare ae ge ce Sa ao “| 9¢'T 06° OS RG wes: eel ae a Gs ee ke ee, Pe °LZ1 62 °1% LL*S% Gio ieee wicca ahaa vege (PUAN NT GUND I YB CODD ¢ SOL SATO ATO ON TON AT NWO OTB OO ae OdOFOWM BDOMDN OBONNN 84 BULLETIN 61, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XIX.—Analyses of salt and water samples taken in Railroad Valley, Nev.—Con. Total salts | Potash in total per 100c.c. Rais: No. Description. Grams. | Per cent. 111 | First salty drainage line west of R. R. V. Co. camp, about 60 feet from west SCOOF OWE AWK WHORE edre. and ident BOrtnol Toad == 5. Sse cee teioan teeeneae see nacieieeee 59. 62 6.11 112 | Same, main drainage line, 125 feet east of No. 111 and 125 feet north of road..... 59.16 5. 45 113 | Same, extreme eastern edge, 100 feet east of No. 112 (75 feet north ofroad)....-. 56. 48 6. 20 114 | Smalisait spot 420 feet east of No. 113 and 30 feet south ofroad:...........-..--- 72. 22 4. 23 115 | Surface salt at northeast end of salt flat, north of spring deposit hills, 6 miles south of Locke’s Ranch 41. 24 1.53 116 | Same, about 0.25 mile southwest of No. 115........ 10. 56 6.02 120 | Salt from seepage on north side of southern of these hills 5. 36 6.16 122 | Salt from below spring on this latter hill 79. 56 12.10 124 | Main flat near camp. Salt from 97 feet west of southwest corner of Locke’s ClAIM = «2 Vie os A bees Fo Sen ee cee eee ose Oa ee SRE ee ee eee eC Ee ee 68. 74 1.90 125 | Same, 375 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim.......-....-.----------- 45. 42 2.9 126 | Same, 725 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim .............-.-.-------- 56.90 5.0 127 | Same, 775 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim..............-.-.------ 76. 40 3.6 128 | Same, 850 feet west of southwest corner Locke’s claim................--------- 62. 08 6.6 129 | Same, 1,075 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim...............--.----- 55. 22 2.7 130 | Water from old hole 40 feet east of point 1,250 feet south of southwest corner ; Locke’s:claim.. 5. ose jac sesd bai po aaseesusun nes ne eae cae epee eee econ : 20. 87 8.5 131 | Salt 1,350 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim...........-...---.---- 83. 40 4.5 132 | Salt 1,250 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim................--.----- 40. 42 2.0 133 | Water from old hole 150 feet east of point 1,150 feet south of southwest corner Locke’sclaim. From upper (surface) stratum of brine..........----- 12. 63 6.1 134 |. Water from corner stratum, same hole_.. 2.5 2.222352 -+ once nan =e = eee 13. 04 6. 2: 135 |. Salt crust from 5 feet ‘north this/hole 2. =o sete See ee eee eee 68.64 3.3 137 | Salt from 2,225 feet south of southwest corner Locke’s claim-.............---- 14.18 1.8 138 | Water from old hole 50 feet east-southeast of southwest corner Fox claim...-.. -97 ith 139 | Salt, 900 feet northwest of southwest corner Fox claim-........--..--.-.------ 47.18 1.3 140 | Salt, 1,375 feet northwest of southwest corner Fox claim ...:.21..--.----2--<-|<---<-05-5e-|22-222---- 143 | Water from auger hole at location of No. 140--.........-..----.--+----------- 15. 74 5. 94 144. | Salt 315 feet northeast.of No;.140: - o...0i 522.2222. -2cSaee see See eee 82. 46 2. 66 PA gee 2) - oe eee oe Oa ne S23 Fes e5 Yat eS3526 ee cee ee ee eee — 41.34 2. 83 146 | Same as No. 140.-......-- ee Se Seo Soee hoe See See sd eiesadh aes! 72. 06 2. 26 448 | Salt from east side of first drainage line east of R.R. V.Co. camp......-..--- 58. 22 9. 26 149 | Salt 100feet north of No. 148... -..- 552. 2sn2824- bie s4ses2 be 2 see eee eee 44, 22 6.58 152 | Salt 150 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s claim-..-.....-....---.--------- 29. 80 4. 838 153 | Water from old hole 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s claim, upper Stratum of the brine: 2-22 025- st - Sais she aoe ee eee ee eee eC EEE eee 11. 62 11. 92 154)| Water fronmlower stratum, this hole 2222 a sae ee ace eee eee 10.09 11. 78 155 | Salt from 580 feet southwest of point 675 feet north of southeast corner Locke’s (laim.. - ssc 5. sacacscas = bo ceusea ness A Tae eee =e eee ee eee 69 10.17 156 | Water from hole 100 feet northwest of No. 155..........-...----20ce-e-ceee--s 7. 86 11. 46 157° | Water from: McDonald spring... -.--<--255 so dsn nce cee nea see ee eee SO7Gleq sees 58 158 | Water from new hole 450 feet southeast of point 1,620 feet southwest from McDonald spring... o<5 2.2) Sk 2 a ta ioe be pd ee SO ee eee 12.58 5.03 159 | Salt crust 5 feet north of this hole_..... aGe ania nena finn ace Reece eee eee 67. 92 3.79 162 | Salt 879 feet toward McDonald spring from No. 158..............------------ 48. 92 1.48 163 ; Water from lower brine stratum from old hole 200 feet northwest and 80 feet.southwest from No. 1582225 2255-2282 . 022 jecsee ce een ne sae eee eee 1-14 Gypsum deposits 2 2 ans jieee ec one a Bae ale ae Lae icke x es Se eee ee 66 Nitrate.deposits, location: -22'522-jceisk ne one ticle & Sica ws ee en ee ee a 32 Rivers, analyses, ChE eee se Steet Aa aso we Akin cn ie Se Sey tee ee a ee 8, 28, 29, 31,32, 81 Galttheds ss. o. te n sa ee ok ree S ota eo mae Ce NC age cee % Bera 46, 48, 52 Waters; analyses 's 2: 2205 Rell faci fee eee ba ek ae os See ee a 24, 77, 78, aS Cameron, Citation ooo. 2. ee Fan heehee Segoe one coe oe a ea Cam phelli: citations -< foo o 6 aco Desc See tee ae ils Cont eee Fea PO UrEe bie Ais ba ae Garson’ Basin. descriptive notes: 23.52 2-02 ese koe aon t= See a0 eA eae 1,3,4,5,9,13,19 Carson Desert. (See Carson Basin; Carson Sink.) Carson Lake; ‘descriptive notess. 52. 2.4.65: ssn) Poe Se ae ee ee a 9, 60, 61, 62,63 Carson River, @escriptive Notes .(s 42.552 tse ak alee oe Sek oe See eee eee 1,8,9, 10, 29,63, 64. 74 Carson Sink area, bore explorations: 38. 2.2226 2 Ee ee eee es 2°18, 63, 64 Catlow Valley Basin, NOTE: sich s Aiea hs eles 5 So Se eae Se ee ee a Chatard, T. M. , citations on analysis of hot spring water, ete Chewaucan Marsh, TLOLC ee) Pe Ss Re ote Sed Le See ae See Chlorides, high content of some lakes Christmas Lake V alley. ground water.........-..- wea Bie geind SSS ESE a a Clarke: Citation on. decomposition Of rocks -< 22252. 22 So ees fees ee eee ee ee ee ae Citations on analyses of hot-spring waters, etc............-.-.-..-.----------+------ Climatology, Great Basin region, factors controlling, Ot sie oes ssh Se ee ee oe ee 3-4, 71, 72 Cloudbursts, cause ‘of erosion in;Great Basin: 52 98. ees eo ee eee eee eee ee ene 3-4, 21 Columbus Marsh, location, characteristics, mud AUC YSES S OtG os SSeS Rec eee 53-54, 64 Columbus Valley, notes. 222 oo. a tiswines «cba heee disc ent gadis asec epee see ne Sea Eee aeeae Cones of extinct volcanoes found in Great Basin region Cooperation, potash investigations | s.. . 2)... 2gset sa. o a ates ante ae soe ccee soe ae eee eee R ee enen see Cottonwood Springs, gypsum oceurrence.-.......-.----- 7 Craters, extinct, as sources of Saline deposits..........--.-- Crusts, ‘alkali, oceurrence and Composition 323225562. -ascee sone eae eee eee ee aes Cullen, J. A., citations on hot springs, analyses, etc Danby ‘Basin, ‘descriptive notes\.....5- 222. Goas5. sees Const canaen acter e Sere he eee eee: Gee eee Ree a eeeee 1,32 De Groot, citation... 25 os). os boos sec cite else epee sens osleb ec Slee oe see ee eee ene ee eee eee eee 48 Death Valley: Basin, descriptive notesss5.5 20-5. - -seeekise see see eee see ae eee eee Borings: Geological Survey. - 22. -.tseeebiew oes emacs ae ec oe eee ne ee ace ee ae eee eee Brines, analyses; tables? .. ....25.25 0c2 A JSiheese ss oo ch ace Bec oe ae oe Ree tos ae ee een Ghemical data: 2<- osc on. 2 ee ee te ey onaxe scum Location, description, and analyses of brines, etc...... Desert basin, structural development eee cilsnints sets Desert basins, formation, typical cases, description, etc Desert wells, water measurement...) 5224s ceo = ns sanode ne sense cE ee ee ne eae Desiccation of lake waters, formation of desert basin..................-.--.. Dinsmore, S. C., citations on analysis of hot-spring waters, etc............-..-------------------- , 24, Dixie Valley: Basin, Gescriptive MOles - one as ain slain lain als we eS oe ee 8, 39 Location, formation, analyses from: borings, ete@s...220.5255. 1 -cesaacunice cee oe see eee eee ee see 54-56 Dolbear, citations, ground water, eC. =< SilverskiniS =f -pe-ee-eee UN eesesriac sophie < Keepersis. as... e= is 11 3 Gem of Aroostook X Round Pink- ; President Kriiger * Keeper 1 Ll SH @YGi. seeck cee seeemaee 5 1 5 Delaware xX Keeper: 3. -osene-eees|ee cei ore 2 Dae > dkeepenss 4 eereey 2 ness. | eee 1 Norcross X Keeper. ...-.---. VW dace: Barly Hureka << iKeeperseseseeces peenenee 1 Gem of Aroostook x Keeper...--- if 4 Be Abundance X Irish Seed- Alexander’s No. 1 Red X Keeper... 1 4 Linge) 55). d Fa eee eee cee ce 3 5 Round Pinkeye x Keeper....--..|.-----.- 2 INiessedor sNo.1Red X Trene: } Ness 3 irish’ Cobbler s< Weepers ree ses|sececcine IP} Mamily S@lmenete ress sereciest eee 3 soca Green Mountain x Keeper....-...|.-----.- 2 |) Garnet Chili x Silverskin.....s..-|_-..-.-- 2 Keeper < Round Pinkeye: 22.022). 52... - 1 || Irish Cobbler < Trish Seedling. ...].....-.- 1 Keeper << /Silwerskine se saesee ee seen See 3 || Apollo X Irish Seedling..-.......]..-..--- 1 Sophie Irish Seedling. -......-- CO Bee ees Tho tal oy cidiejah isis tee ier 36 45 Delaware X Round Pinkeye.....- 1 1 A much more detailed analysis of the characteristics of these varieties and their seedlings is really required to answer this question. It is clear, however, that some varieties, like Keeper, are poor parents. A large number of successful crosses with Keeper were secured by Prof. Stuart because it produced an abundance of pollen, but the offspring of these have been so unsatisfactory on account of their tendency to curly-dwarf and leaf-roll that the variety will not be used again for crossing. From different crosses having the same varieties as parents there have come seedlings, some of which were leaf-rolled and some curly-dwarfed. No. 16472, illustrated in Plate IV, figure 1, is a perfect type of leaf-roll in a cross between Alexander’s No. 1 Red and Keeper, while No. 16503, shown in Plate XI, figure 1, is an equally POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 31 good type of curly-dwarf in another cross between the same parents. No cases are recorded where both leaf-roll and curly-dwarf were found in the same seedling number, but there are several instances where diseased and healthy plants occur in the same row. The results of 1913 are more striking in their proof of the hereditary nature of leaf-roll and curly-dwarf. This field contained 20 hills of each variety, planted with 10 tubers, each cut in half, and the two halves of each seed potato dropped in adjoming hills. As a general rule, all the 20 hills were uniformly diseased, as shown in Plate VI, illustrating No. 2171, one of the best types of leaf-roll in the collec- tion. ‘Two plants from this row are shown in a closer view in Plate V. Compare also Plate XII, showing the uniform affection by curly- dwarf of Nos. 821 and 822, which are hybrids between Sophie and Keeper. In several cases in 1913 only a portion of a variety was affected, but with few exceptions the two hills originating from one tuber behaved alike. Row No. 1763, for instance, had two hills with leaf-roll, then four normal, then two leaf-rolled. Row No. 1613 had the first pair of hills normal, the second and third leaf-rolled, the fourth and fifth pairs normal, and all the remainder leaf-rolled. Other examples of similar inheritance of curly-dwarf are cited on page 38. WESTERN OUTBREAK OF LEAF-ROLL. For many years there has been an important center for potato production in Weld County in northern Colorado, known as the Greeley district. More recently a considerable acreage of potatoes has been grown on the North Platte River in western Nebraska. Since the average rainfall at Greeley is not large, all potatoes must be grown under irrigation. The potatoes generally receive sufficient rain in the spring to keep them growing until July, when irrigation is begun and repeated as needed. Rotations of crops have been generally practiced. A common one is, alfalfa two or three years, potatoes, beets, and grain. The methods of culture have been considered good, and large yields were secured for years. It has been estimated that 35,000 to 40,000 acres are annually planted to potatoes in the Greeley district. The total yield per year was stated by Bennett (1907) to be 9,000 to 14,000 carloads, or 4,000,000 to 6,000,000 bushels. This crop has been the greatest factor in pro- moting the prosperity of this section. The leading varieties have been Pearl, Rural New Yorker, and Early Ohio. Some difficulties had been experienced from diseases of potatoes previous to 1910. The greatest stress had been laid on the Rhizoc- tonia stem-blight, a trouble which assumes a peculiar form in this western country. (See under ‘‘Rosette,”’ p. 40.) Potato culture has been, in fact, restricted to the lighter soils, the physical condition of 32 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which is further improved by plowing under alfalfa just before plant- ing potatoes, and by the practice of extremely deep cultivation with special implements. Scab of the tubers has not been uncommon, and in some seasons there has been a late summer occurrence of nae blight, but the most important disease has been perhaps the Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum). This fungus was widely prevalent throughout the dis- trict, and its effect on the crop could be observed with especial clear- ness in fields where potatoes had been grown for two or three con- secutive years. Stem-end browning is common in Greeley potatoes, but the loss from Fusarium dry-rot has not been large. Crop rota- tion kept the loss from wilt down to a point where the disease caused little concern, though it is possible that a longer rotation would have been better. These details concerning the prevalence in Coloma of Rhizoc- tonia and Fusarium have been given at this point because they were at first charged with the losses due to leaf-roll. During the season of 1911 there was an outbreak of a potato disease which practically destroyed the crop in northern Colorado and western Nebraska. The shipments from the Greeley district fell from an expected 7,000 to 200 cars. The average yield of the 3,190 acres in the Mitchell (Nebr.) district was only 14 bushels per acre that year, as compared with 103 in 1909, 39 in 1910, and 102 in 1912. The cause of this extraordinary falling off in yield was the leaf-roll disease, though it was at first locally thought to be Fusa- rium and Rhizoctonia combined with the effect of the very dry and unfavorable weather of spring and early summer. It was predicted that with normal weather conditions and some improvements in cultural practices the disease would not be likely to recur (Corbett, 1912). In 1912, however, very favorable conditions for growing crops prevailed. There was an abundance of moisture in the soil in the spring and favorable temperatures throughout the season. Nevertheless, the disease again prevailed, nearly as severely as before. The shipments from Greeley were about 700 cars, with half the normal acreage. The Scottsbluff section came through with better results; for, although the leaf-roll appeared in June and threatened a repetition of the 1911 experience, there was a revival of the crop, after some midsummer rains, and a fair yield. It now seems indisputable that the Colorado and Nebraska disease is the same type of leaf-roll observed in the Maine and New York seed- lings and that this is the trouble called ‘‘Blattrollkrankheit” by the Germans. There have been variations in the symptoms observed, but it appears that this is also the case in different parts of Germany or between different varieties there. The American trouble exhibits the rolling, the yellow color, and all the important characters de- Bul. 64, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. Fic. 1.—PoTATO CurRLY-DwarF. A DISEASED AND A HEALTHY PLANT OF THE SAME VARIETY, SEEDLING No. 16503, ALEXANDER No. 1 RED X KEEPER. HOULTON, ME., 1912. Fic. 2,—POTATO CURLY-DwarF. AN ADVANCED CASE BETWEEN TWO NEARLY NoR- MAL HILLs. No. 13372, HOLBORN ABUNDANCE X IRISH SEEDLING. COMPARE PLATE XIII, FiGURE 1, WHICH SHOWS THE YIELD FROM THESE HILLS. HOULTON, MeE., 1913. | Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. -DwarF, SHOWING ITS TRANSMISSION THROUGH SEED TUBERS AND VARIETAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE IN SOPHIE X KEEPER PoTaTo CURLY , ALL DISEASED, AND Nos. 820 AND 823 (ON THE RIGHT AND LEFT, RESPECTIVELY), UNIFORMLY Hysrips Nos. 821 AND 822 (IN THE CENTER) HEALTHY. HOULTON, MeE., AUGusT, 1912. Bul, 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. g/FOZS LEQT-LO// Fig. 1.—POTATO LEAF-ROLL (BELOW) AND CURLY-DWARF (ABOVE), SHOWING THE YIELD OF HEALTHY AND DISEASED HILLS OF THE SAME VARIETY. HOULTON, ME., SEPTEMBER, 1913. W456 Curly-dwarr 02 Healthy a JOAZ Curly- FiG. 2.-POTATO CURLY-DWARF. COMPARISON OF THE YIELD OF HEALTHY AND DISEASED HILLS OF THE SAME VARIETIES. HOULTON, ME., SEPTEMBER, 1913. PLATE XIV. Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (0Y-4va7] HLIM NOsIuvdWOO HOS) '9 'q 'NOLONIHSVMA LV HAWWNSGI,) NI NMOUD S301LVLOd JO NOlLoway YaH1LVaM-LOH Vv 'NuNg-dl | OLVLOd POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 38 scribed, and the effect on the plant is the same, though possibly in the western cases there have been more pronounced abnormalities in stolon and tuber formation than are described in the German literature. These effects are illustrated in Plate VIII, figure 2, and Plate IX, figure 2, which show the numerous stolons, often thick and white, bearing many small tubers, frequently strung along like beads. The few tubers which attain any size are generally clustered around the base of the stem, as in Plate IX, figure 2, This clustering is characteristic of leaf-roll. Kornauth and Reitmair (1909) say: ‘“‘The stolons are greatly shortened. Many times the tubers are attached directly to the stem.” AERIAL TUBERS. Aerial tubers are very frequent, and there is often a thickening of the upper stem and leaf petioles which seems to be another result of the plant’s efforts to store starch above ground. (Pl. IX, fig. 1.) This is a distinct phenomenon from the formation of aerial tubers due to lesions on the stem caused by Rhizoctonia, for the leaf-roll cases show no trace of fungous injury. Neither of these characters is constant, however. Mr. Fritz Knorr informs us that ‘‘in 1911 the ereater percentage of the plants took on this stoloniferous character and a smaller portion developed the aerial tubers; this year (1912) the reverse was the case. We had but few of the stoloniferous plants and very many of the aerial tubers.” These are reactions of the plant to the abnormal physiological conditions accompanying the leaf-roll, which are in turn influenced more or less by moisture and food supply and by weather factors. It is easy to understand how aerial tubers are produced by the fungus Rhizoctonia, which causes lesions on the stem near the soil line and thus prevents the translocation of starch from leaves to tubers, for we can produce the same result by a mechanical injury, 1. e., ‘‘gird- ling” the stem or by rooting a cutting from a potato shoot in such a manner that no node is covered by soil and stolons can not, in conse- quence, be formed. In those leaf-roll diseased plants which form aerial tubers there are no below-ground fungus lesions, and some other force, such as the phloem shrinkage described by Quanjer, must be acting to hinder the storing of starch in the tubers. There is evidence, as mentioned im the paragraph on the relation of enzyms to leaf-roll, which suggests that there may be unusual katabolic activities gomg on in the diseased plants, which would consume the carbohydrates formed in photosynthesis, leaving little or none to be laid by in the tubers during the period of leaf-roll prevalence. If, at a later date, under the influence of favorable weather, for example, an excess of starch was again formed in the 34 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaves, but some physiological defect prevented its prompt transloca- tion to the below-ground tubers, it would be laid up in thickened branches and aerial tubers. An interesting and important line of study in pathological physi- ology presents itself in the determination of the ways in which leaf- roll potatoes differ from healthy ones. Doubtless a better knowledge of the nature of leaf-roll will lead to a determination of its cause. Up to the present but little more has been done than to diagnose leaf-roll more accurately and separate it from other maladies with which it has been confused. CAUSE OF LEAF-ROLL. The hypotheses as to the cause of leaf-roll are numerous but exceed- ingly varied. They have indeed only one point in common—that all are as yet unproved. It has been argued by one that leaf-roll results from the use of unripe tubers for seed; by another, that it is due to the employment of matured tubers for seed; while a third believes that seed from prematurely ripened plants is a cause of leaf- roll. The disease is attributed by some to a lack of mineral elements in the soil, while others advance evidence that it is caused or agera- vated by an oversupply of these same mineral elements. Poor cultural methods, lack of seed selection, and varietal degeneration are other suggested causes. ‘The struggle between those who believe leaf-roll due to fungi and those who think it nonparasitic is nearly fought out, with the victory apparently in sight for the latter. Many signs now point to the plant breeder as the one who will finally triumph over this malady. The present-day opinions on the cause of leaf-roll may be briefly reviewed. (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911.) The relation of fungi to leaf-roll has already been briefly summa- rized. Much more on this pomt will be found in the writings of Himmelbaur, of Kéck and Kornauth, and of Appel and Schlumberger. (See “ Bibliography,” pp. 44-48.) On the question of using mature or immature seed, Hiltner (1905) is the leading advocate of the stand that the immature seed stock gives an abnormal growth. On later evidence, he limits this to those potatoes which are prematurely ripened by drought or other untoward circumstances. Against this is to be balanced the very extensive use, with good results, of immature tubers for planting. In Scotland, particularly, this is held to be the best practice. Hiltner (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911) further holds leaf-roll to be the result of excessive applications of fertilizer of unbalanced composition at the wrong time. He considers that the concentrated salts, espe- cially potash salts, enter the roots and cause a disturbance in nutrition. Through the presence of these salts in the vessels, the water in them is prevented from rising. He thinks that these salts also favor the POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 35 entrance of fungi into the vessels. In this connection it may be noted that no fertilizers are used in Colorado, but that, according to Headden (1910), an abnormally large amount of nitrogen is present in these soils. Experimental evidence on the effect of fertilizers is brought forward by Osterspek (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911), who comes to the fol- lowing conclusions: (1) The leaf-roll occurred most severely where no fertilizer was used. (2) The second degree of severity was where the potash salts were left out. (3) The absence of phosphoric acid favored the leaf-roll to a lesser degree, though still perceptibly. (4) The use of a complete fertilizer, with nitrate of soda, superphosphate, and potash salts, tends to reduce the prevalence of leaf-roll. (5) A second application of nitrate of soda after stable manure or after a complete commercial fertilizer reduced the leaf-roll. Many practical growers have attributed leaf-roll to defective cultural conditions, poor soil, ete. Stérmer (1911) also subscribes to this view: “Through such means as the selection of the smallest potatoes for seed stock, poor preparation of the soil, excessive appli- cations of commercial fertilizers, heating of the potatoes in the silo, etc., a degeneration of the stock may be brought about and with this the leaf-roll.”” However, he has not yet exact proof of this. He believes that a hereditary leaf-roll may be caused by soil influence, “that one and the same potato may degenerate or remain healthy, according to the place where grown.”’ He reports having succeeded in bringing up the vigor of a weak stock by growing it in one year on a poor, sandy soil. This leads us to the consideration of the problem from the varietal viewpoint. VARIETAL SUSCEPTIBILITY AND RESISTANCE TO LEAF-ROLL. The first appearance of leaf-roll in Germany was on the variety Magnum Bonum and was considered as an evidence of varietal deterioration (Schultz [Soest], 1905). Magnum Bonum is one of the older varieties. It has also been one of the most popular and, since its introduction from England, has become one of the most widely cultivated potatoes in Germany and Austria. It has everywhere proved the most susceptible to leaf-roll, but those who take this to be proof of the general ‘‘running out” of the variety have to meet several counter arguments. Healthy stocks of Magnum Bonum are still to be found. The leaf-roll attacks many other varieties, and it occurs even on plants grown from seed. As to the relative susceptibility or resistance of American varieties there are almost no data. The Pearl, in the West, seems more lable to the trouble and may have to give way, like the Magnum Bonum. In Germany, however, extensive records are already kept by the German, Potato-Culture Station (Von Eckenbrecher, 1912) and others. 36 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is not thought worth while to reproduce here the tables and sum- maries of these variety tests. The varieties grown in Europe are almost entirely different from those grown in the United States, and repeated experiences have shown that few of them will thrive here if introduced. In general, the indications are that varietal differences in susceptibility to leaf-roll do exist, but that the tests need to be carried on longer before any conclusions are drawn respecting given varieties. It seems certain that leaf-roll is not a result of ‘‘running out” of varieties through old age, for many quite recently originated strains are affected. More striking still is its occurrence im seedlings, which has been observed by several workers. There have been unusual opportunities to study the occurrence of leaf-roll in the Stuart collection of 10,000 seedlings, where perhaps the most striking feature was that the leaf-roll was confined to certain numbers. The five hills of a kind would be uniformly affected, while those on either side were perfectly healthy. Clearly, the disease is not due entirely to soil or climatic influences, and certamly there was no indication of fungous infection. The marked contrast between diseased and healthy rows is well shown in Plate VI, in which the left-hand row is a hybrid (No. 2171) between Sophie and Keeper, the healthy row on the right bemg from the same cross (No. 2165). An interesting suggestion is put forward by Hedlund (1910), that leaf-roll is a pathological, adaptative mutation, and, further, that sce acquired characters are not inherited the leaf-roll character must be latent m normal potatoes. CONTROL OF LEAF-ROLL. No measure offers more hope of success in controlling leaf-roll than the use of better seed stocks. Three means may be used to bring this about: First and simplest, the importation of seed potatoes from districts where the disease is unknown. ‘This affords relief but may not greatly raise the standard of quality. Second, hill selection, to pick out from weak varieties strains that will withstand the disease. This has been done already by Von Lochow (1910), who took several types from the variety Professor Wohltmann and bred them in pure lines. The result was that certain of these pure strains showed sus- ceptibility to leaf-roll, while others remained entirely or nearly free from it. Third, new varieties may be bred from seed. This, while requiring the most time, may be the best means for meeting the requirements where whole districts are attacked, as in the Colorado outbreak. That such good varieties can be produced one can hardly doubt after seeing the departmental collection of over 10,000 seed- lings with its infinite variety of disease-resistant qualities. It is the prevailing opinion of European investigators that leaf-roll is inherited—i. e., that the tubers from diseased hills will produce diseased progeny. Cases are cited where the first crop after the POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 37 appearance of the disease was normal, but later harvests fell to nothing. No reliable results are available in this country. Con- flicting reports come from farmers in the Greeley section; but, as no pathologist accustomed to the diagnosis of leaf-roll saw either crop, the relative amount of disease in home-grown and outside seed remains unknown. It seems a wise precaution to use only selected seed from such sources as Minnesota and Wisconsin for planting next year where leaf-roll occurred last season. It may be that the disease will not appear on crops from home seed, but the chances are that it will. The introduction of new and more vigorous varieties affords a still more hopeful means of ultimately controlling the situation. The problem of finding the best source of seed is the most important one now confronting potato growers in the region affected by these troubles. What is needed are selected stocks, true to name, with vigor unimpaired and free from disease. The present difficulty is that it is almost impossible to find such potatoes in large quantities. Where growers have made experiments with outside seed they have, as a rule, made their purchases in the open market or from middlemen who have filled their orders with uninspected stocks, for which reason no conclusions can be drawn from any experiments to date. There is fortunately a movement to organize among potato growers in the principal Northern States, and this is backed by their State experiment stations in a way that should in time make a supply of reliable seed available. It would be well to follow the example of Germany, where a system of official inspection is being inaugurated, through which growers and purchasers may be assured that the crop from a given estate is free from leaf-roll. Such a certificate can be granted only after an inspection of the growing crop. The importance of such an inspection in midsummer by a representative of the purchaser or by an official expert can not be overstated. It is entirely impossible to determine the vigor and freedom from leaf-roll of a stock of potatoes after harvest. The practical phases of such a system of seed inspection and certification will be discussed more fully in a later publication. CURLY-DWARF. Under the name ‘‘curly-dwarf’’ there is to be differentiated from the leaf-roll a peculiar disorder, characterized by a dwarfed devel- opment of the potato plant, accompanied by a pronounced curling and wrinkling of the foliage, which has been compared to Scotch kale and Savoy cabbage. It is known in Germany as “ Kriusel- krankheit.’”’ The accompanying illustrations from photographs (Pls. X and XI) show the typical appearance of this disease more clearly than the printed description. 38 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The stem and its branches, the leat petioles, and even the midribs and veins of the leaves all tend to be shortened in many cases to a very marked extent, and particularly in the upper nodes of the plant, so that the foliage is thickly clustered. The diminished growth of the leaf veins, in proportion to the parenchyma, results in a bullate, wrinkled leaf, often strongly curled downward. There seems also to be a tendency to form more secondary branches than is normal, and as these remain short and have curly leaves the com- pactness of the plants is more striking. The stems are also very brittle. COLOR OF THE FOLIAGE. The color of the foliage in curly-dwarf is typically a normal green, except that in very severe or advanced cases there is a lighter green or yellow color sometimes accompanied by brown or reddish flecks in the leaves where the tissues are dying. Typical curly-dwarf is readily distinguished from leaf-roll by the wrinkled or downward curling of the leaves, the normal color of the foliage, and the firmness of the leaves, which do not lack turgidity. The tuber yield of curly-dwarf plants is greatly curtailed. Severe cases have no tubers, and many such have been observed. In others a few small potatoes are formed. ‘This difference in productivity is strikingly shown in the photograph reproduced in Plate XIII, figure 2, of the yield from curly-dwarf hills compared with adjoining healthy The nature and cause of this disease remain unknown. No evidence of fungi or other parasites have been found. There is neither brown- ing nor mycelium in stems and tubers, but the curly-dwarf is trans- mitted through the seed. The hereditary nature of the trouble is attested by the German authorities, and it has been observed by the writer in the case of some hill selections made by Prof. Stuart in 1911 and planted in the Arlington greenhouses that winter. The tubers from diseased hills all developed into curly-dwarf plants, while those from healthy hills remained normal. Equally good evidence of the transmission of this diseased condition through the tubers was afforded by the Stuart seedling collection of 1913, which, as described under leaf-roll, was planted in 2-hill tuber units. No. 4033 had 4 pairs of curly-dwarf and 5 pairs of healthy hills in the following order: Two normal hills, 2 curly-dwarf, 2 normal, 2 curly-dwarf, 2 normal, 2 curly- dwarf, 2 normal, 4 curly-dwarf,2 normal. No.13016 had the first two hills normal, the next two curly-dwarf. No. 13372 had 4 normal hills, then 4 curly-dwarf, 1 normal, 1 curly-dwarf, and 2 normal. No. 14637 _ had hills Nos. 1 and 2 normal, and 3 and 4 curly-dwarf; and these examples might be multiplied many times. The few exceptions where single hills developed the disease may be due to an error in dropping the seed or to planting a small tuber whole. Ca as ; = oe POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 39 OCCURRENCE AND DISTRIBUTION. In Europe curly-dwarf is apparently not sufficiently common to have any economic significance. The literature on this subject must, however, be interpreted with an understanding of the confusion of terms among the older authors, who often used the word ‘‘Krausel- krankheit”’ as a collective term for curly-dwarf, leaf-roll, bacterial ring disease, and still others (Appel and Schlumberger, 1911; Frank, 1897; Kithn, 1859). Evidence is also found in the old English literature that a varietal deterioration called ‘‘curl’’ was frequent even in the nineteenth century (Dickson, 1814; Shirreff, 1814; Townley, 1847; Foster, 1905). It is impossible to know whether this trouble was leaf-roll or curly-dwarf; but the thought suggests itself that there have been periods, or cycles, of decline in potato varieties, followed by the rejuvenation due to introduction of new sorts. Jt may be that such a period of decline is now beginning, as manifested by the appearance of leaf-roll and similar troubles in the principal potato countries during recent years. In the United States it is probable that curly-dwarf plays a lange role in the deterioration of potatoes. It is commonly met with in New England and New York fields, though not always recognized, as the larger plants overshadow and conceal the weaklings. The writer -has sought this type of deterioration in potato fields in many States from Maine to California, and has found it to be not infrequent in occurrence, but that its presence in the average field is limited to scattered plants, usually less than 2 per cent. Field-to-field inspec- tion in important potato districts has, however, resulted in the dis- covery of some fields where a larger percentage, even half or more of the plants, showed curly-dwarf. Some of these fields showed weak- ness in other ways, through failures to germinate, blackleg, mosaic disease, and general lack of vigor. In another instance a strain of potatoes was banne grown by a pro- gressive, careful farmer, who had adopted the hill-selection method to increase vigor and suodineiremees, yet a considerable proportion went down with curly-dwarf in 1913, three years after the selection ceased. The 1912 crop was normal in appearance but was subjected to severe drought. This is of interest in connection with the belief that prevails in some quarters that dry years induce this type of trouble. The same grower shipped a portion of his 1912 crop to a southern State for the early spring planting, and much curly-dwarf appeared in the fields of the purchaser. It seems evident that this is a physiological disorder, resulting in a permanent deterioration of the stock. It may develop at any time _as a result of conditions not yet fully understood, and the vigor of the affected strain apparently can not be restored. 40 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This is a problem in varietal decline that should receive earnest con- sideration. The prevalence of such weak plants should be ascer- tained in any stock intended for propagation, and measures undertaken to provide disease-free seed potatoes in sufficient quantity to meet all demands. There are all grades of the condition above described, from pro- nounced types of curly-dwarf to those approaching norzai vigor. It will furthermore be apparent that this is a difference inherent in the varieties or strains under observation. Schander has described a related condition as the ‘‘Barbarossa disease,’? so named because it is characteristic of the German variety Barbarossa, In every potato field are found some weaklings, or plants which are merely small, without any curled leaves or dwarfed stems, and without the fungous lesions described under “ Rosette.”’ The extent to which these small plants represent a permanent deterioration in the vigor of the stock, and thus a condition related to the curly-dwarf, is a problem not yet settled. Certainly such weaklings should be eliminated when improved seed is desired. CONTROL OF CURLY-DWARF. Since potatoes from diseased hills can not be restored to vigor, all such should be rejected for planting. The occurrence of any consider- able number in a field may be taken as evidence of a general decline, requiring that the entire stock be given up and new seed substituted. It has already been demonstrated by Prof. Stuart that we have in the method of tuber selection outlined by Webber (1908) a means by which all diseased potatoes may be eliminated from a stock, since when all tubers are cut into four pieces and these planted in adjacent hills all those which show inherited weakness may be eliminated and only the strongest and most productive selected. ROSETTE. Phases of leaf-roll and curly-dwarf marked by dwarfed growth and the formation of aerial tubers have been described. These symp- toms may, however, result from another cause—the stem lesions due to Rhizoctonia, and no attempt to differentiate potato troubles can be successful which does not take into considera‘ion the varied effects of thisfungus. It must be recognized that Rhizoctonia appears to be a more active parasite in America than in Europe and to play a greater réle in the Western States than in the Eastern. Since this article is written primarily to effect a diagnosis of potato troubles, it will not be necessary to review the facts already well known to pathologists relative to the occurrence of Rhizoctonia on its various hosts or to discuss the relationship and parasitism of the several known strains. This subject is being fully reinvestigated PLATE XV Bul. 64, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. CELEB} ‘OHVG] ‘SWousr ‘MVHS "G 'H Ad GSHdVYDOLOHd) “3DVITO4 AHL NO LO3d4dq SLLSSOY SHL ONIONGOYd NALIO ‘SAaLS JO 3aSVq SHL LV SNOISS] VINOLOOZIHY—'S “DIA "6061 ‘YSGWSaldasS “HSVAA ‘YSNNOO VW] ‘WAALS SHL JO 3SVG SH1L LV SNOISS7 OL 3NQ SYREN L IWIeAYy SNIMOHS ‘OLVLOd NO LO344q VINOLOOZIHY—"}] "SI4 PLATE XVI. Bul. 64, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. HLIM NOSINVdWOD HOS) (‘, ayundl4 "LNV1d OLVLOd VNSUN”Z AHLIVAH—'S “SIS "C1L6L ‘ASNOHNASZYD NOLONITYY NI ALSIYVA VHSYN>A "3SVasiq OIVSO|[| OLVLOd—"} “SI POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 41 by Dr. H. A. Edson, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. It is, how- ever, important to mention that types of potato disease are not infrequently encountered which simulate in one character or another the leaf-roll, the curly-dwarf, and sometimes blackleg, but which is believed to be associated with Rhizoctonia, although it must be admitted that the proof is somewhat scanty. This fungus is almost ubiquitous on potato tubers in its sclerotial form; small black mycelial masses superficially attached to the epi- dermis without evidence of parasitism may be found on tubers from every State. In other cases a russet scab or cracking is attributed to the same fungus, and lesions are formed on the underground stem and stolons. The fruiting stage, Corticuwm vagum solani Burt (1 ypochnus solani Prill), is tamed on the green stem above ground and is inenely, a superficial nonparasitic layer over healthy tissues. The reaction of the potato plant to Rhizoctonia infection depends upon the part attacked. If this be the stolons, the young tubers are cut off, and this process, taking place in the heavy irrigated soils of the West, is held by Rolfs (1902, 1904) to be the cause of that type of potato failures in which large overgrown vines produce few or only small tubers. If the lesions encircle and girdle the main stem near the soil line, the result will be the formation of numerous aerial tubers (Pl. XV, fig. 1) formed as a result of the destruction of the phloem and the prevention of carbohydrate translocation. The same result would follow mechanical girdling. This type of injury sometimes results in a leaf-roll that is hard to distinguish from the genuine leaf- roll until the plant is pulled and the stem injury noted. Such plants were conspicuous in the Red River Valley in Minnesota in 1913. There may have been a complication with blackleg there, but there was no leaf-roll. Inthe San Luis Valley of Colorado, also, the Rhizoc- tonia injury is reported by Edson and Wollenweber to take a form strongly simulating leaf-roll. Rhizoctonia lesions on the young hypocotyl, such as are figured in Plate XV, figure 2, cause a dwarfed growth described by Selby as rosette. The condition figured by him closely approaches curly- dwarf, and the question is well worth raising in the case of stunted plants bearing Rhizoctonia lesions whether their vigor had not been impaired prior to infection. One can pass through potato fields in Ohio and Wisconsin, for example, and on pulling the small, weak, or rosette plants find many, but usually not all, with these stem lesions. So far as the writer knows, no one has planted the tubers from such hills to learn whether the weakness is transmissible. The case for Rhizoctonia is weakened, however, when one finds the stem lesion on vigorous, out- wardly healthy hills as well as on the rosette examples. The subject clearly needs further investigation. 42 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MOSAIC. The potato mosaic is an abnormal condition of the foliage charac- terized by a spotted or mottled appearance of the leaves, portions of which are lighter green in color and with thinner, less perfectly devel- oped parenchyma than the normal. In the later stages, brown flecks of dead tissues may appear. These light-green areas vary consid- erably in size in different cases, from definite patches of 5, 10, or 20 millimeters, with fairly distinct demarcation between diseased and healthy tissues, to an indefinite punctate type where a thin yellow- green spot of leaf tissue merges gradually into the apparently normal. The latter has been the more common on potatoes in the writer’s observations to date, while the former is more frequent in the mosaic diseases of tobacco, tomato, and other plants. Reference to Plate XVI, figure 1 will make these points clearer than pages of text. There are phases of mosaic where it might be inferred that the plants under observation were of varieties having naturally irregular, curled, or wrinkled foliage, were it not for the contrast with the healthy plants alongside. (Pl. XVI, fig. 2.) Cases of potato mosaic have been observed with the abnormal © leaf areas so large and so clearly marked as to suggest variegations, such as are familiar-among ornamental plants. True variegations occur somewhat rarely in potato foliage, but the writer has seen one variety all the plants of which had variegated green and yellow- white leaves. This sort, appropriately named the ‘‘Harlequin,” was grown in 1911 in a variety test on the experimental grounds of the Landwirtschaftliches Institut at Goettingen, Germany. As might be expected, it was sas in vigor as compared with the other varieties. The effect of mosaic on the growth and development of potato plants is quite marked. Most conspicuous is the irregular, distorted, or wrinkled foliage. This effect is manifestly due to the imperfect development of the diseased portions of the leaf parenchyma. The plants are also smaller, except in the mildest cases. The effect on the yield was tested by harvesting 80 mosaic hills and 80 healthy hills of the Green Mountain variety, on September 10, 1913. The yield of the diseased plants was 94.4 pounds; and of the healthy, 120.8 pounds, a difference of 22 per cent. Typical potato mosaic can not be confounded with typical curly- dwarf. The former is marked by abnormalities in the leaf paren- chyma while the especial characteristic of the latter is the restricted development of the vascular elements. There do occur, however, some intergrading forms that present puzzles that will doubtless be cleared up later when both diseases have been more fully studied. No references to potato mosaic have been found in the literature. It was first observed by the writer in 1911 in a field at Giessen, Ger- many, where it was not uncommon, especially on some varieties. - POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 438 In 1912, it was exceedingly prevalent in some fields of Green Moun- tain in Aroostook County, Me. The number of plants affected varied from 1 per cent up to practically 100 per cent. Some fields of several acres were seen where hardly a normal plant could be found. The disease was present again in 1913 in the same district, always on the Green Mountain variety. Mosaic has not been found in the potato districts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Colorado, or other Western States, though an extended survey of these States was made in 1912 and 1913. There is evidently much difference in varietal susceptibility. Hundreds of fields were examined in Maine where the Green Mountain variety was growing side by side with Irish Cobbler, but practically no mosaic was observed in the latter, whereas it was very common in the former.. There appears to exist also a corresponding difference in the tendency of strains or stocks of the same variety toward mosaic. Different fields of the Green Mountain variety showed from none to 100 per cent of diseased plants. An experiment in the Arlington greenhouses further demonstrated this point, though undertaken for another purpose—the control of silver scurf. Two greenhouse beds were planted with the variety Eureka, using seed from two sources. One lot showed 46 mosaic and 31 healthy plants, eliminating doubtful cases, or 59.7 per cent diseased. The second lot had 100 per cent free from mosaic. Portions of the first lot had been treated with formalin, corrosive sublimate, and heat, with control lots untreated. These treatments did not appreciably affect the proportions of mosaic which developed. That mosaic is transmitted through the tubers is thought to be not improbable. An experiment to test this was carried out in Maine _ during the past season with somewhat inconclusive results. Tubers from mosaic hills marked in 1912 were planted in hill-unit rows, with controls. The progeny were in part mosaic and in part of a doubtful character, smaller and less vigorous than the controls, but with less clearly marked mosaic than the parent hills. On account of some confusion of the labels, it is thought best to repeat the test before drawing conclusions. The cause of potato mosaic is unknown, nor have experiments been made to determine whether, like the mosaic of tobacco, it is commu- nicable from plant to plant. Allard (1912) has shown that the tobacco mosaic can not be transferred from tobacco to potato by inoculation. The exact nature and relationship of potato mosaic to other similar troubles remains to be worked out. In this article, which is primarily diagnostic, it is aimed to point out that such a disease exists and that it may become a factor in the problem of varietal deterioration — of such importance as to require consideration when selecting or inspecting seed stocks for certification or purchase. 44 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIBLIOGRAPHY. ALLARD, H. A. 1912. The mosaic disease of tobacco. Science, n.s., v. 36, no. 938, p. 875-876. 1914. The mosaic disease of tobacco. United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin No. 40, 33 p., 7 pl. AppPEL, OrTo. 1906. Neuere Untersuchungen iiber Kartoffel- und Tomatenerkrankungen. Jahresbericht, Vereinigung der Vertreter der Angewandten Botanik, Jahre. 3, 1904/5, p. 130-132, fig. 1. a 1907. Die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft [Germany], Flugblatt No. 42, 4 p., 2 fig. . ‘1909. Die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft [Germany], Flugblatt, Aufl. 3, No. 42, 4 p., 2 fig. 1911. Die Schwarzbeinigkeit und die Bakterien-Knollenfaule der Kartoffel. Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft [Germany], Flugblatt, Aufl. 4, No. 28, 4 p., 4 fig. and Krerrz, WILHELM. 1907. Der derzeitige Stand unserer Kenntnisse von den Kartoffelkrankheiten und ihrer Bekimpfung. Berlin. 31 p., 18 fig. (Mitteilungen, Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft [Germany], Heft 5.) 1908. Die hauptsichlichsten Kartoffelkrankheiten. [Illustrierte Landwirt- schaftliche Zeitung, Jahrg. 28, No. 17, p. 150-151, fig. 7-8 (colored plate). and SCHLUMBERGER, OTTO. 1911. Die Blattrolikrankheit und unsere Kartoffelernten. Berlin, 102 p.., illus., 3 pl. (Arbeiten, Deutsche Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft, Heft 190.) Wert, Emm, and ScotumBEeRGER, OTTo. 1910. Zur Kenntnisder Kartoffelpflanze. Mitteilungen, Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschaft [Germany], Heft 10, p. 12-14. and WOLLENWEBER, H. W. 1910. Grundlagen einer Monographie der Gattung Fusarium (Link). Arbeiten, Kaiserliche Biologische Anstalt fiir Land- und Forstwirtschafit [Germany], Bd. 8, Heft 1, p. 1-207, 12 fig., 3 pl. ARNIM-SCHLAGENTHIN, GRAF. 1908. Europas Kartoffelbau in Gefahr.. Fiihlings Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, Jahrg. 57, Heft 3, p. 102-107. Bennett, E. R. 1907. The Colorado potato industry. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 117, 23'p., 6 pl. " BEOBACHTUNGEN und Untersuchungen tiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffeln in [1908.] Westfalen. Verédffentlichungen, Landwirtschaftskammer ftir die Provinz Westfalen, Heft 8, 35 p. Reprinted from Jahresbericht, Landwirtschaftliche Versuchsstation, Miinster, 1908, p. 52-84. Bounutinsky, G. 1909. Beitrige zur Erforschung der Blattrollkrankheit. Monatshefte fir Land- wirtschaft, Jahrg. 2, Heft 4, p. 118-130, 4 fig. Also in Zeitschrift fiir das Land- wirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 18, Heft 7, p. 607-633, 3 fig., 1910. ! BunzeL, H. H. 1912. The measurement of the oxidase content of plant juices. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 238, 40 p., 9 fig., 2 pl. Cuinton, G. P. 1895. Fungous diseases of the potato. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 40, p. 189. POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 45 CorsBett, L. C. 1912. Suggestions to potato growers on irrigated lands. U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 90, 6 p. CricHton, DANIEL. 1814. Experiments and observations on the potato. Memoirs, Caledonian Hor- ticultural Society, v. 1, p. 438-441. For extract see Stephens, Henry. The Book of the Farm ... v. 2, New York, 1847, p. 203. Darert, F. ‘W. 1911. Bericht iiber staatliche Massnahmen anliisslich des Auftretens und der Verbreitung der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel in den Jahren 1908 bis 1910. (Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel, No. 1.) Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 14, Heft 5, p. 757-758. Also reprinted with Mitteil- ungen No. 2. Dickson, THOMAS. 1814. Observations on the disease in the potato generally called the curl; point- ing out the most probable method of preventing it; with an account of the results of a few experiments made on the subject. Memoirs, Caledonian Horticultural Society, v. 1, p. 49-59. For short abstract see Stephens, Henry. Book of the Farm... v. 2, New York, 1847, p. 203. Dosy, G. 1911-1912. Biochemische Untersuchungen iiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Zeitschrift fiir Pflanzenkrankheiten, Bd. 21, Heft 1/2, p. 10-17; Heft 6, p. 321-336; Bd. 22, Heft 4, p. 204-211; Heft 7, p. 401-403. EcKENBRECHER, C. von. 1906-1912. Bericht itiber die Anbauversuche der Deutschen Kartoffel-Kultur- Station im Jahre 1905-1911. Zeitschrift fiir Spiritusindustrie, Erganzungs- hefte. Fiucsiarr iiber die Blattrollkrankheit. (Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium 1911. der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel, No. 3.) Zeitschrift fiir das Land- wirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 14, Heft 7, p. 911-915, 1 fig., 1 pl. Also reprinted. Foster, C. 1905. ‘‘Curl’’ and its cure. National Potato Society, Annual Report, p. 25-29. Frank, A. B. 1897. Die Staudenkrankheiten der Kartoffelpflanze oder die Kraiuselkrankheit und yverwandte Lauberkrankungen. In his Kampfbuch gegen die Schad- linge unserer Feldfriichte. Berlin, p. 217-222, pl. 14, fig. 2-4, pl. 15, fig. 1. Happen, W. P. ‘ 1910. Fixation of nitrogen in some Colorado soils. Colorado Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 155, 48 p., 8 fig. Hepuunp, T. 1910. Nagra iakttagelser 6fver bladrullsjuka hospotatis. Tidskrift for Landt- man, bd. 31, p. 512-515, 532-541. Abstract in Centralblatt fir Bakteriologie, [etc.], Abt. 2, Bd. 31, No. 11/15, p. 331. (Original not seen.) Herisert-Nitsson, N. 1913. Potatisféradling och potatisbed6mning. 31 p., illus. Reprinted from W. Weibulls Arsbok, 8. Hintner, L. 1905. Zur Frage des Abbaues der Kartoffeln. Praktische Blatter fiir Pflan- zenbau und Pflanzenschutz, Jahrg. 8 ([n. R.] Jahrg. 3), Heft 12, p. 133-140, 1 fig. 46 BULLETIN 64, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HIMMELBAUR, WOLFGANG. 1912. Die Fusariumblattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Oesterreichisch-Ungarische Zeitschrift fir Zuckerindustrie und Landwirtschaft, Jahrg. 41, Heft 5, p. 716-744, 13 fig.; Heft 6, p. 944-976, fig. 14-25. Ir1suH, J. P., jr. ‘1913. The work of the Delta Experiment Farm in 1912. U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 127, p. 3-13, 1 fig. JAMIESON, CLARA O., and WOLLENWEBER, H. W. 1912. An external dry rot of potato tubers caused by Fusarium trichothecioides, Wollenw. Journal, Washington Academy of Sciences, v. 2, no. 6, p. 146-152. Joness, L. R., Grppines, N. J., and Lurman, B. F. 1912. Investigations of the potato fungus Phytophthora infestans. U. S. De- partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 245, 100 p., 10 fig., 10 pl. Kock, G., and Kornaura, K. 1911. Studien iiber die Ursache der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel und itiber die Méglichkeit der Uebertragung dieser Krankheit durch das Saatgut und den Boden. (Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrank- heit der Kartoffel, No.2.) Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchs- wesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 14, Heft 5, p. 759-805. Also reprinted with Mitteilungen No. 1. , and Brod, O: : 1912. Bericht iiber die von der k. k. Pflanzenschutzstation im Jahre 1911 durchgefiihrten Versuche zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. (Mitteilungen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kar- toffel, No. 5.) Zeitschrift, fir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 15, Heft 3, p. 179-247, 1 fig. Kornauts, K., and Rrirmar, O. 1909. Die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel und ihr Auftreten in Oéesterreich. Monatshefte fiir Landwirtschaft, Jahrg. 2, Heft 3, p. 79-90. Also reprinted. 1909. Studien iiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. Mit besonderer Beriick- sichtigung ihres Auftretens und ihrer Verbreitung 1908 in Oe6esterreich. Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahrg. 3, Heft 3, p. 97-125. Also reprinted. Krauss, FRirz. 1912. Ueber das Auftreten von Pilzen in Kartoffeln. Mitteilungen, Kaiser Wil- helms Institut fiir Landwirtschaft, Bromberg, Bd. 5, Heft 2, p. 143-170, fig. 2-7. Kuan, J. G. 1859. Die Krankheiten der Kulturgewachse, ihre Ursachen und ihre Verhiitung. Aufl. 2, Berlin, p. 200. Locuow, F. von. 1910. Priifung auf Leistung bei der Kartoffelziichtung. Illustrierte Landwirt- schaftliche Zeitung, Jahrg. 30, No. 16, p. 135-136, illus. LounsBury, C. P. 1909. Plant and fruit import regulations. Report, Government Entomologist, [Cape of Good Hope], 1908, p. 58-60. 1910. Internal plant and fruit regulations. Report, Government Entomologist, [Cape of Good Hope], 1909, p. 84. Manns, T. F. 1911. Fusarium blight (wilt) and dry rot of the potato. Preliminary studies and field experiments. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 229, p. 299-337, illus. me ie POTATO WILT, LEAF-ROLL, AND RELATED DISEASES. 47 Orton, W. A. 1902-1907. Plant diseases in the United States in 1901-1906. U. 8. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1901, p. 668-672; 1902, p. 714-719; 1903, p. 550-555; 1904, p. 581-586; 1905, p. 602-611; 1906, p. 409-508. 1909. Potato diseases in San Joaquin county, California. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 23, 14 p. 1913. Potato leaf-roll. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Indus- try, Circular 109, p. 7-10. 1913. Potato-tuber diseases. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers’ Bulle- tin 544, 16 p., 16 fig. 1913. Powdery dry-rot of the potato. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 110, p. 138-15. Preruysrivce, G. H. 1910. Potato diseases in Ireland. Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, Ireland, Journal, v. 10, no. 2, p. 241-256, 8 fig. 1911. Leaf roll and ‘‘curl.’? Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruc- tion, Ireland, Journal, v. 11, no. 3, p. 447-449. 1912. ‘‘Curl” and ‘‘leaf-roll.’’ Department of Agriculture and Technical In- struction, Ireland, Journal, v. 12, no. 2, p. 354-356, fig. 3-4. QuansER, H. M. 1913. Die Nekrose des Phloéms der Kartoffelpflanze, die Ursache der Blattroll- krankheit. Mededeelingen, Rijks Hoogere Land-, Tuin- en Boschbouwschool, [Wageningen], deel 6, afl. 2, p. 41-80, pl. 2-9. REINKE, JOHANNES, and BERTHOLD, G. 1879. Die Zersetzung der Kartoffel durch Pilze. Berlin. 100p.,9 pl. (Unter- suchungen, Botanisches Laboratorium, Universitat Géttingen, Heft 1.) ReiTmairn, O. 1912. Biologische Studien iiber die Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel. (Mitteilun- gen des Komitees zum Studium der Blattrollkrankheit der Kartoffel, No. 4.) Zeitschrift fiir das Landwirtschaftliche Versuchswesen in Oesterreich, Jahre. 15, Heft 1, p. 1-106. Remy, Tu., and ScHNEIDER, G. 1909. Beobachtungen tiber das Auftreten der Blattrollkrankheit. Fihlings Landwirtschaftliche Zeitung, Jahre. 58, Heft 6, p. 201-219. Rotrs, F. M. 1902. Potato failures. A preliminary report. Colorado Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 70, 19 p., 12 pl. 1904. Potato failures. A second report. Colorado Agricultural Experiment ‘Station, Bulletin 91, 33 p., 5 pl. ScHANDER, RICHARD. [1911.] Versuche mit Stecklingen, Veredelungen usw. Mitteilungen, Kaiser Wilhelms Institut fiir Landwirtschaft, Bromberg, Bd. 4, Heft 1, p. 57-58. 1912. Beitriige zur Kultur der Kartoffel. Mitteilungen, Kaiser Wilhelms Insti- tut fiir Landwirtschaft, Bromberg, Bd. 5, Heft 2, p. 136-143, fig. 1. Scuuttz, G. (Soest.) 1905. Entartung der Magnum bonum—Kartoffel? Deutsche Landwirtschaft- liche Presse, Jahrg. 32, No. 91, p. 760, fig. 872-875. Seipy, A. D. 1903. 938 7,402 7.9 Wilcox......... 574 3, 891 6.8 Cee ae 786) 7380 o3 CgrE 501 28e 9 16,873 | 135° 612 50 Covington....-. , : hi ies. 61 * 8.0 reals: ea Sey 674 57405 3.0 Other counties wba s eal nee eto Dalew ne ce 840 7,489 8.9 Total.........| 37,046] 317,460 8.6 Hiniore--. 620 5,116 8.3 a eS Geneva:......-- 1,012 11, 259 11.1 |} Louisiana: J Henry.... 658 9, 064 13.3 Ascension...... 9,628 | 137,674 14.3 Houston...._.. 1,004 12, 007 12.0 Assumption... - 27,852 | 491,743 17.7 Meee eine: Oat ak 523 5,077 7) Avoyelles...... 7,335 | 128,155 1725 Monroe........- 699 6,743 9.6 East Baton Montgomery... 619 4,465 7.2 Rouge.......- 2,107 | 38,068 18.1 aU yrs ese 676 4, 982 7.4 Thera eee 36,585 | 433,778 11.9 Pikes s 08h. 668 5,359 8.0 Tberville........| 20,764 | 359,369 17.3 sselliee- es 588 4,296 73 Jefferson...._.. 2,104 31,101 14.8 Sumter.....__.. 543 3,055 5.6 Lafayette.....- 12,218 | 171,059 14.0 Tallapoosa...-- 514) 6,541 12.7 Lafourche... ..- 33,200 | 562,538 16.9 Wilcox-..:..... 1,269 9,578 7.5 Ofleanishen see" 1, 653 27, 057 16.4 Other counties.| 8,903 | 63, 434 7.1 Plaquemines...} 6,643 | 108, 996 16.4 Sa SSS Pointe Coupee. 3, 806 72, 435 19.0 Motal....-- alhatety 2) |0226; 634) |e a Si3 Rapides...°...- 7,452 | 127,670 17.1 | St. Bernard .... 2,335 25, 090 10.7 Arkansas: St. Charles... _- 6,757 | 110,871 16.4 Ashley........- 392 3, 023 7.7 St. James.....- 20,526 | 312,001 15.2 Clarks 202552 296 1,170 4.0 St. John the Columbia...... 359 2,110 5.9 Baptist.......| 12,669 | 232,268 18.3 Drewes = aes 269 1,779 6.6 St. Landry.. 6, 423 94, 050 14.6 Howard........ 226 969 4.3 St. Martin...._. 11,365 144, 799 12.7 Sevier... -24:> 3 203 1,277 6.3 St. Mary sos 42,324 | 504,010 11.9 (Unions. sein 637 4,768 7.5 merraneuee ie: | 23,797 | 435,615 18.3 Other counties. 948 4,772 5.0 Vermilion... ..- 7, 637 86, 664 11.3 fA eel Sa West Baton Mopale 5 yo 3,330 19, 868 6.0 Rouge.....- 10,271 176, 800 17.2 S| * Other parishes . 14,233 | 180,185 9.1 Florida SS Alachua......-- 577 6, 143 10.6 Total.........| 329,.684 |4, 941, 996 15.0 Gadsden A AC i 935 12, 053 12.9 Be Hillsboro.....-- 589 8, 163 13.9 || Mississippi: Jackson... ....- 1,049 9,798 } 9.3 Amitey fees 843 10, 711 iP A¢ Jefferson.....-- 609 3, 995 6.6 ‘Attala Ree esc 755 6, 250 8.3 eons. pe 564 5,096 9.0 Clarkes 625 5, 281 8.4 Madison........ 660 7,108 10.8 Copiahe te 228 943 7,907 8.4 Marion....._... 551 2,448 4.4 Ein ds! eee ae 1,166 8, 046 6.9 Suwannee...... 826 11, 106 13.4 Holmes........ 755 7, 292 O57; Other counties. 6, 568 76, 607 11.7 Jaspers ee eee 635 5,779 9.1 a Jefferson Davis. 515 7, 446 14.5 Mota: se 9 12,928 | 142,517 11.0 Jones Sai a 1,010 7,075 7.0 —S Kemper....... 577 5, 278 9.1 Georgia: Lafayette...... 563 1,791 3.2 PITICN 2422) 2. 907 7,924 8.7 Lauderdale. ... 643 6, 433 10.0 IBYOOKS: 224. - 898 10, 025 1.2 515 7,896 15.3 Bullock........ 1, 842 15, 245 8.3 554 4,545 8.2 Birke 5-22 322 578 3,970 6.9 1,045 9,118 8.7 Cofiee:: 3.6255 560 4,312 eit 521 8, 751 7.2 Colauitt::.v... 708 5,589 7.9 584 5, 696 9.8 Decatur 1,194] 13,138 11.0 1,111] 13,406 12.1 Effingham..... 592 4,050 6.8 564 4, 685 8.3 Emanuel......-. 1,073 5,324 5.0 689 4, 884 7.1 Grady? .- 3 -. 2,181 21,514 9.9 Other counties. 10, 248 89,335 8.7 Jefferson....... 817 5, 297 6.5 ee Johnson........ 590 8,725 6.3 Totals OSes 24, 861 222, 600 9.0 Baurenss. 2.32. 817 9,761 11.9 —— STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. iit TasLe 8.—Sugar-cane area and production in the United States, 1909, by principal States and counties—Continued., Average State and county. | Area. PLgdUe yield per ‘ acre. : Short Short North Carolina: Acres tons. tons. Brunswick... .-- Blac 40 8.0 Columbus...... 91 648 Tell Pender....-..-- 75 238 3.2 ; Robeson......- 123 568 4.6 MOU L ee oes 294 1, 494 5.1 South Carolina: Bamberg.....-- 398 3,519 8.8 Barnwell... ._.. 545 6, 348 11.6 Clarendon...... 329 1,972 6.0 Colleton........ 495 3, 502 Tell Hampton...... 682 6, 820 10.0 Orangeburg... 1,107 12,531 11.3 Other counties. 3, 497 25,173 ee, Mota s ove Le 7,053 59, 865 8.5 Texas: Brazoria... ..-- 2,037 26, 288 12.9 } Cameron......- 1, 604 34, 451 21.5 Average State and county. Area ee yield a ion. acre. Short Short Texas—Contd. Acres. tons. tons. Cassi vanes cs 567 4, 433 7.8 Colorado. ...... 1,324 12, 803 9.7 Hayettessss 5585 579 1,391 2.4 Fort Bend..... 6, 775 90, 827 13.4 Guadalupe. .... 573 1,071 1.9 Nacogdoches... 612 3, 765 6.2 RUS kee eee 892 5, 589 6.3 Shelby.......-- 956 4,748 5.0 Shania eee 605 3, 231 5.3 Wihartones=s==— 4,714 36, 434 7.7 WiOOd Seti es 518 5,985 11.6 Other counties. 12, 559 76, 486 6.1 Motal s,s oeek 34,315 | 307,502 9.0 Other States...._.. 127 324 2.6 United States} 476,849 |6, 240, 260 13.1 TaBLE 9.—Production of cane sirup and cane molasses in the United States, 1899-1909, by principal States. [By “‘sirup” is meant the liquid cane product from which no sugar has been extracted; by ‘‘molasses”’! is meant the liquid cane product from which more or less sugar has been extracted.] 1899 1909 1899, 1909 State. State. Haun. and Farm pro- pauuend Farm pro- J duction.2 » | duction.2 production. production. Sirup Molasses. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. Georgia nee seu oe lee Bea Bay || Gi G88), 5) IP INU tienes ae atl oe 4,153 Bowisiana ysl se ye 2, 480, 856 412590831 uoOWisianaes = sea esse eens 11, 703, 877 | 224, 342, 555 Mice api ea nceeeecec ees 2, ie a8 3 , ee on Mex as. ooo eee eae o 98, 950 8 425, 310 Florida. CA ge aE IS Hie 687, 452 2, 533, 096 Total molasses...... 11,802,827 | 24,772,518 Oras LAINE A na a a 2,246, 7 nn South Carolina..........- 805, 064 "881, 558 Totalsirup and mo- AEbausis ETT a a 2 Bea lassess sh ao) Aen 25, 024,074 | 47,855, 957 North Carolina..........- ; Other States.....0........ ” 438 6, 184 NZ OUISIAN Aes ereiste is tell Sees Giclees 8 942,997 OthenStatesmay ee Sa aes 3 506, 863 ; Totalsirup........- 13,221,247 | 23, 083, 439 1 Census. 2 Farm production except as noted. 3 Factory production. 12 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 10.—Production of cane sugar in Louisiana, 1849-1912, by principal parishes.* [Chiefly raw sugar.] Parish. | 180 1859 | 1869 | 1879 | 1889 | 1898 | 1899 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 Short | Short | Short| Short| Short | Short | Short | Short | Short | Short tons. | tons. | tons. | tons.| tons. | tons. | tons. | tons. | tons. | tons. Acpennionts p93 Ata ick 6,719] 8,044] 3,212] 6,714] 13,569] 16,386] 6,004] 13,529] 14,496| 8,342 Assnmintion..cent-.-caciede ee 8,580] 8,854] 4,779] 5,966] 16,859} 26,162] 13,523] 31,907] 35,950 14, 457 Riera 2220 ss dea ow NL ee 927] 3,200} 5,991] 17,404] 11,125] 33,383] 29,949] 10,999 Bbervillo:’ 04 ci. 9. 2e8ee2 11,604] 5,414] 2,454} 7,636] 15,533] 17,693] 7,305] 28,246] 23,759] 7,942 Tafanrchioteas 2-058. eee 5,028] 7,368] 3,564] 5,592] 10,826] 28,345] 19,391] 42, 639] 42,001] 11.728 St; James? -j22-) 3 Fees se aes 10,835] 6,868} 3,132] 7,125) 10,539) 21,644) 10,939] 21,687] 20,760] 9,368 St. John the Baptist -.......... 5,968} 2,490] 2,481] 4,807) 6,285} 12,972] 8,231) 13,206] 14,935) 11, 289 Fis Maries. & ~~.) 509.22 sb 2,094] 3,750] 747] 1,626} 2,141] 5,574] 3,077| 10,377| 13,719] 5,382 Ste Mary Pe hia Bos. wes ah 12,382] 15,366] 3,296] 8,268] 17,018] 52,384} 26,659] 54,397] 57,602| 25,597 WerrebOnNe. a; .<-2-<-ceq---6--0- 4,586] 8,511] 3,268] 6,876] 11,490] 25,144] 19,981] 30,392] 27, 462] 14, 463 West Baton Rouge....--......-- 3,960) 5,088) 403) 3,162] 10,136] 12,893) 3,883] 15,164] 17,235) 9,328 Ayvoyelles, Rapides, and St. ; VANGIYy Sask a seek-stis=s-aeeee 7,522) 9,984] 2,818] 3,042) 4,832) 5,983) 1,833) 3,848] 3,558) 2,423 East Baton Rouge, Pointe Cou- pee, and West Feéliciana....... 7,817| 8,832] 1,191] 4,150] 4,402] 5,950] 1,596] 5,229] 9,998] 2,937 Jefferson, Orleans, Plaquemines, [ and St. Charles...........-.--- 18, 716] 15,596] 7,292)14,907| 13,739] 24,244) 18,789] 19,714] 18,040) 5,471 Lafayette and Vermilion........ 1,750| 1,276] 194| 963) 1,641| 4,663) 5,895| 18,277| 23, 480| 14,547 Otherparishes: =. 4-5-2 cree oe. 5,439) 3,422) 595] 1819). D061) fl 056|eal, 352)a2 eee jeer een lose aoe Wotale tin. 22 tisk aeeens 113, 000) 110, 863/40, 353)85, 853) 146, 062|278, Pell fess 583)341, 995/352, 874/153, 573 i) 1 Data for 1911 and 1912 from Bureau of Statistics, United States Department of Agriculture; 1910 from Louisiana Sugar Planters’ Association; other years from Census. Census data refer to paeishes in which the cane was grown; other data (1910-1912) refer to parishes in which the sugar was ma TABLE 11.—Sugar made, factories operated, and cane used for sugar in Louisiana, 1911 and 1912, by principal parishes. Sugar made (chiefly raw). Aver- Factories in Bee operation. aay = Average per Cane used for sugar. Parish. rae Quantity. short ton of cca cane.1 - 1911 1912 1912 2 1911 1912 1911 1912 1911 1912 Short Short No. No. Days. tons. tons. |Pounds.|Pounds.| Short tons. | Short tons. Ascension......- 7 u 29 14, 496 8,342 124 134 234, 719 124, 934 Assumption... .. 23 16 29| 35,950] 14,457 107 119 673, 263 243, 864 Theriaeeee eee 13 9 27| 29,949} 10,999 129 156 464, 491 140, 932 Iberville 3.05. 18 11 26 23, 759 7, 942 99 112 481,545 141, 581 Lafourche....... 16 9 23} 42,001) 11,728 119 122 707, 764 191,714 St: James: 22-3. 20 10 32 20, 760 9, 368 115 97 361, 537 192, 537 St. John the Baptist...-..-- 8 5 42 14,935 11, 289 108 140 275,536 161, 790 St. ve See ar 4 3 31 13,719 5, 382 139 17 197, 614 62, 165 St. Maty-—.cco--- 26 15 34 57, 602 25,597 133 176 866, 744 291, 387 Terrebonne...... 14 14 28 27, 462 14, 463 124]}* 150 442,218 191, 984 West Baton ROUPGs Care = 10 10 26 17, 235 9, 328 110 147 314, 472 127, 196 Avoyelles Rapides, an St. Landry...- 5 5 35 3, 558 2, 423 101 136 70, 534 35, 629 East Daton Rouge, Pointe Coupee, and ; West Teliciana 6 3 36 9,928 2,237 116 187 171, 763 _ 23,916 Jefferson Or- leans, Plaque- mines,and St. Charles Brscetce 13 3 37 18, 040 5,471 125 160 288, 665 68, 365 Lafayette and Vermilion..... 5 6 33 23, 480 14, 547 140 177 336, 427 164,580 Louisiana.. 188 126 30 | 352,874 | 153,573 120 142 | 5,887,292 | 2,162,574 1 Computed from incomplete returns. 2 This campaign was unusually short, owing to the smallcrop. In 1911 the average time from beginning to end of campaign was 74 days for the entire State, STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 13 Taste 12.—Area of sugar cane, of other principal crops, and of total improved farm land in Louisiana, 1909, by principal sugar-producing parishes. (Census. ] Acreage of 5 principal crops. : Improved Parish. 4 i ae bag in : ugar . ay an ota. arms. cane. Cotton. Rice. Corn. forage. crops. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. Acres. NSCENSION [o/c cclsnaite cee ones 9, 628 7,277 4, 17, 730 2, 050 41, 552 57,119 ASSTiMap HON Sees eecee] ae sec 27, 852 DAA HESS ale 19, 888 7, 542 55, 526 54, 069 ASTON GUC ER eee nee eee ae 7,335 26, 634 1,810 58, 847 2,946 97,572 126, 440 East Baton Rouge..-....-..-- 2, 107 28, 812 565 26, 701 5, 617 58, 802 103, 481 penidies cae eee. 36, 585 3, 252 3,912 44,476 5, 267 93, 492 121, 436 Merville tc 2 <2. eselse ened 20, 764 1, 839 4,559 20, 203 5, 275 52, 640 64, 422 Jefferson. ......5..-.--------- ARTIC as be 1,075 1,595 962 5, 736 14, 196 Watayettoss ae eee tse ckis 12,218 19,929 2, 508 67,317 4,830 106, 802 141, 762 Watourchesgesi 5. 230-626 ek ee B81 7400) |lsocosseuse 1, 402 28, 479 10, 902 73, 983 86, 281 OMIGATISHR eee cee se ine nseier TGosi esate ce cillns set jeraiee 762 73 2,488 5, 187 Plaquemines......-..-------- 65643) |S. eae8 22. 7, 222 2,774 “1,039 17,678 30, 397 Pointe Coupee......-.-------- 3, 806 18, 164 4,176 53, 071 7,342 86, 559 115, 829 He OS See are Acacia ese 7, 452 15, 420 22 39, 526 8, 797 71, 217 108, 742 St. Bernard..........--.----- 2 330l\| 2 ot cice clea 725 941 1,913 5, 914 9, 882 StaCharles we oes hence ose 6, 757 4 4, 287 4,874 562 16, 484_ 21, 250 DUWAIMOS Ree cect elect 20, 526 99 4,551 12, 150 7,315 44,641 48,755 St. John the Baptist ........-. 25669) | Bees cen 4,655 6, 534 2,979 26, 837 29, 438 Sitaldan dirypee eek aed 6, 423 55, 169 21, 592 126, 257 2,903 212,344 327, 623 StaMartime es oo. yee cic 11,365 14, 699 581 37, 900 2, 504 67, 049 87,320 StaMany oacecsease es een 42,324 6 400 27, 436 17, 454 87, 620 102, 938 Terrebonne!......-..--.----- BMT Nase neeee 38 15, 745 10, 168 49, 748 49, 428 Vermilion 3. 2. .5..-22.--55: 7, 637 15, 733 29, 595 53,075 1, 696 107, 736 177, 824 West Baton Rouge.......-.-- 10,271 3,350 3,397 13,515 2, 087 32, 620 39, 866 Total, 23 parishes. ...... 315,451 | 205,631 | 101,939 679,796 | 112,223 | 1,415,040 | 1,923, 685 All other parishes.......--.-- 14,233 | 751,380) 215,579 911, 034 68,588 | 1,960, 814 | 3,352,331 Total, Louisiana:....... 329,684 | 957,011 | 317,518 | 1,590,830 | 180,811 | 3,375, 854 | 5, 276,016 1 For this parish the census shows 320 less acres in ‘‘improved land” than in the 5 principal crops— apparently an error. TABLE 13.—Percentage of cane acreage in Louisiana reserved for seed, 1909, 1910, and HDi Year. Number payed of planta-| Total tions re- area. porting. Area. Number.| Acres. Acres. 28 14, 832 3, 641 38 18, 037 3, 651 56 32, 075 6,519 for seed. Per cent of total. Per cent. 24.5 20. 2 20.3 21.7 1 Computed from report on The Sugar Industry, by F. J. Sheridan, Department of Commerce (Miscella- neous series No. 9) p. 2. 14 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 14.—Proportion of acreage of plant cane to other cane and average yield per acre of cane used for sugar in Louisiana and Hawaii, 1911 and 1912. [In Louisiana each planting of cane is generally allowed to bear two annual crops, while in Hawaii three annual crops are generally cut from each planting. -The figures in this table refer only to cane used for sugar, thus excluding cane reserved for planting and that used for sirup.] Stubble or rattoon Plant cane (Ist cut- | “cane (2d and later 5) cuttings).! Average Ttem Total. | Yield of ‘ SS SSS SE cane per acre Quantity. | Petce8" | Quantity. | Bey cent Louisiana: Acres. Per cent. Acres. Per cent.| Acres. |Shorttons. aL) 6 ie ee eee eee ee ee 168, 000 54 146, 000 46 | 314,000 18. 7: i Se Gute Raine Mage ARES Smet” 118, 000 58 87,000 42} 205,000 10.5 Hawaii: TDIOSAye tees ops EL ge 43,900 38 73,100 62 | 117,000 41.3 AGI 12 ea eens Poe Eh. 5. StS 37, 200 33 75, 800 67 | 113,000 | - 42.3 1 The term ‘‘stubble” is used in Louisiana and ‘‘rattoon” in Hawaii to refer to the second or later crops grown from the same planting from which a first crop (‘‘plant”’ cane) has been harvested. TaBLE 15.—Seasonal receipts at New Orleans of Louisiana sugar, 1901-2 to 1912-13. From Sept. 1 to last Friday in— October. November. December. March. Year, Year. | onl uneae la.) aoa) Bul). 0 omnes) Jann Lon Obie ita shen || Per 2\| 2Per Per Per | Aug. 31. Quan- | cent of : cent of cent of cent of tity. | year’s |Quantity.| year’s |Quantity.| year’s |Quantity.| year’s Te- Te- Te- Te- ceipts. ceipts. ceipts. ceipts. tons. cent. tons. cent. tons. cent. tons. cent. |Shorttons. 1901 =o 3352s 13,367 4.5 88, 938 30.2} 173,571 58.8 | 267,09) 90.6 | 2 294,941 cl AS eee ee eee 9,672 3.4 81, 608 28.6 | 191,558 67.2 | 253,986 89.1 | 3285,031 10034 | Soo ase 5, 159 2.7 60, 138 31.8} 155,045 81.9 | 175,991 93.0 189, 330 1 a ae ee ees 8,579 2.6 80, 764 24.5 | 197,847 60.1°} 281,744 85.5 329,339 aONS-6 20 Feit tS 9,481 3.0 94,134 29.6 |. 189,472 59.6 | 283,510 89.2 317, 868 ONG epee poe iene ae 2,367 1.4 52, 723 30.2} 121,533 69.6 | 161,239 92.4 174, 561 LODT=8 ek te. BS 3 2,010 AN 86, 661 28.8 | 198,407 65.9 | 275,195 91.4 301, 158 MOOS Oe Fee oo eens 4 11, 062 3.9 | 111,060 39.3 | 221,286 78.2 | 252,899 89.4 282, 800 1IS00-10 S228. OS... 8,275 3.1 96, 350 36.4 | 215,349 81.4 | 247,521 93.6 264, 560 ASIO=E) ee sce J 2, 893 1.1 81,076 29.9 | 225, 584 83.3 | 265, 782 98.1 270, 865 J 111 LS 7 aa emia ee 16, 703 5.9 | 105,968 37.5 | 192,630 68.1] 258,418 91.4 282, 815 (2) =i ko 2 ee ees 9, 085 (ir? 69, 707 55.0} 115,930 91.5 | 120, 230 94.9 126, 706 Average: 1901-2 to 1905-6. .| 9, 252 Se 6} 181,499] 64.1] 252,465] 89.1] 283,302 1906-7 to 1910-11.| 5,321] 2. 1 5 1 196,432 | 75.9| 240,527] 92.9] 258,789 1 Compiled from Willett & Gray’s Weekly Statistical Sugar Trade Journal. 2To Aug. 29. . 3To Aug. 26. STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881—1912. 15 TaBLE 16.—Average cost of producing cane sugar in Louisiana, 1909, 1910, and 1911.1 Per ton of cane used. Per pound of sugar made. Item. 1909 1910 1911 1909 1910 1911 COST OF PRODUCING CANE. Planting and cultivating ................-- $0. 500 $0. 740 RO SAGA NE ctetecrayeicy Sell ev eee ee cote | fee earch A NVOS UL emacs seals Saget calncknge ace . 739 ~ 157 Ghee) ess eet es ees Al ep A) ore Other, including repairs, maintenance, supplies, taxes, insurance, etc.2......-.-- 2.911 2. 810 D428 iow nstsaltiee sedemee | icaemeuoes ANE iS ee ee Oe 4.150 4.307 A OOUA|stnn ass ese dt seen sa eee oa COST OF MAKING SUGAR. Cost of cane delivered at factory........--- 4.182 4.090 4.530} $0.0267 | $0.0277 0. 0340 Manufacturing labor..........-... B 331 -324 -340 - 0021 . 0022 - 0025 Repairs and maintenance.......----.----- 334 371 341 . 0022 - 0025 . 0025 Other operating expenses, including sup- plies, taxes, insurance, office expenses, BUCA Meee hole eile OES Sites TRIBES Bets ae Rss 811 713 - 635 - 0052 - 0048 . 0049 ANON GAA oles NSIC Cie well eu 5. 658 5. 498 5. 846 - 0362 - 0372 - 0439 Cost of selling sugar. ..-.-...-...---------- - 288 - 246 . 226 - 0018 . 0017 . 0016 Total cost of manufacture and sale. - 5. 946 5. 744 6. 072 - 0380 - 0389 - 0455 Gross receipts from sale of sugar.........-. 6.856| 6.198] 6.462| .0438/ .0420| .0485 1 From report on The Sugar Industry, by F. J. Sheridan, Department of Commerce (Miscellaneous series No.9), pp. 3 and 72. 2 Wxcluding interest and depreciation. TaBLE 17.— Monthly prices of sugar per pound at New York and New Orleans, 1909- LOLA FINE AND STANDARD GRANULATED, AT NEW YORK, N. Y. 1909 1910 1911 1912 Month. Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. ATTAINS ae Meth os Nae vA ee 4.65 4. 65 4.95 5.15 4.70 4.80 5. 40 5. 80 TDS ones yg 2 eA SIE i ol 4.55 4.65 5.15 5. 25 4.60 4.70 5.40 5.85 Acar CLARRIE SIN ORE boi se) ah ee ie Nt lis 4.65 4.95 5.25 5. 25 4.70 4.80 5.50 5. 85 AT oe Cs Cae eae Sena rE eee oa 4.95 5.05 5.15 5.25 4.80 4.90 5.10 5.55 Ts Se eo Ses ge aes aS en 4.95 5.05 5.15 5. 25 4.90 4.90 5.10 §. 25 ACT oe oe et a ee enter a 4.95 4,95 5.15 5. 25 4.90 5.00 5.00 5. 25 a Na OB a 4.85 4.95 5.15 5.15 5.00 5. 65 5.00 5.15 PANG OUTS mere ome p ee cieta Leet in NM ah aE 4.95 5.05 5.15 5.25 5.65 6. 20 5.00 b5), 5) Septemiberaps aoe. oles ke Ue yee 5.05 5.30 5.05 5. 25 6. 25 6. 80 5.10 5.15 WCLObER ee ig ie tan eh a 5.15 5.15 4.65 5.05 6. 65 6. 80 4.90 5.15 INOWenberyishc4 iece e 5.15 5. 25 4.60 4.65 6.15 6. 65 4.95 4.95 MM CCOMPCL Maou vise eks = eos Awe Sl 4.95 5. 25 4.50 4.90 5. 80 6.05 4.95 4.95 LAN a=) cto Tro RE Si aR Roy OE 4.55 5.30 4.60 5.25 4.60 6. 80 4.90 §.85 OF 96° POLARIZATION, AT NEW YORK, N. Y. MU ANY Meese ee see eee scenes 3. 67 3.75 4.02 4.18 3.42 3.86 4.39 4. 65 Rebruanye ne see see fcc yees sess 3.61 3.74 4.08 4.36 3.45 3. 80 4.39 4.80 EVI T.C ne rere aos urease BE deer 3.74 4.00 4.36 4, 42 3.67 3.92 4.36 4. 67 PATO TyL pase ee eliy yt sty.) Baines eA 3.86 4.05 4,24 4.36 3.86 3.92 3.98 4.36 EI Be Ce GaSe Cee eae Nae Peis 3. 86 3.95 4,24 4.33 3.80 3. 86 3. 86 4.05 UEC oes SABRI eS 8 RE Sayer 3.86 3.92 4.17 4.30 3.83 3.98 3.83 3.98 VaR SS SOLES Ga eu Se ee ees ete 3.92 4.02 4.30 4.36 3.98 4.70 Be el 4.05 PNUISUIS Depa eee ae ecto eiciac eee ceed secre 4,02 4,11 4.30 4.48 4.61 5.36 3.98 4, 24 Heptembenae se Ses yok sn ene 4,11 4,24 4.05 4,42 5. 25 5.96 4.17 4.36 OCT ODOR ee noe ee he hos he oe 4, 20 4.40 3. 80 4.00 5. 74 5.96 4.05 4.17 INovember. 2% f2450 020.322 eo2 22.2 Ll. 4.30 4.45 3. 80 3.93 5.06 5.74 4.05 4.05 A CEMMDCE a leecccc cee ees Sek 4.02 4.33 3.93 4.05 4.61 5.06 3.73 4.05 I NOG\ NSD Se Sta eaE yaey A Rp 3.61 4.45 3. 80 4.48 3.42 5.96 3.73 4.80 1 New York prices from Yearbook of United States Department of Agriculture; New Orleans prices from the Louisiana Planter. 16 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE !7.—Monthly prices of sugar per pound at’ New York and New Orleans, 1909- 1912—Continued. STANDARD FINE GRANULATED, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA. 1909 1910 1911 1912 Month. aes Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. | Low. | High. Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. | Cents. PAATATY 2 28 ore ee see == SS 4.60 4.60 4,90 5.10 4.60 4.80 5.40 5.75 RSET AI Ae 58 Ss aoe Eee a eee 4.50 4.60 5.10 5.20 4.60 4.70 5.40 5.90 LA ESE) AE ees Be eee a Se 2 4.50 5.00 5.20 5.25 4.70 4. 80 5.50 5.80 22\/ CL 3d pe Oe ET es See ee ee eee 4.90 5.00 5.15 Hy 1s) 4.80 4.90 5. 20 5.50 21 See aah OR a eg SEP A Te 4.90 5.00 5.15 5.25 4.90 5.00 5.10 5.20 ARG eee ees OL UE aan duke Boe 4.80 4, 90 5, 15) 5.15 5.00 5.00 5.00 5. 20 Sap asics A 4,80 4.90 5.15 5.15 5.00 5.45 5.00 5.10 SATICUISE A. eee = 5 ee eee ee 4.90 5.00 Sale 5. 25 5.15 6.35 5.00 5.20 Septem bap. Seee. oo se Rees Nee Se 5.00 5.10 5.05 5. 25 6.35 6. 80 5.00 5. 20 OCTOD Ot Aas as cae corn aoe 5.10 5.10 4.65 5.05 6.70 6. 80 4.90 5.00 INOVemlberess-. 5-0 nL bie be See 5.10 5. 20 4.60 4.60 6. 20 6.70 4.90 4.90 December 2 Ree Be! 4.90 5. 20 4.80 4.80 7) 6. 20 4.90 4.90 THe Wears Se aie oe Eee 4.50 5. 20 4.60 5.25 4.60 6. 80 4.90 5.90 OF 96° POLARIZATION, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA. 3.62 3. 69 3.88 4.09 3.18 BH Cal 4.36 4,48 3.61 3869),| os. Belles es py ek Sc 4,36 4.36 3.61 AAO | a. es=:cm Sisters asic cals] eta ee | es DENS RRS SIN Feast ae ye oe Paco he 3199 '|" £1309 |” o. ORMIRe es tat ie saree ema A Merged (aol ; 3,07 BOOS Pe SS icp acess sos la oa coos | rere gene | ameter Bre. ys ee —FANISUSES eee ee Be ene oa ee eee 0 35010) A ho Bas PAAR Os Aol a TR a | ieee eee ET Neplembere ieee secre eso: apse ls Bara 4.17 0 a ee A Sete iene Grae cliteccic ocd a ata meee October=% 2. a2 eae ee ee 4.06 ADA Ne rhs APR SAE Beare Ce ene ee Se oll era Sco IN(ONAD IH ol Pe Rabanne eae tee 4.00 4.12 3. 62 3.69 4.78 4. 83 3.80 3.84 (December: ==. enh ae eee sen eae tee 3.88 4.09 3.65 3.81 4.57 4.81 3.75 3.87 EN OHY CAN! tei et See ee cere ees 3.00 4,24 3. 62 4.09 3.18 4,83 3.75 4, 48 PRIME YELLOW CLARIFIED, AT NEW ORLEANS, LA. SAMUaTy seh. hl SON 2 Oe as eT 3.81 4.12 4.25 4.56 3.88 4.12 4.09 5.19 Hebruary 2s. 9... ee ee eee 3.94 4.09 4. 44 4. 56 4.03 4.38 4.81 5.59 Mareh?:5 224 ise - 3 eee eee 3.94 4.12 4.44 4.78 4,25 4.50 5.12 5.56 April. 4 Oi28. 5 ee. Oe ee ee ae 4.06 4.69 4.69 4.7, 4.38 4.53 4,81 5.31 May 210). ae k Ee oP ee Ee 4.06 4,25 4.69 4.97 4.38 4.53 4. 69 5. 81 SNe. 32 Pee 2b ae a ee 4.00 4,22 4.81 4.97 4,44 4.69 4.62 4.81 Willy ee 2k Ee ae Ee 4.00. 4.19 4.81 4,94 4.56 5.12 4.50 4.72 PATI SUSE EAS: aes Se bo 4.03 4,25 4. 88 5.00 5.00 SuoWe ee 4a 4.69 September) 4... Meike TRE. Le 4.12 4.25 5.00 5u00) |e eee eee 4.00 4.50 Octobery. 9925.2 2350s) 4- eee eee 4.12 4, 44 4.19 5.00 5.75 6. 25 3.94 4,44 Novembert 2... f sis 08. 1 eee oe 4.19 4,38 3.78 4. 28 4.88 5.34 4.00 4, 22 Decemberayk.%. A) SY oh ee Le 4.25 4.41 3.84 4.06 4.97 5.16 4.03 4.31 Dhelyiear- 24s ot 2 eo oe ee 3.81 | 4.69 3.78 5.00 3.88 6. 25 3.94 5.81 STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 17 TABLE 18.—Railroad freight rates, per 100 pounds, on refined sugar carried in carloads, over selected routes in the United States, May, 1913.1 To— Chicago, Tl. Omaha, Nebr. Atlanta, Ga. From— Rate per | Minimum | Rate per| Minimum | Rate per | Minimum 100 weight of 100 weight of 100 weight of pounds. | carload. | pounds. | carload. | pounds. | carload. Cents. Pounds. Cents. Pounds. Cents. Pounds. Say (Chg WG 0a eee Beene ae aeee 11 33, 000 38 2 33, 000 65 3 33, 000 Colorado sugar-factory points (Long- mont, Fort Morgan, Brush, Gree- icy, HEE See eee { a a0) \ 25 33, 000 58 4 33,000 Mey Orleanswas.. |. !se...- 4.2 s.... 23 33,000 32 33, 000 23 24, 000 Mews VOrk IN. Y./.jco-0ioc-.s ccc 26 33, 000 40 33, 000 39, 24,000 ike 0 3, 000 5 | Salt Lake City, Utah.--.--.-........ 420 hbo 60, 000 50 60, 000 si} 40,000 65 36, 000 60 6, 000 SCO gal iegaose-ott aes { 60 60,000 55| 60,000 83} #60, 000 1 Data furnished by the Bureau of Tariffs, Interstate Commerce Commission. 2 Minimum weight, Mississippi River to Omaha, 36,000 pounds. 3 Minimum weight, Cincinnati to Atlanta, 24,000 pounds. 4 Minimum weight, Memphis to Atlanta, 24,000 pounds. TABLE 19.—Sugar imported into the United States from foreign countries and received from Hawau and Porto Rico, 1901-1912.1 [Im the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States the Philippine Islands are treated as a foreign Caen all other noncontiguous possessions as partsof the United States. Most of the imported sugar is raw. Year ending June 30— Country or possession from which consigned. 1901-1905 | 1906-1910 | 1911 1912 Average per year. | IMPORTS. Short tons. | Short tons.| Short tons. | Short tons. (QD sci SOS RUE CE IU eS SETS Oo RET OR tea 935,736 | 1,469,948} 1,678,803 1, 593, 317 Mp piensa See eT VN NE OEE Ee ee 17, 446 39, 246 115,176 217, 785 atchwhastindies sais ee oe a Pe eet 364, 622 805, 196 114, 039 170, 198 FESEREIS IMC Ue Aare = eae as he aN Ss Ne Sr 66, 624 15, 056 7, 051 13, 527 ibieayAtl oe) SSE Sen Se COTE Se SReeeyee en eee tea eee 78, 144 11, 552 344 13, 482 11,015 9, 029 1,157 9, 022 53, 666 33, 427 12, 291 8, 841 41, 749 13, 019 4, 569 6, 579 6, 505 5, 813 3, 231 4, 266 32,014 3, 674 1,000 3, 751 3, 006 4,129 19, 007 2,930 1, 631 1,135 587 2,877 76, 629 9, 796 53 2,781 2,941 4,355 121 1, 256 2, 401 414 406 574 1, 691 1,157 911 441 123, 701 67, 100 12, 622 285 646 199 247 179 37 169 327 135 40, 255 8, 300 2,047 83 MO bai IMPOR sae cece vee see Soe ee Sai ee Nee 1,860,459 | 2,002,714] 1,968,989 2,052,309 SHIPMENTS TO THE UNITED STATES FROM— TE Tenay@ilil SS Se asa eet ae Gem tr ec 0 ope Hs 375, 547 477, 965 505, 608 602, 733 OT LORE CO Ree en pae nein aia ais See laa eeee oem eie o eiante sale 107, 771 234, 539 322,917 367, 145 Total, Hawaii and Porto Rico...-.......-.-.-.-.- 483, 318 712, 504 828,525 969, 878 (Gaerne | Ope eee Bera Ror Boi hem mea cess 2,343,777 | 2,715,218 | 2,797,514 3, 022, 187 1 Compiled from reports of the Foreign Commerceand, Navigation of the United States, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Department of Commerce. 18 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 20.—Percentage from each country of consignment of sugar imported into the ‘United States, 1901-1912.* {In the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Ee re Islands are treated as a foreign country; all other noncontiguous possessions, as parts of the United States. Most of the imported sugar is raw.] Year ending June 30— Country from which consigned. 1901-1905 | 1906-1910 1911 1912 Average per year. Per cent. | Per cent.) Per ceni.| Per cent. (O15 0}: PR ae te 6 nea Se Nn A ee eNO A Pa Ee 50. 3 3.4 85.0 77.6 RhiltppineTslands 2 7. [eget eb a. | eae ce eee e 5) 6 Tan 9 2.0 5.8 10.6 DutehsBast indies §-\: 3aae ea FT Ua SR eua! Nn. Ce mane 19.6 15.2 5.8 8.3 British Guiana... -- "pu A a oo RP GRR OO ech ae ace pe 3.6 58 A Av Brea AS ate Ose toi cle aga le a ai ee OR ATE Sap 4.2 6 (2) ait Danish West Indies 6 25 Pn 4 Santo Domingo ue 2.9 17 -6 4 LeTS ab Re CU as ea tas ane ly 2.2 An w2 -3 Dutch Guiana..... Sed ENCE DM TEETER CTA CARE NI ag 38) 5a a2 2 AvustiiaEbungan yes hie Se ET AY AU A ele is ey ar ail 2 United Kamngdom 2 or oe ean S 8 di UA i ee iD BD} 1.0 el Garin eu cece alee oe ANY We a iM eatin epee ce wl ei stl IBritushuVWestIn dies SOREL: CEE ReBe SOEs a eee OPE | eam ae re mes TET OYEIO ED pe eS Seg RR A I oR oe AR Sete ee ee Oia as he a a re te eS ee eres Cp Sena Area. Acres. 62, 327 52, 907 45, 088 55, 027 33, 071 15, 039 21,227 12, 253 17,819 25, 546 15, 612 15, 406 17, 851 8, 607 8,288 6, 225 4,709 8, 445 2,281 1, 709 4,034 3, 169 1, 690 647 2,371 416 379 340 586 1, 020 444,089 Produc- tion. Short tons. 226, 303 205, 901 201, 206 101, 691 93, 123 90, 287 86, 462 79, 672 72, 388 64, 599 64, 336 60, 821 55, 359 48, 094 41, 449 28, 957 28, 644 27, 612 13, 735 13, 253 10, 477 7,161 6,073 3,021 2; 819 2, 765 2,173 1, 654 1,451 5, 776 1, 647, 262 Average yield per acre. Short tons. COV GAS SS Guid) EG EO RIN RIGACI COR SASS IRSA GS ERR SS 5 | AMOUR NNIDWR DOWRY CMHOH GAHUHO WDHMNOD TaBLE 27.—WMaple sugar and sirup production in the United States, 1889, 1899, and 1909, by principal States. [Census.] Maple sugar. Maple sirup. State. 1889 1899 1909 1889 1899 1909 Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Gallons. Gallons. Gallons. WAG TET CYT Fy a 14, 123, 921 4,779, 870 7, 726, 817 218, 252 160, 918 409, 953 Nem: WGnk po ae 10, 485,623 | 3,623,540 | 3,160,300 457, 658 413, 159 993, 242 Pennsylvania_....- _.| 1,651,163 | 1,429,540] 1,188,049 154, 650 160, 297 391, 242 New Hampshire... --| 2,124,515 441, 870 558, 811 81, 997 41, 588 111, 500 Maryland aya nas elses ie 156, 284 264, 160 351, 908 1,021 5, 825 12,172 VT CHICAS eee iste ces es 1 , 641, 402 302, 715 293, 301 197,775 82, 997 269, 093 OMI OPe es se ete eee Seine ses 1, 575, 562 613, 990 257, 592 727, 142 923, 519 1, 323, 431 Massachusetts.....-....-..--- 558, 674 192, 990 156, 952 33, 632 27,174 53, 091 WiestaVireiming sss) SoS or! 177, 724 141, 550 140, 060 19, 032 14, 874 31,176 WAT SAVATEE Se eS eae a ao 26, 991 19,310 44,976 3, 468 1,677 6, 046 Ta OPEN OYE YE Bi Pe Mea RS hts Me a 67, 329 51, 900 33, 419 180, 702 179, 576 273, 728 Wisconsin...............- yess 128, 410 4,180 27,199 48, 006 6, 625 124,117 All other States.......--2....- 235, 329 63, 155 120, 822 135, 041 38, 382 107, 627 United States........... 32, 952, 927 | 11,928,770 | 14,060,206 | 2,258,376 | 2,056,611] 4,106, 418 4 22 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 28.—Production of sugar in countries named, 1901-2 to 1911-12. (Substantially the sugar production of the world. Data for 1901-2 to 1905-6 from Willett & Gray, except for a few minor countries; subsequent to 1905-6, from official sources except where otherwise stated. Some figures in this table refer to raw and some to refined sugar, according to the kind stated in the original returns. Some items, especially unofficial data, are subject to revision in case more accurate figures become ayailable.] Average per year. Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 1901-2 to | 1906-7 to : 1905-6 1910-11 CANE SUGAR. Short Short Short Short Short Short Short tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. 2,171,847] 2,345, 280) 2,292, 528] 2, 097, 648| 2,382, 352] 2, 483, 936] 2, 677, 248 1,171,810) 1,615, 152) 1,085, 616] 1,704, 416] 2,035, 600| 1,635,200} 2, 089, 920 1,006, 968} 1,325, 184] 1,333, 920] 1,368,640] 1,368, 640] 1,377, 600] 1, 582, 560 403,308} 516,041 521, 123 535, 156) 517,090} 566, 821 595, 038 147,392} 282,128) 230,095) 277,093) 346,786} 349,840) 371,076 2 362,535] 2 354,031) 2 394,240] 2414,400] 2334,315] 2355,040] — 360,874 (Brazil 23.2 3.24 een eae ee 269, 604 275, 520 217,280} 273,280} 278,880} 315,840} 258, 720 WOriOsH eC AE eo 51,923] 146,227] 72,240) 134,848] 226, 800} 8 226,800] 8226, 800 Philippine Islands 4............ 113,128] 145,824] 167,216] 123,872] 140,784] 164,640} 204, 960 Magontina. = 1406 te tk) Bee 150,820; 147,638] 124,992| 178,192} 140,336] 163,744] 198, 464 Queensland 4.8 we. wees 135,968} 192,931) 207,312} 168,448) 148,736) 236,096} 194,096 Mauritiis 22% Pies ee boa ee 190,228) 232,579) 180,880} 215, 936 277,760} 245,616} 186,928 Bere ae eee sae cee ee 155,426) 168,000} 148,960] 165,760) 165,760} 181,440) © 181,440 MeExiCol. scr Ae ae eee 120,491] 153,306] 135,856] 157,808} 163,072] 178,080} 170,912 British Gulanhes -2 ses aeeee- 130,321} 4119, 549} 4129,024) 4121,520) 4113,120/ £121,296) 4111, 328 Sarto Domingo eeceseee see ee | 654,676) 482,813) 469,664) 477,840) 4102,368) 4101,472| 4 107,968 IN Atale Le SER esd Se 30,831] 65,386] 35,840} 86, 800) 786,800} 90,384] 101,260 [he eee ain Sse RR 45,584| 70,336] 76,496] 74,032) + 77,168] + 77,056] _—‘81, 312 Taparisce 2 Ree eee A eee - (5) 61,578} 55,104] 59,472) 64,848] 72,464) 8 72, 464 Beyphece sc: (ee ese a -| 82,992] - 48,384) 29,120] 40,320] + «62, 720] 362,720} 362,720 Trinidad and Tobago........... 50, 818 59, 920 56, 672 54, 768 59, 360) 58, 240 52, 640 Guadeloupe 4.........-....-2-6- 41,913] 40,992) 39,760] 27,776] 47,264) 47,264! 847,264 Renniona!..4. 26 2h ashe tesa 40, 732 46, 390 52, 080 43, 456 36, 960) 48,160 44, 800 Martinique 4... /......--2-2.---- 35,869] 42,045) 39,648} 41,888] 44,016] 44,016] 844,016 Jamaica! 2 ciate e sacs ssch oe 16, 272 29, 434 31, 920 26, 880) 21,056} ~ 31,696 81, 808 Portuguese East Africa......... 5,075 11, 604 3, 360 14, 560 19, 040 16, 800 30, 240 arWAdOSs as sees eee eee es 52,425] 42,381] 42,560] 40,768} 20,496] 45,248] 29, 904 Spates so ceco cece eee 26,503] 19,354) 17,696] 15,456] 23,856] 22,400| 28,520 DnicheG ans nan! cee ee 14,514] 13,126] 13,104] 13,216] 12,096 13,328] 813,328 New South Wales.............. 22,854] 22,714/ 32,704 17,136] 16,464] 21,056] 19, 040 MATAR Ieee pron ae scene Sees eee 12, 062 13, 933 16, 576 14, 896 10, 304 15, 792 13, 104 St. Christopher-Nevis.........- 15,808} 15,187; 16,688] 13,104] 13,776] 14,560| 814,560 [Beri eee Se = Se a a 18,644] 13,350] 13,664) 12,768} 13,440) 13,440) 913,440 Danish West Indies...-........ 14,112 11, 760 14,112 4,928 13, 328 12,992) 812,992 Gratemidia nen tee eee 8, 529 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 7, 840 SAIvAMOneS. Pecans esto. ctaee 6, 458 6, 720 5, 600 6, 720 6, 720 7, 840 7, 840 Still Clas sot Son ee ee Seen 5,155 5, 869 5, 600 6, 160) 5, 600 5, 936 5, 040 (Sista RCA aden fies 52 eae 2, 902 2,912 2, 240 3, 360 3, 360 3, 360 3, 360 Wicgragiiad 1! 52." . see ta tees 4, 899 7, 392 5,600} 11,200] 711,200 3,360] 83,360 British Honduras. =) --eeeeee 671 650 672 672 448 784 784 Sipavincentsts; 25 pee eec eee 701 291 224 224 336 336 336 DOWUINNCA a fo fen cease See 246 112 112 112 112 112 112 MGntserraten- ses seeae- sone eee 744 358 448 112 112 224 112 Veneznela cis tere soc tcaee 3, 360 () (5) (5) (5) (5) (8) Total cane sugar.........- 7,197,118] 8, 762,221] 7,926,386] 8,653, 481| 9, 421, 119] 9, 440, 869|10, 255, 628 1 The figures represent the production of about 97 per cent of the area under sugar cane and 90 per cent of the area under all sugar crops. 2 Unofiicial. 8 Data for 1909-10. 4 Exports. & No data. 6 Including Haiti. 7 Data for 1908-9. 8 Year preceding. 9 Average for 1907-8 and 1908-9. STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 23 TABLE 28.—Production of sugar in countries named, 1901-2 to 1911-12—Continued. Average per year. Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 | 1910-11 | 1911-12 1901-2 to | 1906-7 to 1905-6 1910-11 BEET SUGAR. Short Short Short Short Short Short Short tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. tons. PEUTISS Ieee ect okie ic wise '= Apotaicsistete S 1, 209, 074) 11, 454, 522) 11, 380, 736) 11, 242, 192) 11, 122, 688) 12, 108, 624) 12, 025, 856 (BIGIETT aa eS Ss ee a 2, 207,130] 2, 444, 288] 2,357,488] 2,291 968] 2,245,824! 2, 854,768] 1,650,992 Austria-Hungary......-.-.----- 1, 306, 525] 21, 520, 019} 21, 556, 016) 21, 528, 800) 21, 373, 008) 21, 675, 520) 21, 259, 888 United States (contiguous) 235,517| 477,104) 463,680] 425,600) %501,682) 510,720) 599,500 FRATICO MeN em cite ais sack suite tenes 986,155} 748,563] 713,440} 785,568} 796,880} 705,600} 501,760 Netherlands..........-..------- 170,392) 198,464) 174,720) 217,280} 199,360} 219,520} 302,400 Pel orate sere es 2 Set fet ge Aah 278,682} 278,454) 250,208] 272,944) 263,872) 299,040) 258,720 liigiky (echo: See ee ee 104,248} 4152,544) 4150,080] 4182,560) 4122,080) 4190,400) 4 184,800 (Siwy Gla Leta one Cece eae ere 112,537) 156,845, 123,200) 150,030; 140,000) 191,744) 135,520 Shomiine |SS SA RG asec aaa a ee aeeeee ee 80, 417 97,440} 104,160} 119,840 95, 200 78, 400 95, 200 Monmanlkasae ncisc co sc-insleeece 55, 458 76, 832 58, 016 73,136 69,216} 110,768 58, 128 HVOUIMAMIAne sees ao: Lees bs IS as se- 210,718} 429,344) 425,760} 428,000} 430,240} 530,240} 530,240 Canada: Ontario......--.------- 9,055 10, 461 10, 528) 10, 528 10, 528 10, 304 11, 088 GH Va amr ete acis odo seeniwciaees 970 68,176 68,176 6 8,176 68,176 88,176 68,176 TRU A hye AA Osean AE Aeros (7) 6,720 8, 960) 7,840 6, 720 5 6,720 5 6,720 Switzerland...........--------- 2,531 43,942 44,144 44,480 44,032 5 4,032 5 4,032 (GRECCOM ee aan ec sb os eeeetes (7) 986 448 1,120 81,120 $1,120 81,120 Total beet sugar.....---.- 6, 969, 409) 7,664,704) 7,389, 760] 7,350,112) 6,990,626] 9,005,696} 7,134, 140 Total beet and cane sugar.|14, 166, 527/16, 426, 925)15, 316, 146|16, 003, 593/16, 411, 745|18, 446, 565/17, 389, 768 1 Sugar made from “‘beets entering factories.”’ 5 Data for 1909-10. 2 Central Union for Beet Sugar Industry. 6 Average production as unofficially estimated. 3 Census for 1909. 7 No data. 4 Unofiicial. 8 Data for 1908-9. TABLE 29.—Percentage of the ‘‘world” sugar crop produced in each principal country, 1901-2 to 1911-12.1 Average per year. Country. 1907-8 1908-9 1909-10 | 1910-11 | 1911-12 1901-2 to | 1906-7 to 1905-6 1910-11 Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. IBLIbIsHMINGIa se sash. toe eee = 5 15.3 14.3 15.0 IB IL 14.5 13.5 15.4 United States and insular pos- 8.9 10.8 11.6 11.1 il 10.6 12.3 8.3 9.8 Goal 10.7 12.4 8.9 12.0 8.5 8.9 9.0 7.8 6.8 11.4 11.6 15.6 14.9 15.4 14.3 13.7 15.5 9.5 7.1 8.1 8.7 8.6 8.3 7.5 9.1 Austria-Hungary ...-..--------- 9.2 9.3 10.2 9.6 8.4 9.1 Uae? TANCE Bees esas seh see eee 7.0 4.6 4.7 4.9 4.9. 3.8 2.9 Netherlands 2-2-2. 5. ssee¢ 22 1.2 1.2 taal 1.4 1.2 i152} 1.7 [BTA et eat soe 2 e952 je 1.9 17/ 1.4 Dei Wo¢ Le? 155 ISG Ss aees se sesaser es aBeeee 2.0 1.7 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.5 IBIOLINOSA So esen ee etekissiresekuee 4 9 25 8 1.4 12 1.3 ATS MTNA ee oesecec oes scenes se 1.1 9 .8 1.1 9 9 1.1 Australian Commonwealth: @iweensland es). os sseeese cee 1.0 119 1.4 1.1 9 1.3 1.1 GTI URE Secor seen eneenemEees 1.3 1.4 iY) 1.3 ila? i183 1.1 Mitalivees susan ec ieiceseines scses es oil 9 1.0 ili oo 1.0 1.1 LEG ln = GG Cee OEE EA OEE Reece 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 NIGESTCO) Ss) AS OSE Ee ee eee 9 9 9 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 SRG GTS See ie ere eer te 8 1.0 -8 9 9 1.0 .8 SPA ee see aec ec steess = ctlsecees -8 ol .8 -8 5 38 of IST AGISH Giana 252+ cis 9 nilk .8 8 si nll 6 Santo; OMmIngoO.2: 22-22. 2)2-- 2 - 4 5 5 aD) -6 6 -6 Other countries.............---- 5.6 4.6 4.5 4.6 4.8 4.7 4,9 ER Ofalemey Acs ase sea 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 1 See notes to Table 28. | { 24 BULLETIN 66, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 30.—Percentage of cane and beet sugar in the total ‘‘world” production, 1901-2 to 1911-12. Cane sugar. Beet sugar. Year. Total. ae ih: i , Quantity. | Fer ent | Quantity. | Pet cent Average: Short tons. | Per cent.| Short tons. | Per cent. | Short tons. 1901-2 10"1905-6) oe hse. Sek ee a eee eee 7,197, 118 50.8 | 6,969,409 49.2 | 14,166,527 E906=7'to) 19101 oe ae ese See eee 8, 762, 221 53.3 | 7, 664, 704 46.7 | 16,426,925 IOO7=Sk sa seta. bee Se) See. ae 7, 926, 386 51.8] 7,389, 760 48.2 | 15,316,146 ODS Os pare en Rie iat. Le eae). Se aa 8, 653, 481 54.1] 7,350,112 45.9 | 16,003,593 TSG 1h es RM sev er A as 9, 421,119 57.4 | 6,990, 626 42.6] 16,411,745 1G 1 OSI he OO Ee CIE MA ES ae 9, 440, 869 51.2 | 9,005, 696 48.8] 18,446,565 OUTST De RUE EE Aileen, ENYA a 10, 255, 628 59.0 | 7,134,140 41.0 | 17,389,768 1 See notes to Table 28. TaBLE 31.—International trade in sugar, calendar years 1901-1911. EXPORTS. Average per year. Country from which |__| 7 1908 1909 1910 1911 exported. 1901-1905 | 1906-1910 Short tons.| Short tons.| Short tons.| Short tons.) Short tons.| Short tons.| Shoré tons. Cibases ees nea aes 1,009,172 | 1,461,755 | 1,455,219 | 995,509 | 1,603,323 | 1,932,871 |11, 932, 871 Dutch East Indies... ....] 1,004,045 | 1,306,083 | 1,316,112 | 1,411,847 | 1,386, 964 | 1,316,899 | 21,476,151 Germany 3......... .-}] 1,037,362 995, 500 | 1,007, 630 921, 056 941,299 771, 601 945, 023 Austria-Hungary 700, 005 826, 347 809, 430 884, 505 878, 531 743, 306 667, 479 Irani cee a) tee sth sae 402,946 | 284,870] 365,630| 270,410] 267,879] 211,536| 2146,823 Mearititis: onsen eee ene 185,037 | 214,749] 215,672 | 217,208] 197,700] 237,814 261, 408 PUSS ines Lee a eon 173, 156 204, 936 198, 458 329, 131 225, 953 164, 116 500, 064 Beleinmessceeese sas seen 177,803 | 171,896] 189,782 | 146,573] 159,660} 132,632 180, 080 INefherlands="* (eo oe RE ries 156, 236 165, 717 149, 984 169, 898 168, 048 160, 631 216,179 Philippine Islands....... 96,251 | 143,940] 141,003 | 159,541} 142,558] 133,898 230, 039 Penn meets ea 137,828 | 136,783 | 121,931 | 137,668} 138,175 | 135,424] 1185,424 British Guiana 4......... 128, 808 121, 047 112, 825 129, 039 121, 557 113, 068 111, 292 Santo Domingo.......... 66, 724 73, 149 54,105 69, 703 77,822 | 102,413 296, 749 INAS ands. oes eee 50, 338 65, 824 74, 589 74, 087 68, 127 69, 172 81,574 Brazile sence ente maa 86, 293 56,590 14,173 34, 808 75, 489 2 64, 841 239, 912 Trinidad and Tobago‘... 48,545 49, 833 51, 823 44,372 50, 770 51, 797 42, 489 Renmiony issn etek eee 37, 129 44,774 51, 257 52, 066 43, 408 36, 927 136, 927 Martinique..........-.-. 32,596 42, 554 40, 703 39, 605 41, 864 44, 043 144,043 Guadaloupes..-ceeee eee 39, 935 41,074 42, 946 39, 744 27,791 47,253 1 47,253 Banbadosty.83- 5222 ee 53, 710 38, 131 38, 054 36,119 17, 937 40, 218 30, 785 United Kingdom........ 39, 618 Sip Lie |i tod LO 29, 636 36, 1381 35, 128 32, 005 IBEIsH India sees ee eee 27, 143 22,784 23,292 23,178 18, 453 25, 693 22,092 (8) sbi) eae See ST eae 35, 861 12, 824 7,447 16, 100 11, 293 17, 726 16, 793 LOY 6 Rete 2 Aol y 41, 220 5,329 4, 603 4,319 4,943 7,533 11, 908 Arventing 2285-28 ee 31, 296 63 71 20 44 61 75 Other countries........-- 140,894 | 285,104 | 257,753) 233,730] 288,966] 354,843] 2248, 102 TO Taso eee 5,939,951 | 6,809, 428 | 6, 782,202 | 6,469, 872 | 6,994,685 | 6,951,444 | 7,553,540 1 Year preceding. 3 Not including free ports prior to Mar. 1, 1906. 2 Preliminary. 4 Year beginning Apr. 1. STATISTICS OF SUGAR, 1881-1912. 25 Taste 31.—International trade in sugar, calendar years 1901-1911—Continued. IMPORTS. Average per year. Conntoymmtonwhich jt 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 imported. | 1901-1905 1906-1910 | Short tons. | Short tons. | Short tons. | Short tons.| Short tons. | Short tons.| Short tons. United States.......---- 1,874,989 | 1,947,656 | 1,936,111 | 1,859,350 | 1,908, 448 | 2,097,538 | 2,067,103 United Kingdom...-...-- 1,691,729 | 1,770,275 | 1,767,861 | 1,747,596 | 1,831, 663 | 1,793,944 | 1,859, 430 Brit isheingiays 252. =--2-= 325, 098 608, 257 536, 989 592,545 627, 030 673, 367 635,570 Un ae See eee 248, 125 349, 618 381, 592 277, 484 365,211 287, 422 287, 717 CATE eee 188, 845 240, 303 222,501 219, 655 261, 279 267, 246 299, 883 LP AE eee eae es Sse 236, 839 195, 347 219, 759 221, 569 149, 434 133, 563 87, 636 Privkeyentret. 3. voces ee 139,707 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1151,309 | 1 151,309 1 151,309 LNT 108, 998 126, 616 119, 083 127, 132 119, 279 156, 308 2189, 661 Switzerland.......-. ....| 89,915 | 101,897] 102,775 | 100,710} 100,504} 111,671 115, 431 SROTSIS Ones cis acineeinidee ns 85,316 99, 070 95, 712 93, 651 100, 623 | 4100, 623 £100, 623 Netherlands........-..-- 103, 055 75,740 98, 270 70,579 78, 018 70, 836 102, 183 CT Gi ee ee 49, 993 66, 257 62,558 53, 404 76, 881 79, 182 95, 485 DHIPAPOLES. os = oan se 52, 345 56, 706 51,276 45, 632 62, 670 56, 718 5 56, 718 New: Zealand .-.-...--.-: 43,373 50, 828 37, 794 51,332 58, 221 57, 766 61, 979 INOLWAYen cet accent 40, 234 45,500 43,546 43,537 49, 339 50, 898 53, 114 LD Yan] ayo lee oe a ea a 34, 541 45, 484 43, 842 45, 084 48,788 48, 043 49,091 astraliaese © oo62 012.5. 77,548 45,145 6, 946 21,959 | 111,662 38, 089 37, 269 British South Africa. -.... (6) 43, 848 53, 233 45, 743 33, 661 30, 174 37, 353 DRAVID Bee eee See eeceeeee 18, 885 42, 802 27, 436 58, 703 54, 202 35, 509 50, 448 OIG Pals secs =o 2asse 33, 816 36, 813 36, 483 36, 660 38, 594 36, 283 36, 283 AT OCTLIND on 8 2. se .5e 268 36, 094 47,975 45, 827 21, 842 62, 692 57,298 WCMIMAr Kees es .2 2552 = 34,514 31, 562 26,541 41,326 42,162 25, 152 12,739 WriguaAY Wo 5258-2. 552-02 20, 803 26, 606 23, 416 28, 543 8 28, 543 3 28, 543 8 28,543 Riahyeseere se cca c on sole 15, 676 13,550 26, 166 5,398 13, 057 e2ip 10, 418 Other countries.......... 240, 023 278, 322 265, 982 297, 741 305, 369 303, 355 2315, 611 otal t te se 2 3S 5, 754, 635 | 6,485,605 | 6,385,156 | 6,282,469 | 6,637,789 | 6,703,446 | 6,798, 895 1 Data for year beginning Mar. 14, 1905. 2 Preliminary. 3 Year beginning Mar. 21. 4 Data for 1909. 5 Year predne 6 South African Customs Union formed in 1905. Returns for separate colonies included in ‘‘Other coun- tries’’ for years prior to 1906. 7 Year beginning July 1. 8 Data for 1908. NoTtE.—This table covers substantially the trade of the world. Itshould not be expected that the world export and import totals for any year willagree. Among sources of disagreement are these: (1) Different periods of time covered in the ‘‘year’’ of the various countries; (2) imports received in year subsequent to year of export; (3) want of uniformity in classification of goods among countries; (4) different practices and varying degrees of failure in recording countries of origin and ultimate destination; (5) different practices of recording reexported goods; (6) SE osite methods of treating free ports; (7) clerical errors, which, it may be assumed, are not infrequent; (8) losses at sea. _ The exports given are domestic exports, and the imports given are imports for consumption as far as it is feasible and consistent so to express the facts. While there are some inevitable omissions, on the other hand there are some duplications because of reshipments that do not appear as such in official reports. For the United Kingdom, import figures refer to imports for consumption when available; otherwise total imports less exports of ‘‘foreign and colonial merchandise.’ The following kinds and grades have been included under the head of sugar: Brown, white, candied, caramel, chancaca (Peru), crystal cube, maple, muscovado, panela. The following have been excluded: “Candy”? (meaning confectionery), confectionery, glucose, grape sugar, jaggery, molasses, and sirup. Some figures in this table refer to raw and some to refined sugar, according to the kind reported in the original returns. In the statistics of the foreign trade of the United States, the Philippine Islands are treated as a foreign country; all other noncontiguous possessions, as part of the United States. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 3 CENTS PER COPY V ——— a anne BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE ® No. 67 a i I In a = S A G Zornes Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. March 17, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. By Norman pEW. Berts and A. L. Hem, Engineers in Forest Products. POLE SUPPLY IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. Therapid extension of telephone and power lines in the West makes the question of pole supply one of increasing importance. Tests described in this bulletin show that both green and fire-killed lodge- pole pine and fire-killed Engelmann spruce will, under certain con- ditions, make suitable pole timbers. Western red cedar has long been the standard pole timber in the Western States. It has held its place mainly on account of its durability in contact with the soil, though its light weight has also been a very desirable feature. The tree (Thuja plicata) grows principally in Washington, Oregon, and northern Idaho. In addition to its wide use for poles, it is extensively cut for lumber, and especially for shingles. In the States south of its region of growth the cost of cedar is high, owing to the great dis- tances over which it must be transported. Moreover, the heavy drain on the available supply must soon result in higher stump- age prices. There are at present in both the Rocky Mountain and Coast Ranges abundant stands of lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), often called by local lumbermen “white pine,”’ of little value for lumber, but well adapted for poles. Lodgepole pine is not naturally durable in contact with the ground, and for that reason has not been able to enter the field as a competitor of western red cedar. The general adoption of preservative treatment é by railroad and telephone com- panies, however, has changed the situation. At an additional cost for treatment that still leaves the pine pole the cheaper of the two in most of the markets outside the region where cedar grows, the pine may be made to last longer than untreated cedar. Lodgepole 1 The preservative treatment of poles is discussed in Forest Service Bulletin 84. NotTE.—This bulletin gives the results of tests on western red cedar, lodgepole pine, and Engelmann spruce poles to determine their suitability for telephone lines. Values are presented for fiber stress at elastic limit, modulus of rupture, stiffness, and modulus of elastic resilience. Of value to lumbermen in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific Coast States and to users of telephone poles. 22740°—14 1 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, : ‘gonids uuvmjesugy pue ‘ourd ojodaspoy ‘1epod pod U19jSeM JO oSUBI [ROIURJOgG—'T “DIT 3INYdS NNVWISSNS | SINid 370d39001 yvasa9 day NY3LSamM pew ny eT IT r----->- ee fi mee : TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 3 pine takes treatment readily. Cedar, on the other hand, allows but a very shallow penetration. Another tree, Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmanni) also has a wide distribution throughout the Rocky Mountains, although it grows commercially only at the higher altitudes. It is thus not as available as the lodgepole pine, norin shape or in its ability to take preservative treatment is it so well adapted for poles. It grows farther south, however, and in many districts is the only native tim- ber available for pole use. Figure 1* shows the botanical range of growth of the three species. The relatively restricted range of western red cedar indicates the importance to the more southern mountain States of determining the value of local timbers for telephone and power line poles. Forest fires in the Rocky Mountains have killed many stands of spruce and pine, and the disposal of this material, which, through checking, is rendered practically useless for saw timber, has always been a troublesome problem. On many areas such material remains entirely sound for a number of years after the fire, and, besides, is thoroughly seasoned and thus ready for treatment as soon as cut. In some regions the mines use all the available dead timber, though elsewhere there is a great deal of prejudice against the use of “fire- killed”’ material, under the mistaken assumption that there is some inherent difference in wood that has been seasoned on the stump and wood that has been cut when green. The purpose of the tests described in this bulletin was: (1) To compare the strength of poles of western red cedar, the present standard, and of lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce, and (2) to determine the value for pole timber of fire-killed pine and spruce in the central Rocky Mountain region. The fire-killed material was donated by the Colorado Telephone Co. and the Central Colorado Power Co. The remainder of the material tested was secured by the Forest Service, either by purchase or from the National Forests. The tests were made at the Forest Service timber-testing laboratory conducted in cooperation with the Univer- sity of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. MATERIAL TESTED. The material for the tests consisted of poles nominally 25 feet long and of 7 inches top diameter. Average material was specified in each case. WESTERN RED CEDAR. Twenty cedar poles were purchased on the Denver market at a cost of $4 per pole. Information furnished by the seller showed the poles to have been cut during the winter of 1908-9, near Edgemere, Idaho. When received at the laboratory they appeared to be 1 Distribution maps prepared by Office of Dendrology. Time Ceasaied — Weeks Fic. 2.—Rate of seasoning for three lodgepole pine poles. ’ TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 95 thoroughly seasoned, the bark probably havimg been removed at the time of cutting. All were nearly straight, and checked to the extent usual for seasoned material. A majority had straight gram. GREEN LODGEPOLE PINE. Twenty-two lodgepole pine poles were cut near Anaconda, Mont., in July, 1911, on the Deerlodge National Forest, in a dense stand Pole 110.9 Pale %0.lé Fale /¥0./7 Fale ("0.22 Fic. 3.—Moisture distribution in four air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles. Figures indicate per cent moisture within areas. on a gentle west slope at an elevation of about 6,500 feet. Upon arrival at the testing laboratory the poles were open-piled in two layers for seasoning. Three poles were weighed at approximately weekly intervals to determine the rate of drying. Figure 2 shows graphically the rate based on these weights. Based on their shipping weight the poles had an average moisture content of 60 per cent when shipped. Assuming that the three poles represent the average of the shipment, the poles had dropped to 48 per cent moisture by 6 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the time they reached the laboratory. After 12 weeks’ seasoning they had reached 30 per cent, and for 3 weeks thereafter their moisture content remained practically stationary, due probably to a period of damp weather. The weights taken at the time of test show that after seasoning for 22 weeks, practically from the Ist of July to the 12 24 36 48 Scale - Inches 0 Fic. 4.—Method of testing poles. 1st of December, the poles contained about 22 per cent moisture. Figure 3 shows the moisture distribution in four of the poles at the time of test. It indicates that the center of the poles was still at or above the fiber saturation point! when tested. ‘The poles checked considerably during the seasoning, but not to an unusual extent. 1 For a detailed discussion of the fiber saturation point see Forest Service Circular 108, The Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture, by 1. D. Tiemann. TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. Fe FIRE-KILLED LODGEPOLE PINE AND ENGELMANN SPRUCE. Twenty poles each of fire-killed lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce were cut near Norrie, Colo., on a north slope at an elevation of about 10,000 feet. The area had been burned over by a light fire about 10 years‘ previously. The poles were largely free of bark, though a majority had patches here and there, showing that no serious weathering of the surface had taken place. METHODS OF TEST. Figure 4 shows the method employed in testing. The poles were supported about 1 foot from each end in bearing blocks (e, e) resting on rocker supports (f, d) 23 feet apart. The load was applied by a universal testing machine through a bearing block (¢) 5 feet from the butt end of the pole, or 4 feet from the center line of the butt support. The rocker support (d) rested on a pier (c) built on the floor. The rocker support (f) rested at the center of the auxiliary beam (9), one end of which was supported by a rail (b) and two piers (a, a). The other end of the auxiliary beam (g) rested on a roller (£) in the center of the weighing platform (h) of themachine. As the load was gradually applied at ¢ the pole deflected, and the scale at n, at the center of the span, moved down with respect to a taut spring (p) stretched be- ‘tween pins driven into the pole on the neutral axis directly over the supports. The deflection of the pole at the load point was read on a scale (m), which gave the movement of the machine head (¢) with reference to the platform (fA). Corresponding readings of the applied load, the deflection at the load point, and the deflection at the middle of the span were taken at convenient intervals, and plotted as shown in figure 5, until the pole was broken. The settling of the pole in the bearing blocks and deflection of the auxiliary beam (g) introduced slight errors in fhe determination of the deflection. The total error was estimated as less than 3 per cent within the elastic limit, and the only calculated results affected by this (which was practically constant for all the poles) are the stiffness factor and elastic resilience, both of which are comparable only with results from tests of the same nature. From each pole after test a 30-inch section of clear wood was taken and cut into 2 by 2 inch sticks. These were tested in bending, in compression parallel to the grain, compression perpendicular to the grain, and shearing. The method employed in making these minor tests is discussed fully in Forest Service Circular 38 (revised). The purpose of these tests was to determine the influence of defects on the strength of the poles. The poles in each of the four lots were given consecutive numbers starting with 1, in order to distinguish between the individual poles of each lot. 1 The date of the fire was obtained from local residents. 8 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To determine the moisture content, a 1-inch section was cut from each pole as near as possible to the point of failure, immediately weighed, and later dried to constant weight at the temperature of FLA po SAREE fay AR Saran Delleclion 2 Tianes fia. 5.—Typical load-deflection diagram for poles. (This is actual curve for green cut lodgepole pine pole No. 11.) boiling water. The loss in weight divided by the dry weight is ex- pressed in per cent of moisture. The length, weight, and diameters of the poles were obtained just before testing. The age, rings per inch, per cent sap, and per cent summerwood were obtained after test from a section cut near the TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 9 point of failure. The values for the amount of summerwood were obtained on a 2-inch length taken from an average portion of the section. Sketches were made of the manner of failure, principal — defects, and any characteristics peculiar to. the poles tested. METHOD OF COMPUTING RESULTS. The deflections and loads at elastic limit were taken from the load- deformation curves, a sample of which is shown in figure 5. To re- duce the load recorded on the scale beam to the true load on the pole, all recorded values were multipled by oe and appear in the tables in the corrected form. Stresses at elastic limit and maximum load were calculated for the outer fiber under the load pot. The moment of three-fourths of the weight of the pole was added to the moment produced by the load. The comparative stiffness is expressed by the relation when P is the load at elastic limit and I and d, re- le ple spectively, the moment of inertia and the deflection at elastic limit measured at the load point. | The modulus of elastic resilience was obtained from the formula one-half Pd + volume. In obtaining the volumes there was found to be considerable difference in the shape of the poles. ‘The spruce and pine were practically of even taper, and the volumes obtained by regarding the whole pole as one frustum of a cone (from top to butt diameter), or as two frustums (from top to center and center to butt), were practically the same. In the cedar, however, it was - found necessary, on account of the flared butts, to use a three- frustum method (from top to center, from center to load point, and from load point to butt). There was about 10 per cent difference between results from the one and the three frustum methods with this species. In calculating the dry weight per cubic foot, a total shrink- age of 12 per cent for the fire-killed pine and spruce was assumed, and 10 per cent for the cedar. The air-seasoned pine poles were con- sidered as being one-third below the fiber saturation point (that is, a 4 per cent shrinkage in volume was assumed as having already oc- curred), and the others were assumed as being half-way between the dry and the fiber-saturated states. RESULTS OF TESTS. CHARACTER OF FAILURES. Figure 6 shows the common types of failures occurring in the poles tested. The bend of the pole while under load was at a maximum near the center of the span for the first part of the test and about 2 feet nearer the load point at maximum load. This shifting at the point 22740°—14—_2 -_ ee 10 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of greatest deflection was most noticeable in the poles having a ten- dency toward longitudinal shear. The effect of knots was in evi- dence only as localizing the compression wrinkles and occasionally Key Jointing Tension Fia. 6.—Types of failures in poles. at the starting point of a tension crack. In the cedar poles many shallow ax cuts had been made when the bark was removed, and tension failures always took advantage of these breaks in the fibers. TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WGODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. Il1 There seemed to be no consistent difference in the behavior of straight and spiral grain poles. The typical failure of the western red cedar poles was a splinter- ing tension about 2 feet from the load point. The wood separated easily along the annual rings, and the splinters were long and numer- ous. Probably due to this quality, as well as to the depth of checks, three poles failed in longitudinal shear, and in two others shear occurred after the maximum load had been passed. In the air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles there were 18 tension failures and 4 failures from longitudinal shear. Of the 18 tension failures, 9 were of the splintering type characteristic of the cedar poles and 9 were simple tension failures; that is, without the exhibi- tion of brittleness or unusual splintering. The typical failure in fire-killed lodgepole pine was a simple ten- sion close to the load point. The wood often had a rather brash appearance, and, except for two poles, did not splinter to any extent. One pole was brittle, failing near the center, and one failed by longi- tudinal shear after the maximum load had been passed. In general the fire-killed Engelmann spruce poles failed in the same manner as the fire-killed lodgepole pine. Two poles had brittle tension failures, and there were no longitudinal shear failures. The fact that 9 of the 42 air-seasoned and only 1 of the 40 fire- killed poles failed by longitudinal shear might seem at first to indi- cate that the checking of the poles cut from green timber is deeper than that occurring in the more slowly drying fire-killed poles. The fact, however, that the average shearing stress of the cedar proved to be about 15 per cent lower than that of the other species, and fur- ther that the moduli of rupture in bending of both green-cut shipments were higher than those obtained in both fire-killed shipments, shows that there was a greater chance for shear failures in the air-seasoned material than in the fire-killed, aside from any difference in the manner of checking. Compression of the upper fibers, as shown by wrinkles on the top of the pole, occurred some time before the maximum load was reached. There was usually a noticeable increase in the bend of the load- deflection curve after compression became visible. BULLETIN 67, U. S. 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Table 1 gives the test data for individual poles. Table 2 gives the maximum load of each pole in terms of both the equivalent pull at the top and the actual load obtained in the testing machine at the ground line. This table is of value chiefly in com- paring the results of these tests with those from other methods of applying the load, as all may be reduced to the reaction at the top support for poles of the same size. Table 3 gives a summary and comparison of the average results obtained in the tests on the four classes of poles, based on the western red cedar as 100. On a basis of fiber stress developed it will be seen that— 1. Air-seasoned lodgepole pine is superior to western red cedar in all the mechanical properties determined. 2. Fire-killed lodgepole pine is only 80 per cent as strong as western red cedar at maximum load. In elastic values, however—that is, the fiber stress at elastic limit and the work absorbed up to this point— they are practically equal. In stiffness the fire-killed lodgepole pine is quite comparable to the cedar, although the latter proved to be a more flexible wood. 3. Fire-killed Engelmann spruce was inferior in all mechanical properties to the cedar and pine. TaBLE 2.—Top and ground-line loads required to break poles. Western redcedar, | Lodgepole pine, : Engelmann spruce cut green and air cut green and air Lodgepole pine fire) “Fite killed 10 killed 10 years. seasoned. seasoned. years. Pole No. Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi- |Top reac-| Maxi- tion at mum tion at mum tion at mum tion at mum maxi- load at’ } maxi- load at maxi- load at maxi- load at mum. ground mum ground mum ground mum ground load. line. load. line. load. line. load. line. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Pene . | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. ee 2,020| 11,600] 2,185] 12,580 He |) Ca || ae 10, 410 s 705 He aORROON resin Olle mrOR TOO) |e meee ee luce as 13980} 11,390 3... 2}238| 12'870| 1,866] 10,720| 1,094| 6,290] 1/431 8,230 : Cha See CEA oe) ae 5. : ; ill 1) 094 6, 290 (Bo 2,070 | 11,900] 27182] 12,540 1,852 | 10,650] 2/053 117 800 vile 2,090 | 12}000) 1,975] 11,350| 27370) 139620! 2105] 12,100 8. 1,782 | 10,250| 2828] 16,240] 1,762) 10,130| 2)652| 15/950 9 17762} 10/130} 2,219] 12,750] 1/854] 10,650) 1,205 6,930 10 2390 | 13,320| | 1,938 | 11,130 | 1.873 | 10,780 | ‘1,968 11,290 1 1,473 | 8,470| 23296] 12)800| 2:118| 12)1890| 1,900| 10,920 12 2}948 | 16,940| 23463| 1471890] 27840| 16,320| 2/270] 13'050 13 2/360 | 13:580| 27638] 15,150| 2'270| 13/070] 1810] 10,400 14 1768} 10,170] 1,998] 11,080] 2)526| 14.520] 1515 8,710 15 2175) 12500| 2,116| 12/170] 1,967| 7,280| 2/640] 15,190 16 1,854] 10,650] 3,050| 17,520| 27220] 12,730| 1,449 8,330 ity ay geal SDDS 2,244} 12'900| 15854] 10,650] 1,377] 7,910] 1,726 9,920 i. Se eee 2;005| 11,530] 2635] 15,130| 1,412| 8,120 731 4.210 Greene 1,935| 11,120] 2,395] 13,770] 1,369] 7,870| 2,058] 11,820 ee 2,440 | 14,030 2,445 14,050 | 1,822 10,480} 1,850] 10,620 ied i ee ) yt at Tt elite diel Cele oe Bic nly SESE ee I nee aan Rl FUSES Sopa VAD) | EAE (OE EAT AAS RO Wo Ca Average........ 2,050 | 11,785] 2,250| 12,930] 1,830| 10,510| 1,775] 10,210 Maximum... _. 2,948 | 16,940| 3/050] 17:520/ 23840] 16,320] 2/652] 15/250 Minimum...... 1,473 | 8,470| 1,770| 10,190 714| 47110 731 4210 16 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 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TOOL V | aus. “‘Busuosnas fo uovppuos pun sawads fig pazunwmwns ‘sajod uo s78a7 fo syjnsay—'g ATAV], TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 17 A. comparison based on the fiber stress developed is equivalent to one based on uniform ground-line diameter. In practice, however, it is customary to specify top diameters. On a basis of measured tapers and the fiber stresses found by test, the loads may be calcu- lated for all shipments, using a uniform top diameter of 7 inches. Table 4 gives the calculated loads for such a comparison. The tapers used in the calculations were, for western red cedar, 0.098 inch per foot length; for the air-seasoned lodgepole pine, 0.077; for fire-killed lodgepole pine, 0.096; and for fire-killed Engelmann spruce, 0.130. These tapers do not include the flare of the butt. The length from top to the load point was taken as 19.5 in all cases. Since the strength of a pole varies as the cube of its diameter, it is evident that differ- ences in taper will materially affect the a osenetth: On a basis of equal top diameters it will be seen from Table 4 that— 1. There is practically no difference in strength between air- seasoned lodgepole pine and western red cedar. In stiffness the lodgepole pine poles exceeded the cedar by about 25 per cent. 2. The fire-killed poles, both lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce, were practically equal to the cedar in strength at elastic limit and about 20 per cent below it at the maximum load. TABLE 4.—Strength of poles compared on a basis of 7-inch tops. Toad abcess Maximum load. Species. Seasoning condition. Ratio to Ratio to Average. red Average. re cedar. cedar. Pounds. | Per cent. | Pounds. | Per cent. Western red cedar..........--- Cut green and air seasoned..... 7, 800 100 12, 000 100 Hodeepele PINGS etree ss lesen COT ee aD eearete 8, 000 103 11, 620 97 oes Se ee ae ae ae | Fire ned NOAWCENSE 5 seoGeecces 7,470 96 9, 500 79 ee SPEUCOH sae ciacr oes leme | 2 OO nce masa cee eee 7,500 96 9, 400 78 SMALL, CLEAR PIECES CUT FROM POLES. Table 5 gives the results of tests on small, clear pieces in bending, compression parallel to grain, compression perpendicular to grain, and shearing. For each pole the average strength values for all pieces taken from it are given, and at the bottom of the tables are the averages of all minor tests for the species. Table 6 gives the average strength values of minor tests sum- marized by species and condition of seasoning. An examination of the average results shows in general very comparable values for the fire-killed pine and spruce and for the cedar. The cedar, how- ever, falls about 16 per cent below the pine in shearing strength and the spruce about 12 per cent below it in crushing strength. The lodgepole pine from Montana showed a bending strength nearly 40 18 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cent greater and a crushing strength 18 per cent greater than the fire-killed lodgepole pine. It might seem at first sight that these differences were due to deterioration on the part of the fire-killed material, but an analysis of the values in regard to weight and a comparison with values obtained from other tests on lodgepole pine indicate that deterioration is not the probable cause of the difference. It has been proved conclusively that in any species the strength of the clear wood varies directly with its dry weight. Wy) “THIOL 1 oe Ss or ae oe faaevealfemeae 00€ [9p ees OF9 WS Ty OS TE | Gt ees €9°0 | S19, | Oat’ | 082s | 0 Glee || eo r8 ale 0 eee Nees ec poate see ecagece UInUOyULY See LOS Taleo alee. 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JO yisuorys | FO 200 | OF Seo Jo JO jo ge sols | orqno ged | 2°4 | gta | Jo 104 b “mn N Surysn.ty |” wn XC snMpoy surysna, “WINN | SQIpoW | sn{Npoy | sntnpoyw | “5, {La STO AA SOU | yo d -WInN “4no : Yor wrlol1y ejod jo 3 as yas _ tz Te. UoT}IpuoD pu seloadg “ultdd 07 | “SulIBeys re{norpuedied “ule1s 0} jol[vred WoIsso1du10,;) “Sulpuog UWOTSssoId 110, ) ‘Buruosnas fo woypuos pun sawads liq pazunmwuns ‘sajod wouf yno suaumaoads wnajo “Qyows wo sjsaz fo sypnsay—9 ATAV, TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 23 In figure 7 the weight-strength relations are plotted for bending tests on small specimens cut from the tested lodgepole pine poles and for similar specimens taken from other material grown in Colorado and Wyoming, cut green and air seasoned. It will be seen that fire- killed lodgepole pine is equal in strength to the Colorado and Wyo- ming material cut green and air seasoned, and that the Montana material gave higher strength values because it was exceptionally heavy and much above the normal for Colorado-grown timber of which the fire-killed poles were representative. The soundness of 8 13000 Modulus of Fypince - Pounds per 3g w -Colacad , cl geen di ae - Seasoned io} = Vijay , Ul Geach tnd ale - Seasoned ime e, 23 4 05 26 a 28 2 J0 Oty Weight - Pounds pec cut Fig. 7.—Weight-strength relations for clear, dry lodgepole pine. the sticks cut from the fire-killed material also indicates that such timber has no inherent defect due to having been killed by fire. It seems more reasonable to regard it simply as seasoned wood, and to assume that deterioration due to age or exposure, if present, would be indicated by the same signs of decay that are- apparent in any unsound material. The relation between the stresses shown by the individual poles and those shown by the minor tests on the material cut from them is presented in figure 8. It should be remembered that the moisture content of the small specimens was only 8 per cent, as compared with an-average of about 16 per cent for the poles. The green-cut 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLETIN 24 PouosTeg Ny pun w2279 JP Foti EASE IPS. Lge eave Pesce cee ES OSE Peres HEEL AEE SLAMS EM LLY ale) POMPOT weer: cul eam lesled poles PCCN A Coe CCE CONT PAs g HED EEE EERE re SEO SERR//40R) a {1 HAHAH S alle ls ale | Ave tunber i = Modulus of Fupluze loc poles 8 — Fer Wteess al Elastic Limit foc Modulus af Fuptuce toc small Z : A= C- "erro Ries Dl | ia LE =200 Be Sal Ga ea fe Oh 6 Fig. 8.—Relation of fiber stress of poles and modulus of rupture of small, clear beams cut from them to the modulus of rupture of poles. TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 25 lodgepole pine shipment averaged about 22 per cent moisture, though the outer shell of the poles was somewhat drier (see fig. 3). This would tend to make the difference between the strength of the poles and the actual strength of the material in it much greater than was the case. The curve given on page 10 of Forest Service Circular 108, The Strength of Wood as Influenced by Moisture, shows that, for eastern spruce, strength in bending will be reduced by about 30 per cent when the moisture content is increased from 8 per cent to 16 per cent. Tests on lodgepole pine from Wyoming indicate a reduction, under similar circumstances, of about 25 per cent. The curves shown in figure 8 have, however, been plotted with the values as obtained from the tests. The curves, arranged in order of the modulus of rupture of the poles from highest to lowest, show the relation between the modulus of rupture of the small, clear sticks and the fiber stress of the poles at the elastic limit and maximum load. The position and number of checks, knots, and other defects, rather than the quality of the clear wood, determines the grade of a pole. While the curve for the modulus of rupture of the small pieces is erratic, as would be expected from the rather small number of tests averaged for each pole, it shows a tendency to fall with a fall in strength of the poles, indicating the influence of the quality of the clear wood on the strength of the poles. The most important relation shown by the curves is that the ratios between pole and minor strengths are not the same for the different species, indicating that it is not safe to compare species for use as poles on the basis of the strength of their clear material. For example, western red cedar gave an average modulus of rupture for the small, clear beams of 9,305 pounds per square inch, and the lodgepole pine from Montana averaged 12,775. While the strength of the clear material of the pine is thus 37 per cent higher than that of the cedar, the average strength of the poles was a little less than 12 per cent higher. The ratios of the average modulus of rupture of the poles to that of the clear material for two conditions of moisture is as follows: As tested As esti- Kind of poles. at 8per | mated! at cent. 16 per cent. WWESLenim Te du Cedars arenes tees yk Saree ed eee Wi Aye Soh be eee hose eee aS 0. 74 0. 98 Lodgepole pine: : : Greemicu tines sacs ser eno tits Soca ahaa NAS ea AS oe A -60 - 80 HE inept Oc mae Rt neyo os SN Sl oN Nea 2 RA a RB Ok - 60 - 80 Hurpelmiann spruce: fre ikilled 2232) eee 5. Meee ie SPS a. EAS ee: 48 65 1 On the basis that an increase in moisture from 8 to 16 per cent causes a 25 per cent reduction in strength, 26 BULLETIN 67, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONCLUSIONS. The tests on poles and specimens cut from them show that— 1. Air-seasoned lodgepole pine poles cut from live timber in Mon- tana were fully equal in strength to the cedar poles tested. In actual stress developed they were superior, but on account of the greater taper of the cedar poles this advantage was lost in a comparison based on equal top diameters, the dimension usually specified. 2. Cedar poles were superior to the pine and spruce poles cut from a fire-killed area in Colorado in maximum load developed. The three shipments were, however, practically equal at the elastic imit. Were the native poles to be used in place of cedar without change of specifica- tions, it would follow that the factor of safety would be reduced one- fifth for conditions at failure, but would remain the same for stresses at the elastic limit. 3. The fire-killed pine, after standing 10 years, did ad show deteri- oration to any appreciable extent when compared to seasoned lodge- pole pine cut from representative live trees in Wyoming and Colorado. The advantage in strength of the material from the lodgepole pine poles from Montana can be accounted for by the fact that it was above normal in weight—at least for lodgepole ue from the southern part of its range. 4. The ratio between the strength of the pole and the strength of the clear material cut from them is not constant for the different kinds of wood. This “efficiency” factor varied from 0.74 to 0.48 of the strength of the clear wood when the comparison is made as tested, and from 0.98 to 0.65 when compared on the basis of values estimated to represent the same moisture condition in the small pieces as existed in the poles when tested. The values were highest for the cedar and lowest for the spruce, the pine representing an average for the three species. POLE TESTS BY THE PACIFIC TELEPHONE & TELEGRAPH CO. The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. made tests on 81 poles of western red cedar and Port Orford cedar at the pole yards of the Western Electric Co. near Richmond, Cal. These poles were 25 and 30 feet in length, with 6, 7, and 8 inch top diameters, and 35 feet in length, with 7, 8, and 9 inch tops. The method employed in these tests makes it impossible to make any accurate comparisons of stress values with those obtained in the Forest Service tests. In the telephone company’s tests stresses are figured for the point of failure, while the Forest Service tests are figured for the load point or ground line, theoretically the point of greatest stress. In the telephone company’s tests the poles were tested horizontally, with 6 feet of the butt end of the pole held firmly between four 12 TESTS OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN WOODS FOR TELEPHONE POLES. 27 by 12 inch posts set in the ground. The load was applied to the top of the pole, by means of a winch, at a rate of 1 foot per minute. A direct-reading dynamometer was placed in the line connecting the winch with the top of the pole. The top end of the pole was supported on a dolly with truck casters which traveled on a piece of sheet iron, thus eliminating friction. Readings of the movement of a nail driven into the top of the pole were taken for each 100 pounds increment of load. The Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. has kindly permitted the use of their test data, and Table 7 is compiled from their report. Comparison of the equivalent top load in Table 2 with the top load for 7-inch by 25-foot poles in Table 7 shows a difference of only 5 per cent, while the calculated stresses are about 20 per cent greater for the Forest Service results. This difference, as already stated, is probably due to the different methods used, both for calculating the stress and for supporting the butt of the pole. Reference to Table 7 shows that there is no consistent variation when poles of the same top diameter but of different lengths are com- pared. However, Table 8, compiled from Table 7, shows a very marked relation between top diameter and top breaking load in the three classes of poles tested by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. TasBLe 7.—Results of pole tests made by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co. WESTERN RED CEDAR FROM IDAHO. Average values of— . Number Top di- | Length. | of pol é poles F ameter. Bria testo. | weelent Weta Wtciss |) Rings «|< | Topload |) Madulus of poles. | Pore ture. | per inch. P- | at failure. ae Lbs. per Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. Per cent.| Pounds. | sq. in. 6 25 3 205 22.0 9.4 13.7 38.0 1, 853 6, 221 7 25 4 244 23.0 9.2 23.0 27.6 1,948 5, 712 8 25 3 282 22.9 10.2 18.3 26.3 2, 667 5, 290 6 30 4 283 22.4 13.6 20.1 28.1 1,590 5, 126 7 30 4 344 26.1 10.0 23.3 24.5 2, 434 5, 549 8 30 3 382 23.4 9.1 23.4 21.4 2,740 5, 308 7 35 3 477 22.1 8.1 19.3 40.8 2, 000 5, 080 8 30 3 471 19.4 10.4 18.5 25.7 2,125 4,391 9 35 3 522 21.5 10.2 22.6 24.9 2,992 4,755 WESTERN RED CEDAR FROM OREGON AND WASHINGTON. 6 25 3 204 24.1 8.7 24,4 41.6 1, 470 5, 525 7 25 3 213 19.8 15.1 6.6 41.2 1,625 4, 481 8 25 3 238 19.8 18.0 9.5 30.1 2,072 4,816 6 30 3 255 21.7 17.0 7.2 36.8 1,352 5, 784 a 30 3 240 18.8 7.4 9.3 33.3 1,597 7, 006 8 30 3 395 22.8 15.4 11.3 29.2 2,385 3, 146 7 35 3 331 21.1 9.2 8.0 32.7 2 6, 408 8 35 3 546 24.6 34.0 6.8 38. 2 1, 888 4,349 9 35 3 597 24.8 11.6 24.3 17.4 3, 257 5, 665 28 BULLETIN 67, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7.—Results of pole tests made by the Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.—Contd. PORT ORFORD CEDAR. Average values of— Top load a ssaene at failure. Fares Lbs. per Pounds. sg. mm. 2,027 7,616 3,277 7, 896 3, 740 6, 058 2,518 6, 817 2,790 7, 332 3,577 7, 824 3,123 6, 851 3,057 - 6,928 Port Orford cedar. Average Number top of poles. | breaking load. Pounds. 6 2,272 9 3, 063 ll 3,169 Top di- | rengtn. | of poles ength. | of poles F ameter. tested. | Weignt | Weight | Mois | Rings |g, of poles. |P%eee| ture. | per inch. P- Inches. Feet. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. Per cent. 6 25 3 256 31.3 11.6 A To ee See 7 25 3 315 24.8 10.7 20:64 ]2 sees octee 8 25 4 460 26.6 13.3 TONS o | Seea- eee 6 30 3 375 24.3 8.6 Ee fe SEY se 7 30 3 397 25.2 20.5 ERO) BASecossoe 8 30 3 441 24.0 9.6 LAT. ease stoek 7 35 3 585 30. 4 10.1 OIG Wie secs site 8 35 3 591 28.1 9.7 21.04 acs ce See TaBLE 8.—Relation between top diameters and top breaking loads. [Pacific Telephone & Telegraph Co.’s tests.] Western red cedar Mester edipeder from Idaho. Washinton: Top di- Length of poles. ROIS Average Average Number top Number top L of poles. | breaking | of poles. | breaking e load. . load. Inches. Pounds. Pounds. 2hiand 30 feet-noe cosas eee eee 6 a 1, 703 6 1,411 apsBpsandis5 fect... ae ee 7 11 2,139 9 1, 645 25, 30, and 35 feet.............. 8 9 2,511 9 2115 SH eOL eter mie he eae ana 9 3 2,992 3 3, 257 [a 8 5S EE ST A SE TNS ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv Be ai Ne Oe HE; USDEPARTNENT OFAGRICULLURE No. 68 ZA eNO ‘ Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. g February 25, 1914. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST. By Byron Hunter, Agricu/turist, Office of Farm Management.' INTRODUCTION. This bulletin deals specifically with crops and systems of cropping that may be used in economical pork production in the Pacific North- west. Scattered here and there throughout the Northwest are men who are successfully producing pork. They have been visited, and their methods, crops, and feeding systems have been studied. This bulletin makes the practices of these successful men available to all. Owing to the rapid growth in population of this section during the last decade, the demand for pork has increased faster than the sup- ply, and there is little reason why hog raising should not become a more important industry in the Pacific Northwest. Although there have been some outbreaks of hog cholera, the Northwest has been remarkably free from this disease. The larger cities have well- equipped packing houses, and modern union stockyards are in opera- tion at Portland, Oreg. During recent years a large percentage of the hogs slaughtered in the cities of Portland, Tacoma, Seattle, and Spokane have been shipped from east of the Rocky Mountains. In addition to this, enormous quantities of eastern bacon and lard are annually consumed by the Pacific Coast States. MANAGEMENT OF PASTURES. Since economical pork production depends largely upon the con- sumption of a great deal of cheaply grown feed, the pasture should be so managed that the forage produced will be clean, tender, and palatable. In practice, hog pastures are generally managed in one of three ways: (1) Continuous close grazing, (2) alternate pasturing of equal areas, and (3) pasturing the meadow. ~ Nore.—This publication is intended to encourage hog raising in the Pacific Northwest; it is especially adapted to Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. ; 1 Mr. Hunter is now State leader in charge of Farm-Management Field Studies and Demonstrations in the State of Washington, and is employed cooperatively by the United States Department of Agri- culture and the State College of Washington. ; _ 23557°—Bull. 68—14——1 2 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, CONTINUOUS CLOSE GRAZING. The method in most common use is to turn in all the hogs the pas- ture will support, leaving them in the field during the entire season. Usually the pasture is kept closely grazed. Too often it is overgrazed, the plants being cropped so closely that the stand is soon ruined. The pasture then becomes little better than a dry lot, and the hogs make unsatisfactory gains. When the feed in the pasture becomes searce, either the number of hogs per acre should be reduced or other forage provided. ALTERNATE PASTURING OF EQUAL AREAS. One of the most satisfactory ways of managing a pasture is to divide it into two or more fields of equal area. These fields are then used alternately, the hogs remaining in each about a week or 10 days. In the case of clover and alfalfa the growth is allowed to become 3 to 4 inches high before the hogs are turned in to eat it off quickly. When the pasture consists of such crops as rape, kale, and vetch, which will not stand close grazing, the growth is permitted to reach a height of 8 or 10 inches before the hogs are turned in. Changing the hogs from field to field gives the pasture a period of rest, during which the plants recuperate and grow rapidly. When the stock is returned to the field the forage is clean, tender, and pala- table and large quantities are consumed. Owing to the rapid growth made while at rest, a pasture that is subdivided and the areas grazed alternately is capable of carrying a much larger number of hogs per acre, other conditions being equal, than one that is continuously pastured. Hogs usually graze a pasture somewhat unevenly, some areas being eaten off much more closely than others. To keep down the weeds and make the growth come on evenly, the pasture is clipped with a mower immediately after the hogs are removed. Hogs are inclined to root when the surface of the ground is wet or damp. For this reason the pasture, if under irrigation, is irrigated just after the hogs are changed from one pasture lot to the next. This gives the surface of the ground time to dry before the forage is large enough to be grazed. PASTURING THE MEADOW. Many successful hog raisers prefer to use such crops as clover and alfalfa for both pasture and hay at the same time. The number of hogs turned into the field is so limited that the usual crops of hay are made. The chief advantages of this method are (1) the presence of an abundance of feed, (2) the meadow is not grazed closely enough for the stand to be injured, (3) it is not necessary to subdivide the pasture into smaller areas for alternate pasturing, and (4) the changing of the hogs from one inclosure to another is obviated. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 2 3 When the number of animals pastured is so limited that the usual hay crops are made, the growth becomes so coarse and woody that they do not consume as much forage as is desirable for economical gains, as the hogs relish the young shoots best. When the forage becomes too large to furnish desirable feed, an area near the watering ‘place is clipped with a mower. This should be large enough to furnish the desired amount of pasture. In a few days the clipped “area produces a vigorous growth of new shoots, upon which the hogs feed without materially disturbing the rest of the meadow. If the area first mowed is not sufficient to furnish the required feed, more of the meadow is clipped, as necessity may demand. To prevent the Fie. 1.—Hogs on alfalfa pasture without other feed. Note their thin condition and ungainly shape, espe- cially the older hog on the left. stand of these clipped areas from becoming injured by overgrazing, different portions of the meadow are used in this way from year to year. GRAIN RATION WHILE HOGS ARE ON PASTURE. While the cost of producmg pork may be reduced materially by the use of such roughage as alfalfa hay, roots, or green-pasture for- age, it is desirable to feed grain or other concentrated feed in addition. Mature, dry brood sows are sometimes maintained in an apparently satisfactory condition on good pasture alone. Young growing hogs, on the other hand, usually become ungainly in shape, big bellied, and thin in flesh or stunted when compelled to subsist on pasture alone. Figure 1 ulustrates the condition of hogs run on pasture without other feed. 4 ; BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hog growers differ quite widely regarding the quantity of grain that should be fed while on pasture. Some feed a full grain ration, i. e., all the grain the hog willconsume. Others feed a medium ration, one that is equal to about 2 to 3 per cent of the live weight of the hog. Still others prefer a light grain ration, one that is equal to only about 1 per cent of the live weight of the hog. Occasionally men are found who run young shotes on pasture without other feed. This is a mis- _ take, for it almost invariably results in a stunted hog. No fixed and fast rule can be laid down, for the supplemental grain ration which should be fed in conjunction with green pasture depends upon a number of factors, the more important of which are (1) the age at which the hogs are to be marketed, (2) the price of grain, and (8) the plentifulness and quality of the pasture. RATIONS FOR HOGS OF VARIOUS CONDITIONS AND MARKET AGES. If hogs are to be marketed when 7 to 9 months old, it is necessary to feed them about all the grain they will consume, in addition to the pasture, in order to make them reach the weight demanded by the market, 170 to 225 pounds. Hogs that are marketed when 10 to 12 months old are usually maintained on pasture alone during the graz- ing season. If fed at all, the grain ration is very light. This results in a slow daily gain, but a greater percentage of the growth is made from the cheaply grown forage. The added cost of maintaining a hog until 10 to 12 months old, however, usually more than equals the saving of the grain ration. Mature breeding stock that is not expected to make any gain in weight requires but little, if any, additional feed when on good pasture. Hogs that are thin in flesh and nearly grown may be expected to make small daily gains without other feed when on the best of pas- ture. Pigs and small shotes usually become stunted when on pas- ture unless given a liberal quantity of additional feed. Young hogs should be so fed that they grow rapidly instead of becoming stunted. During the fattening period, hogs on pasture should be fed all the grain they will eat up clean three times a day. THE PRICE OF GRAIN. Owing to the fluctuation in the price of hogs and of grain, the sup- plemental grain ration is sometimes expensive. Under such cir- cumstances there is great temptation to place the hogs upon an exclu- sive pasture ration. This seldom pays, for it usually takes approxi- mately as much concentrated feed in the end, and much more time, to fit for market hogs which have been on an exclusive pasture diet as is required for hogs fed liberally while on pasture. Under extreme circumstances mature breeding stock or hogs which are nearly grown may be carried on good pasture until cheaper concentrated feed can be obtained. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 5 QUALITY AND ABUNDANCE OF PASTURE. The composition of pasture forage is quite variable. Alfalfa, clover, vetch, peas, etc., furnish feed that is much richer in protein than most other crops. Generally, therefore, hogs which are feeding upon leguminous pasture require slightly less concentrated feed than when grazing upon nonleguminous pasture, such as timothy, orchard grass, bluegrass, or the cereals. It frequently happens that a farmer has more hogs than his pasture is capable of supporting. When such is the case the pasture will go much farther if a full grain ration is fed. The more grain a hog con- sumes the less he will feed upon the pasture. In general, pigs and shotes should be kept in a thrifty, growing con- dition at all times. It never pays to allow them to cease growing Fic. 2.—A herd of brood sows on pasture. They were fed enough grain to keep them in good condition. and become stunted. Brood sows, likewise, must be kept in good flesh (not fat) if large litters of strong, healthy pigs are to be expected. Figure 2 shows a herd of well-kept brood sows on pasture. In gathering the material for this bulletin it was quite generally observed, on the one hand, that the men who are enthusiastic pork producers feed a liberal supplemental grain ration to young, growing hogs when on pasture. On the other hand, those who think there is little profit in raising hogs run them very largely on pasture without other feed during the grazing season. HOGGING OFF CROPS. a Turning hogs into a standing field of mature or nearly mature wheat, barley, peas, or corn and allowing them to feed at will until the crop is consumed is called “‘ hogging off” or ‘ hogging down”’ the a 6 BULLETIN 68, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crop. To some this may appear to be a wasteful practice. Under good management, however, it is a very satisfactory and economical method of utilizing limited areas of these crops. -ADVANTAGES IN HOGGING OFF CROPS. Some of the advantages in hogging off crops are (1) the cost of harvesting and marketing the crop is saved, (2) the labor of caring for hogs is greatly reduced, (3) the vegetable matter in the soil is increased, (4) the droppings of the animals are distributed quite evenly, and (5) the hogs are given exercise. It costs from 15 to 25 cents per bushel to harvest and market wheat in the greater part of the wheat belt of the Pacific Northwest, the cost varying with the yield, the method of harvesting and thrashing, and the distance the wheat is hauled to market. In some of the more arid wheat-growing districts of both Oregon and Washington the yield of wheat is fre- quently as low as 6 to 8 bushels per acre. The cost of harvesting and marketing such crops runs from 35 to 40 cents per bushel. The cost of harvesting and marketing barley is approximately the same as that of wheat. When the hogs are so managed that the crop is thoroughly cleaned. up, hogging off the crop practically saves the cost of harvesting and marketing. In the case of light-yielding crops this saving is considerable. Most of the crops that are suitable for hogging off are utilized during the busiest season of the year, i. e., at a time when it is very desirable that the hogs require as little Sheet as possible. If turned into a mature field of wheat, peas, or corn and provided with water, shade, and salt, the hogs require very little other attention. Most of the arable lands of the Pacific Northwest would be mate- rially benefited by the addition of more organic matter. When the crop is hogged off, the straw, pea vines, or cornstalks, as the case may be, are left on the ground. By cutting this material thoroughly in the fall of the year with a sharp disk harrow and plowing it under, the soil is enriched in vegetable matter. This, in turn, greatly reduces the tendency of the soil to wash. The washing of soil due to the burning of straw and consequent lack of humus is well shown in figure 3. . In hogging off the crop, the droppings of the animals are scattered quite evenly over the field. USUAL GRAIN CROPS HOGGED OFF. The Pacific Northwest is peculiarly adapted to the hogging off of crops. The wet season occurs during the winter months and the dry season during the summer. This gives a long period in which crops may be used in this way. The principal crops that are suitable for hogging down are wheat, field peas, corn, and barley. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. if _ Wheat.—Wheat is generally used from the time the first spots in the field are nearly ripe, about the stiff-dough stage, until the stubble field is open or until field peas or some other crops are ready for use. It will be seen, then, that the season for using wheat is from four to six weeks. If used during a longer period, there may be considerable loss from shattering, and the autumn rains in some localities may also damage the crop. -A soft variety of wheat with a smooth club type of head is best suited for hogging down. The club head does not shatter so readily as most other types. The true hard and bearded varieties, such as Turkey, are not suitable. The kernels become so hard and the beards are so severe on the hogs’ mouths that they do not eat enough to make economical gains. Fic. 3.—Soil washing near Dayton, Wash., in the spring of 1910. This land was summer-fallowed during the season of 1909 and planted to winter wheat. On the farm of W. H. Steen, Umatilla County, Oreg., 90 hogs pas- tured from July 17 to August 24 on 11 acres of ripe standing wheat, estimated to yield 15 bushels per acre, made an average gain in weight of 160 pounds per acre, worth $14.40. In another instance M. HE. Schreck, of Whitman County, Wash., pastured 109 head of hogs on 7,2; acres of standing wheat and 1 acre of pasture from July 30 to August 17. The hogs made a gain of 212 pounds-per acre and gave a net value per acre of $15.73. The net returns from 44 acres of wheat alongside, yielding 19? bushels per acre, were only $8.04 per acre. Field peas —The field pea is one of the most satisfactory crops to harvest with hogs. The quality of feed furnished is of the very best, hogs are very fond of the mature peas, and under good management ee 8 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the crop is gathered with but very little waste. Most varieties of peas are comparatively large and difficult to cover. What is shat- tered usually lies on the surface of the ground until picked up later. The hogs are turned into the field about the time the last peas are nearly mature. In most districts they may be used until about. October 1, or until there is danger of the crop bemg damaged by wet weather. A protracted autumn ram falling upon a heavy crop that ~ the hogs have not cleaned up may cause the peas to sprout. To prevent this the vmes are sometimes burned as soon after the rain as they are dry enough. Burning the vines leaves the peas lying upon the surface of the ground. It is not necessary to burn the vines, however, if a movable fence is used and the hogs are made to clean up the crop in small areas that will last from two to three weeks each. Since ripe, mature peas are rich in proteim, green succulent feed in addition to the peas will help to balance the ration.. Corn.—Where corn is successfully grown it is an excellent crop to hog down. Carefully conducted tests at the Minnesota experiment station show that hogs waste no more corn in the field than when fed in lots, and that they gather it as clean as most men do in husking.! Farm experience also bears out this conclusion. Corn is advanta- ~ geously used from the time the ears are well glazed until the weather becomes unfavorable ‘and the ground muddy. In some districts of the Northwest, where the rainfall is scant, corn can be hogged off far mto the winter. There is slightly less waste if a movable fence is used and the hogs are not turned into more corn than they can consume in 15 or 20 days. Especially is this true when the ground becomes wet and muddy. Barley. As a crop to hog off, barley is used during the summer, autumn, and winter. Because the beards, when dry and hard, are so severe on the mouth of the hog, the common beardless barley is generally used durmg the summer and early autumn. The bearded varieties usually outyield the beardless considerably, and for this reason the former are generally preferred for late autumn and winter use. There are some, however, who prefer the beardless varieties for all seasons. If sown very early in the spring, beardless barley generally ripens about ten days or two weeks earlier than winter wheat. This makes it one of the first crops available for hogging off in the early summer. The hogs are turned into the field when the first patches are ripening, or when the kernels are in the stiff-dough stage. Hogs do only fairly well on mature bearded barley when the beards are dry and stiff. After the autumn rains have softened the beards and kernels, however, they take to it readily. For late autumn and 1 Gaumnitz, D. A., Wilson, A. D., and Bassett, L. B. Pork production. Minnesota Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Bulletin 104, p. 63-119, 9 fig., 1907. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 9 winter use the bearded varieties are allowed to stand in the field until the fall rains have set in well. This usually gives plenty of time after harvest for the hogs to glean the stubble field. Blue barley, a bearded variety, is generally sown for late fall and winter use. When allowed to stand in the field it does not shatter and sprout nearly so easily as wheat or the so-called winter varieties of barley. On a farm in Umatilla County, Oreg., during November, 1910, 80 hogs were pastured 18 days and 98 hogs 10 days on 11.4 acres of bar- ley on a steep hillside. The gai in weight averaged 230 pounds per acre, having a value of $18.35 per acre. The estimated yield of Fic. 4.—A hillside on the farm of W. H. Steen, Umatilla County, Oreg., too steep for the use of a binder, but satisfactorily harvested by hogs. The shotes in the picture are gleaning the barley after the fattening hogs have taken the greater part of the feed. barley was 21 bushels per acre. Figure 4 shows the hillside with shotes gleaning the barley after the fattening hogs have taken off practically all the feed. DETERMINING THE AREA TO BE HOGGED OFF. In order to reduce the waste to a minimum, the area of each crop hogged off must be thoroughly cleaned up. Owing to the variation in crop yields and the quantity of grain that hogs of different sizes will consume, it is not always easy to determine the acreage of each crop to be used in this way. Suppose a portion of the main winter- wheat crop is to be fenced and hogged off from the time the grain is just past the stiff-dough stage, say July 10, until the stubble field is open, August 15. What area of the winter wheat shall be set aside 23557°—Bull, 68—14— 10 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to be used in this way? This may be determined in two ways, as follows: (1) When the first spots in the field are nearly ripe or when the kernels have just passed the stiff-dough stage, measure and fence a small trial area, enough to last the herd of hogs for only a few days. From July 10 to August 15 is 36 days. Ifa trial area of one acre lasts the herd 6 days, as many acres of wheat must be reserved as the number of times 6 is contained in 36, or 6 acres. (2) By the second method, the yield of the crop per acre and the quantity of feed that the herd of hogs will consume per day are estimated. Suppose that the yield of wheat is 30 bushels, or 1,800 pounds, per acre and the herd of hogs will consume 400 pounds of wheat per day. If 400 pounds of wheat are consumed in one day, an acre, or 1,800 pounds, will last 4.5 days. If one acre lasts 4.5 days, 8 acres will be required to last 36 days, 1. e., from July 10 to August 15. The quantity of wheat that the herd of hogs will consume per. day can be determined quite accurately by weighing their feed for a few days just before they are turned into the field. In the case of growing hogs, they will consume a little more each day as they grow older. THE AREA OF GRAIN TO HOG OFF AT ONE TIME. Crops are hogged off in two ways: (1) By subdividing the field with a movable fence into small areas that will last the hogs from 10 to 20 days and (2) by turning the hogs into the entire field in the begin- ning. 3 oe , No data are at hand showing which of these methods is .more economical. While both are used in the Pacific Northwest, the latter is the one generally practiced. Where crops are used in this way during the late fall and winter in ihe more humid portions of the wheat belt and west of the Cascade Mountains, where the autumn rains are frequently heavy, the area should probably be limited so that it will be cleaned up in 15 or 20 days. In the arid and semi- arid districts or when used during the dry season in the more humid localities, there is probably no good reason why the area hogged off should not be all that the hogs will clean up nicely during the season. Much larger areas doubtless can be hogged off on sandy or gravelly soils than on clay soils that become sticky when wet. CROPS SUITABLE FOR PASTURE AND HOGGING OFF. The three Pacific Northwestern States to which this bulletin is primarily applicable may be divided into three distinct agricultural districts: (1) Western Oregon and western Washington—that portion of these two States lying west of the Cascade Mountains, (2) the wheat belt, and (3) the irrigated valleys. Because of their great variation in topography, elevation, rainfall, soil, temperature, etc., these three districts present a wide range of agricultural possibilities. For this reason the crops that may be used in economical hog production in each area are discussed separately, PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 11 CROPS FOR WESTERN OREGON AND WESTERN WASHINGTON. The moist, mild climate of this district makes it possible to provide an abundance of cheaply grown forage for hogs throughout the entire year. The number of crops which may be used for this purpose is very great. The growmg of most of them is discussed in detail in ‘Farmers’ Bulletm 271 of this department, ‘Forage Crop Practises in Western Oregon and Western Washington,’ to which the reader is referred. Only such points of information as can not be easily found elsewhere are presented here. USE OF VARIOUS PASTURE CROPS. Table I shows suitable pasture crops m western Oregon and western Washington, with the dates of planting and use. TaBuLr I.—Pasture crops for western Oregon and western Washington. Number of hogs Crops. When planted. | Approximate dates when used.| an acre will pasture.! OlOMEI ei ome ents se ceeee A previous year.........-..... April 1 to November 1......... 8 to 16 WIR TE oat SOS HEE ae Sasa ee | Sena Ore emia wo seem ce seme een eae (0 Ko Se rae ee Bere setes 8 to 16 Ra PCNMMOWSser-soeee cee ee ee ANjoreill i, Is, eal BOs Sooo oes son June 1 to November1.._....-- 8 to 14 Rape and oats.........--.---- April 25 to May 15..........-- June 25 to November 1......-. 6 to 15 Rape and clover........-...-- May 15 to June1.............. July 1 to November1......... 6 to 15 IAC RSeeeseece satis cesiaaos July (in corn at last cultiva- | October 1 to April1........... 5 to 8 : tion). Vetch and wheat, vetch and |...-. CLO tects eli nila lena Chase Deh aR A ncee en area 5 to8 oats, or vetch alone. Vetch and wheat or vetch and | September (on spring stubble).| November 1 to April1........ 5 to8 oats. English rye-grass.....-...-..- Early spring or early fall...... November 1 to July1......... 5 to 14 Wantenswiteateaserceaccecie-- = September 1 to October 15...-.) February, March, and April... 6 to 12 WGKGti- So aeas Seas eS teeeeeee Septemlbensn ie soak arena 2 Wie 1@ diwlhy sees cos5os coun 8 to 16 1The number of hogs that can be pastured per acre depends upon (1) the productiveness of the soil, (2) the variation of the season, (3) the management of the pasture, (4) the size of the hogs, and (5) the kind and quantity of other feed the hogs receive in addition to the pasture. From a study of Table I it will be seen that pasture may be provided for swine in western Oregon and western Washington throughout the entire year. It is not imtended that all of these crops shall be used on any one farm. The purpose of the table is to assist the farmer in the selection of pasture crops which may meet the needs and condi- tions of his farm. If intended for late fall, wimter, and early spring use, a pasture should not be grazed during the autumn, in order that a large amount of forage may accumulate. This is necessary with almost all winter forage crops, for growth practically ceases when winter begins. The forage that is allowed to accumulate during the autumn is grazed during the winter. ; It must be understood also that there are times durmg the winter when most soils west of the Cascade Mountains become so wet that the tramping of the hogs does a great deal of injury by puddling the soil. For this reason it is generally considered best to remove the hogs from the pasture when a heavy rain fails. This is not always 12 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessary, however, as, for example, on sandy soils and pastures with a close grass sod. Clover.—Of the legumes, red clover for well-drained soils and alsike for wet lands are generally the most satisfactory. The clovers make their maximum growth during the months of April, May, and . June. When the summer drought comes on, the quantity of forage produced gradually decreases. If a clover pasture is utilized to its fullest capacity during the spring and early summer, it is necessary to provide additional green feed for the dry season. This may be done by grazing the clover meadow during the summer after removing a crop of hay. Alfalfa.—Alfalfa is not used so generally as clover for hog pasture west of the Cascade Mountains. It has been tried in many localities with varying degrees of success. It has given best satisfaction on the sandy or loamy soils along the watercourses where the water table is at least 4 feet below the surface. Alfalfa is highly successful in the Umpqua and Rogue River Valleys on irrigated and subirrigated land. Under conditions favorable to its growth, it produces an abundance of feed from early spring until late in the fall. Rape in cultwated rows.—If grown in rows and kept well cultivated, rape furnishes excellent green forage during the dry season when clover pasture is cut short by the summer drought. In growing rape in rows the land is prepared early and kept in good condition until planting time. The best results are secured by making three plantings on approximately April 1, 15, and 30. These three areas are then pastured alternately, the hogs being changed from one to the other. By thorough cultivation rape can be kept growing allsummer. It is usually large enough to pasture with light hogs in 6 to 8 weeks after planting. Before brood sows and other grown hogs are turned on the rape, it should be large enough so that they will feed upon the leaves instead of biting off the stem or pulling up the plants. When the fall rains come, rape makes a vigorous growth and can be used until the ground is so wet that the soil is injured by the tramping of the hogs. Rape and oats—Summer pasture is also provided by sowing 1 bushel of oats and 4 pounds of rape seed per acre during the latter part of April or early in May. If sown too early in the spring the rains pack the soil so hard that the rape does poorly. Oats and rape pasture is used from the time the growth is 5 or 6 inches high until winter begins. When hogs are pastured on rape and oats they do not work on the latter very much (unless the pasture is grazed closely) until the oats are nearly ripe. In stripping the ripe grain from the straw considerable is dropped on the ground and covered by the tramping of the hogs. The grain that is covered in this way germi- nates when the fall rains begin. Both the oats and rape then grow vigorously and make excellent fall and winter pasture, PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 13 Winter pasture is also provided by sowing rape with oats intended for hay or grain. When sown in this way the rape grows but little until after the oats are harvested and the autumn rains have begun. Rape and clover.—One of the most satisfactory ways of providing summer pasture is to sow rape and clover together late in May or early in June. For the details of this method, see Farmers’ Bulletin 271 of this department. Rape wn corn.—From 3 to 4 pounds of rape seed per acre are some- times sown in corn during July, just before the last cultivation. If the corn is planted on a well-prepared seed bed and kept thoroughly cultivated, so that the soil will remain moist, the rape usually germi- nates in about five days. It then furnishes excellent green succulent forage during the autumn while the corn is being bogged off. If the Fig. 5.—A one-horse disk grain drill used for planting grain between the rows of standing corn. corn crop is husked or cut and removed from the field and the rape allowed to grow until late in the fall, the rape furnishes good pasture from November 1 to April 1. Vetch and wheat, or vetch and oats, or vetch alone.—Vetch sown alone or with wheat or oats in corn at the last cultivation or in the early fall on spring-plowed stubble land furnishes pasture for hogs during the late fall, winter, and early spring. One bushel of vetch and a bushel of oats or 40 pounds of wheat are used per acre. If sown alone, from 90 to 120 pounds of vetch seed are required per acre. The seed is either planted with a one-horse grain drill which runs between the rows of corn or it is sown broadcast from the back of a horse. A one-horse disk grain drill, which can be used for this purpose, is shown in figure 5. If the latter method is used, a hood is placed over the head of the horse to keep the grain from falling into the animal’s 14 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ears. If sown broadeast, the last cultivation of the corn covers the seed. _ If vetch and wheat or oats are sown in corn when “‘laid by”’ in July, the pasture is ready for use by October 1; if sown on spring- plowed stubble land in the early fall, it is ready about November 1.- The pasture may be used during the winter and early spring. If other pasture is not available, these crops will also furnish excellent forage for hogs until late in June. Vetch is also sown alone in the fall and used during April, May, and June. English rye-grass—Owing to the excessive winter precipitation west of the Cascade Mian ane. the ground is frequently so wet that the tramping of stock is very injurious to most soils. For this rea- son a grass pasture with a close, tough sod is very desirable for win- ter use. English rye-grass meets this need admirably. This grass forms a close sod that stands tramping well. It is one of the first grasses to begin growth in the spring and one of the last to cease growing in the fall. A rye-grass pasture may be used from the early autumn until the following July. During the summer drought, growth practically ceases. If kept grazed rather closely, the pasture will last - for years. A permanent English rye-grass pasture may be started by sowing from 10 to 15 pounds of seed per acre with oats or wheat in the early spring or fall. The grain crop is either thrashed or cut for hay. The grass 1s then ready for grazing the following autumn after being sown. A permanent pasture may be started also by sowing the grass seed with vetch, oats, or wheat on stubble land in the early fall. The mixture of grass, vetch, and grain is used for pasture the following winter and spring. The second year the pasture is a close grass sod that will stand grazing when the ground is wet. Winter wheat.—Winter wheat sown in the early fall for a grain crop furnishes excellent pasture for hogs during February, March, and April. GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF. Tas ie I1.—Crops to hog off in western Oregon and western Washington. | Crops. When planted. Approximate date when used. | Beardless barley.......-.....-..--- arly Spring. - see occn is aes July 1 to July 20. Winter wileat:: .fi226e. eek aes September and October..........- July 10 to August 10. Wield Peas 25052 ss eee Cee MADLY SPLINE. 5 weet coc eateiseeeemee July 25 to October 1. Comiid: & 26:00 2 ee April 20 toiMa yl Oss cee ee September 15 to November 15. Wheat.—Hogs make rapid and economical gains on wheat until the chaff becomes thoroughly dry. If they are then supplied with green feed, they will do much better. If peas are not available for hogging off during August and September, wheat may be used until the autumn rains begin. Spring wheat may also be grown to take the place of the peas. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 15 Beardless barley.—lf no winter wheat is available to hog off, its place may be filled with beardless barley. In fact this crop may take the place of corn and peas as well, being used from the time it is in the stiff-dough stage, about July 10, until winter rains come. Hogs do exceptionally well on it after the rains have softened the kernels. Peas.—To furnish autumn pasture, one-half peck of wheat or a peck of oats is frequently sown with peas that are to be hogged off. In working upon the mature crop the hogs cause considerable of the oats or wheat to shatter out. Much of this is covered by the tramp- ing of the hogs. When the first fall rains come it germinates and fur- nishes good pasture. Corn.—Corn is hogged down to good advantage in much of the territory west of the Cascade Mountains for about six weeks—that is, from the time the kernels are pretty well glazed and dented until late in the fall. After the rainy season is well begun, the hogs get many of the ears down on the wet ground. This causes the corn to mold and spoil. For this reason it is not best to undertake to hog off too late in the season. In the Willamette Valley corn reaches the hogging-off stage about September 15. In the Rogue River Valley it is earlier and in northwestern Washington much later than in the Willamette Valley. SUCCULENT WINTER FEEDS. Tape IIT.—Swucculent winter feeds for western Oregon and western Washington. Crops. When planted. When used. TEC Ie ee irs seg ee Planted in March or April; trans- | October 1 to April 1. planted in June. Squash ees csdeedcacssces cscs Maye 2a Ie ot SNe Roa a ie November 1 to January 16. OLS et yeosteiaicine eeicrcisee sae sicierad PAU Te tos Maivallopeteterisere ete ince November 1 to April 1. WAntiGhOkeS2s 20-2. oe Sob eae eke. Hanlyas prin Caessseeee see ce Reena Do. Thousand-headed kale——-Thousand-headed kale is an_ excellent succulent winter feed for hogs. The mild winters of western Oregon and western Washington permit kale to stand in the field all winter. It is cut and fed as needed. Unless fed in a rack or on a clean floor, _ pigs waste a great deal of the kale by tramping it in the mud. Full directions for growing kale will be found in Farmers’ Bulletin 271 of this department. Squashes.—In order toraise squashes successfully the land is manured heavily during the fall or winter, plowed about March 1, allowed to lie for five or six weeks, and then disked, harrowed, and clod mashed until in good condition. From May 1 to 15 it is replowed. Just before the seed is planted, about May 25, the soil is again cultivated. The squashes are gathered about November 1, stored in a dark place in the barn, and covered with straw to keep them from freezing. They keep better if gathered before the surface of the squashes has been frozen. They are fed from approximately November 1 to January 15. 16 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Root crops——The mangel-wurzels, half-sugar beet, sugar beet, and white French sugar beet are all used for hog feed. Beets may be stored either in pits or in bins in the barn, or fed from the field. Occa- sionally there is some loss from freezing if left in the field all winter. Usually, on the other hand, there is much to be gained by feeding. from the field, because (1) beets make considerable growth during the late fall and winter, much of which is lost if they are stored; (2) when fed from the field the tops are utilized the same as the roots; and (3) it is much cheaper to feed from the field than to store them first and feed them later. Beets are fed whole. Artichokes——Artichokes are planted in rows and cultivated in precisely the same manner that potatoes are grown. The tubers are cut into rather small pieces and planted a little thicker and a little earlier than potatoes. Artichokes are utilized by turning the hogs into the field in the fall after the tubers have made their growth. If the hogs have been ringed, the ground is loosened up with a plow, enough tubers being plowed out at a time to last a week. The soil best adapted to the growth of artichokes for hogs is the sandy land along the watercourses. They can be hogged off on such land without seriously injuring the soil during the entire winter. The heavier soils are frequently badly puddled by the tramping of the hogs during wet weather. This can be counteracted by liberally oats coarse fresh manure or straw just before the hogs are turned into the field in the fall. By manurmg heavily and working the ground early in the spring, artichokes may be grown on the same land for several years. They are sometimes allowed to volunteer, the land bemg plowed, worked down, and the crop permitted to come from the tubers left in the soil. This is not good practice, however, it bemg muchmore profitable to plant them im rows, so that they can be cultivated. A crop of artichokes that is ready for the hogs is shown in figure 6. Objection is sometimes made to artichokes on account of the dif_i- culty of getting rid of them when it is desirable to grow some other crop on the land. They may be eradicated by sowing the land to clover, clover and rape, or clover and oats, and pasturing with sheep or cattle during the summer. If no stems and leaves are allowed to grow, no tubers will form. Close pasturing for one season will eliminate artichokes. CROPS FOR THE WHEAT BELT. The wheat belt of eastern Oregon, eastern Washington, and north- ern Idaho presents a great variety of agricultural conditions. The elevation above sea level varies from 1,000 to as much as 3,000 feet. The annual precipitation also varies from approximately 10 inches to 25 inches. In some of the more arid districts where the altitude PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 17 is low, the soil is frequently so hght that it is subject to blowing and drifting. In the districts where the precipitation is heaviest, on the other hand, the soil is a dark, fertile, silt loam. Owing to these varia- tions crop production varies widely in the wheat belt. For conven- ience in discussing the cropping and feeding systems which may be used for hogs, the wheat belt is divided into (1) the subhumid or moister: districts and (2) the arid and semiarid districts. There is no distinct line of demarcation between them, for they gradually blend into one another. Fie. 6.—A field ofartichokes in the Willamette Valley, Oreg., thatisready for thehogs. When the lower leaves began to die, sheep were turned in. They stripped off the leaves as high as they could reach. Cattle would consume the rest of the leaves. SuBHUMID oR MorstEerR JD IstTRicts. The more humid portions of the wheat belt are generally situated near the mountains. The annual rainfall is usually sufficient to grow alfalfa successfully without irrigation. USE OF VARIOUS PASTURE CROPS. TasLE 1V.—Pasture crops for the subhumid districts. Number Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used. othogsan pasture. Wanter wheats:..:2- 222... 22- Early in September........--. October 15 to November 15, 5 to8 ; March 15 to June 1. WlOVersae sete ste jones stabs April, previous year.....-...- April 10 to December 1....-... 8 to 15 Pala ee ma Acyl evap cee A previous year........-....-- April 15 to November 15..-.-. 8 to 15 Kale or rape........-...-.--.: aoe and Mayes s-— 5... trees: June 15 to December 1..-.---. 8 to 15 Rape and clover_........-...-. Miaiyplitemee crise meiner. Beane July 10 to November 15....-.. 6 to 14 Winter wheat...............- Wardhy jo MEN oops oseeodeose June 1 to November 15........ 6 to 15 Wihteat pin Corns) 92 -cc-eceen a July 15 to 3) (at last cultiva- | September 15 to November 15. 6 to 12 tion of corn). Stubble tela DSS See Ae edo atthe oN MENS re Ars eee SRN August 25 to Aprill..........|....-...-- 18 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Winter wheat.—Many farmers use the main winter-wheat field for hog pasture. If the autumn rains begin early enough in the fall to do the seeding during the first part of September, wheat usually makes sufficient growth to furnish pasture from October 15 until the ground is so wet that it is injured by the tramping of the hogs.. If sown during September, winter wheat also makes very early spring pasture. It is used from the time the ground is settled until the grain begins to head, or until the hogs begin to chew the heads. Ordinarily this will be from March 15 until June 1. Excellent summer and autumn pasture is provided by sowing winter wheat early in May on a well-prepared seed bed. If not pastured very closely during the autumn, wheat that is sown during May can be used during much of the winter. If sown just before the last cultivation in corn that has been well cultivated, wheat generally furnishes an abundancé of green feed during the autumn when corn is being hogged off. ‘Clover and alfalfa—Red clover is adapted to the wheat-growing districts having a claylike subsoil and the maximum precipitation. While alfalfa is adapted to the same territory it has a much wider range of usefulness, for it succeeds with less rainfall and on lighter soils than clover. Clover begins to grow earlier in the spring and continues to grow, later in the fall than alfalfa. The young tender growth of clover is not so easily injured by severe frosts as that of alfalfa. Red clover fits nicely into short rotations because it is short lived and so easily killed by plowing. Where the land is to be used continuously for hog pasture for a number of years alfalfa easily stands first. The carrying capacity of both clover and alfalfa is greatly reduced by the summer drought, and it is usually necessary to provide addi- tional feed during this time. The essentials in successfully growing both of these crops are given in detail in Popular Bulletin 31 and Bulletin 80 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wask. Kale and rape.—Thousand-headed kale and Dwarf Essex rape are very closely related. The mature individual kale plants are generally larger than those of rape. In the more humid portions of the wheat belt of Idaho, Oregon, and Washington few crops are more satisfactory for pasture during the summer and autumn than kale and rape. The green aphis sometimes attacks both of these crops during the last of August. While kale is seldom injured very much, rape is frequently damaged considerably. For this reason kale is the preferable crop. A fieid of kale is shown in figure 7. To grow either rape or kale successfully the land to be planted receives an application of stable manure and is plowed during the late fall. As soon as the surface soil is dry enough in the spring, PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 19 it is thoroughly cultivated to destroy weeds, germinate weed seeds, and conserve moisture. For early summer use, say the middle of June, the seed is planted as early in the spring as the soil has warmed up well. If the crop is not to be used until July 15, the date of planting may be delayed until about May 1. Seeding at that date gives an opportunity to cultivate the ground several times before the seed is planted. This makes it much easier to keep the crop free from weeds. While kale and rape may be sown broadcast, the best results are secured by planting in rows about 32 inches apart. Kale is thinned until the plants stand 12 to 14 inches apart in the rows. Rape can be left a little thicker in the row. Fic. 7.—Thousand-headed kale on the college farm, Pullman, Wash., planted in drill rows 28 inches apart. (Photographed August 23, 1909.) By pasturing and cultivating two or three times, the crop may be kept green allsummer. After the fall rains come both rape and kale make a much better growth than clover or alfalfa. They stand a great deal of severe frost and can generally be used until about December 15. If used only during the late summer and autumn, better results are secured by cutting and feeding kale instead of turning the hogs into the field. When the plants are allowed to become large, the hogs break down and waste many of the leaves. Rape and clover—Summer pasture is provided and a stand of clover established at the same time by sowing 3 pounds of rape seed and 8 to 10 pounds of red-clover seed per acre about May 1. The seed is mixed and sown together according to the methods described for sowing clover in Popular Bulletin 31 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. If sown May 1, the rape and clover should be 20 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. large enough to pasture by July 1 to 10. Rape makes excellent green forage while wheat, peas, and corn are being hogged off. Gleaning stubble fields —Wheat farmers who raise hogs give them the run of the stubble fields from the time the grain is harvested until the land is plowed the following spring. They feed upon the heads that are dropped in harvesting and also on the volunteer grain. It is frequently supposed that the combined harvester and thrasher will leave so little grain in the field, especially on level ground, that there is nothing to be gained by gleaning the stubble with hogs. _ It is also supposed that in gleaning a large stubble field hogs will do so much traveling that they make no gains. To show that neither of these assumptions is well founded, the experience of W. H. Steen, Umatilla County, Oreg., in E epine the stubble field with hogs may be cited. On August 24, 1910, 90 head of hogs, weighing 6,261 pounds, were turned into 178 acres of wheat stubble. They were in the field with- out ether feed until November 1, when they weighed 8,350pounds. The gain in live weight per acre was 11.73 pounds. The value of the gain per acre (11.73 pounds) at 6, 7, and 8 cents per pound amounts to 70.4, 82.1, and 93.8 cents, respectively. The stubble land gleaned by the hogs is comparatively level, and a good job had been done in cutting the grain with a combined harvester. On steep land the waste in harvesting is always much greater than on level land, and the gain in gleaning the stubble with hogs sa be cor- respondingly greater. GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF. TaBLeE V.—Crops to hog off in the subhumid district. Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.1! Beardlessiparley2.--252-2eo-ee ea arly Sprinessacec, sos. 2- eae July 5 to August 1. Winter wheat:-sca.2c5 5 eee September and October......... July 20 to August 20. Wield Peas--.26.<% Jess ec ee ier Spring: 2222. < 22. ee at eee July 10 to November 1. Spring wheat=. sccm os ssa oeeee se dl sees Ooi oc SEE RPRE = eo eee August 1 to September 1. Corn: fjshoss cates eet tees Maye Dt10.20. at. Sus: «scene September 1 to November 15. Blue barley or common beardless | Early spring.............-----.- From beginning of autumn rains arley. to midwinter. 1 Because of the great variation in altitude in the more humid portions of the wheat belt, there is a corre- sponding variation in the dates at which crops mature. Barley, wheat, and peas, for example, reach the hogging-off stage much earlier when grown at low altitudes than at high altitudes. For this reason the dates in the above table for using the crops are only approximately correct. A discussion of the use of the crops mentioned in Table V will be found on pages 6 to 9 of this bulletin. The growing of wheat and barley is familiar to all and needs no further comment. The growing of field peas and corn are discussed in Popular Bulletins Nos. 36 and 38, and Bulletin 99 of the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station. These bulletins may be had by applying to the Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Pullman, Wash. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS, 21 WINTER FEEDS. TaBLE V1.—Winter feeds for the subhumid districts. Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used. MEN 25 oem A previous year..............-...- November 1 to April 15. IRGOUGS£ S$ eee aS eon eee ee Apriliand Mays. 2 ees Sse Do. PATI CHOKOS Se peieeans oacecee es sie iNco ral Sarr eset cesta 212s Soe Sass aes October 15 to May 1. Bundle or headed wheat........-- Hallorispring ost e. eee 1 12 Late fall, winter, and early spring. Field peas (unthrashed).........-- MaElyiSprin Osa a- =. eee oe ee eee Do. Bundle or headed barley.....-.-.. Fall or early spring...............- Do. Alfalfa hay.—Alfalfa hay is probably the most satisfactory winter roughage that may be provided for hogs in the subhumid wheat dis- tricts. If intended for hogs, it is cut green a little before the appear- ance of the first blossoms. It is also best to take it from a portion of the field where the stand is thick. The hay will then be fine, palatable — and rich in protein. t . OC ' ! frat OES Ee we 4 oes END VIEW OF RACK Fia. 8.—Rack for feeding hay to hogs. Alfalfa hay is usually fed in one of two ways, whole or cut. Whole hay is generally fed in racks. Figures 8 and 9 show racks used for feeding hay to hogs. Hay is also fed on the surface of the ground. - By either of these methods there is considerable waste, especially if the hay is coarse. One of the most popular and satisfactory ways of feeding alfalfa hay to hogs is to run it through a hay cutter, chop- ping it into lengths of about one-half inch. The hay is then mixed with chopped or rolled wheat or barley. The mixture is moistened with all of the water that it will absorb, and allowed to stand for 12. hours before it is fed. Some soak the hay and add the grain just before feeding. During very cold weather the hay may be wet with hot water and fed immediately. Where it is not necessary to hasten the growth of the hogs alfalfa hay may form one-half of the ration by weight. Where a rapid gain is desired a ration consisting of one- fourth alfalfa hay and three-fourths grain is more satisfactory. - Root crops.—The sugar beet, the white French sugar beet, man- gels, carrots, and rutabagas are all used for fall and winter hog feed. 22 BULLETIN 68, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The success of root crops largely depends upon the preparation of the seed bed. In growing sugar beets in the vicinity of Waverly, Wash., the following has been found a very satisfactory way of preparing land for this crop. Stubble land is disked or plowed shallow in the autumn. As soon as in condition to work in the early spring it is plowed 7 or 8 inches deep and then harrowed, planked, and rolled again and again until a firm, mellow seed bed is formed. The time of planting depends on the season. In localities whose altitude is from 2,000 to 2,500 feet, root crops are usually planted the last of April or early in May. For winter use roots are stored either in cellars or pits. Roots are generally fed in connection with a grain ration. The hogs usually receive all of the roots that they will clean up and once grain to make them thrive and grow as desired. Fic. 9.—An easily and cheaply constructed rack for feeding hay to hogs. The sides consist of ordinary hog-fencing wire stapled on a frame. Ariichokes.—On rich, mellow land that retains moisture well arti- chokes usually yield better than potatoes. But on land that dries out quickly the yield is not very satisfactory. The methods given on page 16 of this bulletin for growing artichokes will apply in the main for this district also. The hogs are turned in late in the fall, about the time that alfalfa or clover pasture is failing. Some allow the hogs to work on the tubers at will from the last of October until May 1. Others prefer to use artichokes only in the late fall and early spring, the hogs being removed from the field during the winter, when the ground is so wet that their rooting will puddle the soil. The hogs are returned to the field as soon as the ground has settled in the early spring. Used in this way artichokes fill in two periods, the late fall and early spring, when oreen feed is scarce. As with the root crops, hogs must also receive a grain ration of some kind when feeding upon artichokes if PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. ey rapid gains are desired. When the ground is frozen hard other feed must be provided. Unthrashed wheat.—Many hog raisers use headed or bundle wheat to carry dry brood sows and young shotes through the winter. When feeding upon the unthrashed grain the hogs get considerable rough- age in chewing the heads. They are also compelled to eat more slowly and to masticate their food better than when feeding upon thrashed grain. When the grain is fed in the straw the thrashing bill is saved and the hogs are kept busy during much of the time. Unthrashed wheat and artichokes or roots of some kind make a good combination for wintering hogs. Field peas —In some localities field peas are stacked and the unthrashed vines fed to hogs during the late fall, winter, and early spring. Mature pea grain is a concentrated feed, very rich in pro- tein. For this reason hogs should receive other feed in addition to the peas to dilute the ration. Any of the root crops, artichokes, or potatoes are excellent for this purpose. Unthrashed barley.—In using unthrashed bearded barley for winter feed for hogs, a large quantity is thrown into the feed lot at a time in order that the beards and kernels may become wet and soften. If fed dry, the kernels are too hard to be eaten readily. ARID AND SEMIARID DISTRICTS. The arid and semiarid districts may arbitrarily be designated as that portion of the wheat belt whose normal precipitation is insuffi- cient to grow alfalfa successfully. In much of this region, however, alfalfa can be grown profitably for hog pasture by keeping the stand very thin and cultivating it thoroughly in the late fall and early spring. If sown rather thinly in rows about 24 to 36 inches apart and cultivated occasionally during the sprmg and summer, alfalfa will make profitable hog pasture over a very wide territory now consid- ered too dry for that crop. The crops mentioned in Table VII will provide pasture during much of the year in the dry region. PASTURE CROPS. TasLeE VII.—Pasture crops for the arid and semiarid districts. Ze ‘ Number p of hogs Crops. When planted. . - Approximate date when used. | an acre P will pasture Wainterswheats..--4- "2.5. --- Octobontes: 2 pee. ae Agereitl tio) Witay ses soe pose 6 to 10 Beardless barley............-- February or March........-...- May Ato Sune 155252. 2222s. 5 to 10 Sphing wheat. oe. sn2 sa IMINO se eae, Joe aa Ss aaee|| len? ody asepeecasesnce 5 to 10 eine: wheat for) beardiless! | May.215_ 2. 552:3f220.. eee June 15 to August 1-25..._...-. 5 to 8 barle Field cont and Early Amber | April 10 to May 10.....---::--- July until autumn frosts....-. 4to7 sorghum Siubpleneldsesss sieu heaters ilnsu= ah sss py Nee dats | ae teas ATI SUStE2 DIORA DEI SLs eer ee sn Slee ee eee 24 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat.—Wheat is used for hog pasture as follows: (1) As soon as the surface of the ground is dry in the spring, about April 1, the hogs are turned into the main crop of winter wheat that is grown for market. Some prefer to use the winter wheat until it begins to joint; that is, for about a month or six weeks. Others use it until the hogs begin to chew the heads of wheat, and still others. harvest with the hogs in the field. (2) Spring wheat sown the last of February or early in March is generally large enough for pasture, 3 to 4 inches high, by May 1. By pasturing it rather closely it will stay green until about July 1. (3) Summer pasture is provided by sowing either spring or winter wheat about May 1. Land that is sown at this date is plowed during the late fall, in the winter, or very early in the spring. To destroy weeds and retain moisture it is kept thoroughly cultivated from early spring until the wheat is sown. The pasture is ready for use in about six weeks from date of planting. If grazed closely, it should remain green until in August. Barley—The common beardless barley is also sown in the early spring and early in May for sprmg and summer pasture. Barley comes more quickly and makes more feed than wheat. The hogs also like it better than wheat up to the time it has headed ott. Corn and sorghum.—Field corn and several varieties of sorghum are grown in a limited way in the dry portion of the wheat belt for hog pasture. The principal varieties of sorghum are kafir, Jerusalem corn, milo, and Amber sorghum. Just which of these is most satis- factory when grown as a grazing crop or to cut and feed green has not been fully determined. On account of the succulency and high sugar content of its stems as well as its habit of suckering after bemg cut or eaten down, Amber sorghum is probably the best of the varieties named above. The variety grown is locally known as Early Amber sorghum. Field observations seem to indicate that Amber sorghum is best adapted to the extremely dry districts where the altitude is rather low, and corn to the higher districts. These crops need to be further tested in limited areas to determine which are most profitable. Corn and sorghum are grown in much the same way. To be suc- cessful, the preparation of the seed bed must receive special atten- tion. Perhaps the most satisfactory way to prepare the land for these crops is to plow during the late fall or winter and then cultivate thoroughly from early spring until planting time. Sorghum is planted a trifle later than corn, in rows 3 to 34 feet apart with a grain drill. The seed is dropped 10 to 15 inches apart in the row. To firm the soil and cause the seed to germinate quickly, a corrugated roller or subsurface packer is run just behind the drill. The cultiva- tion is the same as that of corn. The crop is either cut and fed green or the hogs are turned into the field when the sorghum or corn is 14 to 18 inches high. The former method gives by far the most feed. Corn and sorghum are generally used in a 2-year rotation with wheat or barley, the land being in sorghum or corn for summer green feed one year and in barley or wheat to pasture or hog off the next. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. 25 Gleaning stubble fields —If the farm is fenced hog tight, the hogs have the run of the stubble field from the time the grain is harvested until the land is plowed the following spring. The volunteer grain makes the earliest green feed in the spring. GRAIN CROPS TO HOG OFF. Taste VIII.—Crops to hog off in the arid and semiarid districts. Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.! Beardless barley.........--------- Barby SOWIE. Se po kk sosasoeosoees June 20 until autumn rains begin. Winter wheat............-.-.-.--- @cteberse. 2-245 season ss July 1 to opening of stubble field or : until autumn rains begin Sprinewwheat..-- 2... 2ccce- 2 cee Early spring, February and | July 15to opening of stubble field or March. until autumn rains begin. NGC OGRE soon cu ae eae ae aay eee CO Sn ee OR cic e ae July 20 until autumn rains begin. ’ Blue barley or the common beard- |..... GOS 5 ee a Soe From beginning of autumn rains to less barley. late winter—October 15 to Feb- ruary 10. 1 The altitude of the arid and semiarid districts varies from 1,000 to 3,000 feet. For this reason the dates at which the crops in the above table mature will vary considerably. The dates given for the use of these crops, therefore, are only approximations. Whether or not wheat and peas shall be used from the time they are available in the early summer until the autumn rains have softened the barley sufficiently to be hogged down will depend upon the number of hogs kept on the farm. Where only enough hogs are kept to glean the stubble field, peas and wheat are used only until the grain is thrashed and the stubble field is open. Where more than enough hogs are kept to clean up the stubble field, wheat and peas can be profitably hogged off until the barley is in condition to use. Somewhat limited observations indicate that field peas in the dry parts of the wheat belt seldom have nodules on their roots. The yield also is usually light. The lack of nodules, the light yields, and the high price of seed make the production of peas questionable. It is probable that they may be grown profitably in rows as a culti- vated crop. Atthe experimental farm at Moro, Oreg., peas are planted in double rows 7 inches apart with 35-inch spaces between the double rows. ‘The peas are planted in this way with a grain drill by stop- ping up a part. of the feed cups. The peas support each other and stand up better when planted in this way. They are cultivated with a spike-tooth harrow until about 4 or 5 inches high. They then receive shallow cultivation between the rows until the vines lop over. WINTER FEEDS. The feeds that may be used economically to carry hogs through the winter are standing barley and headed wheat. Field peas may also be stacked and fed without thrashing. CROPS FOR THE IRRIGATED VALLEYS. Much of the irrigated land along the Columbia River, on the one extreme, is less than 400 feet above the level of the sea. Some of the irrigated mountain valleys, on the other hand, have an elevation of 26 BULLETIN 68, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 3,500 to 4,000 feet. At the low altitudes pasture is available much earlier in the spring and later in the autumn than at the higher altitudes. In the mountain valleys all of the grain fed is raised, while in the lower districts most of the grain consumed is purchased from the near-by wheat farms. In the lower districts corn is successfully grown. In the higher valleys corn has not proved a success. PASTURE CROPS. TaBLE [X.—Pasture crops in the irrigated valleys. Number Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used. or nees a carry. Rediclovertenr. asc by Avett be | ereviOuShyearen. -seeeoee cee see March 25 to November 10... .. 10 to 20 BOTS Seer i ERO Se Bi er | Early spring with wheat, oats, | After grain is harvested to 10 to 20 or barley. November 10. AN Fal fa cae fscic aa seaeeeeceeee IPTeVIOUS Veale es e-seeeneeee eee April 1 to to November 1....-. - 10 to 20 Alfalfa is most generally used for hog pasture under irigation. There are many who prefer clover, however, especially in the moun- tain valleys, because it starts growth earlier in spring and is less in- jured by fall frost than alfalfa. The two crops are sometimes grown together. It is claimed that a mixture of the two will carry nearly one-third more hogs per acre than either grown alone. In the mountain: valleys where the cereals are important crops, clover fits into the rotations better than alfalfa. In the Powder River Valley, Oreg., red clover is grown in a 2-year rotation with wheat, oats, or barley. The clover is sown in the early spring and after the grain is harvested makes excellent pasture until winter. The following June a crop of hay is cut. About the middle of July, when the second crop is about 10 inches high, the clover is plowed under and the ground worked down immediately. The following spring the land is again sown. to clover and wheat, oats, or barley. Where there is plenty of water for irrigation throughout the season, the clover sod is not plowed under until during the autumn. WINTER FEEDS. TABLE X.— Winter feeds in the irrigated valleys. Crops. When planted. When used. AGMA AW. cata aacleee uence A previous year...........-..--- November 1 to April 15. Root crops !is) sto. 324) April and! Maye 28.2 eee Bundle or headed wheat .--| Fall or spring...... HWicld peda: sig. esse ee Wanly springemesse tess seme 0. ATUCNOKES 2 oie soci ge aoe See April (same as potatoes). .......] November 1 to April 15. 1 Artichokes are best adapted to the lower irrigated districts, where the winters are open enough to permit the hogs to work on the tubers. They are used from the time that alfalfa pasture fails in the autumn until it is available again in the spring. Even in the lower valleys there are times during the winter when the ground is frozen too hard for the hogs to root out the tubers. Alfalfa hay, roots, or other feed must then take the place of the artichokes. A discussion of the use of these crops will be found under “‘ Winter feeds,” pages 21 to 23. PASTURE AND GRAIN CROPS FOR HOGS. TK CROPS TO HOG OFF. TasLE X1.—Crops to hog off in the irrigated valleys. Crops. When planted. Approximate dates when used.1 Beardless barley..........-------- ene Sioemavy, Iori ose coasscaeoe August 1 to November 15. Wlulbawihleaitias cee 2-22 cee ee 5 September or October. .......----- August 5 to September 15. INTICHOERS ese caso Ree eee aEeee Early spring, April...............- August 20 to November 15. Clulbnwianeaitins aecmc inn. c oe ccc eece | cen CORR re ce ese saie cm cee August 20 to October 1. 1 The dates for using the crops in the table above are applicable to localities whose altitudes range from 3,000 to 4,500 feet. At lower altitudes these crops are ready for use much earlier. The hogging off of crops under irrigated*and nonirrigated condi* tions is so similar that the discussion of the use of these crops on pages 5 to 10 and 14 and 15 of this bulletin will be found applicable in the irrigated districts. SUMMARY. During recent years the hog industry in the Pacific Northwest has been inadequate to supply the local demands for pork and pork products. This has caused the average price of pork to be relatively high and has made it necessary to ship a large percentage of the hogs slaughtered and bacon consumed from east of the Rocky Mountains. It is possible to provide pasture for hogs in most of this region throughout much of the year. In most localities it is also possible to provide crops that may be hogged off during several months of the busy season. The crops generally used for this purpose are wheat, field peas, corn, and barley. By supplementing well-managed pas- ture with the proper grain rations and utilizing the ability of the hog to harvest grain crops for himself, the average cost of producing pork may be materially reduced. These conditions offer an opportunity for profitable pork production in the Pacific Northwest on a much larger scale than at present practiced. O ore sak gehen Bet x . / BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OAGRICULTURE * i, No. 69 aN a: H lt ET > G Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief, and the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. March 28, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. By C. Dwicht Marsa and A. B. CLawson, Physiologists, Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investigations, -Bureau of Plant Industry, and HapLEIcH Marsz, Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. INTRODUCTION. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. Among poisonous plants the genus Cicuta is of especial interest, as it is probably the most violently toxic of all the plants growing in temperate regions. Since the middle of the sixteenth century the genus has been definitely known, and the symptoms produced by it have been accurately described many times. Before that time, if recognized at all, it was not distinguished from Conium. The term Cicuta occurs frequently in Latin literature, but without any doubt was used as the equivalent of the Greek Kwvecov. Whether the hem- lock used by the Greeks and Romans for the punishment of criminals and for suicidal purposes was an extract from a single plant or a com- pound extract of several plants, as thought by some, may never be known, but in any case it is evident that plants of the genus Cicuta as recognized to-day were not used. The symptoms produced by the hemlock are described in detail by Plato in connection with the death of Socrates and are very different from those produced by Cicuta. There seems to be little doubt that Conium was the principal constituent of the hemlock and perhaps the only substance used. Albert Regel, 1876-77, has gone into great detail in discussing the history of the “hemlock” and ‘‘water hemlock,” with copious quo- tations from ancient authors. Inasmuch as Cicuta is not found in any abundance in Greece and Italy, it may, perhaps, fairly be ques- tioned whether the Greeks and Romans had any knowledge of the 1 For complete titles of works cited in this bulletin, see list on pages 24 to 27. Note.—This bulletin describes water hemlock and its toxic effect upon animal life when taken into the system; it points out the distinction between it and other umbelliferous plants, particularly conium, with which it is most likely to be confounded. As the toxic principle is largely confined to the rootstock, the tops and seeds if they become mixed with hay are not a source of danger. The subject is of general interest, as cicuta is found in nearly all parts of the United States. 24138°—Bull. 69—14——_1 2 BULLETIN 69, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plant. To Konrad Gesner is generally given the credit of first clearly distinguishing Cicuta from Conium. In 1541, in his Historia Plan- tarum, he speaks of it as Sium, but later he calls it Cicuta aquatica. In his edition of Dioscorides, 1543, he says “‘ Recentiores faciunt duo genera, aquaticae frigentis naturae, terrestris calide: verum quonam nullum idoneum praeferunt autorem, vereor ne, ut feresolent, hallucinentur.”” By the first he probably means Cicuta, and by the second, Conium. In 1561, in “Horti Germaniae,” f. 253, he says “ Cicuta aquatica, herba venenosa, Bartzenkraut Saxonibus, G. Circa . paludes & in paludum marginibus sponte oritur, ut ad lacum Felium > agri Tigurini plantare si quis velit, in aqua aut loco palustri pangatur oportet.” . In 1679 was published ‘“‘Cicutae Aquaticae Historia et Noxae,’’ by J. J. Wepfer. This book of 336 pages is a rather elaborate work, based on a case of poisoning in which two boys and six girls were involved. In the first nine chapters, comprising about one-half the book, the plant is described and a detailed account of the cases of poisoning given; there is a discussion of the symptoms, of the physiology and pharmacology of the cases, and details of the autop- sies are given. In the tenth chapter is an account of some experi- mental work. In the chapters from the eleventh to the twenty-first, inclusive, other poisons are taken up and discussed. The twenty- second chapter is concerned with the uses of Cicuta, and the twenty- third and last with remedial measures in cases of poisoning. While written in a diffuse style, with much extraneous matter and con- taining many errors, it is on the whole a very remarkable work. When treating of facts Wepfer’s statements are clear-cut and accu- rate. His description of the symptoms of the poisoned children is not only one of the best accounts of the symptoms of Cicuta poisoning ever written, but is handled in a graphic style that could hardly be excelled. (See pp. 17-18.) In 1687 Wepfer published a short paper giving details in regard to four cases of poisoning, one of them being fatal. While Gesner was the first to distinguish what is now known as Cicuta in his Cicuta aquatica, Wepfer was the first to set forth clearly the peculiar poison- ous properties of Cicuta. Wepfer attempts to give the synonomy of preceding authors; for example, he gives— Oenanthe cicutae facie succo viroso crocante Lobel, 1570, p. 326. Cicutaria palustris tenuifolia Bauhin, 1623. Lib. IV, Sec. V, p. 161. Cicuta aquatica Gesneri Bauhin, 1651. Lib. X XVII, p. 175. In regard to these and other identifications, it may be said that the plant descriptions of that time were not complete enough to make identification certain from morphological characters. The habits of these two genera, Conium and Cicuta, however, sometimes show pretty clearly which is meant. Conium grows in fairly dry ground CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 3) in the neighborhood of towns, while Cicuta grows in wet places. So when Ray speaks of Cicutaria palustris, 1704, Lib. VIII, p. 257, we can be reasonably certain that he means Cicuta. If the symptoms of poisoning are given, as in Wepfer’s work, the identity of the plant is without question. During the seventeenth century Cicuta was mentioned by other authors, but little was written of it as a poisonous plant. In 1723 Helds, Weinmann, and Goritz deseribed a case of three students near Regensburg who ate the root of Cicuta wrosa with resulting illness and two fatalities. There are three independent accounts, one by each of the writers mentioned, and the symptoms and autopsy findings are described in some detail. Weinmann tells of the death of seven persons. near Nuremberg. Goritz grew the plant and gives a description of it. The next account of importance was by Schwencke in 1756. The original paper was in Dutch, but a German translation by Miller was published in 1776. After a description of the plant he gives the details of the poisoning of four children near the village of Overschie. They were left to themselves in their home, and the mother on her return found them scattered about the floor “strug- gling with death.” Three of the four died. Autopsies weremade on two, and Schwencke gives the details of the autopsies and discusses the symptoms fully. Up to the nineteenth century there were many other references to Cicuta, some of which gave some little information in regard to its poisonous properties, but the foregoing account includes the more important papers. All of these accounts were concerned with the European species, Cicuta virosa. During the nineteenth century a large number of cases of poisoning by Cicuta virosa were reported, the greater number being in Ger- many. ‘These reports bear a close resemblance to each other. Most of the cases were of children, and the descriptions of symptoms differ but little, except that in some cases greater detail is given. Much of this literature will be referred to in the further discussion of the subject. Apparently the first mention of Cicuta as a poisonous plant in America was by Schwencke, who speaks of it as the Virginian ‘‘ Wasser Schierling.”” Schoepf, in his Materia Medica Americana, 1787, makes the following statement: ‘‘Ob affinitatem genericam cum Cicuta virosa partim, suspecta esse deberet; id quod testimonium Schwenku, de Cicuta aquatica, p. 28, confirmat, qui hance plantam Cephalalgiam et vertiginem causare dicit.”’ In this connection it should perhaps be noted that the so-called Cicuta venenosa described in connection with a case of poisoning by Greenway, 1793, was not Cicuta. In the Kew index this name is 4 BULLETIN 69, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. given as a synonym of Angelica hirsuta, A. villosa. The symptoms described do not at all correspond to those produced by Cicuta. Stockbridge, 1814, tells of the poisoning of three boys, with one fatality, giving details of the symptoms and treatment. He tells also of another case of a boy 6 or 7 years old who died after violent convulsive fits “and the most awful and exquisite sufferings I ever witnessed.” Ely and Muhlenberg, 1815, tell of a similar case of three boys, two of whom died. Bigelow, 1817, describes the plant, giving a general statement in regard to its poisonous properties, and refers to the cases mentioned by Stockbridge and Ely. Hazeltine, 1818, tells of the “fatal effects of a poisonous root.” He did not identify the plant, but his account of the symptoms makes it certain that it was Cicuta maculata. | During the nineteenth century a considerable literature in regard to poisoning by Cicuta in North America grew up, a large part of it relating to losses of live stock, although there have been very many — recorded cases of the poisoning of human beings, and it is known that many cases, perhaps the larger number, have not been published. Most of these accounts are more or less fragmentary in character, and it is not considered necessary to give a synopsis of them. ' THE GENUS CICUTA. The following description of the genus Cicuta is compiled from the last edition of Gray’s Manual: * A perennial umbellifer growing from a rootstock, with pinnately compound leaves and serrate leaflets. Involucre usually none, involucels of several slender bractlets, flowers white. Fruit ovoid to nearly orbicular, glabrous, with strong, flattish, corky ribs, the lateral largest; oil tubes conspicuous, solitary; stylopodium depressed; seed nearly terete. The genus is distributed in the northern contiments. A large number of species have been described, most of which are so closely related to each other that im many cases the validity of the species has been questioned. The common species of the eastern United States is maculata, which has been, by some, considered as not specifically distinct from the European wirosa. Probably all species are equally poisonous, and in popular parlance no distinction of species is made. DISTINCTION BETWEEN CICUTA AND CONIUM. From the standpoint of a poisonous plant Cicuta is more likely to be confounded with Conium than with any other umbelliferous plant. 1 Seventh edition, p. 614. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 5 For comparison with the diagnosis of Cicuta there follows a diag- nosis of Conium compiled from Gray’s Manual: A biennial umbellifer with spotted stems, large decompound leaves with lanceolate pinnatifid leaflets. Involucre and involucels of narrow bracts, flowers white. Fruit ovate, flattened at the sides, glabrous, with prominent wavy ribs; oil tubes none, but a layer of secreting cells next the seed, the face of which is deeply and narrowly concave. Leaves and flowers of water hemlock (Cicuta vagans) are shown in Plate I, while a young plant of the same species is illustrated in Plate II. For comparison, a branch of Coniwm maculatum is shown in Plate III. It will be seen that Cicuta and Conium are clearly distinguished morphologically by the leaves and fruit and by the presence of an involucre in Conium and its absence in Cicuta. These character- istics, however, are hardly sufficient to enable one unskilled in botany to make the distinction readily. A peculiarity of the rootstock which is not mentioned by the sys- tematic botanists makes it comparatively easy to distinguish Cicuta from any other umbellifer that is likely to be found in the same locality. If the rootstock is cut longitudinally there will be seen, more or less clearly, a number of transverse chambers, as shown in Plate IT. These chambers are not as distinct in the spring as later in the sea- son, but they can always be recognized. This peculiarity of the root was noted in Flora Danica in 1765, a figure showing the cham- bers. They were mentioned by Trumel, 1838, and Maly, 1844, and have been figured by a number of more recent authors. It should be noted, too, that while Conium grows in fields and waste places, Cicuta grows in wet places, like swamps’ and along irrigating ditches, the old specific name aquatica being a particularly appropriate one. POPULAR NAMES. Among English-speaking people the Cicuta is most commonly known as ‘‘water hemlock” or ‘‘cowbane.”’ Other names are “parsnip” (or ‘‘wild parsnip’), ‘‘snakeroot,” ‘‘spotted hemlock,” ‘‘spotted parsley,’ ‘‘snakeweed,’” ‘‘beaver poison,’ ‘‘musquash root,” and ‘‘muskrat weed.” In New Mexico it has been known as ‘‘pecos.’’ According to Muhlenberg, an Indian name was ‘‘utcum.”’ Among the Germans it is known as ‘‘Wasserschierling,’”’ some- times as ‘‘eiftiger Schierling.”” ‘‘Schierling” seems to be more commonly applied to Conium, although apparently this distinction between ‘‘Wasserschierling”’ and ‘‘Schierling” is not always made. It is also known as ‘‘Wiiterich,” ‘‘giftiger Witerich,” ‘‘Parzen- kraut,” ‘‘Tollkraut,” and ‘‘Tollrube.”’ 1 Seventh edition, p. 613. 6 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. By the French it is known as ‘‘Cigué vireuse,”’ ‘‘Cigué tachetée” being applied to Conium. SPECIES OF CICUTA REPORTED AS POISONOUS. The following species of Cicuta have been reported as poisonous: C. maculata, bulbvfera, vagans, bolanderi, occidentalis, californica, curtisii, douglas, purpurea, tenuifolia, and virosa. In some cases this belief is supported by strong experimental evidence. This evidence is especially strong in regard to maculata, vagans, occidentalis, califor- nica, and virosa. There is every reason to believe that all species of Cicuta are poisonous, and possibly all equally so. LOCALITIES WHERE CICUTA POISONING HAS OCCURRED. The number of reported cases of poisoning by Cicuta in Europe is very large, by far the greater number having occurred in Germany. Fic. 1.—Map of the United States, showing the distribution of recorded cases of poisoning by Cicuta. Dots indicate the locations of poisoning of human beings, while crosses show the locations of cattle poisoning. In figure 1 the recorded cases of poisoning in the United States have been plotted, dots indicating the places where members of the human family have been poisoned, while crosses show the localities of cattle poisoning. This chart has been compiled from publications and from definite records in the Office of Poisonous Plants of the United States Department of Agriculture. The first published ac- count was by Stockbridge, 1814. Figure 1 by no means represents the entire number of cases. The compilation of this chart brought out in a surprising manner how imperfectly such cases have been put on _ CICUTA, OR WATER iP NILOOK. 74 record. For example, there seems to be no definite record of poison- ing in Montana. Yet in the year 1900 alone, according to Chesnut and Wilcox, there were five cases of poisoning of human beings in the State, resulting in four fatalities, and a loss of 30 head of cattle and 80 sheep. These could not be plotted, as no definite localities were given. The writers of this bulletin have been informed of many losses of cattle in Colorado, but no accounts were sufficiently definite to admit of plotting. In regard to sheep, we have a definite local record of only one case of poisoning, at Klamath Falls, Oreg. Yet the yearly losses are heavy. Figure 1, then, must not be considered as giving more than a very incomplete record. The greater number of cases recorded in the East as compared with the West is partly due to the greater density of population and partly to the special interest taken in the subject in some localities. The number of locations in Wisconsin is largely due to the interest which Prof. Power took in verifying reported cases in that State. LOSSES OF LIVE STOCK FROM CICUTA POISONING IN THE UNITED STATES. There are no data from which we can make a reliable estimate of the stock losses from Cicuta poisoning. One man in Oregon, pre- sumably estimating the loss in his immediate neighborhood, makes it 10 per cent. Slade, 1903, estimates a loss of a hundred head of cattle a year in Oregon. Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, say that in 1900 in Montana 30 head of cattle and 80 head of sheep were lost. Probably the losses in the aggregate are very small. Individual owners of stock have occasion- ally lost rather heavily, but the total loss does not compare at all with the deaths from other poisonous plants, such plants, for exam- ple, as the locos and larkspurs. , USES OF CICUTA. Most plant substances with positive, evident characteristics have been assumed to have properties useful in medicine. As would be supposed, Cicuta, with its violent toxic character, has attracted attention and has been used for a great variety of diseases. Wepfer, 1679, Chapter XXII, discusses its uses in some detail, but most, if not all, that he says refers to Conium rather than Cicuta. Gadd, 1774, says that the Finns drive crickets from their homes with Cicuta. It may be questioned, however, whether this is any- thing more than a story that he had heard. In later times Cicuta has been used in medicine to a limited extent. Rafinesque, 1828, p. 110, says: A few grains have been given in schirrose and scrofulous tumors and ulcers, with equal advantage, but a larger dose produces nausea and vomiting; the doses should be very small, often repeated, and gradually increased. It has been used as a gargle for sore throat, but safer substances ought to be preferred. 8 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Siberia the crushed nut is used for syphilitic symptoms, and in Norway for gout, while the seeds have been used as a diuretic. In the nineteenth edition of Wood and Bache’s Dispensatory of the United States, p. 1449, are the following statements: ‘“‘At present the plant. (Cicuta virosa) is never used internally, and rarely ex- ternally as an anodyne poultice in local pains.” “Oieuta (maculata) has been highly lauded as a specific in nervous and sick headache, but is rarely, if ever, used.’’ (Stearns, 1858, p. 253.) | Dragendorff, 1898, p. 487, states that in Oregon Cicuta is used as al arrow poison. Cicuta has sometimes been used for committing suicide, although it is probable that the statement which is made by some writers to the effect that it was kept by the people of Marseilles for this pur- _pose is inaccurate, as it is more likely that Conium was used. Rafinesque, 1828, page 110, says ‘The Indians when tired of life are said to poison themselves with the roots of this plant.” Caillard, 1829, tells of a laborer who purchased and ate the root for suicidal purposes, but recovered after being given an emetic. Trojanowsky, 1874, relates how a laborer, after a drunken spree. and a domestic quarrel, left home and was the next day found dead, the cause of death being-Cicuta. The evidence was considered sufficient to prove that he ate the root of Cicuta virosa with the deliberate purpose of committing suicide. Trojanowsky refers aiso to another case, the ‘“ Kobeilla’sche Proc- ess,’ but it has been impossible to verify this, as the reference in Trojanowsky’s paper is evidently wrong. Piibram, 1900, tells of an interesting case. A woman having suffered considerable domestic infelicity, on her way to arrange for a divorce called on a fortune teller to find out whether she would succeed in the separation. The fortune teller told her that the sepa- - ration was unnecessary, as her husband would not live more than one year and advised her to measure the shadow of her husband with a stick, throw the stick upon a stream, saying ‘“‘I lay down not this stick but thy life, and as the stick becomes broken in its passage, so shall thy life be cut off.” Upon the woman replying that she did not wish her husband to die, the fortune teller went to a swamp and gathered three roots, calling them “neapte de boalta,’”’ and told her to make a mash of two of these roots, two potatoes, some corn meal, sheep cheese, and onions, and bake a cake of it for her husband to eat. After eating this root, her husband would go about for three months in a stunned condition and would not abuse her or compel her to live with him. If her husband after eating the cake should become ill, the fortune teller would give her tea, so that he should nct die. 1 Brandt, Phoebus, and Ratzeburg, 1838, p. 111. Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Hd. Penipe CICUTA VAGANS, SHOWING LEAVES AND FLOWERS. PLATE Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. A YOUNG PLANT OF CICUTA VAGANS, SHOWING THE FORM OF THE ROOTSTOCK. Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. CONIUM MACULATUM, SHOWING LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND FRUITS. PLATE III. Bul. 69, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Case No. 119 (CALF) AT 10.27, 10.29, 10.37, AND 10.40 A. M. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 9 The woman followed these directions, using one root instead of two. An hour later her husband complained of pain and was nause- ated, afterwards falling senseless. Apparently he did not entirely lose consciousness, for he was helped into the home and sat down, but soon fell unconscious and shortly afterwards died, his death occurring about two hours after eating the cake. It was shown by examination that the root furnished by the fortune teller was that of Cicuta virosa. THE POISONOUS PRINCIPLE OF CICUTA. When the rootstock of Cicuta is cut open, drops of an aromatic oil are noted, which give the root its peculiar odor, and this oil is popu- larly thought to be the poisonous substance. The poisonous principle, however, is not in the oil but in a resin, and has been separated under the name of cicutoxin and especially studied by Boehm, 1875-76, Wikzemski, 1875, and Pohl, 1894. It has properties similar to picrotoxin and with these two are commonly grouped coriamyrtin, cenanthotoxin, and santonin. Kunkel, 1901, p. 934, describes this poisonous principle as a clear brown, sticky resin with an acid reaction, which does not harden when dried. It is soluble in ether, alcohol, chloroform, and dilute alkalis, and is precipitated from alkaline solutions by acids. It is slightly soluble in cold water and more readily in hot water. Wikzemski, 1875, gives in detail the results of subcutaneous injec- tions of the poison in frogs. His conclusions are as follows: (1) The poisonous principle of Cicuta virosa produces in frogs clonic-tonic convul- sions of the whole body and in doses of 4 to 6 milligrams of the ether extract kills with paralysis. (2) The effect of the poison limits itself to the central nervous system. The activity of the heart and organs of respiration is influenced in a secondary way. (3) The principal effect of the Cicuta poison is upon the ‘‘convulsion center” at the end of the medulla oblongata. The upper part of the brain is not affected, while the terminal paralysis of the spinal cord apparently results from the complete exhaus- tion following the convulsions. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. EXPERIMENTS IN COLORADO. Crcuta occidentalis grew in considerable abundance along the ditches in the irrigated land of Ohio Creek Valley, Colo., at the head of which the Mount Carbon Station was located. The ranchers recognize it as a poisonous plant and some of them make a business of cutting it out. It is never, however, entirely destroyed, and sometimes large quanti- ties of it are cut with the hay. 24138°—Bull. 69—14——2 ‘ 10 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The experimental work had three objects in view: (1) To determine whether the plant was poisonous in summer and early fall. (2) To settle definitely the question of the danger to live stock from eating hay containing Cicuta. (3) To obtain material for verifying and amplifying the description of symptoms | and the effects of Cicuta poisoning. This work was carried on in the summers of 1910 and 1911. FEEDING CICUTA TO SHEEP IN 1910. In Table I is given a summarized account of the sheep-feeding experiments of 1910. The details of the cases follow. An attempt was made to feed two other sheep, but neither could be induced to eat the material. TasLe I.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1910. (Sheep.) Animal. Weight. | Amount fed. Period of feeding. Part of plant fed. Pounds. Pounds. ; INO. J08SS5 S255. 2 100 DIsbe| Aue et4aTtoi23 sees ese pene Regt stems, leaves, and seeds. IN OSs G4 Se 25. Shee 91 41 Aug. 26 to Sept. 9........- Roots. Noy ii2bn ae See eee 100 91 Aug. 26 to Sept. 11........ Stems, leaves and seed. No.AQ2E See ees 93 2.5) SSD tel piLOLO Seeneeee meer Roots. No sige eters. c= 96 | (Very little.) | Sept. 15 to 21.............. Do. aS Cope IG a ee 48 | (Very little.) | Sept. 17 to 21.............. Do. . * Amount Location Period of sickness : Hatin of fed to 100 | from which Animal. (until able to Remedy used. Result. 1s Tena pounds of | plant fed stand). ofanimal, | Weight of was animal. obtained. ; Pounds. NO. AG8e setae Short attack; 35 | Potassium per- | Recovery. A Taea bl?) $1.5 | Sellinger. minutes. manganate. About 1 minute. .- No: 3045555522 i to 2 minutes... -- None 7 tase ee leas doles. 1259 45 Allison. 23 minutes........ ING sl 25 teeter sc es ae ee eee | eae GOs See eee Not sick 19 ly i 91 Do. ING L022 ees Se Cast Bee eae en ee dove: A jeeeee Death....- 1:37.2 PAW Do. No. dO en eee ek coke See Ges Seer Not 'sick:: 5)... 3: S52 ese pacer ee Do ING: ieee | ee eee ees | eee Goes st -skomeeoe lee G0... ois, -| eee 4 Gee eee eens Do -Case No. 108. Case No. 108, a wether weighing 100 pounds, was taken out of the pasture on the night of August 12 for feeding with Cicuta. The feeding was commenced at 11.30 a. m. on August 14, when he was given ground tubers of Cicuta occidentalis. During the day he ate very little except what he got accidentally in picking out oats that had been thrown upon the ground material. On the morning of August 15 he was given an additional quantity of Cicuta roots, this being mixed with hay with the feed that had remained from the preceding day. Apparently very little of this was eaten except what was obtained accidentally in connection with taking the hay, but by the night of August 16 he had eaten a considerable amount of roots. On August 17 he was fed stems and tops of Cicuta, the plant being in seed. This was entirely eaten up with what remained of the Cicuta roots by the night of August 17. On the morning of August 18 more of the ground roots was fed with cut hay and it was all eaten. Because of lack of material he was not fed on August 19. On August 20 and 21 he CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 11 was fed stems, leaves, and seeds. Up to this time no effects had been noticed from the feeding. On the morning of August 22 he was again given ground Cicuta roots in cut hay, receiving at this time 2 pounds. At 12.30 noon, the animal was found down and apparently unable to get up when disturbed, but when raised to his feet was able to stand. He frothed a little at the mouth. About 15 minutes later he appeared to be all right and ran about the corral actively. No further symptoms were noticed on this day. On the morning of August 23, at 8.30a.m., this sheep was given 5 pounds of ground Cicuta roots in cut hay. At 6.30 p. m. he was found lying down on his side with legs extended and with head raised and turned to one side. His eyes were turned down, showing the white above the iris. His breathing was rapid and noisy, groans accom- panying the expirations. When raised on his legs he stood for a minute with hind legs braced apart and stretched out behind, then trembled violently and fell, acting as if he were choking. Potassium permanganate and aluminium sulphate were admin- istered in a drench, although it was difficult to make him swallow. He kept his mouth closed tight and ground his teeth together. At 6.45 his pulse was 176. At 7 his respiration was 62, apparently growing slower. At 7.05 he got upon his feet with assistance and stood with his legs braced apart. His pulse was 180, full and strong. At 7.08 his respiration was 46 and the groaning had ceased. At 7.15 the pulse was 168 and respiration 26. At 7.20 his pulse was 168. Some of this time he remained on his feet, gradually growing stronger, and at 8.30 had walked a few steps. ' At that time he was stupid and weak. When he walked he staggered and dragged his hind feet. His pulse was 84, respiration 20. On the morning of August 24, while somewhat weak and uncertain on his feet, he appeared fairly well and was turned into the pasture, showing no further symptoms. His weight at that time was 91 pounds, showing that inthe course of the experiment he had lost 9 pounds. On the last day of the feeding, August 23, of the 5 pounds of Cicuta roots he had eaten about 34 pounds. The impression from the experiment was that the stems, leaves, and seeds had been fed without effect and that the poisoning was directly the result of feeding the roots on August 23. Case No. 104. Case No. 104 was brought in from the pasture for Cicuta feeding on August 24. This wether weighed 91 pounds at 6 p. m. on August 25. Feeding was commenced at 9.50 a. m., August 26, when he was given 24 pounds of ground Cicuta roots mixed with a pound of cut hay. He did not eat readily, but during the day disposed of perhaps two-thirds of the amount fed in the morning. On August 27 part of the feed remaining was removed and more was supplied in cut hay. Feeding was carried on in this manner through August 28, 29, 30,and 31. During the day of August 31 he had eaten all the Cicuta supplied and was given some addi- tional hay. On September 1, the supply of Cicuta being exhausted, he was fed hay. The feeding of the ground roots was resumed on September 2 and continued until the morning of September 8 before any results were noted. At a little after 10 a. m., September 8, the animal was found down, apparently ina fit. He was able to get up, however, without assistance. He frothed at the mouth and was weak in the hind legs, but was able to run about. When down he kicked about convulsively. At 10.20 his pulse.was 80 and fairly strong. At 10.25 he had apparently recovered and showed no further marked symptoms. He had eaten very little of the material fed, and the poisoning apparently resulted from the feeding of the preceding day. 12 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the morning of September 9 the uneaten material was removed and at noon he was given 4 pounds of fresh-ground Cicuta roots with a half pound of cut hay. At 5.55 p. m. he was found down on his left side, kicking convulsively and unable to rise. When raised to his feet, however, he walked to the side of the corral. Res- piration was 28 and rather deep. He was fairly strong and able to run about the corral rather actively, so it was difficult to take his pulse. From the time he was - found down and helped up he showed no marked symptoms except weakness and uncertain movements of his head. He appeared abnormally excitable, starting at the slightest sound or movement, sometimes giving a sudden start without apparent cause. At6.55 p.m. he wasfound down again. He was lying on his belly and unable to rise. His temperature was 102.5°; pulse, 128. At 6.56 he had a convulsion with opisthotonos, followed by violent kicking of the fore and hind legs, rolling over on his side. At 6.58 he managed to rise; his pulse was 132; his head moved about in a spasmodic way, resembling hiccoughs, and suggested spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm. At 7 he was standing with his legs braced apart, unable to walk. His pulse was 172. At 7.06 he fell down again and went into a violent convulsion, more severe than the preceding. His head was drawn up, with his chin against the breast, apparently held by a violent muscular contraction. He then rolled over upon his side with the head thrown back. This was followed by violent movements of his legs and head. Then he lay upon his belly, his legs doubled under him and the hind legs extended. His breathing was labored and the hiccoughing or spasmodic jerking of the sides and head continued. At 7.09 he was still on his belly and unable to rise. His pulse was 180. He was raised to his feet. When his shoulders were raised he fell again, but when his hind quarters were raised he managed to get up, or, in other words, apparently he was especially weak in his hind legs, but was able to use his fore legs. At 7.20 he was able to walk a little when urged. At 8 he-was still on his feet and able to walk about, but weak in his hind legs. His pulse was 140 and rather strong. He passed a large quantity of urine. He occasionally belched gas and ground his teeth. The hiccoughing had practically stopped. From this time on there were no noticeable symptoms, and on the morning of Sep- tember 10 he was turned back with the band in the pasture. He weighed at the time 86 pounds, showing that during the feeding he had lost 5 pounds. All told, he had eaten 45 pounds of roots. It is to be noted, however, that the feeding was continued over quite a long period and that the poisoning may be considered to have resulted from a comparatively small amount eaten within a short time. Case No. 125. Case No. 125 (a wether) was brought in for Cicuta feeding on August24. Thissheep weighed 100 pounds at 6 p. m. on August 25. Feeding was commenced at 10a. m. on August 26, when it was given leaves, stems, and seeds of Cicuta. This feeding was continued during August 26 and 27. Because of lack of material none was fed on August 28 and 29, but the feeding was resumed on August 30. Because of lack of material no more was fed on August 31 and September 1, but the feeding was resumed on September 2 and continued to September 12. The animal ate with fair readiness the fresh young leaves and succulent stems, but objected to the dried material, and it was rather difficult to make it clean up the stems and the seed tops. Up to August 30 fresh plants were fed, the seeds being rather green. From September 2 to 6 the material was dry and was eaten less readily. From Sep- tember 7 to 11 the material was fresher, but the seed tops were past maturity. Itis estimated that in the course of the feeding the animal ate 91 pounds. The plant pro- duced no toxic effect and the sheep was turned out on September 12, apparently in good condition. It weighed at this time 94 pounds, having lost 6 pounds in the course of the experiment, CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 13 It should be noted that the feeding was rather desultory in character and was ex- tended over such a long time that it could not be considered as a conclusive experiment as to the tops, although the impression among the observers was that the tops were not injurious. Cass No. 102. Case No. 102 was brought in for feeding with Cicuta on September 14. At8p.m., September 15, this wether weighed 93 pounds. At2.05p.m.,it was fed 1 pound and 9 ounces of ground Cicuta roots. On the morning of September 16 it was given a little hay, mixed with the Cicuta which remained from the feeding of the preceding day. At 5.50 a. m. it was given 1 pound and 10 ounces of ground Cicuta roots and at 9 p. m. was found dead in the corral. It had eaten, all told, in the two days 2 pounds and 8 ounces, or on the basis of 100 pounds of weight 275 pounds. This sheep was autopsied on the morning of September 17. It was bloated; there was opisthotonos; it had frothed at the mouth and had evidently kicked about in the corral. It was lying on the left side. The surface of the heart was congested. The left ventricle was contracted and the right ventricle dilated. The lungs were strongly congested, and the inner walls of the trachea and the bronchi inflamed. The walls of the lower part of the ileum and cecum were inflamed. The brainand the membranes of the spinal cord were congested. A piece of the kidney was preserved and sectioned. It showed strong congestion. In the medullary portion the walls of the tubules were in good condition, and the blood was confined to the vessels and was not broken down. In the cortical portion the walls of the tubules were degenerated to some extent. The blood was very abundant and was all through the tissue, not being confined to the vessels. In the cortex a large part of the red corpuscles were ‘‘ghosts,’’ the pigment having been broken down and appearing outside the corpuscles in the form of granules. The blood vessels of the tissue of the kidney contained some very large bacteria, probably putrefactive organisms. The conclusion is that this condition of the cortex is due to a combination of an acute nephritis and post-mortem decomposition. A piece of liver was also embedded and sectioned. The liver contained a great deal of blood, most of which was hemolyzed and broken down. The liver cells seemed to be normal. Large numbers of bacteria similar to those found in the kidney were present in the liver. FEEDING CICUTA TO CATTLE IN 1910. Case No. 119. Case No. 119, a heifer weighing 300 pounds, was brought in September 13 for feeding with Cicuta. The animal at that time was in good condition. Feeding was com- menced at 8.30 a. m. on September 14, when she was given three roots, to see whether she would eat the plant. At9.10a.m. she was fed 1 pound and 5 ounces of the whole roots. At 10.20 a. m. she was found on the ground in a fit. The animal got up, but soon went down again in a violent spasm. She kicked, straightening her legs rapidly, extended her head, and frothed at the mouth, emitting an occasional bellow. She staggered about the corral in a dazed way and went down, kicking violently. An attempt was made to give her a drench of magnesium sulphate and tannin, but her struggles were so violent that it was impossible. A series of photographs taken between 10.27 and 11 show the condition and attitudes assumed. (PI. IV.) At 10.35 she was given three grains of morphin hypodermically.. At 10.45 the struggles were somewhat less violent, perhaps because of exhaustion, and at 10.50 she died. An autopsy was made immediately. The skin was very much congested, the teats being violet purple in color. The surface of the heart was congested, the left ventricle contracted, and the right expanded, with slight congestion on the inner wall. The lungs and inner walls of the trachea and bronchi were congested. The walls of the anus were inflamed, the kidneys were congestéd, the brain slightly congested, and the membranes of the spinal cord somewhat congested. The omentum had spots of 14 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inflammation 2 or 3 inches across. The lower part of the small intestine was deeply inflamed. The general condition of the circulatory system would indicate that the animal died from respiratory failure. The section of the kidney prepared for micro- scopic examination showed very great congestion, especially in the cortical portion, where portions of the convoluted tubules appeared somewhat degenerated. The blood vessels and some of the spaces outside the veins were filled with red corpuscles. . Case No. 121. Case No. 121 was a yearling, weighing about 300 pounds. He was brought in for feeding with Cicuta on the evening of September 8. Feeding was commenced at 9.15 a. m. on September 9, when he received 24 pounds of whole roots. At noon it was noticed that he was not eating readily. The material had been mixed with cut hay and he had eaten a few of the roots. He was somewhat salivated at this time. Feeding was repeated at 6 p.m. On September 10 he was fed at 10.30 a. m., and at 6 p. m. he was frothing somewhat at the mouth. At this time a large portion of his food had not been eaten. On September 11 he was fed more hay, in order to induce him to clear up the Cicuta; and additional Cicuta was ground and mixed with moist cut hay to induce more complete feeding. This feeding wasat10.15a.m. At 12 noon he was found salivated, breathing with a peculiar contraction of the nares and elevation of the corners of the mouth. While the station force was at supper a sound was heard of an animal apparently in distress. This animal was found down on its side, but immediately got up. This was about 7.50 p. m. He walked about uneasily, jerking his head more or less as though having hiccoughs. . His pulse was 50 and full. Suddenly he commenced to back, jamming himself first against one side of the corral and then against another, his muscles contracting violently.. He went into a fit and fell, the head going down first. He kicked violently and frothed at the mouth. The violent kicking gradually subsided. At 8.05 his pulse was 112 and the breathing was labored and noisy. At 8.08 his pulse was 73 and his respiration 36. At 8.15 the breathing was quieter, the respiration 32. A little before this he raised himself and lay on his belly with his fore legs doubled under him. Immediately afterwards his eyes were turned in, he struggled convul- sively, turned himself about, and fell upon his side, but raised himself again upon his belly. At 8.20 he raised himself again, coming back upon his belly. At 8.22 he had another spasm, going through the same motions. At 8.25 he went into a violent fit. There was marked opisthotonos. He kicked violently, his legs stiffened, standing out rigidly from the body. He frothed at the mouth and was in a strong perspiration. At 8.30 his pulse was 142. The fit continued, its violence, however, varying. At 8.45 he was given hypodermically a quarter of a grain of strychnin. This was admin- istered in the midst of a fit and he died almost immediately, before the strychnin could have had any effect. Death was caused apparently by respiratory failure, as the action of the heart continued an appreciable time after respiration ceased. An autopsy was held on September 12. The right auricle was much congested and. full of blood. The inner wall of the right ventricle was deeply congested. This ventricle contained little blood and was partly contracted. The left auricle and ventricle contained little blood and were not congested. The wall of the first stomach at the pyloric end was deeply inflamed, as was the wall of the second stomach. On the wall of the fourth stomach were a few inflamed spots. Through the length of the small intestine there were small spots of congestion, while the lower part of the ileum was deeply inflamed. The rectum was somewhat inflamed. The kidneys were con- gested. The brain was congested, as well asthe membranes of the spinal cord. Micro- scopical section of the kidney showed great congestion, especially in the cortical portion. Portions of the walls of thewbules were degenerated. A great many of the blood corpuscles were broken and stained only very lightly, while through the whole CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 15 section were granules which did not stain and were probably broken-down blood pigment. The blood vessels also contained bacteria. This animal ate, all told, approximately 104 pounds, or, on the basis of 1,000 pounds of weight, 35 pounds of Cicuta. Table II gives a summarized statement of these feeding experiments. Taste I1.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1910. (Catile.) Part of Animal, Weight. |Amountfed.| Date or period offeeding. plant fed Pounds. Pounds. TG, LG Ges A Oy ee ee aE 300 1.5 Septeil4 eee asaoeseae Roots. ING, TAAL A SUN ee Re Un Aiea 300 10.5 (?) | Sept. 9 to1l...-.....-. Do. . Amountfed| Location Ratio of | 01,000 |from which Animal. Remedy used. Result. a ht of pounds of | plant fed Saal weight of | was ob- ‘ animal. tained. Pounds. NIG TO Ra INfoTie ye Beara Ga a Death seen ete Mey 1: 200 5 | Allison. INO LZ Rare ee Ona BL eels OT UM aE GON a ea Ls 1: 28:5 35 Do. EXPERIMENTAL WORK OF 1911. The feeding experiments of 1911 were made to determine whether the tops and seeds of Cicuta are poisonous. Table III gives a summarized statement of the cattle experi- ments, the details of which follow. TaBe IlI.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1911. (Cattle.) Mina), cuene et |, Amoune Period of feeding. _ Part of plant fed. Pounds. Pounds. No. 641 .- 450 TS) |) Aullhy PS WO) PS oo Soe sk bee kee Leaves, stems, and flowers, with chopped hay. No. 648 -. 500 133 July 30 to Aug. 2..-.......- Leaves, stems, flowers, and some seed. : Amountfed Period ofsickness to 1,000 Location from Animal. (until able to Remedy used. Result. pounds of | which plant fed stand). weight of | was obtained. animal. Pounds. INO G41b soe 552 Noney Ssseee see NOTE AE ea wol ks INOne Hvac ees 170 | Near Castleton. No. 648....--- HEHE Bee COC eek earl ese (0 Koper eee) | ae (5 Ko pares Sia ee 266 Do. Two head of cattle, Nos. 641 and 648, were fed. No. 641 during the three days from July 26 to 28 received, per 1,000 pounds of weight, 170 pounds of leaves, stems, and flowers of Cicuta. This was fed with a little hay in order to induce the animal to eat it more readily. No. 648 during the four days from July 30 to August 2 received 266 pounds of leaves, stems, flowers, and some seed of Cicuta. Neither of these animals suffered any ill effects from the feeding. 16 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The more extended feeding of the summer was done in the ease of sheep. Table IV shows a summary of these experiments. In addi- tion to the thirteen animals listed in the summary, two (Nos. 145 and 152) were brought in for feeding, but ate so little that they are not included in the sum total of the summer’s work. Five of the sheep . (Nos. 136, 137, 149, 151, and 158) were fed upon the leaves and stems of Cicuta and received, per 100 pounds of weight, from 11.4 pounds, in the case of No. 137, to 143.3 pounds, in the case of No. 158. These amounts were fed in periods varying from one week to about ten days. None of the animals suffered any ill effects from the feeding, although in the case of No. 158 it ate of the plant nearly 50 per cent more than its weight. In all of these cases the sheep were fed exclusively upon the leaves and stems, with the exception of one or two cases, like No. 136, where a little hay was mixed with the material in order to in- duce the animal to eat it more readily. Nos. 157 and 143 were given leaves, stems, and flowers, mixed with enough hay to induce them to eat it more readily. No. 143 in eleven days ate 16.5 pounds per 100 pounds of weight, while No. 157 in ten days ate 109.1 pounds, or just about the equivalent of its weight.. Neither of these animals suffered any ill effects. Taste IV.—Summary of feeding experiments with Cicuta occidentalis, 1911. (Sheep.) Weight. 5 unt Date or period of Animal. sae ay fre nee e Part of plant fed. Before. After. Pounds Pounds. Pounds. No. 136 153; disse. Pease TOSS UNeR ato oeeeeeee Leaves and stems. No. 137 UGE e eee see Lonel aseee Gos steer aes Do. No. 149 TOO Pees 52 June 24 to 30......- Do. No. 151. 22D Ace Bh ae 50 PEEEORS (ne Bee sees Do. No. 157. ODS Eee eee 119.5 | July 8to18........ Leaves, stems, and flowers. No. 143. 1224 120 205251) Sulys8itorl Gees ee Stems and flowers. No. 158. LOTS |eoee hy Saas 145.5) | duly, 9 ton Ghee emnee Leaves and stems. No. 144. 103 98 54.5 | August 5 to 12...._. Young seed and seed stems. No. 135. 136 127 2.2 | August 16 to 17.---. Young seed. No. 142. 117 100 2.65 | August 19.........-. Seed. No. 148. 137 130 11.5 | August 19 toi232-—-2 Young seed and seed stems. No. 151. i OL earn Se 404 WAT PUSti 2b seese ee ner Seed. No. 140. 115 106 4.4 | August 30_....2.-.- Do. Period of sick edt ah eriod of sick- fed to 100 : : Animal. | ness (until | Remedy used. Result. pounds of | Location ae E RT fed able to stand). weight of Wao OR CALE animal. Pounds. No. 136. INONO eee oe 12.7 | Near Castleton. INOS 187, 5 oa bo QO t cise oe alo Os pete email ere Gok se 11.4 Do. Na 40 SARA? GOR Shy Se [eee Onan cc [aces GOh. cee 52 Do. Nostbi. oleae. Got oe 5: ca Pees aonc mee Lela eine (6 (oye Hae 41 Do. ING Oa Ne OO come ule DOM em 109.1 Do. INOS 43 el oe rs 200s acs ee: So Or tere= tse wei Gow. 52262 16.5 Do. ING 158.2) |(2 Sedo. mes Shr et doe seme-ealcees COsseeren 143.3 Do. Bah Papp © eae EY are Fs Rye VMI occ Uo Jae as | Gopee ees 52.9 | Near Hinkle’s. Wollas eich te doce. wees lee. dO. ue |e, dotetetree 1.6 Do. No. 142. Recovery..-.- 2:3 Do. No. 148. INONG252%).5 52. 8.4 Do. NO ee es OS on real ek eB OOks corneal edes Colo aera 3.6 Do. ING AU eerste OO secs soled ns Once tos eis. cet UOven 3.8 Do. 1 Estimated. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 17 Two sheep, Nos. 144 and 148, were fed upon the seeds and seed stems, No. 148 eating 8.4 pounds per 100 pounds of weight and No. 144 receiving 52.9 pounds, or about one-half its own weight. This latter quantity was fed in about a week’s time. These animals suffered no harm. In order to make certain that a large amount of the seeds was taken in a short time, four animals were drenched with the seeds ground up and mixed with enough water to make it possible to administer them in this manner. No. 135 received in two days 1.6 pounds of seed, No. 142 in one day received 2.3 pounds, No. 151 in one day received 3.6 pounds, and No. 140 in one day received 3.8 pounds. Of these animals No. 142 was the only one that sustained any harm. No. 142 was brought in for feeding on August 18, 1911, weighing at that time 117 pounds. On:August 19, at 9.50 a. m., it was given, in a drench with about 14 quarts of water, 200 grams of ground Cicuta seed. This dose was repeated at 11.15 a. m., 1.50, 3.00, 7.30, and 9.30 p.m. This sheep was given a little hay on August 20, and on August 21, when an attempt was made to turn it out of the corral, it ran part way round the corral, stood, and leaned against the fence, trembling all over. It moved to another part of the corral, and fell there, with the head thrown back, and went into convulsions. These lasted about one minute. The teeth were grated and the muscles contracted. It soon got up, but appeared for several minutes as though dazed. It breathed rapidly for a time and some trembling was noticed for about 15 minutes. The next day, how- ever, it appeared to be all right. The symptoms were so much like Cicuta poisoning that this con- dition was considered as due to the effect of the Cicuta seeds, although the poisoning was strangely delayed. None of the animals suffered any harm from the material which they received as a drench. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. SYMPTOMS OF CICUTA POISONING. Perhaps no better description of Cicuta poisoning has ever been written than that given in 1679 by Wepfer, who tells howchildren after eating the roots returned home “‘laeti,” one of the little girls tearfully complaining of the selfishness of the others in not giving her her share of the root; he then goes on to tell the symptoms exhibited by each of the children. The following is his description of one case: Jacobus Maeder, puer sex annorum, capillis albis praeditus, tener vegetus tamen, domum rediit hilaris ac subridens, quasi re bene gesta: paulo post conquerebatur, de praecordiorum dolore & vix verbum effatus, humi prostratus urinam magno impetu ad 18 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Virialtitudinem eminxit: mox terribili aspectu, cum omnium sensuum abolitione con- vulsusfuit, osarctissime clausit, ut nulla arte aperiri valuerit, dentibus stridebat, ocu- lus mire distorquebat, sanguis ex auribus promanabat: circa praecordia tumidum quod- dam Corpus pugni virilis magnitudine, Patris afflicti manum & miserandi Pueri prae- cordia, maxime circa Cartilaginem ensiformem, validissime feriebat: singultiebat crebro: Vomiturus quandoque videbatur, nihil tamen ore arctissime clauso ejicere valuit: artus mire jactabat & torquebat, saepius caput retrorsum abripiebatur, totumque dorsum incurvabatur in arcum, ut puellus subtus per spatium inter dorsum & stratum inoffense repere potuisset. Cessantibus convulsionibus per momentum matris opem imploravit: mox pari ferocia illis redeuntibus nulla vellicatione, nulla acclamatione, nullove alio ingenio excitari poterat, donec viribus deficientibus expalluit, & manu pectori-admota exspiravit. Durarunt haec Symptomata vix ultra horam dimidiam. Not only is this a vivid and accurate description of the symptoms of Cicuta poisoning, but it has a touch of pathos in the call of the child for assistance from his mother. Since the time of Wepfer a large number of descriptions of the symptoms of this form of intoxication have been written, most of them being cases of the poisoning of man. There is sreat uniformity in these descriptions, the difference bemg mainly in the greater or less stress laid upon particular phases of the symptoms. In minor particulars there has been some contradiction, but this is no more than would be expected, for it is inevitable that among such a large number of observers some would make inaccurate statements. The symptoms of the lower animals are like those in man, only less marked because of the less susceptible nervous system. The generally recognized symptoms are as follows: Pain, especially in the region of the stomach; but it may be quite general in char- acter. Nausea, leading sometimes to violent vomiting; at others, to spasmodic attempts at vomition without result. Generally diarrhea and polyuria. Dilated pupils. Labored, stertorous breathing, at times irregular. Sometimes, frothing at the mouth. Pulse weak, intermittent, and rapid. Temperature observations have been made in only a few instances, probably due to the fact that most of the recorded cases occurred before the use of the clinical thermometer was common among medical men. According to French, 1866, there is elevation of temperature. The convulsions are most violent, both tetanic and clonic, accom- panied by gnashing of the teeth and trismus, and in violent cases, as in Wepfer’s story, by opisthotonos. These convulsions may be accompanied or followed by unconsciousness, and in fatal cases grow more violent until ended by death. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 19 The observation of the cases at Mount Carbon added little to what was already known in regard to the symptoms, but gave a more complete picture. Excessive salivation, “frothing at the mouth,’’ was generally the first symptom noted, and this occurred in the mild cases. It was followed or accompanied by uneasiness and pain. The animal soon fell in a violent convulsion. Peculiar spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm occurred before and after fallng. The convulsions were most violent. The animal would kick, sometimes extending the legs rigidly. It would throw back the head, sometimes with marked opisthotonos, and would bellow and groan as though in great pain. The pupils were dilated and the eyes sometimes turned in or down. The pulse was weak and rapid, running as high as 180, and respira- tion was noticed as high as 62. Gnashing of the teeth and convulsive closing of the jaws were noticed in the Mount Carbon cases. The convulsions were intermittent and increased in violence in the fatal cases. In those that recovered there was a gradual slowing of the pulse and respiration. So far as the observations went there was no change in temperature. This train of symptoms is so pronounced and so different from those produced by any other poisonous plant in the temperate regions that a diagnosis of Cicuta poisoning is positive and easily made. AUTOPSY FINDINGS. A considerable number of autopsies upon man and the lower animals have been reported. Nearly all reports agree as to finding a hyperemia of the brain and central nervous system. Several found inflammation of the walls of the stomach and a fluid condi- tion of the blood. This lack of coagulation of the blood was re- ported by Wepfer, 1687, and has been noticed repeatedly since that time. ‘Trojanowsky, 1874, says that the poison is antiseptic, as evidenced by the delayed process of decay. Velten, 1839, found inflammation of the larynx, trachea, and bnonelniel tubes, and French, 1897, and Nevermann, 1912, naqgowted congested lungs. Some writers have reported more or ne inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach. Three autopsies were made at Mount Carbon—two upon cattle and one upon a sheep. These autopsies confirmed the reports of previous observers, and some additional facts were noted. The left ventricle was contracted and the right dilated, while the walls of the heart were more or less congested. The most marked feature was the extreme congestion of the venous blood vessels, The lungs, | 20 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. kidneys, and membranes of the central nervous system showed strong congestion. The mucous membrane of the trachea and bronchi was inflamed, as were also the inner walls of the small intes- tine and stomach and in some cases other parts of the alimentary canal. In the kidneys the congestion was most marked in the cortex and was accompanied with some nephritis. It was noticed that the red blood corpuscles in the kidneys were more or less broken down. Death resulted from respiratory failure. TOXIC DOSE. Very little has been known in regard to the toxic dose of Cicuta beyond the fact that only a small quantity is necessary to produce poisonous effects. . Stockbridge, 1814, says that in a fatal case about 1 dram was eaten. Hedrick, 1897, states that a piece the size of a walnut was found by experiment to be sufficient to kill a cow. Other similar estimates have been made, all more or less indefinite. In cases of accidental poisoning it is very difficult to estimate how much has been eaten, and there has been little exact experimental work. About all that has been known is that the rootstock is extremely poisonous and that fatal aes have followed the eating of very small quantities. The experimental work at Mount Carbon gave very little definite information in regard to the toxic dose. The sheep that died ate in two days 2.7 pounds per hundred pounds of weight. From the records, two other sheep which became sick apparently ate a very large quantity of the roots, but the circumstances of the feeding indicate that the actual poisoning was produced by a comparatively small quantity. Heifer No. 119 died as the result of eating 5 pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight in a single day. These deaths occurred at a time when, as stated elsewhere, there is reason to think that the Cicuta is not as poisonous as at other seasons. All that can be said definitely is that a very small quantity of the root of Cicuta may produce death, but the amount varies with the season and also with the period of time during which it is eaten. ANIMALS POISONED BY CICUTA. It is probable that most, if not all, of the higher animals may be poisoned by Cicuta. Wepfer, 1679, showed experimentally that dogs, wolves, and birds could be poisoned. Gadd, 1774, says that horses, oxen, cows, and goats are poisoned. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 21 Krause, 1837, describes a case of poisoning of horses and gave details of some experimental work which seemed to corroborate the correctness of his diagnosis. Oeltze, 1837, and Scholler, 1853, give specific instances of the poisoning of swine. It has been repeatedly stated in literature that sheep and goats are not affected; where this statement originated is not clear. Bulliard, 1784, page 99, says that goats eat Cicuta without harm. Gray, 1821, page 508, says that it is poisonous to mankind and kine, but not to homes, sheep, or goats. Rafinesque, 1828, page 109, states that “sheep and goats eat them [Cicuta plants] aid “genet. and even cattle do not appear injured by them when mixed with hay.” Kunkel, 1901, page 935, says that goats and swine are not poisoned, but that horses and all carnivorous animals are very susceptible. Instances of the poisoning of swine are so specific and given in such detail that we can hardly question their accuracy. Chesnut, 1901, and Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, tell of cases of poison- ing of sheep in Montana, and the experimental work of the Mount Carbon Station, already detailed, gives conclusive evidence that sheep are affected by Cicuta. In regard to goats there appears to be no record of definite cases. It does not seem very probable, however, that these animals are immune to Cicuta poisoning. It will appear later in this paper that Cicuta tops are not poisonous or do not possess enough of the poisonous principle to affect cattle and sheep, and it seems possible that the stories of the immunity of goats may have arisen from cases in which the tops only were eaten and no harmful results followed. WATER POISONED BY CICUTA ROOTS. Gadd, 1774, related in some detail a case of poisoning of cattle from drinking water in which were Cicuta roots. Since that time a num- ber of authors have made the statement that cattle trampling the roots along bodies of water from which they drink have rendered the water poisonous. While this may be possible, the evidence does not seem very conclusive. THE PART OF THE PLANT WHICH IS POISONOUS. There seems to have been some difference of opinion as to whether or not the whole plant of Cicuta is poisonous. There is a general consensus in regard to the toxic properties of the root, but authori- ties are contradictory in their statements about the stems and leaves. Gadd, 1774, states that the poison is mostly in the root and lower leaves. 29 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rafinesque, 1828, page 109, says that ‘‘even cattle do not appear injured by them [the stems and leaves] when mixed with hay.” Schiinemann, 1891, says “‘die ganze Pflanze ist sehr giftig.”’ Krause, 1837, gives the details of the supposed poisoning of horses by Cicuta in hay. He fed the stems and leaves experimentally to three horses. All became sick and two died. Hedrick, 1897, says ‘‘it is probable that the poisonous constituent is found only in the underground stem and the roots.” Ladd, 1899, states that the roots and seeds are especially poisonous and that the tops are poisonous in hay. Brodie, 1901, experimenting with Cicuta vagans, fed all parts of the plant in May, July, and August without results, but killed an animal in November after the stems and leaves were dead. Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, page 82, speaking of Cicuta occidentalis, say: . Field observations indicate that leaves and stems, including the basal portion of this plant, at least during the early stages of growth, contained sufficient poison to produce death. The roots contain a virulent poison. Blankinship, 1903, page 89, states that the roots and foliage are more poisonous in early spring and that cases are reported of poison- ing from eating “‘slough hay.” It is to be presumed that these latter cases were poisoned by the tops. It appears, therefore, that the preponderance of opinion, we can hardly say evidence, is in favor of the whole plant being poisonous. This subject is discussed in the experimental part of this paper (pp. 15-17). The feeding experiments at Mount Carbon show that there is little danger, if any, from the aerial parts of the plant. In 1911, Cicuta tops, from the time they were 8 inches to a foot in height until matur- ity, were fed to sheep with no ill effects. The quantity fed was many times that which would be taken in grazing. It is possible that just as the plants are starting to grow the shoots may be harmful, but it seems more probable that at times the animals poisoned get some of the rootstock. In the experimental work with seeds the animals were drenched with 1.6 to 3.8 pounds of seed to 100 pounds of their weight and only one animal showed symptoms of poisoning. This quantity of seed is evidently vastly more than a sheep could obtain in hay. It seems clear, then, that hay containing Cicuta tops and seeds is harmless, and that practically the only danger from the plant is from ingestion of the roots. SEASON WHEN CICUTA IS MOST POISONOUS. It is generally stated that the plant is most poisonous in the spring. Some authors say that as the stored material of the rootstock is used up in the growth of the plant, it ceases to be poisonous. Cer- tainly most cases of poisoning occur in the spring. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. Pa) Hedrick, 1897, pages 7 to 9, gives notes of experiments of Prof. French in feeding roots of Cicuta vagans in March. One 2-year-old heifer died in an hour and a half from eating not more than 2 drams of one root. Another one was fed ‘‘two bulbs the size of an egg ”’ and died in two hours and a half. The bulbs were kept growing in a greenhouse, and feeding experiments conducted early in May, in which several times the quantity used in March produced no ill effects. This seeméd to prove conclusively that the roots diminish in toxicity as the growth progresses. The experimental work at Mount Carbon gave very little exact information in regard to this. The feeding of roots occurred from the middle of August until September 21. Of the sheep, two were made sick and one died. The two cattle experimented upon died. In all cases the quantity eaten was considerably more than that reported by others as poisonous in the spring. The smallest quan- tity was in the case of No. 119, which ate five pounds per 1,000 pounds of weight, September 14. Of course, at this season, the middle of September, the plant is mature, and if the toxic principle accumulates in the rootstock it might be expected to be as poisonous as in the spring unless some chemical change takes place during-the winter. The experiments in August indicate that the roots are poisonous at that time. It seems probable that they are poisonous at all times of the year, but that the toxicity is very much diminished during the growing season of the plant. REMEDIES FOR CICUTA POISONING. It was noticed by the older authors that when the eating of Cicuta was followed by vomiting, the patient usually recovered. The logi- cal remedy, then, is an emetic, and when this is given promptly with the first symptoms the prognosis is favorable. What is known of the poisonous principle, cicutoxin, would indicate that it is probably dissolved in the stomach slowly and with some difficulty, and that prompt evacuation of the stomach may remove most of the trouble. The emetic is logically followed by a cathartic to facilitate elimina- tion. When the convulsions are violent, some form of opium may be given to control them, but the main reliance must be upon the emetic. This has been the treatment used through the whole history of Cicuta poisoning, and no change has been made in modern times beyond the use of more efficient means of emptying the stomach. In the practical handling of poisoned live stock little can be accom- plished in the great majority of cases. The convulsions are so vio- lent that it is difficult to give any remedy per os. Chesnut and Wilcox, 1901, page 85, recommend hypodermic injections of morphin to control the convulsions, giving sheep 14 grains and cattle and horses 3 to 10 grains. This may assist in 24 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bridging over the period of convulsions, and doubtless a purgative would help in carrying off the effects of the poison. Most cases, however, are hopeless, and to reduce the losses attention should be paid to the obvious methods of prevention rather than to any remedies. SUMMARY. (1) The poisonous properties of Cicuta have been recognized since the middle of the seventeenth century, and a large number of cases of poisoning of men and animals have been reported. The toxic principle has been separated and its properties deter- mined. ‘This toxic principle is probably common to all species and there is reason to think that all species are equally poisonous. (2) There is a definite train of symptoms, marked by nausea, pain, and violent convulsions, which makes it easy to diagnose cases of Cicuta poisoning. The prominent lesions, as found in autopsies, are congestion of the lungs, kidneys, and central nervous system, with inflammation of the alimentary canal. (3) So far as known, all the higher animals are poisoned by Cicuta. (4) The quantity necessary to poison is very variable, depending probably on the stage of Erwan The plant is ery, poisonous at all times. (5) The toxic Esa ioieh is flevoele confined to the rootstock. The tops under ordinary circumstances are not poisonous, and neither the tops nor the seeds when found in hay are a source of danger. (6) The best remedy is an emetic. Very little can be done for poisoned live stock. LITERATURE CITED. The following bibliography includes only the titles of articles cited in this paper. A full bibliography of Cicuta has been prepared and is filed for reference in the Office of Poisonous Plants. BigELow, JACOB. 1817. American Medical Botany, v. 1, Boston, p. 125-132, pl. 12. 3LANKINSHIP, J. W. 1903. The loco and some other poisonous plants in Montana. Montana Agricul- tural Experiment Station, Bulletin 45, p. 89-91, fig. 3. Boerum, R. 1876. Ueber den giftigen Bestandtheil des Wasserschierlings (Cicuta virosa) und seine Wirkungen; ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Krampfgifte. Archiv fiir Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie, Bd. 5, Heft 4/5, p. 279-310. Branpt, J. F., Paorsus, Pump, and Ratzesura, J. T. C. 1838. Abbildung und Beschreibung der in Deutschland Wild Wachsenden und in Girten im Freien Ausdauernden Giftgewichse nach Natiirlichen Familien Erlautert, Abt. 1, Berlin, p. 109-111, pl. 29. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 25 Bropre, D. A. 1901. Poison parsnips in western Washington. Washington Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 45, 12 p., 1 fig. 5 BULLIARD, PIERRE. 1784. Histoire des plantes vénéneuses et suspectes de la France. Paris, p. 97-99. CAILLARD. 1829. Empoisonnemens par la Cigué vireuse et par ]’émétique; prompte guéri- son. La Clinique des Hopitaux et de la Ville, t. 4, no. 9, p. 33-34. CuHeEsnut, V. K. 1901. Some poisonous plants of the northern stock ranges. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Yearbook, 1900, p. 310-314, fig. 39, pl. 33. and Witcox, E. V. 1901. The stock-poisoning plants of Montana; a preliminary report. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Botany, Bulletin 26, p. 80-86, pl. 7-8. DioscoripEs, PEDANIUs, of Anazarbos. [1549]. De Medica Materia, Francofurti, lib. 4, cap. 67; lib. 6, cap. 11; p. 510. DRAGENDORFF, GEORG. 1898. Die Heilipflanzen, Stuttgart, p. 487. Ey, Wmu1am, and Musitenserc, Henry. 1815. Venomous qualities of the water-hemlock, or Cicuta maculata, an indige- nous plant of North America. Medical Repository, v. 17 (n. s., v. 2), p. 303-304. Fiora Danica, v. 2 [fasc. 4], Hafniae, pl. 208. 1765. Frencu, H. T. 1897. Cattle poison. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Press Bulletin, We ll, MO. Os WA. FreEncH, S. P. 1866. Poisoning by hemlock. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, v. 74, no. 21, p. 428-429. Gapp, P. A. 1774. Anmiarkningar om Cicuta, och upgift at utrota denna giftiga Vaxt infran Angar och Beteshagar. Kongl. Vetenskaps Academiens Handlingar, v. 35, Juli/Aug./Sept., p. 231-244. For a German translation, see Anmerkungen iiber die Cicuta und Vorschlag dieses giftige Gewichs von Wiesen und Weiden auszurotten. Der Kénigl. Schwedischen Akademie der Wissenschaften Abhandlungen, Bd. 36, 1774, p. 236-248. 1781. GESNER, KONRAD. 1541. Historia Plantarum. Paris, 261 p. 1561. Horti Germaniae. Jn Cordus, Valerius. In hoc Volumine Continentur Valer1i Cordi Simesusij Annotationes in Pedacij Dioscoridis Anazarbei de Medica Materia Libros V, p. 253. Gray, ASA. : [1908.] New Manual of Botany. Ed. 7, New York, p. 614, fig. 825. Gray, S. F. 1821. A Natural Arrangement of British Plants. London, v. 2, p. 507-508, 513- 514. 26 BULLETIN 69, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GREENWAY, JAMES. 1793. An account of a poisonous plant, growing spontaneously in the southern ' part of Virginia. (Extract.) Transactions, American Philosophical Society, v. 3, p. 234-239. HaZE.LtTIne, RIcHARD. 1818. Fatal effects of a poisonous root. New-England Journal of Medicine and Surgery, v. 7 (n. s., v. 2), no. 3, p. 219-222. Heprick, U. P. 1897. A plant that poisons cattle—Cicuta. Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 46, 12 p., 4 pl. HeE.tps, GOTTFRIED, WEINMANN, J. H., and Gorirz, J. A. 1723. Von der Cicuta aquatica, und denen aus Geniessung derselben erfolgten jahen Todesfillen. Sammlung von Natur- und Medicin-Geschichten, 1722, Winter-Quartal, p. 285-294. KRavse. 1837. Ueber die bei Pierden nach dem Genusse von trockenem Wasserschierling (Cicuta virosa) beobachtungen Zufille. Magazin fiir die Gesammte Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 3, p. 238-248. KunkKEL, A. J. 1901. Handbuch der Toxikologie, Halfte 2, Jena, p. 934-935. Lapp, E. F. 1899. A case of poisoning.—Water hemlock. North Dakota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Bulletin 35, p. 307-310, 1 fig. Maty, Jos. i 1844. Uber die Vergiftungen mit vegetabilischen Mitteln tiberhaupt, und mit dem Wasserschierling, Cicuta virosa, insbesondere, nebst Andeutung einiger Antidote. Osterreichische Medicinische Wochenschrift, Quartal 3, No. 39, p. 1065-1068; No. 40, p. 1097-1100. NEVERMANN. 1912. Vergiftung durch Wasserschierling. Verdffentlichungen aus den Jahres- Veterinir-Berichten der Beamteten Tierairzte Preussens. Jahrg. 10, 1909, T. 2, p. 39. OELTZE. 1837. Vergiftungszufaillen bei Schweinen. Sanitits-Bericht fiir die Provinz Brandenburg, 1835, p. 381-383. Also in Magazin fiir die Gesammte Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 7, Quartalheft 2, p. 256-257, 1841, under title Wabhrscheinliche Vergiftung mehrerer Schweine durch Wasserschierling. Pout, JULIUS. 1894. Zur Kenntniss des giftigen Bestandtheils der Oenanthe crocata und der Cicuta virosa. Archiv fiir Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharma- kologie, Bd. 34, Heft 3/4, p. 259-267. PRipram, R. 1900. Ein Fall von Vergiftung mit Wasserschierling. Archiv fiir Kriminal- Anthropologie und Kriminalistik, Bd. 4, Heft 1/2, p. 166-173. RAFINESQUE, C. S. 1828. Medical Flora, v. 1, Philadelphia, p. 107-110, pl. 22. Ray, JOHN. 1704. Historia Plantarum, v. 3, Londoni, lib. 8, p. 257. REGEL, ALBERT. 1876-1877. Beitrag zur Geschichte des Schierlings und Wasserschierlings. Bulle- tin, Société Impériale des Naturalistes, Moscou, t. 51, pt. 1, no. 1, p. 155-203, 1876; t. 52, pt. 1, no. 1, p. 1-52, 1877. CICUTA, OR WATER HEMLOCK. 27 Scnuoeprr, J. D. 1787. Materia Medica Americana Potissimum Regni Vegetabilis, Erlangae, p. 36. See Linné, Carl von, Amcenitates Academicae, v. 10, Erlangae, 1790. ScHOLLER. 1858. Vergiftung mit Schierling (Cicuta virosa). Magazin fiir die Gesammte Thierheilkunde, Jahrg. 19, Quartalheft 2, p. 262-263. ScHtUnemann, H. 1891. Die Pflanzen-Vergiftungen, Braunschweig, p. 15-17, fig. 2. ScHWENCKE, M. W. 1756. Verhandeling over de Waare Gedannte, Aart, en Uytwerking’, der Cicuta aquatica Gesneri, of Groote-Waterscheerling. ’S Gravenhage. 54 p., 4 pl. 1776. Abhandlung von dem grossen Wasserschierling, desselben Kennzeichen und Wirkungen. Aus dem Hollindischen tibersetze von A. 8S. Miiller. Munster und Leipzig, 37 p., 3 pl. Stave, H. B. 1903. Some conditions of stock poisoning in Idaho. Idaho Agricultural Experi-_ ment Station, Bulletin 37, p. 157-190, 3 fig., 2 pl. STEARNS, FREDERICK. 1858. The medicinal plants of Michigan. Proceedings, American Pharmaceutical Association, 7th annual meeting, p. 253. STOCKBRIDGE, JOHN. 1814. Account of the effects produced by eating a poisonous plant, called Cicuta maculata. New England Journal of Medicine and Surgery, v. 3, no. 4, p- 334-337. TROJANOWSEY, C. 1874. Zur Wasserschierlingwurzel-Vergiftung. Dorpater Medicinische Zeitschrift, Bd. 5, Heft 3, p. 181-229. TRuMEL, J. A. 1838. Quels sont les caractéres des diverses plantes connues sous le nom ae Cigué? Les comparer entre elles, et indiquer leurs propriétés médicales. Théses Faculté de Médicine de Paris, No. 239, p. 5-9. ° VELTEN. 1839. Vergiftung durch Cicuta virosa. General-Bericht, K6énigl. Rheinisches Medicinal-Collegii, [Koblenz], 1837, p. 183-186. Also in Wochenschrift fiir die Gesammte Heilkunde, No. 19, p. 308-311, 1840. Weprer, J. J. 1679. Cicutae Aquaticae Historia et Noxae. Basiliae, 336 p., 5 fig. 1687. Cicutae aquaticae noxa. Miscellanea Curiosa sive Ephemeridum Medico- Physicarum Germanicarum Academiae Imperialis Leopoldinae Naturae Curiosorum, [Norimbergae], dec. 2, ann. 6, p. 221-241. For a German translation, see Von der Schidlichkeit des Wasser- schierlings. Der Rémisch-Kaiserlichen Akademie der Naturforscher Auserlesene Medicinisch-Chirurgisch-Anatomisch-Chymisch- und Bo- tanische Abhandlungen, [Nurnberg], t. 16, p. 203-224, 1767. For a French abstract, see Sur les mauvais effets de la Cigué aqua- tique. Collection Académique, [Dijon et pombe t. 7, p. 451-454, 1766. WIKSZEMSKI, ADAM. 1875. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Giftigen Wirkung des ‘Wenteuselmievbuage (Cicuta virosa). Dorpat, 58 p. Inaugural-Dissertation. Woop, G. B., and BacHsr, FRANKLIN. [1907.] The Dispensatory of the United States of America. Ed. 19, rev., Phila- delphia, p. 1449. : O WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1914 nf fe a a iran ft sat stg OAT et af a Lia oanindobaes f BOB lassie Ph *. 4 as - ‘ ‘ J a ‘ "S ’ Ps , pee» ete Oy , : A mig an pix ss Ts “aye naoy ? nM mor y)}. Be = y PDE byie ay St ttedhetagh Af y & bayge yt ids 2 SOR RA SN i Se. th beg Trae SF ee SE TT NP BOB ES RR SE “ s = a ee - +7 — ’ Fe 2 esc 's = ‘ 4 “ ot ir fl . Bie ‘ j : Vis f eo ‘ Nin f ei eG ky ari HO sal Hegre Ay: p 7 i ~~ .+ > ne . Fos ~ * = - “ ig pul : 4 © Saf Bel eee okt nt ve s 3 Ptr. ; id ' mai epee ‘| Tova ince rogue) met s “ ‘ 4 . hy Wi AAh Th oe hor ind, ont le aa BULLETIN OF THE se)) USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE % No. 70 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. Apmil 15, 1914, (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE. By Joun R. Monter and ApvotpH HicHHorn, Pathological Division, Bureau of Animal Industry INTRODUCTORY. Among the diseases of horses with which the veterinary authori- ties are concerned glanders is probably the most important, and unless strict measures for its control are enforced the tendency of the disease is to spread more or less rapidly. This fact is due to the character of the disease, to the prevailmg methods of caring for horses, and, probably more important than all, to the frequent latent existence of the disease in apparently healthy animals. The destruction of all infected animals has been accepted as a matter of course in all civilized countries, and owing to the dangerous character of the disease and the possibility of transmission to man, this action appears to be the sanest and most reasonable procedure in its control. On the other hand, the possibility of a method of immunization of healthy animals is worthy of consideration and would be of great advantage. Ever since the discovery of mallein as a diagnostic agent for glan- ders, experiments have been conducted by various investigators relative to its immunizing and curative value. Many favorable reports have been made by veterinarians of the results obtained. On the contrary, others appear to have had no satisfaction from its use. Since it has been proved that cases of glanders may recover it is rather difficult to establish the value of the immunizing agents as to their action on the disease. Fortunately, we now possess a means by which the presence of immune bodies can be demonstrated in the animal upon which attempts at immunization are made. With the serological tests at our command we may control to some extent the action of an immunizing substance and observe how long the immune bodies are present in an animal receiving immunization treatment. 24133°—14 2 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, It is unfortunate, however, that the demonstration of immune bodies does not indicate the degree of immunity in the animals. We may obtain in glanders immunization an agelutination value of 1 to 5,000 or over or a complement fixation with 0.02 of a cubic centimeter of serum which may continue for a period of several. months, yet this same animal, which apparently is supplied with a great amount of immune bodies, can be readily infected with glanders bacilli. Therefore, in tests undertaken for establishing the degree of immunity against glanders in the horse, it is necessary to expose the injected animals to an infection such as occurs under natural conditions. Observations of such animals as to the clinical appear- ance of the disease and periodical ophthalmic tests with mallein are the methods by which the most accurate results of the immunization tests can be obtained. Serum tests in these cases are of little value, as they invariably demonstrate immune bodies or antibodies in the immunized animals, and since even small quantities of mallein injected into a horse are sufficient to produce antibodies which remain for 3 or 4 weeks. PREVIOUS RESULTS WITH VARIOUS IMMUNIZING AGENTS. Curative results from mallein were reported by Leclainche, Hueppe, Nocard, Johne, and -Wladimiroff, while its immunizing value against glanders was studied by Schindelka, McFadyean, and Semmer, but the results were unsatisfactory. Taking into consideration the litera- ture at our command and drawing conclusions from the results ob- tained, it appears that mallein possesses very little immunizing value and no great benefit can be expected from its use as a curative agent. Other investigators attempted to immunize horses and other animals against glanders with the use of killed glanders bacilli and the literature contains some favorable results from this method of immunization. The preparations which were employed for this pur- pose were in most instances suspensions of glanders bacilli killed by heat. Of the various products which have been prepared and are at the present time used to a limited extent for the immunization of glanders, ‘‘farase,’”’ so termed by Levy, Blumenthal, and Marxer, gives apparently the best results. It is prepared by killing glanders bacilli with 80 per cent glycerin or 10 per cent urea. The bacilli are then dried and the substance is used in that condition for the immu- nization. It does not contain living bacteria. Favorable results were obtained with farase by Bautz and Machodin, and by Dediulin. The results of Dediulin are probably the most remarkable, since he reports that on an estate where previous to immunization 276 glandered ani- malshad been destroyed, he injected 303 animals and after one year and IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE, 3 four months not a single case of glanders developed, although in the meanwhile 14 cases of glanders developed among 300 nonimmunized animals. | Bautz and Machodin subjected farase to various tests to establish its immunizing value. Their results on guinea pigs, cats, and horses were very satisfactory. Guinea pigs which were given two injections of farase resisted six weeks later an intraperitoneal infection with 1/2500 and 1/5000 mg. of glanders bacilli. Of six horses which received two immunizing injections of farase, two were given 1/2590 mg. of glanders bacilli subcutaneously, two received 1/500 mg. of glanders bacilli per os, and two were exposed with the other animals 45 days after the second injection. For each of the groups one check was used. Post-mortem examination of the check animals four to five weeks after the infection showed typical glanders, while the two immunized animals which received subcutaneous injections of glanders bacilli failed to show any lesions of the disease. No record was obtained of the four remaining immunized animals, as they were turned over to another laboratory for study of the duration of immu- nity in these horses. One of the recent works on the immunization of glanders was pub- lished by Zurkan, who studied the formation of specific antibodies in the blood of horses under the action of glanders antigens. He con- cludes that of various antigens such as farase, killed glanders bacilli, mallein, and malleo-aggressin, the first and the last (farase and malleo- ageressin) proved most active in the production of immune bodies. The degree of immunity in the animals was established by Zurkan from the comparative results of the serological reactions he obtained with the complement-fixation, agglutination, precipitation, and opsonic tests. Since there were no practical tests made on these animals, his statement that malleo-aggressin may be used for the immunization of horses against glanders can not be accepted as conclusive. At the meeting of the American Veterinary Medical Association in Indianapolis, MacKellar presented his conclusions on the protective effect of glanders vaccine. The proportion of infections in the stables where these outbreaks occurred, as indicated by the agglutination test, is astonishing. As there is no mention made in the article of the time the agglutination tests were applied subsequent to the mallein test, it suggests that the large proportion of reactors to the agglutina- tion test were the result of the mallein injection and not due to the presence of the infection. If this be true, then the effect of the vaccine remains indefinite and the control of the disease must be accredited to the other precautions which were observed. At best it will require several years before the value of any method of immu- nization can be satisfactorily established. 4 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS WITH DRIED GLANDERS BACILLI. The New York City board of health has been conducting immu- nizing experiments with a vaccine prepared in their laboratory, con- sisting of a suspension of dried glanders bacilli. Each cubic centi- meter of the suspension contains 2 mg. of dried bacilli. Through the courtesy of Dr. William H. Park, director of the laboratory, a suffi- cient quantity of such vaccine was obtained for conducting a series of investigations relative to the possibility of conferring immunity to animale injected with this vaccine. GUINEA-PIG EXPERIMENTS. The experiments were made on guinea pigs and on horses. Twenty guinea pigs, about 600 grams in weight, were divided into 4 groups, 4 pigs of each group receiving three immunizing injections of a definite amount of vaccine at intervals of one week. The size of the doses and other details are presented in Table 1. After the conclusion of these vaccinations one pig from each group was subjected to infection with suspensions of glanders bacilli. These injections with infectious material were administered at various intervals. In all instances the same strain of glanders bacilli was used for the infections. The fifth pig in each group was not vaccinated, but served as a check, receiving only a corresponding quantity of glanders bacilli. The results of these guinea-pig tests showed that there was not a sufficient increased resistance among the vaccinated guinea pigs to warrant any hopes of successful immunization by this method. Itis to be regretted, however, that in the infection of these pigs probably too large a quantity of glanders bacilli was used. On the other hand, it would appear that if there had been any appreciable immunity present in the vaccinated guinea pigs they would have manifested it by a greater resistance against the infection. c A = (e) (2) a > wm aa ic (=) A < =) oO f A ei = ooh isa n ic) AH A (e) | is | een ‘2zT eune | g° ge i OE Sy tee Sees SOD ae aaIRG oS ome teas €I6I ‘8g oUNL perq |--* ~~ -WOT]INog -d “d OT UL UOTJNTIG | S161 ‘OT ouNy | ¢ 0 £0 10 aes teees ae STOR OR AGI alee "20 29 29 *ST@A IOUT junouly aed Aep-, ye Ajsnoeueyno “morjoelur 4Sat ‘ON| “dno “qyeap Jo e1eq -qns pojoolur sjunomy | “T]]loeq Siepurys JO TOT}efuT snoseuRInNOqnY UOT} CUT \ ‘auwonn suapunjb ym sbrid nauinb uo 78a, wounzunmuuy—*| ATA I, “ssid vourns) a 6 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS ON HORSES. In the experiments conducted on horses, 17 animals were used, which were purchased on the open market. Most of the animals were aged, but otherwise in fair condition. All the horses were subjected to the ag gglutination, complement-fixation, and the ophthal- mic mallein tests, prior to the vaccination. All of them proved free from glanders on all the tests. Since the amount of vaccine to be injected for immunizing purposes has not been established, it was deemed advisable to employ varying quantities for the injections, and in order to determine the resistance of the animals against infection during and after the vaccination they were subjected to exposure at different times during the investigation. The smallest amount of the suspension used for the vaccination was the quantity recommended by the New York City Board of Health, viz, 1, 3, and 5. c. per injection, while the largest amount any of the horses received was 4, 8,.and 12 c. c., respectively. Two of the vaccinated horses received an infection on the nasal mucosa with glanders bacilli, taken up on the end of a platinum loop, one week after the last vaccination. Both of these horses promptly developed glanders and one of them, No. 102, died of an acute form of the disease 21 days after the infection. Thus, there appeared to be no resistance, or at least no increased resistance, against artificial infection. . To establish the resistance of the vaccinated animals against contact infection a corral was built where all the animals, including two artificially infected glanders cases, were kept. They were fed in common feed boxes and were watered from a common trough. Only one hayrack was used for all animals. Simultaneously with this exposure a stable with three stalls was likewise used for exposing the horses. The construction of the stalls in this stable was such that the animal in the center could reach to the feed boxes of either of the horses in the side stalls. ‘The horse placed in the center was a good discharging case of clinical glanders, whereas the horses placed in the side stalls were either two immunized animals or two controls, all of which were given one week’s exposure with this infected horse. This was accomplished by changing the horses in the two side stalls every week, and bringing in two others from the corral, so as to make the exposure as uniform as possible in all ani- mals, including the checks. The conditions of exposure were appar- ently severe, yet they did not exceed the exposure which occurs in the stables of large cities where the sanitary conditions are very poor and where poor light and ventilation afford a splendid oppor- tunity for the propagation of the disease. In fact, the exposure in the corral was rather slight, since the sunlight no doubt had a destructive influence on the infection. IMMUNIZATION TESTS WITH GLANDERS VACCINE. 7 All animals were subjected periodically to clinical examinations and only four of the vaccinated horses developed signs of the disease up to the conclusion of this experiment, although some of them were exposed since May 16. Horse No. 99, which received 4 immunizing injections and was exposed to a discharging case of glanders in the stable, died 15 days after the exposure from acute broncho-pneu- monia malleosa. In order to determine whether any of the vaccinated horses were infected with the latent form of the disease, all were subjected July 23 to the ophthalmic test. This gave surprising results. Two of the vaccinated animals gave a marked reaction (P+++). A similar reaction was also obtained in the affected horses used for exposure, while of the two check animals which were not vaccinated but had been exposed to a similar extent as the vaccinated animals, only one responded to the test; the other check animal failed to give any reaction. One month later all horses in the experiment were again subjected to the ophthalmic test. The results were the same as on the previous test, but it was noted that the intensity of the reaction was not as pronounced as in the first test. The inflammation and amount of purulent discharge were somewhat less than in the previous test. This observation coincides with that of Meyer, who states that after several eye tests in positive cases of planers the degree of the reaction becomes less distinct. The detailed account of the results of the immunizing tests in horses is given in Table 2 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 8 ur]? 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In order to study the effect of the immunizing injections on the serum tests, the blood of the horses in this experiment was subjected to the agglutination and complement-fixation tests from the time of the first injection until the conclusion of the work. It was found that the agglutination value of the serum of the vaccinated horses as a rule increased from the third day after the first vaccination and continued to rise for a time. A decrease was again noted from two to four weeks after the last vaccination and appeared practically normal after six weeks to two months. A complement fixation with the sera of the vaccinated horses was obtained from the seventh to the ninth day after the first vaccination and they continued to give positive fixations from two to three months after the last vaccination. These negative serological results which followed the positive reac- tions due to the injected vaccine, appeared only in the animals which gave no reaction to the ophthalmic test, while the blood of those vacci- nated horses which gave a positive reaction to the eye test continued to give a positive fixation until they had been destroyed and proved to be affected with the disease. The same condition was observed in the animals which had been artificially infected with glanders. The serological results from these investigations appear to have a great significance with reference to the immunity produced by the injection of dead glanders bacili. The fact that the demonstration of the presence of immune bodies in the vaccinated horses ceased entirely in two or three months from the last vaccination would indicate that after the lapse of such a time the animals have very little or no immunity against the disease. This is further substan- tiated also by the agglutination value of the sera returning to the normal level. As a matter of fact, previous investigations carried out by Dr. Buck, of this laboratory, showed that one or two sub- cutaneous injections of mallein will give a complement fixation which may last from one to two months. The agglutination value of the serum of such animals is also markedly influenced by subcutaneous malleinization. The serum reaction of horses following the sub- cutaneous injections of mallein is given in detail in Table 4. From this it seems that a mallein injection has almost the same action on the production of immune bodies in a horse as killed glanders bacilli. Table 3 indicates the results obtained with the agglutination and com- plement-fixation tests in the animals used in this investigation. On August 20 two vaccinated horses and one check animal which gave positive results to the eye test were destroyed, and in all three animals marked pulmonary glanders was observed. Horse No. 105 showed the presence of glanders nodules in the lungs in very great numbers, some of which were of the size of a walnut. In the two other cases, while the nodules were very numerous and from their 10 BULLETIN 70, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. appearance appeared to be active, they were of smaller sizes, ranging from a pinhead to the size of a pea. Horses Nos. 110, 120, and 124 were killed on the same day, although they had failed to show any indication of glanders by the eye test, which was also substantiated by the complement-fixation test with the blood of these animals. Post-mortem examination showed no signs of glanders in these animals. The final results are quite striking relative to the deficiency of immunization against glanders by killed bacteria. Of the remaining horses which were kept under observation, as indicated in Table 2, Nos. 117 and 119 died on October 17 and 25, respectively, of acute glanders after developing the clinical form of the disease. No. 86 also showed indications of the disease in -the early part of October. The final test on the remaining horses, namely, Nos. 86, 111, 121, and 123, was undertaken in the early part of January, 1914, when they were subjected to the ophthalmic and subcutaneous mallein tests and also to the complement-fixation and agglutination tests. All horses reacted to these different tests with the exception of No. 86, which reacted to the fixation, agglutina- tion, and ophthalmic tests but failed to react to the subcutaneous mallein test. Two days following the tests all the animals were destroyed and careful post-mortem examinations were made. The results showed glanders lesiens in all animals, including No. 86, in varying degrees. ‘The lungs in all cases contained numerous glanders nodules most of which were in an active stage, and in horse No. 86 the apex of the left lung showed a typical glanderous pneumonia with the characteristic gelatinous infiltration and numerous nodules of various sizes throughout the remainder of the pulmonary tissue. It is interesting to note that all these vaccinated horses returned to the normal serum reaction of a negative case on or before the twelfth week after the vaccination, as may be seen from Table 4. The exposure in the corral was continued the same as during the entire course of the experiments and the weekly changes of stable exposure were also carried out. The appearance of the disease in these remaining animals seems to offer a more substantial basis for drawing conclusions as to the unsatisfactory results of these vaccina- tion tests. From our experience with outbreaks of glanders in stables, it appears that these experimental horses did not develop clinical manifestations of the disease in greater proportion than is the case with the average exposed horse. It is true that the exposure of the horses in the experiments was continuous although not unusually or unreasonably severe. 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Furthermore, it should be remembered that some of these horses developed a latent form of the disease in less than three months from the last vaccination during the period in which the blood still contained the so-called immune bodies. CONCLUSIONS. The results obtained by these investigations appear to be sufficient to demonstrate the unsatisfactory results of this method of immuni- zation. Of the 13 immunized animals, 9 contracted the disease from natural exposure, which is a large proportion when it is consid- ered that all animals were aged and kept most of the time during the exposure out of doors. Of the 4 remaining immunized horses, 1 died of impaction after the second vaccination, while the other 3 animals were killed August 20, 1913, in order to ascertain by post mortem examination the possibility of glanders existing in these animals which had given positive serum reaction, but which had returned to normal. In artificial infections of the vaccinated ani- mals they showed no resistance whatsoever, as both vaccinated horses promptly developed an acute form of the disease from touch- ing the Schneiderian membrane with a platinum loop which had been touched to a growth of glanders bacilli. For the present, therefore, it seems advisable to abstain from immunizing horses by this method, as a practice of this kind may do more harm than good. Owners having horses which are supposedly immunized would naturally become careless, thinking their animals were resistant to the disease, and thus even a better opportunity would be offered for the propagation of the disease than if the horses were not vac- cinated. Furthermore, the fact that the blood of vaccinated ani- mals can not be utilized for serum tests for two or three months after the injections is also a great disadvantage in the eradication of the disease. As a result of this preliminary work it appears that the control and eradication of glanders must still be dependent upon the con- centration of our efforts in eliminating infected horses and the adop- tion of proper precautions against the introduction of infected ani- mals into stables free from the disease. The results achieved in Germany, Austria, and Canada by these methods-have proved very encouraging, and no doubt if executed in the same spirit in this country a marked reduction in the cases of glanders would result. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : WASHINGTON, D. C. E g AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V Gi BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE No. 71 =) Santas Contribution from Office of Experiment Stations, A. C. True, Director. April 30, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA AND THEIR DRAINAGE. By CHARLES W. OKEY, Drainage Engineer. INTRODUCTION. Louisiana ranks second among the States in the area of swamp land within its borders and in the percentage of its total area that is classed as swamp land. Of a total area of 45,420 square miles, 15,930 square miles, or 35 per cent, are classed aS Swamp and overflowed land. The drainage of these lands is a public improvement of very great importance to the future wealth and pros- perity of the State. Although the magnitude of the task has long been recog- nized and the tremendous advantage that the reclamation of these lands would bring to the State has been admitted by all concerned, it is only recently that the work of putting the swamp land into condition for cultivation has been attempted on any large scale. A number of conditions are responsible for this delay in the work, among which the following are important: First, a very large proportion of the swamp lands of the State was at one time subject to overflow by the Mississippi River. The first step in the drainage of these lands was to protect them from river overflow by levees constructed along the main river channels. This phase of the work has been going on in some parts of the State for more than 100 years, and in nearly all parts of the overflowed section since about 1875. It has been carried forward as fast as the funds could be secured for the work. Second, the former abundance of cheap and well-drained agricultural land in this and other parts of the country made these lands unattractive. Third, the necessary State laws were not until re- cently enacted. As the above-mentioned obstacles are now in a measure removed, the work of swamp-land drainage is attracting serious and widespread attention. The most active field of drainage operations is at present in the southern por- tion of the State, and it is here that the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, has for about four years been carrying on drainage investigations. The purpose of this work hag been: (1) To study the soil, climate, and other natural conditions with special reference to the drain- age problems encountered and the value of the land for agricultural purposes when successfully drained. (2) To collect such technical data and to examine Notn.—This bulletin contains information of value to landowners, engineers, and others interested in drainage by pumping, especially of the wet prairies along the Gulf Coast. 25102°—Bull. 71—14 At ———— rl 2 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. such details of present practice as will afford information of value to landowners, and especially to engineers interested in the reclamation of such lands. (3) To disseminate in available form the results of the investigations and to encourage land drainage by emphasizing the benefits to be derived from bringing such lands under cultivation. ; The work in this field was started in 1909 by Prof. W. B. Gregory, of Tulane University, New Orleans, and Mr. A. M. Shaw, then a drainage engineer in the employ of this office. It was continued under their direction until early in 1910, when C. W. Okey, drainage engineer, was placed in charge. Certain lines of investigation have been carried forward continuously since 1909, but it has not been possible to give the work uninterrupted personal attention since 1910. At frequent intervals reports have been made of results obtained, and as often as seemed advisable partial reports have been published.* It is the purpose in this bulletin to include all of the salient features of the _ information so far published and to give also the results of later investigations. Where direct quotations from earlier publications are made, credit will be given, but much of the material contained in the earlier publications and reports will be so interwoven with later and more complete information that no specific mention will be made of its source. The scope of this bulletin is as follows: First, a description of general conditions in this section of the State, of such a nature and in such detail that persons unfamiliar with this or similar sec- tions of the country will be able to form a fairly accurate idea of the nature of the problems encountered in the successful drainage and cultivation of these swamp lands. Second, a statement and brief consideration of some of the larger drainage problems encountered, emphasizing the need of more complete cooperation be- tween the various interested parties in the study and solution of such problems. Third, the results of detailed examinations of a number of drainage districts, reclaimed or in process of reclamation, and a summary of such results. Fourth, a consideration of the problems involved in land drainage by means of pumps in Louisiana. This discussion might be considered as a continuation of a former bulletin published by this office dealing with pumping in the upper Mississippi River Valley.” LOCATION AND GENERAL CONDITIONS. As shown by the accompanying map (fig. 1), the area under consideration lies on the immediate Gulf coast. A range of hills running eastward from Baton Rouge, the State capital, to Lake Pontchartrain, forms with the lake the northern boundary of the portion lying east of the Mississippi River. Most of the land in this area is from 1 to 3 feet above sea level, with a very small per- centage lying along the river and the larger bayous having an elevation of from 4 to 15 feet above sea level. To the westward, between the Mississippi and the Atchafalaya Rivers, the land gradually rises from sea level along the Gulf to an elevation of perhaps 15 or 20 feet along a line drawn from Baton Rouge to Lafayette, except that in the immediate vicinity of the Atchafalaya River the land is but very little above sea level. As in the area to the east of the Mississippi River, there is in this section a small percentage of higher land along the rivers and bayous. To the westward of the Atchafalaya River there is a strip of swamp land which borders the coast line and which gradually rises from sea level to approximately 10 or 15 feet above, at a distance of 20 or 30 miles inland. 1 See especially U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Rpt, 1909, p. 415, 2 U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas, Bul, 243, : ————) ee 8 ieee ———w —. AteHa|y 9d ‘NOLONIHSYM ' 05 SHALAd SINHON FHL 2G 'NOLONINSYM ‘03 SHEN SIUNON 3H1 jaton Rouge LIVINIGSTON nN Covingtph —— ES BAT! TAN'GIPAHO. s . sy Springville a Mi 7 T A_MENPASN LY = > eS, Mandeville 7, LAKE ==) Be) MAREPAS = @) ==> : — ¥ . = LAKE PONTCHARTRAIN ‘St.Martinvilte> “he IAS, ¢ 4 ~ New I beni U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE — OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS SOUTHERN LOUISIANA SCALE IN MILES 10 A Q 0 20 ss 4p LEGEND eights of Storm Tide, in feet, above Mean Tide. Indicate areas of wet lands FIG./ -Map of Southern Loulsiana, showing wet lands, ond Aelghts oF storm tide on September 20, /909. : The area of the district is roughly 12,000 square miles, of which amount about 10 per cent is high enough to be drained by gravity, this representing the per- centage of the total area that is already drained and under cultivation. The remainder is so low that artificial means must be used to get an outlet for drainage water. The area shown in figure 1 is about one-fourth that of the entire State, yet the tract contains nearly two-thirds of the State’s swamp land. Throughout the entire district are connecting lakes and bayous, many of which are navigable with boats of considerable draft and beam. The total length of such navigable streams is, roughly, 1,600 miles. The main waterway is the Mississippi River. The Atchafalaya River has lately been opened to deep- water navigation through a dredged channel at its mouth, and vessels of a draft of not more than 20 feet can safely enter it. This system of waterways insures excellent water transportation to the entire district, in addition to the facilities afforded by the railroads, a number of which traverse the district. Besides the cities of New Orleans and Baton Rouge, there are several con- siderable towns in the district, including Morgan City, with a population of about 5,000; Houma, 5,000; Donaldsonville, 4,000; New Iberia, 7,500; Lafayette, © 6,400; and Crowley, 5,000. Lake Charles, the principal railroad center of the western part of the State, has a population of 12,000. The very small percentage of this area that is under cultivation is worked very. intensively and supports a population of over 200 to the square mile. While the principal industry of the whole region is agriculture, the wealth de- rived from other sources, including sea food, lumber, oil, gas, salt, and sulphur, is almost as great. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA, 3 CLIMATE. TEMPERATURE. The United States Weather Bureau has issued summaries of the climatologi- cal data of the United States by sections. Southern Louisiana is designated as section 45, and from the summary for this section’ the following is taken: Climatic conditions over southern Louisiana are marine in character; the proximity of the Gulf of Mexico and the numerous streams and lakes of this region all conspire to modify the temperature conditions and prevent sudden changes therein, and extremely warm weather in summer and severe cold in winter seldom occur. Southerly winds from the Gulf temper the climate and prevent, both in winter and summer, extremes that might otherwise occur. The annual mean temperature is 67.9° F. January is the coldest month, with a mean temperature of 52.4°, while July and August are both warm, with mean temperatures of 81.6° and 81.7°, respectively. The highest annual mean tem- perature is 70.1° at Burrwood, at the mouth of the Mississippi River, and the lowest 66.4° at Cheneyville. The highest monthly mean temperature is 83° at Lawrence in August, and the lowest 49.6° at Cheneyville in January. The range in the annual mean temperature is very slight, and within 100 miles of the coast amounts to only 1°. After passing inland the change is more abrupt, and over the second hundred miles the gradients are steeper than over any other portion of the State, where the fall in the annual mean temperature amounts to 2° in about 100 miles. The stations with the same mean tempera- ture in July and August are situated in the piney woods and the prairie section. The coast marsh and the alluvial region have the highest mean temperature in July. The greatest difference between the July and the August mean tempera- ture amounts to but 0.7°. January averages about 1° to 2° colder than De- cember and February. The range in the mean temperature between the hottest and coldest months is 29.3°. There is a narrow strip along the coast where the temperature has probably never reached 100°, and even as far north as New Orleans it has not reached this degree except in two years, 1901 and 1909. The highest temperature re- corded in the section is 108° at Creneyville, Rapides Parish. The extreme 1U, S, Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bul, W, sec, 45, 4 BULLETIN 71, U. §. DEPARTMENT uF AGRICULTURE. range in maximum temperature amounts to 11°, New Orleans may be taken as a representative station for the southern portion of this section. The maxi- mum temperature has exceeded 100° in but one year, 1901, when 102° was recorded, although a maximum of 100° was recorded in 1909. The temperature reaches 90° every year, but there have been 14 years out of the last 39 in which the temperature did not reach as high as 95°. During 36 years there have been only 78 days when the maximum temperature rose to or above 95° at New: Orleans. The minimum temperatures of this section of Louisiana range from 1° at Amite and Hammond to 19° at Lakeside, the range in minimum temperature being 18°. During 36 years the minimum temperature has been below 32° at New Orleans only 181 days, or an average of less than four times a year. The temperature at New Orleans has fallen below 20° during a period of 36 years in only 4 years, as follows: 1886, 15°; 1895, 16°; 1899, 7°; and in 1905, 18°. Freezing temperatures occur to the Gulf coast in the months of January and February, but owing to the season of the year and the ample warnings given by the bureau to interests affected these frosts seldom cause any loss. It has been found that the recording stations in the country give somewhat lower mean temperatures and also lower minimum temperatures than stations situated in large cities, as New Orleans. Houma, in Terrebonne Parish, is chosen as representing average conditions in the country in the alluvial sections, and Cameron, in Cameron Parish, as being typical of the coastal plain region in southwest Louisiana. The following frost and temperature data are taken from the records of the Weather Bureau: Average earliest and latest dates of killing frosts at Cameron, Howna, and’ New Orleans, La. : - Average | Average | Earliest | Latest yous Number | date first | date last date date Station. of years’| killing | killing | killing | killing record. | frostin | frostin | frostin | frost in autumn. | spring. | autumn. | spring. Cameoroni..¢ .adsiers ses Se eee ee ee 15 | Nov. 26 | Feb. 22} Oct. 25) Mar. 20 MU OUIMA 2). ohincs cess oreen sneer eee eee ee ae ee eer 18 | Nov. 20 | Feb. 28 |....do...| Mar. 25 News Orleans cit cece oseen oocee nee ca Sle Ee Ue epee 37 | Dec. 10| Feb. 3 Nov. 11 | Mar. 27 Highest, lowest, and monthly and annual mean temperatures, in degrees Fahren- heit, at Cameron, Houma, and New Orleans, La. HIGHEST TEMPERATURES. Num- : Station veue Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May. | June.| July.| Aug. | Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. eee record Cameron..... 16 85} 101 89 94} 101} 101} 103) 102} 104) 100 89 87 104 Houma. ..... 19 81 84 88 92 95 100 | 102 99 98 93 89 82 102 New Orleans. 39 82 82 86 89 94 98} 102) 100 96 94 85 83 102 LOWEST TEMPRPRATURBES. Cameron..... 16 17 13 14 35 39 44 61 45 49 30 20 13 13 Houma...... 19 17 5 25 30 42 51 58 56 44 32 25 10 5 New Orleans. 39 15 7 30 38 52 58 66 63 55 40 29 20 7 MONTHLY AND ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURES. Cameron..... 14 | 51.7 | 53.9 | 62.6 | 69.3 | 75.2] 80.7] 81.8 | 81.9 | 79.0] 69.4 | 61.8] 54.9] 68.5 Houma. ..... 18 | 54.3 | 55.3 | 63.4 | 68.8] 75.3 | 80.3 | 81.2 | 81.4 | 78.5 | 67.8] 61.0] 54.1] 68.4 New Orleans. 39 | 53.9 | 56.8 | 63.1 | 68.7 | 75.1] 80.6 | 82.3 | 82.1] 78.8] 70.3 | 61.6 | 55.4) 69.1 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 5 RAINFALL. ’ In regard to the yearly rainfall the Weather Bureau summary of the climato- logical data for section 45 says: There is a gradual and well-defined decrease in precipitation from the east- ern toward the western portion of this section. The average annual precipita- tion is 55.76 inches, and ranges from 48.86 inches at Lakeside, Cameron Parish, to 63.02 inches at Amite, Tangipahoa Parish. The precipitation is practically all in the form of rain and is well distributed throughout the year. Snow occurs on an average of once in three to five years, and disappears soon after haying fallen. Although droughts occur, they are seldom long continued, and are not so serious as in regions where the level of the ground water is So much farther below the surface of the earth. June and July are usually the wettest, and October and November the driest months. Rain falls about once in three days. The average number of rainy days is 108 in the eastern and from 77 to 80 in the western portion of this section. The following rainfall data are taken from the Weather Bureau records: Monthly and annual mean rainfall, in inches, at Cameron, New Orleans, and Houma, La. Station. Jan. | Feb.| Mar.| Apr.| May.| June.| July.) Aug.| Sept.} Oct. | Nov.| Dec. |Annual. Cameron.........- 3.67 | 3.34 | 3.39 | 3.61 | 3.61 | 5.60 | 7.57 | 4.04 | 5.44 | 2.88 | 4.12 | 3.28 50. 55 New Orleans. ..... 4.54 | 4.28 | 4.56 | 4.53 | 4.06 | 5.39 | 6.53 | 5.65 | 4.49 | 3.25 | 3.81 | 4.54 55. 63 Houma...........- 3.45 | 4.78 | 3.52 | 4.29 | 3.59 | 5.98 | 8.92 | 6.43 | 5.92 | 3.00 | 2.73 | 4.31 56. 92 The rainfall in this section is more or less tropical in character, especially during the summer months. The rains are nearly always purely local during the summer, and the amount, both daily and monthly, may vary greatly for sta- tions separated by only a few miles. Thus we have a monthly total in August, 1911, of 28.5 inches at Donaldsonyille, at the northern edge of this section, and but 12.27 inches at Houma, only about 40 miles away. The United States Weather Bureau records at the New Orleans station show that there have been 48 storms in the past 22 years, during which the precipita- tion in 24 hours exceeded 3 inches. These storms are classified as to their intensity as follows: 43 rains exceeding 3 inches in 24 hours. 19 rains exceeding 4 inches in 24 hours. 7 rains exceeding 5 inches in 24 hours. 3 rains exceeding 6 inches in 24 hours. 2 rains exceeding 7 inches in 24 hours. 2 rains exceeding S inches in 24 hours. 0 9 rains exceeding 9 inches in 24 hours. HEALTH CONDITIONS, As regards the healthfulness of this climate the Bureau of Soils says:* A most serious check to the attraction of a desirable class of immigrants to this section is the impression which has gotten abroad as to its unhealthfulness. That this idea had) some foundation in the past can not be denied, but such a condemnation can not now be applied to the State as a whole or to this par- ticular vicinity. The records of the medical board of New Orleans show that the city has an excellent health record for a city of its size. * * * Outside of the city sanitary conditions are naturally much better. The dwellings of both the owners and the tenants of the plantations stand on the higher land along the Mississippi River, where there is adequate natural drainage. Not- 2U. §. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, pp. 448, 444. 6 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. withstanding the proximity of the swamps and standing water, malaria, though occasionally occurring, is not dreaded. Until within the last few years epi- demics of yellow fever caused frequent alarm, but this disease has now been thoroughly eradicated, and with the methods of treating the disease and prevent- ing its spread it is not to be dreaded as formerly, even if it should again appear. Since it has been demonstrated that malaria, like yellow fever, can be trans- mitted to man only through the bite of a certain species of mosquito, it may be expected that drainage, which destroys the breeding places of these pests, will result in a decrease in whatever malaria may now exist. As a matter of fact malarial fever is very rare on the immediate coast line, and the health of people from the North seems to be fully as good as that enjoyed by the natives. SOILS. The area under discussion contains soils that are peculiar to the section and these are now for the first time being drained and cultivated. In the following section are set forth the results of first-hand investigations along with the classification and general descriptive matter taken from publications of the United States Bureau of Soils. ; AREA EAST OF THE ATCHAFALAYA RIVER. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. The soil of the area east of the Atchafalaya River and in parts of St. Mary, Iberia, and St. Martin Parishes is of alluvial origin and is largely the result of deposits made by the Mississippi River and its branches. It has been built up from a depth of several thousand feet to the present elevation above the Gulf. In the very newést portions of the Delta at Port Eads, at the mouth of the river, a considerable subsidence of the land is yet going on, the measured rate being about 0.11 foot per year. That this subsidence is due to a compact- ing of the newer deposits is shown by the fact that permanent bench marks along the Mississippi River record a decreasing settlement as the distance from the mouth of the river increases. Except in this relatively small area, near the mouth of the river, the remainder of this section of the State shows no change in elevation. As is typical of delta regions, ridges of sandy soil are found along the main river channel and along its branching outlets. The manner in which these ridges were formed is well brought out in the following, from A Preliminary Report upon the Bluff and Mississippi Alluvial Lands of Louisiana, by W. W. Clendenin.* With every fiood the river now overflows its flood plain and deposits much of the sediment from its headwaters. As with a slight increase in velocity the transporting power is vastly increased, so with a slight checking of velocity, as occurs over the flood plain outside of channel, deposit takes place. As the greatest decrease in velocity takes place near the channel, there the heaviest and coarsest sediment is deposited, and in greatest quantity. The river banks are thus built higher by each fiood and a system of natural levees is produced. There is thus a marked difference in the “front lands” and the “ back lands” along the river. The former are higher and coarser textured than the latter, and therefore much more easily cultivated and drained. Drainage from the very channel margin is away from the river, and unless forced by the topography of the land, will not reach the river proper, but unite with some outlet of the river produced during some extraordinary flood period and kept open by the escape of water during ordinary periodic flood stages. As the feeders of the river are called tributaries, these outlets have not inaptly been styled distributaries. 1 Louisiana Stas. Rpt. Geology and Agriculture, Pt. IV, p. 263. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. (i Since practically all land in the delta region is now protected from overflow by levees along the Mississippi River, and as overflow is now very rare, all building up of the low marshlands has been checked. However, at the mouth of the Mississippi River, deposition of material is continually taking place. Even before the construction of the artificial levee system, there was no raising of the general level of the marshes during periods of normal flow and probably little sedimentation of the river bed excepting at its mouth, the most of the material which was carried in suspension to the lower portion of the river being carried out and deposited in the Gulf. As the river rose, however, the waters constantly sought additional outlets through the various bayous of the delta country. At times of extreme high water there was a general break- ing over the banks of the river and its outlets. It is probable that the most of the building up of the lands above sea level has been done at such times.’ The above statements show that while the Mississippi River and its various distributaries are continually extending themselves through deposition at their mouths, it was only at times of overflow that the ridges along the channels were raised or widened. The peculiar branched nature of the Delta, with bodies of land extending fingerlike into the Gulf, with open spaces of water between, is also thus accounted for. As these ridges gradually widened they approached each other, thus forming lakes and bayous. ‘Tidal action usually kept these ridges from inclosing the open water between them, and heavy and prevailing winds would no doubt often change their character and direction. It is a notice- able fact that the trend of the majority of the waterways in this section is toward the southeast. As the prevailing winds are from the southeast, and as the usual Gulf currents flow from that direction, most of the sediment was deposited on the western side of the channel. As a result the deeper water always remained to the eastward, and the deposition on the western shore continually forced the channel to the eastward. It is reasonably certain that the large inland lakes, such as Lake Des Allemands and Lake Salvador, were inclosed in this manner. The fact that the silt-bearing capacity of water is directly dependent upon the velocity is clearly demonstrated by observing the natural embankments formed by streams of various sizes. In the case of smaller streams when the water over- flows, its force is soon spent and the silt is quickly deposited near the stream, forming narrow ridges with steep side slopes, while those formed by large streams are broad with slight slopes. Three typical examples, showing this difference and the manner in which the land surface has been raised on the marshes are given in figure 2, A, B, and C. The sections were taken as follows: A—From the right bank of the Mississippi River across the Willswood plantation, about 10 miles above New Orleans. This section is about 2 miles long and a part of the lands crossed have been under cultivation for a great many years, while those farthest from the river were reclaimed only 12 or 15 years ago., The lowering of the surface of the cultivated and drained fields due to the shrinkage of humus soils is here well illustrated. There are many examples of highlands having been built up for much greater distances from the river than this, but as such accretions are indirect, on account of being formed by a number of small bayous or temporarily contracted areas of over- flow which assisted in maintaining the velocity, these have not been considered as being typical. B—The right bank of Bayou Lafourche at Lockport, extending back through the village of Lockport and beyond to Lake Fields. Until 1903 Bayou Lafourche served as an overflow outlet for the Mississippi River, the opening at Donaldson- ville not haying been permanently closed until that year. C—This is a very small bayou extending to about 4 miles west of Lockport. The abrupt rise of the ridge from the surrounding marshes is especially notice- able and is characteristic of smaller bayous. 4 Manuscript report of A. M. Shaw. 8 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Important exceptions to the foregoing general statement as to the relation between the size of bayous and the ridges built by them are frequently found. = BS ” z ° e 3 = cs) 4000 DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS 2000 cee oe Silo orl caused by small bayou near Lockport. (ose eS ne Se ee ed (Oe RTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ie fs 1g 2 < x Fd Fic. 2.—Typical examples of Louisiana marshland formation: A, Profile through area No. 1; B, section. through area No. 2; C, formation Prominent among those are the Bayou L’Ourse, in the southeastern part of Lafourche Parish, and the Wax and Little Wax Bayous, in St. Mary Parish. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 9 Bayou L’Ourse is an insignificant stream, occupying the center of a long and important ridge. It is probable that at one time this bayou served as an out- let for the Lafourche or possibly of some predecessor of the latter bayou, draining in a more easterly direction through Bayou Blue, Lake Fields, and Long Lake. Wax and Little Wax Bayous are streams of erosion rather than of sedimentation and have been formed wholly or in part by the action of storms and the tidal flow which is quite strong along this portion of the coast. Asa result, the bayous are bordered by the marsh or by very low ridges. Both streams are from 10 to 50 feet in depth and 100 to 200 feet in width.* In addition to the above, Bayous Terrebonne and Black, in Terrebonne Parish, are typical examples of the sedimentation type, while Bayou des Allemands, the connection between Lake Des Allemands and Lake Salvador, is an excellent _ illustration of the tidal-erosion type. ° From the foregoing it may be seen that the chief difference between the various types of soils is the variation in fineness of material, rather than differ- ence in chemical composition. CLASSIFICATION AND EXTENT OF SOILS. The various types of soil grade imperceptibly into one another, but the fol- lowing classifications have been made by the Bureau of Soils of this department : Yazoo sandy loam, Yazoo loam, Yazoo clay, Sharkey clay, muck, and Galveston clay. The first three classes are ridge soils and are limited in extent, forming a very small percentage of the total area. These soils have sufficient elevation to drain naturally, and as they are practically all well drained and cultivated no discussion of them will be given. For additional information the reader is referred to the publications of the Bureau of Soils. The last three classes include practically all the undrained soils of this section. The Bureau of Soils says of this first type: ? The Sharkey clay is the heaviest soil of the New Orleans area. It is the most extensive type, and as only a small proportion of it is under cultivation, the subject of the reclamation of the large unused area is attracting consider- able attention. The soil is a heavy black clay to a depth of 5 or 6 inches. The dark color is due to the large content of organic matter which has been derived from the heavy growth of vegetation as the clay was slowly deposited. This decayed vegetation has had a marked beneficial effect on the structure of the soil by causing it to break under the plow into little blocks and to assume a much more favorable condition than is usually possible with this type. The subsoil is a brown or drab waxy clay of a most impervious and tenacious character. The percentage of organic matter is much smaller than that of the soil. The Sharkey clay shrinks greatly upon drying, and the surface of a drying field is always checked by large sun cracks. The Sharkey clay occupies the entire land surface of the area, with the ex- ception of narrow strips along the rivers and bayous, where the swifter over- flow waters have built up natural levees of coarser sediments, and excepting also considerable areas where it has been covered so completely by decayed vegetation that a muck type has been established. * * * The Sharkey clay areas are for the most part forested. The exceptions are those comparatively small areas in cultivation and the treeless prairies which cover a considerable area in the southern part of the present survey. In the very wet, poorly drained tracts there is an almost impenetrable growth of cypress, willow, maple, water oak, and sometimes ash. On the better drained portions the woods are more open and the palmetto flourishes near the border. Of the soil classed as muck, the Bureau of Soils says: ? Between the Mississippi River and Lake Pontchartrain are extensive areas where the dense growth of vegetation has decayed and accumulated on the sur- 1 Manuscript report of A. M. Shaw. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 451. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, pp. 452, 453. 25102°—Bull. 71—14—_2 ee: Oe I 10 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. face of the Sharkey clay to a depth of from 1 foot to more than 3 feet. This more or less decomposed mass is made up of the trunks and leaves of trees, but more largely of the rank weeds and grasses which flourish in this locality. The extensive tracts covered by the muck are poorly drained and almost impenetrable. The only places where this type can be seen under any favorable conditions of drainage are between the drainage canals which lead from New Orleans to Lake Pontchartrain. Clearings have been made and it has been demonstrated that the muck can be reclaimed, but so far none of it has been cultivated. The muck in many of the localities in which it was observed is finely divided and well decomposed and should be well adapted to the cultivation of those crops which thrive on the peaty soils. Of the type called Galveston clay the Bureau of Soils says: * The Galveston clay consists of a mucky mass of vegetation in various stages of decay, interspersed with a fine clay of drab color. Along the borders of the marshy prairies covered by this type the soil closely approaches in texture the Sharkey clay, and passes into a subsoil similar to that of the Sharkey clay at lower depths, but the lower lying strips nearer the bayous are little more than peat bogs to a depth of more than 3 feet. The Galveston clay forms a broad border along the Bayous des Allemands, opening out a short distance above the town of Des Allemands to a width of several miles outside of the present area, with an arm extending northward toward the town of Hahnville. The latter extension follows the course of a sluggish bayou with its many ramifications through the marsh. The topography of the type is that of a low marsh but little elevated above sea level. Water stands over much of the surface at all times in pools Hou channels and renders the marsh almost impenetrable except by boat. * * The areas occupied by this type are entirely treeless and devoid of other vege- tation, except sparse marsh grasses which have little value for grazing. This absence of vegetation, in Such contrast to the dense Swamp growth on the Sharkey clay, is due largely to the brackish nature of the water which ascends the bayous at high tide, and perhaps in part to the peaty nature of the soil, with its poor drainage. From the foregoing it will be seen that the type called Galveston clay is a combination of the so-called Sharkey clay with muck, with the former as a subsoil. Over the whole of the wet prairie section of the Delta this type of soil is found, the muck varying in thickness from a few inches to several feet. The tracts of land that are now being reclaimed in southern Louisiana all contain more or less of this muck land, and many of the districts are entirely covered by it. DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS OF SOILS. As the ultimate success of most of the reclamation districts of this section will depend on the successful drainage and cultivation of these muck lands, a rather detailed study of them was made. In investigating these soils it was the endeavor to get a careful description of their physical characteristics, to find the percentage of water by volume that they would contain when in good condi- tion for growing crops, and to ascertain the amount of water they would hold when completely saturated. The muck is a mass of vegetation in varying stages of decay and contains varying amounts of river silt. In character it differs according to the kind of vegetation from which it was derived; thus the muck of the cypress swamp is much darker and less fibrous than the muck or turf of the open grass-covered prairie. Also, according to stage of decay, it may be tough and fibrous and able to bear the weight of a man, or it may be soft and even semifluid if consid- erable water be present. Being thevresult of growth rather than of deposit, it has been formed in layers, the depth of which depends largely on the time involved. When a layer of vegetation is covered with a heavy layer of silt all 1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 455. 4 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 11 addition to the former ceases, and if conditions are favorable, a new layer of vegetation is formed on the silt above. Thus we have strata of muck varying in thickness from an inch to several feet, with intermediate strata of silt of depths of from 1 inch to perhaps 2 feet. About half of the waterways that extend through these swamps are streams of tidal erosion, and along these streams the high ridges of river silt are absent and the muck is especialiy deep. Bayou des Allemands, Wax Bayou, and Little Wax Bayou are streams of this character. The samples of muck examined were taken at just sufficient depth below the surface to insure the optimum percentage of water—i. e., the amount of moisture considered by local plantation owners to be the best for the growth of general field crops. No samples were taken immediately after a rain nor after a long dry period. At the time of taking the samples a description of each field was made, including depth of water table, length of time the field had been drained and cultivated, time since last rainfall, character of original vegetation, nature of present crop, and other conditions peculiar to the tract in question. The following tables show the results of tests made during the spring of 1910: Results of soil tests on area No. 3, Raceland, La. Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterin soil by volume. Depth | ber of pepen No. of sample. of days oe sample.| since | Nor- | Satu- | p, Nor- | Satu- | gain. | ¢ aie rain. | mal. | rated. Y- | mal. | rated. Bae Lbs. Lbs Lbs. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Inches 7 45.8 61.5 7.0 62.1 87. 25, 7 Hay ene eS SET adas den pegs os [Eig i 18 10 44.0 |........ 9.4 A ee Sia eI Ue 20 10 45.8 62.3 12.4 53. 4 79.8 26.4 20 10 ASE ON ein see 10.7 Fae a ban Pe re 20 10 46.7 60. 7 14.0 52.3 74.7 22.4 20 14 41.3 61.5 7.6 53.9 86. 2 32.3 20 14 ALS heen 7.9 Be at | eee BEET 20 14 Ela 7401s helenae 7.9 COPA uA Ms IE aay ae 22 14 47.3 57.6 eB 64.0 80.5 16.5 22 U 57.9 71.3 21.2 58.7 80.5 21.4 20 i Cy eg saa 22.8 GUS 5 anon el eae eee 20 7 64.0 77.6 29.5 55. 2 77.0 21.8 18 a QO osocscoes 30.0 OTs | epee eras | Meee eet ate 18 7 53.7 67.9 14.9 62.0 84.8 22.8 20 a HA lleasccascs 16.9 (GPROA |E a MRR en ee fe 20 10 SARS See ie oe 16.9 GORGH RP ras |aaiee aes 24 10 46.7 64.9 8.7 60.8 89.9 29.1 24 1 Turf and silt after being mixed by two years of cultivation. The above samples were taken from the soil on area No. 3, which lies about 5 miles from Bayou La Fourche and the same distance from the town of Race- land. This district is a part of the open grass-covered prairie and has been well drained for about three years. Its elevation is perhaps a foot above mean tide level, and the soil probably would be classed as “ Galveston clay.” The fields from which these samples were taken were in cultivation in 1909 and were planted to corn or sugar cane in the spring of 1910. The original vegetation was a wild prairie grass, locally called ‘‘ paille fina.” It was from this grass that the muck or turf was formed. The soil of the top 4 to 5 inches was quite soft and dry, having been recently cultivated. Just below the depth of cultivation the soil became moist, and when compressed water would drip from it. The muck here was of a dark-brown color and was very light and spongy; after drying it became much darker in color. It seemed to be a mass of partially decayed grass and grass roots, and had very little, if any, silt in its composition. The 12 BULLETIN "1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. depth of the muck on this tract varied from 6 to 18 inches. Below this came a layer of mixed turf and silt about 1 foot in thickness, and from here on down to a great depth occurred pure silt which would be classed as “ Sharkey clay.” The ground-water level stood a little less than 2 feet below the surface, which is about the average depth of drainage secured on this tract. The first 10 samples in the table were taken from the layer of pure turf, the next four, Nos. 10, 11, 14, and 15, from the layer of mixed silt and vegetation just under the layer of pure turf, and the last four, Nos. 16, 17, 26, and 27, from a field on the same tract that had been cultivated for two years, but had not been cultivated in 1910 when the samples were taken. The condition of these last four sam- ples.shows the result of plowing deeply, thus mixing the silt and the pure turf, and gives an idea of the conditions that may be expected after the fields have been cultivated for a time. The following table gives the results of tests of the muck on area No. 4, which lies a little farther out from Bayou La Fourche than does area No. 3. Results of soil tests on area No. 4, Raceland, La. Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterinsoil by volume. D Depth | ber of epth No. ofsample. of sample.| since | Nor- | Satu- Nor- | Satu- water ae Tain. mal. | rated. Dry. mal rated. Gain. | table Muck Inches. Lbs Lbs Lbs. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Inches. ONES APM aS SER PN Sia SO = 10 489.013 eee 10.0 Re [ele a vere [anata OE a eh ee Rae see 49; 10 Hie 63.7 10.8 64.7 84.7 20.0 18 SAUae it eee See ete 8 ee 1. 3-8 14 O52 eee a 10.0 MBE boil ae seercead eee ines 12 fee ae Se) See eee aes 3-8 14 58. 2 63.8 10.2 76.8 85.8 9.0 12 1 Samples 34 and 35 were undoubtedly too moist for optimum percentage of moisture. The conditions on area No. 4 were similar to those on area No. 3, except that the land on No. 4 had been well drained only eight months and had not been cultivated. .The top of the muck was covered to a depth of about 4 inches with a tough sod full of heavy grass roots, but below this sod these roots tapered out to very fine rootlets. The samples contained pure turf, which was very similar to samples 12 to 33, inclusive, of area No. 3. The samples recorded in the following table were taken from area No. 2, which lies about 1 mile back from Bayou La Fourche, near Lockport, La. Results of soil tests on area No. 2, Lockport, La. Num- | Weight per cubic foot. | Waterin soil by volume. Depth | ber of peo No. of sample. of days eat sample.| since | Nor- | Satu- | p, Nor- | Satu- | ga: : ble. rain. | mal. | rated. Y- | mal. | rated. ci Inches. Lbs. Lbs, Lbs. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Inches. 10-15 4 5424 lie caeiereet 21.9 5250s on erase reek 22 8-13 4 5220) ese cece 13. 4 61 84k eee ibe saree 22 7-12 14 52.9 73.0 14.0 62.2 94.4 32.2 26 8-13 14 52.0 61.5 10.7 66. 1 81.3 15.2 22 3- 7 4 DIZS0})\. 2 \- tee 88. 6 BUsOreeee aeelee es ee 24 2-7 4 S000) SL Sees 48.3 50.7) icone cae Peeameee 24 2-7 14 74.8 85.6 47.0 44.5 61.8 17.3 26 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 13 This tract was a part of the grass-covered prairie which contained a number of scattering groves of small willows. It had been cleared and drained for about five years. Its elevation above mean tide level is about 1 foot. The top soil is a layer of almost pure silt which had been laid down on a layer of muck at a comparatively recent date. The layer of silt varies from 6 to 10 inches and the layer of vegetation is perhaps 12 inches in depth. Below this turf is a deposit of pure silt extending to a great depth. The turf or muck in this tract is per- haps older than that of area No. 3; it seems to have been formed from the same kind of vegetation but it is heavier and much darker than that of the latter district. This is probably due to the weight of the layer of silt which had been deposited on it. The ground had been cultivated in 1910 and the part moved by cultivation was quite hard and dry; however, this cultivation did not reach below the layer of silt, into the muck. The first four samples were taken from the layer of muck, while the next four were taken from the silt overlying the muck. The object of testing both layers of soil was to get an idea of the combined water capacity of the two varieties, for many of the plantations have a mixed soil much like that of area No. 2. The samples recorded in the following table were taken in Bayou La Fourche sandy loam near Lockport and about one-fourth mile back from the bayou. Results of soil tests near Lockport, La. Weight per cubic | Depth Mes foot. Waterin Pepey No. of sample. of Sine soil by Sse sample aati volume. tabl Astaken.| Dry. Glos Sandy loam: Inches. Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent.| Inches. eRe eae ee cincee eine vest cet 3- 8 14 105. 9 81.2 39.5 40 37 ARPst Ry. Ye ae we Ot NEI S DS ot E ED hye 3- 8 14 105. 4 80. 6 39.7 40 SAE CORO REE SER EEGs Beta Sate Sees Coe Sees 6-11 14 105. 9 75.4 48.8 40 OMA ER Aas eet eee ee tA ee chie ef 6-11 14 105. 4 78.1 43.7 40 The soil in this tract is representative of the average soil conditions in the bayou-front plantations. It is also of much the same nature as the ridges of silt that occur in many of the turf or muck lands. The soil has been cultivated for a great many years and little vegetable matter was present. It had already been cultivated in 1910 when the samples were taken. The ground was quite moist to the touch, but was perhaps a little drier than usual. ‘The soil was much the same to a very great depth. The tests were made for the purpose of comparison with the tests of the muck. It will be noted by comparing samples 40 and 42, in the summary of rectilta of soil tests in area No. 2, with samples 36 to 39, inclusive, taken near Lock- port, that the muck soil seems to be more retentive of moisture than the sandy loam of the bayou ridge. The samples of each class of soil were taken at approximately the same depth and on the same date, yet the muck contained nearly 50 per cent more water than the sandy loam. Later in this same season, which was unusually dry, the crops on the muck soil withstood the effects of the drought better than those on the sandy ridge soil. In general, the layers of turf or muck of southern Louisiana are quite similar in character to those of other swamp regions of the United States, but having been formed on an alluvial deposit and in many cases mixed with silt, the turf after a few years of cultivation works up into a most excellent soil, which is well balanced in chemical composition. This is proven by the excellent yields of both truck and general field crops on such lands near Lockport and 14 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Raceland. The muck of the cultivated fields has a greater density and a darker color than that where the land is undrained and uncultivated. In its original state the pure turf is a light brown, but as it dries and decays it becomes darker and finally is almost black. When first drained it is very light and spongy and when plowed breaks up into rather large pieces, sometimes as much as a foot square, which are pushed ahead of the plow instead of being turned in a furrow. After the second year of cultivation the muck loses its fibrous nature and resembles old sawdust in texture, although being a little darker in color. As cultivation continues the muck mixes more and more with the underlying silt and a much heavier and more impervious soil results. As such soils dry out and decay they shrink and settle to a considerable degree. In the tests made the average shrinkage of the muck, due to drying alone, was a little over 60 per cent. In average field conditions the shrinkage would never reach this figure, due to drying alone, for the soil would never | become as dry as the samples tested. However, on area No. 1 (fully described in succeeding pages) the lowering of the surface of the land by drying and decay after 10 years of cultivation has amounted to about 24 feet. Samples of soil, once thoroughly dried, would not resume their former volume even when immersed in water for 12 days, and would absorb only 35 per cent of their former volume of water; while originally, when in average condition for growing crops, they had held about 65 per cent of water by volume. In the reclaiming of turf lands of this charatcer there is always more or less danger that the muck will burn. On some of the newer plantations trouble has been experienced in burning off the growths of weeds and grass that coy- ered the muck. This burning off can be done with safety only when the muck is still wet from a recent rain. During the spring of 1910, which was the driest in southern Louisiana since Government weather records have been kept in the State, the muck began to burn on area No. 4, near Raceland. This tract had been drained but about eight months. A rain of three-fourths of an inch failed to extinguish the fire. It became necessary to dig a ditch around the fire deep enough to reach to the silt below. This method of checking fire is practicable and efficient if it is adopted soon enough. The danger of the burning of any considerable area of the reclaimed land is very remote. The system adopted in reclaiming this land—that of dividing it up into comparatively small levee districts—would limit the extent of the fire, and the division of the districts themselves into small areas by the lateral ditches makes it impossible for the whole of any plantation to be in great danger from fire. The danger from extensive burning to the muck of unreclaimed — swamp land is not great even when the muck is very dry, for the ridges of river silt which occur at frequent intervals would serve as effectual checks to any great progress of the fire. Even if the muck be burned from a tract of land the underlying silt makes a very excellent although a somewhat heavy and impervious soil. AREA WEST OF THE ATCHAFALAYA RIVER, ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF SOILS. Most of the land to the westward of the Atchafalaya River, except as pre- viously noted, is of different origin and character from that of the area just described. As most of the land of this section consists of recent coastal plain deposits rather than of Mississippi River alluvium, the surface conditions are somewhat different from those encountered in the eastern or delta section of the State. Instead of a succession of ridges and shallow lakes such as occur in the delta DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 15 section we have a coastal plain gradually rising from south to north. Along the immediate coast line there is a more or less unbroken sandy ridge through which the local rivers have cut channels. Immediately in the rear of the ridges are stretches of salt marsh very little above sea level, but which gradually rise to the north so that at a distance of some 5 to 10 miles inland they become fresh-water marsh. The larger streams, such as the Mermentau, the Calcasieu, and the Sabine are still depositing alluvium, and since the coast line was ele- vated these streams have considerably extended the land adjoining them. AS the waters of these outlets are very sluggish and are not heavily loaded with silt they have not built up large ridges along the immediate river banks. The alluvial portion is nearly level and the strips of alluvial land along the channels gradually widen as the streams approach the Gulf. These alluvial strips are still in process of formation and of elevation by deposition, since at each high water the adjoining lands are flooded, the rivers not having been leveed. CLASSIFICATION AND EXTENT OF SOILS. As before stated, the Bureau of Soils has not made surveys of this section, but has examined and classified the soils immediately north of it. These vari- ous clays, clay loams, silt loams, and sandy loams, are described in detail in publications of that bureau.’ Toward the Gulf the above-enumerated soils are overlaid with muck and alluvial deposits and thus become subsoils. The lands of this section might be divided into two main divisions, as indi- cated in the paragraphs on origin and formation: (1) The general wet prairie land, with a comparatively shallow deposit of silt and muck on the surface; and (2) the strips of alluvial land along the river channels or streams. The first class includes the great bulk of the lands of this section. As noted above, the subsoils of this portion are the solid loams, etc., of the higher land, thus af- fording a solid foundation which is quite different from the soft yielding allu- vial silt of the Mississippi Delta swamps. Overlying this subsoil occurs a shallow deposit of partly alluvial silt caused by local erosion and weathering. On the higher and better drained portions there is little or no muck on the surface, although the silt of the top 6 inches is rich in vegetable matter due to the decay of the grasses that grow on these sections. These portions are covered with water only during the rainy season, and during times of long drought ordinary wagons can be driven over them quite safely. Toward the south, however, the land is water-covered practically all of the time, and a layer of muck has formed from decaying prairie grass. In the essential characteristics this muck is very similar to that of the Mississippi Delta sec- tion. It averages from 6 to 18 inches in thickness, although in low depressions and shallow bayous it may be several feet deep. Owing to the absence of any extensively silt-bearing streams the muck of these wide level prairie sections is composed almost entirely of vegetable matter, and its dry weight is less than that of the average muck of the delta section. This, however, should not be an undesirable feature, as most of it is so shallow that the cultivation will soon extend into the silt below. As the coast line is approached, as noted before, the marsh becomes salt, but it is covered with practically the same depth of muck. In various places in this section there are broad zones where the silt deposit between the muck and the underlying subsoil is quite deep, perhaps 3 or 4 feet, and has a chocolate-brown color quite similar to the soil of the Sharkey clay regions. These areas are more numerous in the lower portions of the prairie. 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1901 and 1903. — hl 16 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Along the larger rivers, especially near their mouths, the alluvial belts of soil are quite wide. In these sections the rivers have laid down alluvium many feet in thickness on the older deposits. The building up of these flood plains has been very slow, and the marsh-grass growth has been continuous; thus we have near the top a muck with a high percentage of silt grading down. into a silt with a large percentage of vegetable material at a depth of from 1 to 4 feet. Parts of this alluvial section are quite soft—almost semifluid— although the land immediately along the river channels is sometimes quite firm. The muck in these alluvial sections is quite similar to that of the Mississippi Delta section, except that the silt is well mixed with the muck instead of occurring in alternate layers. CROPS. The staple crops grown in this section of the State are sugar cane, rice, corn, forage crops, and truck. In certain parts, especially along the lower portion of the Mississippi and in other districts near the Gulf, large areas are planted in oranges and other citrus fruits. In the eastern or delta portion of the section sugar-cane is the most profitable general field crop, while in the western por- tion rice is grown almost as exclusively as is sugar-cane in the eastern part. In both sections some corn is grown, but not enough to supply the local demand; as a result, good prices are maintained. Of the adaptability of the type of soil called the Sharkey clay, the Bureau of Soils says:* The Sharkey clay was not especially adapted to cane and cotton and was no temptation to producers of these commodities, but the increased interest of late years in the production of rice has given a new value to this soil, and if the problem of drainage can be cheaply and successfully solved, the soil is admirably adapted to the production of this crop. Near New Orleans the reclaimed areas are devoted to the dairy business and to market gardening. The fertility of Sharkey clay is almost inexhaustible, and when well drained it is adapted to any crop which requires a fertile clay soil. The crops most profitably grown near New Orleans are onions, cabbage, eggplant, and tomatoes. From observations on the various reclaimed districts it would appear that all crops grown on the older lands bordering the river can be suecessfully grown on the prairie lands, although there are’ some differences in the methods of cultivation. 'The lands just recently brought under cultivation are much more fertile than these older lands, and with intelligent farming should not require an application of fertilizer for a long term of years. NATURAL DRAINAGE CONDITIONS. The natural surface drainage of this section is away from the Mississippi River and larger bayous of sedimentation, directly into the Gulf by way of bayous of the tidal erosion type. However, numerous canals are being cut through the bayous of the first type from the low-lying swamp or prairie lands, - thus aiding in the drainage. Water covers the surface of the undrained lands for the greater part of the year. This water comes from three different sources—direct precipitation, river overflow, and tidal overflow. OVERFLOW DUE TO DrREcT PRECIPITATION. The water to be removed from these lands comes mostly from direct precipi- tation, and it is with reference to the removal of this water that the nature and capacity of natural drainage channels will be discussed. Owing to the 1U. 8. Dept. Agr., Field Operations of the Bureau of Soils, 1903, p. 452. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 17 slight elevation of the land above sea level all of the streams are very sluggish in character. Their surface slopes are always very slight and are due entirely to the piling up of the water in the interior until sufficient head is created to force the water out to the Gulf. At times of high tide in the Gulf and small precipitation in the interior, the current is often reversed in many of the streams, and salt water then flows many miles inland. However, at such times the water in the channels is so low that the tide rarely causes a stage suffi- cient to flood any of the adjoining land. (This condition should not be con- fused with tidal overflow, which will be discussed later.) The fluctuation in water level, due to direct precipitation, in the various bayous and interior lakes is never very great and depends quite as much on the direction of the prevailing winds as on the amount of precipitation. Bayou La Fourche is one of the largest and longest natural drainage channels in this section, extending about 120 miles into the interior. A gauge has been maintained for more than three years at a point about 70 miles inland from the Gulf, and back 1 mile from the bayou on a short canal which connects with the general water level in the Swamps. The extreme variation of the water surface observed at this gauge was 3.4 feet. At the time of the lowest gauging the salt water had reached this point, so that it was approximately sea level. This low stage was _ caused by a combination of the following conditions: A prolonged and record- breaking drought, only 1.12 inches of precipitation having fallen in the pre- ceding two months; warm weather giving high evaporation; and northerly winds followed by southerly winds, which later caused a gradual rise by bringing in the salt water. This low stage was 1.3 feet below mean tide for this point. During the winter of 1911-12 the stage reached its greatest height for the three years beginning June, 1909. It was then 3.4 feet above low tide, which is approximately sea level, and 2.1 feet above mean tide. This high stage was caused by a combination of the following conditions: Heavy and continual precipitation, 9.7 inches having fallen in the preceding 40 days, cold weather and small evaporation, and continued southerly winds. At points farther inland the fluctuation in water level is proportionately greater. The situation on Bayou La Fourche is mentioned because it 1s typical of all the long sluggish bayous that carry away the drainage water. Most of the interior watercourses are connected with each other by cross bayous and canals so that they are all somewhat similar in their action. The drainage areas are very poorly defined, and no doubt lap somewhat, as some of the connecting canals and bayous often reverse direction of currents, according to the stages of water in the various parts of the system; for this reason it is practically impossible to measure the run-off from these drainage areas. It is probable that the natural run-off is very low, due to small slopes and the rank vegetation on all the land, only about 10 per cent along the bayous being under cultivation. The bayous of sedimentation are quite free from growth of vegetation, many of them having a considerable boat traffic which tends to keep them cleared out and in good condition as drainage channels. Those of tidal erosion are apt to be overgrown with water hyacinths, but owing to their greater depth these are also quite efficient channels. As shown in figure 1, many parts of this section discharge their drainage water almost directly into the Gulf, or into large interior lakes that undergo very little fluctuation in water surface. Thus these areas are relieved of all drainage water due to direct precipitation without great rise of water in the carrying channels. In the interior portions, such as that contiguous to the upper part of Bayou La Fourche, there are often rises of water level of several feet in the main drain- 25102°—Bull. 71—14——3 18 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. age channels. In this flat country a rise of 3 to 4 feet in the main drainage outlet is a very serious matter, and one that demands attention. In reclaiming land in this section the usual practice is to inclose the district with levees to keep out the surrounding water; the drainage water of the land so inclosed is then pumped over the levee into some natural bayou that leads to the Gulf. If the fluctuation in water level in this dutlet bayou is great, not only is a more expensive pumping plant equipment necessary, but the cost of the levees is very greatly increased. As the usual height of the levees is but from 3 to 5 feet above the ground level of the marsh, a rise of 8 to 4 feet in the outlet bayou will often endanger the levees or at least cauSe a considerable seepage through them. The danger from seepage is especially great because the fluctuation of the water level takes place very slowly. Thus in the vicinity of the tidal gauge in Bayou La Fourche, near Lockport, the water stood, dur- ing January, 1912, more than 14 feet above mean tide. Districts in this vicinity that were exposed to this tide did a large amount of pumping to set relief from Seepage water. Up to the present time little attention has been given to the problem of the disposal of the drainage water after it is pumped over the levees. Some sec- tions never will be compelled to give this matter consideration, owing to their favorable locations on or near the Gulf or some other large body of water. On the other hand, there are sections of wet prairie that are isolated from any large bodies of water by distances of from 20 to 75 miles along the shortest natural outlet channel. Thus far few of these districts have experienced any > difficulty in getting outlets, for the surrounding limitless prairie is so little above sea level that the drainage water can immediately spread out, and thus causes no trouble. The.percentage of land yet reclaimed is so very small that no effect on the carrying capacity of watercourses could yet be expected. As the work of reclamation goes forward and district after district is re- claimed, until a considerable portion of the whole area is appropriated, the drainage water when pumped over the levees can not spread over the surround- ing prairie, for the latter will be inclosed by the levees of adjoining districts. The water will then be forced to flow through long winding channels to the Gulf, this distance often being as great as 75 miles. This will mean that the water level on the outside of these interior districts must rise until sufficient head is created to cause a movement of the water to the Gulf, thus greatly increasing the cost of reclamation and rendering unsatisfactory much of the work that is now apparently finished. In the planning of gravity drainage districts the common interests of ad- jacent districts in securing good outlet facilities have in all parts of the country long been recognized. Experience has shown cooperation between such dis- tricts to be necessary. As yet, most of the reclamation districts that secure drainage by pumping are independent of each other, and, as pointed out above, those which are fortunately situated will remain so. On the other hand, interior sections will eventually need better outlet facilities to the Gulf if the present policy of developing small independent districts is continued. It is evident that the various districts should be so correlated that there will be no interference between the different interests. This makes necessary a general survey of this district, covering the topographic and hydrographic fea- tures. A survey of this scope would show the probable future necessity of in- creasing the present capacity of the natural drainage channels, or perhaps of providing additional outlet channels for some of the more isolated sections. It is quite likely that such additional channels could be used as commercial canals, thus making them doubly valuable. The section of the country lying between 3ayous La Fourche and Terrebonne, in the parishes of the same names, is an ; eR ee shi Rea eee , re ad imeul FIG.3 U.S.DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS CREVASSES AND AREAS OVERFLOWED SOUTHERN LOUISIANA MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLOOD OF 1912 Sai FELICIANA E St. Francisville From map of Mississippi River Commission. Courtesy of Capt.C.0.Sherrill, Corps of Engineers,U.S.Army SCALE IN MILES a ae NOTE: Shaded portions represent areas overflowed. (Ez es {LAKE PONTCHARTRA! & C_ pe oe a / ! J / 9 \\) “ \ me 4 XS SN, P Se Donaldsonvilles j x m_f Franklin OS) Z he, . ~ Qe VERMILLION (lo Za ))) bay SUS f{~St PS So i @ x. | JNA NORRIS PAYERS CO, WASNINGION, © € DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 19 excellent illustration of an area that eventually will need better outlet facili- ties, parts of this area discharging drainage water through 80 miles of natural drainage channel to reach the Gulf. As shown by the gauge at Lockport, the natural water surface in the swamps already has a large fluctuation, and any further extensive reclamation of land without improvement of the main drainage channels will doubtless considerably increase this fluctuation. A survey of this area would be needed to determine whether or not the present channel should be improved or whether any channels should be cut through the central portion of the district. Local landholders have suggested the possi- bility of combining such a main drainage outlet with a commercial canal to the Gulf, thus affording the district better transportation facilities. A thorough survey of the district would determine the feasibility of such a combination of interests. RIVER OVERFLOW. Like all delta regions this one was originally subject to periodic overflow. The smaller floods of the Mississippi River were confined within the natural levees that the stream itself has built up, but at irregular intervals of some years great floods would for months cover practically all of the delta. As soon as any serious attempt was made to bring this land under cultivation, levees were built along the Mississippi River banks to protect the lands from overflow. Districts were finally organized which included long stretches of river, and in all millions of dollars have been spent in levee improvements. This expendi- ture, with such Federal aid as has been available, has built a continuous levee system on both banks of the river throughout its length in the district under consideration. The levees have been increased in size as fast as the protected land could supply the money. In the earlier years, owing to insufficient cross section of levees and low grade line, crevasses were of frequent occurrence in times of high water. As more and more work was done on the levees a greater degree of protection was secured, until now crevasses and consequent overflow are very rare and occur only at times of record-breaking fioods. The levee system is still far from complete. As illustrative of the flooding possibilities due to crevasses in the present system of levees, figure 3, published by courtesy of the Mississippi River Commission, shows the area overflowed during the record-breaking flood of 1912. It is evident that not only the reclamation of the swamp land but the successful cultivation of practically all of the higher land east of the Atcha- falaya River is dependent upon the prevention of overflow of. the Mississippi River. The interests involved in such overflow and the damage resulting are of such ever-increasing magnitude that there is every reason to believe that the work of completing these levees will be done in the immediate future. Promi- nent levee engineers who are acquainted with the problem believe that with the completion of the levee system this whole area will be protected from over- flow of the Mississippi River. The above remarks apply to the alluvial section of the country, as very little land west of the Atchafalaya River is affected by Mississippi overflow. Some of the larger streams, such as the Calcasieu and the Sabine, flood the alluvial flats of land immediately along their banks to a depth of perhaps 4 feet, but as a whole the wet prairie lands of this western portion of the coast are free from river overflow. TIDAL OVERFLOW. The daily range of tide along this portion of the Gulf coast is quite small, the average being from 0.5 to 1.5 foot. However, as is true of all low, flat coasts bordering on wide areas of comparatively shallow water, heavy winds which ) i as } Meter ouctice a 13 /2- t + +-—}—t—--] +> | | | | ‘al aa IL | I | I- + | / . + = lamin UN — Water Sucface April 21519/2\ fe [ ll | | Vilersur ge Sept 19 alc | | | ‘| 1 [ | LJ Leet cull Gwie ae I] == | IC Water Surface Nov. 6-19/1- | +-—+ Ss is t = Ie L o- | - | | | A Ai Se ae zy | | fe ; + + 3 r | 2 LL NG. st _iL_}} | I ae tt =. | { i i. — Pp | ir | | 1 he | | S H & J 4 NAVIBATJON|CANAL JAE 8 er, a lal - = : aT r mr Ir = | 7 t =| 7H 1 | | 1 i i — SIS 7 | Vo al +— = ia =F | — i i t e : | T i T “If [ ia | ime i _ = ; st ul =H 4 L [ Peale 7 i jj Heb I tL oo ia a sh a Ticks] — i pei HL ‘Ore 20 a) a 2 7 ‘ret, 0 od 4 60 700 180 200 zat THE NONNI= PETERS CO, WASHINGTON. 0c 419. 7 ~ Cress sections of /evees on Araa No.2, showing water stages ond profiles of ground water (For /ocations of sections, see Fig 6 ) DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 31 about $0.75 per “acre”* of ditch. With the present spacing of 160 feet the annual cost of ditch maintenance per acre of area drained is about $1. DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS : Hanan [tral aaa asa inches lac cdass|cae\ coo asr \ '% AY frag N WN? ae BS 22 SS ‘Z RS VALS SZ LAK, CZ | BI SSS 2G: IA RAS I) SSSS 47467 BVA 1H SSS ONAL TZ) E ee 7 7 age ses em SSS. ALARA AZ r) on SSM :01228 es BINNIE ee SS BRR WY DIATIILAZ GN _| RQ QQ WTI MEA Z742__| 3 IRQ WWW 4AZ7k=_| a \\ WG Be ZZ LR WBMP SAA _| EEE SWSVNG Z LYVVADY AYALA, | SL BQ YTD HAA Z._| | NV 7/22 = LAGI 4A Laie | rat WIN MG GH Vi; SACLE, =a Si Se 7 Taeaena 29 EE SWG 4 a es BALILAACHATEA | BS8 : a ‘i ia | ae A § RKWQW0QKWUWA YA cag ed Ha Cy ip, ne May . : | 7 nL CA [AZZ MO ETON N\N\4G2G' san NN 23723) ESS: 70S TNA VLA AAAALZ, _| Paez SNSS:3G2) 17, 7 HE 22o LYE ALS | GIL Ls | SSG GW AMA IAALZ | L SSG CYAN oT T SSS CWA LAVARAAZ | NX VA Ace | LNG WADA | LNG Was a we eee eee 50 NN NN LB ioe SS —_—_ NS PP LA ae 40rd onayy PT RQ Qh, WAALS SCS 2| be Sey | _1_NS WA AA oo e = N95 SWUZZZA zl NW SA : BN AN 225222 é BEN SNVN AAA é PTS z NCW : g LIN 2 6 ct et NNZZ ZAC = FoI NVA SM } BESS 44 $ SEEAGISSM |_| N\N\N2aZ: feos | — Q0 Fic. 8.—Profiles of ground water on interior of area No. 2. Oe aR EN ATE SSS Aa ment Wee ||) WHAM ALLL Ls NS GG C1 TAA SLLS HN VA LISS CYNWI NLZLY |e LTRS sg NE IT. SS SUM AALS _ LSS GYAN ee HANG Ae GOS SS NA Sa7 Baa b aoe ae — RS GQG SEA (2aZy, LIAS WABAVLLTERYT Ae oe44 TT PRR. ivan (Re a Pe Lael DS “a YOHPAA/F During the summer of 1910 some measurements of the depth of the water table below the surface were made. The results of these measurements are shown graphically in figures 8 and 8a. It is evident that after long and heavy +The term “ acre” is in common use in the section under discussion as a unit of length in rough land measurements. Its value is the length of one side of a square whose area is 1 acre, or about 209 feet. oo: bo: DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1919 41). 12) 15.| 16.| 17) 18) 19.) 20 | 21 | 22 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SS EZ ZR RQ WTEA AGRE | SS 2077- p eee ee ogee PZT fs RS SN ea - oz XQ ee Sy g 3 Ss 23 oE RS SNNSSS: Va Pay ME ANNAN SEI 35 Fee NSS Bee eA BS BMHASSSSSUGZE = INNS Oa OX RS ‘| : 28 s : AS 8 SB LIZZ iN 8 ee Ae = BONS se a8 | -EAZZ NSN oN MOE N\A am C77, NNUAL AL NNN ANN BIZZANNN aC HERNAN ee : HENNA ee EINNN IE ae WW 2 SSSSSZ' An me ONGZG ; Gy DG Ine See 26 271A @ |0.56) A05\2.25\0.15\013 | O24|0.29)\0.12 \044\ 0.26) 155) 057108 \00. Goes CLACEA Vv, 49, BZZ C72 Wand SS ZACZZA} ZASSSNSES BA 5 = 7 Res 058 NAS HNNNNINGS NS He CANN NRE W242 BOD ISSN WISN atNS VIAZA | APA fe dbl BAUDANNNAG GASB ARISSNSSNZ VAD ARNNIRGN Nay AAA BESS NSSSSNG 2A AUR ONNSNG TET ZINNERASSSSS 42. | BA ZZAWy INSINSENESS SNSZi ‘GLA, BEAZZ20 Si VNNANZZA BIGNESS: Popol — SNe NS AL 6) MZ NUNS ee 23 | 24#| 26) 27) 29} Sul 9 | 049 | 0.66| 048 \0.77|0/4\2.50\\nc! 10) 21] 22 100 SEAS NAYS NARS SY) ae ) QU) 005| 100) 5 S| 29) 2/) 23) 28) 3/ JJune | 4 Q24| Ail |Q05\05/| (48\0.6 2% |inches 7 Bisa Ps RNS PASE Arya ie Ske ne ZZ * % ~ s Yols (on Az Fic, 8a.—Profiles of ground water on interior of area No. 2. rains the ground water profile is quite steep, but that it rapidly flattens out. Although the silt on this tract is very fine grained and impervious, there is evidence of considerable lateral movement of the water through it. It was considered by the land-- owner that the depth of drainage was sufficient for the growth of crops. Corn was the crop on the ground at the time these measure- ments were taken. PUMPING PLANT. The plant is located at one end of the reservoir eanal (see fig. 6, p. 28) and discharges by a short wooden flume directly into the commercial canal out- side. There are two ver- tical centrifugal pumps of the square wooden - case type, with impellers 32 by 12 inches and 24 by 8 inches, respectively. Each pump is rope driven by a slide-valve noncondensing engine, steam being sup- plied by a 100-horsepower return-tubular boiler. A feed-water heater has been installed within the last two years. As far as mere capacity is concerned, when run- ning continuously,’ this plant is satisfactory. How- ever, aS regards reliability and efficiency, as well as cost of upkeep and opera- tion, it is far from being an ideal plant. The chief trouble lies in the type of pump. The wooden-case pump with its rope drive is constantly giving more or less trouble; the ex- pense for extra labor to repair the rope drive DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 33 added to the cost of new rope is a considerable item. The loss of power in the rope drive is unavoidable and the loss of the use of the pump at a critical time due to the breaking of a rope is a serious matter.’ This pump while adapted to a low lift is not suitable for a varying one. The total lift, to be on the safe side, must be about 1 foot above ordinary high tide, and when the variation of the tide is 2.5 feet with the effective lift only 4.5 feet, as it is in this case, it is apparent that the actual lift of the pump is often nearly twice the effective lift. Again, being made almost entirely of wood, repairs to this style of pump are frequently necessary, and as the parts to be repaired are usually under water the pump must be detached from the foundation and raised before the work can be done. These pumps while low in first cost are very short lived when compared to the cast-iron centrifugal type. Thus, consider- ing the greater rate for depreciation and repairs on this style of pump as com- pared to the cast-iron centrifugal form, it appears that the latter might be preferable on this score alone. A reliable pump if placed in this plant could be of considerable less capacity than the present ones and still be of ample size. The heaviest rainfall since the records of pumping have been kept occurred in July, 1910, when 5.58 inches fell in 2 days. A reliable pump with a capacity of 0.75 inch per 24 hours would have taken this water out rapidly enough to have prevented a longer flooding than 12 hours. CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION. During the growing season of 1909 the front one-third of this tract was prac- tically the only part that was sufficiently well drained to admit of cultivation. These front lands naturally were a little firmer than the portion that originally was a part of Lake Fields. The back portion was fairly well drained for two years previous to the season of 1909, but the land had not become firm encugh to allow its cultivation with animal-drawn machinery. The drying out of these muck lands is accompanied by the formation of large cracks that extend to the soft mud below, and it is only after these cracks have been closed that cul- tivation can be done in the ordinary manner. The lateral ditches were all well cleaned and the silt was removed from the reservoir during the early spring of 1910. Although the spring of 1910 was unusually dry, all of the lake bed was not solid enough to be cultivated. Harly in the spring of 1911 all this land was plowed with a gang of six turning plows drawn by a gasoline traction engine mounted on the apron traction instead of wheels. Corn was planted in this land and it was cultivated in the usual manner, since the one thorough plow- ing had completely filled the holes and cracks. The period necessary to bring the land under complete cultivation was about four years. This period could have been shortened if the drainage had been complete and continuous from the first and the land plowed a year sooner with a traction engine. Corn seems to be the easiest and best crop to grow on these new lands, followed by sugar- eane the second and third years. Wxcellent yields of all kinds of truck have been grown on this plantation. Cane produces especially well and the tonnage per acre is very much greater than on the older lands along the bayou, exceed- ing their average nearly 50 per cent. No special treatment was given this soil when bringing it under cultivation and it does not appear that any was neces- sary. AREA NO. 3, LA FOURCHE PARISH, LA. This district (fig. 9) lies about 5 miles south of the village of Raceland and borders on the upper end of Lake Fields, this being the same lake from which a part of area No. 2 was taken. The district contains 940 acres. The surface 25102°—Bull. 71—14——_5 » U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - ‘ BULLETIN 34 ee ee es ae a ee a a a ee ee ee ng ee JOM £4 @ HIL/O ee ee ee ee we ee of Rain Gauge. LEGEND ReservoirCanols..... Collecting Ditches... quejd Guidung™ 1209 SCALE IN FEET onl Loteral Ditches... Ge , Fic. 9.—Sketch map of area No. 3, near Raceland, La Fourche Parish, La., showing ditch and levee system. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 35 slopes gradually from a height of about 3 feet above mean tide at the north end to lake level at the south. Reclamation on this tract was started in 1907, and the first extensive cultivation was done in 1909. The condition and general character of the muck has previously been described in the discussion of muck soils. (See p. 12.) LEVEES. For the most part the levee was built of material taken from the outside of the district. The work was done with a dipper dredge with a short boom, and the berm on the outside is very small and in some places entirely lacking, The levee was gone over two or three times before it was brought to its present height of 4 feet above mean tide. The present crown is about 4 feet wide and the side slopes are nearly as steep as 2 to 1. When this levee was built no muck ditch was made in the base nor was any of the surface cleared of vegeta- tion. The levee was cut by a trench some months after it had been built. This showed that the material, when placed, did not force its way through the muck and form a bond with the underlying silt. At this point the muck was quite turfy in character, but not more so than the average muck of this part of the prairie. The layer of muck under the levee was considerably compressed, but it certainly was still quite pervious when compared to silt. The fact that the base of this levee is above ordinary outside water level probably accounts for the fact that no great amount of seepage appears. In the lower and softer part of the district some of the material in the levee was taken from the reser- voir canal. Here a berm of from 10 to 15 feet was left between the levee and the canal, the muck being so soft that the mud, when dropped from the dipper, undoubtedly cut through the muck to the silt below. The same condition existed here as gave trouble on area No. 2, except that there was a berm on the inside of this levee and the difference in the level of the water inside and outside was never as great as on area No. 2. If the reservoir had been of suffi- cient depth to drain thoroughly the lowest land in this district, the head of the water against the levee might have been -great enough to cause a noticeable amount of seepage. During the fall of 1911 the reservoir was deepened about 3 feet and the material placed on the levee. As the levee has had a chance to harden for several years since it was first built, it is not expected that this increased depth of drainage will cause a greater amount of seepage through it. In this case no damage seems to have resulted from placing the reservoir canal close to the levee and from using the material excavated from it for levee building. During the unusually high stage of water in this lake in December, 1911, and January, 1912, the levees on the higher part of the district leaked very badly, as might have been expected from a previous examination of the unbroken layer of muck in the base. In the softer portions of the district no great trouble was experienced from seepage. During the early months of 1912 a continuous muck ditch was cut along the toe of the inside slope of these levees and this refilled with material taken by an orange-peel bucket dredge from the bottom of the outside canal. The levees should now be in much better condition to resist seepage. RESERVOIR CANALS. When this reservoir was first excavated the ground was very soft; as a result a deep layer of mud was soon deposited in the bottom. Owing to the fact that it was located in the lowest part of the tract it served as an outlet to the lateral ditches, but never was of sufficient capacity to aid in reducing the 36 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. required capacity of the pumping plant. The surface of the ground for a con- siderable distance around the pumping plant is much lower than that of the remainder of the district, so that the water was allowed to overflow the reser- voir and to fill this low area. As no attempt was being made to cultivate this low area it was used in this manner for.additional reservoir capacity. If an attempt had been made to reclaim the entire district the reservoir must have been found too small for any practical use, but by allowing this low part of the tract to be flooded the remainder was given fairly good drainage until the summer of 1911. The need of a better reservoir then became apparent and during the month of October the reservoir was excavated to a depth of 7 feet and a width of 35 feet. In addition to cleaning out the old canal a new por- tion was cut into the central part of the district. The capacity of the new reservoir above a 4-foot level is 0.25 inch; the reservoir should maintain this capacity, as the surrounding ground is quite firm. In excavating along the old reservoir the material was found to be solid enough for each dipperful par- tially to hold its shape after being dropped on the spoil bank. Considerable difficulty was encountered, however, in removing the soft mud that had col- lected in the bottom of the reservoir. A hydraulic dredge would have been much more satisfactory for taking out this mud. DITCHES. During the first two years of cultivation on this tract lateral ditches of a depth of 3 feet, spaced as far apart as 600 feet, gave ample drainage. Due to the short length of reservoir canal it was necessary to construct some large collecting ditches to keep the lengths of laterals from being too great. These collecting ditches were about 8 feet wide and 4 feet deep, but as they were frequently nearly dry a strong growth of vegetation soon reduced their effective size very greatly. They did not afford the small lateral ditches sufficient out- let and consequently the tract was not well drained; at the same time the ground was becoming more impervious, due to the decay of the muck. Lateral ditches were then placed about 200 feet apart and the ditches were cleaned out. During the summer of 1911, one of unusual precipitation, it was found that about halfway between adjacent lateral ditches the ground was saturated with water to the surface. Some of the landowners now propose to place lateral ditches as close together as 100 feet. It would seem that this is as yet unnecessary. In the first place, the laterals were not at that time of the usual depth of 3 feet; they were not kept in good condition, and some of them were nearly three-fourths of a mile long, and furthermore the reservoir canal was not of sufficient depth to keep the water out of these ditches. If the above defects were remedied, it certainly would improve conditions greatly and might make the cutting of additional ditches unnecessary. The use of a collecting ditch instead of frequent reservoir canals, while it reduces the first cost of the drainage channels is rather unsatisfactory. The collecting ditch soon becomes grown full of weeds and grass, while a small reservoir canal will always have water in it and will not so easily become obstructed. Plate I, figure 1, shows an apron-traction ditcher cutting laterals on this district. PUMPING PLANT. The plant is located in the lowest part of the district. The pumps discharge through a short wooden flume into the lake. There are two 32 by 12 inch verti- cal centrifugal pumps of the square wooden-case type. One of them is belt driven and the other rope driven, each by a 12 by 16 inch slide-valve noncon- DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. B37 densing engine. Steam is furnished by two 60-horsepower locomotive type boilers. The machinery is on a timber foundation, supported on piling, and the building is a frame Structure covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron. In type the plant is very similar to the one on area No. 2 and is subject to the same general criticisms. In capacity it has always been sufficient, but due to the small reservoir it could only be operated at full capacity for rather short periods. However, the new and large reservoir remedied this difficulty, although on account of its length the collecting ditch will always bring in the water rather slowly. The present conditions are favorable to a small percentage and a low in- tensity of run-off. As the district is more completely brought under cultivation, however, and the water is more promptly pumped out, both the amount and the intensity of the run-off should increase, although it is not likely that this will be large enough to require an increase of the present large pumping capacity. - In August, 1911, this plant burned; it was reconstructed, the present plant being a duplicate of the former one. In a plant of this character, where most of the structure is of wood, the danger of fire is much greater than in the more recent type of pumping plant. These latter are equipped with cast-iron cen- trifugal pumps mounted on concrete foundations and are built with some iden of making them fireproof. CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION. In bringing this land under cultivation the first crop was planted on the higher portions after a year of drainage. Before the muck became decayed it drained very readily, and, as stated on page 36, few laterals were necessary. Good crops of corn were grown on this land with the water table only 1 foot below the surface. Sugar cane has also successfully been grown on this land, as have all kinds of truck. No special treatment has been given the land before cultivation. Not all of this district has been cultivated, though it is now all solid enough to be easily cultivated if the water were kept sufficiently low. This tract could have been brought under cultivation much sooner if it had been well drained the year around, instead of only during the growing season. In draining new land it is important to keep it well drained all of the time, so that the soft mud will have a chance to harden. AREA NO. 4, RACELAND, LA FOURCHE PARISH, LA. This district, containing 2,400 acres, is similar in natural conditions, such as Soil and elevation, to area No. 8, and borders it along one side. While in size it is more advantageous than any of the districts heretofore mentioned, its shape, due to natural boundaries, is not as good. However, the various details of reclamation have been somewhat better carried out in this district than ju those previously discussed. The map of area No. 4 is shown in figure 10. LEVEES. Most of the levee was built by a dipper dredge with material taken from the channels which the map shows outside the protected area. No ditch was cut in the base of the levee nor was any other preliminary work done. Along Bayou False the levee was built from material taken from both inside and outside the district. This bayou had been opened for navigation several years before the levee along this district was built. The spoil bank had settled until it was quite firm, so that the material taken from the reservoir canal, when deposited on this firm base, formed a levee of sufficient cross section the first time over 38 BULLETIN 71, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with the dredge. Along most of the boundary of the tract the ground was so Solid that once over with the dredge, cutting a 35-foot by 6-foot canal, gave more than enough material to build a levee. The average height of the levee is 4 feet above mean tide, and the top width, while variable, averages about 5 feet. All of the levee has not been brought to an even grade as yet, and much Ganals...........-- Collecting Ditches... F FIOM LGTORAG Eines ecc orn ein oe SCALE IN FEET 2000 3000 4000 5000 .P, del. ° 1000 Fic. 10.—Sketch map of area No. 4, Raceland, La Fourche Parish, La., outlining arrange- ment of ditches and levees. of it has been allowed to grow up in weeds. As far as can be noticed, this levee is practically free from any great amount of seepage at ordinary water level. For the most part the base is above mean tide, and no doubt this fact partly accounts for the good condition of the levee. Where the reservoir canal par- alleis Bayou False a 10 to 15 foot berm was left along both sides of the levee, making the total distance between canals nearly 60 feet. On the other portions DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 39 of the tract the berm along the outside of the levee is smaller and averages about 5 feet in width. As ditches do not parallel this levee except on one side, and then not closely, the small width of berm should not prove a serious defect as far as seepage is concerned. As stated on page 37, no muck ditch was cut in the base of the levee, and at ordinary stages of water no large seepage was apparent. However, during the high water that affected area No. 3 the levee leaked badly, and, as was the case in area No. 3, the water seemed to come through the base where the layer of muck occurred, rather than through the body of the levee itself. This defect was remedied by cutting a ditch along the slope of the levee and filling it with material dredged from the bottom of the canal. This not only cut off seepage through the base of the levee, but added somewhat to the cross-sectional area. RESERVOIR CANALS. Owing to the size of this tract it was necessary to cut reservoir canals into the interior to give outlet to the system of laterals. ‘This rather extensive length of canals gives a larger reservoir capacity than is had in any of the other districts of this vicinity. Between the surface and a distance of 4 feet below these canals have a capacity of 0.40 inch of water over the entire area. It is possible for the pumping plant to lower the water below this level, but under ordinary circumstances this is approximately the level to which the water is reduced. The added depth of reservoir (the canals are nearly all over 6 feet deep) will be of service in reducing the velocity of flow in the canals during the time of pumping and also in keeping their bottoms covered with water. This last feature will in a measure prevent the growth of weeds and grass and the consequent choking of the canals. In December, 1911, these canals were quite badly filled with a deposit of soft mud, 2 and even 3 feet having been deposited in places since the cutting of the canals some two years previous. This deposit is quite rapid during the first year of drainage. It is due partly to the wash from the laterals, but also to the crumbling and the sliding of the sides of the canals. The sliding is especially great when water is lowered too rapidly when the district is first pumped out. By taking the water out very gradually it has been found: that, even when the canals have been cut in very soft material, any great amount of sliding of canal banks can be avoided. In the softest portions of the prairie it has been found that there is a tendency for the surrounding mud to flow toward the canals when the water is lowered for the first time; the walls of the canals may continue to be even and unbroken, but the canals do not remain as wide nor as deep as they were before the water was lowered and this flow began. The material on this tract was too solid for any considerable amount of flow to be apparent. During the early part of the month of Decem- ber, 1911, an 8-inch hydraulic dredge was started in these canals to remove this deposit of mud. It was found desirable on the larger canals to replace the hydraulic dredge with an orange-peel-bucket dredge. By cutting into the harder underlying material it was possible to remove most of the soft mud from the bottom of the canal. This redredging of interior canals seems to become neces- sary from two to four years after they are first cut. The reservoir has thus far given satisfaction in the reclamation of this tract. The increase of lift during the operation of the pumps, due to the slope of the water surface, is quite small. The greatest length of canal tributary to the pumping plant is about 24 miles. The greatest length of drainage channel that the water travels is nearly 3 miles, 40 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DITCHES. In this district, as in area No. 3, the collecting ditches have been used in con- nection with the lateral ditches to drain the ground. The collecting ditches have been placed along the roads and this has made it less difficult to keep them in good condition and also to see when they were in need of cleaning. However, these collecting ditches have not been easy to maintain, and it has been neces- Sary to clean them out a number of times. It was the plan at first to place the laterals every 210 feet, but later they were placed at twice that distance. When the ground was first drained this greater distance was not found to be - too great. In 1912, after two years of drainage and cultivation, a distance of 210 feet is considered by the landowners to be about as great as is safe. The laterals were at first 3 feet deep. This depth is not considered sufficient when the spacing between the laterals is as much as 210 feet. At times of heavy rains it has been found that the land between the ditches became too wet for best growth of crops. j Most of the laterals on this tract carry drainage water for at least 2,000 feet. This length seems to be allowable if the ditch is kept in fairly good condi- tion. When ditches longer than a half. mile are used, they must be increased in width and depth at the lower end, unless they are kept in perfect condition all of the time. On the lower and softer portion of this tract, unless some further collecting ditches are cut, the length of lateral will be nearly a mile; in view of the fact that this ground is almost level it is likely that this length will be too great. The percentage of land consumed in ditches and canals on this tract is quite small; considering the large area in reservoir. When all of the ditches are spaced 210 feet apart the area of land so consumed will be a little more than 24 per cent. PUMPING PLANT. The pumping plant is quite well located to draw water from all parts of the district. The discharge is into Bayou False, which is about 60 feet wide at this point and so affords an excellent outlet. As this plant is of much better construction than any of the others of this group, a somewhat detailed descrip- tion of it will be given (see fig. 11). The block of concrete which forms the foundation for the pumps and engines is about 17 feet wide and 50 feet long, and was placed approximately on the center of the levee with its greatest length parallel to the levee. This block is 8 feet thick and so extends below the plane of permanent water level, thus protecting from decay the piling that supports it. Around this foundation was driven a double row of sheet piling, and at each end a double row was extended some 15 feet into the levee. The sides of the intake basin also were protected by a double row of sheet piling, supported by a timber frame bolted to a number of round piles. The short length of dis- charge canal necessary to reach to the bayou was protected in a similar manner. Across the front of the intake basin a wooden screen prevents any floating matter of size from entering the pumps. The base of the pumps is set at about extreme low water in the bayou, and to protect the foundation from being flooded the concrete is raised in a wall about a foot thick along the outside to a height of 3 feet above mean tide. The whole of the foundation is well rein- forced with steel, and the round piling under the concrete extends into it about 2 feet, thus insuring a perfect bond. One 30-inch cast-iron centrifugal pump was installed in March, 1910, and a duplicate unit was added July, 1912. The arrangement and size of piping of the first unit is shown in figure 11. The important features are the enlarging and tapering of the pipes at the intake and discharge ends, the freedom from bends or elbows, and the horizontal cutting of the intake end of the pipe, the DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. Al latter feature permitting the water to be lowered to the end of the pipe without allowing the entrance of air. The saving in velocity head losses secured by enlarging the pipes amounts to nearly 2 feet, which is about one-half the usual lift. The pipes are supported by steel hangers secured to pairs of round piling. The pump is driven by a 14 by 16 inch vertical slide-valve engine, direct con- nected to,.the pump shaft with flexible coupling. This style of engine occupies less floor space and also ‘requires shorter lengths of pipes on the pumps than does the horizontal type. In addition, it is less likely to cause vibration or motion of the foundation when operated at high speed. Steam is fur- nished by a return tubular boiler burning crude oil. The building for this machinery has a timber frame covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron. The theoretical capacity of the completed plant, when both pumps are working Engine Base] ———— GFP, del: Fic. 11.—Sketch plan and elevation of one unit in pumping plant of area No. 4, Raceland, La. most economically, will be 1 inch per day with a maximum of 1.4 inches per day. One pump, with a capacity of 0.7 inch per day, successfully drained this tract for nearly two years until the time of high water in December, 1911, and January, 1912, when, owing to the seepage through the levee in addition to the rainfall, the ground was flooded for two or three days. At this time the reliability of this plant was shown, as the pump was operated continuously for six days and nights. With the second unit installed, no trouble should be experienced in removing any rainfall encountered, especially since the levees are now much better able to keep out seepage. It is quite certain that when all of the tract is under cultivation and all lateral ditches are in operation the intensity and amount of the run-off will be largely increased, but, due to the large reservoir capacity of the plant, no trouble should be encountered. 25102°—Bull. 71—14—6 42 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONDITION OF LAND FOR CULTIVATION. The pump was first started on this tract about March, 1910. The canals had been cut.some months before and the lateral ditches had also been in operation on the higher portions for about the same length of time. Some 300 acres of land were brought under cultivation during the spring of 1910, a large part of it by the use of horses and ordinary farm machinery. The remainder of this 300-acre tract was broken with a pulverizer attached to an apron-traction- ditcher frame. During the season of 1911 about as much more area was brought under cultivation. Nearly all of the tract that had been ditched could have been cultivated from the first. Much of the land in the lower portion of the tract is not yet completely ditched; in this part the ground is still far too soft to allow the use of horses or mules and ordinary farm machinery. The general crop grown was corn, with a small acreage of cane planted in 1911. Both crops were uniformly good, the cane being especially heavy. ; AREA NO. 5, DES ALLEMANDS, LAFOURCHE PARISH, LA. This tract of land (fig. 12) is one of the newest of the reclamation districts, and has only been under drainage since September, 1911. It lies on the western side of Bayou des Allemands, which at this point is several hundred feet wide and frem 10 to 15 feet deep. The district contains 1,880 acres and includes a portion of the village of Des Allemands, lying on the western side of the bayou and south of the Southern Pacific Railroad. The land is 1 or 2 feet above ordinary tidewater. in the bayou, and a large percentage of it is made up of firm silt ridges, with a very thin layer of muck on the surface. At inter- vals there occur old muck-filled bayous, haying widths of from 100 to 200 feet and depths of from 10 to 15 feet; however, the land is mostly quite firm, the proportion of such soft ground being about 10 per cent. Some of it was solid enough to plow in the ordinary manner as soon as the water was removed by the pumps. Except for a few scattering trees on the high ridges, most of the tract is covered With a heavy growth of the natural prairie grass. The muck averages from 8 to 12 inches in depth and is quite turfy in character. LEVEES. On two sides of this tract the problem of levee building was a simple one. The embankment of the Southern Pacific Railroad makes an excellent levee on one entire side and on the side that borders the bayou the solid ridge of silt was almost continuous and averaged about 2 feet above mean tide. Twice over with the dredge along the bayou made a levee about 5 feet high and having a top width of from 8 to 12 feet. The side slopes on this part of the levee are about 14 to 1. It is expected to use this part of the levee for a road, and as the material is almost pure silt it should make an excellent roadway. After the first layer of material was placed in this levee a thuck ditch was cut along its inside slope. When the second layer was placed this ditch was filled with pure silt taken from the bottom of the levee canal. This should give a levee that will be free from any great amount of seepage through the base. On the other two sides of the district canals had been cut some years before and the material thrown on both sides. This left a low solid base for the levee, and in most places once over with the dredge gave a levee 3 or 4 feet high with a top width of from 4 to 6 feet. The side slopes on this portion of the levee are from 2 to 3 horizontal to 1 vertical. The berm’ varies from 5 to 10 feet. Except where some old muck-filled bayous are crossed, the levee is high enough to pre- sa ae ha 7 H) , ; Bul. 71, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. FIG. 1.—APRON-TRACTION DITCHER CUTTING LATERAL DITCH ON AREA NO. 3, RACELAND, LA. Fic. 2.—PUMPING PLANT (UNDER CONSTRUCTION) ON AREA No. 5, DES ALLEMANDS, LA. Bul. 71, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. e . Fic. 2.—APRON TRACTOR PULLING GANG OF BREAKING PLOWS AFTER RECLAMATION, AREA No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA. Bul. 71, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fig. 1.—DipPER DREDGE CUTTING 50 BY 10 Foot RESERVOIR CANAL AND BUILDING LEVEE. FIG. 2.—APRON-TRACTION DITCHER CUTTING LATERAL DITCH, AREA No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA. Bul. 71, U..S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. INTERIOR VIEWS OF PUMPING PLANT ON AREA No. 7, GUEYDAN, LA., SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF ENGINES AND Pumps. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 43 vent flooding. In these soft spots the levee is only about a foot above mean tide and considerable work will have to be done to bring it to grade. Additions are being made to these portions with hand labor, and at present subsidence has practically ceased. On a portion of the levee where the old bank was used for a foundation some peculiar ‘seepage conditions have become apparent. Water appeared in the interior of the district some 20 to 40 feet from the levee, and an examination showed that the subsoil of the impervious Sharkey clay was filled with holes that varied in size from that of the usual crawfish hole, about 1 inch in diam- eter, up to several inches, the latter probably being muskrat holes. This was in a place where the underlying subsoil was very solid. It will be necessary to cut a deep muck ditch along this levee and fill it with puddled earth. L 30 CANAL Scale in Feet 1900 7000 3000 GFP, del Fie. 12.—Sketch map of area No. 5, Des Allemands, La Fourche Parish, La., showing arrangement of levee and ditches. RESERVOIR CANALS. As shown in figure 12, the reservoir canals were all cut in the interior of the district. By extending the canals to all parts of the tract the necessity of small collecting ditches was eliminated. A small canal gives much better out- let to the laterals than a collecting ditch and is easier to maintain in good condition. These canals were cut with a dipper dredge and the material was deposited rather close to the sides of the canal. This resulted in a small amount of shrinkage in the size of the canals, there having been, in February, 1912, about 4 feet of soft mud in the bottom of each of them; part of this was perhaps left by the dipper dredge when cutting the canal. It was expected that an attempt would soon be made to remove this mud with. a small hydraulic dredge; this should be a very favorable situation for its use. At the time of the examination the cross section of the main canal was so far reduced that the pumping plant could not be operated at full capacity after the water was +4 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. reduced to about 3 feet below the surface. The water was lowered very slowly in the canals, beginning about the 1st of September, 1911. No large slides occurred until about the end of December. At that time the water was lowered to the bottom of the canal and the banks became very soft; due to heavy and continued rains. In the immediate vicinity of the pumping plant, where the water was the lowest, and where an old muck-filled bayou was. crossed, both sides of the main canal caved in for a length of about 200 feet. The surrounding ground surface for a distance of 100 feet was lowered by this ’' action. The foregoing is a good illustration of the way this material will flow when conditions are favorable. The capacity of the reservoir system when it is brought back to its original size will be about 0.5 inch between the sur- face and a 4-foot level. This should bring the water to the pumps in sufficient quantities to keep both of them in operation until the water in the canal is lowered to at least a 4-foot level. DITCHES. The spacing of ditches on this tract probably will be about 200 feet. It is likely that on the higher and more solid portions the ditches will not require such close spacing as this, at. least for the present. The ditches were being cut with a ditcher similar to those usually employed on land of this character and will be of the usual size. They will discharge into the small canals and none of them will connect directly with the main reservoir canal. ‘The idea is to cause the silt to deposit mm the small canals and thus leave the large canal free from mud. Owing. to the regular shape of the district and the regular arrangement of the canals the ditches will all be of about the same length and the whole tract should receive about the same degree of drainage. The length of ditch will be nearly 2,000 feet. With the good outlet that the canals will afford, when compared with collecting ditches, this length should not prove to be too long to afford good drainage. If the ditches are placed at the usual spacing of about 200 feet the proportion of land in ditches and canals will be 3.6 per cent. PuMPING PLANT. The pumping plant is located about 300 feet back from the bayou front, on a leveed outfall canal. The plant was thus located in order that advantage might be taken of a firm ridge of silt as a foundation for the machinery. The arrange- ment and character of the foundation are shown in figure 13 and are very similar to those of the foundation under the plant on area No. 4. In this plant there are two units, which are duplicates. The pumps are cast-iron centrifugal with a 24- inch diameter of discharge. Plate I, figure 2, shows this plant under construction and gives an idea of the arrangement of boilers and machinery. The discharge and intake pipes are both enlarged and tapered the full length. The area of the intake pipe is about four and one-half times and the area of the end of the discharge pipe is nearly three times that of the discharge opening on the pump. This enlargement saves a loss of veiocity head of nearly 4 feet, which is about equal to the ordinary actual lift of the pumps. The intake pipes have but the: one elbow where they enter the pump and the discharge pipes are both straight. These pumps should operate very efficiently, as everything possible has been done to cut out unnecessary losses. To each pump a 12 by 12 inch simple vertical engine is direct connected with a flexible connection. Steam is fur- nished by two return-tube boilers burning coal. Oil burners are now being installed. This plant has been in operation since September, 1912, and is run- ning very smoothly. Both of the units have been run continuously for a period DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 45 of 4 or 5 days and were in good condition at the end of the run. This type of plant seems to give the reliability that is necessary in a drainage plant. Its theoretical capacity when operating at full load is 0.95 inch of depth in 24 hours. AREA NO. 6, NEAR POYDRAS, ST. BERNARD PARISH, LA. This district is part of a tract of 85,000 acres of land that lies to the south _ of the little town of Poydras, in St. Bernard Parish, being about 15 miles from New Orleans. The front boundary of the tract is for the most part the back line of the river-front plantations and the land extends back several miles. Most of the area is open grass-covered prairie, with only a narrow belt of timber near the front line. As a whole it is almost at mean tide level, the average elevation being not far from 0.5 foot. The muck is close to 4 feet deep and is not quite so turfy in character as is that in the vicinity of Race- Engine Base Fie. 13.—Sketch plan and elevation of one unit in pumping plant on area No. 5, Des Alle- mands, La. land and Lockport. It seems to be the result of the decay of the usual growth of prairie grass, but has considerable silt mixed in with the decayed vegetable matter and lies on a subsoil of typical Mississippi River silt, of chocolate- brown color. Owing to the slight elevation of the land it is quite soft, since it has never had a chance to drain and become solid. The front part is not cut up to any extent by bayous, although the tract includes a lake with an area of nearly 5 square miles. P The greatest problem to be solved in the reclamation of this tract is the pro- tection against storm tides. The maximum rise in tide at this point is between 5 and 6 feet. This is higher than any on record for a period of about 100 years previous to the storm of September, 1909, which gave this maximum height. Area No. 6 contains 2,000 acres of open grass-covered prairie taken from the above-described tract of land and in addition contains 500 acres of a river- front plantation. It is so located that an addition to it can be made on the west side if the pumping plant proves larger than necessary. 46 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LEVEES. The levee on this tract has been raised to a height of about 7 feet above mean tide level. The work was done with an orange-peel-bucket dredge, with a 70- foot boom. This allowed a berm of about 20 feet between the levee and the = _22'CANAL {| a Te re __22'canal yi i tt VW Hy tit tM ead i Oe i 22 CANAL A It ii! ry a \ | 11, 1g eal ae Mie ! = 122"CAWAL | Nii NS ryt ist 4 ate oh Jo el 8) go CANAL Fe ROS Seen ! I! I . rt Neen rw iden] i _)) bow gals lo gpegaangnt 4p = RE ORES | | gan) 1, setae high md tat Levee! | | ~ CANAL- PPP 1000 ) 1000 5000 10000 FEET Fic. 14.—Sketch map of area No. 6, Poydras, La., showing ditch and levee systems. canal. As shown in figure 14, all levee canals are on the outside, as the mate- rial was considered to be too soft to permit placing of the canal inside the dis- trict, and thus use it as a reservoir canal. By locating these canals on the DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 47 outside they will be made useful for navigation. For the most part there was no preparation of the base of the levee, for when the first few dippers of ma- terial were placed in the levee it cut very deeply into the muck and formed a good bond with the underlying silt. In placing the first layer no attempt was made to get much above 3 feet in height, but a wide base of 60 feet was secured for the remainder of the levee. In crossing some old drainage canals that had been cut for about 40 years, a decided difference was noted in the solidity of the material. Due to the small elevation of the surface along these canals they could furnish but very little drainage, yet in building levees across them it was noticed that they had affected the ground for a distance of several hundred feet, and that the levee could be raised in one layer to a height of about 6 feet above mean tide. This shows the advantage of allowing the first layer of material to drain for some time before placing the upper one. Most of the levee was brought to its present grade line with three layers of material, while in the soft portions it was necessary te place about five layers to bring it to grade. The levee at present seems to be holding to grade, and any further subsidence will be due to the decay of the vegetable material in the levee rather than to the spreading or subsidence of the base. Approximately twice as much mate- rial was excavated as will show in effective volume in the levee. The top width is at present about 4 feet, and the side slopes are 3 to 1. Thus far no seepage through this levee is apparent. RESERVOIR CANALS. This tract has a very complete set of reservoir and collecting canals. The sizes of the various canals were more or less proportioned to the amount of water that they would be expected to carry when draining the adjacent land and taking the water from the connecting canals. Thus practically the same degree of drainage should be secured in all parts of the entire district, and the loss of head when the pumps are in operation should be about as small as is practicable. The greatest length necessary for any ditch is about one-eighth of almile. These canals alone should give the ground fairly good drainage, at least until the muck begins to decay and becomes more impervious than at present. The storage capacity of these canals when the water is lowered to a distance of 4 feet below the surface is about 0.75 inch; at a distance of 3 feet it would be 0.52 inch. It is intended to hold the water at the 3-foot level, and even at this level the reservoir capacity of this district will be as large as that in the average district where the capacity is all excavated. A depth of about 7 feet has been given the collecting canals, and as the larger canals are reached, near the pumping plant, a depth of about 10 feet is attained. Due to the great depth of muck these collecting canals finally will have to be deepened, for when 4 feet of muck has decayed the surface of the ground will be lowered perhaps 23 feet. This subsidence will, however, take a long term of years, and by that time the canals will have required cleaning several times, so that the increased depth of canal need not be made all at once. i These canals were all cut with a dredge of the hydraulic type. They are much more satisfactory than those cut with an ordinary dipper or orange-peel- bucket dredge, as they are left free from any soft mud and no great spoil bank is present on each side of the canal. In digging lateral ditches into these canals the expense of cutting through the spoil banks will be avoided and a consid- erable area of land usually wasted by being covered with excavated earth will be saved. The canals themselves should be more permanent, as the absence of a great weight on each bank will greatly decrease the tendency of the 48 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. material to flow into the canal. The surface is raised between 1 and 2 feet for a distance of 100 or 200 feet back from the canal banks by the deposit made by the hydraulic dredge. The cost of cutting the canals by this method is not as great as with the other type of dredge and the results are much more satisfactory. It is expected that in the future this type of dredge will be used almost exclusively where the ground is free from trees and stumps. DITCHES. The spacing of the ditches on this tract is 165 feet. With the canals at one-half the usual distance, and with a deep, porous muck soil, this spacing should give a sufficient amount of drainage for a number of years until the soil becomes more impervious, due to the decay of the vegetation it contains. Owing to the soft nature of the soil in this district a long time would have been required for it to become solid enough to use the ordinary type of apron traction ditcher. A capstan ditcher, or ditching plow, was therefore used to cut the ditches. The plow was pulled with cables running between two adjacent collecting eanals. In each of the canals an engine with winding drum was mounted on a barge. After cutting a ditch the barges. were floated along the canals to the location of the next one. In some of the softer portions this plow was found to be too heavy and plowed too deeply, so a lighter structure of wood was sub- stituted which cut a very satisfactory surface ditch. This tract is free from logs and stumps, thus allowing the use of such machinery. When the surface has become fairly solid, due to.the drainage afforded by these superficial ditches, the larger ani heavier ditching plow ¢an be used, and all of these ditches will be put down to a depth of 3 feet. By this method of ditching the time con- sumed in placing the tract under complete drainage will be considerably lessened, for a wait of several months would have been necessary before a traction ditcher could have been used. PUMPING PLANT. In location this plant is rather far to one corner of the tract, but due to the large size of the main reservoir canal no great loss of head should result in the canals when the pumps are in operation. The greatest distance that the water will travel in the canals to reach the pump is about 3 miles. The pumps discharge into the navigation cana] that surrounds the district and connects with the bays and bayous to the rear. The machinery consists of one 36-inch and one 24-inch cast-iron centrifugal pump direct connected to slide-valve engines. The boilers are of the return- tube type and oil is used as fuel. The discharge and intake pipes on both pumps are enlarged to save the usual loss of velocity head. The two units are mounted on separate concrete foundations, supported on piling, the foundation forming part of the dam across the outfall canal. The greater part of the dam is of mud held in place by the rows of sheet piling that form the cofferdam. This saves considerable expense for concrete and still insures a water-tight dam. It is planned to use the small unit in times of ordinary rainfall and to use both when necessary. The combined capacity of the pumps when operating at full load will be about 1.1 inches in depth in 24 hours. On account of the high tide to be expected in this vicinity, the pumps are capable of working against a 10-foot head. The capacity will of course be greatly reduced at this head. The building over this machinery is of fireproof construction, being a frame- work of structural steel covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 49 AREA NO 7, GUEYDAN, VERMILION PARISH, LA. This district, containing 5,600 acres, is the first one being developed in a tract of some 90,000 acres lying in the southern portion of Vermilion Parish and bordering on the northern shore of White Lake. The general nature of the soil and other natural conditions have already been described. The elevation of the surface above mean tide level is between 2 and 4 feet and the slope of the surface is from north to south. This tract is a typical example of the higher and firmer prairies of this section as contrasted with those of the softer type immediately along the rivers of this part of the State. (See Pl. II, fig. 1.) DRAINAGE DITCH evee ff = ae agora jam alae a i} AMAA ARR AAR Oe BR 2 Miles, 20°CANAL __2Miles, 20 CANAL _2Miles, 20'CANAL 2 Miles, 20'CANAL 30’ CANAL Levee” Levees, Ash AKAARAABAAAAA BARBARA AAA ARAAAAADADDARAAD DD —0'CANALY ay / Mile, 30° CANAL | Mile, 30'CANAL 1 Mile, 30'CANAL Levee to White Lake etd ; 000 FEET 1000 «8 += 1000-2000 «3000 ©4000 5000 Me . GFP.,del. Fic. 15.—Sketch map of area No. 7, Gueydan, La., showing ditches and levees. Work was begun on this district in June, 1911, and the pumping plant was started about March, 1912. Figure 15 shows the general arrangement of canals, levees, and ditches. a LEVEES. Along the north side of this district a drainage canal had been cut some years previous to the beginning of the present work. A spoil bank of a cross- sectional area nearly sufficient to serve as a levee still exists on the south side of this canal. Along the other three sides the levee canals are on the inside of the district. In cutting a 25-foot canal 5 feet deep more than enough material 50 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was secured to build a levee with a height of 5 feet and a top width of about the same. Owing to the solid nature of the subsoil, the levee as a whole sub- sides very little except for the usual shrinkage of the material itself. The slight depth of muck also contributes to this favorable condition. In a few places, however, some old muck-filled bayous have been encountered and the levee remaining after one trip over with the dredge is only about 2 feet high. It will be necessary to go over these spots several times to get the required height. The berms left by the dredges doing the work are not much over 8 feet. No muck ditch is being used under this levee. Taking into considera- tion the facts that the base of this levee is from 3 to 4 feet above mean tide, that the storm tide in this vicinity is not more than 2 feet, that the subsoil is very solid, and that the muck is only about 1 foot deep, it would seem in this case to be the best practice to place the levee canals on the inside of the district and thus to have use of them for drainage canals. The levee should be certain protection from storm tides that occur in this section and should also cut off practically all seepage into the district. On the other hand, as all the canals are on the inside of the district their usefulness as havigation canals will be impaired. In the development of a district of this Size the advantage of having navigable canals all around it is considerable. On . newly reclaimed lands the question of water transportation is one of impor- tance, as roads are very hard to construct when the land is first drained. It is the intention to use the levee as a road for most of its length. RESERVOIR CANALS. In addition to the canals that border this district a collecting canal has been cut every half mile throughout. These collecting canals are about 7 feet deep and the reservoir is of about the same depth at the upper end and 10 feet deep at the lower end. In this soil these canals should maintain their original depth and there should be no trouble from the flow of the earth when the canals are first pumped out: The canals are-of ample cross section to insure a small loss of head when the punips are in operation. When the water is lowered to a level 4 feet below the surface the storage capacity will be 0.75 inch. A lock has been built at the end of the main reservoir so that barges can be floated into the district. The depth of 10 feet in the main reservoir will allow navigation even when the water is low enough to give drainage to the entire tract. This district has one of the largest excavated reservoir capacities of any of the districts so far attempted. The frequent and regular lateral canals make it an easy matter to install an efficient ditch system. Plate III, figure 1, shows a dipper dredge cutting reservoir canal and building levee on this district. DITCHES. Lateral ditches were cut on this district with an apron traction ditcher at a uniform spacing of 330 feet. (See Pl. III, fig. 2.) These machines worked on this district in from 1 to 3 feet of water. Owing to the solid nature of the soil the apron wheel did not sink into the ground to any great extent. Unlike the districts that are being reclaimed in the vicinity of New Orleans, the soil will not need to be drained for about two years before it becomes solid enough to cultivate in the ordinary manner, and this district should come under cultiva- tion quite soon after the system is installed. However, the old muck-filled bayous will be soft for perhaps two years after the rest of the land is under cultivation, In these bayous the muck is about 5 feet deep. The area of this district that is in canals and ditches is about 8.2 per cent of the whole. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 51 PUMPING PLANT. This plant was located far in the corner of the district so as to place it directly on the main outlet canal to White Lake, If the plant had been placed in the middle of the south side the greatest distance that the water would travel to the pump could have been reduced from 6 miles to 4% miles. The length of outlet to White Lake would have been increased, however, so that the actual gain in decreased lift would have been very small. There are two caSt-iron centrifugal pumps, having diameters of discharge opening of 54 inches (fig. 16). The pumps have double intake pipes and both the intake and discharge pipes are tapered and enlarged to four times the area of the opening on the pump, and they discharge under water. These features cut the velocity head losses to about the smallest amount that would be eco- nomical. There are two engines of the Corliss type, having 16 by 36 inch cylinders; these are direct connected to the pumps. (See Pl. IV.) Return- High Water ~ Ground Level Hal section of- ‘pipe at ends , |] rome 6 Fic. 16.—EHlevation of pumping plant on area No. 7, Gueydan, La. tube boilers are used, with oil as fuel. The machinery is mounted on a con- crete foundation supported on piling. In driving these piling the subsoil was found to be very hard and the foundation should therefore be solid. When the plant is run at its full capacity the pumps will be able to remove about 1.50 inches of water from the 5,600 acres in 24 hours. By running the plant at an overload this rate can be increased a small amount. In case this proves to be a larger capacity than necessary an additional area of land will be brought into this district on the west side. ; The building inclosing this machinery is a frame of structural steel, covered with heavy corrugated iron, and the plant is of fireproof construction throughout. 52 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . AREA NO. 8, NEW ORLEANS, LA. This tract of land (fig. 17) lies within the city limits of New Orleans. It contains 1,085 acres. The district originally was a part of the swamp, and had LEGEND Leyes _—_—--—— ~wvVvVV RT TOT eases corse mee Railroads....,...—---—-————s = MAIN OUTFALL CANAL CITY DRAINAGE SYSTEM | = z Ry g ls : = x 40 F? CANAL ask Pa =e Diz Q saia (oS ® x =A ila | K S a r This corner drains direct into city drains and not over Weir. GF P,del. Fic. 17.—Sketch map of area No. 8, New Or- leans, La., showing arrangement of ditches and levees. City Pumping Sta.No7\. 491 a heavy growth of several varieties of trees, although the predominating variety was cypress. There is a deep layer of muck on this tract, quite similar to the usual wet prairie muck, except that it contains a large percentage of leaves and _ twigs. Underneath this layer of muck is a subsoil of very sandy material that is quite porous. The growth of trees has been almost entirely cut, but as a whole the land is not cultivated and is allowed to grow up in weeds and brush. About 10 per cent of the area is now taken up by improved city lots. The tract was inclosed by levees about five years ago. The levee along the canals was built a number of years earlier and the work was done by dredge. This levee has a width of from 20 to 40 feet on top. that part along the west side being used aS a grade by the West End Railway, and that along the east side as a highway. The levee along Lake Pontchartrain was built with wheelbarrows, of a soil that is very porous and contains a high percent- age of vegetable material, and as there is a canal quite close to the inside slope it is reasonably certain that the seepage is considerable. The fact that underlying this thick layer of muck there is a subsoil of porous sand would make seepage probable, not only under the small levee along the lake, but also under both wide levees along the canais. The interior drainage canals have been cut to the sizes shown in figure 17, and have been maintained nearly to their original size. Their average depths are from 6 to 8 feet.- About 2 feet of water is kept in the canals to check the growth of vegetation. No extensive system of lateral ditches has yet been constructed on this tract, only a few in the immediate vicinity of the improved section having been dug; these, however, drain but a small percentage of the total area. When the entire tract is well drained pest oi (ei ae cael Awe ee i i mei ay age uns sais ty se I VAR OE Die Upafats yin ed a ey nee) f ma? "hh a BOY W's. 5 Area OMI D 12 13 Summary of natural conditions and dravnage features on 12 reclamation districts in southern Louisiana. Engines. Slide valve horizontal... Horizontal Corliss. ...... Cross compound con- Slide valve horizontal... 2 gasoline, 40-horsepower Slide valve vertical...... Date of Size of laterals. hie Height Heient| SP2c: 2S Length| Depth Reser. | Pumping ’ Town Ks Depth of ae a 0) a ing of |— of of Land in | Land in oi capacity Rumps Parish. WARS mea. | muck. | 229. | storm | jeyses.| lat- Bot- lat- | water | ditches. | canals. | ,. VOU, im 24 PS. in | tide. "| erals. | Top. | 45 Depth.| erals. | table. pacity-| hours. gulf. m. Acres. Feet. Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet. | Feet. | Feet. Feet. Feet Feet. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Inches. | Inches. P lrotary........-....... Jefferson.....- Waggaman....| 2,600] 0 -3 | —2-9| None. a ip os rs 3| 2,400 rb 3.80 2.00 0.37] 11.45 \\1 Menge, 42 by 16 inch... 1 centrifugal, 36-inch... La Fourche. ..| Lockport...... 647 | 0.5-2 —22 2 4 160 4 13 3 | 5,280 2 3.30 94 45 11.11 | Menge, aH by 12 inch; 24 by 8 inch. ecacktleosssscs Raceland...... 940] 1 -2 0-3 2 4 200 13 3 | 2,000 2 2.90 47 ~25 11.23 | 2 Menge, 32 by 12 inch. . Heel Ria Meee do... 2,400] 1 -2 0-3 2 4} 210 re 3K d:o00 | 2] 2-50 83 40] 1.20 | 2 centrifugal, 30-inch .... y beeed do.......-.| Allemands....| 1,880] 0 -1 0-2 2 4 210 4 1} B31 2M) nooo 2.60 1.00 50 :95 | 2 centrifugal, 24-inch .... St. Bernard...| Poydras....... 2,500 4 0-4 6 7 165 4 abe 3 (2) |roccocod 3.30 1.50 75 1.17 fo eT 24-inch, 36- Vermilion. .... Gueydan...... 5,600 | 0.5-1 14 2 5 330 4 1} 3} 1,320 )........ 1.70 1.50 75 1.51 | 2 centrifugal, 54-inch .... St. Mary....-- Morgan City--} 15,600 | 0 -1.5 1-6 4 6 330 4 i 3} 1,320 1.80 3.80 1. 82 -87 | 2 centrifugal, 30-inch, | 3 48-inch. densing. St. Charles....| Paradis..-...-- 2,840 | 0 -2 0-3 2 4 330 1} 3 | 1,320 |.-.-.--. 1.50 94 -45 1.40 | 2 centrifugal, 36-inch -... La Fourche. ..| La Rose 640} 0 -3 0-3 3 4 210 1} 3) || 25640) |22-2- =. 2.90 56 27 1.30} 1 pentiiueal, 15-inch, 1 18-inch. a G@encsoocrpcolorecced) PEED|| Oo 0-3 3 4] 210 4] it 1l\ (teary |yeeeeres mn2200) etecO) .43| 1.50 | 2 centrifugal, 36-inch .... aed dosencnec {ee Mead- } 1,780 0 -2 0-2 5 6] 200 4 iy 20130) | eee | ENO 1.25 .60| 21.00 | Centrifugal 1 Maximum. 25102°—Bull. 71—14. (To face page 53.) 2 As designed. Work | vars” | Parse, | Culti- . . or s' Ts Boilers. Buel. | 4, egun. | pump- cultic ates Remarks. ing. vation. i Per cent. 2 water tube. .|\,- About | About | About 1 return tube.. \ou. - { 1898 1899 1900 i 100 .| Return tube. .} Oil... 1907 1908 1908 90 Locomotive...} Coal...| 1907 1908 1909 65 Return tube. -.} Oil....| 1908 1910 1910 30 Ue dor eee -|OWl_--|) i910 {eb | Hora 10 parse isnesrac Otbocd| HHO If SP fle nccence! None. bee etdOreasscs-2 Oil. 1911 1912 1912 2 Water tube...| Oil... 1911 1912 1912 4 | Plant partially installed. Return tube. | Oil.... { jan Au: \ idaseccce None. peasaaogoaaonded|bscobcnd 1910 1911 1911 80 Return tube..| Oil iio {{ S6Pr> |} None 7 aes LOL caer aes Weoadess|esesescead None. | Under construction. DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 53 the run-off probably will be more rapid than at present. The drainage water discharges by gravity through the main outlet canal into the city drainage canal. The run-off from this tract is more natural than would be the case if a pump- ing plant were operated. To measure this discharge a 6-foot weir was installed in the outlet canal, and a continuous record of depth of flow secured by use of a special recording device. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION OF RECLAIMED TRACTS. In the table facing this page is given a summary of all the details of reclama- tion and the prominent natural conditions on areas herein described, with cor- responding data on a number of other districts. No detailed descriptions of these latter districts will be given, as conditions occurring on them are in general similar to those on the districts already described. In explanation of this table the following notes are given: In calculating the percentage of land that is in lateral ditches it was con- sidered that for each ditch a strip 6 feet wide is lost to cultivation. The reservoir capacity, in inches of depth over the whole area, includes the capacity of all canals between the general surface of land and the water level 4 feet below the surface. The pumping plant capacity was based on a velocity of 12 feet per second through the discharge opening of the pump. - AREA. The districts examined range in size from 640 acres up to 15,600 acres. The newer districts are nearly all among the larger-sized ones, the present tend- ency being toward larger districts. On some of the districts the shape and area were fixed according to the surrounding natural water channels, but most of them were fixed arbitrarily, as the surrounding marsh was level and un- broken by open water. With the increased size, the shape and boundaries of the districts will be more and more influenced by the topographic features of the marsh. So far, the districts have been rather small, as, owing to the limited capital available, it was necessary to get them under cultivation soon after the work was started. SOIL. The general nature of the soil in these tracts has already been discussed. In reclaiming the land no particular attention was paid to the character of the soil, except to the depth of muck overlying the silt. The figures given in the foregoing table show the range in depth of muck on the several tracts, the mean depth on these districts usually being an average of the two figures given. A considerable subsidence of the surface of the muck land takes place after drain- age, this often amounting to aS much as 75 per cent of the original depth of the muck. As pointed out in the description of area No. 1, the subsidence amounted to about 23 feet in 12 years of drainage. None of the other districts has as yet shown much subsidence, as they have not been drained or culti- vated a sufficient length of time. LEVEES. The levees vary in height according to the storm tides that are encountered, although it is generally admitted that a height of about 4 feet is necessary to prevent seepage. Almost without exception the heights of the levees are suffi- cient to keep out the recorded high tides, although in the interior sections the fluctuation of water in the natural channels, due to rainfall, is greater than that caused by storm tides from the Gulf. The top width is usually from 5 to 10 feet. In many places levees are used as the main roads of the district; in 54 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these cases the crown is somewhat over 10 feet. The maintaining of a road on a levee seems to aid in keeping out muskrats and other burrowing animals, but gradually decreases the height. The side slopes are usually quite flat, being about 8 to 1. In very few of the levees had any preparation been made for the base, either by clearing away vegetation or by cutting muck ditches. Where both the muck and subsoil were very soft, seepage through the base was not noticeable, but where the muck was turfy in character nearly all the levees developed seepage when the berm on the outside of the levee was submerged to any considerable depth. Seepage appears to increase in vol- ume as the muck in the levee decays and shrinks; thus in some cases the older levees were not keeping out the water as well as they did at first. It has been necessary to cut muck ditches along many of these old levees to intercept the flow of water through their bases. The majority of these levees were constructed watt some form of dredge. The unit price for material, measured in excavation, was in the neighborhood of — 7 or 8 cents per cubic yard, depending on the amount of timber and stumps encountered. It is always necessary to place more material in a levee than the final cross section indicates, owing to subsidence of the base and shrinkage of the material. This shrinkage will require from one and one-half to three times as much excayation as the final volume of the levee. The unit cost of levees will therefore vary from 12 to 25 cents per cubic yard; measured in settled embankment. If the levee is brought to a regular cross section by hand or machine work a small additional charge should be made; generally, however, the embankments are not surfaced after the dredge work is finished. The natural growth of prairie grass soon covers the majority of the levees, and some of them have been sown to Bermuda grass. The levees are often pastured, and when this is done with care it affords an efficient and a profit- able method of maintenance. DITCHES. The spacing of the ditches has been varied on the different districts accord- ing to the nature of the soil. Some of these are spaced too far apart to give adequate drainage, but, on the other hand, on none of the districts are the ditches too close together for economy; that is, the land is in no case over- drained. A spacing of 330 feet on newly reclaimed lands seems to be popular, with the idea of making the spacing 165 feet when the land becomes more impervious, due to the decay of the vegetable matter. The size of the ditches is quite uniform and is usually ample, except where the ditches are too long. The efficiency of these small ditches as water channels is very low, for they are usually partly filled with weeds and grasses. As most of the land is flat, flow is caused only by the piling up of drainage water in the ditch. A length of about a quarter of a mile has been found to give satisfaction in flat land, and when there is any considerable slope to the ground much longer ditches have been used with entire success. The use of the 6 to 8 foot collecting ditch to take the water from the laterals has not proved a success on the marsh- land districts, the maintenance charges being too great. The percentage of land taken up by these lateral systems is usually between 2 and 8 per cent. The cost of their excavation has been between 5 and 6 cents per cubic yard, and with a spacing of 3880 feet the cost of the ditches per acre has been between $2 and $2.25 GROUND WATER. The ground water is controlled largely by the depth of the lateral ditches. Even though the subsoil be very fine grained and impervious, there is a consid- erable lateral movement of the water, as was shown by measurement of the ; 3 q i - : DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 55 profiles of the ground water made on areas Nos.1land2. (See figs. 5 and 8, pp. 26 and 31.) The slope of the ground-water profile is steep after a heavy precipita- tion and gradually flattens out after a few days of dry weather. Evaporation at the surface hastens this lowering of the water table, and measurements show that the profile of the ground water is usually much flatter in the summer months than in winter. In removing the ground water the effect of a ditch decreases toward the middle of the strip of land between the ditches, while the effect of evaporation is more or less uniform over all this strip of land, although it depends somewhat on the depth of water below the surface. The actual evaporation is greatest midway between the ditches, where the water is nearest to the surface. The variation between the summer and winter slopes of the ground-water profile is therefore due to the difference between the com- bined effect of the ditch and evaporation in summer and the effect of the ditch alone in winter, as evaporation is then comparatively very slight. After long periods of small precipitation and high temperature the water is often lowered by evaporation below the bottom of the ditch, but at these times the ground water is nearly level, as the effect of the ditch is then almost entirely eliminated. It was also noted that the ground water was reduced to lower levels by evaporation in the fine-grained Silt soils than in the coarser muck soils. RESERVOIR CANALS. The reservoir capacity is aS variable as the size of the district. No attempt seems to have been made in the earlier districts to provide reservoir capacity, all ditches being constructed as drainage channels. Even this feature was not sufficiently provided for in the earlier districts, as the canals were not of sufficient cross section to bring the water to the pumping plant rapidly enough to secure continuous operation. The resulting large slope of the water surface in the canal and the consequent loss of head acted directly on the pumping plant to increase the lift. The present tendency is toward increased storage capacity, with deeper and wider canals. The loss of head during the operation of the pumps is thus partly overcome, and in addition the plant is not required to operate so intermittently. Some of the smaller canals on the older and smaller tracts are so shallow as to allow vegetation to grow on the bottom, and, moreover, the small deposit of mud from lateral ditches fills the bottoms of the canals above low-water line and thus checks the flow. With a greater depth a small deposit of silt would not have such great influence on the effi- ciency of the canals and vegetation would not grow so readily on the bottom. In many of the new districts the slope of the water surface in the main reser- voir is calculated to be as low as two-tenths of a foot per mile when the pumps are operating at full capacity. However, this slope increases as the water low- ers and the cross-sectional area of flow decreases. It has been observed that the larger reservoir capacity takes care of the smaller rains and that the pumps therefore do not need to be started for them; it also appears that at times of heavy precipitation the reservoir takes a part of the run-off and decreases the amount of water that must be removed at once by the pumps. It is a notable fact that the largest district has the largest reservoir capacity. This is due to the fact that a number of large and deep natural water channels were included in the district. It is the only one of the enumerated districts where such a feature had been included in the drainage plans. The maintenance of reservoir canals in these soils for the first few years has proved to be quite an item. When the water is first lowered it must be done very slowly and with great care to prevent caving of the banks and general shrinking of the cross section of the canals. A deposit of silt will occur, and 56 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in Many cases it has been found necessary to redredge the canal about three years after construction. The surrounding land is then solid enough approxi- mately to hold its place and to make the canal permanent. Canals constructed with a hydraulic dredge are better cleared of soft mud at the time of con- struction, and, due to absence of heavy spoil banks close to the edge of the canal, appear to hold their original size more satisfactorily than those con- structed by other forms of dredge. On the newer districts the area in canals is about 1 per cent of the area included.within the levees. The average cost per cubic yard for cutting internal canals is between 6 and 8 cents, the higher figure being applicable to cases where the ground is covered with a growth of timber, when the work is done with a dipper dredge. If the land be free from stumps and sunken timber the work can be done either by dipper dredge or hydraulic dredge for about 6 cents per cubic yard. PUMPING PLANTS. The theoretical normal capacity of the plants examined averages 1.22 inches in depth of water over the whole area removed in 24 hours of continuous operation. On most of the districts the normal capacity can be increased somewhat by speeding up the machinery. The reservoir capacity and pump- ing-plant capacity are not proportioned to each other at all uniformly. There is such a wide variation in this regard that either some pumping plants are too large to be economical, or a number of the others are far too small to give drainage. As little flooding of any of these districts has occurred, it would ap- pear that the former is true. There is as much variation in capacity in the newer plants as in the older ones. No settled policy as to required capacity has been established. Some plants have been built of ample size, so that if it became apparent that more water could safely be handled an addition could be made to the area drained. In the summary (facing p. 53) it will be noted that the smallest pumping-plant capacity appears on the largest district, which district has the largest reservoir capacity. Even the smaller plants have their pump- ing capacity divided between at least two units. This allows the use of part of the plant during low-water flow, with as small capacity as is desired. In some of the plants which consist of two duplicate units each unit is nearly large enough to take care of all the water; this provides a reserve capacity in case of breakage of one of the units. The static lift in these pumping plants varies from 3 to 10 feet. The bulk of the water usually is lifted only about 3 feet, the lift increasing as the water in the canal is lowered, so that it is only during the last few hours of pumping that the lift approaches the larger figure given. The cast-iron centrifugal pumps are largely used and have been found very much more satisfactory than the older types of vertical wooden-case centrifugal pumps. While the first cost of the latter type is less than that of the cast-iron pump the efficiency also is less, and the maintenance much greater. As pumps of the vertical wooden-case type can not be direct connected to engines they are not so reliable in operation, and as they do not discharge into a closed pipe no siphon effect can be arranged, and their actual lift usually is from 2 to 3 feet greater than the effective lift. Also they do not lend themselves well to installation on a concrete foundation. Only one rotary-pump installation was examined, and while the pump oper- ates very satisfactorily it was lifting the water fully twice the necessary height. Rotary pumps of the desired capacity are adapted to a minimum lift of about 10 feet, and as the usual lift is about half this amount the loss of energy is far too large. All the modern plants are equipped with horizontal DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. il cast-iron centrifugal pumps, this type having proved tu be very reliable. Con- tinuous runs of 140 hours have been made without trouble. On most of the pumps the suction and discharge piping has been so arranged that the friction losses are small, and the areas of intake and discharge open- ings of the pipes have been enlarged to decrease velocity head losses. On some plants this velocity head loss often amounts to 4 feet, and aS a result the plant does nearly twice the amount of work necessary. The piping of the centrifugal pump on area No. 1 and on two pumps on area No. 11 is not enlarged or tapered, and there are large losses due to this defect. All of the more modern pumps have large intake and discharge openings, and the pipes often are tapered the full length. When the suction ends of the intake pipes are cut vertically whirlpools will develop over the pipes and air will be admitted, even when the water is 2 feet deep over the pipes. If these pipes be cut horizontally the water can be lowered to within an inch of the ends of the pipes before air enters. On the smaller and older districts simple and reliable engines have been used, but most of them have a very large steam consumption. Reliability and low first cost have been sought, but, due to low-class labor, many of these plants have had frequent breakdowns and large repair charges. A few of the large districts are installing high-class machinery, and one, as shown in the sum- mary, has installed cross-compound condensing engines and water-tube boilers. Gasoline engines have been used on one small plant only, and although fairly satisfactory no general use of them is expected. Owing to the mild nature of the climate very few of the plants have been in- closed in permanent structures. Timber frame structures covered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron are very common among the plants, and while these are quite durable the danger from fire is very great. Two plants of this type have recently burned. The cost of such plants as those described ranges from $4 to $7 per acre of the district drained, according to the type and the capacity of the machinery. VEGETATION AND DEPTH OF DRAINAGE. As noted in the general description of this section, most of this land, whether salt or fresh-water marsh, is covered with a heavy growth of grass (see Pl. II, fig. 1). This seems to thrive even if the land is continuously submerged with a small depth of water. However, when the land is drained sufficiently to remove the water from the surface this grass grows much more luxuriantly, and has been cut for hay two to four times in a single season. It appears to grow better with deeper drainage. When cut for hay it makes excellent feed for stock, and is much in favor with all the local planters who have given it a feed- ing test. Deeper drainage is required for cane and corn, although fair crops of corn have been grown with only about one foot of drainage. It would appear that good crops can be grown if the water is held down to 2 feet below the sur- face, but all planters are of the opinion that the deeper the drainage the better, down to a depth of 3% feet. The truck crops all require complete and early drainage, but not necessarily as deep as that required for cane and corn. AS droughts are of rare occurrence, not much trouble has been experienced in getting the ground water too low in the soil. By proper management of the pumping plant the stage of water in the canals and ditches can be so arranged that the water will not be reduced too great a distance below the surface. This artificial control of the water content of the soil is of decided advantage, and it should make these lands as independent of natural conditions as are the irrigated lands of the West. Crops on the muck lands seem to withstand — 58 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. drought better than those on the older sandy-land plantations, as the muck is more retentive of moisture. TREATMENT OF LAND AND CROPS. In general the water was lowered as rapidly as possible on these marsh- lands when they were first reclaimed. The lateral ditches were then con- structed and complete drainage of the soil obtained. No trouble has been experienced from too rapid drainage. Although the muck often is covered with a very tough sod, and is itself often turfy in character, it is full of muskrat holes, and as it dries.and shrinks during drainage a great number of cracks open that reach to the underlying soft mud. This has made it impossible in a great many cases to do the first work of plowing with ordinary farm animals and machinery. The land usually is plowed the first time with a set of gang plows drawn by some form of mechanical tractor. (See Pl. II, fig. 2.) It is. necessary that the tractor be mounted on very wide wheels, and the substitu- tion of apron traction for wheels has been made very successfully. Plowing has been done with these tractors on land that is too soft to bear farm ani- mals. The heavy growth of prairie grass must first be removed. Usually the first plowing is done in the winter months when the grass can be burned off closely. A set of gang plows fastened to a frame hinged directly to the tractor frame has worked most successfully. After one thorough plowing of the ground with a gang plow the holes and cracks are so completely filled that ordinarily no trouble is thereafter experienced in using farm animals if the tract has been well drained during this period. It is very essential during the first few years of drainage that the water table be held at a good depth to allow the soft subsoil to solidify. This involves deep winter drainage, as well as during the growing season. Usually the first crop planted is corn, and it is frequently drilled in by a separate drill attachment at the time of the first plowing. Sometimes this first crop makes a yield of 30 bushels to the acre without further cultivation. One plowing, however, does not kill the original growth of prairie grass. In fact. if the ground is once plowed the growth of prairie grass the next year will be more uniform and luxuriant than it was before. Intensive cultivation for the first few years is necessary, although in growing cane and corn no trouble is experienced after the crop has reached a height of 3 or 4 feet. As truck crops usually are cultivated very intensively, no great trouble is experienced in keeping down the growth of grass. After the growth of the first crop of corn the land is replanted to corn, cane, or truck crops. The soil seems to be suit- able for almost any kind of truck, and excellent yields are harvested. Some 40 to 60 bushels of corn to the acre have been successfully grown, and the yield of cane varies from 25 to 40 tons to the acre. Where the original surface of the soil was covered with a growth of cypress timber a large additional expense must be incurred in bringing the land into cultivation. The expense of clearing cypress land ranges from $30 to as high as $100 an acre, depending on the character of the growth. In certain sections of the prairie lands a very heavy growth of submerged stumps is found, and after the land has been drained for a year or two the shrinkage of the muck soil will bring these stumps to the surface. They will then interfere with cultivation very greatly and necessitate a large expenditure for removal. FINANCIAL. In its original state much of the prairie land is worthless, its only usefulness being in that it serves as a trapping and hunting ground. Its present market EEE elle eee DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 59 value is due to possibilities of reclamation rather than to any present useful- ness and is more or less speculative. The value of the land varies according to the completeness and permanence of the drainage improvements, as well as according to its original character. A wide variation in the quality of the improvements exists, especially in the pumping-plant equipment. The cost per acre of reclaiming the various districts depends on natural conditions, the completeness of reclamation, and the character of the drainage improvements. The usual variation in the cost of such reclamation is from $25 to $35 per acre. SUCCESS OF DRAINAGE. The drainage of these lands has been uniformly successful, and from the drainage engineer’s standpoint the work is past the experimental stage. Where successful drainage has not been attained it has been due to insufficient and poorly constructed improvement rather than to inherent and insurmountable difficulties. Some districts have been drained without the advice and services of an engineer, and while in some such cases successful~drainage has been secured, it was not secured with the greatest economy, the proposition that if enough money be spent the land can be drained being a self-evident one. The usual faults in the drainage systems are— (1) Poorly constructed and leaky levees. (2) Poorly constructed and inefficient pumping plants. (3) The lack of sufficient canal capacity to drain successfully the interior of the tract. INVESTIGATIONS TO BE MADE BEFORE RECLAMATION. Before attempting to reclaim any district of marshland, the following points should be thoroughly investigated : (1) The depth and character of the muck. (2) The charaeter of the underlying silt. (3) The elevation of the land above ordinary stages of water in the sur- rounding lakes and bayous. (4) The ordinary and extreme yariations of water level in these lakes and bayous., (5) The elevation of the ordinary and maximum storm tides. (6) The existence of sunken timber and stumps. (7) Transportation facilities. ‘In addition to the above, the topographic features of each district should be investigated in detail by a careful field survey and a complete and definite plan worked out by a competent engineer. The work should then be constructed under competent supervision and should be of a permanent nature, since the need for the improvements will be permanent. FACTORS AFFECTING DRAINAGE BY PUMPING IN SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. , While the feasibility of reclaiming these wet lands has been demonstrated beyond question, there are a number of details of practice that have not yet been satisfactorily worked out, and it is not possible at this time definitely to recom- mend a line of procedure that will result in the most efficient-and economical drainage of any tract of wet prairie land. In the following pages are discussed briefly each of the important items that enter into this form of reclamation. The conclusions presented are necessarily based upon a study of a rather limited practice, and further experimentation and investigation may alter somewhat certain of the recommendations herein made. a 60 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AREA OF THE DISTRICT. Although in many localities topography has a large influence in fixing the area of a reclamation district, there are many large bodies of land of such a character that the size of the unit would be determined almost entirely inde- pendently of topographic conditions. In order to make clear the conditions governing the determination of the most desirable size of unit, the respective advantages of the small and large districts will be enumerated. The principal advantages of the small unit are: (1) Short internal drainage canals with small losses of head and the conse- quent low lift. (2) Short haul to outside water transportation. (3) Small area affected in case of failure of protection levee. (4) Small capital involved. (5) Short time required to place land under cultivation and early realization on investment. The advantages of the large district over the small one are: (1) Low cost of levees per acre of protected land. (2) Possibility of using natural ridges in part for levees. (8) Possibility of using natural bayous and lakes as part of the interior drainage system. 5 (4) Use of efficient machinery due to more continuous operation of the pump- ing plant. (5) Low first cost, per unit of area, of pumping plant due to centralization of equipment and smaller relative capacity. (6) Low unit operating charges on pumping plant. The benefit of low lifts on the smaller districts is offset by the advantages in using more efficient machinery for the high lifts on larger districts and the less cost per acre of machinery. Unit labor charges for plant operation also would be much less on the larger districts. Although the haul to water trans- portation on large districts would necessarily be greater, with larger interests involved good roads could be economically built and maintained. Since the cost of the levee per acre of reclaimed land would be much less on a larger district, a better class of levee could be constructed and breaks prevented. While at times the small district could perhaps take advantage of natural ridges. this would usually result in too much irregularity in shape and only in rare cases could the small district include natural bayous or lakes as reservoirs. The advantages, in the case of the small district, of the small capital involved and the earlier return on investment might easily be offset by the increased cost per acre of construction of levees, canals, and pumping plant. Just what - is the most economical size of district has not yet been determined; it is a matter that would be greatly affected by local conditions. However, it is the consensus of opinion among engineers engaged in this work that districts con- taining less than 2,000 acres are not at all desirable. Most of the districts now being planned are several times larger than this. One of the newest dis- tricts, and the largest yet planned, lies just across the Mississippi River from the city of New Orleans and contains 37,750 acres. LEVEES. The location of a levee influences its design, construction, maintenance, and usefulness to the district. Unlike levees along our rivers, those along the average reclamation district in this section have not been located according to the topographic conditions, but rather according to property or land lines. This has usually resulted in regularly shaped districts and minimum length of DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 61 levee for area inclosed, but the cost of construction and maintenance per unit of length has often been much greater than it would have been if some atten- tion had been paid to topography. Throughout most of the wet prairie there are winding bayous that have along them solid ridges of silt that average from 14 to 2 feet above general ground surface. In other places the bayous are entirely filled in and there have been left ridges of silt having widths of from 200 to perhaps 1,200 feet, with the usual elevation of 2 feet. On small districts it is usually impracticable to take advantage of these ridges to any great extent, as to do so would make the shape of the district too irregular, but on larger districts the straighter ridges can be chosen, as irregularity of outline is not so large an item. If the levee is located on a solid ridge the material will be more stable and impervious and: the levee can be made of less eross-sectional area than would be necessary if it were located in the soft prairie. Construction will also be easier and cheaper and the expense of maintenance will be much less. The design of the levee will depend largely on the local conditions. Its top ‘should be above storm tides and the highest stages of water in surrounding lakes and bayous from 1 to 3 feet, depending on the size of the district and the probability of previous high-water marks being exceeded. A minimum height of about 4 feet should be used through the soft prairie section, as anything less is not likely to prevent seepage satisfactorily, for when located on a ridge the water will stand against a levee only for short periods, while if located in a soft prairie the water will be in continuous contact with the lower foot or two of the levee. In places exposed to strong wave action the height should be sufficient to provide for the break of the waves; in addition, some provision should be made for protecting the levees from the erosive action of the waves. This protection might well be secured by planting willows some distance in front of the levee. Where the levee is located on a ridge the top width may safely be made 4 feet, with side slopes 2 to 1. A levee of this type is often built with wheel- barrows, and although the unit cost for this method is quite high, being about 18 cents per cubic yard, the total cost is considerably less than it would be if the work were done with the usual floating dredge. Yard for yard the dredge would, of course, handle the material much the cheaper, but the excavation would be more than would be necessary for the levee. This objection would be overcome if the dredge were building a levee along the bank of a bayou of sufficient depth to float the machine, or if a reservoir canal were being exca- vated within the district, the waste bank to be used as a levee. Where the levee is located in the soft prairie the top width should average about 6 feet. The side slopes should be about 3 to 1; in fact, if the material is very soft it will not take a much steeper slope than this during construction. - As the material always becomes more stable after being placed in the levee, no trouble should be expected from slides after it begins to dry in place. The berm along the base of the levee should be at least 10 feet. Where the soil is exceptionally soft this should be made as much larger as practicable, at least 15 feet, and it will be better if conditions permit its being made 20. The width of berm will, of course, depend somewhat upon the nature of the machinery used in construction. Where the levee canal iS on the inside of a dis- trict, special effort should be made to leave a wide berm. Some type of floating dredge should be used in the construction of most levees. In heavily timbered sections, or where old submerged stumps are numerous, the dipper dredge will work to the best advantage, but in the open, grass-covered prairie the orange-peel-bucket dredge has many advantages. Owing to the longer boom and narrower hull, the latter type of dredge is able s 62 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. io leave a wider berm along the toe of the levee. It is also better able to sort the material placed in the base of the levee, for the top layer of muck can first be taken out of the canal, and then the silt underneath, while the dipper dredge usually will cut up through both the silt and the muck and thus mix them. The levee should usually be constructed in several layers, for both the base and the material are likely to be so soft that subsidence will be too great if a height of more than a few feet is attempted. This yielding of the base often will cause the side of the canal to cave, especially if the berm be small. The total subsidence and shrinkage of levees in this section often amounts to 50 per cent, and in special cases is as great as 80 per cent. Practically all of the subsidence and a part of the shrinkage takes place during construction, so that the remaining change in height can be taken care of by maintenance. When a large percentage of muck is placed in the levee the shrinkage will be great for a number of years, due to the decay of the vegetable material in the muck. - ~ For placing several layers in a levee the orange-peel bucket is especially suitable. After a canal is once cut in the soft prairie there will be a consider- able depth of soft mud in the bottom that makes very poor levee material. The dipper dredge, when working in such a canal, will place a large per- centage of such soft mud in the levee, while an orange-peel bucket, when dropped forcibly, will penetrate the undisturbed silt below and fill with it, the soft mud running off when the bucket is raised. If the site of the levee is along a solid ridge above ordinary water level, no special precautions need be taken to prevent seepage, although all stumps and logs should be removed from the site, and a shallow ditch should be cut to insure a perfect bond between the ridge and the levee. On the other hand, if the levee is through very soft prairie, the material dropped from the dredge will penetrate the muck and form a good bond with the underlying silt. It is on the portions where the muck is thick and turfy in character that particular pains must be taken. A ditch cut along the center line of the levee before the dredge starts working is of no special benefit, as the material placed back in the ditch by the dredge.will be largely muck; however, this treatment will break the continuity of the muck and help to cut off a portion of the seepage. A better plan is to wait until the first layer of material has been placed by the dredge and then to cut a ditch along the toe of the slope of the levee opposite to the dredge and to refill it with impervious silt dredged from the bottom of the canal. This will insure a good bonding of the material and is a necessary part of the construction. At times old muck-filled bayous will be encountered which must be closed with levees. In such cases the quickest, and-quite often the cheapest, way to insure that the levee will hold its grade line is to drive two rows of sheet piling across the bayou at the proper spacing. These rows should be tied together with rods and the fill made between them. After the soft material in the levee has dried sufficiently it should be smoothed off and brought to grade. Usually the natural growth of prairie grass will soon cover the levee, but Bermuda grass makes better sod for maintenance purposes. Careful grazing of the levee saves cutting the grass and gives par- tial protection from burrowing animals. After the levees are once constructed, very little maintenance is required to afford permanent protection from all over- flows that do not actually overtop them. INTERIOR DITCH SYSTEM. Rainfall and seepage cause an accumulation of water within the levee district that must be collected by a system of ditches and canals, led to a central point, SS DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 63 ! and discharged over the levee by means of pumps. These internal water courses usually consist of lateral ditches which collect the water from the fields, and reservoir canals which receive the water from the laterals and carry it to the pumping plant. LATERAL DITCHES. On the typical wet prairie reclamation district the land is so nearly level that a regular layout of ditches is desirable rather than a location designed with a yiew to taking advantage of such slight surface slopes as may exist. The ditches should be cut in parallel lines and at such a spacing as will corre- spond to the character of the land. In the newly reclaimed land that has a deep layer of muck, ditches spaced 330 feet apart should give sufficient outlet both for surface and underdrainage, and after some years of cultivation, when the soil has become more impervious, intermediate ditches can be cut, making the spacing 165 feet. This divides the land into 5 and 10 acre tracts when the ditches are constructed in the usual lengths of one-fourth and one-half mile, re- spectively. Ditches with 4-foot tops, 13-foot bottoms, and depths of 4 feet should give sufficient capacity unless they are too long or become badly choked with weeds and grass. In practice on drainage districts in this section it has been found that in flat land such ditches can be made one-fourth mile long with good results, and they have in a few cases worked fairly well at a length of one- half mile. However, this greater length is not recommended, as the ditch must be maintained in almost perfect condition in order to give satisfactory drainage. Such ditches can be cut by hand labor for about 5 or 7 cents per cubic yard. Traction ditchers which will operate on soft prairies have been in use for some time and will compete with hand-labor prices and cut about the same class of ditch ; however, where there is much sunken timber or stumps the work must be done by hand. On the softer prairies these traction ditchers can not be used until some months after the tract has been drained and the land has become somewhat solid. Ditches can be cut with a heavy wooden-framed plow, espe- cially built for the purpose, drawn across the strips of land between the reser- voir canals by cables and pulling engines mounted on barges. Ditches can be cut in this manner as soon as the water is off the surface, and thus the bringing of the land under cultivation will be hastened by several months. Field ditches on this class of land require a great deal of attention for the first few years after cutting to keep them serviceable. A soft semifluid mud gradually fills the ditches and water-loving grasses grow very rapidly. Where ditches have been cut with a plow they can readily be cleaned by drawing the plow through them. This method, however, will deposit most of the mud in the reservoir canal and will eventually reduce the area of the latter very materially. Practice in this section has shown that to keep such ditches in a serviceable condition the grass and weeds should be cut out of them two or three times a year, and that every two years about 1 cubic foot of material per linear foot of ditch must be excavated. ‘The total yearly cost, including interest on first cost, maintenance, and rental of land consumed in ditch, is about 55 cents per 100 feet of ditch, or $1.40 per acre for a spacing of 165 feet. In the firmer and more open soils tile might well be used to replace a considerable number of tke ditches. The interest on the cost of such tile drains would amount to 30 cents per year for each 100-feet of drain; no maintenance or rental of land consumed should be charged. For a spacing of 165 feet this would make a charge of 80 cents per acre per year, or would be an annual saving of 60 cents per acre over open-ditch drainage. The action of efficient tile drains would also be more uniform. In the case of the ditch, during the time immediately before 64 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it is cleaned out, the drainage secured is comparatively poor. The land would not be so badly cut up if tile were used, and the necessity for a great number of small bridges would thus be removed. RESERVOIR CANALS. The primary requisite of reservoir canals is that they give sufficient outlet to the lateral ditches. To do this they must be spaced not more than one-half - mile apart and usually they should be located in parallel lines. In building the levee around a district the resulting canal can sometimes safely be made on the inside of the levee and consequently used as a reservoir canal. On small districts this canal may be extensive enough to make up the entire reser- yoir-canal system. The practice of placing the levee canal inside the district has proved either a success or a failure, according to local conditions. If the berm between the levee and canal is wide, if the base is above ordinary stages of outside water, if there is no canal immediately outside the levee, and if the storm tide is low, such construction should not result in any great amount of seepage or subject the district to any danger from storm tide. On the other hand, if the canal is placed outside the district the seepage will be less, the levee will be safer in time of storm tide, and the canal can be used for navi- gation purposes. In all but the most favorable locations present practice tends toward placing the levee canal outside the district and cutting an interior sys- tem of reservoir canals. The reservoir canal should be of such depth and cross section that the water will ordinarily be held at least 4 feet below the surface, although immediately after heavy precipitation the water may safely stand at the level of the lowest land for several hours. The reservoir canal serves a twofold purpose: (1) To take the water from the lateral ditches and carry it to the pumping plant, and (2) to store up the dry-weather flow of the ditches, so that the pumping plant will not need to be operated so frequently. Canals designed with only the first consideration in mind are smaller than when any considerable reservoir capacity is desired. If, however, the canals are correctly designed for storage capacity the question of flow will be taken care of. When heavy rains occur the storage capacity in the canals will take part of the run-off and temporarily relieve the pumping plant. Thus by an increase of reservoir capacity a less capacity of pumping plant will be required, and the plant can be operated more economically. The relative capacities of reservoir canal and pumping plant should be such that the interest and depreciation on the two investments, plus the cost of operation, would be a minimum. A complete set of records main- tained on a number of typical reclamation districts for Several years will be necessary before a relation can be established that would be capable of general application. In some of the districts already constructed the reservoir capacity is about 0.6 inch in depth of water over the whole area. In these the average slope of the water surface in the canals is theoretically less than 0.2 foot per mile, with an average depth of flow of 6 feet and a run-off of 1 inch per day. If the reser- voir capacity is so proportioned that the velocity of flow is nearly uniform in ail parts of the system, the slopes can be held very close to the above figure. These slopes will of course increase when the water is lowered to near the bot- tom of the canals, but as the bulk of the water will be pumped at the time when the canals are full this increase of slope is not especially objectionable. The local conditions will decide to some extent the question of using broad, shallow canals or deep, Darrow ones. A broad, shallow canal has more of its DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 65 cross section available for storage, but after the water is reduced to 4 feet be- low the surface the slopes will greatly increase and trouble may be encountered _ in taking the water from the distant portion of the district. A minimum depth of about 7 feet seems to prove desirable in practice. This prevents vegetation from growing in the bottom of the canals and considerable silt deposits can be stored, so that the canals will not so frequently need to be cleaned. The canal should be gradually deepened as it nears the pumping plant to provide for the slope and consequent lowering of the water surface. If the material taken from the reservoir canals is not to be used for levee construction and the land is free from timber and stumps, a hydraulic dredge is the most satisfactory means of cutting them. The unit price will then be lower on canals of a section exceeding 7 by 25 feet than if the work be done with another type of dredge and the canal will be better cleaned out and more permanent. Side slopes can be cut as desired with the hydraulic dredge and the material is deposited in a thin layer rather than in a high spoil bank. If the work is done in heavy timber a dipper dredge must be used, but if the growth is light either a dipper or an orange-peel-bucket dredge can be employed with the advantage in favor of the latter. During the first few years after construction the maintenance charges on reservoir canals are quite high. A certain amount of bank caving occurs and a large amount of semifluid mud enters through the lateral ditches. The veloci- ties of flow in the canals are not sufficient to transport any great amount of this material to the pumping plant. After the district is once thoroughly drained and cultivated the soil becomes more firm and very little material is then car- ried by the lateral ditches, as the average velocities of flow in them are very small. The canals can then be cleaned very satisfactorily with a small hydrau- lic dredge, as the material to be removed will usually be too soft for the dipper type of dredge. PUMPING PLANT. The drainage of low-lying wet lands by means of pumps has been described in a former publication of this office.” This publication discusses the general character of land drainage by means of pumps and deals especially with con- ditions in the upper Mississippi Valley. It is recommended that the reader obtain the above-mentioned bulletin. The general nature of this method of draining in southern Louisiana is much the same as described in this bulletin, but there are many differences in detail that deserve mention. These differ- ences chiefly affect the capacity and operation of the pumping plant. NECESSARY CAPACITY OF PLANT. The general method of operation of plant in this part of the country is far different from that in the northern latitude, so, before discussing in detail such rainfall and run-off records as are available, it might be well to describe the usual method of operation. In this latitude farming operations are conducted every month in the year. While genera! field crops are growing only about 9 or 10 months, the field must be kept sufficiently well drained to admit of cultivation at any time. The bulk of the heavy plowing is done during what are ordinarily called the winter months. The need of the pumps is therefore more or less continuous; that is, 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 243. 66 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the run-off at any time of the year must be taken out promptly. The influence of evaporation at different seasons of the year causes a great variation in the manner of operating the pumps. A heayy rainfall in summer necessitates con- tinuous operation of the pumps for a period sufficient to empty the canals and: ditches. The water that will continue to run out of the lateral ditches will often be more than balanced by the evaporation, so that it will not again be necessary to start the plant until another period of heavy precipitation occurs. Small local rains in summer will in all likelihood pass unnoticed. During the winter months a heavy precipitation necessitates a relatively longer period of pumping than in summer. Two or three days after the canals have been emptied the ground-water drainage entering through the lateral ditches will, owing to lack of evaporation, make it necessary to operate the plant for a few hours, and after an interval of about 10 days it will again be necessary to do some pumping, although no precipitation may have occurred during the inter- vening periods. If the reservoir capacity of the canals be small the operation of the pumping plant will be still more intermittent. If the plant is divided into two or more units, one unit only may be operated for the dry-weather run-off. The total time of pump operation during the year rarely exceeds 45 days of 24 hours each and often drops to as low as 15 days. The total number of days on which the pumps are operated average about 70. In southern Louisiana most of the pumping plants so far installed have a theoretical capacity of at least 1 inch and many of them 1% inches in depth of water over the inclosed area in 24 hours. The 1-inch run-off is equivalent to approximately 27 second-feet per square mile of area, or 0.042 second-foot per acre. The necessary capacity of a pumping plant depends on the size and slope of the district to be drained, the depth and nature of the muck, the available - storage capacity of canals and ditches, the system ‘of lateral drains used, the method of operation ‘of the plant, the character of the crops raised, and the amount and distribution of the rainfall. The proper allowance to be made for each of these factors can only be determined as the result of careful and com- plete observations in the field. Not only should the results for each district examined be carefully worked out, but the investigations should include a suffi- ciently large number of typical districts and should continue for such a length of time as to make the results of general application. Some of the above factors have been quite closely investigated over a few districts and all of them have been covered in a general way. While the results obtained are not final, the investigations still being carried on, these details will be discussed in the light of such investigations as have been made. In planning gravity drainage districts it is customary gradually to decrease the run-off coefficient as the size of the district increases. With one exception the variation in size of the district in this section is as yet not great; therefore not much attention need be given this feature. In the summer, when rains are almost purely local, the larger district is not so likely to receive rains over its whole surface as is the smaller district. However, the rains that most heavily tax the pumping plant occur in the spring of the year and are general in character. The variation in surface elevation on the average district is usually slight, but where the district fronts on a ridge having an elevation above the prairie land of from 8 to 12 feet it has been noticed that the lower lands become flooded and that the required capacity of pumping plant is nearly 50 per cent greater than on the flat lands. This flooding of the lower lands can be partly DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 67 overcome by a corresponding design of the various parts of the collecting sys- tem. By careful location of gravity outlet ditches this drainage water from the higher lands can in some cases be entirely diverted. The character and depth of the layer of muck overlying the subsoil on these lands have a large influence on the run-off. The muck absorbs water very readily and if well drained to a depth of 3 feet its storage capacity is about 8 inches. When the land is first drained this muck will absorb water nearly as fast as the heaviest rate of precipitation, but as it decays and compacts both the storage capacity and the rate of absorption decrease very rapidly. A grad- ual increase in the rate of run-off must then be expected. The effect of reservoir capacity has already been discussed. However, it might be well to point out that increase of reservoir capacity does not decrease the amount of pumping to be done, but simply acts to decrease the time of flood- ing in case the run-off overtaxes the capacity of the plant. The effect is rela- tively less on short violent periods of precipitation than on longer but equally heavy ones. This will be illustrated in the discussion of rainfall and run-off. Deep lateral drainage acts to decrease the intensity of run-off. If such laterals are lines of tile, the rate of run-off will still further be decreased, for practically all water must then pass downward through the soil and out through the tile before it can reach the canal, while in the case of open field ditches most of the water can flow over the surface to the ditch and thus directly into the canal. Especially will this effect be noticed as the muck gradually loses its power of rapid absorption. If the pumping plant be designed to operate continuously its capacity may be much less than that of a plant intended for day use only. As previously mentioned, there is need of the plant at all times of the year. The fact that the water is always promptly pumped out and that all reservoir capacity is quickly available makes a smaller plant capacity practicable. Nearly all crops grown in this section are cultivated crops, so the rate of run- off will vary but little according to crop. However, the need for rapid removal of all rainfall is greater with truck crops than with general field crops such as cane or corn. With the former very little if any flooding of the surface is allowable, while with the latter the surface may be flooded for perhaps 24 hours several times a year without great damage. The character of crops to be grown should be known and considered in the design of the pumping plant. The amount and distribution of the rainfall are the most important of all the factors in determining the required capacity of the pumping plant for a given area. While a knowledge of the total yearly and monthly amounts of rainfall, either maximum or average, is important in determining the probable total amount of water to be pumped each year or month, the distribution of the rain- fall is the factor that fixes the necessary capacity ; that is, the amount of water falling in a period of three or four days must be considered, rather than the amount falling in a year or a month. On page 5 are ‘tabulated the heaviest storms that have occurred at New Orleans during the past 22 years. It would not be profitable to provide suffi- cient pumping-plant capacity to care for the run-off of the maximum storm, but only for those that occur so frequently that the resulting damage would be larger than the interest on the additional investment needed to provide for them. By observing the rates of run-off on various typical districts it will be possible finally to determine the ratio that the run-off to be pumped bears to the amount of precipitation in the maximum storm. A determination can then be made of necessary plant capacity, after taking into consideration the factors previously mentioned. 68 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order to obtain the relation between rainfall and run-off for lands of this section, rain gauges were installed on a number of districts in June, 1909, and a eareful log of pumping-plant operation has since been kept. The capacities of the various pumps were obtained by careful ratings. The three areas (Nos. 1, 2, and 8) on which these records were kept have already been described in detail. An examination of the descriptions will show that these districts vary widely in natural characteristics and in the nature of the improvements. In applying the results obtained to any other sections these local conditions should be considered. The daily records for the entire period will not be included here; only the records of heavy storms will be given, these latter being all that are required to determine the proper run-off coefficient. The run-off results vary so widely on the different tracts that they will be discussed separately, and the proper rate of run-off to be provided for will be determined in a preliminary way. It is to be understood, however, that these conclusions are not final and that records of rainfall and run-off extending over longer periods may lead to different ones. The following table for area No. 2 gives the rainfall and run-off for the eight heaviest storms that occurred during the period, June, 1909, to May, 1912. The stages of water in the reservoirs above orebelow the general ground surface are given as of § a. m. and 8 p. m., these being the usual hours at which the plant was started and stopped when operating in daytime; of course during the heaviest storms considerable pumpinggwas done at night. The condition of the soil at the time of the storm is also noted. Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms occurring on area No. 2, June, 1909, to May, 1912. [Reservoir capacity, 0.45 inch. Pumping capacity, 1.11 inches.] SS L394 : : No. of Stage of water in = Water . hours Daie. Hein ws Co or ees far Condition of soil before storm. general surface. ed 8 a.m. 8p.m. 1909. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet. June 1 0.65 0.00 2 4.20 -71 s . 0 ilp 10 Not recorded, ...-----| Well drained, and one-third in cultivation. 5 -00 22 Aug. 9 1.14 00 —0.1 +0.1 10 1. 68 80 +0.2 —1.0 il 2.80 90 —2.0 0.0 18 Do. 12 02 80 —0.3 —2.0 13 13 - 40 0.0 —2.5 Sept. 19 - 65 - 00 —0.3 —0.2 20 3.30 33 —0.1 +0.3 21 -00 47 +0.6 +0.3 22 - 00 72 +0.6 +0.1 54 Do. 23 -00 45 —0.4 —0.6 24 - 00 23 +0.3 —0.2 Dec. 11 2.80 -00 —1.0 0.0 12 15 - 63 +0. 4 +0.2 tH Ms ne rm 40 | Saturated, and one-third in cultivation. 15 - 00 37 0.0 —2.6 1910. July 1 -50 15 —1.6 —2.7 2 1. 82 23 —2.0 —1.6 3 8.40 .54 —0.6 —0.9 4 Ae : Hh ay 1 a : 36 | Well drained, and two-thirds in cultivation. a »05 -06 f i 6 - 00 .70 —0.1 —0.7 if - 00 41 —1.3 —2.0 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 69 Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms, etc.—Con. « No. of Stage of water in : a W ater : hours Date. eee pump- aye Cele ey land Condition of soil before storm. flood- general surface. cll 1911. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet. 1.02 é 2.0 Apr. 25 z 00 - —1.8 ae ci ea ae ie ee 0 | Well drained, and three-fourths in cultivation. 28 ~22 23 —1.8 —3.5 Nov. 27 3.00 47 —0.3 —0.2 28 00 - 88 —0.6 —3.0 0 Do. 29 00 234 —0.3 —2.0 1912. ny ail 30 - 00 —3.3 —3.0 2 00 - 00 —2.8 —2.7 3 41 - 00 —2.6 —2.5 4 00 -00 —2.4 —2.3 5 1.05 00 —2.1 —1.6 0 | Well drained, and seven-eighths in cultivation. 6 1.21 -55 —1.4 —0.6 , q 7 00 - 68 —0.5 —0.6 8 00 - 56 —1.6 —2.6 9 00 -1l —2.6 —1.5 From an examination of the above table it will be seen that it was only during four of these storms that flooding occurred. It is also apparent that if the plant had been operated at full capacity flooding would not have occurred during any of the storms. The flooding was due to unreliable machinery rather than to insufficient theoretical capacity; during the storms of Septem- ber and December, 1909, the plant was operated at less than half its maximum capacity. In determining the proper capacity of plant to remove these heavy storms it will be necessary to consider only those of August, 1909, and July, 1910. The flooding that occurred on this tract due to these two storms was on only a relatively small portion in the immediate vicinity of the reservoir, and in neither case did it damage crops, aS the water was only about 4 inches deep on the ground. In the storm of August, 1909, a pumping capacity of 0.85 inch would have been sufficient to prevent damaging overflow. The total water removed was 2.90 inches. By starting the pumps on August 9, or one day earlier than was done, a capacity of about 0.75 inch would have served to take away all drainage water in time to prevent flooding, aS the water would all have been removed more than 24 hours sooner than actually occurred. In the storm of July, 1910, by starting a plant of a capacity of 0.75 inch on July 2 the run-off of the 2d and 3d could have been taken out on the 2d, thus making a gain of 24 hours. It is not possible to estimate exactly the effect of such a gain, but it would appear that the time of flooding would have been reduced to about 12 hours. By applying a pumping capacity of 0.75 inch per day to the other storm periods it will be seen that the run-off could all have been removed without,.flooding, although the reservoir probably would have stood nearly full for some days. This condition would be allowable two or three times a year without damage to crops. After a period of cultivation of several years the soil on this tract will become more: impervious and the intensity of run-off will be greater. 70 BULLETIN 71, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Rainfall, water pumped, and reservoir stages due to heaviest storms occurring on area No. 1, June, 1909, to May, 1912. (Reservoir capacity 0.34 inch. Pumping capacity 1.45 inches.] * No. of Stage of water in . | Water | BOOS hours ain- bov =ee ¢ Date. oe pump- enya Belew) dou Condition of soil before storm. : general surface. 25 a ' 8a.m 8 p.m 1909. | Inches. | Inches. Feet. Feet. June 1 0.15 0. 00 Not recorded. 2 4.10 . 84 —0.7 —0.1 illite (ces iitis oie 24 | Welldrained. All cultivated. . 00 - 23 —2.0 —4.3 Sept. 20 4.14 - 62 —1.5 —1.4 .30 1.00 —2.2 —3.0 0 | Well drained. 22 . 00 - 50 —2.0 —4.0 Dec. 11 3.12 00 sie 0.0 12 Seyi 96 +. + .6 13| 00 Oo. iwi Bh avo 40 | Saturated. 14 - 00 26 —4.0 —1.5 1911. pres 355 | aT | eno 10 9 00 1. 26 — .8 —2.1 10 00 BY —4.0 2.0 0 | Well drained. 11 38 59 —1.1 —3.0 12 - 00 -20 —2.0 —3.5 Apr. 25 4.05 65 —2.1 +1.0 |) 26 2.21 1.16 |. +1.0 +1.0 27 - 00 1.16 + .5> 0.0 48 Do. 28 . 00 98 —1.0 —3.5 29 . 00 21 —1.5 —3.0 1912, Jan. 8 5 22 -00 —1 é gt .18 -00 —_-- L 8 “601 1:16 hy pees 24 | Saturated. . 9 - 00 111) —150 —3.5 Mar. 22 ‘ Ny i ae —2.0 — 7. , 0 0.0 ma ifs . 24| —.00 TaN Oh eR ea ig 0 | Well drained. 25 - 00 . 4 —1.5 —3.5 Apr. 13) 1.42) ae eo ea ae 3. a r 48 —2.0 a 5 % 31 +1.0 +1. 16) 01.72 | 132 |e Ses 0.0 48 bey 17 . 00 1.05 —1.0 —1.6 18 .00 37 —2.0 —2.0 May? Uieui-2ed\o.. onl] av=niG7, (uae 2 . 62 -35 —1.2 —3.5 3 1. 20 - 60 —1.2 —1.0 4 - 00 - 50 —2.1 —3.8 5 2.00 .00 —2.0 —1.5 6 - 00 . 64 —1.2 —1.1 7 - 00 - 69 —2.5 —3.2 36 Do. 8 - 00 =PB! —2.0 —3.5 9 . 00 . 00 —2.3 —2.2 10 4.50 45 —2.0 + .9 11 . 00 1.42 +1.2 + .6 12 . 00 1. 43 0.0 —2.0 13 - 00 26 —4.2 —3.5 It will be noted that during six of the nine storms enumerated above flood- ing occurred. However, only the land immediately along the reservoir canal was flooded and no great damage resulted, i. e., crops Were not killed. In the detailed description of this district a number of conditions were men- tioned that were responsible for these large rates of run-off. The small reser- voir capacity places the pumping plant at a disadvantage during both heavy and ordinary storms. It allows no reserve in the first case and in the second the plant can not be operated at full capacity for lack of water; only one unit can well be operated continuously until the water is removed. The pumping plant on this tract has not yet failed to remove the water soon enough to pre- vent any considerable damage to crops. By increasing the storage capacity to DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 7a about 0.8 inch the present plant should work to much better advantage. The canal that brings the water from the “‘front” lands should not be enlarged, as the rapid run-off from these higher lands is at present largely responsible for the flooding. It is doubtful if even a large increase in pumping capacity would be effective if the present reservoir were not improved. With the reservoir enlarged to the usual size of those on other districts, the present pumping plant probably would be of sufficient capacity to give satisfactory drainage. The drainage from area No. 8 is disposed of by gravity instead of by pump- ing. The internal canals are large and the outlet canal is of such size that, except in the case of extreme storms, the fluctuation of the water surface in the canals is small; that is, the water is discharged very soon after it reaches the canals. Twelve storm periods are included: in the following table: Rainfall and run-off due to heaviest storms occurring on area No. 8, December, 1909, to April, 1912. [Gravity drainage system. ] Rain- | Run- | Condition of soil before Rain- | Run- | Condition of soil before Date. fall. off. storm. Date fall. off. storm, 1909. { Inches. | Inches. 1911. | Inches.| Inches. Dee. 11 0. 00 0. 06 Apr. 24 1.05 12 12 2. 74 12 25 - 00 ell 13 - 00 234 26 2. 72 209 14 - 80 .33 2 00 81 15 - 00 ~32 28 -00 -13 16 - 00 .32 |+Well drained. 29 245 - 44 ||Saturated 17 .33 ol 30 - 00 -40 18 5%} - 26 May 1 99 Bt }5) 19 00 21 2 48 -50 20 00 21 3 18 230 ¢ 21 - 00 . 20 4 18 -28 5 00 19 1910. ; Dec. 18 - 00 07 Mar. 9 . 00 - 05 19 2. 66 . 08 10 3. 11 - 10 20 - 00 44 li . 00 us Dry. 21 : 26 : 38 12 -00 . 22 Ci ° G 13 - 00 12 23 125 .38 |pW ell drained. May 17 .00 . 00 24 .00 235 18 21 02 25 232 327 19 2. 83 . 08 26 -13 224 20 - 00 . 06 27 -29 23 21 27 -07 |\Very dry. 22 1.57 - 08 1912 23 1, 25 ll Jan. 6 13 .18 24 -30 14 7 1.61 17 25 - 00 12 8 - 80 49 July 17 13 212 9 - 00 -58 | \Saturated. 18 .55 12 10 - 00 ~38 19 . 65 234 11 - 02 28 20 92 -39 | Saturated. 12 - 00 -23 21 17 -29 Mar. 10 - 00 - 04 22 37 23 11 2.30 : re 28 a 12) OO | 239 |} Well drained. 1911. 14 ~45 23 Mar. 21 . 00 - 02 15 00 - 20 22 3. 80 .36 Mar. 21 - 05 - 08 23 - 00 - 62 22 3. 60 . 24 24 - 00 a7 Dry. 23 2.40 A: He 2 e ae ‘ me a i 48 “94 |}Well drained. 27 - 00 -38 26 - 00 42 28 - 00 .24 27 00 -o2 Apr. 3 - 00 - 08 28 00 25) 4 -10 ll Apr. 11 26 07 5 1.10 16 12 1.39 07 6 - 00 12 13 21 17 7 - 00 . a8 14 2.10 e a 8 4. 03 . 15 - 00 5 9 - 00 “ge |//)) Giluetase 161 160 |) 1208 l\wWell'drained. 10 - 00 -48 17 -00 . 69 il 1.15 ~42 18 -00 44 12 - 00 49 19 -10 .3L 13 - 00 33 20 237 ~20 14 - 00 20 21 - 00 . 20 72 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A wide variation in the rates and amounts of run-off is apparent from the above table, according to the distribution of the rainfall, the time of the year, and especially to the condition of the soil before the storm occurred. The soil is spongelike in its action, and the fact that there are few lateral ditches makes a condition favorable for a large absorption. During the heaviest storms the soil became saturated and the water flowed over the surface to the canals. In case the run-off from this tract were handled by a pumping plant, the daily run-offs given in the above table would be the amounts available for pump-: ing each day, and if cared for, either by pumping or by storing in a reservoir, flooding would not occur. ‘Therefore by assuming a certain pumping-plant capacity the required capacity of reservoir can easily be determined for these storms and for this particular district. In the following tables different pump- ing-plant capacities have been assumed and the corresponding necessary reser- voir capacities have been calculated. These calculations are based upon the storms of March and April, 1912, these having caused the heaviest run-off. This determination is not made with the idea that the results will be capable of gen- eral application, but rather for the purpose of showing a method of finding the proper pumping-plant and reserveir capacities for a given run-off. 73 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. fy cr 00° 00° 61° Go" 00° 69° 00° 00° PL” ikon 00° eP° 08° €0° 06° 62° 08° 6F° 06° 06° 08° 01° 06° 69° 08° GS* 06° 00° Tas. 00° TL” 00° its 00° Ig ° 1 oe 00° VI” 00° 20°0 00°0 200 00°0 “SOYouy “SOYOuUT “Soyouy “Soyouy “MOAIesel | ‘poduind | “m1oAdesoi | *podurnd Uy 1038 M Jay MA Ul 10je A Jaye M —Yout 60 | —oul 80 | —Your 20 | —youl 6°0 Aqtoedeo Ayroedeo Aytoedeo Ayoedeo IMOAIOSEyy Uv IIOA19S0 3], uel 00° 01° Go" 00° cP 08 * 00° G8 ° €6° 08° 6S" 06° Te T 08° 101 06° Lo 08° 10°T 06° 63° 08° 67° 06° 00° Ge" 00° GE ° 800 00 °0 80 °0 00 °0 “Sayouy “sayouy *SayoUT *sayouy “MOAIeser | *podummd | -1toaszosor | *podund UT 10} A 10}? MA UL 1098 AA 1098 MA —soyout g°T} —yourg9 | —your,t | —your6'0 Aypoedvo | Aytoedeo | Ayroedea | Aytoedvo IIOAIOSEY quel IIOAIOSO YY quel 06° 00° Tg° 00° 16" (6 ia 60° Te" v1" 20°0 “SIYOUT *ILOAJOSO1 Ul 109@ AA —yout ¢°0 Ayjroedeo ILOAJ0S0 3 00° 9c 00° ish8)> 00 °T 00 °T 00 °T 00 'T 00° 00° 000 "Sayouy *pedund 1040 MA. —youl J Ayroedeo yueld 00° cr” €1* TL° 18° 60° 00° 80 °0 *Sayouy *ILOAIOSOI Ul 1098 AA —qours'0 Aywedeo ITOA.1080 YY] 01° 00° 00 ‘T 00°T 00 ‘T 00 °T (Some 00°0 “Sayouy —qout T Ayroedvo 00° cr 02° 00° 02° 00° GG * 00° 00° 9c" Go" ie, 00° GL T° 00° Te* (0) Laan 00° 00° tr tr 00° 00° 61° 00° 69° 69° 00° Or’ 06 °T 00° OL'T 80°T 09 °T GG * 06 ‘T 60° 00 T CPT 00° 00° 60 T 00° G01 TL” OLS 1g" 00° Te* 00° A 13° tI" 00° i 00° 10° 68 T 20°0 00°0 10°0 00 ‘0 10°0 96 0 “sayour “sayouy “Sayouy “Sayouy *“soyouy “Sayour “MOAIeSe1 | *poduind | -moAseser | *podund Ul 1090 Jo}eM Uy J99vM 1048 M —Youl F'0 | —Soypurg’ {| — oul #0 |—soqourp yt) “yo-uny | “TTeyUrey “eyed Ayoedeo Ayoedeo | Aqtoedeo Ayroedeo ITOAIOSOY quel ITOAIOSOX jue d GI6GE ‘IZ-IT "“UdV JO WHOLS NO Gusva 00° Lg 00° AS GS ° 00° oom 00° (om 00° GE ° 00° 00° $9" 00° CP” (Gian 00° GG ° 02 *T 00° GGT F8° QO See ae oa ere = pee ee ae “dG “Ie 8g 02 ‘T 8¢° OFT 821 OO ie Se Sailers ee eae a “"""$S “IVIL 00° 60 T 00° 60 °T 60 °T ORG: a | a ee eee “" "EG “IB 00° (oom 00° Ge" T° O98: Sa aes ee ae See “86 “VW 80°0 00°0 80°0 00°0 80°0 GONO) ees as ee ee ee “1G “TVA, *sayouy *Sayouy *Sayouy *sayouy *Sayouy *Sayouy ‘110AJosor | *poduind | 1toAsoser | *pedumnd ULIO4V AA 1048 MA UT 1098 A 1948 MA —Youl g'0 |—Seqour ZT] —youry'o |—seyoury' {| “yo-uny | “]Teyurey 9qe Ayroedeo | Ayoedea | Ayroedvo | Ayroedvo IIOAIOSO YY quel d ILOAI0S0 quel quetd CI6I ‘SC-16 UVW JO WHOLS NO GUsvya "2 ‘ON D910 UO savyrondnod yun) d-buidund Juatafiip 40f sayrwndnos moasasas pasinboagy 74 BULLETIN "1, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It will be noted from the foregoing table that the smallest reservoir capacity that is indicated is 0.4 inch in depth of water on the whole area. The size of eanal necessary to bring the water to the plant rapidly enough to secure con- tinuous operation and to keep the slope of water surface reasonably small will give a storage capacity of 0.4 inch. In the following summaries the estimated costs of pumping plants and reservoirs are given. The head on pump has been assumed at 6 feet, with 60 per cent efficiency of pump and 90 per cent me- chanical efficiency of engine. The figures for cost of plant are for simple slide- yalve noncondensing engines and have been taken from the curve in figure 18, which shows the average cost of pumping plants in this State under condi- tions similar to those on the tract in question. The cost of the reservoir has been calculated at 7 cents per cubic yard and includes only that part of the canal prism between the surface and a depth of 4 feet. It is assumed that the reservoir canal would not be widened below the 4-foot level. Costs for necessary capacities. STORM OF MAR. 21-28, 1912. Capacity | Costof | Capacity | Costof | motal cost. ofreservoir.| reservoir. | of plant. plant. Inches Inches 0.4 $4, 100 4 $7, 000 $11, 100 -6 6,100 1.2 6, 100 12, 200 8 8, 200 1.0 5, 400 13, 600 1.0 10, 220 ~9 4,900 15, 120 1.3 13, 600 8 4,700 18,300 STORM OF APR, 11-21, 1912. e 0.4 4 $7,000 | $11,100 é 14 4100 1.2 6, 100 10, 200 15 5) 100 1.0 5, 400 10,500 7 7; 150 9 4,900 12) 050 9 9, 200 8 4,700 13,900 It appears from the above estimate that the cheapest improvements to take care of the storm of March 21-28, 1912, would be a combination of a plant capacity of 1.4 inches and a reservoir capacity of 0.4 inch, and that for the storm of April 11-21, 1912, there should be a plant capacity of 1.2 inches and a reservoir capacity of 0.4 inch. Excepting in the first case, the cost of provid- ing for the second storm is less in each capacity of plant than for the first storm. While the run-offs from these two storms were nearly the same, the time over which the second was distributed was greater, thus allowing smaller capacity of reservoir. Although as regards first cost alone it appears that the larger plant and smal] reservoir should be used, there are other factors that enter into the problem. The larger canals would decrease the lift of the plant, as the slope in water surface during operation would not be so great as in the small canals. The operation of the plant, in pumping from a large canal, would not be so intermittent as from a small canal; this would make for better fuel economies. The rate of interest on plant and on reservoir would be the same, but the per- centage to be allowed for depreciation and repairs probably would differ some- what. In removing the run-off from a given storm the smaller plant would have to operate longer, thus increasing the labor charges over those of the larger plant. To determine the proper weight to be given these various factors, continued and detailed records on a number of typical districts are needed, but they are here mentioned to make clear the fact that there are other features DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 75 besides the first cost of the improvements to be considered in fixing the proper relative capacities. LOCATION, DESIGN, AND CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT. Theoretically the plant should be so located that the water in coming to it will travel the minimum length of reservoir canal. This condition usually would be met if the plant were placed in the center of the district and dis- charged through a leveed outfall canal to some bordering lake or bayou. In practice, however, the plants ordinarily are located on one side of the tract and on some navigable lake or bayou. This greatly facilitates the transporta- tion of heavy machinery during the erection of the plant, as the ground usually is much too soft to allow the hauling of heavy loads. Fuel also can then be transported cheaply. If the tract has any considerable slope in its surface the logical location of the plant is in the lowest part. However, this part is often very soft, and to secure foundation it may be advisable to locate in some higher and more stable portion. As pointed out in the discussion of levees, there are frequent ridges of silt winding through these swamps, and a plant can often be located on one of these solid ridges. While it would be necessary to use a great many piles under the foundation in either case, the number can be reduced if the plant is located on a ridge. The foundation under both the machinery and the building of these plants should be of concrete, well supported by piling. A plan of the foundation under the plant at Gueydan has already been shown (fig. 16, p. 51) and is a good illus- tration of a foundation in this character of soil. The foundation under the plant on area No. 5, already illustrated (fig. 13, p. 45), is also a good one. It will be noted on both these plans that the foundation is surrounded by sheet piling and that under the center of the Des Allemands plant a line of sheet piling has been driven and extended into the concrete. In these soft soils such pre- cautions are necessary. The engine and pump usually are mounted on the same block of concrete, so that any subsequent settlement will not throw them out of line. While buildings to inclose the machinery should be of durable and fireproof construction, they are not called upon to protect the machinery and attendants from low winter temperatures. A frame of structural steel cov- ered with heavy corrugated galvanized iron answers the purpose very well, although in one case a brick building has been erected. These buildings should be capable of resisting the action of the tropical hurricanes, for it is at such times that the need for the plant is greatest. The selection and arrangement of machinery in centrifugal pumping plants have already been discussed in detail in publications of this office.t While the local conditions considered in these publications are somewhat different from those in southern Louisiana, the same principles are involved, and the same general features are to be considered. As stated previously, the average lift of drainage pumping plants is from 8 to 10 feet. The bulk of the water is lifted little more than 3 feet. Special at- tention should therefore be given to the reduction of all friction and velocity head losses to a minimum, as a poor arrangement of piping on the pumps may easily double the total head against which they must work. The design of the pump must be especially suited to such low and variable lifts in order to give efficient service, the ordinary centrifugal pump for higher lifts being very in- efficient under these local conditions. These pumps should also be so designed that they are able to work under an overload. Increased capacity can then be 1U. S. Dept. Agr., OMice of Expt. Stas. Bul. 243, Land Drainage by Means of Pumps, by S. M. Woodward; Cire. 101, The Selection and Installation of Machinery for Small Pumping Plants, by W. B. Gregory. 76 BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. secured by speeding up the pump. ‘The efficiency will be less when working under an overload, but this increased capacity at times of heavy precipitation is very desirable, even if secured at a sacrifice of efficiency. The rated capacity of ordinary centrifugal pumps is based on a velocity of flow, through the dis- charge opening on the pump, of from 10 to 12 feet per second. Pumps are now being designed to increase this velocity to 14 or 15 feet per second when run at high speeds, i. e., overloads. This will make possible the installation of smaller pumps. ; Another point that must be considered in the design of both engine and pump is the gradual increase in static lift that may be expected, due to the subsidence of the muck soils. Of course the amount of this subsidence will depend upon the nature and depth of the original muck, but it will often amount to 2 or even 8 feet in the course of 10 or 15 years. Both the average and the maximum lift will thus be increased by this amount. After a period of perhaps 15 years further subsidence will amount to little. The total amount of water pumped in a year will affect the character of ma- chinery to be used. The rainfall in this section is greater than in the northern latitudes, and the run-off, consequently, is also greater. The following table gives the yearly rainfall and run-off on three of the districts previously de- scribed, and the number of days on which rainfall and pumping occurred for the period from June, 1909, to May, 1912, inclusive. Yearly and average yearly rainfall, run-off, number of days on which pumps were operated, and number of days on which rain fell on areas Nos. 1, 2, and 8, June, 1909, to December, 1912. Area No. 1. Area No. 2. Area No. 8. yaar AL Num, Num Ney Num- ; cae | _ | ber of | bero a _ | ber of | bero oa . | ber of nae ue days. | days Bain Bun days | days Higin se days * | pumps} rain ; * | pumps] rain E % rain ran. | fell. ran. | fell. fell. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. Ins. OS oe eee 42.32 16.33 45 66 37.21 15. 83 41 57 | 27.74 9.98 62 LH (i js See a oe ee 43.08 | 11.58 45 83 41.48 | 10.83 55 84 | 242.54 | 215.77 268 AOU R ey 2 Sees. 8 52.32 | 23.41 69 75 | 54.56] 25.84 102 96 | 62.22] 32.69 108 x AY 7B ae ee es, Seas .-| 3 48.22 | 334. 42 3 81 348 | 58.86 | 450.34 131 91} 65.72] 40.59 120 Motalezses- sae. 185.94 | 85.74 240 | 272 | 192.11 | 102.34 329 | 328 | 198.22} 99.03 358 Average, year.-..| 57.21] 26.38 74 84 53.36 | 28.57 91 91} 59.53] 29.80 108 1June to December, inclusive. 2February, September, and October omitted. 3 June to September, inclusive, omitted. 4 Large run-off due to excessive seepage through levees. The above table would indicate that an average run-off of about 28 inches per year might be expected and that it would be necessary to operate the pumps on from 70 to 90 days a year. During the 38 years and 7 months that the records were kept the boilers of the plant on area No. 2 were fired up 278 times, and those on area No. 1 189 times in 3 years and 3 months. The average number of times that these boilers were fired per year was 68. This yearly average is higher than should be expected on districts with larger reservoir capacities. Cost or PUMPING PLANTS. The cost of drainage pumping plants per indicated horsepower varies widely according to type of machinery, expense of transportation of machinery to site of plant, character of foundation, and difficulty of erection. The last three La a ’ = ae a aie mie he a Seat Ss Poe eae Piet ae sie La AT) ee thay i Prrwdony red chen pin ; se ot a = ak ; ae a ee fe fp niet Aine i pers. Te | jan NOTE-This diagram shows CIE Approximate H IL Cl Costs of SINGLE UNIT CENTRIFUGAL PUMPING. iI PEE PLANTS erected complete, inclusive of founda- mini | | Based on estimates for work in Louisiana & Texas. Compiled by H.L. HUTSON, Louisiana Eng Society. B J. 1 | IL | 26000 BEE EEEEEE tions but exclusive of Buildings, Intake, Discharge I} zs000 Canals, or Flume. I iL | Io i > +144 ale PERE rey meet et E aaa HH ial = sere a2 1 4 iI { a = saa feeeiaiet aceovastorare’ Lee ie H + i Taal iL IL aia &} +=! BS reat on or = oy adusnver cud suueee saScaEGEERHeEaE BEECH eh Saggee sunmeaG) eeeeEee Fore BEE § 14 fe 16000 Be: L ae 1a eoee ch oe EEC Se se | set | tat ; a IE IL oI | id E aRe | ai IL ! Ir an eco BEE EEE LECH : 14000 5 = iE os Saengecstostassantaotactecdiacs BEE He | SO 4001 ot | 1200-8 $2 +t ana | oo mr ate Ac 1 - JL — Ll It Dal PREC Teese cial Eee inal v7 zeetenet eno = JL = ie 1 isa aif econte Teoediteestt tassios criti | 4 cot Becca al Il - IE oan Oe Hee ime + a + ce = imi | 1 \. IL Tal 1f tly 1 | [ | Bias neneste or) > cageotecated a gueuate uadaaaezevs eeveedsezadscasersed 706 z im im a= —. 4000 | Nal L IL He : Ie 1 iI f A if be zs sia ' |_| jimmie | } jf = ial + seestostect uraraeatoatatareiet 2000 x 3 rac mal mma | ! [ Ge ia | tl | dk HP. of Steam End| 100 200 J i 300 A 0 jt i ol ie ail H LH CIGIAMish Water edd fopop 5 20000 30000 40000 50000 mae I 100000 (10000 120000 130000 DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. id items will vary greatly according to local conditions. An accompanying dia- gram (fig. 18) shows comparative approximate costs of single-unit centrifugal pumping plants erected complete, inclusive of foundations, but exclusive of buildings, intake, discharge canals, or flume. These costs are based on esti- mates for work in Louisiana and Texas, and the diagram is published by courtesy of Mr. H. L. Hutson, of A. M. Lockett & Co. (Ltd.), New Orleans, La. These figures are approximate, but are on the safe side, i. e., they take into consideration construction under unusual difficulties. In making up these costs it was assumed that the effects of the three items which are mentioned as varying according to local conditions would be a constant percentage of the cost of the plant. It is obvious that this diagram should not be used for | accurately obtaining the cost of a drainage plant, but that its chief usefulness is in showing the relative cost of the various types of machinery, for deciding upon the most economical size of unit to be used in large plants, and for making approximate estimates of the total cost of plants. ; In making the diagram the cost of the plant has been divided into the cost of the “ water. end,” being pump, pump foundation, and piping; and the cost of the “steam end,” which includes the engines, boilers, and their foundations and auxiliaries. The cost of the water end is given in terms of gallons per minute of rated capacity, and that of the steam end in terms of indicated horse- power. Owing to the variation in costs, it is necessary to use zones instead of lines to indicate them. The zone marked “ Steam end, compound condensing Corliss or 4-valve en- gines,”’ includes the cost of this type of engine and water-tube boilers. The zone marked ‘“‘ Compound condensing slide valve” includes the cost of this type of engine and either water-tube or return tubular boilers, according to the size of plant. The zone marked “Simple slide-valve noncondensing” includes the cost of this type of engine and hormontal return tubular boilers. It will be noted that for the higher class engines the cost is not indicated below about 100 horsepower, as engines of this class can not be purchased in smaller sizes than 75 or 100 horsepower. In estimating the cost of a plant the following steps are necessary. With a given capacity of plant in gallons per minute, estimate the cost of the water end by use of the water-end zone. In order to get the cost of the steam end the indicated horsepower must first be calculated. The water horsepower is first determined, knowing the capacity and lift of the plant; this is then divided by the combined efficiency of the engine, transmission, pump, and piping, which will give the indicated horsepower. By using the various zones of cost of different types of engines, the cost of the steam end can be determined, Then by combining the cost of water end and steam end the total cost of plant will be determined. Cost oF OPERATION. Full and complete records of pumping operations have not been kept on any district in this section until the present investigation was started in June, 1909. The records of cost of operation are therefore incomplete, and those that have been given are useful in illustrating the need for more efficient machinery rather than as serving as a guide for estimating the cost of operation of drain- age plants in this section. On page 78 is a statement showing the comparative fuel costs of several types of pumping plants when removing 12 inches of water from a tract of 1,000 acres at the rate of approximately 1 inch per 24 hours against a total head on pump of 8 feet. This table and the one on page 80 have been prepared by A. M. Lockett & Co. as being applicable to local conditions and are published by their courtesy. BULLETIN 71, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CO I~ *seqour-o10e 90'T ‘ATTeogroedg 1 916 L466 | 806 | P8L | 99T | TSE | SEL | 8S2E | GIL | TILT | €8 Jo 1 Sa fae (cpa a 08 196 _ 8T Gh GO| SS G65| we ee ae POI OU -109 JoeIp ‘SsIpI0D pasuepuos punodmog | TF 968 08Z | Sho | ZIG | 96T | SLE | COL | TST | OPE | TEL | 86 | | ae ae Oe 16 260 ‘T 0G G'cF (OY ies al LAU ke a ;_ Peqoomu09 qoomrp ‘eATeA eprys pesueptos punodu0g | TF LOF Oss | SOE | TZo | FRG | GS | €OS | 88E | PAT | COT | COE | cy eee SIL 888 ‘T 9Z GPP G6 | ~~ | G6 | ~~ PeJoeMMOD Joop ‘QuIsUESST]I0D od ut | TF OSF 986 | 866 | OOE | O42 | 9FZ | See | 806 | S6L | OST | GET | OSs ee ee ea 81 PPS ‘T 96 G6r | 8°28 | 06 | G6) p9}[9q, “QUISO SST]IOD sd uNIS | Tp oss TLp | oth | 99€ | OSE | OOS | G4 | HSS | 9EB | OCS | SOT | 19° |e TReG) oe ess ee Glas oe | eee ZV OS LR\> wos ee | he ee pe}0eum09 JoeI Ip ‘oursue ouljosey | Tp €19 9c¢ | 09F | OTF | 89E | SEE | LOE | 8% | 9S | She | F8L | 89°0$ | ----” BORG ae Nis eo ae eee ae Fete eae Spl GeSh ten = O67) STS a ee Re **"pezeq j ‘aurIsu9 ouTposexy | Tp LCL £69 | Sho | S8h | OFF | 96E | POE | OEE | TIS | O66 | BIG ; O08: Se sie ere © G06 9SF cP g "cP OG ae 016% yee eee eg **peyoou -100 29911 p ‘oui3 -M9 OATVA-OPT{Sa[dulg | Tp G6L$ | 089% | G6G$ | 62S | OFS | EPS | LOES | 99ES | OPES | LTES | SESS |-------* S8°0F) [REIS L0G 91% GP gos T8 | 06 | 06 |~"-"""" ~~ peyeq “ours * ny “LY “LY WO DHT dH \ 2? 'd\'P'd\"}9'd | -W9 oATCA-pl]s o[d us | Tp dad ‘spp | lad -sqT | tad sq | lad *sq'T Pe geal ee alec eo erm ode come: | areata ls Gaels gt Scag tae mme | e le oe 4 rg rg cs) is) rg cs) co) ig rg cS} — lobe | se tos ost sso © “| 8B | S| ca 2 fo) o) fe) fo) ro) fo) fo) Oo ro) () ko) oO 2 R22 of 2 aT 2 ct ts s ct A 5 5 4 5 1 5 4 4 et ro) =i = ge 5 dig g jaa ion Bl 6 i} ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° " oe EG tie) a oon PS, Oo Ine) B mi} a oo ro) o ro} ro) ro) ® o) oO fo) ° Boers fo} Ws Foch BAG 3 bg: ® : = i=] B i=] i=} B B B B B B fo} i ie AN “an =I rand tS .~Oo Q 3° Bia) Sets Sar se Be ce se He rt Se ts ste Shoal) (fe me ge eos ° gh tie a st pe} WoO ae s oBB So ade “yuejd Jo edAy, Re eel oee wee | Se Ee | og al Be g e2| 8& a Sa | gee g be 3 (ome) Ao sa Ss oe gg re 3 ae | go | 24 fe | Hoe B | ee S *pouren soroneroyye durnd 4e seyout ZT 1210} SurAourer Jo Bay | aes Ag a See, ® ENE) asgemcrees sIseqd U0 OsvULeIp SUIUIeJULeUL pue SULUMTeIOOI Ivo Jed 4800 Tony [e10,], fe eh) ee 5 : & ve Ee 5 eB Be A | + 7 - [eT ‘suveig Mon ‘09 3 W,0N90T “Wy Aq posedorg ] _“sunoy 7g ur asan- sad your-aiov f hyayouraoiddo fo ayv4 yn ‘uosnas sad a.iop sad joof-aon T=podund yunowy ‘poay 10404 4a0f 8 ‘sjana) Ur aoUasaffip yoof 9 ‘sau0n QOO'T 4og ‘szunjd burdwnd fo sedfz yosaaas fo s800 panf aaynjas burnoys yuowaznjs aryoundwuog) DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 79 As the headings in the table on page 78 are necessarily much abbreviated a short explanation of those that may seem obscure will be given. The first column gives the water horsepower of the plant of the assumed capacity. The second column states the type of plant, and also whether the engine is belted or direct connected to the pump. Under efficiencies, the third column gives the mechanical efficiency of the engine, the fourth that of the belt, if any, and the fifth the combined efficiency of engine and belt. The sixth column gives the indi- cated Lorsepower of the steam engine and the brake horsepower of the gasoline engine. The seventh column shows the pounds of water consumed by the engine, in the form of steam, per indicated horsepower hour; then the total steam used per hour would be the product of the two next preceding columns, plus 20 per cent for use of the usual auxiliaries and oil burners; these figures are shown in column 8. The ninth column gives the amount of fuel oil per hour necessary, assuming that 1 pound of oil will evaporate 12 pounds of water. In like manner column 10 indicates the number of gallons of gasoline required per hour, on the basis of 1 pint of gasoline per brake horsepower hour. The total cost of the fuel per hour (columns 11 and 12) is found by multiply- ing the total amount used per hour by the-unit cost, which is here taken as $1.25 per barrel of 320 pounds for the fuel oil and 12 cents per gallon for the gasoline. The total cost per year is found by multiplying the cost per hour by 270, this being the number of hours the plant will be required to run to remove a depth of 1 foot of water from the 1,000 acres. Under this heading the first column gives the cost for a pump efficiency of 100 per cent. The figures in the other columns are derived by dividing the first column by the various pump_ efficiencies. It will be noted in the above table that efficiencies of pumps are given from 30 to 100 per cent. Of course, the higher limit will never be attained, but the lower one doubtless will be reached when such pumps are worked under a heavy overload. The usual efficiency for average-size plants probably will vary between 55 and 65 per cent. In using this table it must be remembered that the higher-class engines can not be purchased in smaller sizes than 75 horse- power. In the following table the above Summary has been applied to a special case of a tract of 3,500 acres, showing the fuel costs per year for removing depths of water from 2 to 6 feet at the rate of 1 inch in depth per 24 hours. The greater depth of water might be encountered when the tract is first reclaimed, but the usual rate would be about 24 inches in depth per year. =) AH = =) ie) pty (om ) a Fy fo) H A io = : Ay ca A wn 5 rc A 2 ie 4 | Pp fx 80 G66 ‘I$ =L90 ‘I$ —28 ‘2S 891 C$=L90 TS—GI8 8S e9p ‘1$=aG8 ‘Z$—GI8 “eS 190 ‘1$=9 "XZ XIS1$ ooe ‘t$=G "EXTX9EES GIB ‘e$=9 "EXZXGhS$ “YOul-Fe 988 TS =COL *ZS—8ES ‘ES 909 €$=989 ‘T$—0GL ‘S$ BOL ‘C$=8ES ‘E$—OZL ‘GS ggg ‘T$=9 "EXEX STF 829 “es=9 “EXEX9EEs OGL “A$ =G "EXEX GHGs “your-9g 069 ‘GS =PII ‘7$—FOL ‘PS 919 ‘9 =PIT 2S—089 ‘18 926 ‘2$=F0L ‘F$—0E9 “28 PIT ‘O$=9 “EXP XISTS FOL ‘P$=G EXP X9EES 089 “2$=9 "EXP X SPSS 88 ‘eS =ZP9 ‘TS—088 “SS 868 ‘98 =Gh9 "CS—OFS 68 099 ‘e$=088 “S$—0F9 “68 BPO ‘CH=G'EXSX ISTE 088 “E$=9 "eXaX gees OFS “64=¢ “8X XoPeg “TOUL-8F “qourl-09 *JO-UNI poyeys 1B Ie0A Tod [ony Jo 4800 [RI OY, $88 ‘68 =TLT '€$—990 (28 696 ‘SS=TLT ‘€$—OPP ‘ITS ose ‘F$=S90 ‘28—OFF ‘TIS TL1‘e$ =9"EX9XIST$ Gg0 ‘28 =G"eXOX9EEs OFF ‘TIS=9 "EXO X SPSS ~*-*----aretd Jo sodA} quoseyip Sutsn Aq Suravg ~----*=-durnd Aoueroyyo 9ue0 Jed ¢9 0} pojoou “100 JO0IP OATBA-OPI[S SuIsuspuood punodurog aS ce dumd Aouerorye yu90 sed ¢9 YyTA ‘oureg rinyaitig cisisin icles pa ae ee shinee SSE eA OUOLO -qyo qu00 rod op ‘dumnd soyjodut uedo deoyo 0} poJOoOMMOD YOOITp OUTSUO OATBA-OPTIS e]duntg “Youre, *yue]d yo eddy, [ey ‘suvoj1O MON ‘09 3 4403007 “PE “vy Aq porvdorg] ‘yool § ponay 19102 pajynwuysa ‘s]ada] UW aduasaf{fyp yoaf 9 “Jona, owon-90G'g {0 OSD YoIWads O02 QUaWAIDIS DAYDIDAdWOoOD fo UOYndYddD fo a)duney DRAINAGE OF WET LANDS OF SOUTHERN LOUISIANA. 81 The last column in this table shows that for removing a 24-inch depth the saving in fuel per year in using a compound condensing slide-valve engine instead of a simple slide-valve engine with the same pump would be $1,295. The labor charges for operating the two plants would be about equal, and an examination of the diagram of cost (fig. 18, p. 77) will show that the first cost of the plants would be very nearly the same and would be approximately $13,000. The interest and depreciation charges at 13 per cent would be $1,690 per year, which, added to the fuel cost of $1,057, would make for the compound-con- densing type a total charge per year of $2,747, exclusive of labor. This is equivalent to a charge of $0.78 per acre per year. Labor charges would bring this up to about $1.06 per acre per year. On districts where the service is very intermittent or that are much smaller than this one, the fuel and labor eharges would be relatively larger. As mentioned above, few pumping districts are keeping careful and complete records of operation of plant. Without such records it is impossible to tell whether or not the plant is being run economically or to ascertain sources of waste. From the standpoint of the owners of the land such records are as essential as are the accounts of any business concern to its proprietors. These records are also essential to the future intelligent design of similar plants. If any progress is to be made in the matter of design and construction, not only of the pumping plant but also.of the reservoir system, careful and complete records must be kept. This need of records is more essential for purposes of design and construction than for securing careful operation, because a system that is poorly designed to meet local conditions can never be satisfactory even if operated ever so carefully. The individuals and districts that are interested in drainage by pumping owe it to the future success of this form of reclamation and to their own self-interest to keep such records, for it is possible that much money can be saved in first cost of improvement, as well as in reduced operation charges. Thus far, in the absence of detailed and reliable data, the design of plant has been based on a number of reasonable assumptions. However, when there is such a variation in these assumptions that the resulting plants for similar dis- tricts vary in capacity from 50 to 100 per cent, and in character from the lowest to the highest grade machinery, it is evident that a larger percentage of actual facts is needed as a basis of design in place of so much that is assumed. Owing to a variation in local conditions from one district to another, the records should be extended over a large number of typical districts, and it would be much better if a complete record could be secured from every pumping plant of importance. A few dollars spent in keeping such records will be worth many times the amount to each individual district, and the benefit in general to the work of drainage by pumping will be far-reaching and lasting. The following form is recommended as one including the essential features of daily operation of plant. Form for daily pumping records. Reservoir | Outfall | Speed of | Steam pres- Oil | . gauge. gauge. pump. sure meter. Rainfall. | Remarks. 82 BULLETIN 71, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It would be well to use.one page for each day. The gauges in reservoir and outfall canal should be read before starting and again about one-half hour after starting. If practicable they should be read once an hour during operation and all other items should be so entered. It would also be well to read the oil meter, when oil is burned, before firing the boiler and again after the pumps are started. This will determine the losses due to intermittent operation, a question that is at present a subject of. much discussion. If coal or wood is burned, it will not be so convenient to determine the amount consumed, but it’ should be estimated at least once a month. Other expenses should be carefully recorded and the total expenses of operating a plant should be classified under the following headings: Fuel, labor, supplies, repairs, and superintendence. The records should be kept in such form that the totals for month and year can easily be obtained. The cost per acre per year can then be determined, but-to determine the cost of removing a given depth of water over the tract the pumps must be carefully rated. The above form provides for such data that the amount of water pumped can be calculated. If these records are faithfully kept on a large number of districts for a term of years, the resulting data will enable the engineer to design a pumping plant intelligently and with the knowledge that it will give satisfaction, not only in capacity, but in economy. ACKNOWLEDGMENT. It is with pleasure that acknowledgment is here made of the helpful spirit of cooperation displayed by railroads, companies installing drainage systems, landowners, and practicing engineers. Almost without exception these have cheerfully cooperated in the investigations and have done much to extend the ' scope and increase the accuracy of the work. ° ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V BULLETIN OF THE USDEPARINENT OFAARICULTURE *. No. 72 =|) Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. May 29, 1914. SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. By Henry E. Surrace, Chemical Engineer in Forest Products, and RoBERT E. CoorPEr, Chemist in Forest Products. SOUTHERN PINES FOR KRAFT PULP. The southern pines have not, until within the last few years, been considered suitable for paper pulp. Their resinous nature is the chief drawback in most processes of paper making. The recent development in Europe, especially in Sweden and Norway, of the sulphate process, however, and the superior quality of the product made from resinous woods has turned attention to longleaf and other southern pines as a possible source of pulp in this country. These pines have long, thick-walled fibers, and also high specific _ gravities, implying large yields per cord, and therefore seem particu- larly adapted for the manufacture, at low cost, of strong wrapping papers. The waste wood from the lumber industry in the South sug- gests a source of cheap raw material. While the sulphate process can be used in the manufacture of bleaching pulps, its principal product is an undercooked, nonbleach- ing, brown pulp known as “‘kraft” pulp, the term, a German one, signifying strength. ‘True to its name, this pulp produces a remark- ably strong paper, very resistant to wear. Kraft papers, which may be made by the soda as well as by the sulphate process, are especially adapted for wrapping purposes. Wrapping papers stand third among the paper products of the United States, being exceeded in amount and value only by news and book papers. In 1909 the production of wrapping papers of all kinds aggregated 764,000 short tons, with a value of $42,296,000. The value of wrapping papers imported in 1912 was $846,500.2 Complete ; ape Board Report, Pulp and News Print Paper Industry, 1911, p. 21. Senate Doc. 31, 62d Cong., st sess. 2 Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance for Decem- ber, 1912, p. 744. 24542°—14—] s 2 BULLETIN 72, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. statistics for recent importations of kraft paper are not available, but in 1908, three years after its introduction into the United States, the imports amounted to between 10,000 and 12,000 tons.1 In 1912 the imports of unbleached sulphate pulp from Sweden alone were approximately 21,600 short tons, and from Norway 8,400 short tons.? Manila wrapping papers, including the better imitation manilas, have generally been considered the strongest and best wearing, but the light-weight kraft papers give the same service as manilas almost twice as heavy. Although strong, light-weight wrapping papers are made in this country from sulphite pulps, the imported kraft papers and papers made from imported kraft pulps have proved too formidable competitors for even the best wholly-domestic product of this kind. The immediate success and largely increasing use of kraft products has brought: on the market imitations, colored to resemble the gen- uine, made from strong sulphite pulp or from such pulp together with ground, steamed-wood pulp. Although some of them are quite strong in the light weights, they are not equal to the genuine in other ways. The opportunity for developing an increased domestic output of kraft products from native woods is apparent. The above-mentioned conditions led the Forest Service to conduct a series of tests at the Forest Products Laboratory, maintained in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., in order (1) to determine the suitability of the southern pines for paper pulps; (2) to ascertain the effects of varying cooking conditions in the sul- phate process of pulp making; (3) to compare the sulphate process with the soda process. Only longleaf pine has so far been used in the tests, of which this bulletin gives the results under such preliminary analyses as have been made at this time. LUMBER WASTE AVAILABLE FOR PULP MAKING. The total stand of longleaf pine (privately owned) was estimated by the Bureau of Corporations in 1910 at 232 billion feet board measure, while for all southern pines the amount was placed at 384 billion feet. The lumber cut from these pines in 1910 amounted to 14 billion feet. The sawed lumber represents approximately one- half the volume of the log as it comes to the mill. Bark and saw- dust, which are valueless for paper making, constitute a large pro- portion of the waste, but it is safe to say that 20 per cent of the volume of the log, exclusive of the bark, is lost in slabs, edgings, and trimmings. Tops and defective logs left in the woods and small logs which at present are converted into lumber with little or no profit would furnish a supply of raw material for pulp making even greater than that derived from the mill waste. 1 Pulp and Paper Investigation Hearings, 1909, Vol. V, p. 3041. House Doc. 1502, 60th Cong., 2d sess. 2 From estimates made by the Swedish Wood Pulp Association in 1913 and furnished the Forest Service by Mr, M, Gintzler, New York City, ; SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 3 The waste wood mentioned is not as a rule the clean, clear material to which pulp mills have been accustomed. But when the soda and sulphate processes are employed, the presence of knots, pitch pockets and streaks, and remnants of decayed wood and bark are not very objectionable. The expense of handling and preparing slabs and other irregular sizes and shapes, however, is greater than for round pulp- wood, so the initial cost of such material must be low enough to offset the extra cost incident to its use. PULP MAKING PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO LONGLEAF PINE. Four or five mills are at present using southern pine mill waste for the manufacture of wrapping paper and similar products, three of which employ the sulphate process. Several other sulphate mills are either projected or in course of construction. Because of the resinous nature of the wood the preparation of paper pulp from long- leaf pine is confined to the soda and sulphate processes, unless special extraction treatments are employed preliminary to cooking. The soda process consists in digesting suitably prepared wood with caustic soda (NaOH) solution. The cooking results in dissolving the lignin and resin constituents of the wood, and separating the ' individual fibers from one another. The action depends partly upon the direct solvent and saponifying power of the caustic soda, and partly upon the hydrolysis of the wood in the presence of water at high temperatures, forming organic acid products which unite with ~ the alkalipresent. Cellulose, of which the fibers are chiefly composed, withstands the cooking action, except under very severe treatment. The spent cooking liquor, or ‘‘ black liquor,” is separated from the pulp fibers and evaporated; the residue is calcined in a furnace, and the soda compounds are recovered as “‘ black ash,’”’ an impure sodium carbonate (Na,CO,). This ashis dissolved in water, and the solution is causticized with freshly burned lime; the resulting caustic soda is again used in cooking. The losses of soda occurring in the operations are made up by adding fresh soda ash (commercial sodium carbonate) previous to causticizing. The sulphate process is similar to the soda process, except that sodium sulphide (Na,S) is employed as a cooking chemical in addi- tion to the caustic soda. The sodium sulphide is derived from sodium sulphate (Na,SO,), which is added during the recovery operations to make up for the losses, and it is from this chemical that the process derives its name. The sodium sulphate is mixed with the black ash and subjected to a high temperature in a “‘smelter’’; this treatment reduces it to sodium sulphide, although the reaction is not complete. The ‘‘smelt,” containing sodium carbonate, sodium sulphide, and unreduced sodium sulphate, is dissolved in water and the solution is causticized, as in the soda process, with lime, which has, however, . 4 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. little action on the sulphide and the sulphate. During cooking the organic acids produced react with the sodium sulphide! as well as with the caustic soda, so that in calcining both chemicals are recovered as sodium carbonate. If desired, soda ash may be added to the smelt solution before causticizing in order to increase the proportion of caustic soda in the cooking liquors. Some mills have also found it advantageous to mix with the causticized cooking liquors some of the black liquors diverted from the recovery operations. The soda and sulphate processes can be applied to extracted or steam-distilled chips from which rosin and turpentine have been removed. Turpentine can also be obtained from resinous chips during the cooking operations by condensing the ‘“‘relief’”’ from the top of the digester. However, the turpentine is very impure, and in the case of the sulphate process contains organic sulphur compounds from which it is separated with great difficulty. | EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. KINDS OF TESTS. The tests made by the Forest Service were of two classes: (1) Auto- clave tests and (2) semicommercial tests. The autoclave tests com- prised several series of cooks made to determine the effects of varying the cooking conditions of the sulphate process. The semicommer- cial tests include cooks made by the soda as well as by the sulphate process. The semicommercial sulphate cooks employed such cook- ing conditions as the autoclave tests indicated would give good results, while the tests using the soda process were made with cooking conditions that would give results comparable to those obtained from the sulphate cooks. Because the semicommercial tests show in a more direct manner the possibilities of preparing paper pulp from longleaf pine, they will be discussed before the autoclave tests. WOOD USED. The test material consisted of longleaf pine (Pinus palustris Mill.) from two localities, Perry County, Miss. (shipment L-3), and Tangi- pahoa Parish, La. (shipment L-176). >... 88. ae. a eee eee do 21.8 17.5 FIRST SERIES. Liquor charge, initial concentrations. Thitial opts Cook aap deen No | NaOH, NaS. | NasSO,. compounds pound of chips Set : as Na,O (eee basis). Grams Grams Grams Grams per liter. | perliter.| per liter. per liter. Gallons. . Per cent. 89 60. 0 30.0 30. 0 87.2 0.300 47.9 90 45.0 22.5 22.5 65.1 - 400 53.3 91 36.0 18.0 18.0 352, 1 - 500 55.2 t 493 30.0 15.0 15.0 43.6 . 600 58.6 94 25.7 12.9 12.9 37.4 - 700 61.3 95 22.5 11.2 11.2 32.7 - 800 64.4 96 20.0 10.0 10.0 29.0 - 900 66. 4 97 18.0 9.0 9.0 26.1 1.000 66.9 SECOND SERIES. 112 72.0 - 36.0 36.0 104.9 0. 200 51.0 100 49.7 24.8 24.8 72.0 . 290 51.1 101 36.0 18.0 18.0 52.2 . 400 52.3 105 28.8 14.6 14.4 42.2 . 500 56. 0 114 24.0 12.0 12.0 35.0 600 62.6 106 20.6 10.3 10.3 30.0 700 60.6 107 18.0 9.0 9.0 26.2 . 800 66. 0 108 16.0 8.0 8.0 23.3 - 900 67.4 115 14.4 7.2 7.2 21.0 1.000 67.3 110 12.0 6.0 6.0 17.5 1.200 67.8 111 10.3 5.1 5.1 15.0 1.400 7. 4 " (P, L.—138, S. L.—176.) When the concentration of all sodium chemicals expressed as Na,O was varied from 26.1 to 87.2 grams per liter (first series of tests) the resultant yield decreased from 66.9 to 47.9 per cent. The best results, considering both yield and quality of pulps, were obtained from cooks 91 and 93, using Na,O concentrations of 52.1 and 43.6 grams per liter, respectively. Pulps produced from cooks having lower concentrations were brittle and lacked strength and wearing properties. In the second series of tests, using somewhat smaller amounts of chemicals, the higher concentrations afforded the better results. The best pulp with regard to strength and wearing proper- ties was that obtained from cook 112, using a Na,O concentration of 104.9 grams per liter. The pulps obtained when using a concen- tration of 35 grams per liter or less were quite brittle, and had little strength and poor wearing properties. SUITABILITY OF LONGLEAF PINE FOR PAPER PULP. 25 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS FROM THE AUTOCLAVE TESTS. (1) The effective cooking chemicals in sulphate cooking liquors are caustic soda and sodium sulphide, the former being the more drastic in its action. Sodium sulphate and sodium carbonate, which unavoidably occur in the commercial liquors, are of no assistance in cooking, at least so far as the wood of longleaf pine is concerned. (2) Increases in the amounts of either caustic soda or sodium sulphide, or both, result in more thorough cooking. The same effect may be obtained by increasing either the cooking pressure, the dura- tion of cooking, or the initial concentrations of the chemicals in the cooking liquors. (3) More thorough cooking is evidenced by decreased yields and by lighter colored pulps until a condition of very thorough cooking is reached, after which the color of the pulp is not affected. (4) The best, or well-cooked, sulphate kraft pulps will have good strength and wearing properties, will be light brown in color, and will have a smooth, firm, leather-like feel when properly beaten. -Undercooked pulps are characterized by a darker brown color, brittleness, lack of strength, and poor wearing properties. Over- cooked pulps are light gray in color and may have good strength and wearing properties when properly beaten, but the yield will be low. Pulps much overcooked, in addition to being light gray in color, will be soft and fluffy, with little strength. (5) With each different combination of the cooking conditions there is a definite minimum amount of sodium sulphide which must be used in conjunction with the caustic soda present to impart to the product the high strength and good wearing properties char- acteristic of properly cooked sulphate kraft pulps. (6) The use of sodium chloride in conjunction with caustic soda improves the quality of the pulp to a slight extent only. The similar use of sulphur results in pulps having properties practically the same as those of sulphate pulps. (7) As the proportion of sodium sulphide in the digester charge is increased, the disagreeable odor produced in the cooking operations becomes more pronounced. PRACTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. While the present experiments are not complete, they show con- clusively (1) that longleaf pine is well adapted for the manufacture of natural-color kraft pulps and papers; (2) that the’sulphate process of pulp making applied to this wood affords products of better quality and of higher yields than the soda process; (3) that kraft papers can be made from longleaf pine equal or superior in quality to the ‘Imported and domestic kraft papers now on the market; and (4) 4 26 BULLETIN 72, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the high gravity of the wood and the resultant high yield of pulp per cord give longleaf pine an advantage possessed by few, if any, other commercially important woods suitable for pulp making. The autoclave tests indicate that there should be a certain com- bination of values for the variable cooking conditions which will result in the most economical method of operation. However, other factors than the variables thus far investigated must be taken. into consideration in determining what this combination is. For example, the proper degree to which a pulp must be cooked will depend partly upon the cost of the beater treatment. With cheap power for beating, the pulp need not be so severely cooked as when the cost of power is high. The best concentrations and proportions of chemicals in the digester liquors will likewise depend upon the efficiency of the recovery system and the method of operating it. O WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH: 1914 BULLETIN’ OF THE J USDEPARTNENT ORAGRIULTIRE © No. %3 5 Lorn Ss Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, A. D. Melvin, Chief. March 30, 1914. RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA.’ By Dan T. Gray, Formerly Professor of Animal Husbandry, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, and W. F. Warp, Senior Animal Husbandman in Beef Cattle Investiga- tions, Animal Husbandry Division. STATEMENT OF FORMER WORK. During the years 1906, 1907, and 1908 the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, working in cooperation with the Alabama Agricultural Ex- periment Station, conducted experiments in cooperation with Mr. J. S. Kernachan, of Sheffield, Ala., to obtain definite information regarding the cost of raising grade steers to the feed lot period under average southern conditions. (See Bulletin 131 of the bureau, or 150, Alabama Experiment Station.) The animals used in the Kernachan work were a herd of grade Aberdeen-Angus cows, headed by two pure- bred Aberdeen-Angus bulls. During the summer months the herd grazed upon a good pasture; no feed was given in addition to the pasture. This pasture was made up principally of white clover, Japan clover (lespedeza), several varieties of native grasses, and some Bermuda. This afforded the animals abundant pasture for about seven months of the year. During the winter all of the cattle, young and old, had the run of the range, which consisted of old corn and cotton fields, with some cane along the river and creek banks. In addition to the winter range, hay and cotton seed were fed, so that when spring came the cattle were in reasonably good flesh. The young stock made gains during the winter, but the cows and older animals usually lost in weight during the latter part of the winter. These cows and calves were allowed to become infested with the cattle tick, but when they became badly infested they were greased on those parts of the body where ticks were most numerous. The presence of the cattle tick, together with an outbreak of tuberculosis, caused the steers to be produced at an abnormally high figure, as the ticks no doubt materially retarded the growth of the steers and the 1 The experiments reported in this paper were conducted in cooperation with the Alabama Agricultural , Experiment Station. Note.—This publication is of interest to farmers in the Southern States. 26574°—Bull. 73—14 2 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tuberculosis caused several deaths. Even when these two extremely unfavorable conditions are taken into consideration, the calves and steers were still produced at a profit. The authors state that— When all the expenses, as deaths, rent on pasture, interest on money, etc., were charged against the animals and no credit was made for the manure, the expense of producing a steer varied from $4.96 to $5.25 per 100 pounds, as follows: To 12 months of age, $5.25 per hundredweight. To 24 months of age, $4.96 per hundredweight. To 30 months of age, $5.05 per hundredweight. To 33 months of age, $5 per hundredweight. These figures mean that if the animals are sold for the above prices, the feeds used are marketed at a good farm price; all deaths are deducted; 7 per cent interest is received on the money invested in the animals; $2.50 an acre is secured as rent for the summer pasture, and finally the manure is secured free. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENT. As noted above, conditions surrounding the previous herd were not entirely satisfactory, as the animals were infested with ticks and affected with tuberculosis, consequently the test reported in this bulletin was undertaken with a herd which was free from tubercu- losis and was rapidly being made free from cattle ticks, as every animal on the farm was dipped in an arsenical solution every two weeks. No ticks were seen on the calves during the progress of the test. OBJECTS OF THE WORK. The principal objects of the work were: (1) To learn what it would cost to raise a beef calf to an age of approximately 94 months under average farm conditicns. (2) To determine the profit, if any, in finishing these young calves for the market during the winter months, and selling them when about 12 months old. THE CATTLE USED. The animals used in this work were a herd of grade Aberdeen- Angus, a few grade Shorthorns, and four or five native cows, headed by two bulls, one of which was a purebred Aberdeen-Angus, while the other one was a high-grade Aberdeen-Angus. The owner of the herd, Mr. E. F. Allison, of Sumter County, Ala., with whom the work was conducted, began ‘several years previously the work of grading up scrub cows which had been bought from some of the neighboring farmers. Consequently, when the herd was entered in this experimental work it was under normal conditions and consisted of individuals considerably above the average of the State. As far as breeding and quality were concerned the Kernachan and Allison herds were very similar. The cows in both tests were small, those in the Sumter County experiment averaging only 630 pounds in weight February 9,1911. However, at this time of the year they were poor and were in their lightest form. In the fall of the RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA. 3 year, before losing any of their normal summer weight, they averaged perhaps 800 pounds in weight. It will be seen later that these small cows raised calves which attained an average weight of 560 pounds by the time they were 12 months old. The Kernachan cows averaged about 830 pounds in weight at the end of the winter, but the calves from these larger cows were undersized, due largely, perhaps, to the presence of the cattle tick. As aresult of the use of good bulls, the calves obtained from these grade cows were, as a rule, good ones. They were in the first place much larger than the average calves of the State, and in the second place measured up much more closely to the ideal beef conformation than calves obtained from native COWS. MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD. The cows were bred so as to have the calves dropped during the spring months. During the summer months the animals, both young and old, grazed upon a moderately good pasture; no feed except salt was given in addition to the pasture. During these pasture months the cows ate nothing but pasture grasses while the calves had the cows’ milk in addition to the grasses. The main pasture was made up principally of Japan clover and broom sedge, which had come naturally after the cleaiing of the land. This large pasture consisted of approximately 1,000 acres, but a very large part was covered with trees; under these trees the ground was bare. A small adjoining pasture of approximately 30 acres had been partly set to Bermuda, but this was used only occasionally for some calves. These permanent pastures afforded the animals reasonably good grazing for about six months of the year. When the pastures became exhausted in the late fall the calves were weaned, the males castrated, and the cows and calves placed in separate fields and fed and managed differently. The cows were placed in the old corn and cotton fields, thus being fed the rough feeds of the farm along with small amounts of cottonseed cake. The calves were prepared for the winter fattening period. The fol- lowing short statements give a brief history of the management of the cows and the lives of the calves from January 1, 1911, to Ae. L912 : (1) The calves were born during the months of January, February, March, and April in 1911. The majority were born in March and April. At this time the cows were running in a field of 640 acres which had a small growth of cane; a part of this field consisted of old corn and cotton fields. (2) The cows ate nothing except the cane and what roughage they secured from the old corn and cotton fields until January 23. By this time the rough field feeds had been pretty well consumed, consequently a small daily feed of cottonseed cake was introduced to supplement the range. The feeding of cottonseed cake was con- tinued until April 14. On this date the cows and calves were all turned into the large 4 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. permanent pasture, and the ration of cottonseed cake was fed until May 7, as the season that year was exceedingly unfavorable for the early growth of pasture grasses. (3) During the summer months the cows and calves ran together in the large pasture. (4) The cows and calves were separated September 25. The calves were placed in a field containing old cornstalks, crab grass, and cowpeas. They remained in this field until October 7, when they were transferred to a field of peanuts which were to be subsequently grazed off by hogs. This peanut field afforded grazing until October 16 when they were returned to the corn and cowpea field. They were kept in this field - until November 24, but were fed a small amount of cottonseed cake in addition, begin- ning with 1 pound of cake per calf per day on October 28 and gradually increasing the amount to 2 pounds. By November 24 the supply of feed in this field was exhausted, so the calves were transferred to a third field of cornstalks and crab Bre, where they remained until the fattening period was inaugurated. (5) By December 21 all of the available rough feeds of the farm had been consumed, and the calves were placed in a small barn lot and fattened for the early spring mar- ket. During this fattening period they were fed cottonseed meal, corn silage, and a cheap quality of broom-sedge hay. (6) The calves were shipped to New Orleans and sold April 1, 1912. (7) The bulls were allowed to run with the cows the year round. This, however, was found to bea poor practice, as the date of calving could not be regulated. When the bulls are with the cows continuously the first calves come too early in the season, and the last calves come too late. It is a much better practice to keep the bulls away from the herd of cows all the time except during the usual and proper breeding season. PRICES AND CHARACTER OF FEEDS. Cottonseed meal, cottonseed cake, pastures, corn silage, and broom- sedge hay were all used i in the test. Cottonseed meal, corn-silage, and the hay were fed: to the calves during the faitenine period. The cows during the winter of 1911-12 were not given silage, as the supply was limited, but there is no doubt that both the cows and the calves would have done much better if the cows had been given a liberal quantity of this succulent feed. All of the feeds except the broom- sedge hay were of good quality. The cottonseed meal and cottonseed cake were fresh and bright. “ The corn silage was also of excellent quality; it was made of corn which would have yielded about 30 bushels of grain to the acre. While the hay was bright, clean, and well cured, it was of exceedingly poor quality, as broom sedge will not make a good quality of hay. It is, however, a roughage that should not be wasted. In-work of this character the financial statement is not as exact as might be desired, because the price of feeds, as well as of cattle, fluctuates considerably from year to year. The financial outcome of a particular experiment may not be duplicated by the cattle raiser or feeder, owing to the different conditions under which he is operat- ing. The prices listed in this bulletin were the actual prices paid for the feeds (except corn silage and broom-sedge hay, which were made on the farm) and the actual prices realized for the cattle. This test was conducted during the winter of 1911-12; prices have not changed materially since that time. The following were the Bul. 73, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Fic. 1.—SOME OF THE COWS OF THE BREEDING HERD. THEY WERE GRADE ABERDEEN- ANGUS, THOUGH PART OF THEM ALSO HAD SOME SHORTHORN BLOOD. Fig. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF SOME OF THE CATTLE USED IN THE EXPERIMENT TO DETERMINE THE COST OF RAISING CALVES IN ALABAMA. RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA, 5 prices of the feeds, those of corn silage and hay being estimated: Cottonseed meal and cottonseed cake $26 a ton, corn silage $3 a ton, and broom-sedge hay $5 a ton. METHOD OF CONDUCTING THE WORK. The herd was kept and fed under average farm conditions. E. F. Allison, a farmer and stockman of Sumter County, Ala., agreed to cooperate, and the feeding was all done upon his farm. Mr. Alli- son furnished the cattle and the feed, while the work was planned and the feeding carried on under the supervision of the authors of this bulletin. E.R. Eudaly was stationed as assistant on the farm and had personal supervision of the experiment. No barns or other artificial shelter were provided for the cows. During the winter months they were in fields where trees, together with the underbrush, afforded ample protection for mature animals. The calves, however, were provided with excellent shelter during the winter. While being fattened they were inclosed in a small lot in which was a good barn. The doors were always open so that they could go in and out at will. They were fed twice each day in troughs placed under the extending eaves of the barn. The calves were fed in such amounts that the feed was all eaten within a short time after it was put before them. An abundance of pure water and salt was provided all the time. At the close of the test the calves which had been fattened were sold and shipped to New Orleans. The experimental farm was located 4 miles from Bellamy, Ala., the nearest railroad station, and the animals were driven to that point to be loaded on the cars. THE EXPENSE OF RAISING THE CALVES TO WEANING TIME. As previously stated, the majority of the calves were born in March and April. During the winter months the cows grazed the old corn and stalk fields and some ‘‘switch”’ cane which grew along the banks of a small stream. Beginning January 23, or immediately after the first cows dropped calves, the cows were given some cotton- seed cake each day. As the grass was slow to establish itself in the spring of 1912 it was necessary to continue feeding the cows a small amount of cake until May 7. During the period from January 23 to May 7 the 80 cows consumed 6,390 pounds of cottonseed cake in addition to the feed they secured from the winter range and the early pastures. This was an average daily feed of a little less than 1 pound of cake for each cow, as they were fed for a period of 104 days. The cows were wintered in an unusually economical manner, and the farmer who lives on an average Alabama farm must expect to use more feed than was given to these cows, as the average farm at the present time has only a small acreage of old corn and cotton fields. It 6 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was these fields which made it possible to get the cows through the winter in such a cheap manner. | The calves were not put in the fattening lot at the date of weaning, September 25. It had been planned to graze two or three fields by them before the finishing period arrived; consequently, as soon as they were taken from the cows, they were placed in a 50-acre field containing cornstalks, crab grass, and cowpeas. The peas had been | planted at the last cultivation of the corn. The calves remained in this field until October 7, when they were transferred to a field of peanuts, which had been grown for hogs; they were taken to this field to graze off the tops of the peanuts. This small field afforded grazing for nine days, or until October 16, when the calves were taken back to the first field of old cornstalks and peas, where they were kept until November 24. This field did not, however, afford sufficient feed to produce gains, so on October 28 it was decided to add cottonseed cake. The cake was introduced at the rate of 1 pound per calf daily and gradually increased to 2 pounds. The 50-acre cornfield was so completely grazed by November 24 as to provide no further feed, so the calves were transferred to a second field of cornstalks, cowpeas, and crab grass, which had been saved for them. They remained in this second field, all the while eating 2 pounds of cottonseed cake per calf per day, until December 21, when they were taken to the barn, shut up in a small lot, and started on a preliminary ration of cotton- seed meal, corn silage, ‘and. broom-sedge hay. By January 17 they were all accustomed to the new ration, and the fattening period was inaugurated. On this date they i eweed approximately 94 months of age. The following brief statement gives a short summary of the important facts of the cost of raising these calves to 94 months of age: Cost to raise calves to an age of 94 months. To 6,390 pounds of cottonseed cake eaten by the cows from Jan. 1, 1911, to Jam: 1, 1912. at $26 a tom. 1429. 222 ethene ee $83. 07 To pasture rent for whole herd of 8) cows:..~..--.---2 22: -452522) -sge seer 250. 00 To taxes on'$2,380 ittvested in ‘Catiflie.-_--o32. s eee eeeee 4. 60 To interest on $2,380 invested in cattle, at 6 per 2ane! SAMA SN oe eens 142. 80 To 4,750 pounds of cottonseed cake fed calves in November and December... 61.75 To 3,425 pounds of cottonseed meal fed calves Dec. 21 to Jan. 16......-...-.- 44, 53 To 24,035 pounds of silage fed calves Dec. 21 to Jan. 16.-.....-...-.---.---- 36. 05 T'o labor devoted to, cattle during year--... ..-..-:..21 2.2) Dae se eee 58. 50 To 10 per cent depreciation in value of breeding cattle. ._.......-..--..---- 238. 00 Total cost of 64 calves to 94 months'of age. .....-......-.-.). JI ---.-- 919. 30 Average weight of each calf Jan. 16,.1912.......................... pounds. . 460 Average cést of each calf.) Be oS et to oe a eee $14. 36 Average cost per leaidredweiast 222. LEO SSN De ee eee 3. 12 In studying the above financial statement the reader should under- stand that the cost of raising calves varies very materially from place RAISING AND FATTENING BEEF CALVES IN ALABAMA, 7 to place. They were raised to an age of 94 months on this farm at a cost of $3.12 a hundredweight. On a second farm it may cost more, and on a third it may cost less. Each item noted above may not be duplicated upon another farm. The pasture rent, the taxes, the interest, the prices of feeds, and the cost of labor all vary in different localities. When these calves had reached an approximate age of 94 months they had attained an average weight of 460 pounds. While this is not a heavy weight, still it is much greater than that usually attained by native Alabama calves. In the experimental work carried on in cooperation with Mr. Kernachan, of Sheffield, Ala., the calves, at 12 months of age, had reached an average weight of only 402 pounds. Those calves, however, were infested with cattle ticks, which no doubt very materially impeded the rate of growth. By the time the calves had reached an average age of 93 months, each one had cost $14.36, or $3.12 per hundredweight. These figures include the cost of all the feeds which were given to both the cows and the calves, the rent on the pasture, the taxes, and interest on the money invested in the cattle, the labor required to care for and feed both the cows and the offspring, and 10 per cent depreciation in value of the breeding herd. The cattle were not credited with the manure produced, as there was no way to determine this factor accu- rately. THE FATTENING PERIOD. The calves were raised to the fattening period, at a cost of $14.36 each. On that date they had attamed an average weight of 460 pounds, sc it cost $3.12 a hundredweight to raise them. They were consequently entered in the fattening period at an initial cost of $3.12 per hundredweight. There was a total of 64 calves in the herd, but all of them were not fattened for the market. The owner wished to build up the breeding herd, so 15 of the best heifers were kept on the farm. The remaining 49 calves were placed in the feed lot and given a ration of cottonseed meal, corn silage, and broom-sedge hay. The 15 heifers which were left on the farm were valued at $15 each. This figure is incorporated later in the financial statement as a credit to the increase in value of the herd. The fattening period proper began January 17, 1912, although the calves had been on a ration of cottonseed meal, corn silage, and broom-sedge hay since December 21. A short time was necessarily required to get the animals accustomed to their new feeds. The cost of the feeds they ate during the preliminary period from December 21 to January 17 was charged against the cost of raising the calves, and not against the cost of fattenmg. At the begining of the test 8 BULLETIN 73, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. proper each calf was eating daily 3 pounds of cottonseed meal, ap- proximately 20 pounds of corn silage, and 4 pounds of hay. The allowance of meal was raised gradually throughout the whole period of 76 days, until at the last each calf was eating 6 pounds daily. At one time each calf was consuming as much as 28 pounds of silage each day, but they would not continue to eat this much, so at the end of the period, April 1, they were eating an average of only 20 pounds per calf per day. The allowance of hay was gradually de- creased from the first. At the middle of the period each calf con- sumed daily not over 3 pounds of hay, and near the end an exceed- ingly small allowance met their desires. From the middle of March to April 1 they averaged less than 1 pound of hay per calf per day. The fattening period continued for a period of 76 days, or until April 1, when. the 49 calves were sold and then shipped to New Orleans. They pragelt $5.874 a hundredweight on the farm. The following gives a short summary of the most important results obtained during the fattening period: The fattening period (Jan. 17—-Apr. 1). Number,.of calves im lot. ciel o.{) 282 - eh ie Ey Ae AS Do Sa RR 49 Number of daysifed usnenereTorseecUTTE b “A, IN YA No. 74 Contributed by the Bureau of Crop Estimates, L. M. Estabrook, Chief, and by the Office of Markets, C. J. Brand, Chief. December 19, 1914. INLAND BOAT SERVICE: FREIGHT RATES ON FARM PROD- UCTS AND TIME OF TRANSIT ON INLAND WATERWAYS IN THE UNITED STATES. By Frank ANDREWS, Chief, Division of Crop Records. PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF INQUIRY. The purpose of this inquiry was to collect information relative to freight rates and time of transit of farm products carried on inland waterways of the United States. It being impracticable to collect complete data, the inquiries were made to cover a large number of representative routes and commodities. The freight rates apply to September and October, 1912, when a large part of the agricultural products of 1912 was moving to market and, naturally, traffic on waterways would be relatively large. The freight rates by boat were obtained directly from captains, agents, and other officials of steamboat lines. Some reports for distances were also obtained from these persons, but mostly from the Chief of Engineers of the United States Army, who has charge of the improvement of water- ways. lor minor items and for verification other sources were used; they included notes made by the author at various times in the course of field work, information received through correspondence, and data gathered from various printed matter. RIVER TRAFFIC DEFINED. River traffic as discussed in this bulletin is to be distinguished from the traffic by coastwise vessels and on the Great Lakes. Conditions are different in many respects between the river transportation and that conducted by the large vessels on deep water. One point of difference lies in the size of the river boats as compared with the lake and coastwise vessels. A large freight steamer on the Great Lakes will carry as much as 400,000 bushels of wheat at one load. On June 30, 1912, the average gross tonnage of vessels on the Great 62705°—14——_1 ‘ a 2 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lakes was 876 tons of 100 cubic feet, while the average for vessels on the western rivers was only 78 tons measurement. The carrying capacity of river steamboats Is increased by the use of barges. This is especially true in the shipment of coal from the Pittsburgh region to New Orleans. From 30 to 50 or more barges, each carrying about 1,000 tons (of 2,000 pounds), may be moved by a single towboat. In ordinary river freight service, one or more barges may be taken, especially when a lot of lumber or brick is to be carried. The use of a large number of barges is not practicable in the Great Lakes or the coastwise traffic, because the rough water would make it difficult, if not impossible, to handle them. ‘Towing is done on the Lakes and ocean, but the vessels towed are larger in size than the river barges and only a few are taken at a time. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF RIVER TRAFFIC. The relative importance of receipts by river as compared with the total receipts by rail and water of various farm products at leading river ports is shown in Table 1. A considerable fraction of the wheat and corn received at Baltimore, Md., comes from landings along rivers which are tributary to Cheapeake Bay and is carried partly by steamboats and partly by sail vessels. During the five years ending with 1912 these receipts by water at Baltimore ranged from 10 to nearly 30 per cent of the total receipts of wheat and from 3 to nearly 15 per cent of the total receipts of corn. Cincinnati, Ohio, also has a large river trade in some products, notably tobacco. Of the total receipts of tobacco during the five years ending with 1908, from 10 to 20 per cent came by river boats. This applies to tobacco packed in hogsheads, which formed all but a small fraction of the traffic in that commodity. For other articles the relative importance of the river trade was not so great. During the five years mentioned about 5 per cent of the total receipts of eggs were brought in by steamboat. Apple receipts averaged from about one-third of 1 per cent of the total to more than 12 per cent. Rela- tively little of the grain brought to the city came by river, the aver- age being considerably less than 1 per cent of the total. In regard to live stock, the river traffic in cattle constituted 1 to 2 per cent in each of the five years in question, while for sheep the average was between 2 and 3 per cent, and for hogs the average was about 4 per cent of the total receipts from all sources. Statistics of the river trade at Cincinnati have been given by the Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce for a long series of years, extending back at least as far as 1845. These statistics show the river trade when it constituted practically all of the commercial movements to and from Cincinnati, except produce hauled in wagons and live stock driven on foot; and INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 8 they trace the development of railroad traffic, together with the rela- tive and the absolute decline of transportation by river. One of the principal items in the freight received at St. Louis by boat is apples, which are brought in large quantities from Calhoun County, Ill. This county, consisting of a long strip of land bounded on three sides by the Mississippi and Illinois Rivers, has no railroads and depends upon river boats for transportation. In 1911, 54 per cent of the barreled apples received at St. Louis came by river, and in 1912 the river receipts exceeded 49 per cent of the total receipts by all routes. Also, from 2 to 5 per cent of the eggs, from 4 to nearly 7 per cent of the cotton, from 1} to 2 per cent of the sheep, and from 24 to 34 per cent of the hogs received at this city in 1908-1912 came by water. Statistics of river trade at Memphis and New Orleans show rela- tively large receipts of cotton. At Memphis, during the five years ending with 1912, from 10 to nearly 14 per cent and at New Orleans from nearly 4 to more than 7 per cent of all cotton received was car- ried by boat. MARKET VALUES OF PRODUCTS TRANSPORTED BY WATER. Another basis of estimating the importance of steamboat traffic is the market value of products carried. The following approximate valuations are based upon average market prices at the respective cities where the produce was received, and are to be regarded merely as rough estimates. The wheat received by boat at Baltimore during the five years ending with 1912, at average prices of southern wheat, contract grade, was worth from $600,000 to $2,000,000 a year, and the corn receipts ranged from about $200,000 to $1,000,000, according to the prices paid for southern white corn. At Cincinnati the receipts of tobacco by river averaged from $1,500,000 to more than $3,000,000 a year in 1908-1912; the cattle, hogs, and sheep were worth, at average prices, about $750,000 to $1,250,000 per year, while the eggs brought in by boat averaged $150,000 to $250,000. Among the receipts at St. Louis during 1908-1912 whose value illustrates the importance of river traffic are apples, with an average annual value (disregarding the abnormally low receipts of apples in 1910) of about $125,000 to $775,000; eggs, worth $150,000 to $200,000 a year; cattle, sheep, and hogs, $1,500,000 to $2,000,000; and wheat, $200,000 to $500,000. The annual receipts of cotton by river averaged $5,000,000 to - $7,500,000 at Memphis and $3,000,000 to $7,000,000 at New Orleans in the five years just mentioned. Large quantities of other farm - products were also received by river at these two cities. a — 4 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SOME ADVANTAGES OF RAIL OVER RIVER. While steamboat transportation is generally regarded as cheaper than rail, in practice the boats are at considerable disadvantage in some respects. A railroad car is free to move between any two railroad stations, while the steamboat is naturally limited to those places which it can reach. At terminals a car can be placed in any one of a number of advantageous positions. A car of wheat can be run into a grain elevator and unloaded over a grating, through which the grain is received by the elevating machinery and carried to the bins. A railroad car also may be placed alongside any one of a number of warehouses, to receive or discharge its load across a few feet of space; and it may be held for a day or so, if not longer, awaiting a convenient time for consignor to load or for consignee to unload. In regard to rates, as will be shown later, the steamboats do not always quote lower rates than are quoted by railroads. SOME ADVANTAGES OF RIVER OVER RAIL. Since the river is a public highway, there is an opportunity for competition among carriers which does not exist with rail traffic. In railroad business the roadway and terminals are regularly under the same management as the trains which use them, so that competition between two or more carriers over a single railroad is not to be expected. ‘The fact that the river is a public highway makes it possi- ble for persons of small capital to engage in transportation. Conse- quently sail vessels, gasoline launches, and small steamboats compete with larger boats for the traffic on many inland waterways. Sweet potatoes, watermelons, grain, and other commodities are brought ito Washington and Baltimore from points from 100 to 200 miles distant by means of sail vessels and power boats. A considerable part of the produce sold at New Orleans is brought there by small boats, and on the river system opening into San Francisco Bay gasoline launches, sailboats, and other small vessels also share with the regular steam- boat lines in the carrying trade. The opportunity offered to persons or companies of small capital to engage in transportation is one of the advantages of river over rail. These public-waterways are used also by farmers to transport their own produce to market. Another advantage of the river is the economy possible in a large part of the traffic, especially where relatively nonperishable articles are carried. The capacity of a boat can be increased or diminished greatly by attaching or detaching barges, so that a large load can be moved at a relatively low cost. In a large part of its business a boat can work much more cheaply than a railroad. Frequently river transportation is quicker than rail. A consign- ment once loaded on a boat goes direct to its destination without being subject to delays occasioned by transfer from one carrier to INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 5 another or from the switching of cars. This applies, of course, only to shipments between points reached by the same boat and is true more for less-than-car-lot than for car-lot shipments. A carload car- ried by rail necessarily moves to its destination much more promptly than a small lot, which may have to be transferred from car to car in transit and possibly held for some days at various transfer points. The small lot moves as rapidly as the large one when shipped by boat, and, while the freight rate by boat is often lower for the large shipment than for the small, the difference between the two rates is usually not so great as it is in railroad traffic. TERMINALS AND LANDINGS. One striking difference between river traffic along the Atlantic slope and that in the Mississippi Valley is the different kinds of land- ings. On the tidal waterways of the Atlantic slope conditions require wharves to be built to enable boats to land and freight to be handled. This requirement naturally limits the landings to such places as regularly have traffic enough to justify the expense of building such a wharf. In the Mississippi Valley wharves are not only unnecessary for purposes of landing but are practically impos- sible to locate properly. The boat makes a landing by simply run- ning alongshore and letting down the outer end of the landing stage, so that any part of a river bank which has no unusual obstruction may be taken asalanding. The great difference between the highest water level and the lowest and the uncertainty of the rise and fall of the river make it practically impossible to use fixed wharves at the river landings of the Mississippi Valley. However, wharf boats are established at principal landings and serve the purpose of a fixed wharf; and, since they rise and fall with the water level, they are in the right position to receive a steamboat alongside at any stage of the river. The conditions which enable steamboats to stop at almost any unobstructed part of the bank make it possible for many farms on navigable rivers like those of the Mississippi Valley to have their own landings. On some rivers the landings actually used by steamboats are scarcely a mile apart, so that the entire country within hauling distance of the river has a large number of shipping points from which to select. Convenient means of transfer between boat and rail are arranged at some terminals and at some intermediate landings as well. Rail- road tracks, in some cases, are laid convenient to the steamboat landings and mechanical devices are used to facilitate transfer of freight from one carrier to another. There are many instances, of course, wherein improvement in transfer facilities is much needed, where the railroad tracks are inconveniently distant from the steam- boat landing, and where few or no mechanical devices, other than > 6 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hand trucks, are used to facilitate handling of freight. In fact, most of the freight handled by rail or water is loaded and unloaded by means of hand trucks. Motor trucks for unloading or loading are found only in rare instances, but devices for assisting hand trucks up or down inclines and for moving heavier weights from one level to another are frequently used. At Riverton, Ala., an incline was built on the bank of the Tennessee River for the operation of a car by _ means of a steam-driven cable. This elevator transferred freight between the boats on the river and the railroad freight station up on the cliff. At any stage of the river this incline, of course, could be used, since it extended from the freight shed at the top of the high river bank to the lowest water level. TYPICAL STEAMBOAT ROUTES. ATLANTIC COAST. The actual routes followed by steamboat limes in various parts of the United States have certain characteristics which differ according to location. The Hudson River has a variety of traffic. One class consists in the through service between New York City and Albany; another class of traffic is composed of numerous routes centering at various important cities along the way; and the canal-boat traffic on the way from the Erie Canal to tidewater, the boats bemg towed in groups each by a single tug. Among the farm products carried on this important waterway are grain, hay, fruit, and vegetables. Large quantities of wheat and corn are carried in canal boats on this river down to New York Harbor, the grain having been loaded at Buffalo. Another important system of waterways is that of Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. Traffic on this bay radiates from the prin- cipal cities—Baltimore, Washington, and Norfolk. The usual local steamboat trip from Baltimore begins late in the afternoon, the boat reaching the mouth of some river early the following morning, pos- sibly some hours before daybreak. Here the first landing is made, which is followed by other landings up to the head of navigation. After a few hours at the terminus the boat starts on its return trip, often reaching the mouth of the river and entering Chesapeake Bay by nightfall and arriving at Baltimore early the next morning. This applies to a route of average length and of average distance from Baltimore. Some of the longer routes require 40 or more hours for transit one way, and on some of the shorter ones the round trip is made within a day. A great variety of produce is carried on these Chesapeake Bay routes. Grain, hay, and many kinds of fruits and vegetables constitute a large amount of trafic. From the lower part of the eastern shore of the bay sweet potatoes are shipped in such large quantities in the fall that they often make practically full INLAND BOAT SERVICE. qT eargoes for the steamboats. Among other farm products received by water at Baltimore are tobacco from Patuxent River landings, live stock from the upper Rappahannock, and poultry and eggs from practically all the river routes. Through service between Baltimore and Norfolk, Baltimore and Philadelphia, Norfolk and Washington, and between Norfolk and Richmond is maintained throughout the year by regular lines of boats. Over each of these routes the trip is made in a single night and the schedules are maintained as regularly as on railroads. An important feature of Chesapeake Bay trade, as of some other waterways, is the large number of small craft, such as sail vessels, power boats, and small gasoline launches, which serve as common carriers on these waters. Early in July Baltimore Harbor swarms with such vessels bringing in the first of the wheat crop from the lower bay. They also carry a considerable amount of canned goods, water- melons, sweet potatoes, and other agricultural products. Their traffic in oysters, fish, lumber, railroad ties, and firewood is important also. South of Virginia the Atlantic plain becomes wider and the navi- gable rivers extend farther inland, thus affording a wider reach from the coast for steamboat traffic than is afforded farther north. Steam- boat traffic here begins to differ somewhat from the traffic on tidal waters and shows some points of resemblance to that of the Mississippi Valley. The long route from Baltimore to Fredericksburg, 285 miles, is not directly inland, but extends more than halfway parallel to the coast, the Rappahannock River itself measuring but 106 miles from its mouth to Fredericksburg; but from Savannah to Augusta the 202-mile route extends inland, as does the 370-mile route from Brunswick up the Altamaha and Ocmulgee Rivers to Macon. Two isolated routes in the Atlantic coast region are worthy of mention. Lakes Champlain and George’ afford a highway for local traffic along part of the borders of Vermont and New York; and at the southern part of the Atlantic slope the Kissimmee River, with Lakes Kissimmee and Tohopekaliga, afford a steamboat route between the town Kissimmee and Fort Bassenger. Numerous other routes are followed by steamboats on the inland waterways of the Atlantic coast and are mostly characterized by regularity of service and by lack of hindrances to navigation, except on the northern waterways in winter. MISSISSIPPI VALLEY, INCLUDING GULF COAST. The principal steamboat routes of the Mississippi Valley and Gulf coast may be grouped according to some central river port, as Cin- cinnati, St. Louis, Memphis, Vicksburg, New Orleans, or Mobile. From Cincinnati regular lines of boats extend up the Ohio River as s 8 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. far as Pittsburgh and down the Ohio and Mississippi to Memphis; up the Ohio and Great Kanawha to Charleston, W. Va.; and an important line plies nightly between Cincinnati and Louisville. In addition to these, a number of other lines give regular service at Cincinnati. The longest route followed regularly from Cincinnati is the one to Memphis, 749 miles away. From Cincinnati to Pittsburgh the distance is 470 miles; from Cincinnati to Charleston, 263; and from Cincinnati to Louisville the distance is 128 miles. From St. Louis regular lines reach to St. Paul on the upper Mis- sissippl and to Memphis on the lower; and extend also up the Mis- souri River to Kansas City, up the lesan to Peoria, and on the Mis- sissippi, Ohio, and Tennessee Rivers to Waterloo, Ala. Steamboat lines from Memphis reach points as far down the Mississippi River as Vicksburg, the up-river boats, as has been said, running from Memphis as far as St. Louis on the one hand and Cincinnati on the other. . 3 Another important steamboat center in the Mississippi VaHey is New Orleans. From this port steamboats serve landings as far up the Mississippi River as Vicksburg, and at least one line of boats fol- lows the Mississippi, Red, and Black Rivers up to Harrisonburg, La. Various other routes are followed through the network of rivers, bayous, and canals in the traffic between New Orleans and numerous towns and landings in southern Louisiana as far west as Bayou Teche and as far north as Red River. The variation in distances traveled by steamboats between New Orleans and St. Martinville on Bayou Teche illustrates the intricacies of the bayou routes. The trip by way of the Mississippi River and the Plaquemine waterways is 257 miles. By way of Harveys Canal, Bayou Barataria, Lake Salvador, Harang Canal, Bayou Lafourche, a private canal, Bayou Terrebonne, Barrows Canal, Bayous Black, Chene, and Boeuf, Ber- wick Bay, and Bayou Teche, the steamboat route is 192 miles; and by still another but shorter series of waterways the distance is reduced to 178 miles between New Orleans and St. Martinville. Another group of steamboat routes from New Orleans consists of those reaching points on Lake Ponchartrain. Of the many products carried on these various groups of steamboat routes from New Orleans, cotton may be taken as the typical com- modity carried on the routes extending northward, sugar on the routes of the bayou region, and fruit and vegetables on Lake Ponchartrain. Of the Gulf slope, as distinct from the Mississippi Valley proper, Mobile is one of the principal river ports. From this city steamboat lines extend up the Mobile, Alabama, and Tombigbee Rivers to Montgomery, Selma, Demopolis, and minor landings. Cotton is one of the most important agricultural products carried on these waterways. INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 9 The old route from New Orleans to St. Louis on the one hand, or to Cincinnati on the other, is no longer followed by any one line of boats. From the pioneer days of steamboating until a few decades after the Civil War, New Orleans was reached by lines terminating at St. Louis and Cincinnati, but with the development of railroads and improvement of their service steamboat traffic gradually changed in its nature, so that the bulk of the freight movement became local, and long-distance shipments grew less and less important. With the passing of the Anchor Line in the early nineties, St. Louis ceased to be connected with the city of New Orleans by any direct line of packets, and about 10 years later through freight service also ceased when the line of barges and towboats operated by the Mississippi Valley Transportation Co. went out of business. The through traffic consisting of large tows of coal barges, taken from Pittsburgh down to New Orleans, is not to be classed with regular steamboat- line service, which is conducted according to fixed schedules of arrivals and departures. PACIFIC COAST. One important system of waterways on the Pacific coast consists of the rivers emptying into San Francisco Bay; the Sacramento from the north and the San Joaquin from the south. The delta near the junction of these two rivers affords a number of channels which are used by various boats and which afford transportation to a rich truck region not conveniently reached by rail. The principal cen- ters of steamboat traffic here are San Francisco, Sacramento, and Stockton. Hach of these cities is connected with the other two and with numerous landings by regular lines of boats. Here, as well as on the Atlantic coast, sail vessels (especially on the lower river) and gasoline launches share in transportation. Here, also, barges are used to increase the capacity of steamboats in handling the large amount of business on this inland water system. One characteristic of this traffic is the large quantity of potatoes, beans, asparagus, and other vegetables. Their tonnage is great enough to give a distinctive character to the commerce, although grain, hay, and other products are carried in considerable quantities. Another important item in the river trade is milk shipped to the cities of San Francisco, Sacra- mento, and Stockton. A second important system of waterways consfts of the Columbia River and its tributaries. On the lower section of the river steam- boats from Portland, on the Willamette a few miles from the Co- lumbia, run down the Columbia to Astoria and others run up the river as far as Celilo Falls. Other routes extend from just above the falls to various points on the upper Columbia and Snake Rivers. On the upper Columbia one line connects Wenatchee with Bridgeport. 62705°—14-_2 10 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LOCAL TRAFFIC. The steamboat routes thus described illustrate the fact that river traffic is generally local. A few hundred miles is usually the maxi- mum length of the route of any one line of steamboats. In fact, it may be said that a run of 400 miles or more is exceptional. Of the 92 routes specified in Table 4, only 16 are more than 250 miles in length, which is slightly more than the average length of haul for all freight carried on railroads in the United States. In other words, steamboat traffic is distinctly short-haul traffic. The business of the boats in general is to concentrate at important centers freight picked up at local landings and to distribute to those landings commodities shipped from the trade centers. Again, it is to be noted that this applies to the river trade in general and not to such movements as the barge traffic in coal from the Pittsburgh region. CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAMBOAT FREIGHT RATES. There is a great variety of freight tariffs for steamboat river trade. The unit of quantity in some cases is 100 pounds or the short ton, and in others the package. Some boats quote rates for carlots lower than for less than carlots, as is done in railroad freight tariffs. Spe- cific conditions give rise in many cases to specific rates. A certain commodity may be carried in one direction for a lower rate than in another, if the trade in the favored direction is large enough to justify special concessions in order to obtain it. Distance frequently has little or no influence upon the rate charged by boat. Sometimes over an entire route the same rate will be charged between any two landings regardless of distance. The minimum charge for a single shipment by water is by no means uniform throughout the country. In Louisiana the minimum charge for a single package is 10 cents and for a single shipment is 25 cents, but if the boat has to make a special landing for a single shipment the charge is at least 50 cents. The steamboat tariff authorized by the State of Alabama specifies a minimum charge of 15 cents on a single shipment. An example of the variety of packages taken as bases for steamboat freight rates is afforded in the Potomac River trade, between landings down the river and Washington. Rates on apples are as follows: 30 cents per sugar barrel, 25 cents per flour barrel, 15 cents per half- barrel basket, 12 cents per bushel basket, 10 cents per box, 15 cents per bag, and 13 cents per small carrier; also 15 cents per two-basket carrier, and 8 cents per basket of five-eighths of a bushel. ILLUSTRATIONS AFFORDED BY THE NORFOLK TRADE. A large amount of freight is carried between Baltimore and Norfolk by bay steamers. This traffic, except where commodity rates apply, is subject to the Southern Classification, which ranges from 10 cents per 100 pounds for class 6 to 26 cents for class 1, and from 10 cents INLAND BOAT SERVICE. iit per 100 pounds for class A to 16 cents for class B and class H. An important group of commodities carried over this route consists of fresh fruits and vegetables. Some of the freight rates applying to these products are of considerable importance to the fruit and truck industry of the Norfolk region. The following rates applied in 1912 to shipments from Norfolk to Baltimore: Berries were charged from 18 cents per crate of 24 quarts to 42 cents per 60-quart crate; fresh fruits, 7 cents per bushel box, 11 cents per half-barrel box or carrier, 20 cents per standard vegetable barrel, and 25 cents per sugar barrel; cabbage, cucumbers, and spinach, 15 cents per flour barrel and 20 cents per sugar barrel; lettuce and potatoes, 20 cents per flour barrel’ and 23 cents per sugar barrel; tomatoes, 11 cents per half-barrel car- rier; and watermelons, 24 cents each. The charge on cotton in square bales was 40 cents per bale if compressed, and 50 cents if not compressed. Cotton in cylindrical bales was charged at the rate’ of 10 cents per 100 pounds. FREIGHT TARIFF ZONES. An example of the application of what may be termed ‘‘zone rates”’ is afforded by the tariffs established by the Railroad Commission of Alabama for the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers. Freight tariff No. 3 of this series applies to shipments between Mobile and three principal cities up the river—Demopolis, Montgomery, and Selma. This tariff is based chiefly upon the Southern Classification. Cotton and cement are given special rates, but other articles are charged according to their respective ‘‘classification.”” The six numbered classes are charged from 30 cents per 100 pounds for articles in class 1 to 10 cents per 100 pounds for those in class 6, and the lettered classes 9 cents per 100 pounds for articles in class A to 19 cents per 100 pounds for those in class H. Articles coming under class F are charged 20 cents per barrel. The rates just quoted apply to ship- ments between Mobile and any of the three cities mentioned. Freight tarifi No. 2 applies to shipments between Mobile, Demopolis, and points located between those cities. This schedule of rates is chiefly a ‘“commodity”’ tariff, each article being given a special rate. For landings in general on the Alabama and Tombigbee Rivers and their tributaries tariff No. 1, also a “‘commodity”’ tariff, applies. Another instance of a zone system of freight rates is that afforded on the route between Evansville, Ind., and Bowling Green, Ky. including parts of the Ohio, Green, and Big Barren Rivers. There isa special tariff between Evansville and Bowling Green. Other landings are divided into four groups, according to their distance from Evans- ville, No. 1 being the nearest to that place. The freight rate from all landings on the Tennessee River between Florence, Ala., and its mouth, to and from St. Louis, is the same for a given commodity. Tt costs as much to ship from Sf. Louis to any one landing in this ter- ritory as to another. . 7 q 12 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BLANKET RATES. An example of a “‘blanket”’ or “‘postage-stamp”’ rate—that is, the same charge for a given commodity between any two landings—is afforded by the traffic on the Apalachicola River and its tributaries. Also the tariff for river boats, issued under the authority of the Railroad Commission of Louisiana, No. 8467-S, applies to traffic between any two landings from New Orleans up to Devalls Landing. A large number of commodities are separately rated. For those not included in the commodity rates the Western Classification as used by railroads applies. The numbered classes, which apply to less- than-carload shipments, are charged from 15 cents for class 5 to 30 cents per 100 pounds for class 1; and the lettered classes, which apply to carload shipments, are phemeed from 8 cents for lees E to 15 cents per 100 pounds for class A. UNIFORM BASIS OF COMPARISON. Detailed information as to freight rates and distances are shown in Table 2. The original quotations of freight rates when expressed in other units were reduced to cents per 100 pounds in order to facilitate comparison. The column in Table 2 giving the rates per ton per mile has been computed in order to compare short-distance with long- distance shipments on a uniform basis. While in practice distance frequently has but little to do with cost over a single route, neverthe- less it is logical to use length of haul as a factor in comparing the cost of various services of transportation. While it may not cost the shipper more to send his product 50 miles than to send it 10, the cost to the carrier is greater for the 50 miles and consequently, from the carrier’s point of view, the service rendered is greater. Therefore, in comparing one cost with another, and taking into account service rendered, the ton-mile rate may be used to advantage. However, care should be taken in comparing the ton-mile rate between two points over one route with the corresponding rate between the same points over a longer or shorter route. Here the actual service rendered to the owner of the freight is not necessarily greater or less over the longer route than the short one. GROUPS OF WATERWAYS. Water routes are divided in Table 2 into three classes or groups: The Atlantic slope, the Mississippi Valley, including the Gulf slope, and the Pacific slope. Under each group the quotations and routes are arranged in order of distance, beginning with the shortest. Since the data in Table 2 are not comprehensive enough for satisfactory averages to be made from them, no such averages are shown here. The data are, however, complete enough to illustrate costs of trans- portation over long, medium, and short steamboat routes. INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 18 RAIL AND WATER RATE COMPARED. Some important routes and commodities are selected for comparing rail and water rates in Table 3. Between Hartford, Conn., and New York City the rates on apples, eggs, hay, and potatoes, as well as other commodities, are the same by rail as by water; that is, the rates paid by the shippers. Reduced to cents per short ton per mile, the rate by water appears much less, since the distance by water is 52 miles oreater than by rail. Between Cincinnati and Pittsburgh the actual as well as the ton- mile rates are much lower by water than by rail on the commodities represented in Table 3. These are not exceptions; lower rates by water than by rail are general over this route. However, between Charleston, W. Va., and Cincinnati the steamboat charge per package, when reduced to an equivalent cents per 100 pounds, indicates higher rates for apples and eggs by boat than by rail. The rate on hay, however, by boat over this route is 124 cents per 100 pounds for either small or large lots, while by rail 22 cents is charged for less than car- loads and 12 cents per 100 pounds for carloads. For potatoes the boat charges per package is equivalent to 13 cents per 100 pounds, while the railroad charges 15 cents for less-than-carload lots and 12 cents per 100 pounds for car lots. The steamboat rate applies to any quaotity. Bétween Cincinnati and Memphis and between Memphis and St. Louis the boats quote higher rates than the railroad for eggs, when the boat rates are reduced from cents per package to cents per 100 pounds. In practically all other rates shown in Table 3 between Memphis and the two cities just named the charge by water is less than by rail. DISTANCE AND TIME OF TRANSIT. It is convenient to express the average rate of transit in miles per hour, but it should be distmetly understood that this rate should be applied to a number of hours-say, 12 or 24—in order to make a satis- factory application for practical purposes. The rate itself has been computed by dividing the total number of hours im transit into the total miles run, and includes allstops at landings. Thus, if an average rate is given as 4 miles per hour, it means that a day’s run of a vessel, say, of 12 hours, will cover 48 miles; or, if the rate is only 2 miles per hour, the day’s run will cover possibly 24 miles; or, with 24 hours for the unit, a local boat making various landings and averaging 3 miles per hour will cover a distance of 72 miles in the 24 hours. It will be noted that the average rate of transit is subject to wide variations, some as low as 2 miles per hour and some reaching 15. This is gov- erned partly by the speed of the boat while under way, but largely by the number of landings made in transit. 14 BULLETIN 74, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NUMBER OF LANDINGS. To illustrate the influence of the number of landings on the average rate of speed, Table 5 has been compiled. Between Cincinnati and Memphis 346 landings are reported over a distance of 749 miles, making an average of about 2 miles between landings. Between St. Louis and Memphis 318 landings are reported for 415 miles. Of the six routes in Table 5 illustrating Mississippi Valley conditions, the — average distance between landings ranges from 1.30 miles to 3.31 miles. From Baltimore, Md., to Fredericksburg, Va., a distance of 285 miles, 34 landings are reported. These are all on the Rappahannock River, extending along a distance of 106 miles, there being an average of 3.12 miles between landings. From Hartford, Conn., to New York City there are 12 intermediate landings for a certain line of steamers, which 12 landings are all on the Connecticut River, and their aver- age distance apart is 4.33 miles. One of the fastest rates of transit on inland water routes is between Baltimore and Norfolk, a distance of 184 miles with but one intermediate stop. SUMMARY OF RATES OF TRANSIT. In Table 4 there are 102 routes for which rates of transit are given. Of these, 15 show an average rate of less than 4 miles an hour, 22 average 4 miles to less than. 6, 19 routes have an average of 6 to less than 8, and 21 routes an average of 8 and less than 10 miles per hour, making 62 out of 102 showing from 4 to less than 10 miles per hour; 25 rates of speed were 10 miles and over, 15 of them from 10 to less than 12 miles, and 10 rates were 12 miles and over. Of the 50 instances reported for the Mississippi Valley, including the Gulf slope, 29 were rates of 4 to less than 8 miles per hour, 12 rates were less than 4 miles, and 9 were 8 miles and over per hour. On the Atlantic slope 32 out of 43 rates were at least 8 miles per hour and 11 rates were less than 8 miles per hour. The nine reports from the Pacific slope showed five instances of 8 to less than 12 miles per hour and four instances of 4 to less than 8 miles per hour. FREIGHT RATES AND FARM PRICES. A practical use of the data compiled in this bulletin is to compare freight rates with prices. This may be done here, for the sake of illustration and to indicate the method. For instance, the rate on apples over a certain 25-mile route in Maine was 15 cents per barrel in September and October, 1912. The average ferm price for all apples in the State those months was $1.725 per barrel, making the freight rate 8.7 per cent, over this specific route, of the farm price in the whole State for all kinds. For a 24-mile route in New York, the freight rate happening to be 15 cents per barrel also, INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 15 made 10 per cent of the farm price for the State. In this case the _ average farm price of apples for New York State was $1.50 per barrel. While the prices mentioned do not necessarily apply to the actual commodities carried subject to these rates, both prices and rates are representative enough to give a fair measure of relationship. These percentages are as low as 6.67 for a 33-mile route in New York and as high as 34.25 per cent over a 239-mile route in the Pacific north- west. In cotton traffic, quotations of the freight rates by boat in a number of instances range from about 0.9 of 1 per cent of the farm price to slightly more than 3 per cent, most of the instances noted showing less than 2 per cent. Eggs are charged from one-half of 1 to as high as 10 per cent of their farm value for water transporta- tion. Hay, owing to its large bulk as compared with price, is fre- quently charged from 10 to 40 per cent of its farm price for freight. Potatoes compare with apples in the percentage of the freight rate, as based upon the average farm price. For wheat, from 3 to 15 per cent of its farm value is equivalent to the freight rate. The average farm price meant here is the price received by the farmer for delivery to shipping point, and does not include freight charge. TABLE 1.—Receipts of various farm products by water compared with total recetpis, at selected cities. [Sources: Baltimore Daily Produce Report, Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce, St. Louis Merchants’ Exchange, Memphis Cotton Exchange, and New Orleans Cotton Exchange. ] Receipts. Receipts. City, product, and By river. City, product, and By river. See Total a ae Total quantity. : Per quantity. Per Quantity.| cent of Quantity.| cent of total. total. Baltimore, Md.1 Cincinnati, Ohio— Continued. corn Abushels): Seles asc 13, 665, 794 |1,100,000 8.0 conn Guushels): 1900 Peanee 4 .--| 10,213,817 {1,500,000 | 14.7 7,763,457 | ' 5,976 | 0.1 IOs cee saas -| 10,428,779 | 400, 000 3.8 1909. 7, 145, 408 5, 682 pal an skieeiw siz -.-| 14,482,742 | 700,000 4.8 1910 8, 631, 574 3, 590 04 Gh GACOR een 18), 197, 593 | 400,000 3.0 1911 9, 367, 710 4,678 04 Wheat (ashes ae faint ee 1912... 9, 806, 063 2,786 02 tee ar | , 865,044 |1, 700, : ~ ree: 5,821,809 | "600,000 | 10.3 |] *88s (cases) Wael. on aeeillaes 1910 ween een es ee eee 6, 723, 673 2,000, 000 29, 7 Hone TPO MT Dar Nee 519, 652 26, 340 5 1 Oe Sea erseccee 11,088, 586 |2,000, 000 18.0 TOTO MMe: 511.519 39 840 6.4 Lue ae eae : ‘ y GH) Gobadesosons 12, 488, 385 1, 300, 000 10. 4 LOU uae TI: 605, 131 33, 367 515 Cincinnati, Ohio. . LOLS eect. ses 668, 942 31,072 4.6 ee) ats ieee 156,151| 1,692] 1.1 INN 378, 163 1,254 3 en eyes , , : 1908 BEbBO Bee ROotE 167, 263 3, 093 1.8 ‘ 1909 Weeyaeieteve sate, dtare 240, 587 7,174 3.0 ; i ) ONO Mesias 189, 262 3,275 1.7 LOL O ee ce cies arniclsie 521,814 31,036 5.9 TOU ei a cin trees 155, 195 3,139 2.0 a odobodaatarae 293, 204 7,057 2.4 1912 151/238 1 454 1.0 CROCS Tee 378, 524 45, 849 12.1 7 Exton cn Cane A La ss i y i Catt (aaiaba Hogs | umpet): 2 aS a 274, 520 3, 751 1.4 Seobcbeconese! TCE BO) cL TeD || GLE 1909 Ea enna aa 293, 331 4,474 1.5 1909 SOTHO Se 951,522) 41,034] 4.3 NOLO ES eee) 312, 962 3, 630 1.2 ONO ETc eieein = cicis 838, 850 35, 227 4,2 TOD Tee steels 312,143 3,020 1.0 WOU rene cere 1,135,121 45, 585 4,0 USS ee ais aeeeiae 342, 249 6,343 1.9 OND ya eeencse = 1, 204, 949 49, 367 4.0 1 Receipts at Baltimore “by river” refer to receipts from landings In Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. * a ih 16 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Receipis of various farm producis ly water compared wiih toial receipts, at selected cittes—Continued, Receipts. Receipts. City, product, and By river. City, product, and By river. se 2 Total ie Total quantity. Per quantity. Per Quantity.| cent of Quantity.| cent of total. total. Cincinnati, Ohio— St. Louis, Mo. Continued. APP (barrels): Potatoss!\(bushsls): £25) 5b La ee a i 190 Gare ea 306, 192 37,580 | 12.3 90S. 27-5 Fee 2,472,724 | 36,717 1.5 1909 che Senne 317,664 | 62,014] 19.5 Ue ae ae ae 2,012,009 21,597 1.1 19VOU arenes 248, 615 60 . 02 1Q1OR ALE NY 2,394,621 | 60,839 2.5 1911 Le eas 411,808 | 222,563 | 54.0 AON ASS a 2,364, 427 31, 832 13 1912. 5 SAS he 433,891 | 213,531 | 49.2 2,428, 562 31, 407 1.3 APD ES (boxes): ES SUP OL ett LOSE AT CRG ORS eee aes 97, 295 35 03 485,278 13, 033 257 1909 soe stecraereeteces 70, 350 182 reo. 491, 206 14,713 3.0 1910; ct 135, 730 45 03 508,715 | 18,632 any 1911S sss 104, 995 2,062} 2.0 546,989 | 10,898 2.0 191933 BEB 337, 910 960]. .3 500, 386 12, 236 2.4 || Cattle (oun ; 190823425 Fos 45 1, 293, 564 11,671 9 1909)... steers: 1,418, 005 9,320 Ai 54,717 46 al 1910. Stee ek 1,356, 232 6, 552 25 53,918 143 3 BAS) ie ee ert ges 1, 206, 423 8,073 Sth 48,810 67 BLE LOTR UIE < eae ct 298, 295 8, 422 ~6 48, 902 147 .3 || Cotton, for local use 73, 097 38 ait ales): 1908 2, Juste 128, 452 7,562 5.9 68,798 | 14,064] 20.4 TODO NAS eretieae 108, 257 4,277 | 4.0 64,013 6,742 10.5 LOIOE A Saeee eee 78, 786 3,100 3.9 70, 370 9,832] 14.0 101: oui aie 115, 552 7,469! 6.5 82,122 15, 129 18. 4 1OTO Sears eee, 101, 389 4,140 4,1 75,510 } - 15,059 19.9 || Eggs, for local use : 2 (oagiete): 4,052,.264 41, 288 1.0 1908 605, 197 28, 869 4.8 4,178,771 34, 603 .8 443, 591 23,929 5.4 1OLO See eset 3, 776, 828 19,714 As) 522, 365 21,961 4,2 TOU cet e a ctecer 3, 946, 681 26, 008 ait 807, 509 22, 485 2.8 LOND Se em nitine ae 3, 235, 605 8, 440 2 615, 741 21,739 3.5 Mice ae ales): ; - 135, 702 490 4 3,199,922 | 108,399 3.4 78, 994 336 4 3,076,065 | 83,399] 2.7 54,421 558 1.0 2,548, 480 60, 343 2.4 52,713 444 8 3, 634, 851 98, 044 27 127, 783 1,083 .8 3,023,739 | 72,778} 2.4 Memphis, Tenn. 724, 781 16, 080 2.2 835,973 | 16,446] 2.0 Cotton stale: 776, 665 14,321 1.8 NGOS ee aeciisee 750,442 | 102,195 13.6 1,024, 402 15, 037 1.5 1900 ree it 984,370 | 101,648 10.3 1,052, 208 14,315 1.4 IGIQ ES emcees oe 785, 485 91,324 11.6 LN fe ee ee 920, 887 98, 376 10.7 19, 047,240 | 1350, 178 1.8 19D es Une cee 969,670 | 107,827 11.1 1908 Seecscadectine 21,372,726 | 1373,040 ier 1910.2 222 -2\- See 19, 642,312 |1 391,512 2.0 New Orleans, La. : TOU: ose ae eee 17,025, 604 | 1 393,018 2.3 (for a ending 19U2 Ferenc aes 30,516, 432 | 1 194, 148 6 Aug. 31). Wool (pone 1908 S252 ao terse: 23,123,340 | 252,350 11 Seiten ae ales): 190922 weve Yeas 22,649, 110 35, 600 2 LOOSE erecta 2,015,071 | 146,516 7.3 UO ese esc 21,044,440 | 211,320 1.0 1909 eee see 2; 107, 956 77, 896 3.7 1911. essere 26,773,770 | 390,840 1.5 1910S ee eres 1,342,112 50, 059 3.7 TOU2. ste eee 23,390,150 | 317,510 1.4 LOD seapocnenaien 1,629, 303 60, 894 3.7 AP ek 1,709, 028 87, 803 5.1 1 Reported in numberof sacks; reduced to bushels by assuming 1 sack to average 2 bushels. INLAND BOAT SERVICE. “punogy}ION z Sage eS See ee igs eas Se ee ey SEL SSI FI Sa fee a eit For eee |e ee 5 ee ea 18 °T BER BOD BOSS RES S Oreo ae ee area OST Seep acioass | Reras ee ee Se Roe Stee SF SI BORO AEE G2] REISE H RG e RORACSi IO Te 08S 08°31 GeOieee ee ees [aq od OF | 61" 1 SE BS CO? 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 4.—Distance and time of transit over selected river routes in the United States during September and October, 1912. {Sources: Distances chiefly as reported by the Chief of Engineers, War Department; time of transit as reported by representatives of steamboats or steamboat lines.] Route. Miles. | Hours. Dee < Atlantic slope. etween— Newburgh and Wappingers Falls, N. Y...... ‘i 12 1.50 8.0 Same ae Pa., and Billingsport, N.J... P 12 1.00 12.0 New Baltimore and Albany, N. Y ........--- “ 15 1.75 8.6 Newburgh and Poughkeepsie, N.Y ........--.--.-.-2---:es-cee- fat 16 3.00 She Philadelphia, Pa., and Bridgeport, N.J.......-...0.-- 2c cee cene cence 18 2.00 9.0 Philadelphia and Chester, Pa : Joss osu 8 sec sb oo oe det se eeee nee eee 18 1.50 12.0 Bartfordiand: Middletown, Connse at eae en. ae See ee eee eae 20 2.00 10.0 Burlington, Vt:; and; Plattsburgy No Wi 222 cn see noe see eee 22 1.50 14.7 Gardiner and Bath, Mo ceo. 0 Soke soe cw cate pee eee eee eee 24 2.50 9.6 Newburgh and Haverstraw, IN. oY 255.28 os ee coe ee eeeeee Soee nes 24 4.00 6.0 Jacksonville and Green Cove Springs, Fla...............-.-.--.-------- 30 4.00 7.5 Philadelphia, Pa., and Wilmington, Del................--.--0.0---0--- 31 2.00 15.5 Albany. andi CatskilNiY o-.2. 2. .seses-scs-= cee Cae eee eee 33 3. 50 9.4 Philadelphia, Pa.,and:Trenton, N. Jig. 25 2 ecco seat en ce ee eee 36 3.00 12.0 Burlington and St. Albans Bay, Vt.......----+-ssssseseseeececeereeee, 40 3.50 11.4 Lake George and Baldwin, N. Y ..-........-------.- 1 arms oeat eet te re eee 40 3.00 13:3 Hartford'and Bast Haddam, Conn 2.222.261 2cee snc cm esi eeeeee ne | 41 3.75 10.9 Philadelphia, ‘Pa-, arid.Salem Ne Is ee. dee aoe ee eee 45 4.00 11.2 Philadelphia, Pa:, and Delaware City, Del...........--.--.-.2...-.-0-.- 45 4.00 11.2 Georgetown'and Coriway, 8:0 '.5. <2. 2). See e tenes oe eee eens 46 8.00 5.8 Hartford and Lyme,'Conn <......-c% - eee vn eines e eee eee 49 5.00 9.8 Jacksonvilleand St.cAqpustine: Masse os ve Peers c eee ee eee 58 12.00 4.8 Savannah; Ga;, and! Beatort, SG. sano 5. eee een eee eee eee eee 60 7.00 8.6 Washineton, D.'C., and’ Mount Holly, Vas. 2. 2scstte- nc ee oe ce eeemeee 84 18. 00 4.7 Georgetown, S. C., and Cains Landing—Peedee River .................. 86 24.00 3.6 Philadelphia, Pa., and Frederica; Del. 252-52 4--~ 2-2 - nese eee 90 10. 00 * 9.0 Newburgh and: Troye igh isesc sscc sens oto oee eee nee eee eee 91 11.00 8.3 New: York and Sauverties,. IY. (Y usesc5.- estes eek eee eee eee 98 10. 00 9.8 Kissimmee and Fort Bassenger, Fla ....--..--2---...------s-esceceeee 100 48. 00 2.1 Norfolkand: Richmond |Wiaisese: fo ach ohe fore ee sete ee eee 116 12.00 9.7 Baltimore, Md., and-Philadelphia, Pa....<..----- 00... c.cceneseeeen sen 120 12.00 10.0 Baltimoreiand Salisbury, Md s 2.22. eee ee ee eee ee eee 142 15. 00 9.5 Jacksonville and’ Sanford. bla .. See. oak ee aceon ae eee eee 147 18. 00 2.2 Baltimoreand/ Bristol. Mds.c.. oo ee. 2 ee sees ae eee p ee eee 150 24.00 6.2 Baltimore, Md: /andiSeaford, Delizer..--cac- eee coe eee eee eae 160 16. 00 10.0 Hartford, Conn:, anditlew Worko N.Y .25 2e 05 oe ee ee 162 | : 14.00 3 11.6 Baltimore, Md-;and\Norfolk, Vaeis: & 78 18. 00 — 10.8 Evansville, Ind., and Louisville, Ky. ..:.-....------s-cceeeeceecerecsees | 185 30. 00 6.2 ' These quotations are from different boats. 2 Downstream. 8 Upstream. — INLAND BOAT SERVICE. 35 TasBLEe 4.—Distance and time of transit over selected river routes in the United States during September and October, 1912—Continued. Route. Miles. | Hours. ents Mississippi River and tributaries, including Gulf slope—Continued. Between— Bowling Green, Ky., and Evansville, Ind..-.....--.-.-.....---.+------ 190 30. 00 6.3 Bialowisy Mouand Peoria, Bei. fe oe cee cae wscetie ss seis bible cece 200 30. 00 6.7 Cincinnati, Ohio, and Parkersburg, W. Va......-.---.---.--- eee eee eee 200 24. 00 8.3 Memphis, Tenn., and Arkansas City, Ark.....-..-.---.----0---.------- 209 30. 00 7.0 MODUOADG Demopoliss Ala: ets eee ek baacesoleickelavcce oleae 230 48. 00 4.8 New Orleans and Bayou Teche, La...........-.---...---------- 1240 40. 00 6.0 Memphis, Tenn., and Cairo, Ill.....-. 254 38. 00 6.7 Charleston, W. Va., and Cincinnati, Ohio 263 48. 00 5.5 Memphis, Tenn.,and Paducah, Ky........-.-.-----.------ 299 46. 00 6.5 Moabileaud Selma Alas: SC yee e ele ee oe eee 308 : 72. 00 4.3 Charleston Wie Va., and Pittsburgh, Pay. 2522525 2.02.2. essss2s es) - 2 325 { 3 a ne Ane New Orleans and Harrisonburg, La-..........---..-.- 340 150. 00 2.3 Columbus, Ga., and Apalachicola, Fla... 340 132. 00 2.7 Vicksburg Miss.,and Memphis, Tenn............--..--....--- age 370 72. 00 5.1 St. Paul, Minn., and Davenport, Iowa...........---..--2--.2----------- 378 4 60. 00 6.3 CATISASIC IY pA St lsOWUIS 5 MOlsta oar er ais cisecr sie miclsaicieintes eeinwicietemicins csi 407 { 8 ae a ; ie Memphis, Tenn., and St. Louis, Mo...............-.2..22202-2 22 eee eee 415 72. 00 5.8 NiewsOrleans) va; and) Carriola, Anko o.. 2.50253. tele te eee ccc cece 446 84. 00 5.3 Cincinnati, Ohio, and Pittsburgh, Pa..........-......---------- 2-0 eee 470 84. 00 5.6 Cincinnati, Ohio, and Memphis, Tenn....-...............-------------- 749 108. 00 6.9 Pacific slope. Between— Kennewick and White Bluff, Wash ...............-.---2ceee cece eee eee 42 8.00 5.2 iBrewstonand. Wenatchee, Wash 2.0.25 ces es tense ote loecee eens 70 { aoe a eae Wenatchee and Bridgeport, Wash............--.---------+-------------- 79 { GH a Boas San Francisco and Walnut Grove, Cal..........--------.-.-------- 2. 80 8.00 10.0 Sansunaneiscoand stockton, Calas. Nose een cee Soc elwe cs es eee 94 12.00 7.8 San Francisco and Sacramento, Cal.......-..-.--.-----.---2-222---2----- 112 12.00 9.3 Kennewick, Wash., and Portland, Oreg.-............-.-.-------------- 239 30. 00 8.0 1Boat routes from New Orleans to St. Martinsville range from 174 to 257 miles. 2 Downstream. 3 Upstream. TaBiEe 5.—Number of intermediate landings and average distance between landings over selected routes. Number of interme- Se tnee Route. diateland-| Miles. erent _ings, as : rep orted. ‘ landings. Between— Cincinnati, Ohio, and Memphis, Tenn.......................-.- 346 749 2.16 St. Louis, Mo.,and Memphis, Tenn...........-.--s0s0eceee eee 318 415 1.30 St. Louis, Mo.,and Waterloo, Ala............2-2-..2-0.-------0- 267 613 1.91 Apalachicola, Fla.,and Columbus, Ga............--.--.-------- 246 360 1.46 Pittsburgh, Pa.,and Cincinnati, Ohio...............-....----.- 141 470 3.31 Evansville, Ind.,and Bowling Green, Ky...-........-..-----.-- 71 190 2. 64 Baltimore, Md.,and Fredericksburg, Va..........-....-.------- 34 285 { 1 ee Hartford, Conn., and New York, N. Y.:........-.-.---.---+..-- 12 162 { are a Baltimore, Md., and Seaford, Del........22.0..-..-22222s00000e 12 160 Nea Baltimore, Mid: and Norfolk VWias: 2.252 2ee eee ss cin mere ih 184 92.00 1 Average for part of route on which the group of intermediate landings are located. Distances: Hart- ford to mouth of Connecticut River, about 52 miles; Fredericksburg to mouth of Rappahannock River, about 106 miles; Seaford to mouth of Nanticoke River, about 41 miles. 36 BULLETIN 74, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. «~ TaBLe 6.—Summary of average rates of speed of steamboats on inland waterways. Number of average rates reported. Rate, miles per hour. Mississippi Atlantic | Valley, in-| Pacific slope. | eluding | slope. | 70tl. Gulf slope. : LM OSSp Are Tie 2 BES ee eS Se Re ee eee ae ee one ce 3 12 oO 15 Rand Jess tAnG 22 Ste as so se FS onan osenc omer cues 4 15 3 22 DRESS Re NCS Sas Ta eee nS ep ronTe Eee aeynety eS) 4 14 1 19 ETE WES Ree TOES ES Se eee eS Rea 2 13 5 3 21 S@and less (ata 5 Bee a ome oh ec nd some anmenre meee 9 4 2 ue 1Rand overieseee | Awe ee wa sons none ss -acinann de doe aaneeee 10 0 0 10 Totals oo on ~ Seta sen i axasa ae Uaaenoae acne 43 50 9 102 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1914 BULLETIN OF THE GB) USDEPARIMENT OF AGRCULIRE No. 75 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. April 8, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION; POLLINATION STUDIES. By C. VY. Pirer, Agrostologist in Charge, and Morean W. Evans, Rotanp McKez, and W. J. Morss, Scientific Assistants, Forage-Crop Investigations. INTRODUCTION. For a number of years past it has been a conspicuous fact that in. sections where alfalfa seed is grown commercially the yield varies greatly from season to season. Particularly striking examples of this variation in yield have occurred in the Milk River Valley of Montana, where in some seasons yields of 10 to 12 bushels per acre have been obtained, while in other years the crop was almost a complete failure. It has been generally supposed that the visit of certain insects to the flowers is absolutely necessary in order to effect pollmation. In accordance with this belief, some have held that small crops of alfalfa seed were due to an unsatisfactory number of pollinating insects, while others have suggested that thrips or other destructive agencies might be accountable. . In view of the importance of the matter to alfalfa seed growers, investigations of this subject were undertaken, beginning with the season of 1906. These investigations have been conducted during subsequent seasons at various stations and have resulted in the accumulation of a mass of data which throw new light on the sub- ject. Incidentally they have revealed the fact that the problem is much more complex than had been anticipated, and there is need of much further work, especially in the careful correlation of cli- matic data, as well as the abundance of insects, with the seed yields from season to season. The factssherein set forth substantiate the previous belief in the importance Gf insect visitors, but also show that, under certain climatic conditions, automatic self-pollination of _ the flower takes place. The amount of self-pollination varies from season to season and with individual plants. Whether self-pollination is sufficient to produce satisfactory seed yields is still a matter of doubt, but the observations at Chinook, Mont., indicate that at that, locality this is the most probable explanation. Nore.—This bulletin deals with the biological problems concerned in the pollination and fecundation of the alfalfa flower. It is intended primarily for technical agronomists and botanists. 23437°—14_1. 2 BULLETIN 75, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Observations at the same place also indicate that the factors or conditions which favor seed production vary during the season, as shown by the distribution of pods on mature plants. For instance, in the latter part of August, 1910, a great many plants could be found on which the earliest racemes to develop in the spring, located at the base of the plant, produced large numbers of pods. A little higher ~ on the plant most of the flower stalks were almost or entirely bare of pods. Still higher on the stem there were a number of large, well-filled clusters of pods, indicating that for a period of two weeks or more preceding August 20 a very large proportion of the flowers had developed pods. Near the tip of the stems nearly all of the flowers fell off, leaving the stem almost bare of pods. It is probable that this variation in seed production at different periods during the season was due, directly or indirectly, to climatic conditions. At Arlington farm, Virginia, it has frequently been observed that a large eet of the pods fail to set, even when the flowers have been artificially tripped. While this is especially true of the flowers of the first crop of alfalfa, it seems to be due more to adverse climatic conditions than to the vigor of the plants. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STRUCTURE AND POLLINATION OF THE ALFALFA FLOWER. According to Urban, the peculiar structure of the alfalfa flower by which it trips, or explodes, when visited by certain insects was known in the time of Linneus. The first explanation of the process of explosion is apparently that of De Candolle,' in 1832. De Candolle states that the explosion of the flower takes place when a certain stage of its maturity is reached. Hildebrand,” in 1866, gives a brief general account of the structure of the alfalfa flower, comparing it with both Indigofera and Cytisus. He clearly recognizes that the peculiar mechanism of the flower is an adaptation for pollination by insects, but states that inclosed flowers finally trip in the course of their development without the help of insects. Apparently he considers that fertilization may also take place in untripped flowers, as the pollen may fall on the stigma. His observations were made in Germany. In November, 1865, Henslow* presented a paper before the Lin- neeai Society of London, which, however, was not published until 1867. Hensiow studied carefully the structure of the alfalfa flower with a view of locating the explosive force. This he attributed to the elasticity of the stamineal tube, but he was uncertain whether the ‘Candolle,A.P.de. P ays iologie Végétale, t. 2, Paris, 1832, p. 548. * Hilde} rand, ©. Ueber die Vorrichtungen an einigen Bliithen zur Befruchtung durch Insektenhiilfe. Botants che Ze itung, Jahre. 24, No. 10,p. 75, 1866. * Hounslow, George. Note on the structure of Medicago sativa, as apparently affording facilities for the intercrossing o! « distis wt flowers. Journal, Linnean Society, Botany, v. 9, p. 327-329, 1867. 7 a ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 3 curvature is due to the contraction of the cells on the upper side or the distension of those on the convex side. After the explosion of the flower he states that the tube can not be straightened to its original position without causing a transverse fracture. No simi- lar elasticity was found in the free filament or in the pistil, but the tendency of the keel to open laterally was noted. Henslow also observed honeybees gathering nectar from alfalfa flowers, but in no instance observed by him was the bee able to trip the flower. He also mentions that he did not see bumblebees visiting the flowers. These observations were made in England. In the same year Delpino described the structure and mechanism of the alfalfa flower. He apparently considered the explosive force due to the irritability of the stamineal tube. Hildebrand ' criticizes this conclusion and points out that the explosion is due to the ten- sion of the upper filaments in the stamineal tube. He agrees, how- ever, that, after tripping, insects are barred from reaching the nectary. Urban,” in 1873, refers to some of the preceding literature and gives a detailed description of the corolla and of the explosive mech- anism. According to his observations, only bees bring about pol- lination, although butterflies are frequent visitors. In rare cases untripped flowers were found to form pods and seeds. Shortly after the flower has been tripped the opening to the nectary is closed by the drooping of the edges of the standard. In the same year Miller? gave an extended description of the alfalfa flower, together with excellent figures, in which the whole - mechanism is clearly explained. The elastic tension of the stamineal column is mainly in the upper stamens, as can be determined by dividing the upper ones from the lower. The former then show much greater curvature. Muller gives a considerable list of insects, including the honeybee and numerous butterflies, which he had observed sucking nectar from the flowers, but states that he never succeeded in seeing the explosion of the flower actually performed by insects, though he watched for it frequently. He also states that self-pollination in untripped flowers does occur, citing Hil- debrand’s work as confirmatory. Miller also calls attention to certain imperfections of the mechanism of the flower, namely, that nectar secretion continues to take place after the flower is exploded, thus continuing to attract insects without obtaining any additional benefit, and, second, that bees and butterflies can obtain the nectar by inserting the proboscis on one side of the untripped flower, which under no circumstances results in tripping. 1 Hildebrand, F. H. G@. ¥ederigo Delpino’s Beobachtungen iiber die Bestéubungsvorrichtungen bei den Phanerogamen. Botanische Zeitung, Jahrg. 25, No. 36, p. 283, 1867. 2Urban, I. Prodromus einer Monographie der Gattung Medicago L. Verhandlungen, Botanischer Verein, Provinz Brandenburg, Jahrg. 15, p. 13-16, 1873. ’ Miller, Hermann. Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten und die gegenseitigen Anpassungen beider. Leipzig, 1873, 478 p., 152 fig. 4 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Henslow' in discussing self-fertility in Medicago sativa wrote as follows: This plant, when protected, yielded seeds, as compared with unprotected, in the ratio of 101:77. Hence it is highly self-fertile, though specially modified, in oe “irritable” stamens, for cross-fertilization. This note of Henslow has been cited by later writers, but it is really an erroneous abstract from Darwin’s discussion of Medicago lupulina. Darwin? writes as follows: Medicago lupulina (Leguminose). On account of the danger of losing the seeds, I was forced to gather the pods before they were quite ripe; 150 flower-heads on plants visited by bees yielded pods weighing 101 grains; while 150 heads on pro- tected plants yielded pods weighing 77 grains. The inequality would probably have been greater if the mature seeds could have been all safely collected and compared. As Henslow’s paper is primarily a review of Darwin’s book, it is clear from the two quotations that Henslow erroneously wrote “sativa” in place of ‘‘lupulina.”’ This is rendered the more certain as Henslow in his earlier paper on Medicago satwa had referred to Darwin’s work in a footnote, where the data are properly stated to apply to Medicago lupulina. In 1895 appeared a paper by Burkill,? who reviews the principal contributions to this subject by previous writers and adds important new observations and-experiments. He verifies the conclusions of earlier investigators that the explosive action of the flower depends on the uppermost stamens of the stamineal tube. Burkill obtained no pods in a considerable number of flowers covered with nets to prevent insect visits, for which phenomenon he presents an interesting explanation: Pollen is shed in the bud and lies round the stamens and stigma in a little lens- shaped space made by the carina. . . . No seeds are set in the unexploded flower in spite of the pollen in contact with the stigma. This is explained by the fact that the stigma does not become receptive until rubbed or until its cells are injured in some manner. My proof is, I think, conclusive. Firstly, the stigma appears not to be moist, but when rubbed on glass leaves a sticky mark. Secondly, I have caused flowers to set seed though unexploded, (1) by pinching the stigma through the keel, (2) by perforating the keel and rubbing the stigma with a stiff paint brush, and (3) by cutting off the tip of the keel and rubbing the stigma with a stiff paint brush. An insect visitor exploding the flower will injure the stigmatic papille and bring about fertilization. Burkill gives a list of 31 insects which he observed visiting alfalfa flowers in and near Cambridge, England. In no case did he see a butterfly causing the flower to trip, but on one hot afternoon he 1 Henslow,George. Ontheself-fertilization of plants. Transactions, Linnean Society, London, Botany, 8.2, Vv. 1, pt. 6, p. 361, 1879. , 2 Darwin, Charles. The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom. New York, 877, p. 368. 3 Burkill, I. H. On the fertilization of some species of Medicago L.in England Proceedings, Cambridge Philosophical Society, v. 8, pt. 3, p. 142-147, 1894. ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 5 watched a bumblebee tripping the flowers in great numbers and on two occasions observed honeybees doing the same thing. In artificially tripped flowers Burkill found that 12 out of 34 tripped set seed; 50 flowers from which the standard had been removed were artificially tripped and none set seed. The impact on . the standard, Burkill believes, ruptures the stigma sufficiently to insure fertilization in about one-third of the cases. Burkill’s inter- esting data on the tripping of alfalfa flowers when vertical force is applied to the tip of the keel are quoted in full on page 27 of this paper. Hunter! conducted observations on the relation of the number of seeds per pod in alfalfa as correlated with the proximity of domestic honeybees. He evidently assumes that honeybees are capable of pollinating the flowers, but he does not record, any observations of his own on this point. Pods were compared from two fields, one within half a mile of a large apiary, the other 25 miles distant from any domestic bees, none of which were observed in the latter field. Of pods taken half a mile from a large apiary, 87 contained 482 seeds, or 5.58 per pod; 80 pods taken 25 miles distant from any colony of domestic bees produced 268 seeds, or 3.35 per pod. Kirchner,’ after pointing out that the data on the self-fertilization of alfalfa are contradictory, gives results of his own experiments at Hohenheim, Germany. Of exposed clusters of blossoms, 54 on two plants with 432 blossoms produced, August 23, 208 pods, which, though they were not perfectly ripe, showed that they contained 636 well-developed seeds. On the other hand, 21 covered clusters of blossoms on the same plants with 166 blossoms produced only 2 pods with 3 seeds. He concludes that alfalfa flowers are self-sterile, and suggests that Henslow’s results were due to some experimental error. Westgate,? in 1906, presented a brief review of the work of Henslow, Urban, Burkill, and Kirchner, calling attention to the disagreements in the results of different investigators and pointing out the need of further studies. Fruwirth* found that inclosed plants occasionally formed a few pods at Vienna, Austria. Roberts and Freeman® have recorded results of alfalfa pollination experiments at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station. Great 1 Hunter, S.J. Alfalfa, grasshoppers, bees: their relationship. University of Kansas, Department of Entomology, contribution 65, p. 84, 1899. 2 Kirchner, O. Uber die Wirkung der Selbstbestéubung bei den Bapiicnaceert Naturwissenschaft- liche Zeitschrift fur Land- und Forstwirtschaft, Jahrg. 3, Heft 1, p. 9-10, 1905. 8 Westgate,J.M. A method of breeding a strain of alfalfa from a single individual. American Breeders’ Association, Proceedings, v. 2, p. 65-67, 1906. 4Fruwirth, Carl. Die Ziichtung der Landwirtschaftlichen Kulturpflanzen. Bd. 3, Berlin, 1906, p. 189. 5 Roberts, H. F., and Freeman, G. F. Alfalfa breeding: materials and methods. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin 151, p. 79-109, 14 fig., 1908. 6 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. differences were observed among individual plants as regards seed production. Of seven plants which showed marked differences in this respect, five were classified as “strong” and two as “weak.” When these plants were inclosed in screens to exclude pollinating insects the same tendencies remained evident, two of the plants producing pods and seeds in much greater numbers than the others. In a second series of plants inclosed in screens and self-pollinated by hand the percentage of pods to flowers pollinated varied on differ- ent plants from 5.5 per cent to 65.4 per cent, and in one exceptional instance 115 per cent. In this last case some flowers evidently formed pods without hand pollination. A single plant was inclosed in a wire cage to exclude insects. On one half the stems the flowers were self-pollinated by hand and produced 97 pods containing 118 seeds. The other half, not hand pollinated, produced 37 pods con- taining 59 seeds. . In another experiment the investigators inclosed one half of each of five plants in a screen cage, leaving the other half exposed to natural conditions of pollination. The flowers inclosed in the cage were self- pollinated by hand; those outside the cage were naturally pollinated, but not necessarily cross-pollinated by insects, as assumed. The results they obtained are shown in Table I. A remarkable feature is the extraordinarily large proportion of sterile pods recorded. TaBLE I.—Results of naturaland of artificial pollination of alfalfa, at Manhattan, Kans., by Roberts and Freeman. Bods prosdueie Number of seeds. Method of| Weight | Num- | Num- Plant. pollina- | ofstems | ber of | ber of Per 10 : tion. (grams). | stems. | pods. Wingriee| “TBas Pro- |Average} grams ber. cent. | duced. | per pod. | weight of plant No. 29 este 49. 87 11 255 30] 11.76 61 2.03 12.2 PUTAS BEE AEE Hand.... 35. 63 9 272 12 4, 41 14 1.17 3.9 No. 38 Insects 103. 88 12 327 91] 27.82 164 1. 80 15.7 (ECG aerocingigs carci Hand 114. 00 18 279 164] 58.77 236 1.44 20.7 No.97 (ee 28. 50 8 239 65 | 27.19 67 1.03 23.5 HOI som secss soo ia12 Hand 37. 00 20 608 103 | 16.94 128 1.24 34.6 No. 98 Insects 85. 50 11 449 228 | 50.78 451 1.96 52.7 CBee ogee and. 64, 13 8 779 571 7.30 70 1,22 10.9 No. 109 Insects. . - 14.00 6 198 67 | 33.83 96 1. 43 68.5 HUE cine 1858 96 oe Hand.... 14.00 8 311 180 | 57.87 239 1.32 170.7 : Insects...] 281.75 48 | 1,468 481 | 32.76 839 1.74 20.7 Summary. .... (Hand. 264. 76 63 | 2) 249 516} 22.49 687 1.33 25.9 Brand and Westgate! give a brief discussion of the relation of insects to the production of alfalfa seed. These authors assert that ‘insect visitors are essential to the proper pollination of the alfalfa flower.’ They state that bumblebees are the most efficient of all insects in tripping the flowers and hence bring about pollination. 1 Brand, C.J.,and Westgate,J.M. Alfalfa in cultivated rows for seed production in semiarid regions. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 24, 23 p., 3 fig., 1909. ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 7 Honeybees are not nearly so effective as bumblebees, but should not be underrated in this connection, while bees of the genera Andrena and Megachile and various butterflies are also valuable agents in pollinating alfalfa flowers. Results are also given showing the seed production of plants whose flowers were artificially tripped in comparison with untreated plants. At Arlington farm, Virginia, artificial tripping resulted in an increased production of 25.5 per cent, while at Chico, Cal., an increase of 129 per cent of pods was obtained. Piper,‘ in a report of the American Breeders’ Association committee on forage crops relating to the breeding of alfalfa, gives an epitome of the answers of members to various subjects of inquiry, five of which relate to pollination. The answers are diverse, some of them based on experiment and careful observations and others more or less expressions of opinion. Westgate ? records that he observed over 500 visits of honeybees to alfalfa flowers, the flower being tripped in but one case. Wildermuth * records with some doubt that he has seen the butter- fly of the alfalfa caterpillar (Hurymus eurytheme) trip alfalfa flowers. In a personal interview he states that he observed five or six indi- viduals trip the flowers during one season, but has not seen it since, though he has frequently watched the butterflies. This butterfly is very common on alfalfa throughout the Western States. It will be noted from the brief reviews given that investigators have differed as to their conclusions on several points in connection with the pollination of the alfalfa flower. The most important questions that affect the problem of seed yield left in doubt are the following: 1. To what extent are the flowers self-fertile? . Is cross-pollination more effective than self-pollination? . Do alialfa flowers trip automatically? . Do untripped flowers form pods and seeds? . Is the rupturing of the stigma essential to its becoming receptive? 6. To what extent do honeybees trip alfalfa flowers? or B® WwW b In the investigations reported in this paper will be found abundant data which go far to clear up the discrepancies in previous work. STRUCTURE OF THE ALFALFA FLOWER. The structure of the alfalfa flower has been described and illustrated in detail by Hermann Miller and other writers. The most interesting feature is the explosive apparatus which functions to facilitate polli- nation and under proper conditions to favor cross-pollination. The IPiper,C. V. Alfalfa and its improvement by breeding. American Breeders’ Association, Report, v. 5, 1908/09, p. 94-115 1909. 2Westgate, J. M. Methods of breeding alfalfa by selection. American Breeders’ Association, Report, v. 5, 1908/09, p. 147, 1909. 8 Wildermuth, V.L. The alfalfa caterpillar. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, Circular 133, p. 1, 1911. $ BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. essential parts of the mechanism (fig. 1) are the tension of the stamin- eal tube, which is held from contracting by two opposite restraining lateral processes on the inside of the keel. These processes are really Fic. 1.—Alfalfa flower (much enlarged). The left-hand figure shows an optical section of the flower, indicating the position of the stamineal column before and after tripping. The upper right-hand figure gives a view from above of an untripped flower with the calyx and standard removed; the lower right-hand figure, the same after tripping. invaginations, on the outside occurring as depressions. Each of the wing petals is provided with two fingerlike processes, one extending forward and the other backward. The anterior process of each wing fits into the depression on the same side of the keel, and the two wings ALFALFA SEED PRODUCTION. 9 ‘thus serve to strengthen the keel. Contrary to Miller’s statement, both of the wings can, by exercising great care, be removed without tripping the flower, thus showing that their function is purely sec- ondary. ‘The posterior processes of the wing meet on top of the stamineal column. They can have but little, if any, effect in confin- ing the column in position, as Henslow supposed, for the reason above stated, namely, that their removal is not necessarily followed by explosion. The keel is not purely passive, but its basal tissues are under a lateral tension which tends to pull it open, as Henslow first observed. ‘This tension is restrained by the pressure of the stamineal tube against the two internal knobs. If both the apex and the base of the stamineal column are severed by a razor, so that pressure is removed from the keel, the latter will open automatically. If the edges of the keel are again brought together, they open as soon as the restraining force is removed. In an uninjured flower a very slight separation of the edges of the keel, and consequently of the restraining knob, will release the tense stamineal column. Heavy insects, like bumblebees, may do this by their combined weight and pressure on the tip of the keel, but usually it is accomplished by the insect’s proboscis separating ever so slightly the. upper posterior edges of the keel. This may be done directly, but more commonly by spreading apart the two posterior processes of the wings and thus indirectly spreading the keel. The terminal part of the keel, not- withstanding the cohesion of the two petals, has little influence to prevent tripping, as, with the inclosed stamineal tube and style, it can be cut off with a razor without releasing the explosive mechanism. As shown by Henslow, and perhaps earlier by Delpino, the elastic tension lies entirely in the coalesced filaments of the nine anthers and not at aliin the style. With care the style can be severed atthe base without affecting the tripping movements, as Henslow pointed out. After tripping, the opening to the nectary is almost closed by the upcurved stamineal tube, but insects continue to visit tripped flowers until the wilting of the petals makes the closure complete. The occurrence of this explosive mechanism is not unique in. the alfalfa flower, but is found in at least 20 other species of Medicago which have been examined in this connection. In yellow or sickle alfalfa the stamineal column is relatively much shorter, but the mechanism is the same. It is also very well developed in Medicago scutellata, M. rugosa, M. turbinata, M. rigidula, VM. cihharis, and WM. echinus. It is less noticeable in some other annual species, because the stamineal column is shorter and not exposed when tripped, as in alfalfa and the species just mentioned. Other genera in which tripping mechanisms occur are Alysicarpus, Trigonella, Indigofera, and Genista. 28437°—14——-2 an a ' 10 BULLETIN 75, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RELATION OF TRIPPING TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF SEED. In order to obtain more abundant data in regard to the relation of tripping to the production of pods and seeds, the experiment here described was conducted: On selected plants, approximately two-thirds of the branches were inclosed in fine-meshed mosquito-bar tents to prevent insects from - having access to the flowers. Tarlatan was the material used for the netting. The meshes averaged 25 to the linear inch, thus being from one-half to one-third finer meshed than ordinary mosquito bar, which was thought to be too coarse to exclude the smaller insects which might gain access. The remaining stems of each plant were left outside the tent, where the flowers could develop under natural conditions. On both portions of the plant a number of racemes were marked, each with a tag, and numbered. All unopened flower buds and all wilted or tripped flowers were cut off from each of these racemes, leaving only the fresh, open, and untripped flowers. The flowers on approximately one-half of the marked racemes inside the netting were artificially tripped. . This was done usually by means of a slender alfalfa stem or grass stem, pushed down between the keel and the standard. On some of the plants used in this experiment, a separate stem was used for each flower, so as to exclude pollen from other flowers, while on other plants the same stem was used to trip several flowers on the same plant. The flowers were fertilized in all cases, therefore, with pollen from the same flower or with pollen of other flowers on the same plant. The flowers on the remaining racemes inside of the netting tent were allowed to develop without being tripped through the visit of insects or by any artificial agency. This experiment was carried out at Pullman, Wash., in 1908, 1909, and 1910; at Chico, Cal., in 1908 and 1909; at Arlington farm, Vir- ginia, in 1908; at Chinook and Havre, Mont., in 1909; and at New London, Ohio, in 1912. The summarized results are shown in Table IT. TaBLE I1.—Pods and seeds produced by alfalfa flowers on the same plants, free and pro- tected from insects. A.—OUTSIDE NETTING: FLOWERS DEVELOPED UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS. Total Total Blowers Average Waar Blancs Number | number | Number |} number bearin number , * of plants. of of pods. of aa 8 | ofseeds flowers. seeds. Bou per pod. Per cent AOS eersee ns