Author: Pennsylvania Dept. of Forests and Waters Title: Bulletin, no. 33, 1932 - no. 35, 1927 Place of Publication: Harrisburg, Pa. Copyright Date: 1932-1927 Master Negative Storage Number: MNS# PSt SNPaAg250.7 <2255739> * *OCLC* Form: serial 2 InputHHS Edit:FMD 008 ENT: 990128 TYP: d DT1: 1923 DT2: 19uu PRE: u LAN: eng 035 (OCoLC)40694346 037 PSt SNPaAg250.7-251 .6 $bPreservation Office, The Pennsylvania State University, Pattee Library, University Park, PA 16802-1805 090 00 SD12 $b.P33 $l+no. $caxPX $s+U23-U37+U56 $ckp 090 20 Microfilm D344 reel 250.7-251 .6 $l+no. $cmc+(service copy, print master, archival master) $s+U33(1923)-U55(1936) 110 1 Pennsylvania. SbDept. of Forests and Waters. 245 00 Bulletin $cPennsylvania, Department of Forests and Waters. 260 Harrisburg, Pa. $bThe Department $c[1923]- 300 V. $bill. $c22 cm. 362 0 no. 33 (1923)- 51 5 Each vol. has also a distinctive title. 51 5 Some nos. issued in revised editions. 51 5 Some issues lack numbering and dates. 533 Miaofilm $mno.33 (1923)-no.55 (1936) $bUniversity Park, Pa. : ScPennsylvania State University $d1999. $e2 microfilm reels ; 35 mm. $f(USAIN state and local literature preservation project. Pennsylvania) $f(Pennsylvania agricultural literature on microfilm). 650 0 Forests and forestry $zPennsylvania. 780 00 Pennsylvania. Dept. of Forestry. $tBulletin 830 0 USAIN state and local literature preservation project. $pPennsylvania. 830 0 Pennsylvania agricultural literature on microfilm. FILMED WHOLE OR IN PART FROM A COPY BORROWED FROM: STATE LIBRARY OF PENNSYLVANIA no. 33 - no. 35 1932 1927 Siosite this group, on the J^^Sht. occurs ine ;^ .e^ssive number 12, which refers us back to the alternate nmiibiM- r>'s Here we find that our specimen fits the sec Sr statement number 12--leavcs not fan .naped or ^- 7ided at tipsr which refers us to the numbers 13 Our eaf fits the first statement-" ?eat;e« alternate; which re- fers lis to 14. It fits the first statement 14-'^1raves stm- p7e/- referring us to 15. We select the secoml «t.Uemen - ''rrcct trees or shruhs" which leads us to 19. Since tne b^asLf ou/sa'mple twi« have but -;''"<' -t'^l!,-]^^/;, numbers 20 We choose the second statement— leaves iMhnrk shed in lar.r, tUin ^esr which places i definitelv in the genus Platanus, or the sycamores, followed V the trt4 number 128 in parentheses. Since the trees in this booklet are numl^ered consecutively, number 12S l^> found to occur on page (>1. For meaning of technical w(»rds. see pages 107-110. Trees and shrubs not native to Pennsylvania are marked with an asterisk (*). (s not native to Pennsylvania are marked with an asterisk. For meaning of technical words see pages 107-110. 15 i 16 BudH red-hroivn and resinous; scales indistinct. Needles 3, rarely 4 ; heavy, stiflf, 21/2"— 5" long, yellowish green. Cones with short rigid prickles, wide base, thick tipped scales: sessile and very persistent. Growth irregular; form often poor because of insect at- tacks Common on poor, sandy soils and areas where forest fires have raged. (Mg. 2) Figure 2 White Pine. 1. Twig and foliage. 2. Fascicle of foliage in winter. 3. Cone Pitch Pine. 4. Twig and foliage. 5. Foliage fascicle. 6. Cone 4. Shortleaf Pine, — Pinus echinata, Mill. Twigs pale glaucous to purple-hrown ; circular x-section. Buds striate; with pale gray-hrown, close-lying, acute scales; very seldom resinous. Needles 2, 3 or even 4 ; slender and rather flexible ; 6 — 4" long, dark green,close-set on twigs, not twisted. Bark much like pitch pine but slightly smoother. Cones narrow-hased; vnth thin-tipped, weakly armed scales. 17 Growth irregular. Form excellent. Occurs on medium to good soils and at rather low eleva- tions in Pennsylvania, 5. Jersey Pine, — Pinus virginiana, Mill. Twigs usually slender and curved, flexible, terete, glau- cous brown to purple. Buds brownish, more or less resinous. Needles 2 (very rarely 3), diverging and twisted, IMs" — 3" long, stout, dark green, fragrant, sparse on twigs. Crooked tree of poor form unless crowded; with smooth- est thinnest hark of any native pine. Crown open. Growth irregular. Tree of poor soils, but absent at higher elevations in Pennsylvania. Often killed by bark beetles. 6. Table Mountain Pine, — Pinus pungens, Lamb. Needles 2, very stiff and sharp; 2" — 4" long. Cones as large as the clenched fist; scales very thick, with stout claw-like spines. Seeds trianglar. Otherwise like pitch pine ; but usually of poorer form, be- cause it grows on the most adverse sites; common on wind- swept mountain slopes and ridges. 7. Red Pine, — Pinus resinosa. Ait. Twigs heavy, ridged ; yclloic-hrown to red-hrnwti. Buds large; brown at flrst, later silvery; scales loose-ly- ing and fringed. Needles 2, rather slender and flexible, 4" — G" long. Cones unarmed, glossy brown. Growth regular. Form excellent. Tree of poor, dry soils; sparsely occurring in mountainous northern Pennsylvania. 8. ♦Northern Jack Pine, — Pinus Banksiana, Lamb. Twigs olive-green to brown ; angled. Buds very resinous (Young seedling trees have less resin and longer needles.) Needles 2, sparse, stout, curved or twisted, %" — 1^" long. Bark thin, dark brown. Growth irregular; very rapid. Form fair. Cones unarmed when mature, unsymmetrical, often per- sist unopened for years. % 18 Native to Lake States, and northern New England north- ward. Introduced for forest planting. 9. *LodgepoIe Pine, — Pinus contorta, Loud. (Variety) Quite like Jersey and jack pme in general, but has longer curved and twisted needles. Form fair. Growth rapid. Buds large, rounded, resinous, with knobs that indicate next season's lateral shoots. Used experimentally in forest planting. Native to western North America. 10. * Scotch Pine, — Pinus sylvestris, L. Twigs fairly stout, brittle, olivc-hrown. Buds usually resinous, sometimes with loose scales. Needles 2; fine lines of stoniata on all sides; blue-green to dark-green; 1%" — 3" long. Cones slender-stalked, knobbg but not prickly ; scales nar- row hut thick. Like red pine in bark and regularity of growth, but of power form. Commojily planted in Pennsylvania forests; rare orna- mentally. Native to Scotland and northern Europe. The Finnish variety grows slowly but with good upright habit. Foli-age shows yellowish coloration in autumn and winter. 11. *European Mountain Pine, — Pinus montana, Mill. Like Scotch pine in general but numerous variations oc- cur; mostly of poor form and only of otnamental interest. Twigs dark, very densely set with stout nvvdlvH. Buds resinous, with fringed scales usually more or less re- flext. Native to south-central Europe. 12. *Western Yellow Pine, — Pinus ponderosa, Laws. Twigs heavy, ridged, glaucous gray to dark olive-brown. Buds large, silvery gray. Needles tufted at ends of shoots; usually 3, rarely 2; pale to dark-green and usually about ."i" htng in Pennsylvanisi. Sap has odor of oil of oranges. Oroicth regular but slow. 19 Cones larger than those of native hard pines : scales thick tipped and glossy, weakly armed. Native to Pacific and Rocky Mountain regions. 13. *Japanese Red Pine, — Pinus densiflora, 8ieb. et Zucc. Like Si'otch pine in general but foliage is longer and more flexible, cones smoother and shorter stalke a as. ti < -^^ 1^ <- S ^^ f5 £ a « * etf w t; . . . o '-' !M M ^ P fa 27 31. *Ainerican Silver Fir, — Abies concolor, Lindl. & Gord. Needle-tips entire. Foliage pale to bright blue-green, us- ually glaucous. Stomata usually on upper sides of needles as well as two bands beneath. Buds Y^-acute, pale yellow to light brown, usually glossy. Native to* western United States and northern Mexico. 32. •Nordmann's Fir, — Abies, nordmanniana, Spach. Needles like halsam fir hut longer, heavier and glossier,— obviously notched at tips. Buds red-brown, scaly, not resinous. Native to southeast- ern Euroi>e and Asia Minor. 33. Hemlock,— Tsuga canadensis, (L.) Carr. Needles of two titpes. — larger ones comhed upnrt to stand at right-angle to the twig, smaller ones lying on top of twigs and parallel to them; about W long as a maximum; mounted on minute .stalkx ( sterigmatu > : two white bauds of stomata beneath ; round or notched at tips ; i)ersist about 3 yrs. Twigs very fine, pul)escent. rough when needles are shed. Bark shows alternate layers of brown and red when cut. Cones %" long, ovoid, unarmed. Form very good : growth very irregular ; leaders nod. (Frontispiece and Fig. 5) 34. *Bald Cypress, — Taxodium distiehum, Rich- ard. Deciduous. Has appearance of pinnate-compound foliage in summer, because of numerous fine twigs which are also deciduous. Buds inconspicuous. Permanent twigs yellow-brown. Entirely hardy at Mont Alto, Pennsylvania. Bark fibrous; cut into flat ridges. Cones globose. 1" thru, rugose, fall apart easily; seed?? angular and nearly as large as scales. Form very good. Atlantic Coastal and >rexican Gulf tree, native from New Jersey southward. (Fig. 6) jl 28 Figure 6 Bau) Cypress. 1. Globose fruit. 2. Seeds. 3. Winter twig of woody non-deciduous type. 4. Delicate deciduous twigs with typical foliage. 5. Large woody twig of current sum nier growth showing deciduous twigs and the two types of foliage 35. Southern White Cedar, — Chamaeeyparis thy- oides, (L.) BSP. Foliage scale-like on flattened twigs; hlue-green; glandu- lar below. Bark shreddy. 29 Cones Hi," thru, glohose ivith peltate scales; small winged seeds. Small tree of slow growth ; form often poor in open. Oc- cured originally in a few swamps in southeastern Pennsyl- vania. Now extinct in the State except as an ornamental. 36. *Arborvitae; Northern White Cedar, — Thuya occidentalis, L. Like preceding tree tut twigs are flatter; cones oblong, nearly V-j" long with 6-8 scales. Sap has typical odor. Form fair. Native from Quebec to North Carolina, but not within Pennsylvania. (Fig. 5) 37. *Oriental Arborvitae, — Thuya orientalis, L. Like No. 35 but foliage and twigs are flatter; seeds arc tmngless, look like those of an apple but gray-brown with typical basal scar : cones are larger and scales have project- ing curved prickles. Form rather i)oor. Size small. Native to China. JUNIPERS,— JUNIPERUS (Tourn.), L. Leaves in whorls of 3 or opposite. Buds small to minute. Flowers dioecious. Fruit a berry. Bark shreddy. 38. Red Cedar, — Juniperus virginiana, L. Foliage of two types, — scale-like occurring alternately in opposite pairs, giving twigs an apparent square x-section, and awl-shaped usually in pairs but at times in whorls of 3. These latter carry faint bands of stomata. Terminal shoots sometimes droop and are always quite fine. Berry about ^" thru, red-brown to blue and often glau- cous; requires one or two seasons to mature; contains one or two seeds. Growth slow. Form good. (Fig. 5) 39. Common Juniper, — Juniperus communis, L. Like red cedar but lacks scale-leaves; awl-shaped ones are twice as long and wide as in red cedar and spine-tipt, occur in whorls of 3, obviously stomatose and glaucous. f 30 Often only a prostrate shrub; at best but a small tree. A species of world-wide range and many variations. 40. * Chinese Juniper, — Juniperus chinensis, L. Like red cedar but slower in growth, probably never get- ting as large. No scale necdlea occur and the awl-shaped ones bear 2 obvious stomatosc lines and have bright green margins; commonly in whorls of 3. An attractive ornamental. Native to China, Japan and the Himalayan Mountains. 41. *Japanese Common Juniper, — Juniper rigida, Sieb. et Zucc. Needles size of our eommale or glaucous beneath; 2 —4 long, usually narrow-acute. Twigs slender, slightly downy. oa' ^ n Occurs along streams and on moist areas; lo'— 20 tall. 54. Prairie Willow, — Salix luimilis, Marsh. Leaves intermediate between sage and glaucous willows with which it probably often liybridizes ; undulate, coarse- toothed or crinkled; floccose-pubescent below; 2"— 3 J" long. Twigs wooly-pubescent, slender. Rarely above 6' tall. Commonest "dry-land willow in Pennsylvania. ASPENS, POPLARS AND COTTONWOODS,— POPULUS, (Tourn.) L. Leaves toothed, more or less cordate or orate, st alien usually flattened. 3n Buds scaly, acute: terminal ones prominent. Leaf-scars show 3 bundle-scars. Trees of fair form. 55. American or Trembliiif? Aspen,— Popuhis tremuloides, Michx. Leaves with thin, flat petioles; fine-serrate margins: blade round-ovate. Twigs terete, usually slender, sparse. red-bro\\ni. Flower — and vegetative — buds — distinct : hnnvn with i/lossy-varnished appearance. Bark yellow-green to white; smooth, becoming dark and Hs.sured on old boles. (Fig. 7) .>6. Large-toothed Aspen, — Populus grandidentata. Michx. In general like trembling asi)en but coarser in all fea- tures: huds more dirirgevt and pale dusty; twigs paler in color. (Fig. 7) 57. Cotton-wood, — Populus deltoides, Marsh. Broad ti-edge-shaped acute leaves iriih stout flat stalks; deep glo.ssj^ green nb(»vc. pale gn'cn below. Buds large, resinous, glossy, chestnut brown : under-side of scales sticky and mlorous. Twigs stout, yellow tinged with green or brown, round to angular in x-section depending on rate of growth. Good form ; branches ascending in habit : very rapid grower. Has other features in common with aspens. Pos- sibly not native to Pennsylvania. 58. *Balm of Gilead, — Populus candicans, Ait. Like cotton-w^ood in many ways but of poorer form and with great tendency to sucker from roots. Leaves glossy, often cordate, hairy below at times; petiole slightly flattened. Buds varnished with copious sticky, fragrant resin. Native to northern Asia. 36 37 - £-3 ^ •« 4/ fl ^ ^ CS © fcC^i -" 4> es "^ ^c S t- c ti-^ S *? s > ^ o a» 5 "^ • ^ « as R 0* ^ — -.1 ^ (t, 51 * S ? t^^ 2 r oj feD o * -< V > Oi < ^ '■ > - •/. r: Ti Hi: 59. *Lombardy Poplar,— Populus nigra variety italica, Du Roi. Like cottomcood, but of a finer pattern and with dense upright habit. 60. *White Poplar, — Populus alba, L. Leaves deep green ahove. whitotomentose beneath; un- dulate margins remotely 5-lobed; pentioles only slightly flattened, densely tomentose, as are twigs and buds also. Bark like that of the aspens but whiter as a rule. Broad crown-form. Root-suckers common. Native to Europe. 61. Sweet Fern, — Myrica asplenifolia, L. Leaves /em-?ifce,— pinnatifled. sweet-scented, linear-lan- ceolate. . Ttvigs fine, brown pubescent; staminate catkins present in winter. Both monoecious and dioecious plants occur. Fruit a globose, bur-like catkin about 2" lonj:. Kather common on poor sandy soils; attains to '>' tall, usually much less (Fig. 8) WALNUTS —JUGLANS, L. Trees in this genus have pinnate-compound leaves, cham- hcred central pith, unbranched staminate flower stalks, and typical sculptured nuts with an indehiscent husk. Sap is aromatic. 62. White Walnut or Butternut,— Juglans cinerea, L. Trnninal IruftetH irell f/frr/o/>Cf?.— about equal to lateral ones in si/.e. ^ , . Twigs with brown pith. ''Mustache" just above leaf- scars Buds angular or flattened when terminally located, lateral ones smaller and often sui)erpose. Tv\ig 39 63. Black Walnnt, — Julians nij^ra, L. In general like butternut, but a better formed and larger tree; fruit globose and less deeply sculptured, enclosed in nearly smooth husk. Terminal leaflet usually absent or atrophied. Pith gray to light broivn. Bark gray-brown and narrow ridged. (Fig. 9) 64. *English Walnut, — Juglans reg^ia, L. Like buttennit, but buds blunter and not flattened; twigs smoother. Leaves usually smooth-glossy above, with terminal leaflets larger than laterals. Not quite hardy in Pennsylvania but variable in this feat- ure: also in fruit, which how^ever is usually only obscurely sculptured. Native to Europe. HICKORIES,— GARY A, Nutt. Like walnuts, but flower-stalks branch: pith is contin- uous; nuts have Jfvalved^ more or less dehiscent husks. Wood tough and strong. 65. Pignut Hickory, — Carya glabra, (]VIiller) Spach. Leaflets average 5, acute, smooth. Twigs usually smooth, medium size. Buds 1/4 "-y2" long, ovate, scaly. Bark usually tight; breaking into narrow flat-topiuMl ridges, which sometimes scale off in narrow strips. Fruit pear-shai)ed. with thin ^-dehiscent husk: nuts vjiri- able in size and quality, sweet but with bitter after taste. Tree of poor to medium soils. (Fig. 0) 66. Mockernut Hickory,— Carya alba, (L.) K. Koch. Leaflets average 7. Petioles downy. Twigs stout, sparse; more or less down}/. Buds broad-ovate, large, outer scales shed early. Bark tight and ridged. Fruit large, sub-globose; thick dehiscent husk. Nuts thick-shelled ; small sweet kernels. Tree of medium quality soils. IV: 0' 40 67. Shellbark Hickory,— Carya ovat^i, (Mill.) K. Koch. Leaflets average 5. Buds large, ovate; outer scales nrute. inner velvety, hrotcn to gray. Twigs intermediate between two preceding species; red- brown to gray ; sometimes pubescent Bark shed vertically in large plates. Fruit lilie moclcemut, but nuts are acute at one end, usually thin-shelled with large sweet kernels. Tree of medium to good soils. 68. Big Shellbark Hickory, — Carya laciniosa (Michx f.) Loudon. Like the shellhark but ttoigs are heavier, sparser, usually tomentose, Mff to orange; leaflets average 7; buds have more evenly tomentose scales. Nuts often very large, strongly flattened, acute at both ends; thick-shelled. A tree of fertile alluvial soils. (Fig. 9) 69. Bitternut Hickory, — Carya cordiformis, (Wang.) K. Koch. Twigs medium fine, smooth. Buds yelloioglandular with valval e scales; terminal onex flattened. Leaflets ovate-lanceolate; average 9. Fruit Uke pignut, but thin-shelled and very bitter-astring- ent. Bark tight ; flat, narrow ridged. Wood inferior in strength. A tree of fertile valleys, stream-banks and swami)s. 70. *Pecan, — Carya illinoensis, (Wang.) K. Koch. Like bitternut, but buds are bright brown with yellow hairs; nuts sweetest and most edible of the genus. Leaflets 9-17 : giving tree the appearance of a walnut. Native to Mississippi Valley. 71. Blue Beech or Water Beech, — Carpinus caro- liniana, Walter. Twigs fine; silky at first, becoming smooth; shiny brown to orange; birch-like. Buds ovate-acute, smaU, red-brown, i4Hth 8-12 visible 4- rankt scales which increase in size toward the apex ; termi- nal buds absent. 41 Leaves simple, small, ovate-acute, 2-serrate,— birch-like. Bark tight, smooth, blue-gray, vertically corrugated. Fruit a ridged nutlet, 1/3" long, borne on a 3-lobed leafy bract and arranged in pendant clusters. Wood very hard and strong. Small tree of poor form occurring on fertile lower hill- sloiies and stream-banks. 72. American Hornbeam or Ironwood, — Ostrya vir- giniana, (Will.) K. Koch. Quite like blue beech but twigs in mass form a more zig- zag pattern, Iij:hter in color, tougher. Biifls are gummy; 8 visible scales. Bark is shed in shreddy scales. Nutlets are enclosed in little sacks armed with stinging hairs and arranged in a hop-like aggregate about a central stem from which they are shed one by one. Staminafc aments are present in itmiter; usually occur in threes. BIRCHES,— BETULA, L. Twigs fine; two types occur,— ''shwt spurs" with leaves more or less clustered, and '^elongating shoots'* with leaves sincrle. Buds acute; terminal ones absent. Sterile aments pres- ent in winter. Fruit a small cone-like structure falling apart at ma- turity. Seeds winged, very small and light. Most large trees. 73. Black Birch,— Betula lenta, I^. Tunos smooth, shiny red-brown; strong wintergreen flavor. Leaves simple, fine-serrate, — rarely 2-serrate. Bark smooth and cherry-like at first with laterally elong- ated lenticles; later shed in thick plates. (Fig, 10) 74. Yellow Birch, — Betula lutea, Michx. Like black birch but twigs are paler with some persistent down; leaves 2-serrate; bark at first shed laterally in yellow papery scales, later becoming quite tight and finally break- ing into plates and wide ridges. "Wintergreen flavor faint. 42 43 /o. Red or River Birch. — Betiila nijrra, T^ I i I O) 61) «^ *-> O) ^ :j >! 0) ■4-> a Ml ^ fl 2 •r" a "O 2J) «J a S3 ^ S -258 "-^ tc « ?'^ to * tl « a ^ ■M US » Twigs more or less hairy-tomentose. Leaves broadly ovate, strongUf i-serrafc: deep glossy f/reen above, pale tomentose helow. ^ceds mature in spring. Bark on boles and limbs of 4"— 10" thru is shed in ragged orange-brown papery sheets; later close or fissured and dark brown. A stream-bank tree but not found along headwaters. 76. Gray Birch, — Betula popiilifolia, Marsh. Twigs tenth xcarty dots and raised lenticles. Buds 2-rankt, slightly resinous; % visible brdwn scales with downy margins. Leaves deltoid-ovate, 2-serrate; petioles long and slender. Bark dull tvhite, elose. smooth, with triangular black patches below limbs; black and fissured on old boles; inneC bark pale orange. Small short-lived tree of rapid growth ; commonly occur- ring in clumps. 77. Paper Birch, — Betula alba, variety papyrifera, (Marsh.) Spach. Twigs red-brown, smooth or hairy-tomentose. Buds resinous. Leaves firm in texture. Bark creamy to chalky white, shed in regular filmy sheets. On old boles rough flat-ridged or plated. Usually a tree of good form ; boreal in range. — restricted to the higher mountains in Pennsylvania. 78. *White Birch,— Betula alba, L. Quite like paper birch but twigs are finer and with droop- ing habit; bark is whiter, shed less evenly and abundantly. Black patches prominent below branches. Native from Europe to Japan. 79. Black Alder, — Alnus ru^osa, Sprengel. (Fig. 8) ( Du Roi) Twigs medium in size, green — to dark-brown or grayish. Lenticels prominent and numerous. Buds stacked, J" long, green-red, comprcst. covered by 2 valvate scales which are stipidar in morphology ; terminal absent. ! 44 Stauiinate aments and old cones present in winter ; bloom very early. Leaves obovate, blunt or rounded, evenly serrate; base wedge-shaped. Bark thin, smooth, fluted, astringent, yellow within. Small clumpy stream-bank or moist-soil species; often with shrub form. Replaced in northern Pennsylvania by the very similar but coarser speckled alder (Alnus incana, (L.) Moench). HAZELNUT,— CORYLUS, L. Mostly shrubs, occasionally specimens approach tree-size. Twigs Imiry. Sterile catkins preavnt in icinter. Buds blunt with imbricated scales. Leaves thin, 2-ser- rate. Fniit a nut enclosed in a leafy bract. 80. American or Comii;ion Hazelnut, — Corylus americana, Walt. Ticig mediutn size; scattered or dense bristly red hair. Catkins usually obviously stalked. Buds have more than 2 pairs of scales visible. Fruit husk composed of two distinct bracts. Found on fairly fertile or moist soils. (Fig. 10) 81. Beaked Hazelnut, — Corylus rostrata, Ait. Like No. 80 hut smaller in every feature, except fruit-husk which has component bracts fused into a tube about 3" lomj. Buds usually exiwse only 2 pairs of scales. Catkins sessile or nearly so. Shrub on poor, sandy or rocky sites. 82. *European Hazel or Filbert, — Corylus Avel- lana, L. Like No. 80 hut larger in every feature ; makes quite rapid growth; twigs usually less pubescent. Bud-scales have ciliate margins. Var. atropurpurea has dark purple foliage. A pendulous form and numerous other variations occur. Native to Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. 46 o IS 0) ■ b QQ a « ^ =" « a So « g § o == ^ ^ « to > (N ^ o H^ a H » c * '"' -3 a^ o H CO M O I,- 46 47 BEECH,— FAGUS, (Tourn.) L. Trees with cl^se, smooth, grnyhh hark: lonu slender- ('(tnical, very acute buds. Triangular shiny brown nuts, borne in pairs in a stallved. 4-valved, priclcly bur. Kernels sweet. Wood compact ; pith-rays prominent. Found on moist and fertile soils; very tolerant of shade. 83. American Beech, — Fagus grandifolia, Elirh. Twigs medium to slender; hairy at first, later smooth; somewhat zigzag. Leaves stiff, tough, sharp-toothed, ovate-acute ; often per- sist into winter. (Fig. 11) 84. * European Beech, — Fagus sylvatica, L. Like its American cousin but U'* -I GQ til cc ;-i ^* "^ fee ace «>: a I 58 106. *Cork Elm, — Ulraus racemosa, Thomas. Twit?s fine with zigzag ramiflcations, red-brown, smooth or short-hairy; corky bark at bases of many twigs and hranchlets. Buds acute, red-brown; fine hairy scales. Leaves smalU ovate, more or less rough; badly attacked hy elm leaf beetle. Bark dark on old boles, separated into narrow, broken ridges. Large tree of Lake States forests. Native from Quebec to Tennessee and Nebraska, but not within Pennsylvania. 107. *Chinese Elm, — Ulmus pumila, L. TuHfjs fine to medium ; gray at maturity, green to brown- ish at first ; smooth. Buds small oviite-ohhtse, gray -brown. Inner bark mucl- higinous. Leaves smooth, near-symmetrical; stalk V^" long. At- tacked by elm-leaf beetle. Native from Siberia to Turk- estan and Northern China. 108. Hackberry, — Celtis occidentalis, L. Twigs slender, usually dead-tipped, smooth or with a little down ; pith white and chambered in larger twigs. Witches- brooms common. Buds small, 2-rankt, ovate-acute, close apprest; 3-4 scales visible. A gall often distorts and enlarges buds and adjacent twisrSt Leaves palmately 3-nerved, acute, serrate; base oblique. Berry purplish, about 1/3" thru, occurs singly, sweet, seed stony, ripe in September, persisting unt.l eaten by birds. Bark, gray to blue-brown ; smooth at first, later more or less regular warty-ridged. (Fig. 13) MULBERRIES,— MORUS, (Tourn.) L. Terminal buds absent, lateral 2-rankt. Leaves serrate, entire or variably lobed; milky sap. Flowers unisexual ; either monoecious or dioecious. Inner bark strong, with whitish-silky fibres. Roots bright yellow. , . , , ». t Fruit a sweet aggregate,— resembling a blackberry in structure. 54 Figure 14 Osage Orange. 1. Twig with characteristic thorns. 2. Twig and leaves. Tlie latter show tM)ical acute tips and entire margins Red Mui^EBitY. Twigs of varying size. 4. Leaves of typical form 109. Red Mulberry,— Morus rubra, L. Twigs medium heavy, smooth, greenish brown tinted with Buds diverf/c aomcnimt from twigs; greenish-brown with dark margined scales. Leaf-scars raised, concave, nearly circular with irregular bundle-scars. , ,. i.*,.. Leaves often cordate; acute-tipped, 8-nerved, slightly rough ahove. Bark gray-brown, cut into low flat ridges which often ex- foliate in narrow s<'ales. Fruit about 1" long, dark purple when entirely ripe. (Fig. 14) 110. *White Mulberry, — ^Morus alba, L. Twigs finer and yellower than in red mulhernn leaves smaller, glossy above. 55 Buds apprest; scales re ^^ ^^ m — 1^. f 5 '^^ f\ H. ^ f / ?r ^ M \ -A '—. — f wr. "^ L" ' ^■^<' z ^ y "k * \^^ " ^ I A ■. — - r . Figure 17 ^ ». ^ SwEBT Gum 1. Twig with typical corky bark and short «i!^ir^flter^s 2 Twig with smooth bark. 3. Leaf show- leaves in summer 61 127. *Orieiital Sweet Gum, — Liquidambar formo- sana, Hance. Is (luite similar to preceding, but iiner textured thruout with tendency to pubescence. Corky ttvigs absent on all specimens yet noted. Crowns spreading. Interesting ornamental tree introduced by U. S. D. A. Hureau of Plant Industry. Native to Asia. 128. Sycamore or Buttonwood, — Platanus occiden- talis, L. Twigs rather stout, brown to gray, smooth, enlarged ai nodes where they are encircled by stipule scars. Tips often killed hack in spring by a fungus. Buds snh-petiolar coniral-ohtuse, only one scale visible; terminal absent. Leaves broad-ovate, 8-to 5-lobed. dentate; light green above, paler and woolly beneath ; stalk about 2" long. Fruit an aggregate hall or head of many hairy achenes; about 1" thru : hangs solitary, or rarely 2. on a slender but very tough stem. Bark brown, cut by shallow fissures into broad thin plates which are shed and cjpusr greeriish^white mnei' layer. Tree of moist, fertile soils : esiiecially common along larger streams. Michaux called it the "Most massive veg- etable of Eastern North America." 129. *Oriental Plane Tree, — Platanus orientalis, L, Is quite like our sycamore but free of fungous and insect enemies; resistant to smoke; compact -conical in crown- form; inner hark shows yvlloir -green; leaves not so broad and more cuneate at base by extension of blade down along petiole. Balls usually 2 or more 07i a stem. Native from southeastern Europe to India. 130. Ninebark, — Physocarpus opulifolius, (L.) Maxim. Twigs smooth, slender, goldetu-hrown; fine ridges extend dmcn from each leaf base; hark shed from trunks and branches in thin papery layers. Buds small, apprest. Fruit a persistent 't-celled capsule. Leaves smooth, ovate-orbicular, usually sharply 3-lobed, ruffled -dentate. 62 Figure 18 AMERICAN MOUNTAIN AsH. 1. Leaf. 2. Krnlt. 3. Winter twig , ^ . BLACK GUM. 4. Leaves sbowin^ ^f ^/^'J^^V Wi^ef twig""' 5. Twig with fruit on typical stalks. 0. ^^ inter twig 63 Whito. — i:irel.v red-tinted, flowers (xcur in terminal <'orymbs. ITsnally 3' — 10' tall ; along stream-banks. 131. Meadow-sweet, — Spiraea salicifolia, L. Twigs very fine, orange-hjotcn and smooth. Buds small, acute-apprest. Leaves stalked, ohvate or lanceolate, smooth, sharp-ser- rate above middle. Flowers white or pink-tinted ; in dense terminal panicles, Capsii las persistent. Occurs on moist to sw^ampy soils; 4' tall as a maximum. 132. Steeple-biish, — Spiraea tomentosa, L. Quite like meadow-sweet hut twigs and under sides of leaves are woolly; leaves ovate; flowers usually pink to purple. 133. *Japanese Rose or Globe Flower, — Kerria japo- nica, DC. Erect shrub, 4' — 10' tall, with double or single yellow flowers; an old-fashioned ornamental often met around abandoned homesteads. Twigs slender, angular, bright green. Leaves acute, birch-like, 2-serrate. Native to China; in- troduced from Japan. APPLES, PEAR, CHOKEBERRIES, AND MOUNTAIN ASHES,— PYRUS, L. Trees or shrubs with fleshy or berry-like pome fruits; earpels soft or papery and 2-seeded. Flowers showy, in corymbs or cymes, have 5 blunt-ovate petals, and an equal number of more or less persistent sepals. Elongating twigs and short spurs present. Terminal buds well developed. 134. *Conimon Pear, — Pynis Communis, L. Twigs orange-hrown, smooth; often with spiny spurs. Leaves usually smooth, ovate, flne-serrate or entire. Buds brown smooth, close apprest. Fruit fleshy, obovoid. Small cultivated tree; rarely escaixnl. Native to southern Europe and Asia. 64 135. *Common Apple,— Pyrus Malus, L. This spreading branclied tree escapes oultivatiou fre- quently. It is like the pear but tiviga are pubescent es- liecially near buds, reddish to dark broicn; thorns rare. Fruit variable but usually sub-globose or ovoid. Native to southeastern Europe and western Asia. 136. American Crab-Apple, — Pyrus Coronaria, L. Like apple but nearly or quite smooth; very thorny; fruit, snuill, yellow-green, sharply acid. Flowers occur later than common apple; beautiful,— pink, very fragrant. . Leaves sharp-serrate, at times lobed. Variety lana- folia has quite narrow-acute leaves. Small spreading tree common on medium to good soils in mountains of central and southern Pennsylvania. (Fig. 28) , . 137. Red Chokeberry,— Pyrus arbutifolia, (L.) L. f. Twigs and under leaf-surfaces dense tomentose. Leaves oval to obovate, smooth above, very fine serrate. Berries dark red at maturity, about 4" long; often slightly pear-shaped; quite persistent. Buds reddish, acute— like those of shad-bush but smaller. Shrubs of fairly moist to wet areas; rarely «' tall. 138. Black Chokeberry,— Pyrus melanocarpta, (Michx.) Willd. Like No. 137, but smooth or nearly so. Fruit near-black; shed rather early. 139 American Mountain Ash,— Pyrus americana, (Marsh.) DC. Twigs rather stout, smooth, gray to red-brown ; pith large, brownish. ^ , „i„ ™„/,», Buds purple-red, acute, glossy-gummy; terminals much the larger, often with tips curved, laterals close apprest. Leaves pinnate-compound; about 15 leaflets. Flowers resemble those of common elder; as does fruit also, except that it is harder, larger and bright red. Occurs on moist mountain-sides and stream-banks; rarely above 20* tall. (Fig. 18) m 140. *European Mountain Ash, — Pyrus aucuparia, L. Like its American cousin but buds are silky-pubescent; leaflets short-hairy on both sides. Native from Europe to Siberia. 141. Juneberry or Shad-bush, — Amelanchier cana- densis, (L.) Medic. Twigs green to purple-brown, smooth or with a silvery film, slender. Buds slender, cmiicnl-arutc, — up to J" long: greenish brown, often red tinged; smooth or hairy-tipped; laterals often quite small and apprest. Leaves ovate-acute, fine-serrate, finally smooth. Flowers early, in drooping racemes. Fruit late June, sweet, about 1-3" long, rod to purple. Bark blue-gray, smooth; shallow fissurefl on old boles. Small tree; sparse but general thru-out Pennsylvania. (Fig. 19) 142. Low Juneberry, — Amelanchier oblongifolia. Infrequent miniature of .shad-hush, but eomnionly Kyrcads by root-suckers : leaves sub-orbicular to oblong. Rarely above 8' tall. HAWTHORNS,— Crataegus, L. Rcsemhle Pyrus sp. in most features but bear only one seed to a carpel: pomes are small, yellow, red, brown or even black; carpels bony. Thorny shnibs or small trees of many species; ditlicult to identify. Only four of the most conmion are listed here. 143. Cockspur Thorn,— Crataegus Crus-gralli, L. Twigs grav-brown, smooth, rather slender, with nearly straight thoni^ about 3" long. Buds very blunt-spherical; chestnut-brown. Leaves obovate, ^nth long-tapering base so as to be practically scHsilr, leathery, shiny above, serrate toward tips. ^ ,, Fruit nearlv J" long, crimson at maturity. Tree at times 20' tall, with poor form. Largest and most frequent on moist bottoms. 66 67 14 t t Figure 19. JuNEBEEBY. 1. Twig in winter. 2. Twig and leaves Scarlet Thorn. 3. Twig with fruit. 4. Leaves showing under and upper surfaces. 5. Winter twig with typical thorns Jll I 144. Scarlet Thorn, — Crataegus coccinea, L. Like cockspur hut spines are less numerous and not more than 2" l'^'':-r^. 5t.«k,'' ■» A s ■ ^ -y ;^i .•T.iRii 1 . " r "^ 'iall ■I^W^ 4 '11 rJ^jj^. '^ ■ * ^W ^_p^^ 1^.- ^.^Si ■ 1 7' 1 ^ * ■-■«■■ 1_ i l^ "-■^ ^r=T - I r 1 i — 1 ^ ,.. J 5 — — il ^i. i 1 ' Figure 20 Honey Locust. 1. Twig with fniit pod. 2. Seeds. 3. Bi- pinnately componnd leaf. 4. Branched thorn. 5. Winter twig with simple thorn. 6. Twig with pinnately compouuu leaves 168. Red Bud, — Cercis canadensis, L. Tu-ig.s fairly sUndcr, gray-brown, zigzag; terminal hud absent. Buds small, blunt, dark red, often superposed; apprest, except for the near-spherical flower-buds. Leaves simple, entire, heart-shaped, 5- or 7 -nerved ; petioles enlarged at hath ends. Flowers expand before leaves. Pink to red, ''sweet pea'' flowers occur on short stems. 4-8 at a node ; perfect. Pods about 3" x W\ H^'iit lu-own : seeds small, very flat. Small tree, rarely 25' tall in Pennsylvania. Common fence- row sptH'ies in many places. (Fig. 21) 169. Common or Black Locust, — Robinia Pseudo- Acacia, L. Twigs angled, brown, usually with two stipular thorns at nodes; no terminal bud. 73 Buds sah-petiolar, super-posed, sunken in winter, later de- velop a ^'monkey- faee.'' Leaves pinnate-compound ; about 9 ovate leaflets. Flowers in large pendant racemes, very fragrant, perfect, Irregular, cream-white. Poinal buds. Leaflets have entire margins. Fruit pearly white, in droop- ing clusters. Usually found near water ; attains to 20' tall ; exhales an irritant alkaloid poison. 178. Poison Ivy, — Rhus Toxicodendron, L. Like poison sumach except that It Is a sub-erect, scramb- ling or trailing vine; has only 3 leaflets which are some- times coarse-Incised ; fruit-stalks short and not always drooping. 179. Fragrant Sumach, — Rhus canadensis, Marsh. Like poison ivy In many ways, but leaves are firmer In texture, smaller, obscurely toothed or lobed; frwit is red; sub-erect; 5' tall at times. Flower spikes or aments in winter are distinctive; as also are taste and odor of twigs. 180. * Smoke Tree, — Rhus Cotinus, L. Small tree with very crooked, rather fine, orange-brown timgs with a termhml bud; typical taste and odor. Buds small and smoky. Leaves entire, smooth, nearly round. Usually dioecious; bearing scattered brown drupes In large smoky panicle of hairy pedicels that develop after flowering. Native to Europe and Asia. HOLLY,— ILEX, L. Small trees or shrubs bearing small red berries with 4-6 hard bony seeds. 76 Leaves simple. Flowers small, wliite or greenish. Termi- nal buds present. 181. Christmas Holly,— Hex opaca, Ait. Twists slender; fine-hairy at first, later smooth; light* brown. Buds small, blunt, slightly downy. lA^avc^ oval-aeute, leathery, evergreen; toaxy margins armed with mny teeth, petioles short Kare tree: usually below 20' tall m Pennsylvania. Figure 22 WiNTKRHKHHY. 1. Twigs with berries. 2. Twig with leaves and berries. X Leaves showing upi)er and lower surfaces Teaberky. 4. Stalks with leaves and fruit 182. Winterberry or Deciduous Holly, — Hex verti- cillata (L.) Gray. Twigs fine; lenticels quite ob\ious. Buds smalh brown, eomeal-ohime, sometimes superposed. Lraren ovate, serrate, about 2" long, deciduous; finely reticnlntr reived. Fruit unaffected by frost. A loxr-grouud shnih or small tree, rarely 8' tall. When fruit is absent, it looks like a scrubby, thornless plum-tree. (Fig. 22) 77 188. Large-leaf Holly, — Ilex monticola, Gray. Like wlnterheny hut larger in all its parts; at times 20' or more tall; seeds striate-ritihed. Fruit rendered watery by frost. Occurs on well-drained, cool, mountain soils in northern and central Pennsylvania. 184. Mountain Holly, — Nemopantluis niucronata, (L.) Trel. Quite like tmnterherry hut paler and very smooth thruout ; leaves elliptic-oblong, entire or ohscure-serrate; huds red. Found in clumps or thickets in cool, moist woods. 185. Climbing Bittersweet, — Celastrus scandens, L. Tuiuing shruhhy rine. Twigs show tough, silvery fila- ments when broken. Buds small, hlunt, pale brown. leaves ovate-oblong, acute, serrate. Small greenish flowers occur in terminal racemes. Oravge-scarlet, .3-valved, globose herry holds 3-6 seeds. Very ornamental in autumn and early winter. 186. Burning Bush or AVaahoo, — Evonymus atropur- pureus, Jacq. Tree-like shrub, up to 10* tall ; found on fertile valley soils. Twigs -'i-angled, green with white stripes. Leaves opposite, simple, stalked, oval-oblong, acute Flowers small, dark purple, perfect. Fruit 3-to 5-lohed, red ; borne on drooping stems. 187. American Bladder Nut, — Staphylea trifolia. Like wnahoo except that leaves are 3-pinnate; fruit an inflated. 3-horned bladder containing hard, glossy, pale or yellow brown, pea-like seeds. The bladder is about 2" long and half as thick. No true terminal bud. (Fig. 23) MAPLES,— ACER, (Tourn.) L. Leaves opposite. Fruit winged, home in pairs. FlowerB usually dioecious. Our most important shade and ornamental trees. 78 79 188. Red Maple, — Acer rubrum, L. Twigs slender, green to red. Buds red, blunt, loith 6-8 scales; near-spherical flower- buds often collateral or superposed. Leaves smallest of the large tree maples; simple; 3- or 5-lobed, basal ones small ; coarse-serrate ; silvery beneath. Bark flat-ridged or nearly smooth, tight. Sessile red flowers open very early. Fruit May-June; 1" long. Grows well on moist to wet soils, poorly on dry ones. 189. Silver Maple, — Acer saccharinum, L. Like red maple but leaves and seeds are larger; leaves more deeply cut and obviously 5-lobed ; tivigs chestnut- brov^n, fragrant in winter; branches tend to droop but tips are ascending; bark separates in plates. 190. Sugar or Hard Maple, — Acer saccharum, Marsh. Twigs slender, stiff, brownish. Bark hard, fissured; finally shed in plates. Buds brown, acute-conical ; terminal nearly twice as large as somewhat apprest lateral ones ; S-18 exposed scales. Flotvers in drooping corymbs. Seeds autumnal; wings 1" long, diverge but slightly. Leaves usually 5-lobed, cordate; sinuses shallow; coarse-dentate. One of the commonest trees in Pennsylvania, prefers cool sites but grows on all but the poorest soils; very tolerant of shade. (Fig. 23) 191. Black Sugar Maple, — Acer saccharum var. nig- rum, (Michx. f.) Britton. Is distinguished by leaves often slightly downy beneath with entire or undulate margins. 192. Mountain Maple, — Acer spicatum, Lamb. Twigs yelloic-green to red, glaucous. Buds short-stalked, with 1-2 pairs of valvate scales. Leaves 3- or 5-lobed, coarse-serrate, cordate, somewhat hairy below; petioles long and slender. Flowers in terminal racemes; borne erect, but fruit droops. Seed-wings about J" long. Rark thin, gray-brown blotched. 80 Found on cool, rocky soil; «P to 30' tall, usually 10' or less, 193 Striped Maple,— Acer pennsylvanicum, L. striped. Leaves 3-lobed. Figure 24 Asii-L^vvED MAPLE. 1. Leaf. 2. Winter twig with cluster of seed keys ^ HOUSE CHESTNUT. 3. Leaf of Small size 4. Nut. o. De- hiscing bur or husk. 0. iwig 194. Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder,— Acer Negun- do, L. Tiviffs purplish to green, often pale glaucous, encircled by ^Buds short-stalked, ohtuse-ovoia, ^^'f ^ j;;f^^;^ .^ .^^.^e- Leaves 3- or 5-plnnate comiwund ; leaflets o%ate, coarse "^^Fenlie flowers occur In drooping racemes, sterile on hairy, drooping stems. 81 o" long Fruit ripe In September, persistent ; wings up to 2' and nearly parallel. Tree of rapid growth and medium size; prefers moist soils, yet thrives on all but the poorest. (Fig. 24) 195. *Norway Maple, — Acer platanoides, L. Broad-crowned European tree much planted for shade. Tirius heavy. Buds red, blunt. Sap milkif. Leaves large; broad with shallow sinuses and dentations. Fruit large, flat, In autumn; iringx diverge widely. Bark cut Into narrow flat ridges. Native to Europe. 196. *Sycamore Maple, — Acer pseudo-platanus, L. Much like Norivay maple l)ut leaves are 3- or 5-lobed. sharp-serrate and firm in texture; sap icatery ; huds green; hark hreaks into thick dark plates: nrrds smaller, in pend- ant racemes and wings diverge but little. Native to Europe. 197. *English Field Maple,— Acer campestre, L. Has snmller leaves than any foregoing species, usually 3- lobed without serrations. Twigs fine, often corky-ridged. Buds small, acute, apprest. Seeds ripe In fall ; wings divergent. Kare ornamental small tree; eseaiunl in a tew places. Native to Euroi^e and western Asia. 198. *Chinese Maple,— Acer buerj^'erianum, Miq. Rcspwhles the preceding species but always lacks corky twigs- leaf-lohes are more acute than rounded, small sec- ondanf leaves develop in axils of larger ones.— Branches commonly leaf-clad. Not quite hardy In Pennsylvania. Na- tive to China. 199. *Japanese Maples,— Acer polymorplmm, ». & Z., varieties. Hhoir many leaf-typcH.—xcarlct. dissectrd, and palnmte are most commonly met. . r, •* „,.*,.^ In general, they attain only smpll tree-.vze. Fruit autum- nal, like mountain maple. Native to Japan. BUCKEYES AND HORSE CHESTNUT,— AESCULUS, L. Trees or shrubs with very large, smooth, hroxm seeds; borne in 3-valved leathery husks. Twigs heavy, with largo terminal huds. 82 Leavcft opposite, palmately compound; leaflets serrate and veined like leaf of the chestnut. Leaf-scars large. Flowers in large, dense, terminal panicles. Require good soil. 200. Sweet Buckeye, — Aesculus octandra, Marsh. Twigs slightly odorous if bruised. Buds smooth, red- brown ; outer scales usually pale blue glaucous. ' Leaflets and hundlescars average 5. Flowers small, yellow, purplish or red. Fruit obovoid, l"-2" thru ; husk smooth. Attains to fair tree-size; rare ornamental, only native in western Pennsylvania. 201. Fetid Buckeye, — Aesculus glabra, Willd. Like sweet buckeye but not as large a tree. Twigs and foliage rank-odorous when crushed. Fruit smaller than that of sweet buckeye; husk prickly 202. *Horse Chestnut, — Aesculus Hippocastanum, L. Common exotic ornamental tree ; like our buckeyes but huds are glossy-resinous; leaflets and bundle-scars average 7. Flowers showy, — white with yellow and purple spots. Husks sparse-prickly. Native from Himalayan Mountains of Asia to Northern Greece; introduced from Europe. (Fig. 24) 203. Lance-leaved Buckthorn, — Rhamnus lanceolata, Pursh. Twigs rather fine, smooth; buds small, alternate. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, smooth, fine-serrate; veining typical. Flowers small, yellow-green, perfect; 4 deeply notched petals. Fruit a black, nauseous, 2-seeded berry. Clumpy shrub up to 10' tall; superficially resembling cultivated plum. 204. New Jersey Tea, — Ceanothus americanus, L. Twigs fine, yellow-green to red, dead tips or bearing old capsule-bases. Leaves ovate-acute, 3-nerved, serrate, often cordate-based. Flowers July, in attractive white clusters. Fruit small, S-lobed capsule. Low shrub with red roots ; found on dry soils. 205. Virginia Creeper, — Psedera quinquefolia, (L.) Greene. Woody mne, climbing by disc-tipped tendrils. Leaves palmately 5-compound; scars raised with sunken center, near-round. Flowers small, yellow-green, paniculate. Fruit small, red-black, large-seeded berry. Common on tree-trunks, rock-cliffs and slopes. GRAPES,— VITIS, (Tourn.) L. Woody vines climbing by coiling tendrils. Fruit a pulpy berry with several pear-shaped seeds, borne in compound clusters. Flowers small, yellow-green, 5-part, fragrant. Bark shreddy. Leaves simple, rounded-heartshaped ; petioles long and stout, make angle of about 120 degrees with plane of the leaf. 206. Fox Grape, — ^Vitis labrusca, L. Leaves evenly short-woolly, — white or rusty beneath; large entire or lobed, obscure-dentate. Fruit large, fragrant, sioeet; tough skin; blue to red or rarely yellowish. Usually found on fertile, moist soils. 207. Pigeon Grape,— Vitis aestivalis, Michx. Leaves tufted hairy below, especially in axils of veins; glossy green above, about same shade below; broad-dentate. Fruit black-glaucous, size of ''bnck-shoV ; pleasant. Found on fertile, cultivated soils. 208. Chicken Grape, — Vitis cordifolia, Michx. Like pigeon grape but leaves are more variable with floe- cose hairs independent of veins; fruit smaller, very tart, seedy. Occurs on all sites; especially poor ones, unless they are very dry. 84 BASSWOODS,— TILIA, (Tourn.) L. Trees nnth heart -shaped, serrnte, 2-rankt, ohlique leaves. Buds nnsiimmetrieal; terminal absent. Inner hark very strong flbrous. Flowers 5-part, perfect, cream -colored, borne in drooping elusters attached beneath a narrow leafy bract which serves seeds as a helicopter. Seeds globose, tcoody, mit-like, indehiscent, containing 1 or 2 embryos. Occur on fertile, well-drained soils. (Fig, 25) Figure 25 1? ASS WOOD, 1. T\vig. 2. leaves showing size variation, with upix'r and lower leaf surfaces. 8, Bract with ap- pended fruit cluster. Flowering Dogwood. 4, Leaves showing upper and lower surfaces. 5. Twig with typical branching and prominent flower buds. 0. Fruit cluster. 7, Twig with vegetative terminal bud, fruit cluster, and flower bud 209. Basswoods, — Tilia americana, L, Twigs bright red. Bark olivaceous to gray; scaly-ridged on old trunks. Bvds usually show 3 risible scales. Leaves have rusty hairs beneath in axils of veins; bases oblique. 85 210. White Basswood,— Tilia heterophylla, Vent. Is like sometvhat larger relative, but has slightly larger leaves, silvery white and fine-downy beneath. 211. *European Broadleaf Linden,— Tilia grandi- folia, Ehrh. Like American basswood but hairy on ribs and sometimes whole underside of leaves; fruit is thicker-shelled and 4- or 5-ribbed; leaves near-symmetrical. Native to Europe. 212. *European Small-leaf Linden— Tilia parvi- folia, Ehrh. Is a commoner ornamental than its larger relative, com- pared to which it is smaller in every way. , , . . Leaves cordate, silvery beneath; tufts of rusty hairs in axils of veins. Fruit globose, thin-shelled. Native to Euroi)e. 213. Shrubby St. John's Wort —Hypericum pro- lificum, L. Twigs fine; buds small, opposite. Brown, 3-part, many seeded capsules persist. Leaves »imple, entire; average 2" long, often with smaller arillary ones; translucnit -dotted, nairow-oblong, mostly ob- tuse; midrib prominent, others obscure. Flowers July- September, perfect; many conspicuous stamens; yellow. Found on sandy or rocky soils ; 2' to 3' tall. 214. Leatherwood, — Dirca palustris, L. Twigs yellow-gray, smooth- ^'telescoped" in api)earanale yellow ; perfect. Fruit a red, leathery, 1- seeded drupe. Understory shrub ; 3'-5' tall ; moist soil species. 86 Figure 26 Herctjt.es Club. 1. Twig. 2. Berries. 3. Cluster of over- ripe berries. 4. Double-pinnately compound leaf with thorny stalk 87 215. Hercules Club,— Aralia spinosa, L. Tivigs very stout with strong scattered prickles; nearly encircled by narrow leaf -scars. Terminal huds large, hrotmi, conical-obtuse; lateral ap- presf, often triangular. ^„ ,, , ^ Leaves 1 or 2-c(mipound, up to 3' x 21' (largest of any native Pennsylvania tree) ; stalks prickly. Flowers small, cream-white, perfect, in large panicles. Fruit an angled, ovoid, black berry, \" long style per- Locally abundant; usually occasional on moist, fertile soil; 10'-20' tall. (Fig. 26) DOGWOODS,— CORNUS, (Tourn.) L. Species native in Pennsylvania bear perfect flowers. Leaves opposite with one exception. Fruit a small drupe with a stony seed. Understory shrubs and small trees. Wood dense and hard. 216. Flowering Dogwood, — Cornus florida, L. Twigs red tinged with green, smooth, glaucous often ; tips with upturned "digitate" effect. Leaf-buds small, often cov- ered by persistent petiole bases ; flower-buds terminal, but- ton-like. All huds have two valvate scales. Leaves ovate-acute; clustered toward tips of twigs. Flowers subtended by large, white, petalloid bracts. Fruit scarlet, ovoid; stone grooved; borne in capitate clusters of 2-5 ; more than V long. Bark on old trees breaks into an "alligator' pattern. Largest and most attractive dogwood of Pennsylvania. (Fig. 25) 217 Round-leaved Dogwood,— Cornus circinata, L'Her. Twigs warty dotted, greenish. Buds acute, short-stalked. apprest. ^ , , , Leaves broad-ovate to orbicular, dense hairy belotv. S8 Floicers in flat cyme or umbel. FruU pale hlue or lead- white, globose, bitter, Slinib of cool, rocky sites; 6'-10' tall. 218. Red Osier Dogwood, — Cornus stolonifera, Michx. Like preceding specie s hut ttvigs are shiny, dark red to bright purple; leaves ovate to Inneeolate-oWong, entire, acute or acuminate ; fruit whitish and only \" thru. Shrub of water-courses and marsh margins ; 3'-8" tall. 219. Panicled Dogwood, — Cornus paniculata, L'Her. Ttcigs finer than in other species, smooth, gray to brown- ish. In general, like red osier but flowers are panicled; leaves narroiver; forms thickets, often on dry ^oil ; 2'-10' tall. 220. *Cornelian Cherry, — Cornus Mas, L. Twigs green ; stalked flotcer buds in nearly every leaf- uj'il. Leaves 2"-3" long, entire, ovate-acute, glossy. Flowers 'rpart, profuse, clustered, before leaves, small j/cllow, delicate-scented. Fruit S" long, oblong, cherry-red, fleshy. Itound-headed small tree or shrub; very attactive orna- mental. Native to southern Europe and the Orient. 221. Alternate-leaved Dogwood, — Cornus alterni- folia, L. Twigs rather slender, flexible, glossy dark green or brown- ish : branches white-striped. Buds small, acute; 2-3 brown scales. JjPaics alternate, clustered at tips of twigs, ovate-acum- inate; base cuneate; veining distinctive. Like round-leaf dogwoo/act fl o S ft PR'S « ^ TS fr4 93 a; .a -M . tl) p Pi fe . ^«H ^ S OJ A O O S5 O si •< be ■<5 » en 95 239. Persimmon, — Diospyros virginiana, L. Twigs bitter-astringent, gray to red-brown, usually pale minute-hairy. Buds broad-ovate, acute, apprest, 2 glossy dark brown scales visible; terminal absent. Leaves oval-acute, entire; base cuneate to cordate; 4"-6" long; dark green glossy above, often hairy below; sears have one near-black bundle-scar. Flowers white ; late May ; staminate in cymes of 2-several, pistillate solitary and short-stalked. Fruit large, juicy, orange to red, fleshy berry, with per- sistent terminal style and basal calyx; often very astringent: seeds flattened, about I" long. Tree of medium size; occasional in fertile vales. (Fig. 28) 240. *Rose of Sharon, — Hibiscus syriacus, L. Ttcigs grayish with flower-scars and persistent fllament- ous stipules at nodes. Buds inconspicuous. Flowers July-August, like hollyhocks, variable in color. Capsules are ovoid, 5-ceUed, 1" long; persistent. Seeds small, kidney-shaped, hair winged. Leaves simple, 3-nerved, about 3" long: base cuneate; al- most 3-lobed, variable coarse-serrate; bright green above, paler below. An erect ornamental from Asia Minor; 10'-20' tall; often spreading by root-suckers. i)(; Fij?iire 29 WiiiTK Ash. 1. Twig. 2. Cluster of typical seeds. 3. Three stH'ds showing %Aing variations. 4. Leaves with under and upiK'r surfaces exiwsed 97 ASHES,— FRAXmUS, (Tourn.) L. Timber trees with oddly pinnate-compound opposite ^Mowers small, in dense panicles or racemes, usually dioe- cious • 2-part, without petals ; calyx even absent sometimes Buds have 3-4 pairs of scales. Fruit a dry, winged Require fertile, moist to wet soils for good growth. 241. White Ash, — Fraxinus americana, L. Twigs stout, usually smooth, gray-brown lustrous with few large pale lenticels. *, , ,^ Leaflets entire or ohscurehj toothed, silvery beneath, have short petioles; leaf-scars semi-oircular, notched above Buds blunt, ovate, dark brown. Bark ridged with dia- mond-shape fissures. , v> * oHr,y.H^ iw Keys 1" long; seed terete, overlapped but slightly by ^Best tree of the genus; makes straight, stiff growth. (Fig. 29) 242. Red Ash,— Fraxinus pennsylvanica. Marsh. Differs from white ash chiefly in having short-hairy twigs and leaf-stalks, but also is a smaller tree in all respects ; leaflets narrower, often nearly sessile; seeds thinner with wings extending well down their sides ; bark ridges wider and more scaly. 243. Green Ash,— Fraxinus lanceolata, Borck. Is commonly considered a variety of red ash but differs in being smooth; having sharp-serrate leaflets quite green beneath; terminal buds acute; keys narrower and very acut^e. Twigs often curve or droop because of rapid growtn. Leaf-scars lunate. . , .x , , Occurs on stream-banks and fertile bottomlands. 244. Black Ash,— Fraxinus ni^ra. Marsh. Turigs like tvhite ash but paler in color and with more obvious lenticels. Buds black; terminal acute. Leaflets sessile. Bark irregular corky-ridged or scaly; becomes mealy in appearance when rubbed. Tree of cool, moist to swampy soils. 98 245. *European Ash, — Fraxinus excelsior, L. Is very much like black ash hut huds are even deeper hiack; leaves are not quite as large, nor leaflets quite ses- sile ; prefers well drained soils. Planted as ornamental and shade tree. Native to Europe and western Asia. 246. Fringe-Tree, — Cliionanthus virginica, L. Twigs rather stout, pale green-brown, somewhat angular. Buds opposite, ovoid, acute. Leaves simple, leathery, ovate, 4"-8" long, entire, cuneate- acute; dark green above, paler below and only hairy on veins Fl4)wers perfect, in drooping white panicles, fringe-like, 4"-G" long. Fruit dark blue, over \" lmig,—like an olive. Small tree; rare, met mostly as an ornamental in Pa. 247. *Common Privet, — Ligustrum vulgare, L. Twills fine. Buds small; opposite; sfit'b-evergreen. Leaves ovate-oblong, average 1", dark green; free of pests and smoke trouble. Flowers small, white, like lilac in miniature. Fruit a black berry. When not trimmed back, attains height of 10'. Native to Europe, northern Africa and western Asia. 248. ♦California Privet, — ^Ligustrum ovalifolium, (Hort.) Like common privet but not quite so hardy; leaves broader, with yelloio-green tendency. Native to Japan. 249. *Lilac, — Syringa vulgaris, L. Tvyigs rarely have terminal buds, but are opposite and fork or ramify in dense thickets that spring up from root- suckers. The opposite buds are of trao types; large greenish, blunt, 4-angled floral, and smaller brown leaf-buds. Leaves entire, ovate-acuminate ; base truncate to near-eor- date; slender-stalked. Flowers pale violet to rose or white, fragrant, in dense panicles. Fruit a 2-celled dehiscent capsule. Native from south- eastern Europe to Afghanistan. 09 250. *Matrimony Vine,— Lycium halimifolium, Mill. ^hnibbv often spiny, half-erect, ornamental or escaped viL forminrdense thickets. Leaves alternate, spatulate- ^"™ gVaf 'Cw"r^^^^^^ corolla funnel-form. Berry sman^vSdf orange-red, many seeded. Native from China to southeastern Europe. 251 *Shrubby Bitter-sweet,— Solanum Dulcamara, L. Climbing or half-erect, barely woody, gray, more or less short-hairy. , Buds small, apprest; leaf -scars raised. Leaves alternate, ovate-cordate or variable, with two '%Z:ir'Zn: "^r^^- June-September. Berries "t'un7on'sMdy,'mcSsi soil; escaped around gardens and old houses ; l'-3' tall. Native to Europe. 252. *Empress Tree, — Paulownia tomentosa, (Thunb.) Steud. Small to medium tree depending upon climate; oma- " W'^'e'vy'^'tips usually frozen, no terminal bud ; usually /.onoi/eorcepe at nodes. Leaves large, hairy, cordate, ^^ R«^/.' small, hairy, obtuse, opposite or S-whorled; floral- bt,ds prcZZ in large terminal panicles. Flowers perfect, hre^lnr corolla 5-lobed, violet, fragrant. Fvuit a brown, ovoW^acute, dehiscent pod, about 2" long, full of dandruff- like winged seeds. CATALPAS,— CATALPA, Scop. Like empress tree in a general way, but leaves are usually S whorled; twigs with large pith; flowers wbitisli : fn,^ cigar shaped, seeds much larger ; flow^r-buds develop after leaves appear. Require fertile soil for good growth. 253. ♦Eastern Catalpa,— Catalpa bignonioides. Wall . Twigs stout, tips usually frozen back ; yellow-brown. Lateral buds small,— appear embedded in bark. 100 ^ 1 1 ,i ,> -^►^ %^ Mg / > fth ~£ 1 1 \ N I ' 1 1 i k \ V. i f k L ^ A k 4, A . II ^m ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 111 „ ^^^^MM r- i ^ 7 ^^^ 1 1 L f ^ j f 1 / 3 / Figure 30 Hardy Catalpa. 1. Winged seeds. 2. Twig. 3. Leaf. 4. Twig and fruit pods 101 Leaves fall quickly after first hard frost; leaving large nearly round scars. Bark light brown, flat ridged-scaly. Flowers June-July; less than 2" long; in large showy panicles. .. ^, . ,, , nn Fruit about as thick as a Icad-pcncil, thin icaUcd. iiic flat seeds have narroM?-f ringed wings. Rarely become 30'-40' tall. Native to southern Gulf States. 254. *Hardy Catalpa,— Catalpa speciosa, Warder. Like eastern catalpa but twigs show somewhat less injury from frost; grows faster and attains larger size; bark thicker ; pods larger and thicker walled ; seeds larger, with broad fringed wings. ^ , .^^^ Flowers May-June, more than 2" long Tree of hcttcr form than preceding. Native to Mississippi \ alley. (Hg. 6^)) 255. Trumpet Creeper,— Tecoma radicans, (L.) Juss. Vine creeping or climUng by aerial rootlets; twigs yel- Leaves opposite, pinnate-compound; leaflets ovate-acute; toothed. 3 - - Large trumpet-shaped, 5-part, orange-red flowers in open corymbs. , , ,, „ Fruit pods like catalpa but smaller; seeds much smaller. Found as an ornamental or "escape" usually. 256. Button-bush,— Cephalanthus occidentalis, L. Twigs usually dead at tips; no terminal bud, laterals ^^Leaves 3-whorled or opposite, simple 3"-6" long, oblong to ovate, acute, glossy green above, veins prominent below; base round to acuminate ; petioles J"-l" long. Flowers July-August, white, tubular in close globose heads; rich in nectar and remain long in bloom. Jruit small 'sycamore-like balls; quite persistent. Found about ponds and on undrained areas Rarely over 8' tall in Pennsylvania, but attains 20 at times. 257. Bush Honeysuckle,— Diervilla Lonicera, Mill. Low shrub, 2'-V tall; often occurs in dense patches on open mountain-slopes. 102 Twigs smooth yellow-gray, open dead at tips or tearing dry capsules. Buds acute, opposite, apprest. Leaves simple, 2"-5" long, irregular-serate, ovate-acumi- nate smooth, short-stalked; base rounded. Flowers small, usually yclloio, terminal or nearly so. Fruit smooth, slender, heaked capsule, i" long, carrying 5 persistent calyx-lohes. 258. *Weigela, — Diervilla florida, S. & Z. This native of China surpasses its American relative in every way except abundance of fruit and ability to repro- duce by seed and root-suckers. Twigs show 4-angled tendency, have two bristly lines under each internode. Leaves somewhat hairy leneath, especially on veins. Flowers large, rosy red or variable. Ornamental, at times persisting ; up to 10' tall. HONEYSUCKLES,— LONICERA, L. Shrubs or woody climhers with simple, opposite, entire Flowers usually showy and fragrant; corolla tulular, usually 5-lol)ed. Fruit a several-seeded berry. 259. American Fly Honeysuckle, — Lonicera cana- densis, Marsh. Leaves ovate-oblong, acute, downy below when young, stalked ; base round or cordate. ^^ Flowers green-yellow, perfect, i" long. Berries red, i long, usually in pairs. Lnderstory shrub on moist soils; rarely exceeds 5' tall. 260. *Tartarian Honeysuckle,— Lonicera tartarica, L. Smooth, erect shrub; up to 8' tall. Flowers showy, white to rose-red. Berries orange to red; basally united. Ornamental; some- times escaped. Native to Russia and Siberia. 261. Glaucous Honeysuckle, — ^Lonicera dioica, L. Twining or \-ei'ect, smooth vine. Seldom above 8' tall. Leaves oblong, glaucous below; upper one to four pairs 103 fused around stems, bearing yellowish to purple flowers in their axils. Berries red. Found in moist woods and on bushy stream-banks. 262. *Japanese Honeysuckle,— Lonicera japonica, Thunb. Vigorous twining or trailing vine with fine short-hairy Leaves ovate-oblong, short stalked, rather tough; sub- evergreen in tendency. Flowers fragrant ; corolla white to pink or yellow. Ber- 1*1 pes 111 n o\c Serious "forest-weed on fertile soil when once established often choking out all young growth of other species and very hard to eliminate. Native to China and Japan. 263. Indian Currant,— Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, Moench. Ornamental shrub, at times escaped and forming dense patches 2'-6' tall. ^ . . Tivias fine pale brown, short hairy; berries often persist Leaves opposite, simple, entire, about 1" long round- ovate, tips acute at times, short-stalked, persistent m ^"r^owers in axils of nearly every leaf; small, greenish, pink-tipped bells. . ^ ^ • , , , Berries numerous, small, red, ovoid; calyx persistent. 264. Snowberry,— Symphoricarpos racemosus, Moench. Smooth shrub, Uke preceding in most features but leaves are larger and finer in texture, dentate in tendency on rapid- growing shoots; flowers are terminal or nearly so; fruit much larger, white, fleshy and not so persistent. ARROW-WOODS AND HAWS.,— VIBURNUM, (Tourn.) L. Shrubs or small trees. Leaves opposite, simple, stalked. Buds naked or 2-scaled. . . « ^ Flowers usually white, small 5-part, m flat cymes or um- '^ Fruit a pulpy drupe mth one flattened seed of "melon type." 104 Figure 31 Maple-leaved Arrow- wood. 1. Elongating twig. 2. Twig witli typical short spurs and remnant of the fruit stalk from the preceding year. 3. Twig with leaves and fruit cluster. 4. Leaves showing variation in form MAiERERKY. 5. Lcaves showing under and upper surfaces. 6. Twig. 7. Twig with leaves and fruit cluster 265. Maple-leaved Arrow-wood, — Viburnum aceri- folium, L. Stems atraiffht, slender, smooth, terete, dark hroicn. Leaves maple like. Buds dark brown, acute, only slightly apprest. Fruit purple-black. Straight-growing shrub; 2'-r)' tall; spreading by root- suckers. (Fig. 31) * 266. Dentate Arrow-wood, — Viburnum dentatum, L. Tu'ios brovn to ash-gray, J/sided in tendency; lateral huds, acute, hroxcn, elose-apprest. Leaves pinnate-veined, about 2" long, hroad orate to rounded; base at times cordate; serrations coarse and sharp. Fruit dark blue. 105 Found on moist to wet soils; 6'-10' tall— a much branched shrub. 267. Sweet Viburnum, — ^Viburnum Lentago, L. Twigs reddish to orange, smooth ; odorous when crushed. Buds long, slender, scurfy red-brown; laterals close-ap- prest; terminals enclosing flowers are much swollen at bast\ Leaves ovate-acute, about 2i" long; serrations close and sharp. Fruit black or dark blue, sweetish. Small tree or large shrub of moist woods and stream- banks; 10'-20' tall. 268. Wild Raisin, — Viburnum cassinoides, L. Is a smaller swamp-loving species quite similar to sweet viburnum, but its leaves are often obtuse, wavy-toothed or entire; twigs scurfy dotted. 269. Black Haw, — ^Viburnum prunifolium, L. Ttvigs numerous, gray, spiky, often with a film-like bloom ; make an angle of about 75, degrees with the parent branches. In mosts other respects like sweet mburnum, which it sur- passes in palatibility of fruit and ability to spread by root- suckers so as to commonly form dense thickets. Buds shorter and paler th^in those of sweet viburnum. Grows on fertile to mediocre well-drained soils. 270. Hobble-bush, — Viburnum alnifolium, Marsh. Bark purplish gray; branches often long, prostrate and rooted at tips; twigs stellate hairy. ^^ ^^ Leaves pinttate-veined, broad ovate to round, 3"-8 long, cordate, serrate, abrupt-acute, dep-corrugated above. Flowers of two types commonly occur in each cluster. Berries red to purple. . . Native in moist shady woods, — associated with virgin hemlock forests. ELDERS,— SAMBUCUS, (Tourn.) L. In many respects like Viburnum, but leaves are pinnate- compound with serrate and acute leaflets ; terminal buds ab- sent; twigs fragile and pithy; flowers smaller; fruit smaller and 3-to 5-seeded ; buds conical-acute. Shrubby species, 2'-12' tall; give off vile smell when bruised. 106 271. Common Elder, — ^ambucus canadensis, L. Twigs brown with yellow cast; pith white. Leaflets 5-11. Flowers in flat spreading cynics. Jiaries neat -black; in- itliiiA Occurs on fertile moist soils; forms thickets by root- suckers. 272. Red-berried Elder, — Sambucus racemosa, L. Twigs warty and more woody than in conmion elder ; pith hroicn; odor ranlc. Leaflets 5-7. Flowers early; in dense panicles. Berries red; persistent, as birds only eat them under compulsion. Shrub of cool moist mtn.-slopes. MEANING OF TECHNICAL WORDS. Achene. Acuminate. Apical. Axil. Axillary. Bract. Bundle-Scars. Calyx. Catkin. Ciliate. Cordate. Coriaceous. Corolla. Corymb. Cuneate. Dehiscent. Deliquescent. Digitate. Dioecious. Excrescences. Exfoliate. Exserted. A small, hard dry, 1-celled, 1- seeded indehiscent fruit. Sharply tapering at the end. Pertaining to the tip, end, or apex. The upper angle formed by a leaf or branch with the stem. Situated in an axil. A modified leaf subtending a flower or fruit, or related thereto. Ends of fibro-vascular bundles showing as scars on the surface of leaf-scars. Outer part of a flower, — sepals, usually green in color. A spike of flowers all of the same sex. Having margins fringed with hairs. Heart-shape. Tough; leathery. The petals of a flower. The bright colored part of most flowers. A flat or convex-topped flower cluster. Wedge-shaped. Splitting open. Broad spreading habit, — said of the form of a tree-crown. Members arising finger-like from a common origin. Male and female flowers borne on different plants. Outgrowths, usually irregular or deforming in appearance. To split or cleave off, as outer layers of bark often do. Prolonged past surrounding organs. 107 108 Fascicle. Follicles. Genus, (pi. Genera) Glaucous. JTatitat. Helicopter. Hispid. Imbricated. Indehiscent. Involucre. Lanceolate. Lenticels. Lunate. Morphological, Oh-. OrHcular. Ovary. Ovate. Ovoid. Palmate. Panicle. Pedate. Peltate. Perfect. Petaloid. Petiole. Pinnate, A small close bundle or clus- ter. Dry, l-celled fruits, splitting open on one side only. A group of related species, as the pines or oaks. Covered with a bluish-white waxy coating or bloom. The home of a plant. A flying-machine with pro- pellers turning horizontally. Having stiflf-bristly hairs. Overlapping like shingles on a roof. Applied to fruits that do not open to emit seeds. A circle of bracts about a flower or flower cluster. Lance-shaped ; several times longer than wide. Corky growths on young or older bark which admit air to the interior of the twig or branch. Crescent-shaped. Relating to the form and structure of an organism. A prefix meaning inverted or reversed. Circular or nearly so. Part of the pistil bearing the seed. Egg-shaped. Nearly or quite egg-shaped. Hand-shaped ; radically di- vided. A branched flower-cluster of which the lower branches are longest and bloom first. Palmately divided. Shield-shaped. A flower wdth both male and female organs. Like petals in appearance; showy. The stalk of a leaf. Having leaflets on both sides of a stalk. 100 Pinnatified. Pistillate. Pith rays. Pome. Pubescent. Raceme, Receptacle. Reticulate. Ring porous. Rugose. Samara. Serrulate. Sessile. Silvics. Sinus. Spatulate. Species. Staminate. Stellate. Sterigmata. Stipule. Stolon. Stomata. So deeply cleft as to appear pinnate-compound. Bearing pistils or female or- gans, but no stamens. Uadial lines of tissues cross- ing the annual growth rings and extending Into the bark A fleshy fruit with seeds ar- ranged in a core, as the ap- ple. Hairy. Flowers borne on stems of equal length and arranged on a common elonged axis. The end of a flower stalk bearing the floral organs. Forming a network. Said of wood with the larger iwres concentrated in the spring growth of the annual rings. Wrinkled. An indehiscent winged fruit. Diminutive of serrate; fine toothed. Without a stalk. The body of facts fundamental to growth of trees in forest stands. Cleft or opening between two lobes. Spoon-shaped. A group of like individuals, sexually compatible. Bearing stamens or male floral organs, but no pistils. Star-shaped. Very small leaf-stalks of cer- tain conifers. An appendage at base of the leaf-stalk. A basal branch rooting at nodes. Plural of stoma; openings in epidermis of leaves for pur- pose of respiration. Hi 110 V If Stomatiferous or stomatose. SuJ): Superposed. Terete. Terminal hud. Tomentose. Truncate. Umhel. Valvate. Vascular. Verticillate. Whorl. Bearing stomata in large numbers. A prefix meaning under or nearly. Said of buds when arranged one above another. Circular in cross-section. Buds at end of twig when not axillary to any leaf. Densely short-hairy. Ending abruptly, as if cut off. A flower cluster with all stalks originating from one point. Said of buds when scales merely meet without over- lapping. Having vessels or ducts. Arranged in a whorl. Arrangement of 3 or more organs in a circle around an axis. INDEX OF BOTANICAL NAMES Tree or Shrub Number Abies : 30 balsamea, g^ concolor, 32 Nordmanniana, ^^®l* . .... 198 buergerianum, ^^^j eampestre, ^g^ Negundo, ^^^ pennsylvanicum, ^q- platanoides, ^gg polymorphum, ^^ pseudo-platanus. gg rubrum, -^^^ saccharinum, ^g^ saccharum, -g^ saccharum var. nigrum, ^^^ spicatum, Aesculus : 201 glabra, 202 Hippocastanum, 202 octandra, _« Ailanthus glandulosa, Alnus : ^g incana, ^^ rugosa, Amelanchier : ^^j^ canadensis, -^ oblonglfolia, 215 Aralia spinosa ^^^^g Asimina triloba, Betula : ^g alba, «Y alba var. papyrifera j^^ lenta, ^^ lutea, ,-- nigra, ^^ populifolia, ^20 Benzoin aestivale, Broussonetia papyrifera ^^^ Calycanthus floridus, ^^ Carpinus caroliniana, Ill 112 Tree or Shrub Number Carya : alba, 66 cordiformis, 69 jflabra, 65 illinoensis, 70 laciniosa, 68 ovata 67 Castanea : dentata, 85 moUissima, 87 pumila, 86 Catalpa : bignonioides 253 speciosa, 254 Ceanothus americanus, 204 Celastrus scandens, 185 Celtis occidentalis, 10!^ Cephalanthus occidentalis, 256 Cercis canadensis, 168 Chamaecyparis thyoides, j 35 Chionanthus virginica, 246 Cornus : alternif olia 221 circinata, 217 florida, 216 Mas, 220 paniculata, 219 stolonifera 218 Corylus : americana, 80 Avellana, 82 rostrata, 81 Crataegus: coccinea, 144 Crus-galli, 143 phaenopyrum, 146 punctata, 146 Diervilla : florida, 258 Lonicera, 257 Diospyros virginiana, 239 Dirca palustris 214 Evonymus atropurpureus, 186 Epigaea repens, 229 Fagus : grandifolia, 88 sylvatica, 8i 113 Tree or Shrub Number Fraxinus : americana, 241 excelsior, 245 lanceolata, 243 nigra, 244 pennsylvanica, 242 Gaultheria procumbens, 230 Gaylussacia : baccata 232 frondosa, 231 Gingko biloba, 1 Gleditsia triacanthos, 167 Gymnocladus dioica, 166 Hamamelis virginiana, 125 Hibiscus syriacus, 240 Hydrangea arborescens, 121 Hypericum proliflcum, 213 Ilex: monticola, . , 183 opaca, 181 verticillata 182 Juglans : cinerea, 62 nigra, 63 regia, 64 Juniperus : chinensis, 40 communis, 39 rigida, 41 virginiana 38 Kalmia : angustifolia 227 latifolia 226 Kerria japonica, 133 Larix : decidua 20 laricina, 19 leptolepis SS sibirica, 21 Ligustrum : ovalifolium, 248 vulgare, 247 Liquidambar : formosana, 127 Styraciflua, 126 Liriodendron tulipifera, 116 114 Tree or Shrub Number Lonicera : ^ 259 canadensis, ' * 261 dioica, " 262 japonica, [ 260 tartarica, 250 Lycium halimifolium, 228 Lyonia ligustrina, 212 Madura pomifera, Magnolia: 313 acuminata 115 tripetala, [ 114 virginiana, Morus : 110 alba. 109 rubra 61 Myrica asplenifolia, Ig4 Nemopanthus mucronata, 222 Nyssa sylvatica, "^2 Ostrya virginiana, " 933 Oxydendron arboreum, 252 Paulownia tomentosa, Picea : 28 Abies, ■ ' 23 canadensis, <^ mariana, " 26 pungens, * ' 24 rubra, 27 sitchensis, 122 Philadelphus coruuarius ^^^ Physocarpus opulifolius, Pinus : 15 austriaca, g 0 Banksiana, Ig Cembra q contorta, 13 densiflora, 4 echinata, Ig edulis, * 17 excelsa, H montana, 12 ponderosa, q pungens, .^ resinosa « rigida 2 Strobus, 115 Tree or Shrub Number Pinus — (Continued) sylvestris ^^ Thunbergii, ^^ virginiana, ° Platanus: occidentalis, |^^ orientalis, ^-^ Populus : alba ^^ candicans, ^* deltoides, ^ grandidentata, ^^ nigra var. italica, ^9 tremuloides, ^^ Prunus: americana, ^^ Avium, 161 Cerasus, :J^- cuneata, ^^ pennsylvanica, j-^ persica, "t^ serotina j^° virginiana, J^^ Psedera quinquefolia, -^^ Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 29 Ptelea trifoliata, 1'^^ Pyrus: americana, J J;: arbutifolia, 1^ aucuparia, J^ Communis, 1^^ coronaria, l^p Malus, 1|^ melanocarpu 1^^ Quercus : alba |» bicolor ^^ coccinea fY faleata, ^ ilicif olla, 1^0 imbricaria, IJi macrocarpa ^ Muhlenbergil ^ palustris, J| phellos, 1^ prinoides, • ®* 116 Tree or Shrub Number Quercus— (Continued) ^2 Prinus, gg rubra, q^ stellata, qY velutina, 203 Rhamnus lanceolata, Rhododendron : 225 maximum, 224 nudiflorum, 223 viscosum, Rhus : ;l^79 canadensis, ^^q copallina, ^gQ Cotinus, j^^g glabra, jY8 Toxicodendron ^^^ typhlna, yj^ Vernix, j Ribes : j^23 Cynosbati, -24 rotundifolium, Robinia : -^gg Pseudo- Acacia, ^^^ viscosa, Rosa : I55 blanda, ^^q Carolina ^5^ humilis, -^^^ rubiginosa, Rubus : ^51 allegheniensi's ^^2 hlspidus, -lAi idaeus var, aculeatissimus ^^g oceidentalis, j5q odoratus ^49 phoenicolasius, ^^^ villosus, Sallx : 50 amygdalina, ^^ babylonica 52 discolor, 4g f ragilis 54 humilis, ^^ nigra, * 4q purpurea, ' 117 Tree or Shrub Number Salix — (Continued) sericea, ^ tristis, ^-^ Sambucus : canadensis, ^71 raeemosa, ^'^ Sassafras variifolium, H® Smilax : glauca ^ rotundifolia, 3^ Solanum Dulcamara 251 Spiraea: salicif olia, 131 tomentosa, 1^- Staphylea trifolia 1^7 Symphoricarpos : orbiculatus, -^ racemosus 264 Syringa vulgaris 249 Taxodium distichum 34 Taxus : baccata, ^3 canadensis, ^2 Tecoma radicans, 255 Tilia : americana, -"^ grandifolia 211 heterophylla, -1" parvifolia, 212 Thuya : oceidentalis, 36 orientalis 37 Tsuga canadensis 33 Ulmus: americana, 103 campestris 1^5 fulva 104 pumila, 107 raeemosa 1^ Vaccinium : atrococcum, 237 corymbosum 236 pennsylvanicum 234 stamineum, 233 vaclUans, 235 118 Tree or Shrub Number Viburnum : „„- acerifolium, ^^ alnif olium, ^io cassinoides, 2«6 dentatum, „ Lentajio prunifolium ^^^ Vitis : «^- aestivalis fr* cordifolia, tY° labrusca, fi? Zanthoxylum americanum ^'^^ INDEX OF COMMON NAMES Numbers in ordinary type refer to major discussion, while italics indicate incidental mention. Tree or Shrub Number Ailanthus 1'72 Alder : Black, 79 Smooth, 79 Speckled, 79 Apple : Common, 135, ISd American Crab, 136 Arborvitae : Northern White Cedar, 36 Oriental, 37 Arbutus, 229 Arrow- wood : Dentate, 266 Maple-leaf, 265 Ash: American Mountain, 139 Black, 244, 21,5 European, 245 European Mountain, 140 Green, 243 Prickly, 170 Red, 242, 2f9 Wafer, 171 White, 241, 2J,2, 2U Aspen : American 66 Balm-of-Gilead, 58 Cottonwood, 57, 58, 59 Large toothed, 56 Lombardy Poplar, I® Trembling, 55, 56 White Poplar, 60 Azalea : Purple, 224 White Swamp, 223, 224 Bald Cypress, 34 Basswood : American, 209 European Broad-leaf Linden, 211 European Small-leaf Linden, 212 White 210 119 120 Tree or Slirub Number Beech : 83, 8^ American 71, 72 Blue, * " 84 European, 71 Water, Birch : . . 73 1h Black * 76 Gray, ' ' ' 77, 78 Paper, 75 Red, * * 75 River, " ' 73 Sweet, " 78 White ' 74 Yellow, Bittersweet : 185 Climbing, 251 Shrubby, Blackberry : 152 Running Swamp, ^ ^5;^ Wild, 222 Black Gum ' 269 Black Haw 169 Black Loc'ust, 187 Bladder Nut, Blue-berry : 237 Black High, 234, 235 Early Low, 236 High-bush, 235 Late Low, ^94 Box Elder, 2SI Box Huckleberry, Briar : 44 Common Green, ^g Saw% Buckeye : 201 Fetid, ;• • 200, 201 Sweet, 203 Buckthoru 186 Burning Bush, 257 Bush Honeysuckle, ^^ QS,6k Butternut, "' 256 Buttonbush 228 Buttonwood Catalpa: 253,254 Eastern, 254 Hardy, 121 Tree or Shrub Number Carolina Poplar, 57 Cedar '. Northern White, 36 Southern White, 35 Red 38, 39, 40 Cherry : Appalachian 162 Bird, 159 Choke, 158,160 Fire, 159 Sour, 161 Sweet, 160, 161 Wild Black, 157, 158, 159, 164 Cliestnut : American, 85, 86, 87, 92 Chinese, 87 Chinquapin, 88 Chokeberry : Black, 138 Red, 137 Cottonwood, 57 Cornelian Cherry, 220 Cucumber Tree 113, lU, 115, 116 Currant, Indian, 263 Cypress, S4 Dangleberry, 231, 282 Deerberry 233 Dewberry, 153 Dogwood : Alternate-leaved, 221 Cornelian Cherry, 220 Flowering, 216 Panicled 219 Red Osier 218, 219 Round-leaved, 217, 218, 221 Elder : Common 271, 212 Red-berried, 272 Elm: American 103, IO4, 105 Cork 106 Chinese, 107 English, 105 Slippery 1CP4 Empress Tree 252 Filbert, 82 ^ 122 Tree or Shrub Number Fir : . . 31 American Silver, • ' gQ 33 Balsam, ' ' 29 Douglas. 32 Nordmann's 246 Fringe Tree, ' " * ' " i Ginkgo, \ 133 Globe Flower, Gooseberry : 124 Eastern Wild -^23 12.'t Wild, Grape : . 208 Chicken 206 Fox, ■ ■ ■ 207, 208 Pigeon, 44 Green Brier, Gum : . 222 Black, • 127 Oriental Sweet, • " -j^ge Sweet, y * ^Qg Hackberry, "" * 269 Haw " 145 Hawthorn Hazelnut: ..80,81,82 American, 3I Beaked, " ' 82 European, Hemlock : 33 ^2, 270 Eastern, 42 Ground 215 Hercules Club, Hickory : 68 Big Shellbark q^jq Bitternut " gg'gY Mockernut, 70 Pecan, * 55^ 69 Pi^"t. g7 gg Shellbark, 270 Hobble-bush Holly : , . 181 Christmas ^^ Deciduous, ^gg Large-leaf, ' ^^ Mountain 123 Tree or Shrub Number Honeysuckle : American Fly, 259 Bush 257 Glaucous, 261 Japanese, 262 Tartarian 260 Hornbeam, 72 Horse Chestnut, 202 Huckleberry, 232 Hydrangea 121 Indian Currant, 263 Ironwood, 72 Ivy: Poison 172, 178, 179 Juneberr.v : Juneberry or Shad-bush, 141, 1^2 Low, 142 Juniper : Common, 39 Chinese 40 Japanese Common, 41 Kentucky Coffee Tree, 166, 167 Larch : American, 19 European, 20,21 Japanese, ^2 Siberian, 21 Laurel : Great, 225. 226 Mountain, 220. 227 Sheep, 227 Leatherwooi«o"' '.".'.'. 175, 176, in Smooth, ^^^ j^5 Staghorn, " ' ^^^ Sweet Bay -^54 Sweet Brier, q^ Sweet Fern, ^^rj Sweet Scented Shrub, — ^^^^ ^^^ Sweet Viburnum " ' Sycamore : ^gg 128, 129 American, y)Q Oriental Plane Jg Tamarack, ' * 230 Teaberry, Thorn: UZ,Whl't^ Cockspur, 127 Tree or Shrub Number Thorn : ( Continued ) . Dotted Hawthorn, 145 Scarlet 144, I46 Washington 146 Trailing Arbutus, 229 Tree of Heaven, 172 Trumi)et Creeper, 255 Tulip Poplar, 116 Tulip Tree 116 Umbrella Tree 115 Viburnum 265-270 Virginia Creeper 205 Waahoo 186, 187 Walnut : Black 63 English, 64 White, 62 Washington Thorn, 146 Weigela, 258 White Cedar : Northern, 36 Southern ^ White Poplar, 60 Wild Raisin, 268 Willow : American Green, TO Black 46 Crack 48 Dwarf Gray 52 Glaucous, 51. 5/; Peach-leaf, 50 Prairie, 54 Purple, 49 Sage, 52, 54 Silky 53 Weeping 47 Wineberry, 149 Winterberry, 182, 18S, 18^ Witch Hazel, 125 Yew: American, 42 4-1 English, 42 PENNSYLVANIA STATE FOREST SCHOOL Twenty-Seventh Year 1929-1930 BULLETIN 34 I 4 Commonwealth or Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Waters Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary Joseph S. Illiok, State Forester INSTRUCTION STAFF ^ EDWIN ALLEN ZIEGLER Director and Professor of Forestry A. B. Fninklin and Marshall College, 1902; A. M. ibid. 1913; So. D. ibid. 1922. J. V. HOFMANN Professor of Forestry B. 8. F. University of Minnesota, 1911; M. F. ibid. 1912; Ph. D. ibid. 1914. GEORGE S. PERRY Professor of Forestry B. F. Pa. State Forest School, 1913; Fellow, American— Scandinavian Foundation, 1925. COLEMAN J. HARRIS Professor of Biology A. B. Bucknell University, 1912 ; A. M. ibid. 1914 ; M. S. ibid. 1918. JOHN T. AUTEN Professor of Soils and Chemistry B. S. University of Illinois, 1910; M. S. Iowa State College, 1923. DANIEL A. DOLLARHIDE Professor of Social Science A. B. Henderson— Brown College. 1910; A. M. George Washington UiUversity, 1922. W. HAROLD HORNING Assistant Professor of Forestry B. F. Pa. State Forest Sc|&ol, 1914 ; M. S. F. University of California, 192S. T. EDWARD SIIAW Registrar and Instructor in Forestry B. F. Pa. State Forest School, 1921. 3 Jan. 2 Jan. 3 Jan. 21 Jan. 26 Jan. 28 Feb. 22 Mar. 28 April 3 June 3 June 8 June 12 June 13 June 17 June 18 Aug. 2 Sept. 9 Sept. 10 Sept. 11 Nov. 11 Nov. 27 Dec. 1 Dec. 20 Jan. 6 Jan. 20 Jan. 25 Jan. 27 Feb. 22 April 17 April 24 June 2 June 7 June 11 June 12 June 16 June 17 Aug. 1 Sept. 8 Sept. 9 Sept. 10 Nov. 11 Nov. 26 Nov. 30 Dec. 19 SCHOOL CALENDAR FOR 1929-1930 Wednesday Thursday Monday 7 Saturday ) Monday Friday Thursday Wednesday Monday ) Saturday 3 Wednesday Thursday Monday Tuesday Friday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Monday Wednesday Sunday Friday Monday Monday ) Saturday 3 Monday Saturday Thursday Wednesday Monday ) Saturday 3 Wednesday Thursday Monday Tuesday Friday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Tuesday Wednesday Sunday Friday 1929 Christmas recess ends Class work begins Firs.t semester examinations Second semester begins Washington's Birthday — Holiday Easter recess begins Easter recess ends Second semester examinations Twenty-third Commencement Commencement recess begins Commencement recess ends Summer session begins Summer session ends Students report— First semester opens* Students register Class work begins Armistice day — Holiday Thanksgiving recess begins Thanksgiving recess ends Christmas recess begins 1930 Christmas recess ends First semester examinations Second semester begins Washingtcm's Birthday— Holiday Easter recess begins Easter recess ends Second semester examinations Twenty-fourth Commencenaent Commencement recess begins Commencement recess ends Summer session begins Summer session ends Students report— First semester opens** Students register Class work begins Armistice day — Holiday Thanksgiving recess begins Thanksgiving recess ends Christmas recess begins All recess periods begin at 4 P. M. on the opening date and end at mid- niglit of tlie closing date. ♦Freshmen rei>ort Tuesday, Septemlier 3 ♦* Freshmen report Tuesday, September 2 FOREWORD THE Pennsylvania State Forest School, located at Mont Alto, in Franklin County, among the foothills of the South Mountains, is the only forest school of collegiate grade in America developed independently of existing colleges or universities, and surrounded by a working forest for a teaching laboratory. This institution, which is destined to hold such great significance for the State of Pennsylvania, was the outgrowth of necessity. In 1898 the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania made its first purchases of land for forestry purposes. Practical forestry was then a thing almost un- known in America. There were no trained foresters to be had to care for the State Forests — or practically none. It was necessary either to import foresters from abroad or to train our own foresters. The former course seemed both unwise and impracticable. That great prophet and servant of the people. Dr. J. T. Rothrock, who at great sacrifice had given up his professorship in the University of Pennsyl- vania in order to take charge of these new State Forest lands, as Pennsjdvania's first Commissioner of Forestry, decided to establish a school of forestry under the control of the Department of Forestry, and to locate it in a State forest, where students could study the forest, rather than study about the forest. In 1903 the Pennsylvania Legisla- ture acted favorably upon his suggestion, and the Pennsylvania State Forest School came into being. Pennsylvania has 13,000,000 acres of natural forest land that once supported one of the liiJhest stands of both hardwoods and conifers to be found in the entire world. That forest has been wiped out. The forest area that remains contains practically nothing but second or third growth timber, much of it of sapling size, and thousands of fire-ravaged acres that will not produce even saplings. The main forest problem of this and neighboring states is no longer one of large- scale logging or other questions having to do with harvesting timl)or, but is a problem of restoration, reforestation, of silviculture and forest management. To develop the strongest possible courses in silviculture and forest management, including forest protection, is, therefore, the immediate aim of the Pennsylvania State Forest School. Though this is a small institution — kept so purposely by limiting the student body to approximately 80 men — it is ideally equipped to train foresters. The popular idea of a forester is that of a man with 5 an axe on his shoulder, or of one battling desperately against a forest fire. To be sure, a forester must at times be both a woodsman and a fire fighter; but he must also be far more. He must be something of a chemist, to understand about the products which science has de- veloped from the forests; he must be an engineer, able to handle a modern logging operation, build roads and make bridges, or carry on other engineering tasks; he must be something of a business man and an economist, in order to make a financial success of his forest opera- tions; he must have some acquaintance with law, for often he must assist in litigation; he must be a soil expert and a nurseryman, in order to handle the problems of reforestation. And, finally, because he constantly handles men, large properties and public interests, he must be both administrator and executive. The Pennsylvania State Forest School is equipped to turn out gen- eral forestry practitioners with something of all these qualities. For the teaching of the sciences necessary in forestry, it has ample facilities in the way of laboratories and school equipment in the new Science Hall. There is a herbarium that contains more than 4,000 native and foreign woody and herbaceous plants. A collection of forest tree fruits, seed, and seedlings is available. Typical specimens of wood- destroying and parasitical tree fungi, and many specimens of forest insects have been collected. There is a collection of important com- mercial woods of the United States, together with some foreign woods. The arboretum already contains more than 150 species, and more speci- mens are added each year. The library includes all the standard texts on forestry published in the English language and some foreign lan- guages. All the principal forestry periodicals and lumber trade jour- nals are received. For the practical work that must be done in the forest, the Penn- sylvania State Forest School has more than ample facilities. Its prac- tice forest consists of 23,000 acres of woodland — the Mont Alto State Forest. This forest adjoins the Michaux State Forest of 41,000 acres. A five minutes' walk from the class room brings the student to the Mont Alto nurserj', where 4,000,000 forest tree seedlings are raised annually. Here the student learns, not by general observation alone, but by actual work, in preparing and sowing seed-beds, growing the trees, packing and shipping them, and planting thousands of them himself during the silviculture practicum in the nearby State Forest. Equally accessible to the student is the great practice forest. In ten min- utes the student can walk from the halls of science deep into the very heart of a large forest in the process of organization. Here again he learns by doing. For 25 years this forest has been under the careful and efficient management of the State. It is dotted with plantations and experimental sample plots, set out by the students. Improvement cut- tings have been made — also by the students — every year since the School was started. A study of the effect of light, medium and heavy thinnings has been in progress for some years. One wooden and two steel towers have been erected at commanding points, for adequate pro- tection from fire. The utilization operations are among the most in- teresting and instructive activities in the forest. Chestnut has been Students off to a forest Are removed for fuel and extract-wood, poles and posts, ties and lumber, staves and shingles. A State-owned portable sawmill, a shingle mill, and a lath mill are available for operation by students. Thus these future foresters, by their work in the forest, learn something of every job connected with forest management and with lumbering, from that of felling a tree to acting as head sawyer and scaler. Through actual practice the students are taught the best and most efficient methods of handling a forest property. To find a forest better suited to the teaching of forestry than the Mont Alto State Forest would be practically an impossible task. For this forest is the meeting ground of northern and southern varieties of trees and other forest plants, and it includes both highlands and lowlands. The southern trees troop north along the warm bottom lands in the valleys: the northern species creep south in the cooler ele- vations of the mountain tops. The student at the Pennsylvania State Forest School is required to know 150 trees and 300 plants of the 8 forest. He must know the trees, not only when they are in leaf in sum- mer, but he must also be able to distinquish them in winter by their buds and bark. The richly varied flora of the Mont Alto State Forest is wonderfully helpful in acquainting the future foresters with the growths of the woodlands. When the student graduates from the Pennsylvania State Forest School after four years of study — four years of 11 months each — he is w^ell equipped for his future work. That is evident from the fact that Pennsylvania-trained foresters are in demand everywhere. Penn- sylvania's own district foresters are practically all graduates of the Mont Alto School. "Other states have chosen Pennsylvania foresters to care for their woods. Many of its graduates have found responsible work in the U. S. Forest Service, and with lumber, paper and mining companies. The State of Pennsylvania welcomes applicants for training in her Forest School. But she wants only the best material. Only men of sterling character are accepted. The best 20 to 25 men of those quali- fying are taken as students. For the present its enrollment is limited to residents of Pennsylvania, due to an excess of applicants for enrpU- ment from within the State. What is required to gain admission to the School, and what is required of those who are admitted is set forth in some detail in the following pages of this bulletin. THE COURSE The School offers a four-year course of study in forestry leading to the bachelor's degree. Three summer terms are required. The first tw^o summers are spent at the school and the summer of the junior year is spent in a logging camp. REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FORESTRY DEGREE The degree of Bachelor of Science in Forestry will be conferred up- on completion of the following requirements: 1. Successful completion of the four-year course of study as fixed bv the School; or in case of transfer from another college, a minimum residence study period of two years, unless the student was previously enrolled in a course leading to a for- estry degree, in which case one year's minimum residence is required. 2. The completion and approval of a satisfactory thesis, to be submitted to the faculty in outline at the beginning of the second semester, junior year. 3. The payment of all school dues. The School is accredited and the degree authorized by the Pennsyl- vania State Council of Education. REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION For entering the Freshman Class: 1. Applicants mnst be 17 years old. 2. They must submit three references showing that they possess good moral character. 3. They must submit a medical certificate showing that they have reasonably good health. 4. They must submit a certificate from a standard four-year high school (or six-year junior-senior high school) or college preparatory school, showing college entrance work totaling 15 credits (a credit consists of 5 hours a week for 36 weeks). An entrance examination to the equivalent of the above credits must be passed if an acceptable certificate cannot be furnished. The 15 credits must be distributed as f ollow^s : Algebra, complete high school, including logarithms 2 Plane geometry ^ English ■* History -^ }^ Science (elective) - Elective (commercial work not accepted) o 5. All applicants, except for advanced standing, will be required to take the competitive entrance test during June. An outside board prepares and grades this test, and applicants will be accepted by the School in order of certification by this board. Classes of 20 to 25 men are accepted, and applicants reasonably well prepared should not have difficulty in gaining admission. The entrance test covers algebra, through quadratics, plane geometry, arithmetic, English (grammar, compostion, and rhetoric), U. S. history, civil government, and biology. The examination in biology is optional. 6. Among electives are recommended: Science : Biology • f y^^^ Botany ] year Physics ] y^*'*^ Chemistry j y^"'' Physical geography /a 5'^**^' Language : ^ German ( preferred ) " years French 2 years Spanish 2 years Latin or Greek 2 years Miscellaneous : Civics 1 year Economics j year Drawing ^ y®^^ 10 7. No student will receive high school credit for a subject if the grade is less than 70, and the general average for all subjects submitted must be 80 or equivalent. APPLICATION FORMS Each applicant must fill in the School's entrance form, which may be had upon request. ADVANCED STANDING Students will be granted advanced standing on certificates from other colleges of recognized standing. Since forestry is a science course, it is very difficult to transfer from an arts course to an equivalent advanced rating in the forestry course. TEN STATE SCHOLARSHIPS ARE OFFERED The State offers five scholarships for the junior year and five for the senior year. These scholarships are awarded to the five men having the highest standing in scholastic and field work at the end of the preceding year, and carry the allowance of board and room. Scholar- ship students must each give bond of five hundred dollars to enter the State service, if needed, for a period of one and one-half years for each year of scholarship grant. Each year scholarship men are required to give 180 hours of laboratory or other assistance. SCHOLARSHIP STANDARDS To continue to hold a scholarship, a student is reciuired to pass his subjects with the average of 80, on the basis of 100. The passing grade for the individual subject is 70. Non-scholarship students must secure an average grade of 75, with the single subject minimum of 70. If a student's average grade falls below 75, or he is conditioned in more than two subjects, he may not continue with his class. Any incomplete monthly grade must be made up by the middle of the following month. Any incomplete semester grade must be made up within six weeks after the next semester begins. A fee of one dollar will be charged for each extra examination. FIELD WORK REQUIRED To correlate theory with practice, each student is required to do a certain amount of field work. During the spring practicum period 80 hours' work in forest and nursery is required from each student. 11 ESTIMATED ANNUAL EXPENSES (Excluding clothing and personal expenses) Board, 46 weeks @ $5.50 $253.00* Room, furnished, heat, light, bed, laundry 69.00* Books and instruments 35.00 Laundry, 46 weeks @ .50 23.00 Forest Club, Athletic Association, social dues 25.00 Personal exi^ense, field and inspection trips 10.00** Breakage deposit ^-^ Hospital fee l^^O Incidental fee, to cover trucks, graduation expenses, and laboratory maintenance, outside of special breakage: Senior year 40.00 Freshman, sophomore and junior years 55.00 to 75.00 Students from outside the State, when it is possible to accept them, will be charged a tuition fee of $150.00. During the spring of the senior year there is an elective study trip through the forests of Germany, Switzerland, and France. The cost of this trip is approximately $550.00. DEPOSITS AND PAYMENTS Accepted applicants will make a room deposit of $10.00 by August first, as a guarantee of good faith. When the student enters, $5.00 of this amount will be credited to the breakage deposit, and $5.00 will apply on the first month's board and room charges. Board and room charges are payable in advance, at the beginning of each month. The hospital fee is payable at the beginning of the school year. A bond in the sum of $100 for the payment of all school bills must be filed with the Registrar on registration day in September. All students will bring the breakage deposit up to $5.00 at the be- ginning of each succeeding year. The incidental fee covering supplies and materials for courses and truck maintenance is payable as follows: September Jnnunnj ^ X $28.00 $27.00 Freshmen ^^.o.w ^ „ . 35.00 30.00 fp""""'^^ ;:: 37.00 38.00 f •": 20.(H) 20.00 Seniors • Free to scholarship students. •* During the summer term of the junior year there is a six weeks' study of a large scale lumbering operation. Livirg expenses will exceed those atjhe School. This study may require, therefore, an extra exiienditure of $30.00 to $50.00 for travel and excess board. 13 COURSE OF STUDY FIRST Fii'st Semester Credit Subject Hours Botany I 4 Chemistry I 3 Elementary Forestry 2 Enp:lish I 3 German I (elective) 3 Trljronometry 3 Fish Culture (elective) 3 Summer Session Botany III 2 Silviculture 1 Dendrology 1 Compass Surveying Practicum ... 1 YEAR Second Semester Credit Subject Hours Botany II 3 Chemistry II 3 Drawirg 1 German II (elective ) 3 English II 3 Compass Surveying 1 Physics 3 Silviculture Practicum 2 Mathematics (elective ) 3 SECOND YEAR First Semester Second Semester Zoology I 3 Chemistry III 2 English III 3 Geology 3 German III (elective) 3 Plane Surveying 4 Dendrology 2 Psychology (elective) 3 Summer Session Forest Soils 1 Forest Map 4 Botany IV 2 English IV 3 Dendrology 3 German IV (elective) 3 Meteorology 3 Soils 2 Plane Surveying 2 Silviculture Practicum 2 Statistics (elective) 3 THIRD YEAR First Semester Second Semester Accounting 2 Forest Mersu ration 3 Forest Engineering 3 Wood Technology 3 Silviculture 3 Zoology II 2 Economics 2 Public Si>eaking (elective > 2 Camp Logging and Milling 4 Business Law 2 Forest Pathology 2 Forest Mensuration 2 Economi<'S 3 Forei^t rtilization 3 Forest Geography 3 Forest Entomology 3 Silviculture Practicum 2 ForUTII YEAR First Semester Forest Economics and Policy .... 3 Forest Finance 3 Forest Organization I 3 Sflviculture 3 Wood Uses 3 Sociology 2 Public* Speaking (elective) 2 Second Semester Silviculture 3 Forest Appraisal 2 Forest Laws 3 Forest Orgarization II 3 Sociology 3 Semina r 1 Thesis 3 Forest ^Linagement Practicum (elective) 4 Forest Practice (elective) 2 14 FORESTRY AS A PROFESSION The term ** Forestry" has an attractive sound to the young men re- viewing the many courses of training available in the secondary schools of the nation. The more thoughtful students, and particularly parents of students, look beyond the glamour of the word and the pleasant associations connected with the term "forest." They wish to have an opinion on : (1) The type of student likely to do well in the study of forestry. (2) The field of employment after securing a degree or degrees. The type of student likely to do well in the study of forestry is not very different from the type that does well in any other profession. He must first have ability to do persistent study (his high school record usually shows this). He should have promising powers of observation and a keen interest in the natural sciences. Above all he must have a clear understanding of P^nglish composition and pre-coUege matlie- matics. It is a great mistake to assume that because the central subject matter of a forestry course is the outdoor forest, a student who has done poorly in language, mathematics and science in high school may still do well in professional forestry; that forestry is an outdoor work that may be done with the hands rather than with the head. There are specialized fields in forestry, as in all professions, such as research, administrative, industrial (forest products), and the sil- vical or forest management field. Many widely varying mental bents may be employed in these different fields, but success in all must be backed by persistent work and thorough basic training in language, mathematics, natural and economic sciences. The forestry profession is not one in which to expect to dodge hard work, or one to try to enter Avith the idea that it is less exacting in applicational effort than other professions. For those who desire to go far in specialized j)rofessional work, a fifth year leading to the Master's degree is desirable, and the Doctor's course (l*h. D.) is now available to foresters in American universities. There is sub-professional field in forestry mainly filled now by local outdoor trained men — men with practical experience in routine woods work, road and range work, and trail building. A few ranger schools in the country accept men with less tlian college preparation, furnish a short course of one or two years, and endeavor to give them a superior start in entering this field. The Pennsylvania State Forest School is not a ranger school. While this is a distinct field, there is no absolute dividing line, and the exceptional sub-professional man can occasionally win entrance into the professional-technical field. To employ a professional forester, forest land owners or wood iisers 15 must have a business or forest interest of considerable size. It follows that foresters usually work on salary, and therefore the financial return of the forester has the advantages and disadvantages of salaried men in the service of large organizations. The main sources of employment are: Governm etita I A gencies State Forest and Conservation Departments The National Forest Service The National Indian Service City Park and Tree Commissions Agricultural Extension Service Corporations and Private Enterprises Lumber Companies Pulp and Paper Companies * Mining Companies Railroad Companies Water and Power Companies Rubber Companies Timberland and Wood Products Associations The salary of a professional forester on leaving College varies between $1,500 and $2,000 per year. District Foresters in the State Forest service of Pennsylvania receive from $2,750 to $3,500 per year, and Bureau Chiefs from $4,000 to $5,500 per year. The salaries of State Foresters range from $3,500 to $7,500 or more. Salaries in private forestry are somewhat in keeping with government salaries, with an occasional salary running to a higher figure. The number of employes in the higher salary classes are few in number and are generally executive positions. These salaries may be taken as more or less typical of the profession, with some rather wide variations in non-governmental work. It should not be overlooked that the broad basic training in pro- fessional forestry is well suited for teaching natural science (with extra work in pedagogical subjects for public school work), for business and for other pursuits. The seventy-eight graduates of the classes of 1924-1928 from this School were employed as follows: United States Government 20 per cent Pennsylvania Government IS " Other State Government 15 " Private Forestry 17 " Teaching 5 " Graduate Study 4 Scout Executive 1 " Other Pursuits 19 " Those desiring more information should write to the Department of Forests and Waters, Harrisburg, Pa., or the Director of the State Forest School, Mont Alto, Pa. 16 LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION BY GEORGE H. WIRT Chief, Bureau of Forest Protection And Chief Forest Fire Warden. Bulletin 35 DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS R. Y. STUART, Secretary Harrisburg, Pa., 1924 M (2) INTRODUCTION The greatest curse of our forests is fire. Nature's product of years can be wiped out in a moment by this devastating element. Fire has been the principal cause of the extensive forest devastation through- out the United States. In Pennsylvania alone there are over 3,500,000 acres of land which have been reduced to idleness through devasta- tion. There are 81,000,000 acres of such devastated land in the United States. These lands, good for no other purpose than to produce wood, should be made to work. They will do so if fire is kept out of them. The amazing feature about forest fires in Pennsylvania is that they are practically all of human origin. Discarded lighted matches, burn- ing tobacco, deserted camp fires, careless brusih burning, defective spark arresters and ash pans on locomotives, all contribute their Hhare to forest destruction. It is a queer psychology that permits a citizen who takes the utmost precaution against fire in his home to be careless with fire on or near forest land. As appalling as has been the loss of life and property through forest fires, the average citizen is just beginning to realize the necessity for caution against them. Forest fires will not be stopped until he becomes determined that they shall be prevented. He can be expected to do so when he understands fully the vital respects wherein his welfare is affected by fires. The main purpose of the accompanying lessons in forest protection by the Chief Forest Fire Warden, George H. Wirt, is to enlighten our citizens on the menace from forest fires, the trail of destruction left in their wake, and our responsibility to provide a forest heritage to our children. The Department needs the active cooperation of all public-spirited Pennsylvanians in its effort to instill in the mind of every man, woman and child in the State the need to keep fire out of the woods that our forest land may be restored to productivity. You can assist by giving these lessons earnest consideration and wide distribution among your friends. R. Y. STUART Secretarv of Forests and Waters (3) (4) LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION Lesson Page 1. Burning Up Millions J 2. The Forest in Every Day Life 8 3. What the Forest Does 10 4. What Forest Fire Does 11 5. A Heritage Destroyed by Fire 13 6. The Forest Fire Fiend I5 7. The Curse of the Forest 17 8. Every Man's Enemy 19 9. A Forest Fire 20 10. Kinds of Forest Fires and How They Burn 22 11 . Kinds of Forest Fires (Continued) 24 12. How to Fight Forest Fires 26 13. Wilful Waste Makes Woeful Want 29 14. The Forest Fire Problem 30 15. The State Cares for Forests 32 16. Forest Thrift _ 33 17. An Ounce of Prevention 34 18. Shall We Prevent Forest Fires or Merely Control There. 36 (5) m m LESSON 1. BURNING UP MILLIONS In the forests of America fires set by lightning or by Indians have occnred since Ijefore the time of Columbus. Some of them burned over extensive areas. After the first settlers came forest fires were more frequent, notwithstanding the fact that most of the early settlers came from countries where it was a serious matter to cause a forest fire. But in this country, they found too many forests. Their ene- mies, wild animals and Indians, were in the forests. It mattered little, therefore, if fire raged unchecked. In fact it was felt that the forest had to be done away with. Settlements increased and farms had to be hewn out of the forests. Trees were cut and piled for burning in clearings. Log rollings were made the object of festive occasions. The demand for wood increased &s population and business developed. Wagons and ships had to be built to transport the products of the new land. Lumbering began and soon railroads were extended in all directions on a bed of wood. The opening of the forests and the slash left by the lumberman made unnatural conditions favorable to fires. There was a great accumula- tion of inflammable material ready to feed the flames started by someone's careless fire or by an engine spark. In Pennsylvania, climatic conditions with the disturbed forest con- ditions developed two seasons of the year when forest fires became so comm'on that until recently it was generally believed that fire and smoke were a natural part of the seasons. Generation after genera- tion has grown up with the impression that forests needed no protec- tion. The line of least resistance has become ingrained with most people. The result has been that millions of acres of forest land have been burned over and kjept from producing a wood crop. It has been esti- mated that at least five million acres of forest soil in Pennsylvania have been kept in a waste condition by fire and that the annual loss to the Commonwealth has been as much as |100,000,000. Even now with a somewhat awakened public one quarter million acres burn over each year in Pennsylvania. It seems certain that more timber has been kept from reaching merchantable size, and consequently not available for use as a result of such fires, than w^as ever harvested in the State by lumbermen. Verily w^e have been and still are burning up millions and bringing about vei-y unsatisfactory living conditions without a thought for the future. (7) 8 Now the forests are limited in extent. Of Pennsylvania's 28,000,000 acres of primeval forests, stocked with timber, in quality unequaled hy anything found in the east^ern states, there are now about 13,000,000 acres of woodlands. Only a few million acres have mer- chantable material upon thean. The balance has only young growth pnd vast areais have nothing but brush of valuelesis species. But mth the decreasing area of the forest and the decreased crop on the remaining forest area, the demands for wood have increased until almost four-fifths of the wood used in Pennsylvania must be 1 rough t great distances from other states. Tn this way everything we use is more expensive because of the lack of a local supply gf >\ ood. The forest is no longer our encimy, but it is the most essential natural resource for our continued welfare. Therefore, our slogan must be ^'Prevent Forest Fires, Tt Pays." LESSON 2. THE FOREST IN EVERY DAY LIFE Our most essential every day needs are food, water, clothes, shel- ter, heat, labor, recreation, healtli. transportation, and education. You may never have thoiight about liow the forest affects these neces- sities. Does it aid or hinder man in obtaining his needs? Does it furnish any of them? In the early days, the ])i(>neei*H got practically evervthing they wanted from the forest. Even now a considerable quantity of food products are obtained directly from it, as nuts, fleshy fruits, berries, grapes, maple sugar and syrup, honey, flavoring extract,s, meat from wild animals, as well as many minor jiroducts. But the forest plays a bii'gtT part in our food sujiply l>ecause of its influence on moiKture supply of air and soil, which is l)eneticial to agriculture. The birds of the forest hold in check the insect hordes wliich would destroy all food crops if uncontrolled. Wood is used in the fences of the fields, the machinerv and equipment of the farm and garden. Croi>s are gathered, transported and stored in wooden containers. The forest is nature's reservoir and filter system to supply us with a constant and pure supply of water not only to drink but to fill our streams for power and navigation. The forest also furnishes us with clothing. First comes the skins of animals, and the fur industry is still of considerable importance. Now all sorts of clothing are made from wood fibres. Likewise wood enters largely into the harvesting, marketing, and manufacturing of clothing made from wool, cotton, etc. 9 The forest furni.<^hies dyes, wood buttons, wooden lasts for shoes, shapes for hats, and the tanning materials for the leather of our shoes, gloves, coats and other leather goods. Needless to state that the forest has furnished us our shelter. Wooden houses are still most common in our country. Where brick and stone have been used for outside walls wood has entered most largely into the interior finish and e(piipment of our homes. Our fuel comes directly or indirectly from the forest. Wood is a direct product of the forest. (\)al is mined by using large quantities of wood for mine timbering. l':iectricity is develoiuMl from wafer power kept constant by forested hills, is transniitfed over wires on wooden poles. The forests of any state furnish a large demand for labor. Eighty I)er cent of wood prices is made up of labor values. Likewise the forest areas with streams and game, teautiful quiet spots, trees and flowers are constantly calling to our people to find recreation Avithin their limits. Forests influence l>eneficially the health of a community, because of their pure air, pure water, and facilities for rcn^reation! Planted forests have changed a region of swamps, mosquitoes and malaria into a beautiful, healthy, provsperous and well inihabited community. Deforestation has changed populous regions into uninhabited wastes. Transportation is essential for civilization and forest products are essential in minor as well as greater transpor tuition activities, from the lowly sled to the most wonderful aerophiiie. Railroads are de- IH-ndent upon the \wodeii cross tie; navigation still d»'pends upon wood for ships, even in the steel clad liners. Most of tlie material shipix»d from one point to another is sliippcd in a wooden cnnfainer of some kind. Civilization is tlie result of conunerce and of exchange of ideas. Our books are the prcxluct.s of the forest. Our ideas of eacli other, of religion, of patriotism, are deterniin<»d l>y and kept alive ly the books we read, and by the daily juipers. Diminished forests are mak- ing these things more expensive. There may Ik» a time wlien papers and books will be l)eyond the reach of the average individual result- ing in wide spread influence and a backward step in civilization. It is, therefore, evident that the forest and its products enter largely into our every day needs. Everyl>ody loses when timber burns. 10 LESSON 3. WHAT THE FOREST DOES The more we know about the forest and what it does for onr wel- fare, the more we appreciate its presence and the more we will do to- protect and perpetuate it. The forest is a soil saver. Every acre of land should be kept productive. The forest utilizes soil too poor to produce food crops. There are at least thirteen mil- lion acres of such land in Pennsylvania. A forest increases the value of bare soil by the production of a crop witlu very little labor, and thus bears its just sihare of taxation, tending by so much to reduce the taxes on farpi land. A forest increases the fertility of the soil on which it grows and prepares it for agricultural use when needed for that purpose. The forest is a renewuble natural resource. It uses the productive powers of nature and furnishes a timber crop. The parts of trees, leaves, branches, bark, stenn, roots, sap, and fruit enter into the necessities, comforts, and luxuries of ea«h citizen^s every day life. The forest insures continued jwospcrity. To supply these products capital and labor must be employed. There must be machinery, transportation, exchange, and research. The development of a natural resource usually means the establish- ment of a local population, wages, demand for local food products, and general increase in business and prosperity of the community. It provides homes for insectiverous birds which hold insect hordes in check. The forest is a tenter conserver. A forest increases the relative humidity of the atmosi>here nearby, benefiting agricultural and horticultural cro])s. It raises the water table of the soil in hill countries to the ad- vantage of food crops nearby. It reduces evaix)rati()n of moisture from crops and soil to the lee- ward side thus saving food crops. It tends to induce rains during the growing seasons, and tends to reduce frost damage to crops. 11 The forest cover prevents the packing and erosion of soil, and also retards the surface run-off of rain and melted snow. It changes rainfall, snow, and other precipitation from surface run-off to under ground flow, thus regulating the flow and purity of water in springs and streams. It helps to lessen the frequency of floods and to lower the flood stages of streams. The forest provides recreation and health. It furnishes favorable conditions 'for game and fish, and for the sport of hunting and fishing. It supplies the factors which make a beautiful and healthful country. It reduces the extremes of temperature in both summer and winter. In fact it furnishes food, water, clotlies, labor, recreation, health, wealth. An old German proverb has it that ''The care of the forest brings all blessings". Certainly for Pennsylvania, forest protection, regulation and wise use mean continued prosperity. Forest destruction means economic suicide. LESSON 4. WHAT FOREST FIRE DOES The factors determining the extent of damage done by forest fire aiH3 general or climatic conditions, and local conditions. Climatic conditions. The amount of damage done by fire in the forest depends to a great extent upon the season of the year in winch it occurs. It has l)een found that the living parts of trees are most sensitive during tlie early part of tlie growing season when active cell division is taking place. Surface fires in April or May are likely to kill hardwoods which would escape injury from a fire of equal severity in the fall. The spring fire season begins with the disappearance of snow and the first drying out of the surface leaves. In the hardwood or mixed forests the forest floor is exposed to sun and wind until vegetation is far enough advanced to protect the moisture of the floor .from evaporation by these two forces. Af t«r the leaves are out and several good rains have again soaked tlie floor there is little danger. In autumn, when the dead leaves fall, the same drying effect of sun and wind is active and continues until fall rains and snow have I)acked the new layer of leajves and soaked the forest floor with moisture. 12 During periods of drought, conditions of air, surface litter, aiid growth combine to produce a severe fire and considerably more dam- age is done than during times of even average atmospheric moisture. Strong winds not only cause a more rapid spread of fire, but in- crease the severity of the fire, and may change surface fires to croAvn fires. In local areas an up hill wind may cause much more damage than a draft down a valley. High winds may produce favorable conditions for a fire within a very short time after a Iw^avy rain dur- ing the fall and spring fire seasons. The amount and kind of soil* covering also help to determine the damage done. The greater the amount of litter, grass, bruv^i, etc., and the more inflammable it is the more severe the fire. Certain species are more liable to damage than others. Conifers are damaged more than hardwoods. Resinous species especially are liable to crown fires. The stems of si>ecies exuding resin from the bark catch fire quickly and carry it into the crowns. The resin adds to the intensity of the fire, as in the case of balsam fir, spruce, and white pine. When conifers are killed above ground, with but a few exceptions as pitch pine, they will not grow again. Smooth barked species as beech, and thin sapped species as tulip, are especially liable to fire damage. Species with flaky bark are likely to suflfer. Shallow rooted species may be killed by the burn- ing humus injuring the roots, or simply by the exposure of the roots. Hardwoods are likely to have crown fires only in thicket or pole stage, or in dense stand when dead or new leaves are on the twigs. The amount of damage varies greatly according to the age of the woods. In old timber the soil covering is usually scantier than in young wood, consequently there is less fuel and less damage. Surface fires usually burn more slowly in old timlK*r because protected from the wind. As trees grow older the bark of most species grows thicker and more corky. It is a non-conductor of heat, hence it protects the cambium from being scorched. Even to such trees every fire does some damage and a severe fire or frequent fires will kill them. Young seedlings and coppice growth of most species, and even poles of some species are killed by very light fire. Necessarily the kind and severity of the fire will influence the re- sulting damage. A fire in one tree does little damage unless it be- comes the means of starting other kinds of fires. Crown fires are destructive because the burning of the foliage usually rt^sults in the killing of the tree. Even in hardwoods the leaves, buds, and twigs are so badly scorched that death results. In many cases the finer 13 twigs are consumed. Under-ground fires kill everything in their path, by killing or consuming roots, by exposure of roots, or by re- moval of material from on top and around roots so that it is only a matter of a short time until the trees are blown over by wind, or gradually die. Surface fires vary in their effects from slight injuries to complete destruction, depending upon their severity. Living tis- sue is killed when heated to 54°C. (129.2°F). If under-bark is brown or black, after a fire, it is an indication that the cambium layer is dead. Climatic conditions may not be changed, but local conditions may be very much improved by the removal of unnecessary debris and by the opening of roads and trails. It pays to prevent forest fires. LESSON 5. A HERITAGE DESTROYED BY FIRE Few people realize the amount of damage done by forest fires be- cause they do not take time to go into detail, to follow from cause to effect, or to trace back from effect to cause. There are direct and immediate losses, but there are also indirect and future losses. The latter are more difficult to analyze and to appraise, but nevertheless, are usually far greater than the former. Fire injures growing timber. When the trees are large, the bark heavy, and the fires light not many trees are killed and perhaps only a few may be injured. But with heavier fires or lighter bark the damage increases. The removal of the litter and humus from the soil may be sufficient to injure the roots, or to scorch the cambium layer at least partly around the tree. On the leeward side of trees the material burns a little longer by reason of the tree itself, shield- ing the fire from the wind. Debris frequently accummulates on one side of a tree more than on another, especially on the uphill side. In this way the trees are partially girdled, bark drops off on one side of the base, insects and fungi begin work, and succeeding fires con- tinue to eat into the tree and finally destroy a good part of it or kill it. It is subject to breakage by sleet, snow or wind. The removal of the humus, as mentioned before, either by one or more fires wall weaken the vitality of the tree because of changed soil conditions. The blossoms and fruit may be injured directly or indirectly by the fire. Trees of weakened Wtality are always more subject to insect and fungi attack even though the bark is not broken. Not only is the rate of growth retarded in trees injured by fire but the quality of the wood produced, and the quantity finally harvested 14 are also reduced. Though a tree may have sufficient vitality to cover a fire scar, nevertheless the defect is still there and in the majority of cases it grows with the si7.e and age of the tree. WHen the injured tree is cut there is considerable loss due to heart rot, stain, wind shal.e, etc. This is particularly so in coppice forests. Fire mu ffr^th results in an immediate loss made up of several items. •l There is the loss of dead trees of merchantable size which, for viourreaVoU cannot be marketed while still sound, or decrease inTarket value by reason of some delay .before harvesting. 2 The loss of value occasioned by the marketing of material not jj-gr!wn rthe size which would yield the highest value per unit 3 The loss in final cut which must be expected if injured trees are'pe^ttTd to stand untU they reach what would otherwise be a nierchiantable age. 4 There should also be considered the fact that tiiere may be and 4. mere suuuiu ui^ inoonvenience of harvest- for maturity. Fire .e..-oys secas, --^ --iJ-tJ^rd ^Z ^^^^^ floor, mixed with leaves -"letely or partly destroyed by fire were known it would surprise the lnml)ermen themselves. "^ The same thing is true of the loss to farmers and owners of property adjoining woodland. The individual lo^s may or may not be large in any one instance, but when such losses are totaled it soon amounts to un]>elievable figures. Fire in the forest causes the loss of homes. Not infrequently have forest fires furnished the spark that burned the homes and posses- sions of families living within or near the forest. In cases whole towns have l>een dangerouslv threatened, and in some instances cora- pletelv consumed. The stories of some of the northwestern fires are heartrending and the loss cannot all be included in a tabulated xn^ ventory of property destroyed. 16 Fire causes the loss of hwuan lives. The fire wliich starts from someone's brush pile or careless act may be the direct cause of snuff- ing out any number of human lives, as witness the results of many of the awful conflagrations of the West, of Canada, and of some few in the East. The recent fires in Minnesota and Wisconsin took a large toll of human life and will go down in history among the horrible catastrophies resulting, from someone's thoughtlessness. But here again the loss cannot be counted in dollars. Fire destroys game and fish. Spring fires, especially, are fatal to young animals of all kinds, and many eggs of game birds are de- stroyed. Not infrequently both spring and fall the water of some of the small streams has l)een heated sufficiently to kill fish. By de- stroying the factor which largely regulat(»s the steady flow of streams and by making the banks of streams bare of their natural protection, fish life is seriously affected. The Se(^retary of the Pennsylvania Game Commission states that forest fires do more to destroy game than all other forces put together. ^ The Pennsylvania Fish Commis- sioner states that the native brook trout of the East is almost a thing of the past because the waters are too warm for it. The California iront is being planted iniricad. Fire causes a decrease in insect wormis bird life. Insectivorous bird eggs and young birds are destroyed directly, especially the ground and low nesting species. By reason of frequent disturbance birds are driven away from a region of forest fires. By the destruc- tion of the forest and the making de.solate of hills, conditionis favor- able to bird life are destroyed and birds l>ecome scarce. Scarcity of birds adversely influences agriculture. Fire causes the loss of hee colonies. Tliis loss may or may not be small but it must be rememl)ered that bees are of value in the pro- duction of seed crops and of a valuable food product. Fire destroys the beauty of a region. The beauty of certain re- gions is responsible for bringing to them millions of dollars each year. Green forests covering mountains and keeping the streams steady and clear are the most important factors in the niaintAniance of this asset. Fire promotes desolation rather than life and beauty. A fire swept region is anything but beautiful. 17 LESSON 7. THE CURSE OF THE FOREST There is still one more thing which we shall mention as being di- rectly destroyed by forest fire, hut in final analysis the indirect loss- es resulting from its destruction are far greater than the immediate ones. It is like killing the goose that lays the golden eggs. Fire destroys loholly or in part, the litter and humus which form the forest floor. IJght fires burn some leaves and small branches. Heavier fires burn eveiything down to mineral soil or rock. In some cases, the fire even follows roots and other vegetable matter into the soil. A fire which consumes only the material above the general level of the soil is called a surface fire. A fire which burns beneath the general surface level, as in old swamps, or on areas where the soil is filled with a mass of roots and other vegetable matter, as in bracken or huckleberry regions, is know^n as an underground fire. It is w^ell to remoi/rici" a few of ihe mo^t iniporlant fnuctioii^- of a natural forest floor: (a) Forest litter and humus are a mechanical hindrance to the run-off of precipitation, allowing water to reach the stream slowly. (b) Humus absorbs and holds rains and melted snows, giving it to the soil for underground supply which feeds springs. (c) Humus keei>s the soil open summer and winter j)ermitting it to take moisture rapidly. (d) Litter and humus act as a mulch preventing rapid evapora- tion of soil moisture. (e) Humus keeps the surface soil fertile, which helps to make good tree growth. (f) Humus protects the soil from erosion. Changing humus to ashes eliminates all of the al>ove benefits. Floods, erosion, irregularity and impurity of water supply, both for home supply and for power, and all the calamities attendant upon these conditions are the results. This loss cannot l)e determined •because there is no way in which all the facts can be tabulated. In- convenience, sickness, and death cannot be appraised in dollars and cents. 18 From the standpoint of forest growth and continued forest pro- duction, the humus is verj^ valuable. In silviculture (the produc- tion of a forest crop) the efforts of the forester must alwa3's be di- rected toward a most "Careful preservation of the productive powers of any given locality, so as to render possible the production of the same effect, or even an increased one, regularly and indefinitely. "Experience has shown that in forestry the safest method of pre- serving the productive powers of a locality consists in maintaining uninterruptedly a crop of forest vegetation on the area. The more frequently and the longer the ground is uncovered and exposed to the full effects of sun and air currents, the more, in the majority of cases, is the productive power liable to be reduced".^ Tlie active agencies of the locality depend upon the nature of the- soil and the climate. Man can do little toward regulating the local climate, but he can control to a great extent the soil factor of his locality. "Water is the most important component part of the soil'',^ and next to this are its physical properties and then its available chemical constituents. Almost any soil can furnish a sufficient quan- tity of mineral suhstances for the production of a crop of trees, pro- vided th-e leaf mould (humus) is not removed. "To insure a favorable condition of the pliysical proi>erties, should be the forester's chief aim, and this he can do best by preserving the humus, especially on poor soils, and those of medium quality. "The poorer the soil the more important is the i)reservation of the humus, providing it is not acid''.^ Indeed, "humus forms the most imimrtant factor relative to tree-growth, and is a priceless tr(>asure as regards the production of woodland crops".- In foreign countries where the right to remove litter and humus has been acquired by the ix^ople neighboring upon a forest, the re- strictions are rigid and experience has shown it to be so harmful to productiveness of the soil that forest ownei^ are buying the rights as rapidly as possible. The oi>ening of the forests and the removal of humus by Are bring about conditions which make it easier for fires to rage. Each suc- cessive fire niak(^ conditions more favorable for the next until in time everything of value is destroyed and desolation results. 1. Schllch's "Mnniial of Forestry," Vol. I. 2. Gayer's "Waldbau". 19 LESSON 8; EVERY MAN^S ENEMY Forest flfe is a force which does immediate damage. If uncon- trolled there is no way to tell how much damage may be done. It may result in a holocaust a* in the West or in Canada. But the indirect damage from forest fire is far reaching, of inestimable amount and yet its effects are so insidious that few of us pla^e tlie blame where it belongs. No forest means no water ; no water means no agricul- ture. Then come floods, drought, pestilence and death. Loss oi soil productivity. The death of a number of trees in ai stand of any age results in the opening of the canopy and the densi- ty is destroyed. This in itself exposes the floor to suif and wind and a more rapid disintegration of humus results. When there is added to tliis condition the removal of the litter or humus the soil is so much the more exposed and deterioration of soil qualities takes place ramdlv On the more humid soils, grass, weeds and brush grow up- robbing the remaining trees of much nutriment and moisture On the poorer, or sandy soils, sand drifts may be started. On practically all slopes leaching and erosion begin. The loss of soil productivity is shown in a decreased annual pro- duction, a decreased yield at a given age, or by the requirement of a loneer rotation age for the trees to reach a specified dimension or to y"eld a ^lH.eified^•olume. In other words a forest on a certain soil is capable of producing a certain amount of material per tear or in 100 years. It is run over by fire once, or periodically. How much less is produced? The difference in value of the products from the unburued and burned areas is the amount of loss resulting from forest firee. Increase in numher and damaging power of many injurious kinds „i insects and hmqi. These attacks follow quickly after tires. How- ier h re may bf no indication of such trouble until several years later and the attack appears to be almost instantaneous. The in- sect find breeding places in foliage, stems, stools, and roots of growth weakened in conseiuence of .being sco«.hed by fire. Fungi enter at Tcarred bases and at other points where the b«rk is broken either by expansion or by breaking branches. llodilication of past stands. As noted before there is a ™.J> J^' tion of growth conditions even after one moderate fire. Ix,8S resist- ant specTes are killed and the nun^ber of species is reduced. Sprout^ Set^e place of seedlings. Whatever seed hapi>ens to be exposed or finds lodgment on the area is likely to gei-minat* and become es- 20 tablkhed. Winged seed species especially are likely to come in. The crop after fires varies in different localities. There may be birch, aspen, bird cherry, scrub oak, or by chance some valuaible species. Species requiring protection from sun, drought, or frost in their early stages cannot regenerate until some nurse crop is established. Extra expense and difficulty of reforesting hurned areas. The ex- posure of soil results in a dry condition which limits the success of artificial regeneration. The exposure is severe upon the young transplanted iseedlings. The grass and weeds which develop com- pete with the young seedlings for moisture and food. The lack of humus in the soil delays the growth of the seedlings which do become established. On other sites the debris m.ay handicap the planting operation to such an extent that the num'ber of trees planted per man may be reduced over 50%. And last but not least, the debris is likely to be fuel for the next fire and furnish the heat with which to kill the whole plantation. Miscellaneous. We have already mentioned ^the indirect results on Ftream flow, erosion, and health. There are still such effects as the decrease of labor by reason of the lack of a natural resource, decrease of taxes upon land which, ought to be producing a revenue and the consequent rise in taxes on that land which is producing, the scatter- ing of the population of a township or county, the general decrease in land value in such cases; the local inconvenience of wood scarcity, the increased cost ,of wood products, the bearing on such questions a« the housing of city dwellers and other economic and welfare prob- lems. To sum the whole matter up briefly, FOREST FIRES ARE CA- LAMITIES. They destroy great values without the least compensat- ing benefit, and the trail of loss in wages, industry, taxes, revenue, prosperity, sport, health, comfort, and even life, leads to every home in the land. LESSON 9. A FOREST FIRE • "Long before I reached the fire I could feel the heat in the air, could see the rolling smoke waves on high, and could hear the crackle and the crashing and the crunching of falling tree-trunks. Birds in alarmed flight winged ahead of the danger. Small game, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, and groundihogs, were getting out of the way and were heedless of man. There was even increased activity and excite- •By Chas. S. Osbom. By permission of "The Outlook". 21 ment among the bugs. I never saw such swarms of Camberwell beauties, ibanded purples, angle-wings, swallow-tails, tortoise-shells, and dog-faced sulphurs. Deer clung to the shores, ready to take to the water. Bradshaw reported a big bull moose hanging out with his cattle, as if sensing comparative safety near to man. The fire caught a lot of pestiferous army worms and destroyed no end of ver- min in its course. "The fighters had brains and willingness and courage and resource, but we had nothing to fight the fire with. There wasn't a drop of w^ater nearer than the shore. The main fire front was over two miles long. It would take an ocean to conquer it. The trail was rocky. We had shovels, picks, hoes, rakes, and axes. We could not get a shovelful of non-combustible soil. All we could do was to whip at the fire with bundles of green withes. Bradshaw said that it would not run through a certain big green alder swamp, which would help check it. When the fire reached those alders, there wa^ a hissing of a million serpents' tongues, and then a frying, sizzling sound as of the broiling of countless earth demons, and the alder swamp became blackis/h ashes on the ground. On came the fire. It consumed every particle of the covering of the rocky land, leaving it as bare, except for ashes, as when it left the bosom of the glacier that bore it. When it got to the trail, we could make only a brief resistance, that was more futile than the prattle of babes. Then we had to run for it or roast. Long before the ground fire got to the trail the aerial flames and cinders had parsed over us, igniting the forest beyond. There was nothing to do but pray, and there was a mighty lot of praying. The Indians said if Chief Mendoskong were alive and White Loon, the medicine man, was not dead they would make rain. Even Greensky, who had been a famous rainmaker, had gone to the land of crippled deer and tame beaver. There was no hope. "Only one thing can prevent forest fires: education of tlie people to a point where they can appreciate the danger and will practice adequate care. I have known careful woodsmen to start a tea fire on a rocky shore covered with fibrous roots and dusty ligneous sub- stance and use plenty of water in an attempt to put it out 'before they proceeded. But the fire had eaten its way inch by inch between rock and soil where it was hidden and where the water did not reach it, only to burn through later and destroy miles of growth. So one must be very, very careful where he builds a fire in a dry time and more careful still about putting it out. ^^'hen forest fires reach their maximum, they ai'e more than ter- rible in their fury. The very air seems afire. There are those who believe that the air decomi)oses at a certain heat and that the gases ignite, forming an atmosphere of liquid flames. In the Peshtigo fire the flames appeared to jump forty miles through the grimy air. In 22 tLat holocaust a queer thing transpired difficult of V^y^^'^f'^^^' tion. A new house, partially completed and xn course of constiuc^ tion located near the center of the town, was not even scorched Not an ember was otherwise left. Some sort of a cold air ^ne fonned around the house, like the air pockets encountered .by aviators or something simUar. Anyhow, there was this freak case. "There is such a thing as the air toeing so filled with carbon that it buras in advance of a gale of tire. I have seen and have run before oresrarrfhat were advancing with hurricane swiftness through he top of trees. The tops halt-way to the g.-ound would melt in the sea of flame like soft l«id bars in a furnace. These would mtens.fy be more slowly advancing ground ftre until everya,ing m its path TonZ be consumed and melted, even the rocks themselves^ Once Tme of my men in my absence, t.x,k refuge on the summit of a bare ™^n of^tone They were suffocated by the hot air. Dunng the Tstor^ hrest the -Thumb of Michis^-an' people .lesc.nded into wot lo Se, only to b<. caught like vals and asphyxiated. Dozens of corpses were pulled out of wells. "Nothing is so terrible as a fire in a gi-eat forest in a dry time. Moie tSr has been burned than has been lumbered. There never was a renter menace to the only great fringi..g forests remaining in wth America These great .ones of wild life are on the way to be- ri^^lXs, LnJ, and waterier unless we -- ^^J^^ It IPast in spots. Not flood, nor storm, nor famine, nor earthquakes, ^ii; v^ cLn:;^ is more destructive than wild fires. We mu«t l.ecome a Nation of fire wardens. "Will you help 9" LESSON 10. KINDS OF FOREST FIRES AND HOW THEY BURN Fire in the forest may assume one or n>ore of the ^'^^^^^^ f^^^'^'- JisHcs: those of a stem fire, a su.fnce fire, a .Town .ue, or an un derground fire. A .tern or tree fire is one in ^hicli a single ti-ee is affected, and the ftrT XS-<1 before it has spread to adjoining litter or tx> other trefludi a fire occurs usnally in a dr,^ snag struck and ig- n ted by Ughtning, or ignited by a spark from a nearby engine , on a hollow tree set on fire by some un^)ort.manhke hunger to smoke out game, or in a bee tree in order to smoke .bees. 23 Stem fires are dangerous because the wood of the tree is usually partly decayed, the hollow tree acts as a flue, the great draft causes many sparks to be given off and these may be blown great distances. Stem fires when not extinguished gi'adually spread to adjoining ' litter or the wind driven sparks start surface or crown fires, or even an underground fire. Crovm fires are those where the flames consume the leaf canopy formed by the crowns of the trees. They may develop from surface fires, in fact they usually do. Further tliey are usually accompanied with surface fires. Conifers are most subject to such fires, ibut young hardwoods with new or dead leaves are also liable. Thicket and pole stages are most likely to sufler in the East, especially new conifer- ous plantations. Crown fires occur when the wdnd is high and the woods are vei-y dry. The strong draft carries sii:)arks far ahead starting new fires either crown or surface. The general shape developed is that of a *'V", although the same factors influencing the shape of a snrface fire affect the development of a crown fire. Without a wind, how- ever, crown fires are practically impossible. The rate, of progress is ordinarily from two to three miles an hour • or in extreme cases, six to ten miles. It depends upon density of crowns, regularity of heights of trees, and of species. An admixture of lion inflammable crowns or a belt of hardwoods may entirely break :a crown fire. Underground fires air those wliicli burn ilK'ncaih the geneiM. bur lace of the soil. They occur where the mineral soil is covered with i\n accumulation of vegetable material, and which, on account of its peaty cliaract<'r, burn more slowly than sniface fires. They are com- mon in the northern woods where fallen leaves, needles and other debris decomposes very slowly and a deep layer of partly decayed vegetable matter accninnlates. Sometimes this may be two or three feet deep. Sphagnum swamps, dried up lake basins, and areas cov- ered with a dense mass of bracken and ericaceae roots are also likely to be visited by ground fires. When this inatei'ial becomes dry it burns slowly but with intense heat and is difficult to extinguish. Ordinarily they will not cover more than a few acres a day. They may be accompanied by a surface fire, or even a crown fire, and may develop from either. In Pennsylvania most of our forest fires are surface, or (brush fires. A few are stem fires, resulting in surface fires, and only in periods of severe drought do we have a crow^n or an underground fire. Ii .24 LESSON 11. KINDS OF FOREST FIRES (Cont'd.) THE SURFACE FIRE • A surface fire is one which passes over the surface of the soil and feeds upon dead foliage, dead weeds, dry grass, diy moss, and scat- tered inflammable debris littering the ground, also occasionally brush and small trees. Apart or all of the litter and humus which make up the forest floor is consumed and quickly changed from its organic form to ashes. If the fuel on the ground is sufficient a surface fire may develop into a crown fire, especially in young coniferous stands. The manner of burning, the form of area burned over, the rapidity of progress, and the intensity of the fire, depend upon the following factors: 1. Character and quantity of inflammable material. 2. Topography. ^ 3. Character of soil. 4. Condition of atmosphere. A surface fire on level ground and with all factors constant, is at first a small circle of flame, gradually spreading in all directions. If the least wind is blowing it burns more rapidly in the direction to- ward which the wind is blowing. If no wind was blowing at the time of starting it is not long until the tire itself creates a draft and it trav- els most rapidly in the direction of the draft. More or less of an oval foi-m is assumed and sooner or later a V shape. The side lines develop at an angle with the wind or draft and burn more slowly. If much wind is present the windward side may die out entirely. As the factors vary, the shape of the fire varies accord- ing to the resultant of their forces. As for example the apex or head may be acute or broad, according to wind, fuel, or slope. A change in toi>ogi»aphy or in wind may result in the development of several heads, or '^headers". Other things being equal the severity of the fire depends upon the quantity and kind of fuel in its path, but 'necessarily the amount of moisture in the material determines tlie amount of fuel available for the fire. Dry material will burn readily and the heat from this fuel will dry out additional stuff rendering it inflammable. But the heat may not be sufficient to dissipate the moisture from all the litter, consequently a part may be saved and the severity of the fire lessened to that extent. 25 The accumulation of undecayed leaves depends upon the species, season, soil, exposure, and length of time since previous fire or litter removal. Sixn-ies having large crowns and large leaves, as maples and oaks, make a lieavier litter than ash and birch. A layer of resin- ous needles burns more rapidly and with a hotter fire than does a layer of hardwood leaves. In some forests there is a varying amount of dead wood made up of standing dead trees or snags, fallen trees, dead ibranches, slashings, or the debris of previous fires. Any of this material in a dry condi- tion means additional fuel and greater severity for a fire. A surface fire runs up hill rapidly because heated air currents draw flames upward and more fuel is exposed at the same time to the heat of the fire. After passing the crest a fire travels slowly in its de- scent on the other side. On extensive level ground, fires burn more uniformly, gather greater volume, generally do more damage and ex- tend over a larger area than in rugged tojjography. Abrupt walls, narrow ridges, ledges, etc., tend to check fire and prevent its gather- ing volume. Any influence which tends to dryness increases the intensity of a fire. Southern and western slopes are apt to burn more severely than others because of warm and dry exposures. Tlie southern slopes have more sunlight and heait and the we^stern slopes are exposed to the prevailing winds. Sand soils warm up and dry out readily and fires are apt to be severe. Generally the great(»r the velocity of the wind the more rapid the progress of the fire. A steady wind makes a more severe fire than one which is gusty or intermittent. Fire is more severe and rapid when the atmosphere is dry, as in tlie hottest part of the day when fanned by a dry wind. Moist atmos- phere retards a fire, as in tlie niglit when air is damp and heavy, and there is little wind. We have little data of value upon the subject of the rapidity with which surface fires travel. In the East, surface fires may travel be- fore a high wind and up a slope as fast as a mile in three minutes, or twenty miles an hour, but in broken country and in varied growth, surface fires seldom travel more than five to eight miles in twenty four hours. In coniferous forests of the West they are said to travel as much as ten miles in twenty four hours. A great many surface fires occur on what is known as brush lands. The growth consists of sprouts of tree species and brush of various kinds, as scrub oak, 'bird cherry, aspen, laurel, etc. Oak especially is 26 apt to hold a number of old dry leaves, both during the fall and spring fire seasons. Surface fires running through such growth set fire to the leaves and in a number of cases burn everything. Or if the brush are not consumed the heat is sufficient to kill everything down to the ground. This kind of growth is usually found on areas pre- viously burned and in about 3 years it developes sufficient fuel to en- tirely kill everything again. In young growth just after the leaves have opened in spring, sur- face fires are likely to cause the burning of the new foliage and a very fierce fire results, accompanied by a great amount of dense smoke. LESSON 12. HOW TO FIGHT FOREST FIRES There are manv methods of fighting forest fires. Some are good and some are not. A good Warden is always ready for useful sug- gestions, and is willing to give them fair trial. Methods of fighting vary with the character of the fire, type of the forest, condition of the atmosphere, strength and direction of the wind, rapidity of the fire's advance, topograi)hy and material on the ground. TREE FIRES: These are stopped by shutting off the air which makes a draft through the hollow trunk. Close the hole at the ground if possible with dirt. If this cannot be done, the ground around the burninc' tree should ^he cleared, and the tree should be felled. The lire can then be smothered inside and outside the tree. If water is available, the fire may l>e put out with force pump or sprayer or chemical extinguisher without felling the tree. Dead snags in for- csts should be felled as a matter of fire prevention as well as for the benefit of the forest. UNDERGROUND FIRES: These fires can be stopped only by digging deep enough to prevent their s,,read. The ditch, as well as the surface should be flooded if possible. This, however, is se dom possible, mere a soil fire has a good start it may be cheaper to blast a ditch than to dig one. Well-placed dynamite will do efl-ective work in a short time. CROWN FIRES: We have few crown fires in Pennsylvania, l^atural conditions as 1<> topography and gro^v^b which serve as a check are the most ett'edive means of stopping any that may occur. 27 SURFACE FIRES: This is the kind of fire which occurs most frequently in Pennsylvania. If there is little wind the flames may be put out by beating with branches (pine preferred), shovels, and wet burlap. Fire fighters should beat the flames with a side sweep to- ward the fire to avoid spreading sparks. The burning material may be pushed back upon the burned-over ground with brooms, rakes, sticks, forks, or other tools. The idea is to separate the burning ma- terial from that not yet afire. Water is always effective, but too frequently dependence is placed on it and when it is not available fire fighters seem to l)e at a loss to know how to make their attack. The fire can be smothern^l by throwing on dry or moist sand or dirt. If it is possible to plow, a furrow may be thrown up quickly to re- strict the spread of the fir<\ If no trail is cleared to the hare ground entirely around the burned area, here and there small pieces of smouldering wood may 1 e fanned into flame and the fire may again break out. The only safe practice is to make a clean trail with ex- posed mineral earth entirely around the burned area. Chemical extinguishers are sometimes used. Careful tests have been made by foresters and it has been found that the chemical spray is of no more value in the woods than is plain water with a little force back of it. This force can be supplied 1 y a foot pump, or by air pressure, as in the ordinary fruit spraying devices. Sprinkling water in front of the fire reduces the force of the flames and permits close beating and raking. To be eft*ective, considerable water is required when U is sprinkled directly on the flames. Water is used to the best advantage when the stream is thrown at the ground immediately in front of the flan»es. .The water and force combined will stop the flames' advance. It is also satisfactory to spray water against the base of the flames from the rear pnrticnlarly if there is much smoke. BACK-FIRING: When the wind is strong or when the flames are in slash, fallm logs, tlead ferns, brackiMi, or grass, fire ibecomes so intense that it is unsafe auH impracticable to attempt clo^ attack. Back-firin- is res(»rtcd to in such cases. It should \h^ remembered that fire is a dangerous force and that when fire is fought with fire extreme .are and keen judgment must be used. If a fire starts some area will l>e burned over and some growth will be damaged, but in order to reduce the damage as much as possil,le some additionid sacrifice mav have to be made by starting a Imck-flre. The area to l)e covered .by the back fire should, however, 1k^ kept as small as is prac- ti cable. A satisfactory arrans^'im-nt of craws is as follows: the warden or foreman directs the course antl Kn^ation of the f.re-hreak, if one mns be made He is in cbar«e of the whole fire-f.ffhtinR force and shonld 28 urge each man to do his best. According to the amount of brush to be cut one or two axemen or bnishcutters follow the warden. Four men with small wooden rakes, or some other tool, one working close to the other, make a clean trail, exposing the mineral soil, raking the material to the side away from the fire unless it is needed to start a back-fire. Next comes a man with a torch. He must not sot fire too rapidly for the nearest raker, nor for the guards who follow him. If the torchman sets fire too rapidly for the rakers the heat may drive them off their course, and if too rapidly for the guards, the fire may not burn away from the trail fast enough^to permit their moving up with the torchman. As a result sparks nitay blow across the trail where there will be no one to discover and stamp them out immedi- ately. Four alert and active guards can take care of a long line of back-fire. They should have three-gallon spray tanks and a continu- ous supply of water. They should have also a rake or broom. Pine brush may be used in the absence of a better tool. The rear guard must be the most dependable man in the crew for he must determine ^iien the line is safe and must not leave it until it is safe. It is im- portant that someone who knows the woods after dark should be de- tailed to carry water. THE LAST SPARK Sometimes wardens and men leave as soon as the flames have been (extinguished, with the result that frequently the fire has started up again at one or more places. Tlien the fire has to be fought again ; it is larger, is harder to snibduo, takes more time, costs more, burns over more area, and does more damage than the first fire. No chances should be taken with its breaking out a second time. All but the most dependable men should be discharged. The burned area should be inspected to see there is no danger of fire creep- ing across the trail which ought to have Imh-d cleared around the burned area. Tlireatening brands should be thrown far into the burned area ; logs and branches holding fire should be rolled over and sprinkled with water or covered with dirt until they are safe. Punky stumps should be examined and broken apart to see that they can give off no sparks. Burning snags standing within several hundred feet of the unburned area should be cut down. Every prwaution should be taken to prevent a recurrence of the fire. If a fire has l>een put out during the day, the tract should be patrolled until the wind goes down in the evening, or until dew falls. If the fire has been exting- uished in the morning and there is the least danger of its starting again, the area should be patrolled until the next afternoon or even- ing. No fire is out until the last spark is dead. 29 LESSON 13. . • WILFUL WASTE MAKES WOEFUL WANT We have set forth thus far the need of forest protection, the neces- sity of protection from fire, the kinds of fire, how they iburn, and the damage they do. We are now fully convinced that they should be eliminated, if possible. But, before a logical and practical plan for their elimination can be formulated, much less put into operation, we must investigate the cause of forest fires. From a study of past causes we may obtain data upon which to work for fire prevention, for we may reasonably suppose that the same causes in the future will continue to result in forest fires. As fundiamental facts it must be rememibered that a piece of wood- land is a piece of property which is of value. The value is not only to the individual who hajipens to claim possession, but to the people of the immediate neighborhood and very probably to the State and to the Nation. From the inherent nature of forest property there are times when it becomes veiy inflammable. At such times a small spark of fire may destroy in a few hours what has required yeai's to develop. Once it has l>een destroyed, man may never be able to re- place it, or at Inst it can be replaced only at considerable trouble, lime and expense. Our next step, then, is to discover how the sparks which cause for- est fires get into the forest. Naturally the first thing we think of are the forces of nature. We know that lightning causes some fires. In Pennsylvania, only l^o% of the 101.5 fires, 1% of 1916 fires and .I'X of the 11)17 iin^ or :>2 fires in three years out of a total of 4200 reported, were caused by lightning. Since 1917 the percentage has been only three tenths of one per cent. Occasionally we hear of fires caused by spfjntaneous comibustion. Such fires are unquestionably possible, but are also most likely to be verv^ few in number. Other than from these two causes, forest fires originate as a result of human action, (and axe either intentional, or in the last analysis, the result of carelessness and indifference.) ''When a man touches a match to a clump of dry brush and a fire results there is a physical action, a mechanical cause of the fire; but the cause of the fire contains another element — the phychological Kick-ground for the physical action, the mental process, the activity of the man's mind which preceded the act and resulted in his setting fire".* This mental attitude may be one of bate as the malicious in- cendiary; self interest, as the hucklel)erry picker; carelessness as the brush burner; mind upon something else than what is being done, 30 what ouglit to be done or what ought not to ^be done, as the camper and smoker ; ignorance, as the child and many people ; inditference, as railroad employees ; irresponsibility, as drunks, lunatics and idiots. The causes of fires as shown by the reports from any State prove beyond >a doubt that while natural conditions are contributory causes to forest fire yet unquestionably the greatest factor is that of care- lessness on the part of man, therefore it is with man that we must deal in our efforts to prevent and control forest fire. •DoBols In Systematic Fire Protection in California. LESSON 14. THE FOREST FIRE PROBLEM The timber Cut of State and Nation is far in excess of wliat is Town, consequently there is urgent need of protection of the forests which we now have and of care in their utilization. Almost four- fifths of Pennsylvania's timber supply is obtained beyond her border. It is a law that when a natural i-esouroe becomes scarce, as wood now is in Pennsylvania, n.anagcment with a view of protection, better utilization and future production becomes necessary. However the first moasure nei-cssary for successful practice of forestry is protection from forest fires. "As long as there is any considerable risk from fire, forest owners have little incentive to maliC provision for natural reproduction, to plant trees, to make im- provement cutting or to do other work looking to continued forest production."^ "To be most useful and generally understandable the value of forest protection must be measured in dollars and cents whenever that is possible. Excess in money value of products of a protected forest over money valu.> of products of an unprotected forest is the worth of protection to the puWic. With a forest, the capital value is the soil-it, with sunlight, air and moisture has power to produce an income in sha,)e of wood and e.MU-essible in terms o dollars-When the timber is cut the producing power of tlie capital is as great ias before."^ "Everv avoidable forest fire is not merely a severe loss to the country 'at present and for the future, but it is in itself an accusa- tion against our peoples lack of |...blic consciousness^ We are too npt to think in tern,« of our individual interests, nommunity n^ terests ^apparently hnvc little weight with us, and that can only come from failure to think in community terms. 1. T>uboiB 2. H. S. Graves 3. Kdltor 'Echo," Halifax. Nora ScotU. 31 We have noted the duty of the forester toward the preservation of the productive powers of the forest soil and that forest fire de- (Sitroys not only the present crop but the possiibility of future forest crops. Without a doubt we can agree that the ''issue of forest fires stands paramount in forest prot^ction."^ Without protection from fire all forest operations are equivalent to gambling with fate. The odds are against winning. It has been said that the success of the whole conservation movement depends largely upon the elimination of forest fires, and there is a great deal of truth in the stat(Mnent. The problem stated in its simplest terms, is how close can we come to the ideal condition of no fires with an expenditure of a minimum amount of money? Tlie ideal, of course, is imix)ssible. As long as human beings get in contact with forests there will ibe fires. A decrease in number can b<' expected only as our people establish a fixed habit of mind associating fire in forests, with danger, loss, l>ublic disapproval, criminality and i)unishnient. The first factor of our problem then is education, or the proiblem of indirect control, which seeks to reduce tlie number of fires. The second factor in the problem is that of direct control which seeks to suppress all fires as quickly as possible, within a minimum area with a minimum loss and at a minimum exi)en8e. This implies an efficient organisation with proper equipment and methods. The third factor of the problem is that of adequate finances, and the proper distribution of the same. Without sufticient funds, in- direct and direct control are crippled and results aro uncertain, un- satisfactory and discouraging. This, too, is largely a factor of edu- cation for unless the individuals who furnish the funds have the right attitude to the forest, the funds needed will not be forthcoming. The fourth factor is that of cooperation. An individual owner of forest lands i>rot(M'1s his property at high rate j»er unit of area and protects his neighbors' property to a certain extent in order to pro- tect his own. Adjoining owners and other people of the neighbor- :hood should W interested in the protection of the forest. The township, county and state government should be interested ?ilso. Each party must see some return for the exinnise incurred. Here .aga,in is tlie factor of education. But all these factors react upon ic^ach other, while to a certain extent they are indeixMident. t C. A. Schenck. 32 LESSON 15. THE STATE CARES FOR FORESTS Beginning with the founding of the Province of Pennsylvania Cifforts have been made almost continually to induce individual owners of woodlands to protect them from fire. For various reasons, these efforts until very recently have failed signally. In the course of time, however, because of the value of forests to the Common- wealth in addition to their direct value to the owners who luappen to hold title to the land, and because of the failure of forest owners to accomplish satisfactory protection, the State government entered ^jpon a policy of land purchase. It is a well recognized fact that when individuals cannot or will not do what is necessary for society, the State must take such measures as will provide for its own welfare. With its own land the State recognizes tliat protection from fire is the first principle of sound forestry practice. But the State owns only a little more than 1,000,000 acres of forest land. Conditions in Pennsylvania fare such today that this small proportion of the forest area cannot possiibly bring about the satisfactory conditions which can come and be maintained only by an area large enough to meet the timber needs of an increasing population. Neither is it probable that the State \W11 or ever can own enough forest land to guarantee a sufficient timber crop. Therefore, it recognizes its duty in the matter of protecting the general forest area within its boundaries from its worst internal enemy, forest fire. This policy has 'been expressed in law and provision has been made lor a State forest fire organization, but not until the Legislature of 1921 had there been sufficient money appropriated to equip the organization or to complete it and make it etfective. With the million dollars appropriated 1 y the V.m Legislature and approved by Governor Sproul it has been possible to expand the State's Forest Fire Organization and to develop it to suit the conditions in ditfer- ent parts of the State. Steel fire towers have been built so that now almost the entire forest area of the State is under constant observation during the fire seasons. For fires will start and they must be detected prompt- ly. These towers have been manned for from two to three months each spring and fall. Each tower is connected by telephone so that the existence of a fire may be reported at once to the nearest forest fire W^arden. This has nec^itated the building of approximately 700 miles of telephone line. 33 There are almost 3,000 forest fire Wardens, including State For- esters, State Forest Rangers, State Game Protectors, Special War- dens, and Local Forest Fire Wardens. Every State Policeman is also a Forest Fire Warden. From the Ix)cal Wardens, towermen, inspectors, patrolmen and fire ibosses are chosen. Eaeh fire bos« is expected to hiave a regular fire crew of from 6 to 12 men. Many of the wardens who have crews are now sup|)lied with some forest fire fighting tools. This organization tries not only to extinguish fires promptly but also to eliminate the cause of forest fires by having hazards cleaned up and by educating the people generally to appreciate the forests and to be careful A\ith fire in and near them. This organization with the exception of the State Police is under the direction of Chief Forest Fire Warden who in turn is under the direction of the Secre- tary of Forests and Waters. The State is trying to do its i;tart in ilie protection of forests from fire, but it cannot do murh without the help of woodland owners and of every good citizen of the Commonwealth. You can help by being careful with fire in the woods. LESSON 16. FOREST THRIFT Forest protection has been, is now, and alwjiys will be the key- stone of forest conservation. From Canada comes the statement: 'Conservifition and good forest management are meaningless terms as long as the plague of fianies sweeps off in a week more than the constructive forester can accomplish in ten years. Until fire is eliminated conservation of forests can make no real headwav." Fire strikes at the existence of the forest and destroys the factors which make it of most value to man. If forests are to l)e grown, fires must be j)revented; and it is not enough to prevent them or to keep them under control for one year or a short perioon their people to "save and siive." to practice "tbrift." in every line of activitv. It is not a good indication of thrift in Pennsylvania as long as it "is possible for 380,000 acres to burn over in one year, as occurred in 1923, or 95,000 acres in one weeic in May of 1922. Wood in various forms is needed at every turn and the tremendous demand upon our forest will continue for some time to come. The forests can meet the demand if properly cared for, but they cannot if they are to be continually subject to damage from fire. Forest fires must no longer be regarded as inevitable, unpreventabje, and as acci- dents Tliey must be considered in their true light, namely that they are a curse which must be done away with, and the person or corporation who does not use every possible means to prevent dam- age while using fire must sufl-er because of the abuse of Ins liberty and of his neighbors' rights. LESSON 17. AN OUNCE OF PREVENTION While it is true that it is the duly of the Commonwealth to talce care of its own interests, both as a tirnVr land owner, and because of the benefits of forests to society, it must l)e distinctly understood that the Commonwealth is made up of the individuals who live within its l)orders. The results of forest fires touch the life of every individual in the Commonwealth. It is the duty, therefore, of e^very citizen to do his share, not simply in the suppression of forest fires, but also in tJieir prevention. "Important as fire extinction is, greater stress must be placed upon fire prevention. The evil must be eliminated at its source. "Safety First," efficiency, and conservation, are three terms that are upon the lips of the people upon all occasions. They are easily understood and appreciated. They arc >being applied to all phases of work private and governmental. Efficiency commissions and the conserving of material and human wealth by national and state gov- ernments are in vogue. Although this condition exists, the people are not yet entirely awake to the foundation principle of these three / 35 f ideas. The best conservation of effort, time, money, resources, health, and life is expressed in the idea of the prevention of waste. The remedyinof of ills and the restoration of things whidh oan be re- stored are noble actions, bnt many ills cannot be remedied and many resources cannot be restored. Tlie prevention of accidents and of unsatisfactory conditions is wiser, cheaper and more far reachinof than amelioration. The old saws ''An oiuice of prevention is worth a pound of cure" and "A stitch in time saves nine'' are just as true to day as they were when first uttered. Efficiency implies "safety first" and conservation. Forestry is one branch of conservation, and the protection of forests from fire is a part of forestry. Safety first in forest man- agement is just as wise and just as important as in manufacturing or in railroading. It is, in fact, more so. Industries could continue without the safety first idea being developed very far, but forestry is impossible without protection from fire. Any system of forestry is doomed, and is the limit of inefficiency if forest fires are not suppressed. It is a recognized principle tliat the Commonw^ealth has an im- portant interest in the forests witliin its l>orders. But the peculiar relation with respect to ownership of property wliich exists under our form of government is rather difficult to handle. AA^e hesitate to have the State tell us what to do with what belongs to us. In the majority of cases attempts to meet the problem have resulted in the ])urchase or retention of certain lands to be held by the State for forest management of one kind or another. Other eft'orts have been education, reduclion of tjixcs, distribution of seeds and seedlings, and fire extinction. Usually the last effort has been the weakest one. In Pennsylvania, more recent agitation for a proper care of forest dates from 1877, and an active State ]M>licy dates from ISlKi. The danger and results from forest fires have been recognized all the time but the idea that the prevention of fires should take the lead of all other moves seems even yet to l>e foreign to the majority of our i>eople. There are -approximatidy lo,000,000 acres of so-called forest land in Pennsylvania. All of it is exposed to the curse of fire. An average of 300,000 acres burns over each year. Most of it is burned over once every ten years. "No system of forest management can fiourish under such a condition. In the face of this fact, no Com- monwealth can provide for future welfare. The direct loss from tliese fires is close to .SI, 000,000 a year, and what the indirect loss is, no one can calculate. No people can forever suffer such a use- 36 less loss, nor is it sensible to expect them to. The mere fact that they do not realize their loss is no excuse for the State's permitting the condition to exist. Education must continue until every citizen knows how he is concerned. LESSON 18. SHALL WE PREVENT FOREST FIRES OR MERELY CONTROL THEM? The earlier we recognize the human side of the forest fire problem, and exert our efforts to cliange it, so as to have it in our favor, the earlier the solution of the problem may be obtained. Of course, the forest will burn as long as trees produce leaves and bmnches fall to the ground and become dry as tinder. Some of the debris may be cleaned up and disposed of at a certain expense and to the satisfaction of some people. The fuel for fires can be regulated to a certain extent. The fire itself can be extinguished under even unusual and unfavorable conditions, but this work too, is more largely dependent upon human, than upon physical factors. But how are fires in Pennsylvania's forests started? Spontaneous combustion may cause a few. Lightning causes a few— probably ten or twelve a year. The other 1,500 to 3,000 are caused directly or indirectly by the deliberate action of man. Of course, a few are started by irresponsible individuals. Unquestionably the prevention of fires is a human problem. Why does any individual with brains permit a spark to come into contact with highly infiammable, ex- tensive and valuable property, as for example a forest? Perhaps psychology may give the answer. Common sense certainly will. But at any rate there must be a f?tudy of local rolntionship. The s<3- called careless fires do just as much damage as the intentional fires. Why are the people careless, or why do so many accidental (?) forest fires happen in spring and fall, and not so many in winter and summer? How, th-en, can the minds of men be reached m as to change their attitude from one of thoughtlessness «and indifference to one of carefulness, of community interests? P:ven without this change fire extinction, the physical operation, is not a difficult operation wher- ever force is available for the purpose. But in the majority of cases this means men, women, and iboys with equipment. How is it possible to get this force? Was there willingness or unwillingness? Even though this force was present under duress, who exerted the pres- 37 sure? Was it law? Who enacted the law, or who would enforce it? No matter from what angle you look at it, you face a human prob- lem. The only logical way we have of producing change in the human mind is by education. It is well to investigate and tabulate causes, but it is better to control and extinguish fires when they occur. To do these things there must be an organization large enough to cover the forest to be protected. There must ibe a head to the organization and sufficient help to keep it going. There must be inspection, and there must be a number of alert, interested, efficient men ready to do promptly, whatever must be done. Fires must be detected promptly, reported i)romptly, extinguished promptl3\ A force of helpers and sufficient equipment must be availaible at a moment's notice. Other details must be worked out and through all the de- tails runs the human element that can't be avoided. Tlie jxunt of contact may be established by education, and education will result ill prevention. (88) LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION BY GEORGE H. WIRT Bulletin 35 (Revised) COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary Joseph S. Illick, State Forester 1927 "First learn, yourselves, the best considered plan. Then teach the careless what their duties are. And never more the running flame shall scar These timbered hills, God's generous gift to man." Douglas Malloch LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION BY GEORGE II. WIRT Chief. Bureau of Forest Protection And Chief Forest Fire Warden Bulh'tiii :'..") (Uevised) COMMON Wl'Al. Ill Oi' n:\XSVL\AMA DEPAKTMEXT (>E FORESTS AND WATERS Cliarir- I-'. DtMuorth, Sfcrct.iry Insoi-h S. lUirk, SiaU' 1 «>ii-ttr Harri>l)ur^ LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION -J^-..-- BY GEORGE H. WIRT Chief, Bureau of Forest Protection And Chief Forest Fire Warden Bulletin 35 (Revised) ■:^^_ COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF FORESTS AND WATERS Charles E. Dorworth, Secretary Joseph S. lUick, State Forester Harrisburg LESSONS IN FOREST PROTECTION Lesson Page 1. Burning Up Millions 3 2. The Forest in Every Day Life fc. 4 3. What the Forest Does 6 4. What Forest Fire Does 8 5. A Heritage Destroyed by Fire 10 6. The Forest Fire Fiend 13 7. The Curse of the Forest 15 8. Every Man's Enemy 17 9. A Forest Fire 19 10. Kinds of Forest Fires and How They Burn 21 n. Kinds of Forest Fires (Continued) 23 12. How to Fight Forest Fires 25 13. Wilful Waste Makes Woeful Want 28 14. The Forest Fire Problem 30 15. The Commonwealth Cares for Forests 32 16. Forest Thrift 34 17. An Ounce of Prevention 35 18. Shall We Prevent Forest Fires or Merely Control Them? 37 19. Causes of Forest Fires 39 20. Forest Fire Statistics 45 2 LESSON ONE BURNING UP MILLIONS In the forests of America, fires set by lightning or by Indians have occured since before the time of Columbus. Some of them burned over extensive areas. After the first settlers came forest fires were more frequent, notwithstanding the fact that most of the early settlers came from countries where it was a serious matter to cause a forest fire. But in this country, they found too many forests. Their en- emies, wild animals and Indians, were in the forests. It mattered little to them, therefore, if fire raged unchecked. In fact it was felt that the forest had to be done away with. Settlements increased and farms had to be hewn out of the forests. Trees were cut and piled for burning in clearings. Log rollings were made the object of festive occasions. The demand for wood in- creased as population and business developed. Wagons and ships had to be built to transport the products of the new land. Lumbering began and soon railroads were extended in all directions on a bed of wood. The opening of the forests and the slash left by the lumber- man made unnatural conditions favorable to fires. There was a great accumulation of inflammable material ready to feed the flames started by someone's careless fire or by an engine spark. In Pennsylvania, climatic conditions with the disturbed forest con- ditions developed two seasons of the year when forest fires became so Worthless Growths Usually Follows Forest Fires common that until recently it was generally believed that fire and smTe were a natural part of the seasons. Generation after generation r gro^rt'p'^^^^ impression that forests needed no protection. The line of least resistence has become ingrained with most people The result has been that millions of acres of forest land have been burned over and kept from producing a wood crop. U has been esti- mated thit at least five million acres of forest soil m Pennsylvania have Ten kept in a waste condition by fire and that the annual loss to the Commonwealth has been as much as $100,000,000. Even now with a somewhat awakened public one quarter million acres bi.rn over each veTrTn Pennsylvania. It seems certain that more imber has been kept from reaching merchantable size, and consequently not available for use as a result of such fires, than was ever harvested m the Common- wealth by lumbermen. Verily we have been and stil are burning up millions and bringing about very unsatisfactory living conditions without a thought for the future. oant^c^mn Now the forests are limited in extent. Of Pennsylvania s 28,000 000 acres of primeval forests, stocked with timber, m quality ^f ^^l^^l^^^^^^ anything found in the eastern states, there are now about 13,000,000 acres of woodlands. Only a few million acres have merchantable material upon them. The balance has only young growth and vast areas have nothing but brush of valueless species. But with the decreasing area of the forest and the decreased crop on the remaining forest area, the demands for wood have increased un- tiU almost four-fifths of the wood used in Pensylvania must be brought ffreat distances from other states. In this way everything we use is more expensive because of the lack of a local supply of wood. The for- est is no longer our enemy, but it is the most essential natural resource for our continued welfare. Therefore, our slogan must be Prevent Forest Fires, It Pays." LESSON TWO THE FOREST IN EVERY DAY LIFE Our most essential every day needs are food, water, clothes, shelter, heat labor recreation, health, transportation, and education. You may' never have thought about how the forest affects these necessities. Does it aid or hinder man in obtaining his needs? Does it furnish any of them! In the early days, the pioneers got practically everything they want- ed from the forest. Even now a considerable quantity of food pro- ducts is obtained directly from it, as nuts, fleshy fruits, berries, grapes, maple sugar and syrup, honey, flavoring extracts, meat from wild ani- mals, as well as many minor products. But the forest plays a larger part in our food supply because of its influence on the moisture supply of air and soil, which is beneficial to agriculture. The birds of the forest hold in check the insect hordes which would destroy all food crops if uncontrolled. Wood is used in the fences of the fields, the machinery and equipment of the farm and garden. Crops are gathered, transported and stored in wooden containers. The forest is nature's reservoir and filter system to supply us with a constant and pure supply of water not only to drink but to fill our streams for power and navigation. The forest also furnishes us with clothing. First comes the skins of animals, and the fur industry is still of considerable importance. Now all sorts of clothing are made from wood fibres. Likewise wood enters largely into the harvesting, marketing, and manufacturing of clothing made from wool, cotton, etc. Without Wood the Arch of Prosperity Falls The forest furnishes, dyes, wood buttons, wooden lasts for shoes, shapes for hats, and the tanning materials for the leather of our shoes, gloves, coats and other leather goods. Needless to state that the forest has furnished us our shelter. Wood- en houses are still most common in our country. Where brick and stone have been used for outside walls wood has entered most largely into the interior finish and equipment of our homes. Our fuel comes directly or indirectly from the forest. Wood is a direct product of the forest. Coal is mined by using large quantities of wood for mine timbering. Electricity developed from water power kept constant by forested hills, is transmitted over wires on wooden poles. The forests of any state furnish a large demand for labrr. Eighty per cent of wood prices is made up of labor values. Likewise the forest areas with streams and game, beautiful quiet spots, trees and 6 flowers are constantly calling to our people to find recreation within their limits. Forests influence beneficially the health of a community, because of their pure air, pure water, and facilities for recreation. Planted forests have changed a region of swamps, mosquitoes and malaria into a beautiful, healthy, prosperous and well inhabited communi- ty. Deforestation has changed populous regions into uninhabited wastes. Transportation is essential for civilization and forest i)roducts are essential in minor as well as greater transportation activities, from the lowly sled to the most wonderful aeroplane. Railroads are de- pendent upon the wooden cross-tie; navigation still depends upon wood for ships, even in the steel clad liners. Most of the material shipped from one point to another is shipped in a wooden container of some kind. Civilization is the result of commerce and of exchange of ideas. Our books are the products of the forests. Our ideas of each other, of religion, of patriotism, are determined by and kept alive by the books we read, and by the daily papers. Diminished forests are making these things more expensive. There may be a time when papers and books will be beyond the reach of the average individual resulting in wide-spread influence and a backward step in civilization. It is, therefore, evident that the forest and its products enter largely into our every day needs. Everybody loses when timber burns. LESSON THREE WHAT THE FOREST DOES The more we know about the forest and what it does for our wel- fare, the more we appreciate its presence and the more w^e will do to protect and perpetuate it. The forest is a soil saver. Every acre of land should be kept productive. The forest utilizes soil too poor to produce food crops. There are at least thirteen mil- lion acres of such land in Pennsylvania. A forest increases the value of bare soil by the production of a crop with very little labor, and thus bears its just share of taxation, tending by so much to reduce the taxes on farm lands. A forest increases the fertility of the soil on which it grows and prepares it for agricultural use when needed for that purpose. The forest is a renewaMe natural resource. It uses the productive powers of nature and furnishes a timber crop. The parts of trees, leaves, branches, bark, stem, roots, sap, and •fruit enter into the necessities, comforts and luxuries of each citi- zen's every day life. The forest insures continued prosperity. To supply these products capital and labor must be employed. There must be machinery, transportation, exchange, and research. •'i# '^M^- V*.'.- ^n -•w m ■ '■ ■• ^^'' ■ v.-%te . *-i 1 ' • . 'i • » 1- .< •• • , .,^i , "» t ■'■" s -f ■* !! ¥y. I, • '■f- il t ' < > Thrifty Forests Will Grow up if Fire is Kept out OF the Woods The development of a natural resource usually means the establish- ment of a local population, wages, demand for local food products, and general increase in business and prosperity of the community. It provides homes for insectiverous birds which hold insect hordes in check. The forest is a water conserver. A forest increases the relative humidity of the atmosphere nearby, benefiting agricultural and horticultural crops. It raises the water table of the soil in hill countries to the ad- vantage of food crops nearby. It reduces evaporation of moisture from crops and soil to the lee- ward side thus saving food crops. It tends to induce rains during the growing seasons, and tends to reduce frost damage to crops. The forest cover prevents the packing and erosion of soil, and also retards the surface run-off of rain and melted snow. It changes rainfall, snow, and other precipitation from surface run-off to under ground flow, thus regulating the flow and purity of water in springs and streams. 8 It helps to lessen the frequency of floods and to lower the flood stages of streams. The forest provides recreation and health. It furnishes favorable conditions for game and fish, and for the sport of hunting and fishing. It supplies the factors which make a beautiful and healthful country. It reduces the extremes of temperature in both summer and winter. In fact it furnishes food, water, clothes, labor, recreation, health, wealth. An old German proverb has it that ''The care of the forest brings all blessings." Certainly for Pennsylvania, forest protection, regulation and wise use mean continued prosperity. Forest destruction means economic suicide. The amount of damage done by fire in the forest depends to a great extent upon the season of the year in which it occurs. It has been found that the living parts of trees are most sensitive during the early part of the growing season when active cell division is taking place. Surface fires in April or IMay are likely to kill hardwoods which would escape injury from a fire of equal severity in the fall. The spring fire season begins with the disappearance of snow and the first drying out of the surface leaves. In the hardwood or mixed forests the forest floor is exposed to sun and wind until vegetation is far enough advanced to protect the moisture of the floor from evaporation by these two forces. After the leaves are out and several good rains have again soaked the floor there is little danger. In autumn, when the dead leaves fall, the same drying effect of sun and wind is active and continues until fall rains and snow have packed the new layer of leaves and soaked the forest floor with moisture. During periods of drought, conditions of air, surface litter, and growth combine to produce a severe fire and considerably more dam- age is done than during times of even average atmospheric moisture. Strong winds not only cause a more rapid spread of fire, but in- crease the severity of the fire, and may change surface fires to crown fires. In local areas an up hill wind may cause much more damage than a draft down a valley. High winds may produce favorable conditions for a fire within a vpry short time after a heavy rain dur- ing the fall and spring fire seasons. The amount and kind of soil covering also help to determine the damage done. The greater the amount of litter, grass, brush, etc., and the more inflammable it is the more severe the fire. 1^ » ^ >i ft o o S * o o !»• a a s S o o «0 % o o o 8 \ S5 < > -a CO H M U o Certain species are more liable to damage than others. Conifers are damaged more than hardwoods. Resinous species especially are liable to crown fires. The stems of species exuding resin from the bark catch fire quickly and carry it into the crowns. The resin adds to the intensity of the fire, as in the case of balsam fir, spruce, and white pine. When conifers are killed above ground, with but a few exceptions as pitch pine, they will not grow again. 10 Smooth barked species as beech, and thin sapped species as tulip, are especially liable to fire damage. Species with flaky bark are likely to suffer. Shallow rooted species may be killed by the burn- ing humus injuring the roots, or simply by the exposure of the roots. Hardwoods are likely to have crown fires only in thicket or pole stage, or in dense stand when dead or new leaves are on the twigs. The amount of damage varies greatly according to the age of the woods. In old timber the soil covering is usually scantier than in young wood, consequently there is less fuel and less damage. Sur- face fires usually burn more slowly in old timber because protected from the wind. As trees grow older the bark of most species grows thicker and more corky. It is a non-conductor of heat, hence it pro- tects the cambium from being scorched. Even to such trees every fire does some damage and a severe fire or frequent fires will kill them. Young seedlings and coppice growth of most species, and even poles of some species are killed by very light fire. Necessarily the kind and severity of the fire will influence the re- sulting damage. A fire in one tree does little damage unless it be- comes*'the means of starting other kinds of fires. Crown fires are destructive because the burning of the foliage usually results in the killing of a tree. Even in hardwoods the leaves, buds and twigs are so badly scorched that death results. In many cases the finer twigs are consumed. Under-ground fires kill everything in their path, by killing or consuming roots, by exposure of roots, or by removal of material from on top and around roots so that it is only a matter of a short time until the trees are blown over by wind, or gradually die. Surface fires vary in their efforts from slight injuries to com- plete destruction, depending upon their severity, fiininf 4inni||,'«?Sfer' must always be di- rected toward a mosr**e^ar#£uljji£»^ of the productive powers of any given locality, so^a^-i'^renSeFTTnssiW©-^^ of the same effect, or ev2p^.«trmc*reased one, regularly ajidmde] _^ *TcnceTias shown that in forestry the safest method of i>re- ing the i)roductive i)owers of a locality consists- in majnjwiing rruptedly a croj) of forest vegetation on the area.Jfne more frequeiHh' and the longer the ground is uncovered apa exposed to the full e}T»(^s of sun and air currents, the more, J^a^he majority of cases, is the pKnluctive power liable to be reducj The active agenbies of tlie locality depe^ upon the nature of the soil and climate. I\mH. can do little to^^ard regulating the local cli- mate, but he can control t^ great g;ttent the soil factor of his locality. ** Water is the most imporhmt component part of the soil'V arid next to this are its physica^^phsperties and then its available chem- ical constitutents. Alnapsf any soil^an furnish a sufficient quan- tity of mineral substa«^es for the pro&H^^ion of a crop of trees, pro- vided the leaf mouM^ (humus) is not remo^l^l. To insure a favorable condition of th^physical properties, should D«Lthe forester's chief aim, and thy^e can do best by preserving the lm»ms, especially on .poor soils^nd those of medium quality. "The po^^c the soil the more hi!portant is the preservation of the humus, providmc it is not acid^J^ Indeed, "humus forms the most important factor retti^ive to ^-growth, and is a ]nieeless treasure as regards the productu^ of 'woodland crops ".^ ■4 inhlinh'a "i forestry," Vol. I 2. Gayer's "Waldbftu" 17 Itn foreign countries where the right to remove litter and humus has been acquired by the people jieighbowng^Tipon a forest, the re- strictions are rigid and expieHen(55*'1ras-iihw^riL it to be so harmful to productiyeii«»rT5f the soil that forest owners are buying the rig ^^^j^^Mdiy'as possible. - The opening of the forests and the removal of humus by fire bring about conditions which make it easier for fires to rage. Each suc- cessive fire makes conditions more favorable for the next until time everything of value is destroyed and desolation results. LES^ON El in EVERY MAN'S ENEMY Forest fire is a force which does immediate damage. If uncon- trolled there is no way to tell how much damage may be done. It may result in a holocaust as in the West or in Canada. But the indirect damage from forest fire is far reaching, of inestimable amount and yet its effects are so insidious that few of us place the blame where it belongs. No forest means no water; no water means no agricul- ture. Then come floods, drought, pestilence and death. Loss of soil productivity. The death of a number of trees in a stand of any age results in the opening of the canopy and the densi- ty is destroyed. This in itself exposes the floor to sun and wind and a more rapid disintegration of humus results. When there is added to this condition the removal of the litter or humus the soil is so much the more exposed and deterioration of soil qualities takes place rapid- ly. On the more humid soils, grass, weeds and brush grow up rob- bing the remaining trees of much nutriment and moisture. On the poorer, or sandy soils, sand drifts may be started. On practically all slopes leaching and erosion begin. The loss of soil productivity is shown in a decreased annual pro- duction, a decreased yield at a given age, or by the requirement of a longer rotation age for the trees to reach a specified dimension or to yield a specified volume. In other words a forest on a certain soil Is capable of producing a certain amount of material per year, or in 100 years. It is run over by fire once, or periodically. How much less is produced? The difference in value of the products from the unburned and burned areas is the amount of loss resulting from forest fires. Increase in number and damaging power of many injurious kinds of insects and fungi. These attacks follow quickly after fires. How- ever, there may be no indication of such trouble until several years later and the attack appears to be almost instantaneous. The in- sects find breeding places in foliage, stems, stools, and roots of growth weakened in consequence of being scorched by fire. Fungi enter at 1 18 scarred bases and at other points where the bark is broken either by expansion or by breaking branches. Modification of past stands. As noted before there is a modifica- tion of growth conditions even after one moderate fire. Less resist- ant species are killed and the number of species is reduced. Sprouts take the place of seedlings. Whatever seed happens to be exposed or finds lodgment on the area is likely to germinate and become es- tablished. Winged seed species especially are likely to come in. The crop after fires varies in different localities. There may be birch, aspen, bird cherry, scrub oak, or by chance some valuable species. Species requiring protection from sun, drought, or frost in their early stages cannot regenerate until some nurse crop is established. Extra expense and difficulty of reforesting burned areas. The ex- posure of soil results in a dry condition which limits the success of artificial regeneration. The exposure is severe upon the young trans- planted seedlings. The grass and weeds which develop compete with the young seedlings for moisture and food. The lack of humus in the soil delays the growth of the seedlings which do become established. A Forest Fire Swept Over two Million Feet of Tim- ber IN This Logging Operation. Besides the Loss in Logs, Many Cords op Peeled Tanbark Were Des- troyed On other sites the debris may handicap the planting operation to such an extent that the number of trees planted per man may be re- duced over 50%. And last but not least, the debris is likely to be 19 fuel for the next fire and furnish the heat with which to kill the whole plantation. Miscellaneous. We have already mentioned the indirect results on stream flow, erosion, and health. There are still such effects as the decrease of labor by reason of the lack of a natural resource, decrease of taxes upon land which ought to be producing a revenue and the consequent rise in taxes on that land which is producing, the scatter- ing of the population of a township or county, the general decrease in land value in such cases; the local inconvenience of wood scarcity, the increased cost of wood products, the bearing on such questions as the housing of city dwellers and other economic and welfare prob- lems. To sum the whole matter up briefly, FOREST FIRES ARE CA- LAMITIES. They destroy great values without the least compensat- ing benefit, and the trail of loss in wages, industry, taxes, revenue, prosperity, sport, health, comfort, and even life, leads to every home in the land. LESSON NINE A FOREST FIRE* ((' Long before I reached the fire I could feel the heat in the air, could see the rolling smoke waves on high, and could hear the crackle and the crashing and the crunching of falling tree-trunks. Birds in alarmed flight winged ahead of the danger. Small game, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, and groundhogs, were getting out of the way and were heedless of man. There was an even increased activity and excite- ment among the bugs. I never saw such swarms of Camberwell beau- ties, banded purples, angle-wings, swallow-tails, tortoise-shells, and dog-faced sulphurs. Deer clung to the shores, ready to take to the water. Bradshaw reported a big bull moose hanging out with his cattle, as if sensing comparative safety near to man. The fire caught a lot of pestiferous army worms and destroyed no end of vermin in its course. **The fighters had brains and willingness and courage and resource, but we had nothing to fight the fire with. There wasn't a drop of water nearer than the shore. The main fire front was over two miles long. It would take an ocean to conquer it. The trail was rocky. We had shovels, picks, hoes, rakes, and axes. We could not get a shovelful of non-cdmbustible soil. All we could do was to whip at the fire with bundles of green withes. Bradshaw said that it would not run through a certain big green alder swamp, which would help check it. When the fire reached those alders, there was a hissing of a million serpents' tongues, and then a frying, sizzling sound as of the broiling of countless earth demons, and the alder swamp became blackish *B7 Ohai. S. Oiborn. With permission of "The Outlook". 20 ashes on the ground. On came the fire. It consumed every particle of the covering of the rocky land, leaving it as bare, except for ashes, as when it left the bosom of the glacier that bore it. When it got to the trail, we could only make a brief resistance, that was more futile than the prattle of babies. Then we had to run for it or roast. Long before the ground fire got to the trail the aerial of fiames and cinders had passed over us, igniting the forest beyond. There was nothing to do but pray, and there was a mighty lot of praying. The Indians said if Chief Mendoskong were alive and White Loon, the medicine man, was not dead they would make it rain. Even Greensky, who had been a famous rainmaker, had gone to the land of crippled deer and tame beaver. There was no hope. ( ( A Forest Fire Starting on its Way op Destruction Only one thing can prevent forest fires: education of the people to a point where they can appreciate the danger and will practice adequate care. I have known careful woodsmen to start a tea fire on a rock shore covered with fibrous roots and dusty ligneous sub- stance and use plenty of water in an attempt to put it out before they proceeded. But the fire had eaten its way inch by inch between rock and soil where it was hidden and where the water did not reach it, only to burn through later and destroy miles of growth. So one must be very, very careful where he builds a fire in a dry time and more careful still about putting it out. "When forest fires reach their maximum, they are more than ter- rible in their fury. The very air seems afire. There are those who 21 believe that the air decomposes at a certain heat and that the gases ignite, forming an atmosphere of liquid flames. In the Peshtigo fire the flames appeared to jump forty miles through the grimy air. In that holocaust a queer thing transpired difficult of physical explana- tion. A new house, partially completed and in course of construc- tion, located near the center of the town, was not even scorched. Not an ember was otherwise left. Some sort of cold air zone formed around the house, like the air pockets encountered by aviators or somthing similar. Anyhow, there was this freak case. ''There is such a thing as the air being so filled with carbon that it burns in advance of a gale of fire. I have seen and have run before forest fires that were advancing with hurricane swiftness through the top of trees. The tops half-way to the ground would melt m the sea of flame like soft lead bars in a furnace. These would intensify the more slowly advancing ground fire until everything in its path would be consumed and melted, even the rocks themselves Once some of my men in my absence, took refuge on the summit of a bare mountain of stone. They were suffocated by the hot air. During the historic fires in the 'Thumb of ^Michigan' people descended into wells to escape, only to be caught like rats and asphyxiated. Dozens of corpses were pulled out of wells. ** Nothing is so terrible as a fire in a great forest in a dry time. More timber has been burned than has been lumbered. There never was a greater menace to the only great fringing forests remaining m North America. These great zones of wild life are on the way to be- coming treeless, birdless, and waterless unless we save the forests at least in spots. Not flood, nor storm, nor famine, nor earthquakes, nor volcano, is more destructive than wild fires. We must become a Nation of fire wardens. "Will you help? >» LESSON TEN KINDS OF FOREST FIRES AND HOW THEY BURN Fire in the forest may assume one or more of the following charac- teristics: those of a stem fire, a surface fire, a crown fire, or an un- derground fire. A stem or tree fire is one in which a single tree is affected, and the fire is extinguished before it has spread to adjoining litter or to other trees. Such a fire occurs usually in a dry snag struck and ig- nited by lightning, or ignited by a spark from a nearby engine; or in a hollow tree set on fire by some unsportsmanlike hunter to smoke out game, or in a bee tree in order to smoke bees. Stem fires are dangerous because the wood of the tree is usually partly decayed, the hollow tree acts as a flue the great draft causes man/sparks to be given off and these may be blown great distances. 22 Stem fires when not extinguished gradually spread to adjoining lit- ter or the wind driven sparks start surface or crown fires, or even an underground fire. Tools Used in Fighting Forest Fires Crown fires are those where the flames consume the leaf canopy formed by the crowns of the trees. They may develop from surface fires in fact they usually do. Further they are usually accompanied by surface fires. Conifers are more subject to such fire, but young hardwoods with new or dead leaves are also liable. Thicket and pole stages are most likely to suffer in the East, especially new conifer- ous plantations. Crown fires occur when the wind is high and the woods are very dry The strong draft carries sparks far ahead starting new fires either crown or surface. The general shape developed is that of a **V" although the same factors influencing the shape of a surface fire affect the development of a crown fire. Without a wind, how- ever, crown fires are practically impossible. The rate of progress is ordinarily from two to three miles an hour or in extreme cases, six to ten miles. It depends upon density of crowns, regularity of heights of trees, and of species. An admixture of non-inflammable crowns or a belt of hardwoods may entirely break a crown fire. Underground fires are those which burn beneath the general surface of the soil. They occur where the mineral soil is covered with an 23 accumulation of vegetable material, and, on account of its peaty char- acter, burn more slowly than surface fires. They are common in the northern woods where fallen leaves, needles and other debris de- composes very slowly and a deep layer of partly decayed vegetable matter accumulates. Sometimes this may be two or three feet deep. Sphagnum swamps, dried up lake basins, and areas covered with a dense mass of bracken and ericaceae roots are also likely to be visited by ground fires. When this material becomes dry it burns slowly but with intense heat and is difficult to extinguish. Ordinarily they will not cover more than a few acres a day. They may be accompanied by a surface fire, or even a crown fire, and may develop from either. In Pennsylvania most of our forest fires are surface, or brush fires. A few are stem fires, resulting in surface fires, and only in periods of severe drought do we have a crown or an underground fire. LESSON ELEVEN KINDS OF FOREST FIRES (Cont'd.) THE SURFACE FIRE A surface fire is one which passes over the surface of the soil and feeds upon dead foliage, dead weeds, dry grass, dry moss, and scat- tered inflammable debris littering the ground, also occasionally brush and small trees. A part or all of the litter and humus which make up the forest floor is consumed and quickly changed from its organic form to ashes. If the fu.l on the ground is sufficient a surface fire may develop into a crown fire, especially in young coniferous stands. The manner of burning, the form of area burned over, the rapidity of progress, and the intensity of the fire, depend upon the following factors : 1. Character and quantity of inflammable material. 2. Topography. 3. Character of soil. 4. Condition of atmosphere. A surface fire on level ground and with all factors constant, is at first a small circle of flame, gradually spreading in all directions. If the least wind is blowing it burns more rapidly m the direcUon to- ward which the wind is blowing. If no wind was blowing at the time Tf staS it is not long until the fire itself creates a draft and it travSs most rapidly in the direction of the draft. More or less of an oval form is assumed and sooner or later a V shape. The side lines develop at an angle with the wind or draft and burn more slowly If much wind is present the windward side may die Tt entirlly As the factors vary, the shape of the fire varies accord- ^g tf the resultant of their forces. As for example the apex or head I 24 may be acute or broad, according to wind, fuel, or slope. A change in topography or in wind may result in the development of several heads, or "headers*'. Other things being equal the severity of the fire depends upon the quantity and kind of fuel in its path, but necessarily the amount of moisture in the material determines the amount of fuel available for the fire. Dry material will burn readily and the heat from this fuel will dry out additional stuff rendering it inflammable. But the heat may not be sufficient to dissipate the moisture from all the litter, consequently a part may be saved and the severity of the fire lessened to that extent. The accumulation of undecayed leaves depends upon the species, season, soil, exposure, and length of time since previous fire or litter removal. Species having large crowns and large leaves, as maples and oaks, make a heavier litter than ash and birch. A layer of resin- ous needles burns more rapidly and with a hotter fire than does a layer of hardwood leaves. Boy Scouts Beceivino a Lesson in Forest Protection In some forests there is a varying amount of dead wood made up of standing dead trees or snags, fallen trees, dead branches, slashings, or the debris of previous fires. Any of this material in a dry condi- tion means additional fuel and greater severity for a fire. A surface fire runs up hill rapidly because heated air currents draw flames upward and more fuel is exposed at the same time to the heat of the fire. After passing the crest a fire travels slowly in its de- 25 scent on the other side. On extensive level ground, fires burn more uniformly, gather greater volume, generally do more damage and ex- tend over a larger area than in rugged topography. Abrupt walls, narrow ridges, ledges, etc., tend to check fire and prevent its gather- ing volume. Any influence which tends to dryness increases the intensity of a fire. Southern and western slopes are apt to burn more severely than others because of warm and dry exposures. The southern slopes have more sunlight and heat and the western slopes are exposed to the prevailing winds. Sand soils warm up and dry out readily and fires are apt to be severe. Generally the greater the velocity of the wind the more rapid the progress of the fire. A steady wind makes a more severe fire than one which is gusty or intermittent. Fire is more severe and rapid when the atmosphere is dry, as in the hottest part of the day when fanned by a dry wind. Moist atmos- phere retards a fire, as in the night when air is damp and heavy, and there is little wind. We have little data of value upon the subject of the rapidity with which surface fires travel. In the East, surface fires may travel be- fore a high wind and up a slope as fast as a mile in three minutes, or twenty miles an hour, but in broken country and in varied growth, surface fires seldom travel more than five to eight miles in twenty four hours. In coniferous forests of the West they are said to travel as much as ten miles in twenty-four hours. A great many surface fires occur on what is known as brush lards. The growth consists of sprouts of tree species and brush of various kinds, as scrub oak, bird cherry, aspen, laurel, etc. Oak especially is apt to hold a number of old dry leaves, both during the fall and spring fire seasons. Surface fires running through such growth set fire to the leaves and in a number of cases burn everything. Or if the brush are not consumed the heat is sufficient to kill everything down to the ground. This kind of growth is usually found on areas pre- viously burned and in about 3 years it develops sufficient fuel to en- tirely kill everything again. In young growth just after the leaves have opened m spring, sur- face fires are likely to cause the burning of the new foliage and a very fierce fire results, accompanied by a great amount of dense smoke. LESSON TWELVE HOW TO FIGHT FOREST FIRES There are many methods of fighting forest fires Some are good and some are not. A good Warden is always ready for useful sug- gestions, and is willing to give them fair tnaL Methods of fightmg vary with the character of the fire, type of the forest, condition of 26 the atmosphere, strength and direction of the wind, rapidity of the fire's advance, topography and material on the ground. TREE FIRES: These are stopped by shutting off the air which makes a draft through the hollow trunk. Close the hole at the ground if possible with dirt. If this cannot be done, the ground around the burning tree should be cleared, and the tree should be felled. The fire can then be smothered inside and outside the tree. If water is available, the fire may be put out with force pump or sprayer or chemical extinguisher without felling the tree. Dead snags in for- ests should be felled as a matter of fire prevention as well as for the benefit of the forest. UNDERGROUND FIRES: These fires can be stopped only by dig- ging deep enough to prevent their spread. The ditch, as well as the surface should be flooded if possible. This, however, is seldom pos- sible. Where a soil fire has a good start it may be cheaper to blast a ditch than to dig one. Well-placed dynamite will do effective work in a short time. CROWN FIRES : We have few crown fires in Pennsylvania. Nat- ural conditions as to topography and growth which serve as a check are the most effective means of stopping any that may occur. SURFACE FIRES: This is the kind of fire which occurs most frequently in Pennsylvania. If there is little wind the flames may be put out by beating with branches (pine preferred), shovels, and wet burlap. Fire fighters should beat the flames with a side sweep to- ward the fire to avoid spreading sparks. The burning material may be pushed back upon the burned-over ground with brooms, rakes, sticks, forks, or other tools. The idea is to separate the burning ma- terial from that not yet afire. Water is always effective, but too frequently dependence is placed on it and when it is not available fire fighters seem to be at a loss to know how to make their attack. The fire can be smothered by throwing on dry or moist sand or dirt. If it is possible to plow, a furrow may be thrown up quickly to re- strict the spread of fire. If no trail is cleared to the bare ground entirely around the burned area, here and there small pieces of smouldering wood may be fanned into flame and the fire may again break out. The only safe practice is to make a clean trail with ex- posed mineral earth entirely around the burned area. Chemical extinguishers are sometimes used. Careful tests have been made by foresters and it has been found that the chemical spray is of no more value in the woods than is plain water with a little force back of it. This force can be supplied by a foot pump, or by air pressure, as in the ordinary fruit spraying devices. Sprinkling water in front of the fire reduces the force of the flames and permits close beating and raking. To be effective, considerable water is required when it is sprinkled directly on the flames. Water is used to the b«8t advantage when the stream is thrown at the ground immediately in front of the flames. The water and force combined will stop the 27 flames* advance. It is also satisfactory to spray water against the base of the flames from the rear particularly if there is much smoke. BACK-FIRING : When the wind is strong or when the flames are in slash, fallen logs, dead ferns, bracken, or grass, fire becomes so in- tense that it is unsafe and impracticable to attempt close attack. Back-firing is resorted to in such cases. It should be remembered that fire is a dangerous force and that when fire is fought with fire extreme care and keen judgment must be used. If a fire starts some area will be burned over and some growth will be damaged, but in order to reduce the damage as much as possible some additional sacrifice may have to be made by starting a back-fire. The area to be covered by the back-fire should, however, be kept as small as is prac- ticable. ^ Start one crew mere ••^ AFTtR HERO FiRt »»* CONTROLLCO BACK riRE OR \ PUT OUT riRE LINE * ERE FIRST. iwORK FROM MIDDLE /both ways or • /from ONC LND /across flS CIRCUM- / STANCES DECIDE t'Ptt^'S" . Start owe crew here RrrtR HEAD riRE IS tOHTFOLLtO How TO Attack a Forest Fire A satisfactory arrangement of crews is as follows: the warden or foreman directs the course and location of the fire-break, if one must be made. He is in charge of the whole fire-fighting force and should urge each man to do his best. According to the amount of bruA to ^ cut one or two axemen or brushcutters follow the warden. Four men with Rich fire rakes, or some other tool, one working close to the other, make a clean traU, exposing the mineral soil, rakmg the material to the side away from the fire unless it is needed to start 28 a back-fire. Next comes a man with a torch. He must not set fire too rapidly for the nearest raker, nor for the guards who follow him. If the torchman sets fire too rapidly for the rakers the heat may drive them off their course, and if too rapidly for the guards, the fire may not burn away from the trail fast enough to permit their moving up with the torchman. As a result sparks may blow across the trail where there will be no one to discover and stamp them out immedi- ately. Four alert and active guards can take care of a long line of back-fire. They should have three gallon spray tanks and a continu- ous supply of water. They should have also a rake or broom. Pine brush may be used in the absence of a better tool. The rear guard must be the most dependable man in the crew for he must- determine when the line is safe and must not leave it until it is safe. It is im- portant that someone who knows the woods after dark should be de- tailed to carry water. THE LAST SPARK : Sometimes wardens and men leave as soon as the flames have been extinguished, with the result that frequently the fire has started up again at one or more places. Then the fire has to be fought again; it is larger, it is harder to subdue, takes more time, costs more, burns over more area, and does more damage than the first fire. No chances should be taken with it breaking out a second time. All but the most dependable men should be discharged. The burned area should be inspected to see there is no danger of fire creeping across the trail which ought to have been cleared around the burned area. Threatening brands should be thrown far into the burned area ; logs and branches holding fire should be rolled over and sprinkled mth water or covered with dirt until they are safe. Punky stumps should be examined and broken apart to see that they can give off no sparks. Burning snags standing within several hundred feet of the un- burned area should be cut down. Every precaution should be taken to prevent a recurrence of the fire. If a fire has been put out during the day, the tract should be patrolled until the wind goes down in the evening, or until dew falls. If the fire has been extinguished in the morning and there is the least danger of its starting again, the area should be patrolled until the next afternoon or evening. No fire is out until the last spark is dead. LESSON THIRTEEN WILFUL WASTE MAKES WOEFUL WANT We have set forth thus far the need of forest protection, the neces- sity of protection from fire, the kinds of fir^, how they burn, and the damage they do. We are now fully convinced that they should be eliminated, if possible. But, before a logical and practical plan for their elimination can be formulated, much less put into operation, we must investigate the cause of forest fires. From a study of past causes we may obtain data upon which to work for fire prevention, 29 for we may reasonably suppose that the same causes in the future will continue to result in forest fires. Forest Waste is Excellent Fuel tor Destructive Forest Fires As fundamental facts it must be remembered that a piece of wood- land is a piece of property which is of value. The value is not only to the individual who happens to claim possession, but to the people of the immediate neighborhood and very probably to the State and to the Nation. Prom the inherent nature of forest property there are times when it becomes very inflammable. At such times a small spark of fire may destroy in a few hours what has required years to develop. Once it has been destroyed, man may never be able to re- place it, or at best it can be replaced only at considerable trouble, time and expense. Our next step, then, is to discover how the sparks which cause for- est fires get into the forest. Naturally the first thing we think of are the forces of nature. We know that lightning causes some fires. In Pennsylvania, only 1%% of the 1915 fires, 1% of 1916 fires «.d 1 » To take revenge, or '*to get even. To force the sale of timber. To force owner of woodlands to purchase interior holdings. To get job at fire fighting. To cover trespass or other crime. To improve pasturage. To gather nuts. To uncover minerals for prospecting. To improve huckleberry crop. To drive away snakes. To surround one's own land with a safety belt. To see it burn. 41 (b) Railroads— Fives incidental to the construction, operation, or maintenance of all railroads, other than those used in connection with lumbering and other narrow gauge roads. Eailroad.s 1. From Engines. Sparks from smoke stack of locomotives or construction engines. Sparks from fire box or ash pan. Cinders, waste, or paper thrown off by crew. 2. Right-of-way. Burning of right-of-way, new or old. Burning ties. Fire escaping in any way from section gang, telegraph or tele- phone line crews, bridge, or other repair or construction crews. Fire caused by track walkers, whether employes or trespassers. Matches and tobacco thrown from trains. Individual carelessness of any employee, passenger, or trespassers. (c) Lumhering-Fives incidental to all lumbering operations. Sawmill engines, whether permanent, temporary, stationary, or portable. Refuse burners. Dinkey engines. Lo--ing locomotives, except such as are common carriers. Tractors. 42 Hoisting engines. Logging camps. Blasting in connection with logging. Lumbering Carelessness of any lumbering employes. Slash burning. Charcoal burning and other wood utilization in the forest. (d) Burning Brush and Litter — Fires incidental to clearing land (other than incendiary, railroad rights-of-way, and lumbering operation.) Brush Burning Burning rubbish, or waste. Burning garbage. 43 Burning range. Burning stubble. Burning meadows. Burning fence rows. Burning brush. Burning weeds. Burning off fields and pastures. Burning *'new ground." Light burning. Clearing land for agricultural purposes — cultivation, fencing, building, placing bee hives, etc. Blasting stumps and rocks. Burning out animals, insects, and reptiles, (e) Transients (Campers)— Fires resulting in any manner from the carelessness of campers, stockmen, prospectors, picnickers, survey- ors, laborers (other than railroad and lumbering) berry pickers, hunt- evs, fishermen, automobilists, tramps, smokers, children, drunks, luna- tics, and other travelers through the forest. Campers Camp fires for cooking, warmth, or friendliness^with or with- out the permission of the land owner. Smoking-unextinguished matches (storm matches, wet matches thrown away and afterward ignited), cigar and cigarette butts, pipe heels. (On holidays near large towns). 44 Hunters-fire on runways, fires in hollow logs or trees to smoke out game. Shooting with inflammable wads. Bee-hunters— fires for heating honey, or other material to attract bees, fire to smoke bees while honey is being taken. Children playing with matches. (f) Miscellaneous— All fires the origin of which is known, but which cannot be classified properly under any of the above heads. Engines on tram or narrow gauge roads. Tractors and traction engines. Sparks from forest cabins. Fire works and toy balloons. Breaking of electric transmission lines. Burning buildings. Broken glass or bottles. Trees rubbing together. Unknown (g) Unknown— All fires the origin of which can not be deter- mined with such a degree of certainty as would justify their inclusion under any other head. 45 PENNSYLVANIA FOREST FIRE STATISTICS - SUMMARY BY CALENDAR YEARS Numbei Area Average Area Amount Cost to State Tear ^^ \jk *** »# *^ • of Fires. Burned Acres. Per Fire Acres. Damage for Extinction 1913 937 386,267.55 412.00 $719,426.67 $26,683.88 1914 1182 360,236.45 305.00 717,573.23 31,318.44 1915 1079 340,621.70 316.00 874,557.79 27,150.79 1916 1012 143,294.90 141.00 253,025.30 13,760.86 1917 1902 286,108.53 150.00 550,831.17 27,160.28 1918 1625 227,484.97 140.00 410,637.40 25,374.83 1919 950 126,626.07 133.29 279,395.50 13,264.79 1920 1597 256,158.21 160.39 1,007,868.30 43,105.97 1921 2409 188,535.97 78.26 329,738.64 60,941.12 1922 3635 332,326.72 91.42 670,149.11 185,041.77 1923 3539 375,737.11 105.17 794,727.37 158,825.45 1924 1997 95,792.26 47.97 204,296.60 63,793.35 1925 2562 125,150.56 48.85 380,357.64 85,777.64 1926 2917 224,255.60 76.88 1,186,326.65 177,353.41 PENNSYLVANIA FOREST FIRE STATISTICS - SPRING SEASON (Jan. 1st to May 31st Inclusive) Tear 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 Number of Fires. 686 313 899 502 1563 1359 828 1286 1978 2258 2805 957 2094 2791 Area Burned Acres. 344,751.70 67,415.60 321,341.95 98,580.00 242,080.18 203,958.05 113,805.15 240,263.14 161,594.00 256,238.31 340,370.19 46,666.78 109,209.92 223,266.72 Average Area Per Fire Acres. 502.00 215.00 357.00 196.00 155.00 150.00 137.00 186.00 82.00 113.00 121.00 48.70 52,10 80.00 Damage $628,116.72 128,068.34 840,079.08 181,192.45 504,340.68 356,834.90 247,493.50 960,450.35 282,503.52 456,198.23 711,657.97 78,501.85 252,614.45 1,182,008.85 Cost to State for Extinction $21,112.11 4,959.41 24,654.55 8,308.22 22,507.63 22,030.39 11,201.94 38,239.39 44,225.32 122,794.06 128,727.15 22,340.34 65,878.95 176,034.95 46 PENNSYLVANIA FOREST FIRE STATISTICS. - FALL SEASON (June 1st to Dec. 31st Inclusive) Tear Number of Fires. Area Burned Acres. Average Area Per Fire Acres. Damage Cost to State for Extinction 1913 251 41,515.85 165.00 $ 90,859.95 $ 5,571.77 1914 869 292,820.85 337.00 589,504.89 26,359.03 1915 180 . 19,279,75 107.00 34,478.71 2,496.24 1916 510 44,714.90 87.00 71,832.85 5,452.64 1917 339 44,028.35 130.00 46,490.49 4,652.65 1918 266 23,526.92 88.00 53,802.50 3,344.44 1919 122 12,820.92 105.00 31,902.00 2,062.85 1920 311 15,895.07 51.00 47,417.95 4,866.58 1921 431 26,941.97- 62.00 47,235.12 16,715.80 1922 1377 76,088.41 56.00 213,950.88 62,247.71 1923 734 35,366.92 48.00 83,069.40 30,160.05 1924 1040 49,125.48 47.20 125,794.75 41,453.01 1925 468 15,940.64 33.70 127,743.19 19,898.69 1926 126 988.88 7.90 4,317.80 1,318.46 1 The protection of forests from fire is funda- mental in the perpetuation of a future timber supply. George H. Wirt "And, when the fury of the fiend was spent, Burned out the fullness of its torrid wrath, It left behind a devasted path — To human carelessness a monument." Douglas Malloch END OF NUMBER