XB no. 89-100 1898-99 BULLETINS^ r^^/C OF C/J^ ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station. INDEX. VOL. VI. BULLETINS 89-100. JANUARY, 1898, TO DECEMBER, 1899. MONTGOMERY, ALA. : The Brown Printing Company, Printers 1899. coisrTEisrTs. BULLETIN. 89. Experiments with Cotton Jan., 1898 90. I. The Peach Tree Borer. II. The Fruit Bark Beetle Jan., 1898 91. Co-operative Fertilizer Experiments with Cotton in 1897 Feb., 1898 92. Experiments with Lime on Acid Soil April, 1898 93. Peanuts, Cowpeas and Sweet Potatoes as food for Pigs April, 1898 94. Strawberries June, 1898 95. Experiments with Oats Aug . , 1898 96. Experiments with Crimson Clover and Hairy Vetch. Aug., 1898 97. Dairy and Milk Inspection Sept., 1898 98. Orchard Notes Nov., 1898 99. Cotton Rust Dec, 1898 100. Lawns, Pastures and Hay Dec. , 1898 Il^DEX. In the following citations the number preceding the colon refers to the number of the bulletin ; the number or numbers following it to the page : Abbeville, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897 at 91 :95, 99 Acidity of xMilk 97:240 Tests for 97 :241 Albumen in Milk 97:224, 226 Alfalfa, inoculation of 96 :198 Alkaline Carbonates in Milk, how detected 97 :239 Alkaline, Producing Germs in Milk 97 :244 Anderson, J. P 91 :46 Anderson, J. T • • • • 96 :205 Annato 97 :240 Anthrax 97 :213. 218, 256 Apples 98 :263 Discussion of varieties in Station Orchard 98 :264 Drawbacks to culture of 98 :266 Green Aphis of 98:266 List of Hungarian varieties planted in Station Orchard. .98:267 Nursery Stock, Northern vs. Southern Grown 98:268 Present status of in Ala 98 :263 A provisional list for planting in Ala 98 :265 Scab 98:266 Summer Rots of 98 :266 Apple Trees, Whole Root vs. Piece Root 98 :267 Ash or M ineral matter in Milk 97 :224. 226, 236 Asiatic Cholera 97 :218, 252 Autaugaville, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897, at 91 :97, 99 Atkinson, G. F 89 :24 Autery, A 91 :46 Babcock Test 97 :228 Procuring sample of Milk for 97:229 Precautions in making 97:230 Bacillus Tuberculosis 97 :248, 249, 250 Bacteria, Disease Producing 97 :248 In Milk 97:241,248 N umber of 97 :242 Kind of 97:243 Causing root tubercules often, absent from soil 96 :187 Baker, C. A.— Bulletin 90. 322 Banks, G. R 99 :293 Ballard, J. 0 91 :48 Barnyard Grass 100 :319 Barns, Location of 97 :220 Bedford, H. L 99:295 Bennett, R.L 99:290 Benton, H 99 :292 Bermuda Grass 100 :316, 319 Berneys, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1597, at 91 :85 Bevill, W. G 99 :293 Blackstock, J.J 91 :46 Blue Milk 97 :246 Borax, And Boracio Acid in Milk, How Detected 97:238 Borland, T. M 91 :46 Brewton, Fertilizer test wath Cotton in 1897, at 91 :63 Bromiis vniloides 100 :319 Brundidge, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897, at. 91 :98, 99 Burnt Corn, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897, at 91 :65 Butyric Acid Fermintation 97 :245 Cary, C. A. 97 :224 Carpet Grass 100:316 Cathcart. S. M 99 :29 Casein Ferments 97 :147 In Milk 97 :224, 226, 236, 247 Cheese Color 97 :240 Clanton, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897, at .91 :54 Climate, Effect of on Cotton 89 :8 Clover, Crimson, notes on 96:187, 188 Bur, inoculation of 96 :198 Bur, self-inoculating 96 :200 1 Crimson, effects of inoculation 96 :205 Crimson, co-operative tests of 96 :202, 203 Crimson, nitrogen content as affected by inocu- . : lation 96 :205. 207 ;. Not inoculated by Lespedeza Earth 96:197, 198 Coatopa, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897, at 91 :71 Closirum 97 :227 Color-Producing Germs in Milk 97:249 Composting vs. mixing fertilizers in the furrow for Cotton 89:14 Co-operative tests of c lover and Vetch 96 :202, 203 Co-operative Fertilizer Experiments with Cotton in 1897 91 :54 test, list of localities where made 'n 1897 . . .91:54 Corn, effect of on melting point of lard 93 :130, 133 Cornmeal vs. peanuts pasturage for pigs 93 :118-120 Cotton, Age of seed 89 :9 as affecting yield 83 :9 323 Classification of lint of different varieties 89 :7 (;omposting for 89 :14 Co-operative Fertilizer Experiments in 1897 91: Rust, effect of Kainit on 91:100 Distance between plants 89 :10 Effect of late cultivation 89 :10 Effect of fertilizers on rust 89:23 earliness 89 :23 lime on 89 :13 topping 89:12 Fertilizer Experiment 89:19 Mell crosses of 89 :6-7-8 One-fourth of fertilizer in seed drill 89:16 Percentages of lint with different varieties 89:6 of diffei-ent varieties of crop at first picking 89 :6 Relative values of cotton seed, cotton seed meal, and nitrate of soda for 89:17 seed applied to Oats 95:167 seed meal vs. cotton seed and nitrate of soda on cotton 89:17 seed from different latitudes 89 :8 Special phosphate experiment with 89 :17 Subsoil plowing for 89 :13 Variety tests 89 :5 Rust circular regarding 99 :287 Rust, an argument for diversifying crop 99:308 Co-operative experiments with 99 :300-308 Experiments on Station farm 99 :299 field observations during 1896-97 99:286 Georgraphical distribution of 99 :281 letters regarding 99 :290 means of prevention of 99 :281 other names for 99 :281, 282 Potash salts for 99 :281 Summary of results . - - 99 :281 Cotton seed, time of applying on Oats 95 :167-168 Versus cotton seed meal as a fertilizer for Oats 95:167-168 Counties in which fertilizer tests with cotton were made in 1897, list of 91 :46 Cowpox ^7 -218 Cowpeas and corn meal vs. corn meal alone 93 :'-25 effect of on melting point of lard 93 :130-133 quality of pork 93 :139, 130 324 Cowpea pasturage for shoats, plan of experiment . . 93 : 122 compared with corn alone 93:123 value of, pastured by pigs 93 :123, 124 vines vs. stubble as a fertilizer for Oats 95 :170 versus velvet teans and German millet as a fer- tilizer for Oats 95:168-171 Craddock, J. B 91 :46 Crayton H. C, Co-operative fertilizer experiment with Oats. . .95 :177 Cream, Analysis of 97:231 Crimson Clover, effect of inoculation with Nitrogen 96:192 Culver, T. U 93 :ii6 Cusseta, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :91 Cynodon dactylon . 100 :316, 319 Daclylis gJomerata 100 :319 Baffin, E. J 91:46 Dairy Buildings, location of 97 :220 Daphne, Fertilizer test with Cotton in 1897 at 91 :89 Date of sowing Oats 95:163 Daugette, C. W 91 :41 Cill, C. C. L 99 :297 Diphtheria 97 :213-251 Disinfection of Dairy Barn or House 97 :254 Distance, Experiments with Cotton 89:10 Dothan, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :67 Drainage of Barns and Lots and Stables 97 :219 Duggar, J. F., Bulletins 89, 91, 93, 95 and 96. Dykes, J. W 91 :46 Earle, F. S., Bulletins 92, 94, 98, 99. Effect of cowpeas and peanuts on quality of pork 93:130 lard 93:130 Eubank, J. W 99 :283 Evans, J. H 99 :295 Experiments with Lime on Acid Soils 92:107 Experimenters, co-operative list of, in i.897 91 :46 Fall sown, versus spring sown Oats 95:163-167 Fat in milk 97 :225, 228, 231 of internal percentage weight as influenced by food 93 :134 Feed, kind and condition of 97 :218 Feeding, Time and manner of 97 :219 Fertilizer experiments with Hairy Vetch .96:207,208 with cotton 89 :19 Fertilizer experiments, co-operative with Oats 95 :176-178 in thirty localities in 1897 91 : formula for grass 100 :318 cost and composition of formulas used in co-oper- ative tests in 1897 91 :47 325 Festuca elatior . . 100 :319 Fescue or meadow grass 100 :319 Florida soft pliosphate vs. other phosphates for cotton 89:18 Food, effert of on quality of pork and lard 93:129, 133 Foot and mouth diseases 97:218, 252 Formaldehyde, or Formalin in milk, how detected 97 :239 Fruit Bark Beetle 90:33 description 90.-33 distribution 90 :33 injuries caused by 90:33 life history 90 :33 remidies 90 :35 Funkey. F 91:46 German millet vs. cowpeas and velvet beans as a fertilizer for Oats 95 :J68-171 Gordon, J 91:46 Grass, time for sowing 100 :315 suitable for making hay 100 :318 selection of seed 100 :315 Greensboro, fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :79 Hairy Vetch, notes on 96:187, 188 Hardening pork with corn after feeding other foods 93 :132 Hayes, H. H \ 99:295 Healing Springs, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :96, 99 Heart of pig percentage weight as influenced by food 93:134 Hightower, W. T 91.41 Horn,C. D 91:46 Inoculation, effect of, on nitrogen content, of clover and Vetch 96 :205, 207 for legumes, discussion of 96:188-187 of legumes 96:195-197 material, rule for selecting 96:198 natural methods of 96:198,200 Jackson, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :75 Jacksonville, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :96, 99 Japanese Persimmons 98 :275 Jarrett, J. W 91 :46 Jones, T. K 91 :46 Johnson, R. P 99:29 T^ . .. op ^ ^ 191:100 Kainit, effect on rust joq .^o Kay lor. Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :93 Kentucky blue grass 100 :317 Kidneys of pig, percentage weight as influenced by food 93 :134 Kirksey, R. E 96 :202 Lactose or milk sugar 97 :225, 228, 236, 240, 244 326 Lawn , the 100 :314 Lard, melting point of as effected by food 93:130, 133 LeGrand, Fert iiizer test wit h cotton in 1897 at 91 :81 Legumes, effect of inoculation on nitrogen content 96:205,207 Proportion of nitiogen from the air 96:206, 207 Versus non leguminous plants as fertilizer for oats . 95:170 Lespedeza e.irt li uisuitable for inoculating clover 96 :197, 198 Lime on acid soil, Experiments at Auburn in greenhouse 92:107 Effect on Abundance Pea 92:110-112 Amber Sorghum 92:112 Black seeded Simpson Lettuce. ... 92:111 Effect on bacterial blight of Tomato 92:109,111 Effect of, on Brazilian Corn 92 :112 Effect on Early Valentine Beans 92:111, 112 of on Kaffer corn 92:112 Cucumber 92:112 Eggplant 92:111 Field Experiments at Deer Park 92 :110 Effect of, on Florida butter beans 92:112 German millet 92:111 Irish potatoes 92:112 Lettuce in greenhouse 92 : 108 Okra 92:112 Ruta bagas 92 :111 Radish in greenhouse 92:108 Scarlet radish 92:111 Spanish peanuts 92:112 Tobacco 92:112 White dent corn 92:110 Liming for cotton 89:13 Liver, of pig, percentage weight as influenced by food 93:134 Logan, J. A 91 :46 Lumber mills. Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :59 Lungs of pig, percentage weight as influenced by food 93:134 Malaria '■ 97 :213, 252 Malignant c .tarrh 97 :218, 256 Mastitis, infections 97 :281, 221 McDonald, F. C 91 :46 McGregor, A . A 91 :46 McLendon, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897 at 91 :95, 99 McLendon, J. R 91 :46 Meadows, T. T 91 :46 Meadow grass 100:319 Medicago species, inoculation of 96:198 Mell, P. H., Bulletin 100. Melting point of lard as influenced by food .93:130-133 327 Milker, personal cleanliness of 97 :221 Milk, adulteration of 97:236, 237, 238 bacteriological analysis of 97 :242 best method of delivering 97 :224 causes of variations in composition 97:227 composition of 97 :224 impurities found in 97 :22l Konig's table giving compcsition of varions kinds of 97:228 Modified milk 97 :254 Mosaic disease of cotton, effect of kainit on 91:103 Naftel, Fertilizer test with cotion in 1897 at 91 :73 Nematodes, distinguishable from root tubercles 96:196 Newman, J. S , 99:298 Nitrate of soda, proper amount of for oats 95:175 versus cotton seed and cotton seed meal on cotton 89:17 time of applying on oats 95:171, 175 Nitrogen, cost of 96 :192 effect of inoculating crimson clover with 96:188-192 with Hairy Vetch 96 :193, 195 highly perishable 96 :201 where obtained 96:187 content of legumes, eflfect of inoculation on ... . 96:205-207 experiments special 87:17 proportion of, taken from air by vetch and clover . . .96:207 ammonia equivalent 91 :49 Oats and Vetch mixture 96:188 . co-operative fertilizer experiment 95:177,178 Cotton seed and cotton seed meal as fertilizers for. .95:167, 168 efifect of lime on 95:175, 176 per cent of, grain in different varieties of sheaf oats 95:159 proper amount soda nitrate 95:175 smut, prevention of 95:178,180 time of applying soda nitrate 95:171, 175 time of sowing 95 : 163 varieties tested in 1896-97 95:158, 162 winter killing 95 :166 yield after velvet beans, cowpeas and German millet. 95:168, 171 Orchard grass 100 :319 Ordinance regulating sale of milk in Montgomery, Ala 97 ;255 Organs, internal, of pigs as affected by food 93:134 Orr, A. W 92:107 Panicum Crus-galli 100 :319 Paspalum Compre^sum 100 ;316 Pasteurization of milk 97 :253 Pastures . .-. 100 :318 328 Pastures grasses suitable for 100 :318 Peach Tree Borer, Dendrolene for -- 90 :32 Description 90 :27 Injuries caused by 90:27 Life history 90:28 Kemidies 90 :30 experiments at Auburn 90:31 Peanuts, amount of pork produced by a bushel of 93:120 as food fur pigs 93 :113, 134 versus corn-meal 93:120,131 effect of, on quality of pork 93 :129, 130 effect of, on melting point of lard 93 :130, 133 financial results from pasturing pigs on 93:117 value of, pastured by pigs 93 ;117, 120 Pear Stocks for the South, Japanese vs. French 98 :269 Persimmon, Japanese 98 :275 Peterkin, J. A 99 :297 Phosphate, effect of mixing acid phosphate and Florida soft. . 89:17 Phosphate experiments, special 89:17 Phosphates, relative values of different 89 :17 Pigs used in feeding experiments in 1897-98 93:116 Pitt uck , B . C 99 :297 Plums, the blooming season of 98:271 Poa arachniftra 100 :319 Foa pratensis 100 :317 Pork, quality of as influenced by food 93 :129, 130 Prattville, fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91:62 Profit from fertilizers 91 :49 Quality of pork as influenced by food 93 :129, 130 Red milk 97 ;246 Redding, R. J 99 :295 References consulted in preparing Bulletin 97 .97 :257 Rescue grass 100 -319 Rhodes, G. W 99 :296 Robertson, J. T '. 91 :46 Rolfs, P. H 99:291 Root tubercles, discussion of 96 :185, 186 Roots and stubble of rye, vetch and clover nitrogin in. . . .96:206, 207 Root Pruning, the Stringfellow method of short 98:269 Ropy Milk 97, 245 Roundtree, F. M 91 :46 Rust of Cotton, effect of kainiton 91:100 Rutledge, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :87 Rye, and Vetch mixture 96 : 188 nitrogen in roots, stubble and in tops 96 :206 versus Hairy Vetch as a fertilizer 96 :203, 205 329 Salicylic acid, or its salts, how detected in milk 99.239 Scarlet Fever 97 :213, 252 Scarlet Fever 97 :213, 252 Sellers, G. O 91 :46 Shackelford, F 99 :295 Smith, McQ 91 :46 Smith, G. W 91 :46 Smut of Oats, prevention of 95 :178, 180 Soil test, experiments with cotton in 1897 91 : Soil improving plants, discussion of 96 :185. 186 Solids, not fat in milk 97 :224, 233, 234 237 Sour Milk 97 :244 Spraying with white wash to retard blooming 98 :274 Spleen of pig, percentage weight as influenced by food 93 :134 St. Augustine grass 100 :317 St. Lucie grass 100 :316 Stenotophrum dimidiatum 100 :317 Sterilization of milk 97 :253 Sterrett, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :52 Strang, W 99 :296 Strawberries, Annie Laurie 94:151 Belmont - - 94 :151 Bouncer 94:151 Brandy wine 94:151 Brunette 94:151 Bubach 94 :151 Clyde 94 :151 Crescent 94:151 Cultivation and mulching 94:145 Chance for increased production 94:139 Eleanor 94:151 Enhance 94 :152 Enormous 94:152 Gandy 94:152 Gardner 94 :152 Giant 94 :152 Glenn 94 :152 Greenville 94 :152 Havaland 94 :152 Hoffman 94 :152 Insects and diseases of 94 :147 Jessie 94 :152 Lady Thompson 94 :152 Market demand for 94 :139 Marketing of 94:148 Marshall 94 :152 330 Strawberries Mary 94 :152 Meeks 94:153 Michel 94 : 153 Parker Earle 94 :163 Preparation of soil for, and planting of 94 :141 Rio 94:153 Sharpless 94 :153 8oils and fertilizers for 94 :140 Splendid 94 :153 Summary of varieties 94:154 Sunrise 94:153 Sunnyside 94:153 Tubbs 94 :153 Varieties of 94:150 Wilson 94 :153 AVilliam Belt 94 :153 Warfield 94 :153 Stubble versus vines of cowpeas and velvet beans as a fertilizer for oats 95:170 Stubbs, W. C 99 :291 Subsoiling for cotton 89 :13 Svreet Potatoes vs. Cornmeal 93 :127 as food for pigs 93:127, 128 value as hog food 93:126, 129 Texas blue grass 100 :319 Tennessee phosphate vs. other phosphates for cotton 89 :17 Terry, J. W 91 :46 Texas Fever 97:218, 256 Thomason, T. J 91:46 Thomaston, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :83 Topping Cotton, effect of on yield and earliness 89:12 Total solids in milk 97 :224, 232, 233 234, 235 Town Creek, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :56 Trifolium species, inoculation of 96:198 Tuberculin Test, How to make it 97:215 Records 97 :217 Tuberculosis 97 :213, 216, 218, 248, 256 Turner, G. H 99 :297 Tuscaloosa, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :50 Tuscumbia, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91:96, 99 Typhoid Fever 97 :213, 250 Union Springs, Fertilizer test with cotton in 1897, at 91 :69 Valerio, A. M 91 :46 Velvet Beans, vines vs. stubble as a fertilizer for oats 95:170 Ventilation of barns 97 :220 331 Vetch earth, efifect of, as inoculating material 96 :193 hairy, co-operative tests of 96 :202, 203 effect of inoculation 96:193, 195, 205 fertilizer experiment 96 :207, 208 versus rye as a fertilizer 96 :203, 205 nitrogen content as affected by inoculation 96 :205, 207 Vines versus stubble, as fertilizer for oats 95 :170 Water in milk 97 :224, 236, 237 Water supply for cows 97 :21 for cleansing purposes 97 :223 Watkins, J. P 91 :46 Weather, during the growing season of 1897 89 :4 Wilkinson, J. A 91 :46 Winter, killing of oats, means of decreasing 95:166 Yeast in milk 97 :247 Yellow fever 97 :213, 252 Yellow milk 97 :247 Yellow leaf blight of cotton, effect of kainit on 91 :103 iMtW YORK, BOTAT RDEN. Bulletin No. 8g. January 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Agricultural and Mechanical College, AUBURN. EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON J. F. DUGGAR, AGRICULTURIST. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SO N. 1898. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Melt Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Cary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J, T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g^=* The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the- State on application to the Agricultuial Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama, Experiments With Cotton. BY J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. The group of varieties yielding most liut were Texas Oak, GrifiBn, Hawkins, Deering, Mell Cross No. 15, Jones Re-im- proved, Duncan, Hutchinson, Peterkin, Truitt and Whatley. Seed of the same original stock, but grown for one year in different parts of the Cotton Belt, when planted at Auburn, showed no marked difference in productiveness. The yields obtained by planting fresh, one-year-old and two-year old seed were nearly identical. With late cultivation the yield of cotton was slightly larger than with ordinary cultivation. Truitt cotton in narrow rows on upland of medium qual- ity gave practically the same yields whether the single plants stood 12, 18 or 24 inches apart in the drill. The yield de- creased when the distance between plants was increased to 30 or 36 inches. The crop matured earlier with thick planting. Topped cotton plants yielded less than those not topped. The use of 640 pounds of slaked lime, applied broadcast ia 1896, failed to increase the crop that year. But cotton follow- lowing broadcast cow peas, turned under in the spring of 1897, afforded a larger yield on the pfot limed the previous year than on the plot not limed. Subsoiling in January, 1896, was decidedly beneficial to the flrsc crop of cotton, but afforded no increase in the second crop, grown in 1897. A mixture of stable manure, cottonseed meal and acid phosphate, applied without composting, afforded a slightly larger yield than did exactly the same materials made into compost about one month before using. Composting increased the efficiency of Florida soft phos- phate, but not of acid phosphate. Slightly larger yields were obtained by bedding on all the fertilizer than by reserving one-fourth and applying this por- tion in the seed drill at planting time. One hundred and fifty pounds per acre of cottonseed meal afforded a larger yield of seed cotton than 316 pounds of cot- tonseed or 70|- pounds of nitrate of soda. These amounts of the above-named fertilizers contained equal quantities of nitrogen ; hence cottonseed meal was the source whence the most effective form of nitrogen was obtained. Acid phosphate was more effective pound for pound than Florida soft phosphate, except when the crude phosphate was employed in compost. A mixture of acid phosphate and Florida soft phosphate was less effective than an equal weight of acid phosphate, and more valuable than an equal weight of Florida soft phosphate. Acid phosphate alone failed to increase the yield. Cotton- seed meal was highly beneficial. Kainit, alone and in com- bination, greatly increased the yield. Kainit decreased the injury from "black rust," and this is apparently the explana- tion of the large increase in yield on the plots receiving kainit. The Weather in thk Growing Skason of 1897. The rainfall for each month is recorded in Bulletin No, 88. There were several periods in May and in the first half of the summer when cotton suttered greatly from dry weather. However, up to the latter part of July there was every pros- pect for large yields, A severe drought, ending about the middle of August, followed by a week of rainy weather, resulted in great damage in shedding of forms and in the rapid spread of " black rust " on the leaves, A second growth was made later in the season, but on the Station Farm a large proportion of the bolls then formed failed to open. Varieties. In 1897 the number of varieties tested was 32, of which 17 were well-known varieties and 15 crosses originated several years ago by the station botanist, Prof. P. H. Mell. The parentage of these varieties was noted in Bulletin No. 56 of this Station. The rows were 3^ feet apart. Thinning was done after counting the plants, so as to leave an equal number on each plot. The average distance between plants was 18 inches on all plots, except on those planted in Bates and Griffin, where a poor stand was obtained, the average distance between plants being nearly 24 inches with Griffin and nearly 40 inches with Bates. No corrections have been made for this very defective stand on these two plots, although it is evident that both vari- eties are at a disadvantage. Peerless cotton was planted on 7 plots as a means of ascertaining the amount of any variations in the natural fer- tility of the field. The field was found to vary so much that one variety could not fairly be directly compared with all others. However, the frequently repeated Peerless plots enable us to calculate approximately what would be the yield of each plot if planted with the Peerless variety. In so doing the actual yield of the Peerless plot on either side is given a weight inversely proportional to its distance from each plot for which the calculation is made. The amount by which any variety exceeds the calculated yield of Peerless on a given plot is believed to be the best measure of the natural productiveness of that variety under the weather conditions prevailing in 1897. Therefore in this bulletin the varieties are ranked in order of productiveness according to the amount of lint by which they exceed Peerless in that part of the field. The actual yields, both of seed cotton at the time of ginning, and of lint, are also given. The following table contains these data, and also figures indicating the percentage of lint in seed cotton and the relative earliness of each variety, as indicated by the percentage of the total crop obtained at the first picking, August 31 : Yield per acre, relative earliness, percentage of lint, and relative productiveness compared with Peerless, (>/"32 varieties. o o 16 5 7 15 29 1 2 12 10 8 20A ;]1B 32 B 22 32 A 33 24 30 31A 14 6 35 27 4 26 25 17 20 B 21 34 19 3 9 n 13 18 23 •28 VARIETY. Texas Oak , Griffin Drought Proof Prolific. Hawkins Imp'd. Ueering Small Seed. Mell Cross No. 15 Jones Re-iinproved Duncan Mammoth Hutchinson Storm Prolific. Peterkin I'ruitt Imp'd P. Prolific. . . Whatley Imp'd Mell Cross No. 3 Mell Cross No. 50 Mell Cross No. 38 Mell Cross No. 14 Mell Cross No. 7 Mell Cross No, 58 Mell Cross No. 54 Mell Cross No. 49 Cross Cross Cross Dickson Cluster Hunnicutt Choice Mel! Cross No. 55 Mell Cross No. 12 Bates Big Boll Mell Cross No. 43 Mell Cross No. 61 Allen Improved Long Staple. Tyler MJell Cross No. 76 Mell Cross No. 11 Allen's Hybrid Long Staple. Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (check) Peerless (average of 7 plots). -a 2 >> . s — o :!> o Lbs. 707 970 824 672 027 917 898 790 755 824 746 650 682 712 640 609 688 614 624 710 816 613 629 890 605 6,34 731 1 707 661 t520 635 880 770 763 712 714 614 735 a, o o o ® '5. e« 4J be re QJ 47 36.2 44 31.0 45 33.9 63 35.7 48'32.4 58 32.3 52|34.7 *j32.0 31.34.4 6031.8 59.30.5 40 31.0 49 28.9 55 52 31.7 29.1 7 9 5 66 29 51 31 55 31 6230 8331 46,31 75 30 56,31.0 34! 29. 6 .55 31.5 48 31 3 58,28.0 6128.5 31.2 31.9 (27.2 32.4 31.9 59|.32 8 54[32.2 46 31.6 50 31 5 56 32.2 51 80 60 56 67 61 a. ^ y " u < a C5 Lh>i. Lbs 256+29 301+28 280 +20 240 206 296 296 "2.53 259 262 228 197 197 226 + 16 + 12 ^11 + 11 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 7 + 3 + 3 + 2 H- 1 + 1 19.-) 195 219 194 192 227 259 — 4 189 — 5 195 - 5 266 —13 190 198 205 202 197 157 173 285 248 253 234 218 226 194 237 —14 —15 —16 —19 -25 —46 I 0 0 o; 0 0 0 0) v o '3 '?. . ~ a Lbs. 2t1 273 260 224 194 285 285 243 250 254 221 194 194 224 194 194 219 194 194 230 263 194 200 279 204 213 221 221 222 219 285 248 253 234 218 226 194 237 tThis plot is not comparable with others on account of a difference in preparation. *The percentage of total crop gathered at first picking was not Ranking the varieties according to their excess of lint cot- ton per acre over Peerless in each part of the field, the varie- ties heading the list are Texas Oak, Griffin, Hawkins, Deering, Mell Cross No. 15 (a cross between the W. A. Cook and Cherry Chester varieties), Jones Re-improved, Duncan, Hutch- inson, Peterkin, Truitt, and Whatley. As is usual in variety tests at all experiment stations there is a great difference in the rank of varieties tested in two different seasons, 1896 and 1897. In 1897 all varieties were seriously injured by "black rust," except the very late varie- ties. Bates and Peterkin, of which only about 5 per cent, of the plants appeared to be seriously damaged. This disease was most prevalent on the early varieties, Dicksoo, Deering, and Peerless. Classification of Lint. The numbered samples of lint were classified by Mr. H. L. Bandy, a cotton buyer of Opelika, Ala. His classification was as follows : Good Middling, ^tV^* — Duncan. Strict 3Tiddling,b^c — Jones and Texas Oak (flatter rated at 5y3gC.), Truitt, Peterkin, Mell Cross No. 3, and Mell Cross No. 55. Barely Strict Middling^ 5^c. — Whatley. determined for the Hutchinson variety because of an error, which was discovered by the failure of the weight of seed cotton just before gin- ning to approximately agree with the sum of the weights of the several pickings. With all other varieties there was a close agreement between these 2 sets of figures, but with the Hutchinson there was a dis- crepancy of 12 pounds of lint cotton. The complete records in which the error occurs are therefore published here for this variety : First picking of one-sixteenth acre plot, 36.8 pounds of seed cotton ; second picking, 20.7 pounds; third picking, 3.3 pounds; and fourth picking, 0.5 pound. The error is believed to be in the weight of seed cotton at first picking. The smaller weight (weight at ginning) is evidently cor- rect for it is checked by the weight of lint, and is used in the above table for the Hutchinson, as well as for all other varieties. 8 Middling, S^^^c. — Bates, Griffin, Hunnicutt, HawkiiiF, Peerless, Hutchinson, Mell Cross No. 76, Mell Cross No. 38, Mell Cross No. 58, Mell Cross No. 61, Mell Cross No. 43, Mell Cross No. 12, Mell Cross No. 54, Mell Cross No. 49, Mell Cross No. 14, Mell Cross No. 50, Mell Cross No. 7, aud Mell Cross No. 4, -Barely Middling^ b^a. — Deering. Strict Low Middling, 5yLc. — Dickson, Allen Imp. L. S., and Allen Hybrid L. S. Where to Get Seed. This Station cannot offer seed either for sale or distribu- tion. Our seeds for variety tests are purchased in small quan- tity from the grower, originator, or seed merchant, thus keep- ing the variety purer than if we saved our own mixed seed. Our stock was obtained originally from the following parties : Allen Improved L. S. and Allen Hybrid L. S., from J. B. Allen, Port Gibson, Miss. Hutchinson, from J. N. Hutchinson, Salem, Ala. Duncan, Bates, Griffin, Ilunnicutt, Hawkins, and Dickson, from Mark W. Johnson Seed Co., Atlanta, Ga. Peerless and Peterkin, from H. P. Jones, Herndon, Ga. Texas Oak, from M. G. Smith, Lightfoot, Ga. Tyler, from K. J. Tyler, Aiken, S. C. Deering Small Seed was donated by Maj. I. F. Culver, Commissioner of Agriculture, Montgomery, Ala. Seed from Different Latitudes. In the early spring of 1896 seed of the variety King was bought from J. S. Blalock, Goldville, S. C, and planted the same year on the Station farm. Small quantities were also sent to the Experiment Station at Stillwater, Oklahoma, to Abbeville, in the southern part of Alabama, and to Dillburg, in the central or western part of this State. The seeds were planted in those localities in 1 896, and after that crop was ginned some of the resulting seed were sent back to Auburn. 9 Hence the comparison below is between seed of the same original stock grown for only one year in different localities. The yields per acre were as follows : Seed from different latitudes. Plot No. 1 and 7 2 and 6 3 4 5 Seed from Goldville, S. C. . Abbeville, Ala. Auburn, Ala. . . . Dillburg, Ala. . Stillwater, Okla Yield of seed cotton per acre. 9.50 922 028 948 928 The differences are too slight to show any effect due to latitude or climate. Indeed, one year is doubtless too short a time for a seed to be modified by change of climate. A repeti- tion of this test with seed grown for a longer time in different latitudes is planned. Old Versus New Seed. This is a repetition of an experiment conducted in 1896- In the test of the present year seed from the crop of 1896 is designated as fresh seed, that from the crop of 1895 as one- year-old seed, and that from the crop of 1894 as two-year-old seed. It will be understood that seed spoken of as one year- old is really when planted about a year and a half old, and so on for seed of other ages. With favorable weather just after planting, a good and uniform stand was secured on all plots. No differences in germination were observed. The following table gives the average results of three experiments in two years : 10 Yield of lint per acre produced by seed of different ages. ■ LINT PER ACRE Age of Seed 1 05 go 1 Is on o S (5 >; g- ® 'Z hatl ety, 2 ® ^ C5 Q the decomposition of which, if enough meal is used, is probably favorable to the effective action of the crude phosphate. The following table presents the data of these experi- ments : Mesidts of comparisons of different phosphates. o o •! 10 I r I r 15 "I Fertilizers. Amount per acre. KIND. Lbs. 240 70i 30' 240 70i 30 240 150 30 120 120 150 30 240 150 30 120 120 1.50 30 240 1.50 30 240 150 30 Acid phosphate ^ Nitrate of soda I Muriate of potash j Florida soft phosphate \ Nitrate of soda I Muriate of potash J Florida soft phosphate i Cottonseed meal > Muriate of potash ) Acid phosphate "] Florida soft phosphate , ! Cottonseed meal \ Muriate of potash J Acid phosphate Cottonseed meal Muriate of potash Acid phosphate "] Florida soft phosphate I Cottonseed meal \ Muriate of potash J Acid phosphate ^ Cottonseed meal >■ Muriate of potash J Tennessee phosphate Cottonseed meal Muriate of potash hi o o >^ Lbs. 1,035 967 792 892 972 946 1,132 1,116 19 Although variations in fertility of the field undoubtedly affected the yields on certain plots, some of the comparisons originally intended are practicable. With acid phosphate, in combination with other commercial fertilizers, the yields were larger than with Florida soft phosphate in a similar combina- tion. With a mixture of these two kinds of phosphates the yields were larger than with an equal weight of P'lorida soft phosphate, but smaller than with an equal weight of acid phosphate. Experiment with Fertilizers. The field used for this experiment was in corn in 1895, in wheat in 1896. A few months after wheat harvest buckwheat was sown. This crop failed almost completely, and was fol- lowed by rye in the fall of 1896, which was pastured in March, 1897. A thick stubble was turned under a few days before cotton was planted. This field had received liberal applica- tions of fertilizers, chiefly acid phosphate and cottonseed meal, with all crops of recent years. The soil of this field is a red loam, containing more clay than most soils in this immediate vicinity. The surface is nearly covered with flint stones. After the land was turned rows 3^- feet apart were laid off with a shovel plow. In these furrows the fertilizers were drilled, after which beds were thrown up over the lines of fer- tilizer. These beds were then flattened with a harrow and Peerless cotton was planted April 19. At the final thinning 560 plants were left on each fifteenth- acre plot, which is at the rate of 8,400 plants per acre. June 29 plants on all plots were in bloom, but the blooms were few on the unfertilized plots. There was promise of a large crop, estimated at a bale per acre, on the best plots, until the 1st of August. From August 1 to August 15 shedding of bolls went on rapidly as the result of a dry season, which, broken only by light showers, had extended^over more than a month. It was doubtless during the last week of this drought that a leaf disease became widely spread over this field. During a 20 week of almost continuous rain, beginning August 16, this leaf disease spread so rapidly that the leaves died in large areas over the field, and a large percentage of the plants dropped every leaf. The appearance of the affected plants seemed to justify the local name of " black rast" for the disease which, although not carefully observed in its early stages, was ap- parently the same as the disease described by Prof. G. F. At- kinson in Bulletin No. 41 of this Station as " yellow leaf blight," or « mosaic disease." August 21 an estimate was made of the percentage of seriously diseased plants on each plot. At that date the plot receiving 240 pound per acre of acid phosphate, and the plot supplied with both acid phosphate and cottonseed meal, had been most injured. Next in extent of injury were the unfer- tilized plots. The plots least injured were Nos. 4 and 6, the one treated with kainit alone, the other with kainit and cottonseed meal. The next healthiest plots were Nos. 1 and 7, the former being the cottonseed meal plot, the latter the cottonseed meal and acid phosphate plot. The results on plot 10 are considered unreliable, because a part of this plot consisted of a strip of land which in the preceding year had received treatment different from the bal- ance of the field, and because the growth of plants and the prevalence of leaf disease were so different on the two portions of this plot. The following table gives the yield of seed cotton per acre ; the calculated* increase ; the value of the increase at 2 cents per pound of seed cotton (5:^ cents per pound for lint and $7.50 per ton for seed) ; the actual cost of fertilizers deliv- ered in Auburn in carload lots ; and the " profit from fertil- izers," or difference between value of increase and cost of fer- tilizers : *Increase of plots 4-7 inclusive is calculated by giving to the figures for each unfertilized plot a weight inversely proportional to its distance from each in turn of the fertilized plots. 21 Yield of seed cotton, increase per acre, and financial residts from use of different fertilizers. O 1 2 3 4 ^{ \ 6 9- 10 a; a, o Lbs. 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 100 Fertilizers. Kind. Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Xo fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal ) Acid phosphate^ )" Cottonseed meal ) Kainit \ Acid phosphate ) Kainit / No fertilizer Cottonseed meal i Acid phosphate > Kainit ) Cottonseed meal "| Acid phosphate j- Kainit j SEED COTTON Lbs. 1,024 774 714 1,075 849 1,099 919 751 1,011 1,077 a 3 > o 9) . CR ■ ci ■ a 00 ■*^ O P. S3 Lbs. 310 60 354 120 303 175 260 FINANCIAL RESULTS O s > u s> a. o f6.20 1.20 7-08 2.40 7.26 3.50 5.20 0) ■4^ ce O o O P< 11.90 1.32 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 4.00 3.90 o O N 14.30 — .12* 5.70 — .82» 3.98 .80 .60 •Loss. Kainit alone was most profitable. Cottonseed meal, used alone, was second in point of profit. A combination of both kainit and cottonseed meal afforded a larger yield than either alone, but the cost was also greater, giving to this combination the third place as regards profit. The following analysis of the above table brings out clearly the effect of each fertilizer under four different condi- tions : 22 Cottonseed meal apparently increased the yield of seed cotton per acre when added — Pounds. To unfertilized plots 310 To kainit plot 9 To acid phosphate plot 60 To kainit and acid phosphate plot 8 b Average increase from cottonseed meal 116 Kainit apparently increased the yield of seed cotton per acre when added — Pounds. To unfertilized plots 354 To acid phosphate plot 115 To cottonseed meal plot 53 To acid phosphate and cottonseed meal plot 85 Averag-e increase from kainit 151 Acid phosphate apparently increased the yield of seed cotton per acre when added — Pounds. To unfertilized plots 60 To kainit plot — 179 To cottonseed meal plot — 190 To kainit and cottonseed meal plot — 103 Average decrease from acid phosphate 103 The favorable effects of kainit and cottonseed meal and the unfavorable effects of acid phosphate are probably not in- dications that this soil is notably lacking in potash acd nitro- gen and abundantly supplied with phosphoric acid. The most profitable fertilizer in 1897 was the one which was best able to fortify the plant against the attacks of the prevalent leaf dis- ease. Under the weather conditions of ISiil kainit and cotton- seed meal were best able to do this. Their favorable effect was doubtless due largely to the fact that they tended to delay maturity or to keep the plant growing longer than was the case with acid phosphate. On the other hand, acid phosphate 23 hastened maturity to such an extent that when unfavorable weather occurred in August the plants fertilized with phos- phate had reached such a stage of fruiting that they were unable to resist disease to the same extent as the less com- pletely developed plants on other plots. That there is some correspondence in 1897 between yield, late maturity and freedom from disease is suggested by the data in the following table, which shows the yield in pounds of seed cotton per acre, percentage of total crop gathered at first picking, August 26, and percentage of plants seriously injured by " rust" as estimated August 21 : Relation beticeen yield^ earliness, and amount oj '■^rust." o o 1 2 3 4 '{ 8 9 Fertilizek. c 3 '. O ' s : o Lhs 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 Kind. Cottonseed meal Acid pbospliate \o fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal 1 Acid pliosphate ( Cottonseed meal ) K liiiit / Acid phosphate i Kainit. ... . . . . i No fertilizer Cottonseed meal | Acid phosphate > Kainit I a o c3 *^ O, o O * ^ a. M bt o C CS TS »- 0) CO — (D W u 4J C Lbs. 1,024 24 774 26 714 30 1,075 22 849 44 1,099 25 919 34 751 27 1,011 40 ce 3 «)■ 1^ *" es « .2 te C '*^ -r- ® 3s be 03 ei a O^ ® — p., 20 90 80 10 90 10 15 80 75 Apparently this red soil was not particularly deficient in potash. For in 1897, in a part of the same field, with identical previous treatment, kainit, alone and in every combination^ failed to increase the yield of corn over that of the unfertilized plots. Our results in the above table seem to confirm those of 24 Dr. G. F. Atkinson (published in Bulletin Nos. 27, 36 and 41 of this Station) in showing the favorable effects of kainit in checking the disease which that authority designated, as yellow leaf blight. But kainit at the rate of 200 pounds per acre was not a preventive of the form of leaf disease which was most abundant on the Station farm in 1896, a disease which effected little injury in comparison with that wrought by the widely prevalent disease of the present year. A careful inspection of the field where the fertilizer ex- periments were conducted in 1897 led to the conclusion that the fertilizer was by no means the only factor in determining the extent and distribution of the disease. The belts in which the disease was most serious were not well defined, but ex- tended diagonally across certain parts of the field, embracing plots differently fertilized. The fact that certain irregular areas were especially liable to this disease, regardless of the kmd of fertilizer used, is not necessarilv in conflict with the tendency of kainit to check the disease under certain condi- tions. The subject of diseases of cotton is under investigation by the Station Biologist, Prof. F. S. Earle, and the Agriculturist will co-operate as far as possible in that work. We are not prepared to advise farmers to buy kainit simply for its "rust resisting" properties. On soils defi- cient in potash it is a profitable fertilizer, and apparently it • may also some years be profitable for cotton in fields inclined to rust, even if no marked deficiency of potash is indicated by other crops. Unfortunately destructive outbreaks of rust can- not be foretold. The minimum amount of kainit that can be effectively used for rust has yet to be determined. I i L. BOTANICAL ■ ;EW. Bulletin No. 90. January. 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THK AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. 1. THE PEACH TREE BORER. II. THE FRUIT BARK BEETLE. BIRMINGHAM R O H E R T 8 & SON. 1898. COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P, H. Mell Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Cary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist F. S. E ARLE Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. S^=" The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of thi' State <.n application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. The Peach Tree Borer, Of the insect pests infesting our fruit trees, tlie peach tree borer is one of the worst, for, while its work is not so much in evidence as that of those insects which defoliate the trees or attack the fruit, the injury is of a more serious na- ture and more likely to be permanent, because it is the base of the trunk itself which is attacked. The worms, or larva), live just beneath the bark, at and below the surface of the ground, eating away the tissues, and thus, in bad cases, eventually completely girdling and killing the tree. The injury in any case results in weakening the tree to a greater or less extent, making it far more susceptible to the attacks of other pests and to the influence of various adverse conditions. It is too often the case that an orchard is considered sim- ilar to a paid up investment which should yield a constant in- come without any outlay in either labor or money. In other words, the orchardist too often expects to receive "something for nothing." This is a great mistake always, and in the case of peach orchards the peach tree borer is one of the living evidences of that fact. An uncared-for peach orchard is almost certain to suffer, and suffer severely, from the attacks of this insect ; and conversely the presence of this insect in considerable numbers in an orchard is but a too palpable re- flection on the energy and thrift of the owner. Here in the South, with our mild winters, there is abund- ant opportunity for owners of orchards to amply protect their property in peach trees by dealing with this pest as it should be dealt with, and this can be done at little or no expense. This pest is not by any means confined to the South, but occurs almost everywhere peaches are grown, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It apparently originated in the northeastern United States, having been first noticed from Pennsylvania. All peach growers are familiar with the borer in the lar- val stage. For, as among most other insects, there are four stages in its life history: first, the egg; second, the larva; third,. 28 the pupa, and fourth and last, the imago, or perfect insect, which in this case is a swift flying, bright colored little moth, measuring an inch to an inch and a half across the expanded wings, and strongly r e- se mbling a wasp in ap- pearance. The moths are not often seen, and even then few know of the relation they bear to the peach tree borer itself. The waspish appearance is undoubtedly a protec- Fig. 1— The Peach Tree Korer in all its staj;es of growth ; a, adult femae; h, adult male; c. full-grown Irirva; (/, female luipa; p., inaie luijia ; /. juipa hkin extended |>ar- tialiy from cocoon ; h11 natural siz« 'I'lilsand Fijrs 4. 5,6 tind 7 through courtesy of Div. of Illustrations, U. S.Dei)tof Agriculture.) tion in many ways. They Fig. 2 a - Moth of the Peach Tree Borer; male. (From Smith's Kconoraic Entomology.) Life History. During the spring these moths lay their eggs, which are yellow- ish brown in color and very small, on the bark at or near the surface of the ground. The eggs soon hatch, and the mi- nute larva makes its way should be invariably destroyed when found. These moths are very prettily colored, and the male differs most remarkably from the female. Thewingsof the male (see Fig. 2 a) are trauspar^ ent and only bordered with blue, while the fore wings of the female (see Fig. 2 h) are blue through- out. The abdomen in both case^ is blue, but that of the female is encircled by a broad orange band. Fig.2/)— Moth of the Peach Tree Borer ; female. (From Smith's Economic Kntomology.) 29 as rapidly as possible beneath the bark of the tree, where it at once begins feeding. It is at this point we look for a reason foi the deposition of the eggs near the surface of the ground. We find it in the fact that the jaws of the young larvae are too weak to pierce the tough and hardened bark above, but just beneath the surface of the ground they find entrance an easy matter. Underneath the bark the larvae feed through the sum-, raer, and in the extreme south off and on all winter. At the opening of the burrow there usually occurs a more or less copi- ous exudation of gum, which is usually mixed with the drop- pings of the larva and with borings from the hole. This ex- ternal evidence of the presence of the new worm is first observable about the middle of the summer. The larva fre- quently works well down into the main roots. The next spring regular feeding is resumed, and continued until full growth is reached. In the far North this occurs in July or later. In the South the first larvcC mature very much earlier, and continue "coming on'' throughout the summer. Here at Auburn larvae of all sizes may be found in the trees at almost any time during the summer, thus rendering it very difficult to outline any well-defined brood. As soon as full growth is attained, the larva forms about itself a protecting cell wall or cocoon of silk (see Fig. 1) and refuse, and within this changes to a pupa. In the pupal stage the larva loses largely its power to move, and takes on char- acters which somewhat roughly outline the future moth. It remains in this stage usually but a very few days, soon shed- ding its pupal skin and appearing as the moth we have al- ready described, thus completing its life cycle. It is very evident that with such an extended term of life allotted it, a great deal of injury is possible with even a sin- gle larva. The chances of life are indeed small for trees in- fested as, for instance, those of a very badly neglected orchard in Alabama examined by Prof. Earle, some of which had as many as fifteen and sixteen worms each. 30 Remedies. In connection with remedies, two questions will naturally be asked. First, what is to be done with larvae now in the tree and second, what must be done to prevent further attack. The method of dealing with larvae, now most widely practiced^ seems a rather heroic one, but is, on the whole, the most satis- factory. This consists in cutting the worms out with a sharp knife. To be properly done the work requires the personal supervision of the orchardist, for, when left in careless hands it will likely not only be half done, but probably result in more harm than good. First remove the earth from about the base of the tree ; then, by means of the exuded gum and refuse, locate the bur- row, and by 2, few careful cuts follow it up until the worm is reached. Some orchardists prefer other measures than the employment of the knife. Removing the earth and painting the tree about the collar with kerosene has been recom- mended. Pouring hot water or kerosene emulsion about the base of the tree has also been mentioned. Some have removed the earth, put in a generous dressing of wood ashes, and re- placed the earth over them. The ashes, by the action of water, produce a caustic lye, which, if it reaches them, will kill the borers, and at the same time will act as a fertilizer. Cutting the worms out, however, is by far the most satisfactory, cer- tainly the most effective, method. It should be done during late fall or winter ; surely before the middle of April in this latitude. Just at this point comes the consideration of applications to prevent further injury, either by preventing the moths from laying their eggs on the bark, or by covering the bark with some mixture which will poison the newly hatched larva as soon as it attempts to bore in. We have some very simple applica- tions, which combine both these qualities. This preventive measure should, as a rule, be applied before the earth is turned back against the tree. Many follow the practice of simply turning the earth back and mounding it up about the tree, doing nothing more than this. In this case the moth will de- 31 posit its eggs at the summit of the mound, where the newly hatched larva will usually be unable to bore through the hard- ened bark. The most approved method consists in either tying tightly about the tree a broad piece of tar or other building paper, or coating the tree trunk with a mixture which shall either poison the larva or prevent its boring in. These should be applied before the earth is turned back, and should extend at least two inches below the surface of the soil and two feet above it. If the building paper is used it may be removed during the winter. Where other things are lacking straw, newspapers or old cloths bound tightly about the trunk will answer the purpose. Ordinary whitewash is cheap and easily prepared, and will serve the purpose admirably. To it should be added a small proportion of Paris green and some soft soap or cheap glue to prevent bracking or crumbling. This will have to be renewed if it should break up or fall off before the summer is through. Prof. Smith recommends white lead paint in boiled linseed oil as being serviceable on old trees, but adds that it should not be used on young trees, nor should turpen- tine be used to thin out the lead in any case. Extreme cau- tion should always attend the use of white lead, and the fact that only old trees will stand it should be emphasized. An or- chardist near Montgomery attempted its use on young trees. I am told that the orchard was completely ruined. Experiments at Aubuen. The peach tree borer is abundant in the vicinity of Au- burn, so that a variety of experiments in connection with it have been possible. These have been carried out under the direction of Prof. Earle, who has kindly furnished the data for the following notes. Attention will be here called to two of these which have yielded important results. On April 7, 1896, an orchard was gone over thoroughly and carefully " wormed " with the knife, some trees yielding as many as five and six worms each. A short time before this 32 the orchard had been sprayed with Bordeaux mixture* for various fungous diseases. After the trees were " wormed " the rather thick and sticky " tailings " or sediment, left from this Bordeaux mixture, was painted over the trunks and lower branches of the trees. This might have been improved some- what by the addition of a small amount of Paris green. The trunks were painted to about two inches below the surface of the ground and the earth mounded back as usual. On March 26, 1897, the orchard was again gone over and carefully "wormed," but this time the two hundred and twenty trees yielded but forty worms, and eight of these worms came from two trees, which had evidently not been properly treated the preceding year. The treatment was considered successful — complete extermination the first year was not expected. A substance called "Dendrolene" or " Insect Lime," and which has something the appearan(5e and consistency of axle grease, has been used for this and similar purposes, as a coat- ing for fruit tree trunks. It has been somewhat widely recommended through bulletins from various sources, more especially those from New Jersey and the Department of Ag- riculture. Its use may have been attended with success in New Jersey, but our tests of it here have resulted most disas- trously. On April 5, Prof. Earle had it applied in the pre- scribed manner on several mature peach and plum trees. It killed about one-half of these outright and very seriously in- jured the remainder. In consequence of these results we do not recommend its use in Alabama. *Bordeaux mixture, much used for various rusts, leaf-spots, or other fungous diseases. Is prepared as follows: Thoroughly dissolve in sepa- rate receptacles, each with 25 gals, water, 6 lbs. copper sulphate and C lbs. /r'^s/i lime. Then pour together in a third vessel. Stock solutions of each may ba kept on hand, but should not be mixed until wanted for use. The Fruit Bark Beetle. Although not as well known as the peach tree borer, the fruit bark beetle is almost as widely distributed through the South. At Auburn it is very abundant. Inquiries regarding it have come from other portions of the state also. Dr. Riley reported it from Macon, Georgia, as early as 1883. It has proven a serious pest in many portions of the eastern United States, and has been the subject of extended investigations, especially by the entomologists of Illinois and New Jersey. The evidences of its work are very characteristic. A badly infested tree looks as if it had received a charge of fine shot (see Fig. 3), the holes being about the size of the head of a pin and larger. This appearance has given rise to the names "shot-hole borer" and "pin-hole borer." As far as has been observed in this section, its attacks have been confined largely to peach, plum and cherry, the first mentioned being usually most affected. However, it is known to attack most other fruit trees also, including the apple, pear, quince, nectarine, etc. A close examination only will reveal its presence, although a casual glance may show the general health of the tree to be poor. It is, however, often the case that trees apparently in perfect health are found affected. The fruit bark beetle is a very small dark brown beetle (see P'ig. 4) about a tenth of an inch in length. The female, when ready to de- posit her eggs, forces a hole through the bark, after passing which it turns sharply at right angles, and runs but a short distance farther. Along the sides of this tunnel, which has been called the " brood chamber," she lays (accord- ing to Prof. Smith) about eighty eggs. The eggs hatch in about three days ''letue^'gr'eV'tiy^^urgec? though this occurs before the last eggs in the same brood chamber are laid. Each minute white grub u la li 13 bi as VI OJ o a; fcri J3 3 o o C O U « c 0» OS . «s S M I CO Ul Fig. 5- 35 (see Fig. 5) then begins the construction of a tunnel of its own, directed at nearly right angles away from the parent brood chamber. These tunnels become more or less tortuous in their course, being continued to a length varying from one to two inches before the larva reaches matur- ity. In the slightly en- "Srg/d!^^^'"''''''^^''''**^^''^'^'"^*"^ larged terminus of the tunnel the larva changes to a pupa (see Fig. 6), in which con- dition it continues for about ten days, at the end of which time it usually bores its way out as a perf 3ct beetle, ready to carry on the work of constructing brood chambers elsewhere. By carefully removing the bark on a portion of an in- fested limb or trunk, a good view can be had of the peculiar appearance (see Fig. 7) produced by these radiating galleries. When there are many brood chambers near each other, the result is a confused network in which it is diflBcult to trace the separate galleries. In cases of this sort, which frequently occur, the bark becomes almost entirely separated from the tree, girdling and killing it. In some bad cases observed at Au- burn there have appeared on the bark from thirty to forty of these exit holes to the square inch. -. ^ , <-,,•• ^'g- 6— Pupa of the Fruit Bark In the extreme South It is Beetle, greatly enlarged. almost impossible to trace any broods. They seem to breed continuously through the spring, summer and fall. We have found here at Auburn in December, females in newly formed brood chambers, with males in attendance at the mouth of the burrow. We have found at this time larvse also, so the insect must pass the winter in both egg and larval stages. Remediks. It seems very likely that the presence of this insect, as in tha case of the peach tree borer, is an evidence of a lack of 36 proper care, bark beetle lb is the opinion of most observers that the fruit will not attack trees that are in a perfectly healthy condition. But, given a tree ill conditioned from lack of proper or sufficient food or other causes, and its liability to attack is very great. Very often such a tree might be saved by proper treatment, whereas given over to the tender mercies of this pro- i/ lific little pest it soon perishes. I We have a good illustration u.-.-. »^ = .. , Jl here at Auburn of the relation of ^XxTOi^^^J Vijl proper treatment of an orchard -^^""^"M^ly^tfflM^^ t^ ^^^ presence of this insect- 'V**/^'! In a,n orchard of mixed peaches, C'lMmll plums and cherries, which is ''/iMvf if properly pruned, cultivated and wiV^ol otherwise cared for, there is x^i^M)] sign of this beetle. Not far m Fijj. T-Showinu; the peculiar ap- pearance underneath the bark, result) UK from the work of the Fruit Bark Beetle. not a >ign ot this Ueetle. JNot far dis- tant is a similar orchard un- pruned, uncultivated and un- cared for. The bark of these trees looks like the top of a pepper box, and they are rapidly dying. In regions where the fruit bark beetle occurs, old, uncared for trees, along fence rows and in similar places, are almost sure to serve as breeding places and points of distribution for this insect. The treatment for peach tree borer, so far as the applica- tion of whitewash is concerned, makes a good preventive meas- ure for the fruit bark beetle also. This application should be carried above the origin of the main branches. But, further, all dead branches should be pruned out and burned at once. If they be allowed to lie or are piled up for use as fire wood, the beetles will escape and go on with their nefarious work. So burn them immediately. This work should certainly be done 37 in this latitude before the first of March. If a tree is found very badly infested cut it down and burn it up, trunk and branch. If such a tree be left, its death will shortly follow, and it will but aid in spreading the trouble. If the injury is confined to but limited portions these can be cut away and whitewashed over. Whenever You Are Troubled by Insects of any kind whatever, in the house or barn, on the farm or garden, in the orchard, in the store, warehouse, or mill, or any- where else, send specimens at once, safely packed in a small wooden box, with the facts concering them, to the P'.ntomolo- gist, Agricultural College, Auburn, Ala. He is stationed here at your service, and will give prompt attention to all com- munications, furnishing you Avith information regarding the insects and remedies for them, free of all charge. BOTANICAL GARDEN, Bulletin No. 91. February. 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. CO-OPERATIVE FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON IN 1897. J. F. DUGGAR, Agriculturist. ISIBMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Meli Botanist. B. B, Ross Chemist. C. A. Cary, D. V. M ..Veterinarian. J. F. DuGG AR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. CO-OPERATIVE FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON IN I897. J. F. DUGGAU. SUMMARY. Under the direction of the Alabama Experiment Station fertilizer experiments with cotton, or "soil tests/' were made in thirty localities in the State. The object was to learn, the best fertilizers for the different classes of soil. Two hundred pounds per acre of cottonseed meal wais used to furnish nitrogen, 240 pounds of acid phosphate to supply phosphoric acid, and both one hundred and two hun- dred pounds of kai-nit to afford potash. These fertilizers were applied singly, in pairs, and all three together. Of these experiments twenty-two afforded definite indi- cations of the manurial needs of the soils on which they were made. Phosphoric acid was most effective on eight soils, potash on four soils, nd nitrogen on four soils; phosphoric acid and nitrogen were about equally beneficial in two experi- ments, and four soils stood greatly in need of all three fer- tilizer constituents — nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. The experiments i'n which phosphoric acid was most ef- fective were located near Tuskaloosa, Tuskaloosa county; Clanton, Chilton county; Sterrett, Shelby county; Town Creek, Lawrence county; Lumber Mills, Butler county; Prattville, Autauga county; Brewton, Escambia county; and Burnt Corn, Monroe county. The experiments in which potash proved most effective 44 were located near Dothan, Henry county; Union Springs, Bullock county; Coatopa, Sumter county; and Naftel, Mont- gomery county. The experiments in which nitrogen was most efife^^tive were located near Jackson, Clarke county; Perote, Bullock county; Greensboro, Hale county; and LeGrand, Montgom- ery county. The experiments in which phosphoric acid, potash and nitrogen w^ere all greatly advantageous were situated near Benneyis, Talladega county; Thomaston, Marengo county; Rutledge, Crenshaw county; and Daphne, Baldwin county. The experiments in which nitrogen and phosphoric acid were about equally beneficial, and potash of slight or no ef- fect, were located near Cusseta, Chambers count^', and » Kaylor, Randolph county. Fertilizer experiments with cotton were made in eight other localities, in which the results were not entirely cou- clasive. The fertilizer that afforded the maximum net profit in the greatest number of localities was a complete fertilizer made up as follows: 200 pounds per acre cotton seed meal, 240 pounds per acre high grade acid phosphate, and 100 pounds per acre kainit. This fertilizer mixture contained 2.59 per cent, of nitro- gen, 7.7.5 per cent, of available phosphoric acid, and 2.93 per cent, of potash. The season was generally dry, and rust or other leaf dis- ease was widelj^ prevalent and very destructive. Under these conditions, kainit greatly reduced the injury from leaf diseases in Gl per cent, of the experiments, or eight out of thirteen experiments of which complete reports were made. This does not imply iso favorable an effect of kainit in seasons when weather conditions are normal, and when rust or blight is less widely prevalent. 45 Objects ani> Methods of the Experiments. The soils of Alabama dififer widely. Hence they requir<' different fertilizers. For most profitable results the fertil- izer must be suited to the soil. Misfits are frequent and costly, especially in a State spending several millions of dollars for commercial fertilizers. To decrease such losses is the otjject of- the "soil tests," or local fertilizer experi- ments conducted under the direction of the Alabama Ex- periment Station by farmers in different soil belts. To map the .State, even roughly, according to the fertili- zer requirements of the prevailing soils, must necessarily be the work of years. In locating these experiments the writer has been guided more by the geological map than by county lines. The number of co-operative fertilizer experiments pro- vided for in 1897 was thirty-six, from which ;{0 reports were received. Twenty of these reports give definite indications. and are discussed at length in this bulletin. The others, deemed inconclusive, are more briefly tabulated. Small" lots of carefully weighed and mixed fertilizens were supplied to each experimenter. Detailed instructioms as to how to co'nducfthe experiments, and blank forms for reporting results, were also furnished. 46 The following is the list of those who made the fertilizer tests in 1897 and reported results : Name Post Office County Page Autrey, A Berneys Talladega 85 Anderson, J, P Thomaston Marengo 83 Blackstock, J. J McLendon ....... Russell 95 Borland, T. M Dothan Henry 68 Ballard, J. L Jackson Clarke . 75 Craddock, J. B. ..... Abbeville Henry 95 Baffin, E.J Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa 50 Daugette, Prof. C. W.Jacksonville Calhoun 96 Dykes, J. W Union Springs Bullock 69 Funkey, F Tuscumbia Colbert 96 Gordon, Dr. Jno Healing Springs . . Washington .... 96 Hightower, W. T. . . . Perote. Bullock 77 Horn, CD Coatopa Sumter 71 Jarrett, J. W Sterrett Shelby 52 Jones, T. K Greensboro Hale 79 Logan, J. A. . . , Clanton Chilton 54 McGregor, A. A Town Creek Lawrence 56 McDonald, F. C Rutledge Crenshaw 87 McLendon, J. R Naftel Montgomery 73 Meadows, T. T Cusseta Chambers 91 Robertson, J. T Legrand Montgomery ... 81 Roundtree, F. M Evergreen Conecuh 97 Sellers, Geo. O Lumber Mills Butler 59 Smith, McQueen Prattville Autauga 62 Smith, G. W Brundidge Pike 97 Terry, J. W Brewton Escambia 63 Thomason, T. J Kaylor Randolph 93 Valerio, A. M Daphne Baldwin 89 Wilkinson, J. A Autauga ville Autauga 97 Watkins, J. P Burnt Corn Monroe 65 47 The directioiLS sent required each plot to be one-eighth of an acre in area. Rows were 3>4 feet apart, and each experi- menter was advised to so thin the cotton as to leave the same number of plants on each plot, preferably at distances of 18 inches between plants. The directione stated that land employed for this test should be level and uniform, not manured in recent years, and not new-ground, or subject to overflow, and that it should be representative of large soil areas in its vicinity. The need of perfect uniformity of treatment for all plots (except as to kinds of fertilizers used) was emphasized. Fertilizers were applied in the usual manner — that is, drilled, ridges afterwards being thrown up above the fertil- izers. Notes on the weather show that in most localities the season was abnormally dry, a circumstance which materi- ally lessens the value of the results. A leaf disease, gen- erally spoken of as rust or blight, was very prevalent, es- pecially in the central and southern, portions of the State. The Fertilizers Used. The fertilizers used, in this experimeoit cost, delivered in Auburn in less than carload lots, as follows: Per Ton. Acid phosphate $ 11,00 Cottonseed meal 19.00 Kainit 13.75 Slaked lime 5,00 Prices naturally vary in different localities. Anyone can substitute the cost of fertilizers in his locality for the price given above. The above prices for high-grade acid phosphate (dissolved bone) a'nd kainit are several dollars lower than the usual price. The manufacturers of the phosphate uised, Edisto Phosphate Company, Charleston, S. C, supplied the Alabama Experiment Station with both phosphate and kainit at an extraordinarily low rate. A 48 part of the kainit was donated by the German Kali Works, New York City. In each experinient two plots were left unfertilized, these being plots 3 and 8. The following table shows what kinds and amountis of fertilizers were used on certain plots; the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash supplied per acre by each fertilizer mixture; and the per- centage composition and cost per ton of each mixture, the latter being given in order that these mixtures may be readily compared with various brands of prepared guanos: Pounds per acre of fertilizers^ nitrogen^ phosphoric acid, and potash used and composition of each mixture. o "A o 1 2 4 Fertilizers. o a 3 o ifts. 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. Cottonseed meal In 100 lbs,, c. s. meal.* Acid phosphate In 100 lbs. acid phos. Kainit In 100 lbs. kainit. Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate In 100 lbs, above mixt. Cottonseed meal Kainit In 100 lbs. above mixt. Acid phosphate Kainit In 100 lbs. above mixt. Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Kainit In 100 lbs. above mixt. Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Kainit In 100 lbs. above mixt. MIXTURE CONTAINS c to o Lbs. 13.58 6.79 13.58 3.09 13.58 3.39 13.58 2.12 13.58 2.59 09 o . 3.2 > & Lbs. 5.76 2.88 36.12 15.05 41.88 9.52 5.76 1.44 8.21 41.88 6.54 41.88 7.75 o Ah Lbs. 3.54 1.77 24.60 12.30 3.54 .80 28.14 7.03 5.59 28.14 4.39 15.84 2.93 o 3 a. 43 o $19.00 11.00 13.75 14.60 16.38 12.26 14.38 14.44 * Average of many analyses. t Counting all of the phosphoric acid in cottonseed meal as available. 49 Those farmers who are more accustomed to the word am- monia tha-n to the term nitrogen, can change the figures for nitrogen into their ammonia equivalents by multiplying by Unless explained, the term "profit from fertilizers" as used in the following tables, might be misunderstood. Profit or losis, as there used, is simply the difference be- tween the value of the increase attributed to the fertilizer and the cost of the latter. To make this more exact, the careful reader may subtract from the apparent profit cer- tain small items, which, because variable, could not be in- corporated in the table — for example, cost of applying fer- tilizers and cost of picking and ginning the increase. Again, the actual profit per acre from cotton culture may be greater or smaller than the ''profit from fertilizer.'* When on the unfertilized plot cotton is produced at a loss of say |3 per acre, and when the tables show, say $10 as the profit from a certain fertilizer mixture, a part of this profit must go towards offsetting the loss that would have occurred without fertilizers, leaving the farmer in this case only $7 in actual profit, although the fertilizer may have been beneficial to the -extent of $10 over and above its cost. On the other hand, when cotton is produced at a profit on unfertilized land, and when fertllizens also show a profit, the sum of these two items is very nearly the farmer's act- ual profit. 1 In determining the increase over the unfertilized plots,, the yield of the fertilized plots, Nos. 4, 5, G and 7, is com- pared with both unfertilized plots lying on either side, giv- ing to each unfertilized plot a weight inversely proportional to its distance from the plot under comparison. This meth- od of comparison tends to compensate for variations in the fertility of the several plots. It should, be remembered that seasons, ais well as soils, determine the effects of fertilizers, so that to be absolutely 50 reliable a fertilizer experiment should be repeated for sev- eral yeans on the isame kind of soil. GROUP I. PHOSPHOEIC ACID MOST EFFECTIVE. Experiment Made by E. J. Dafpin, '2,^ Miles East of Tusca- loosa, Tuscaloosa County. The field had been cleared probably sixty or more years before. The experimenter does not describe the isoil, but gives the following list of the trees constituting the origi- nal forest growth: Oak, pine, hickory, gum, beech, mul- berry, sassafras, persimmon, cherry, poplar and ash. The preceding crop wais oabs, which was preceded by two crops of corn. Rust was present, and there was no difference in this re- spect between the different plots. The season was very dry, and the crop was made by August 5. The stand was almost perfect. ''There were no outside rows." A spot extending across plots 1, 2 3 and 4 was struck by lightning, but apparently the effect was not very great, for the injured plot that was not fertilized lacked only a few pounds of equaling the yield on the uninjured plot that was not fertilized. 51 Tuscaloosa experiment with cotton. o o 1 2 3 4 7 8 10 Fertilizer. a. a « i6s 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate . . No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate . . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit SEED COTTON o u o u 73 Lbs. 648 896 592 mQ 1,064 904 1,016 608 1,168 1,168 a «> O u o 11.12 6.08 2.02 9.32 6.06 8.26 11.20 11.20 OD U o .-s ft Or 11.90 1.32 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 4.60 3.90 o Si o u ' f — .79 4.76 .64 6.10 2.78 6.J56 6.60 7.30 Increase of seed cotton, per acre when cottonseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 56 lbs. To acid phosphate plot 162 " To kainit plot 202 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 147 " Average increase with cottonseed meal 142 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate waiS added: To unfertilized plot 304 lb». To cottonseed meal plot 362 " To kainit plot 360 To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 257 » Average increase with acid phosphate 321 >» 52 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 101 lbs To Cottonseed meal plot 247 " To acid phoisphate plot 109 " To cottonseed meal and acid plios. plot. ... 94 " Ayerage increase with kainit 13S ** Phosphoric acid was the fertilizer constituent most ur- gently needed by thisisoil. Nitrogen was moderately effect- ive. The most profitable fertilizer wais a mixture of 200 pounds per acre of cottonseed meal, 240 pounds of acid phosphate and 100 pounds of kainit. The favorable effect of acid phosphate on the soil in this vicinity was shown in 1889 in an experiment made by Mr. A. V. Albright, of Tusca- loosa county. (See Bui. 12 of this station.) Experiment Made isy J. W. Jarrett, ^ Mile South op Stek- KETT, Shelby County. Soil gray ; very shallow ; slaty subsoil. This field was fresh land, cleared o'nly three years before, and had produced only corn prior to the time of this experi- ment. The soil is described as good cotton land, but as not very retentive of either water or fertilizers. There was no rust. The weather was dry. 53 Sterrett experiment with cotton. o 1 4 s 10- Fertilizer's. o a s o S < Lbs. 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. IS ce o. o Si ^ be S.2 -.1 Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate. No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate. Cottonseed meal ... . \ Kainit ] Acid phosphate I Kaiuit \ No fertilizer Cottonseed meal . . . . i Acid phosphate. . . . > Kainit ; Cottonseed meal . . . 1 Acid phosphate | Kainit ) SEED COTTON U es (B a, 35 41 30 30 36 25 34 27 24 24 Lbs. 1,080 1,448 1,040 1,216 1,688 1,200 1,520 1,328 1,720 1,512 a « So go — £^ s L6s. 40 408 118 533 -13 249 392 184 FINANCIAI, RESULTS OB $0.80 8.16 2.36 10.66 — .26 4.98 7.84 3.68 00 « o ci P. $1 .90 1.32 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 4.60 .90 « $ -1.10 6.84 .98 7.22 2.28 3.24 — .22 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cottonseed meal wais added: To unfertilized plot ^0 1T)S. To acid phosphate plot 125 " To kain.it plot .- 131 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 143 " Averase increa«J« with cottonseed meal 44 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate •was added : To unfertilized plot . . . = , .408 lbs. To cottonseed meal p'ot 493 " To kainit plot 131 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot .405 " Average increase with acid phosphate 359 54 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 118 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot — 53 " To acid phosphate plot — 159 " To cottonseed meal and acid phoe, plot — 141 " Average decrease wich kainit 59 " The chief need of this recently cleared land was for acid phosphate. As usual, on fresh land cottonseed meal wa.s not very effective. Kainit was not needed. The most profita- ble fertilizer was the mixture of acid phosphate and cotton- seed meal, which was only a few cents ahead of acid phos- phate used alone. These results accord with those obtained in. a two years' test conducted by Mr. J. W. Pitts, Creswell Station, Shelby county, in showing a special need for phosphoric acid and no increase from potash. Experiment Made by J. A. Logan, Clanton, Chilton County. Gray sandy soil ; pale red subsoil. The field used was cleared of the original growth of pine and oak ten or fifteen years ago. Corn was the crop in 1895 and 1896. The report does not indicate whether the yields were se- riously affected by rust, although this was present on some plotis. I 55 Clanton experitnent with cotton. o o 1 2 w 4 7 8 10 Fertilizers. 0/ o eS bi v O, *^ a O a Lbs. 200 240 00 2(t0 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 KIND. Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. Coitouseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate. . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid uhosphate. . Kainir. S>EED COTTON o P. Lbs. 4.32 584 320 496 912 680 1,084 350 1,032 1,112 og O ft ii N «.SI Lbs. 112 264 169 578 338 735 676 756 FINANCIAL RESULTS (B c3 P S ; a $2.24 5.28 3.38 11.56 6.76 14.70 13.52 15.12 ID « O CS U a, o O $1.90 1.32 1 38 3.22 3.28 ^ CO o P4 $0.34 3.96 2.00 8.34 3.48 2.70 12.00 4.60 3.90 8.90 11.20 Increase of iseed cotton per acre when cottonseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 112 lbs. To acid phosphate plot 314 " To kainit plot 169 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot — 59 " Average increase with cottonseed meal 134 " Increase of iseed cotton per acre when acid photsphate was added: To unfertilized plot 264 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 466 " To kainit plot 566 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 338 " Average increase witli acid phosphate 409 " 56 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 169 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 226 " To acid phosphate plot 471 " To cottonseed meal and acid phos. plot. ... 98 " Average increase with kaiuit 241 " The chief need of this isoil was for phosphoric acid. Potash ranked second in efficiency. To a less extent the .vield was increased by nitrogen. The most profitable fertil- izers were the mixtures of cottonseed meal, acid phosphate and kainit; apparently 100 pounds per acre of kainit wa& more profitable than 200 pounds. Mr. Logan conducted a fertilizer test on cotton in 1891 and again in 1892. All three tests agree in showing that phosporic acid is more urgently needed than any other fer- tilizrng ingredient. They all agree further in showing that the soil of that vicinity responds moderately to nitrogen. They disagree in regard to the effects of potash, muriate of potash in the two earlier experiments proving useless, and kainit in the present experiment proving decidedly benefi- cial and profitable. This difference is not strange in view of the fact that the seasons were not alike; that different potash salts were em- ployed, and that almost certainly different fields were used. Apparently the land which in 1897 showed a need of potaish was in poorer condition than the field used in the two ear- lier tests. Apparently a fertilizer for the soils of this lo- cality should consist chiefly of acid phosphate. Experiment Made by A. A. McGregor, 2^ Miles Southwest OF Town ('REEK, Lawrence County. Yellowish red soil, 6 inches deep ; subsoil red. Thiis field had been in cultivation at least 70 years. Orig- inal forest growth was red oak, post oak, black jack oak and hickory. The preceding crop was cotton, which wac> J m mediately preceded by two corn, crops. From many val- uable notes recorded by the experimenter the following ex- tract is taken as explanatory of the results on plots 7, 9 and 10: "Aug. 4. — No. 10 not fired or matured so much as No. 9 or No. 7. . . . Sept. 20. — All plots containing phosphate have eufifered from drought, but plots with phosphate and kai'nit more than others. There was no rust, but considera- ble loss from the shedding of form«. Leaves were shed about the middle of September, which wae due not to ma- turity, but to drought and heat." The number of plants on each eighth-acre plot wae as follows: 1131 on plot 1, 1151 on plot 2, 1037 on plot 3, 1042 on plot 4, 1143 on plot 5, 1126 on plot 6, 1105 on plot 7, 1013 on plot 8, 988 on plot 9, and 931 on plot 10. , The actual^yields, independent of the number of plants per plot, constitute the basis for the following table. In studying these results to learn whether the yields were greatly affected by variations in the stand, a calculation was made of the theoretical yields on the basis of a per- fectly uniform stand. An analysis of these ^'corrected yields" pointed to the same general conclusions as those drawn from the actual yields. That is to say, the average increase due to acid phosphate was 329 pounds on the basis of actual yields and 332 pounds on the basis of yields cor- rected to allow for variations in the stand. Likewise the average increase on. four plots attributable to cottonseed meal was 168 pounds by actual yields and 177 pounds by ■"corrected" yields. For kainit the average increase on four plots was 39 pounds, reckoned on actual yields, and 81 pounds on a basis of a uniform stand. 58 Town Creek experiment with cotton. o o 1 2 3 4 6/ 8 10 Fertilizers. o 3 o S Lbs 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 KIND. Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal ) Acid phosphate j Cottonseed meal..... i Kainit ) Acid phosphate / Kainit ^ No fertilizer Cotton.seed meal. . Acid phosphate... Kainit Cottonseed meal. . Acid phosphate. . . Kainit o, . o - . bt *^ a a •- o o SEED COTTON 1 18 20 6 8 27 17 23 6 26 26 o a. Lbs. 756 1,030 660 796 1,248 S44 854 500 1,008 1,144 c - 3 =" O 00 — ■ £^ o ^ s i6s 96 376 168 652 280 FINANCIAL RESULTS^ 4 5 7 8 10 Fertilizers. o eS u a a s o a Lbs. 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kainit CottoDseed meal. Acid phosphate . . Cottonseed meal . Kainit Acid phosphate . . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . Kainit Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . Kainit SEED COTTON u o eg 2 I Lbs. IGO 360 168 384 .520 480 S92 264 616 064 O CO ^ o CO I— I a Lbs. —8 192 197 314 155 .348 352 400 financial results CO a J> Average increase with cottonseed meal 19 >> 03 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 192 lbs. 'To cottonseed meal i)lot 322 " To kainit plot ! 151 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 197 " Average increase with acid piiosphate 216 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 197 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 103 "" To acid phosphate plot 150 " To cottonseed meal and acid phoe. plot. ... 38 " Average increase with kainit 139 " The chief need of this soil was for acid phosphate. Kainit in thiis unfavorable season was moderately etfective. The cowpeas grown between the rows of corn on this field in 1890 apparently furnished enough nitrogen; at any rate, cottonseed meal was not decidedly beneficial in 1897. The largest profit, |4.2G per acre, was obtained by the use of a mixture of acid phosphate and kainit, this, with the peavines of the preceding year, forming practically a com- plete fertilizer. Experiment Made i;v J. W. Tbrrv, Brewtox, Escambia COUXTT. Gray soil ; clay subsoil. Pine, the original growth, was removed twelve yeans ago. The preceding crop was oats, followed by cowpeas. Corn occupied the field in 1895, and sugar cane in 1894. " The very hot and dry weather after the rain in July caused all the fertilized plots to shed bottom leaves. Plots 5, 0, 7, 9 and 10 never recovered from a storm in July." 64 Breicion experiinent with cotton. o >-- *^ o Fertilizers. « ;-i o ' • tS t-i A Kind. -4^ (3 P O r- c o 00 c rt ' C CO o S! Lbs. 286 352 FINANCIAL RESULTS V 00 5£ 01 $5.72 7.04 4J cc O O o 0) $1.90 1.32 172 157 227 234 264 280 3.44 3..14 4.54 4.68 5.28 5.60 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 $3.82 5.72 2.06 — .08. 1.26 1.98 4.60 3.90 .68 1.70 tncrease of seed cottoii per acre when cottonseed meal wae added: To unfertilized plot ,286 Ibe. To acid phosphate plot — 195 " To kainit plot 55 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 30 " Average iacrease with cottonseed meal 93 "" Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 353 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 129 '' To kainit plot • 62 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 37 " Average increase with acid phosphate 145 ^ "^ 65 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 172 Ibe. To cottonseed meal plot — 59 '" To acid phosphate plot — 118 '• To cottonseed meal and acid phos. plot. . . .107 " ATerage increase with kaiait 26 " Unfortunately at the date when the report was forwarded to Auburn some cotton still remained unpicked on plots 1^ 2, 4 and 5, estimated roughly by the experimenter at about 10 pounds on each of these eighth-acre plots. The table does not include the cotton on these four plots opening at that late date. As recorded, the figures show that the greatest increase in yield is attributed to acid phosphate. Cottonseed meal increased the yield, in spite of the fact that the preceding crop of cowpeas had already contributed to the supply of nitrogen in the soil. Kainit was unprofita- Me. This experiment by no means indicates that under nor- mal weather conditions and on land not recently in cow- peas acid phosphate and cottonseed meal could be used singly to greater advantage than in combination. We should expect a mixed fertilizer to give best results on this pine woods land. Experiment Made by J. P. and J. C. Watkins, 2 Milks^ North of Burnt Corn, Monroe County. Gray,, sandy and rocky soil ; red clay subsoil. The field on which this test was made had been in culti- vation about thirty yeans. The original forest growth is re- ported as pine, oak and sweetgum. No note is made of in- jury from rust. 66 Burnt Corn experiment icith cotton. o o 1 2 3 4 ^■{ '\ 8 9 ,„| Fertilizers. re -1-3 P o S <1 L&s. 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 2-10 20(1 200 24(' UK) Kind. Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate . . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate . . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate.. Kainit Cottonseed meal. \cid phosphate . . Kainir CJ3 «t-i II 12 7 53 IS (i 7 21 31 sp;ed cotton financial results o ■ a P. Lbs. 480 648 440 448 6.5G ()00 528 224 768 664 o :« • a s Lbs. 40 208 51 302 290 261 434 330 a S-i o (M $0.80 4.16 1.02 6.04 5.80 5.22 8.68 6.60 09 to p. O O $1.90 1.32 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 4.60 ;.90 $ • —1.10 2.84 -.36 2.82 2.52 2.52 4.08 2.70 Increase of seed cotton, per acre when cottonseed meal wais added: To unfertilized plot 40 lbs. I'd acid phoisphate plot 94 " To kainit plot 239 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 132 " Average inerea»e with cottonseed meal 126 " Increase of iseed cotton per acre when acid phoisphate was added: To unfertilized plot 208 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 262 " To kainit plot 210 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 144 " Average increase with acid phosphate 206 >» 67 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: ■To unfertilized plot 51 Ybs. To cottonseed meal plot 250 " To acid phosphate plot 53 " To cotto-niseed meal and acid phos. plot. . . .182 Averasre increase with kaiuit 122 »» In spite of the wide variation in the yields of the two fertilized plots, there is suflScient evidence to prove that this isoil was especially deficient in phosphoric acid, and that ni- trogen and potash were also needed. In ISOG, when the yield on the unfertilized plots was only about half that of 1897, nitrogen afforded the greatest increase in yield. GROUP n. POTASH MOST EFFECTIVE. Experiment Made by T. M. Borland, Doth an, Henry County. Soil sa?idi/ ; subsoil clay. This piney woods field had been in cultivation for eight years, corn and cotton alternating. Cotton on all plots died prematurely, wh'ch the experi- menter attributed, not to "rust," but to unusually hot weather in the latter part of July. 68 DoUtan experiment tjoith fertili zers. Febtiijzeks. +3 0!! CS P. o SEED COTTON FINANCIAI. KESULTS a5 ' 1 a X 0) 1 . 3^ 0^ (V X. ' C8 ;- «£ Id d 0) P. Kind. 0) it ©.2 .5 ^ ^s p. 1^' ^ 0 s 0 r^ n .^ a. CO — 0 ,, «t-i eS «« aj- V?i (U^ 5H"-S w CM 0 r -3 ;-! o o B A, < Lbs. C^ >^ >-H t> u P- L6s. X?^.'!. $ 1 200 Cottonseed meal . 59 440 80 $1.60 $1.90 — .30 2 240 Acid phosphate.. 65 512 152 3.04 1.32 1.72 ■•> 00 200 200 ^Jn fpytjliypr 49 ?>60 4 Kainit 39 75 592 480 234 113 4.64 2.26 1.38 1.23 3.26 H Cottonseed meal . ... 1 1.03 240 Acid phosphate. . ... s «{ 200 Cottonseed meal. 200.Kaitiit ::.\ 51 680 325 6.50 3.28 a. 22 '1 240 200 Acid phosphate. Kainit .::} 68 720 366 7.32 2.70 4.62 8 f 00 200 No fertilizer Cottonseed meal . 45 352 ■■■1 ;;:f 9 240 Acid phosphate. . 72 848 486 9.72 4.60 5.12 200 Kainit 1 io[ 200 Cottonseed meal . ■■■} .:.S 240 Acid phosphate. . 81 776 423 8.46 3.90 4.56 100 Kainit i Increase of seed cottoa per acre when cotto-n^eed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 80 lbs. To acid phosphate plot —39 To kainit plot 91 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 120 " Average increase with cottonseed meal 6:i " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phoisphate was added: To unfertilized plot : 152 tt)S. To cottonseed meal plot 33 To kainit plot . 132 To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 161 " Average increase with acid phosphate 120 »? 69 Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 234 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 245 " To acid phoisphate plot 214 " To cottonseed meal and acid phois. plot. . . .373 " Average increase with kainit 267 " In this test kainit stands ahead of the other two fertili- zers in effectiveness, a large and rather uniform increase in yield occarring on every plot where kainit was used. In a complete fertilizer 200 pounds per acre of kainit proved better than 100 pounds. The fact that acid phosphate was only moderately effect- ive, and that cottonseed meal was oaly slightly beneficial, is probably due to the extremely unfavorable season in July and August. It remains uncertain whether the favorable effects of kainit are here due to (1) a deficiency of potash in the soil; (2) to the tendency of this fertilizer to increaise the water- holding power of the soil, or (3) to the rust-restraining ten- dency of kainit. The experimenter reported ho marked dif- ference in amount of rust on kainit plots and those receiv- ing no kainit. ExPERiMEXT Made ijy J. W. Dykes, Three and a Halk Miles West of Union Springs, Bullock County. Red soil, 5 inches deep ; subsoil red clay. The land had been in. cultivation thirteen years, cotton and ^•orn alternating. The crop in 1896 was cotton. The origi- nal forest growth was hickory, pest oak, sweetgum, etc. This soil is reported as especially liable to ''blight and rust," and these leaf diseases were very destructive in 1897, especially on plots 1, 2, 3, 5 and 8, the only plots on which DO kainit was used. Replying to a question relative to the extent of the shed- ding on the different plots, the experimenter writes: "The 70 -^extreme heat of the last part of June caused all plots to shed. Plots where no kainit was used shed most, especially plots 1, 2 and 5." Union Springs experiment with cotton. o 1 2 3 4 '{ 8 •I .1 Fertilizers. o cS p. -u S o s < KIND. 200 240 00 200 200! 240 200 200 240 200 00 20u 240 200 200 240 100 Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kaiuit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate. . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. • Kainit ci o o Qui SEED COTTON 78 94 97 77 86 78 85 95 81 91 o FINANCIAL RESULTS > o « . EC . cS • •a o ■ s "a, Lhs. 648 664 520 812 704 688 704 512 808 784 Lhs. 128 144 $2.56 2.88 294 187 173 290 296 .s ^ o o 5.88 3.74 3.46 5.80 5.92 272 5.44 ce Average increase with cottonseed meal 14 5> 71 Increase of iseed cotton per acre when acid phoisphate was added: To unfertilized plot 144 lbs. To cotto-nseed meal plot 59 " To kainit plot —4 " To cottoaseed meal and kainit plot 123 " Average increase with acid phospliate 81 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot . 2t)4 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 45 ■' To acid phosphate plot 146 " To cottonseed meal an.d acid phosJ. plot. . . .100 Ave 'age increase with kainit 159 " The results for 1897 show that the soil needed kainit chiefly as a check on rust. The largest profit was obtained where kaiuit alone was used, a mixture of kainit and acid prospha-te standing sec- ond in this respect. In a complete fertilizer 100 pounds of kainit afforded nearly as large a yield and a slightly greater profit than double that quantity. Exp.EuiMENT Made by C. D. IIoun, Coatopa, Sumtek CorNTv. Yellowis/i, sancli/ soil^ Kith red subsoil at a depth q/"3 inches. This field had bee-n in cultivation for about forty years, almost continually in cotton, except one year, when corn and cowpeas were grown, and in 1896, when cowpeas and sweet potatoes both occupied portions of the held. The original growth was red oak and hickory, with occasionally a post oak. On August 10th plants on all plots appeared to have died as the result of rust; but new leaves developed on every plot receiving kainit. (Plots 4, 6, 7, 9 and 10.) The table gives yields based only on the September and 72 October pickings. Unfortunately the light November pick- ing, which was at the rate of seventy pounds per acre, was mixed by laborers. Apparently the slight yield at the last picking would not have greatly changed the results here recorded. Coatopa experiment with cotton. o o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 Fertilizers. 0/ 3 u P. a o (-> c < Lbs. 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate . . No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate. . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate . . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit SEED COTTON <0 a P. h Lbs. 264 400 296 496 520 648 640 296 760 688 S Pi 60 ^ a Lbs. 32 104 200 224 352 344 FINANCIAL RESUI.TS^ « cS .2 ^ ® (N $0.64 2.08 4.00 4.48 7.04 6.88 464 392 9.28 7.84 a 1^ ® O $1.90 1.32 1.38 3.22 3.28 2.70 4.60 3.90 e o $ -1.2& .78 2.62 1.2(> 3.70 4 18 4.68 3.94 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cottonseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 32 lbs. To acid phosphate plot 120 To kainit plot 152 To acid phosphate and kainit plot 120 )) Averase increase with cottonseed meal 106 (i 73 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phoisphate- was added: To unfertilized plot 104 lbs. To cotto-nseed meal plot 192 " To kainit plot 144 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 112 " Areratje increase >vi(h cottonseed meal 138 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 200 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 220 " To acid phosphate plot ^ 240 " To cottoUiSeed meal and acid phos. plot. . . .240 Average increase with kainit 225 *' All three of the usual fertilizer ingredients were needed^ Applied singly there was a financial loss with all except kainit. The mixtures containing kainit were more effective than any other fertilizer. A complete fertilizer was most profitable, and the profit was greater with 200 pounds per acre of kainit than with 100 pounds. Experiment Made by J. R. McLendox, Naftel, Montgomeky County. Light, sandy soil ; red clay subsoil. The land had been cleared about forty years, and had been fertilized but twice during that time, once with com- mercial fertilizers and once with a crop of cowpea vines. The original growth was pine, red oak and hickory. The preceding crop was cowpeas. The season was extremely dry. The stand was defective. 74 Naftel experiment with cotton. o o Fertilizebs. 3 4 8 10 no u w « p< a a o E <'1 Lbs. 200 240 00 200 2011 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 KIND. 2 P. o » Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Cottonseed meal. Kaiuit Acid phosphate. . Kainit .... No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate . . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate.. Kainit 79 76 77 88 88 84 92 79 87 88 SEED COTTON cs Lbs 152 200 144 360 344 456 408 148 616 488 OS o S) ^3 Lbs. 8 56 215 198 310 261 468 340 FINANCIAL RESULTS 0) OS a o to > $0.16 1.12 .30 3.9e 6.20 5.22 to — a Lbs. 184 56 104 248 232 152 0) CO a ?! U » N 1— < •*^ ^ ^ ■ 03 Average increase with cotronseed meal 126 Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 56 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot G4 " To kainit plot 48 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot - VMt " Average increase with acid phosphate 42 5J 79 Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 104 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 48 To acid phosphate plot 96 " To cottonseed meal and acid pho^^. plot. . — 152 "' Average increase with kainit 02 " Cottonseed meal was most effective. It was also most profitable, although at best the profit wais slight. There was a large financial loss when a complete fertilizer was used at the rate of 540 and 640 pounds per acre. ExPERiMicNT Madk BY T. K..ToNES, 2 MiLEs SorTji of Grkkn's- BORO, Hale County. Yellowish^ sandy soil. • This land has been in cultivation, chiefly in cotton, for more than thirty yeans. The original growth is reported as hickory, oak and other hard woods. The number of stalks per eighth acre plot was as fellows: 1274 on plot 1, 1000 on plot 2, 1016 on plot 3, 1048 on plot 4, 1049 on plot 5, 1126 on plot 6, 1023 on plot 7, 838 on plot 8, 1027 on plot 9, and 1086 on plot 10. In the following table no corrections have been made for a defective stand, for, judging by the fact that the unfertilized plot with 838 plants yielded more than the unfertilized plot with 1016 plants, the plots plant- ed thickly had no advantage over other plots. The land was level and apparently very uniform. There was some rust on all plots, against which kainit was apparently in- effectual. 80 Greensboro experiment with cotton. « o eS u a> P. , 4-3 o a -5 3 ■k3 O o e <«i • Lbs. 1 200 2 240 3 OU 4 200 - r 200 •^i 240 «{ 200 200 '{ 240 200 8 00 r 200 9 o Lbs. 304 104 33 306 310 91 232 216 a u a o P- o S6 08 2 08 66 6 12 6 20 1 82 U O a u p. S o $1 90 1 32 1 38 3 22 3 28 2 70 4 64 4 60 4 32 3 90 $4 18 76 -72 2 90 2 92 —78 04 42 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cottoniseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 304 Ibe. To acid phosphate plot .204 " To kainit plot 277 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 141 " AYerage iiicrea«e with cottonseed meal 282 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 104 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 2 " To kainit plot 58 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 78 " Ayerage increase with acid phosphate 61 " 81 Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot ^^ ^^• To cottonseed meal plot C To acid phosphate plot — 13 To cottonseed meal and acid phos, plot. . . — 74 Average decrease with kainit 12 *• It is clear that nitrogen was more effective than phos- phoric acid. Potash was useless and unprofitable. The most profitable fertilizer was cottonseed meal used alone. ExpERiMKNT Made by J. T. RobertsoxV, LeGraxd, Montgom- ery County. Gray soil, with clay subsoil at a depth ofS ii^ches. This land had been in cultivation about forty years, and the crop in all recent years had been cotton. The original growth was oak, hickory, pine, etc. The season was dry until several days of rainy weather about the middle of August, following which rust injured the plants growing on plots where no kainit was used. 82 Le Grand experiment with fertilizers. Fertilizers. o 1 2 3 4 ^{ 8 10 o O. s 3 O S < 200 240 GO 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 100 Kind. Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . So fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate . . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate . . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . Kainit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit CO *^ c o «• o ^ <** 'Jl a -5 o o Ph Lbs. 54 56 51 51 59 58 52 53 53 SEED COTTON cs Si p. Lbs. 648 592 328 60S 776 824 736 400 1,000 944 FINANCIAL RESULTS > o (0 . m • c« • a o Lbs. 320 264 266 419 452 351 o « p* o (M $6 40 5 28 5 32 8 38 9 14 7 12 0) ^4 5 ® P< $1 90 1 32 $4 50 3 96 1 38 3 22 3 28 2 70 600 544 12 00 4 60 10 88 3 90 o St 3 94 5 16 5 86 4 42 7 40 6 "98 Increase of seed cottoii per was added: To unfertilized plot To acid phosphate plot . . To kainit plot To acid phosphate and kai acre when cotto'nseed meal 320 m&. 155 " 186 " nit plot 249 " Average increase with cottonseed meal 22b " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 264 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 99 " To kainit plot 85 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 148 " Average increase with acid phosphate 149 a 83 Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 266 lt)s. To cottonseed meal plot 132 " To acid phosphate plot 87 " To cottonseed meal and acid phois. plot. . . .181 " Average increase with kainit 1()7 *' Plainly the chief need of this soil was for nitrogen. It is equally clear that phosphoric acid was also needed by this soil. Kainit was highly advantageous by reason of its rust-restraining tendency. Whether the latter fertilizer would be profitable in a normal season when rust is less prevalent is an open and interesting question. The complete fertilizers, made up of cottonseed meal, acid phosphate and kainit, were decidedly more profitable in 1897 than any single fertilizer or mixture of two fertilizers. Two hundred pounds per acre of kainit was more profitable tha-n half that quantity. In 1896, on the same farm, but on a different field, with a poor reddish soil, only fertilizers containing nitrogen were profitable, the increase in yield from the use of acid phos- phate and kainit being scarcely apx>reciable. Both experi- ments agree in giving pre-eminence to cottonseed meal. GROUP IV. PHOSPHORIC ACID, POTASH AND NI TROGEN ALL EFFECTIVE. Experiment Made by J. P. Anderson on Farm ov Du. Thoafas, Thomaston, Marengo County. Gray, sandy soil, 4 inches deep, with red clay subsoil. This field had been in cultivation for thirty or forty years. All recent crops consisted of cotton. The original growth was oak, hickory, gum and pine. Rust wa.s very injurious, especially on the plots where kainit was not used. 84 Thomaston experiment vnth cotton. o O Fertilizers. (1 o u « a s o S KiKD. LbH. 200 240 00 200 200 240 200 200 240 200 00 200 24(1 200 200 240 100 Cottonseed meal . Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer KaiDit Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Cottonseed meal. Kainit Acid phosphate .. Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit .... Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit 09 u eS ■* . be *• O a •'• > *^^ 50 53 41 48 71 59 57 33 43 SEED COTTON 640 744 656 728 FINANCIAL RESULTS O N JO I s 4) ; ..=< p. o Lhs. —16 88 118 776 211 832 760 428 1,036 984 312 286 608 556 - 82 1 76 2 36 1 38 $1 90 1 32 o O.N b Ph $ 5 22 6 24 5 72 12 16 11 12 3 22 3 28 2 70 4 60 3 90 -2 22 44 9?j 1 00 2 96 3 02 7 59 7 22 Increase of seed cotton per acre when cottcnseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot —16 lbs. To acid phosphate plot 123 " To kainit plot 194 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 322 '* Average increase wiih cottonseed meal 155 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 88 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot To kainit plot 168 To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 296 007 " Average increase with acid phosphate 195 a 85 . Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 118 lbs. To cotto-nseed meal plot 328 " , To acid phosphate plot 198 " \ To cottonseed meal and acid phos. plot. . . .397 " i Average increase with kainit 261 " The most efifective fertilizer was kainit, the favorable ef- fect of which was due, at least in large part, to its effect in checking rust. Phosphoric acid and nitrogen were alsa needed by this soil. Every fertilizer was used to greater ad- vantage in combination than alone. The complete fertili- zers (plots 9 and 10) were most profitable, the one contain ing the larger quantity of kainit leading. Mr. Anderson also conducted a fertilizer test in 1896. Al- though an accident prevented a statement of the yields, the appearance of the different plots led him to conclude that his soil needed a complete fertilizer and that nitrogen was especially important in 1896. Experiment Made by A. Autrey, Berneys, Tat-i-adega County. Soil and subsoil red clay ; soil 3 or 4 inches deep. This field had been in cultivation forty or fifty years. The original forest growth was oak, pine and hickory. The pre- ceding crop was oats. There was only about threefourths^ of a stand on all plots. The plants on all plots remained free from all leaf diseases. 86 Berneys experiment with cotton. o 1 2 3 n r I r io^ *^ o 1 2 3 4 5-! 9<: 10 Fertilizeks. e ;-i o ce P. a 0 o a KIND. Lbs. 200 Cottonseed meal. 240 00 200 240 200 00 200 240 200 200 240 J Acid phosphate. . No fertilizer Kainit 200|Cottonseed meal. 240 Acid phosphate . . 200|CottoDseed meal. 200 Kainit Acid phosphate . . Kainit No fertilizer Cottonseed meal. Acid phosphate. . Kainit (Jottonseed meal. Acid pliosphate. . lOO'Kainit. SEEI> OOTTON P. Lbs. 600 760 552 696 1032 1140 808 520 1216 1304 o to c« ■ 9 a Lbs. 48 208 150 493 607 282 FINANCIAL RESULTS 1/2 a $2 40 40 1 40 5 40 7 20 8 80 9 60 10 40 0) u 01 N .—1 ■fc> tt V $0 02 — 1 25 4 03 4 10 3 38 5 75 5 81 — 33 1 37 3 10 5 42 3 85 4 59 Iflcrease of seed cotton per acre when cottonseed meal was added: To unfertilized plot 120 lbs. To acid phosiphate plot 250 " To kainit plot 290 " To acid phosphate and kainit plot 40 " Average increase with cottonseed meal 175 " Increase of seed cotton per acre when acid phosphate was added: To unfertilized plot 20 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 150 " To kainit plot 370 " To cottonseed meal and kainit plot 120 " Average increase with acid phosphate 165 91 Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: , To unfertilized plot 70 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 240 " To acid phosphate plot 420 " To cottonseed meal and acid phos. plot. . . .210 " Average increase with kainit 235 " Applied singly, every fertilizer entailed a finaacial lo.ss. In combination, each of the three fertilizing material was efifective, indicating that the soil was deficient in nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Kainit was most effective. The most profitable fertilizer consisted of a mixture of kain- it and acid phosphate. GROUP V. PHOSPHORIC ACID AND NITROGEN ABOUT EQUALLY EFFECTIVE, AND POTASH NOT VERY EFFECTIVE. Experiment Made by T, T. Meadows, Cusseta, Chambers County. Ittd soil, with clay foundation at a depth oj 3 itiches. This field had been in cultivation, forty or fifty years. It was very poor. The season was "very dry until July 9; then rain was too late to benefit the plants, as they had stopped growing and made no second growth." There was som-e rust. There were no outside rows. :Uii')^i 92 Cusseta experiment with cotton. o o 1 2 3 4 7 8 10 Febtilizers. SEED COTTON FINANCIAL, RESUI 95 Increase in seed cotton per acre when kainit was added: To unfertilized plot 114 lbs. To cottonseed meal plot 17 " To acid phosphate plot —210 " To cottonseed meal and acid phos. plot. . . — 75 '" Average decrease with kainit 39 *' Acid phosphate and cottonseed meal were about equally effective, both giving moderately profitable returns. Kainit was used at a loss. The plot which yielded most profit was the one to which acid phosphate alone was applied. Neither in 1896 nor in 1897 was the complete fertilizer the moist profitable fertilizer for land capable of producing 800 to 1000 pounds of seed cotton per acre. INCONCLUSIVE EXPERIMENTS. The experiment near McLendon, Russell county, was made by J. J. Blackstock on the farm of Hirsch Brothers. The field was level and the soil loamy. It had been ■cleared about sixty years before. The original growth was gum and short leaf pine. The stand was reported good. The variable effect of fertilizer in the several mixtures renders conclusions impossible, but raises the suspicion that the soil, by reason either of a sufficiency of all three of the usual forms of commercial plant food, or because of de- fective physical condition, was unable to profit by any of the ordinary commercial fertilizers. In 1896 also the results were negative or inconclusive. An experiment was made by J. B. Craddock on farm of Southeast Alabama Agricultural School, Abbeville, Ala. : The land had been in cultivation for about fifty yeans. The original growth was oak and hickory. The experiment is incomplete, having no unfertilized plot, but by comparing the yield obtained by use of the mixture containing all three fertilizers with tke yields afforded by 96 the plots to which fertilizers were applied singly and two by two, we find that the results in 1897 agree substantially with those of 1890, 1891, 1892 and 1896 in ,showrng that all thr^e of the usual fertilizer constituentis increase the yield of cotton on this soil. The experiment at Jacksonville was conducted by Prof. C. W. Daugette. The figures aif ord no euggestio-ns as to the needs of this soil. Probably previous applications of ma- nure, or previous methods of treatment, have rendered the field unfit for experimental purposes. Experiment Made by Dr. Johx T. Gordon, Healing Springs Washington County. Gray, sandy soil, 12 inches deep ; sandy clay subsoil. The field is described as a gently rolling ridge between two bra'nches, on which the original growth was long leaf pine. It was in cotton in 1896, and for the three years pre- ceding that time it was continuously in corn and cowpeae. "There was no rust or other leaf disease. Leaves remained green until the dry, hot winds came, about the last of Au- gust and first of September, when the leaves seemed to wither, at first in spots, afterwards pretty generally." Although the yields of the unfertilized plots point to uni- formity in natural fertility, the results are perplexing. Ap- parently .some undiscovered cause was more influential than the fertilizers. This is the fifth test of fertilizers on this soil. Previous results were either inconclusive or suggest- ive of a deficiency of all three of the usual fertilizer ingre- dients. Experiment JVIade by F. Funkey, 1^ IVIiles Soitth of Tus- CUMBIA, Colbert County. Reddish soil and subsoil. This field had been in cultivation about fifty years. The original forest growth was oak, blackjack oak and hickory. Oats was the crop in 1894, corn in 1895 and 1896. The stand 97 was reported as good. The season was dry after July 1. The land was not suflQciently uniform to permit of conclu- sions. The experiment at Evergreen was made by F. M. Round tree on the farm of the South Alabama Agricultural School, on red sandy soil. The test is not conclusive. The figures suggest in 1897, as also in 1896, a need of ni trogen in ,spite of the fair yields obtained on the unfertilized plots. It is evident that the variations in the fertility of the soil are so great and so abrupt as to render impossible the drawing of any definite conclusions from these experimente. Experiment Made by J. A. Wilkinson, 4 Miles West of AUTAUGAVILLE, AUTAUGA CoUNTY. Soil, chocolate sandy, or red ; subsoil red, with some gravel. This land, cultivated for fifty or sixty years, had been in cotton for many years without fertilizers of any kind. The stand was uniform. Rust, present on some plots, was appa- rently not destructive. The weather was dry during most of the growing season, which probably explains the slight influence of fertilizers on the yield. The wide variation in the yields of the two unfertilized plots introduces a-n element of uncertainty which is, per- haps, not entirely overcome by the method of computing the increase. Bearing this in mind, we can regard the experiment as only suggestive, and not as indicative, of a moderate in- crease from cottonseed meal and kainit, and of a slight ef- fect from acid phosphate. An experiment was made by Mr. O. W. Smith one mile 98 southeast of Brundidge. It was made on gray soil, under- laid by clay at a depth of two feet. The field had been cleared 44 years. The original growth was oak, hickory, gum and dogwood. Preceding crops were cotton in 1895 and 1896, and corn in 1894. The great difference in the yields of the two unfertilized plots prohibits drawing any definite conclusions as to the relative values of the three fertilizing materials, all of which, under some conditions, were apparently beneficial. 99 •aoaiasaaa c S a D.: o 2 S ^ ^ ii oj ^^ „ a. .- «o ^ to o Jj 00 » ^ t— 0> ^H ^-( 00 c^ o •aiTTiAToavxaT O S i -t^ 5 t- 1- "J" CO o CO 00 O CO 00 o 00 00 ~ao-i< • -H o " ^ -r lo !» o oo CO :0-4« CO CD o S — -T CO 3i t- ■^ CD ^ C^J !N t^ •J ^ ^ .4 .-4 Wi4 ci--0 o N CO CO IM O o OS 00 •eoNiaas odnran 2 ® c t; OJ-S o •r CO CO 5< "5 w s i- « ^ tr S -p i- <" ?, 2 p. a a. " *^ ^ cs 5C '!"»' CD C<1 C» _> •■O "-O "2 « t^ jjCOOO C^OO to 3 •aTIIASOSHOVf 05 c^ o c-1 CO CO O I- O t- "O lO r^ to c^ CI •* t^ CO •* •*< CO o to ^ OS c^ rt o I- o o •aaaiAaaav J o o » 3 00 f ■»• oo S! : r- -^ •.loa.iaiDW 01 S i; N o a "^ ail O 00 o IN ^- t- t- H j^ 4> g^a •a a-a q^ en O (U O 1) 21:^ O. S-s o C« IB ee 6 as ^ '« • © CO •910V jad ^unorav •ox io\d |^^-3 2^2a-^-S£2r:32-H:s§^5€ "■3o'S3"3c^S5ooSt«o".=5c«,=5^ OOOOOOOOOOC000 0 22S22S SSSiHC^(NHC, 7, 9 and 10." These were the plots which received kainit. Kainit in this experiment afforded a larger increase in yield than acid phosphate or cottonseed meal, which result is probably attributable rather to this renewed growth on the kainit plots than to a special deficiency of potash in the soil. The report from Thomaston contains the following notes: "Rust w-as bad on all plots relatively in order named: 5, 8, 3, 2, 7, 4, 10 and 9. Kainit does not prevent, but only allevi- ates, rust." At Union Springs, on a field especially subject to rust, "the extreme heat of the last of June caused all plots to shed, where no kainit was used, especially plots 1, 2 and 5. July 8 I noticed tbat rust appeared on the unfertilized plots. July 15 rust appeared on plots 1, 2 and 5," those re- ceiving no kainit. No mention is made of rust in con-nectiou with plots fertilized with kainit. From LeGrand, Mr. Robertson writes: "There was com- paratively no shedding of leaves or rust except on plots where there was no kainit Uised. Plot 4 did not shed a leaf, and remained green until frost. Plots 9 and 10 did almost as well/" At Naftel "Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 8 suffered more with rust than the others; Xos. 3 and 8 (unfertilized) more than any other." The report contains the following estimate of the percent- 102 age of leaves which were shed prematurely as a result of rust: . Plot 1 (cottonseed meal) 50^ Plot 2 (acid phosphate) 33j^ Plot 3 (no fertilizer) 75^ ■Plot 4 (kainit) 00^ Plot 5 (meal and phosphate) 20^ Plot 6 (meal and kainit) 00^ Plot 7 (phosphate and kainit) 00^ . Plot 8 (no fertilizer) .60^ Plot 9 (meal, phosphate and kainit) 00^ Plot 10 (meal, phosiphate and kainit) 1^ Here both 100 and 200 pounds per acre of kainit effect- ually checked rust. Above we have the reports which show a decided rust- restraining effect of kainit. Five experiments, as follows, show that kainit, under their prevailing local conditions, failed to reduce the injury from leaf diseases. At Tuskaloosa the amount of rust was as great on the kainit plots as on any others. ThLs field had been subsoiled by following the turn plow with a scooter. At Abbeville there was apparently no uniform effect on rust due to kainit. At Prattville "plot 1 was worse affected, and commenced to drop the leaves about five or six days sooner than the others. All the rest dropped the leaves about the same time." At Jackson rust was detected only on plot 1 (cotto-nseed meal) and plot 3 (unfertilized). At Greensboro there was some rust on all plots, but no marked difference. It is evident from the preceding paragraphs that kainit did check leaf diseases in eight of the thirteen experiments affording definite data. This is equal to 61 per cent, of fa- vorable results. It is not strange that the effect of kainit on rust was wide- ly different under different conditions of soil and weather. 103 For that little word "rust" is used to include almost all of th€ leaf diseases, of which Prof. G. F. Atkinson has de- scribed several in the earlier bulletins of this station. The one which, in his experiments, was influenced by kainit, was what i.s generally known as black rust, but which he designated as ''mosaic disease," or "yellow leaf blight." Leaf diseases were widely prevalent and destructive in 1897, and until late summer dry weather was general. Re- membering these abnormal conditions, we should not ex- pect kainit to exert so favorable an effect in normal seasons and in years when leaf diseases are less injurious. BOTANICAL GARDEN. Bulletin No. 92. April 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. EXPERIMENTS WITH LIME ON ACID SOILS. ■.»,ifi(0'(' F. S. EARLE and A. W. ORR. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON, 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. CuLVEK Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Aumstkong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Bkoun President. P. H. Meli Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Caky, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver .Superintendent of Farm. ^=- The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen ■of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. •Experiments with Lime on Acid Soils. The very interesting results obtained with lince on sandy, upland soils in Rhode Island* suggested to the writer, that a similar acid condition might exist in our sandy Gulf coast soils, and be the cause of the peculiar behavior of some vegeta- ble crops in that region. f Through the cooperation of Mr. A. W. Orr of Deer Park, Washington County, Ala., the Station has been able to make some preliminary investigations on the effect of lime on these soils, the results of which are herewith presented. They are in no sense final, but they seem suggest- ive and interesting enough to warrant publication at this time. The work so far done includes some experiments in the greenhouse here with soils shipped from Deer Park, and field experiments conducted at Deer Park by Mr. Orr, whose report forms a part of this bulletin. EXPERIMENTS AT AUBURN. The samples of soil were received here on December 2, 1896. No. 1 was the ordinary upland soil of the coast region, quite sandy, and rather deficient in humus. No. 2, the so called "Savannah Land" was a light gray sandy loam These "Savannahs" are low lying, level, treeless expanses, usually too wet for cultivation without drainage. They are character- istic of the coast region, and are only considered fit for culti- vation to rice or sugar cane^ No. 3 was a stiff black soil from a swampy "hammock" — the low lying timbered lands along- small streams. The three samples represent the prevailing types of Qoast soils. All of them gave a prompt and decided acid reaction with litmus paper. A portion of each lot was fertilized with cottonseed meal and placed in a shallow box, 20x36 inches, having a partition dividing it into two equal parts. On one side of the partition in each box a quantity of slacked lime was dug into the soil, the other side being left without lime. The boxes were watered and left on the green * See Bull. 46' of the Rhode Island Experiment Station, and Annual Reports for 1894, 1895 and 1896 t See Bull. 37 of the Mississippi Experiment Station, "Fiuits and Vegetables on the Gulf Coast." 108 house bench till January 1. On again testing with litmus paper the limed ends of the boxes now gave a strong alkaline reaction. The boxes were planted to American Wonder peas. It soon became evident that too much lime had been used, for after coming up, the peas in the limed ends of the boxes all died. They did not seem able to strike root in the soil. The boxes were replanted at intervals, but without success, until about the middle of March, when they were planted to lettuce and radishes. On April 2 it was noted that at last a good stand had been secured in two of the limed boxes. The one containing the upland soil was still a complete failure. In box No. 3. with the hammock soil the lettuce was decidedly best in the limed end, no diflference could be noted in the radishes. In box No. 2. , the Savannah soil, the lettuce was at least three times as large in the limed end, while the radishes seemed hardly so good with the lime. The radishes continued to grow luxuriantly in both ends of both boxes, but at maturity they were slightly better in each case in the limed ends. With the lettuce the difference was very marked. In the un- limed ends of both boxes it was stunted and sickly, with leaves less than two inches long, but in the limed ends it grew rank and luxuriant. The result was as striking a one as the experimenter could desire, and it is well illustrated by the 109 accompanying reproduction of a photograph of one of the boxes taken at the close of the experiment. In the limed end (to the right in the cut) the luxuriant lettuce fills the box, almost hiding the radish tops from view, while in the unlimed end the lettuce leaves are so small as to be almost hidden by the sides of the box, and it was necessary to press aside the radish leaves to show them at all. The results obtained by Mr. Orr are somewhst contradic- tory, and in interpreting them it should be borne m mind that the lime was applied quite late in the Spring (March 2), and that the greenhouse experiments show that it had not had time to lose its iojarious caustic eftects by April 1, when most of the planting was done. Then, too, the date of planting was too late for the best success with a number of the crops planted . The strikingly good results with corn, tomatoes, lettuce, and tobacco indicate the advisability of continued experiments with lime in this region, or at any other points in the State where the soil gives an acid reaction. At Auburn our soils seem to be almost or quite neutral, and so far, field experiments with lime have given no striking results. The reaction of the soil can be easily and quickly tested by any one, by pressing into its moistened surface slips of litmus paper such as can be found at most drug stores. If the soil is acid the blue paper will be turned red, if it is alkaline the red paper will be turned blue, and if it is neutral or nearly neutral neither color will be changed. The freedom of the tomatoes on the heavily limed plot from Blight, or Bacteriosis, a disease that is very prevalent and destructive in our southern counties, is especially note- worthy, since it goes to corroborate the result of some experi- ments with this disease conducted by the writer at the Ocean Springs branch of the Mississippi Experiment Station.* In all cases where it has been tried, heavy applications of lime seem to have had a decidedly beneficial eftect in preventing this dreaded disease. F. S. EARLE. Auburn, Ala., Feb. 18, 1898. *See 6th Annual Report of the Mississippi Experiment Station, pp. 53-61. no Field Experiments with Lime at Deer Park. A piece of ordinary upland soil measureing 6x7 rods was selected for the experiment. It was divided into four plats each 6 rods long and If rods wide. On March 2, freshly slacked lime was applied to these plots as follows : — Plot 1.^3 bbls. or about 45 bbls. per acre. Plot 2.-2 bbls. or about 30 bbls. per acre. Plot 3. — 1 bbl. or about 15 bbls. per acre. Plot 4. — No lime. On March 3 a very heavy rain fell so that it was neces- sary to replow the land before planting. On March 20 fur- rows were opened crossing these four plots, and fertilizer consisting of equal parts cottonseed meal, acid phosphate and kainit was dropped in the furrow at the rate of 8 lbs. per row (about 800 lbs. per acre), and bedded on. On April 1 the tops of the beds were leveled down nnd planting was begun. The following is a list of the crops planted and the results noted with each. Row 1.— Abundance pea. Seeds did not come as quickly on the limed as on the unlimed land. The plants on plots 3 and 4 had dark green foliage and made a good half crop. On plot 2 the foliage was lighter, and it made about one third of a crop. On plot 1 the plants were scattering and very pale and sickly ; crop a failure. In this case the lime did no good. Small applications did no harm, but the heavier ones were very harmful. Row 2. — White dent corn from Northern Alabama planted in hills two and one half feet apart, and thinned to two plants in the hill. Plot 1 fine, foHage dark green, ears well filled out and of fair size, a good crop. Plot 2, a little lighter Ill color but nearly as good. Plot 3 almost a failure. Plot 4. a •complete failure; it burned out with the drouth. [This corn was evidently planted too thick for good results on thin land, which makes the success with the heavy liming the more gratifying. F. S. E.] Row 3.- -German millet. Plot 4, good stand, line crop, four feet high. Plot 3, good stand, fair crop, three feet high. Plot 2, poor stand, almost a failure, two feet high. Plot 1, very scattering, a failure, one foot high. [Here, as with the peas, the caustic effect of the freshly applied lime was mark- edly injurious.] Row 4. — Mayflower tomato. The plants were trans- planted from a seed bed. All grew well at first, but as the plants became older, plot 4 all blighted so badly that no fruit was obtained. Plot 3 was a little better, but two-thirds blighted. Plot 2 was much better; no blight was seen, the crop was fair, but the foliage was a little off color. Plot 1, plants extra fine, good color, and no signs of blight or other disease. The boll- worm did not seem to trouble this plot as badly as the others. A noticeable point in connection with this plot was that the vines remained green till frost, and still carried flowers and fruit, while on the other plots all were dead and dried up. Kow 5. — Early Valentine beans. No difference could be noted with this crop. After the dry weather came on all the plots were a failure. Row 6. — Ruta Bagas. They did nothing ; a failure on all the plots. [Entirely too late for success with this crop.] Row 7. — Scarlet button radish. Crop good on all plots. The lime seemed to make no difference. Row 8. — Lettuce; Black-Seeded Simpson. Plot 4, crop fair. Plot 3, good crop. Plot 2, still better. Plot 1, much the best. It was extra good, and the plants remained green all summer. Row 9. — Egg Plant. Set with transplanted plants. All plots grew much alike till the first fruits set, when the plants on the limed plots blighted badly. The unlimed plot made a fair crop. [It is hard to reconcile this result with that obtained with tomatoes. It is possible that the death of the plants on 112 the limed plots was due to some other cause than the bacterial blight.] Row 10, — Abundance pea, fertilized and planted ten days later. A failure. [Entirely too late for this crop.] Row 11.— Brazilian corn and Florida butter beans. The corn grew fairly well, but had the best ears and the best color on plot 2. The beans were all about alike. They stayed green and bore fruits and blossoms till frost. Rows 12, 13 and 14. — Amber Sorghum, Northern seed. No difference on the different plots ; all small. Rows 15; 16 and 17. — Stowels Evergreen sweet corn. All failed. Rows 18 and 19. — Spanish peanuts. The limed land had the largest vines and thft most nuts. On the no-lime plot the vines were light and had less fruit. Row 20. — Seed-leaf tobacco, home-grown seed. Plants set May 12. The limed plots all a good crop, the no-lime plot almost a failure. Row 21. — Livingston Favorite tomato. Plants trans- planted May 12, but owing to the drouth the crop was a failure. Row 22. — Okra, planted May 12. No difference — a fair crop on all plots. Rows 24 and 25. — Irish potatoes, planted July 8. The seed seemed immature and came up poorly. No difference in growth of top, but the tubers were largest on plot 1. Row 26. — Early Valentine beans, planted July 22. Plot 3 gave the best results, better vines and more fruit. Row 27. — Flax, Northern seed. Complete failure; the seed would not germinate. Rows 28, 29 and 30. — Kaft'er corn, planted August 1. All grew and fruited splendidly, a little the tallest on the limed land. Rows 31 and 32. — White Spine cucumber, planted July 22. No difference in vine or fruit. All badly injured by- insects. A. W. ORR. 11 Dber Park, Ala.., February 14, 1898. OEM. Bulletin No. gj. April 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. PEANUTS, COWPEAS AND SWEET POTATOES AS FOOD FOR PIGS. J. F. DUGGAR, Agriculturist. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Ctjlveb Union Springs, J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Melt Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Caby, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. 3^=* The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. Peanuts, Cowpeas and Sweet Potatoes as Food for Pigs. BY J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. Spanish peanuts, when harvested by young pigs, were converted into pork, worth, at 3 cents per pound, SI 8.34 per acre of peanuts, when all conditions were favorable. In another field, with only half a stand of plants, the value of the pork from an acre of Spanish peanuts was $10.94 and 17.83 in two experiments. Under favorable conditions pork (live weight) was pro- duced at the rate of 1,426 pounds per acre of peanuts, sup- plemeted by 37.8 bushels of corn. With half a stand of plants an acre of Spanish peanuts produced, unaided, pork at the rate of 261 pounds per acre, and at the rate of 840 pounds per acre when the acre of pea- nuts was supplemented with 35.6 bushels of corn. When fed to pigs in pens only 2.8 pounds of unhulled Spanish peanuts were required to produce each pound of in- crease in live weight. This is equal to 9 pounds of increase, worth 27 cents, as a return for each bushel of peanuts eaten. Shoats pastured on nearly mature cowpeas and supplied with corn made almost three times the gain m live weight made by similar shoats fed exclusively on corn. The cowpea crop was above the average, and its value in 3-cent pork, after subtracting the cost of the corn fed, was $10.65 per acre. Shoats fed in pens gained more rapidly in weight on a 116 ration of ground cowpeas and corn than on ground corn alone. In effect 5.28 pounds of this mixed food was equal to 8.06 pounds of ground corn. Three pounds of sweet potatoes proved decidedly inferior to one pound of cornmeal. Cowpeas fed with corn did not iujuriously affect the quality of pork or lard. Peanuts, when fed with corn, greatly softened the pork and lard. The softening effect of peanuts was still greater when they constituted the sole food. This softening effect of peanuts was not corrected by feeding exclusively on corn for a month before the date of slaughtering. THE PIGS FED. The experiments recorded in this bulletin were begun Sept. 8, 1897, and concluded Feb. 16, 1898. All the animals used were growing pigs, varying in size at the beginning of the different experiments from pigs just weaned to half-grown shoats. The results obtained apply to the class of animals here used, and not necessarily to nearly mature fattening hogs. In every experiment an abundance of ash material was insured by a daily supply of hardwood ashes, unleached, and salt. The weighing of pigs and of food, of which more than 'J, 500 were made during the course of these experiments, and other details, were attended to by Mr. T. U. Culver, Farm Superintendent. 117 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH PEANUTS. PASTURING PEANUTS. A lot of 6 Poland China pigs immediately after weaning were enclosed with a portable fence in a field of Spanish pea- nuts. The aim was to ascertain the amount of pork that could be produced by a given area of this crop. The pigs were not allowed to range over' the entire field but were kept on a small area until all the peanuts were eaten, the inclosure being moved as often as necessary. Shelled corn was fed daily, so as to make growth more rapid. From the first day, the nuts were eaten Avith great relish, and as long as the vines remained green and tender a large proportion of the leaves were also eaten. The pigs were placed on the peanuts September 8, when the crop of nuts was not yet fully matured. The peanuts had been planted May 5. Before beginning to weigh the pigs, a week was allowed for them to become thoroughly accustomed to their food. Afterwards weekly weighings were made. At the beginning of the experiment the 0 pigs weighed 184.3 pounds; at the eud of the experiment six weeks later, they weighed 880.7 lbs., having more than doubled their weight in six weeks. The gain was 196.4 pounds. To produce this growth there were eaten 373 pounds of shelled corn, and all of the peanuts and some of the leaflets on an area of 7,673 square feet, which is a little more than one-sixth of an acre. The following is the financial statement of the above result, valuing pork at 3 cents per pound gross and corn at 40 cents per bushel : DR. OR. By 196.4 lbs. pork at 3c $5.89 To 373 lbs. corn at 40c per bu 82.66 To balance ; value of 7,673 sq. ft. in peanuts 3.23 $7.53 17.53 A profit of 13.23 on 7,673 square feet is at the rate of 118 $18.34 per acre. If corn were valued at 50 cents per bushel the net returns for an acre of peanuts would be reduced to 114.86 after subtracting the value of the corn. Here we have over |18 per acre as the return for peanuts converted into pork. It should also be remembered that the land was enriched not only by the manure but by the peanut vines, for the peanut is a soil- improving plant, drawing a part of its nitrogen, like the cowpea, from the air. The nuts on a part of the patch were dug, and the yield was at the rate of 1,565 lbs. (62.6 bushels) of dry nuts per acre. Thus we have as the total food required to produce 1 lb. of gain 1.4 lbs. of peanuts and 1.9 lbs. of corn, or a total of 3..S lbs. of concentrated food and an indefinite amount of leaflets. To put the matter in another way, one acre of peanuts, supplemented by 2,117 lbs. of corn or 37.8 bushels, afforded 1,115 pounds of pork. This piece of poor sandy upland which gave a return of over $18 per acre in peanut pork, would not have produced with same fertilizers, over 200 pounds of lint cotton per acre Avorth f 10 to $12. The expense of cultivating these peanuts was much less than the cost of a similar area in cotton. PEANUT PASTURAGE VS. CORNMEAL. On another field of fertility about equal to the preceding, Spanish peanuts were planted June 24, following wheat, which had been harvested about a month before. An excep- tionally dry summer was the cause of a very poor stand. The plants on a number of rows were counted, and instead of the usual average of one plant for every 18 or 20 inches of drill, the average distance between plants was nearly four feet. In this field another experiment was made in pasturing psanuts. Nine Essex pigs, of similar breeding, and from two litters differing in age by only three days, were used. They had been recently weaned and were decidedly inferior in feed- ing qualities to the Poland Chinas used in the preceding ex- 119 periment. They were divided into three lots of three pigs each. Lot V was hurdled on the above mentioned peanuts, and in addition was given daily what corn meal the pigs would eat. Lot VI was also hurdled as before, but received no grain. Lot VII was confined in a dry lot and given all the ground corn they would eat, and nothing else. The experiment proper began November 4 after a week of preliminary feeding. During the next four weeks the gains made were as follows : The lot pastured on peanuts and given corn gained 38.6 lbs. The lot pastured on peanuts gained 21.1 lbs. The lot receiving only corn lost 5.1 lbs. Lot V ate 2.06 pounds of corn, for every pound of growth made, and during four weeks grazed on an area of 2,025 square feet planted in peanuts. This is at the rate of 840 pounds of growth from one acre of peanuts (with less than half a stand) and 1710 pounds (35.6 bushels) of cornmeal. With pork at three cents per pound and cornmeal at 40 cents per bushel of 48 pounds, this is a gross return of $25.20 and a net return (after subtracting the value of the meal) of $10.94 per acre of peanuts. Lot VI, on peanuts without grain, pastured an area of 3,517 square feet, and the gain made wais 21.1 pounds, which is at the rate of 261 pounds of pork per acre. At three cents per pound gross for pork, this gives a value of $7.83 to the acre of peanuts on which there was only half a stand of plants. Bearing in mind the defective stand in this field, it is safe to conclude that pigs under 100 pounds should convert an acre of peanuts into pork worth from at least $12 to $20, the higher net value of an acre of peanuts being obtainable when the pigs receive in addition a moderate allowance of corn or cornmeal. The peanut is certainly worthy of a foremost place in the list of hog crops. The Spanish variety can be used for the early crop, and also for planting after oats, the common run- ning variety for the late fall crop. It is highly desirable to arrange a succession of peanut crops rather than to have large 120 areas ripen at the same time, for in wet weather Spanish pea- nuts will not remain long in the ground after maturity with- out sprouting. PEANUTS VERSUS CORNMEAL. A more accurate measure of the nutritive value of the nuts was desired than could be obtained in grazing experi- ments. Hence for a further period of six weeks all three lots were fed in pens on weighed quantities of food. Lot V. received equal weight of cornmeal and un- hulled Spanish peanuts ; Lot VI., peanuts alone ; and Lot VII. , now reduced to two pigs by the removal of the most un- thrifty at the end of the pasturage experiment, continued to receive only cornmeal. During the period of six weeks ending Jan. 13, 1898, the results were as follows : Peanuts and cornmeal vs. peanuts alone and cornmeal alone. Gain. Lbs. of food per lb. of gain. Lot V. — One-half peanuts, one-half cornmeal. . . Lot VI. — Peanuts JM. 84.0 59.5 8.0 Lbs. 3.7 •2.8 Lot VIL — Cornmeal 10.7 In this experiment a pound of peanuts, including hulls, was worth more for young pigs than a pound of cornmeal. These young pigs were able to make a growth of 9 pounds per bushel of Spanish peanuts when no other food was allowed. This gives a food value of 27 cents to a bushel of 121 Spanish peanuts when pork is worth 3 cents per pound, gross, and 31^ cents when pork is worth 3| cents per pound. The unfavorable effects of long continued feeding of an exclusive corn ration to young pigs is shown in the above table. The unthrifty appearance of the pigs eating nothing but corn was a startling commentary on the financial loss fol- lowing such a course. The addition of corn to the peanut ration increased the total gain, but it required more of the mixed food than of peanuts to produce a pound of increase. 122 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH COWPEAS. COW PEA PASTURAGE FOPv S HO ATS. September 8, 1897, six Essex shoats, all of the same litter and averaging 50.1 pounds each, were divided into two lots, one lot weighing 152.7 pounds, the other 148.2. Lot I, which was slightly the heavier, was confined to a dry lot and fed as much shelled corn as the shoats would eat. Lot II was con- fined by hurdles to a field of cowpeas of the variety Won- derful or Unknown. The soil of this field was sandy upland of a better grade than the ordinary upland soils of this locality. The stand of cowpeas was thin and the rows were about four feet apart. Nevertheless the yield of dry peas on-the portion of the field from which peas were picked, was at the rate of 13.2 bushels per acre, which is considerably above the ordinary yield. When the pigs were placed in the field the leaves" were all green and only about one-half of the peas bad taken on the color of maturity. The other pcds were all green, but most of them had attained full size. As long as the leaflets continued succulent and green, they were readily eaten. In the latter half of the experiment only the seed was eaten. Before the beginning of the experiment proper, the usual preliminary period of a week was allowed for the pigs to get accustomed to their rations. Both lots received hardwood ashes and salt regularly. During the 6 weeks covered by this portion of the exper- iment, the results were as follows : 123 Corn vs. cowpea pastura(/e and corn. Gain. Lbs. corn eaten. Lbs corn per lb. gain. Lot I. — Corn alone Lbs. 4.-). 2 122.0 263.8 374 0 5 86 Lot IL —Cowpea pasturage and corn 3.07 When corn was fed alone it took nearly twice as much corn to make a pound of growth as when the pigs had access to both corn and cowpeas. The pigs on pasture had a better appetite, ate more corn, made nearly three times as much growth as the pigs on an exclusive corn diet, and made that gain at less cost per pound. Assuming that the whole field was similar to the area on which the peas were weighed, yielding at the rate of 13.2 bushels per acre, the area of 7,280 square feet, on which the pigs were pastured during six weeks, yielded 132 pounds of shelled cowpeas. This is equal to 1.1 pounds of cowpeas, together with 3.07 pounds of corn, for every pound of growth made by the pigs. Thus we have 4.17 lbs. as the total amount of mixed grain required to produce one pound of growth, against 5.86 pounds of corn, when corn was fed alone. The better effects of the mixed ration may be due to one or all of the following causes : (1.) To the undetermined amount of leaflets eaten ; (2.) To the more nitrogenous character (or better quality) of the mixed ration; (3.) To the better appetites of the pigs on a mixed diet, resulting in the consumption of a larger quantity of corn and in more rapid fattening than occurred with the lot on an exclusive corn diet. It is a well established principle that rapid fattening of pigs is effected with less food per pound of growth than is slow fattening. 124 The financial statement for Lot II is as follows— based on pork at 3 cents per pound and corn at 40 cents per bushel i By 122 lbs. of live pork at 3c. per lb To 263.8 lbs. of corn at 40c. per bu ; To balance: Value of 7,280 sq. ft. in covvpens, Cr. $3 6() $3 6a This is at the rate of $10.65 per acre. This is certainly not a large return for an acre, but to this value of pork pro- duced by an acre of cowpeas should be added the fertilizer value of the vines, which is considerable, as every farmer knows. There is reason to believe that vines and excrement on a field where pigs have grazed are worth practically as much for fertilizing purposes as the vines on a similar area not grazed. A return of 110,65 per acre, a figure which was obtained from an acre capable of yielding 13.2 bushels of peas, is not to be expected from land poorer than that used in this expe- riment. It was planned to duplicate the experiment just detailed, using two Essex sows and their litters, both of the same age and breeding. A few days after farrowing, one sow and her litter were placed in hurdles on the cowpea field referred to above; as much shelled corn was fed as this lot would eat. The other sow, with her litter, received only corn. The expe- riment was brought to a premature close by the sudden death (from hog cholera and swine plague) of the sow receiving only corn. Daring three weeks, when both sows were in health, the sow and six pigs on cowpea pasture and supplied with corn made a total gain of 29.9 pounds. The other lot, a sow and seven pigs, receiving only corn, lost during this period 9 pounds. As usual just after farrowing, both sows lost weight — the one on corn alone 42 pounds, the other 9.1 125 pounds. The seven pigs suckling the corn-fed sow gained 33 pounds; the other lot gained 39 pounds. GROUND COVVPEAS AND CORN VERSUS GROUND CORN ALONE. At the conclusion of the grazing experiment just noted ^ the same pigs weie used in another experiment closely related in aim to the preceding. Lot L was continued on an exclusive corn ration. Lot II. received equal weights of corn and shelled cowpeas. The • food for both lots was ground, and both lots were kept in covered pens, with small yards adjoining. After the usual preliminary period of one week, the ex- periment proper was begun Nov. 4, 1897, and continued until Jan. 3, 1898. During this period of 70 days the results were as fol- lows : Ground corn versus ground cowpeas and corn. - ' p-c 1 d a o a; t: c: > c o ao .1- •*- u c a rs a c '5 o o ^£ ^'■^ O El, h:; -::;- Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lot I.- -Ground c jiu alone 68.0 548.2 8.06 I to 9 7 Lot 11. — ^ corn, ^ cowpeas (ground) 108.0 5*69.9 5.28 lto62 * The nutritive ratio of a food is the ratio of the digestible nitro- genous matter contained in it to tlie sum of the digestible fats, sugars, starch and other non-nitrogenous organic matter. The d!ge.stibility of cowpeas was assumed to be the same as that of Canada field peas. The above table shows that the gain made was much greater with the mixed ration of corn and cowpeas than with corn alone. It required to make one pound of growth more than 8 pounds of ground corn fed alone; less than 5^ pounds^ of the mixed grain produced the same result. 126 SWEET POTATOES VERSUS CORNMEAL. The 6 Poland China pi^s employed in the first experi- ment described in this bulletin were divided at the conclusion of that test, into 2 lots of three each, one lot weighing 191.5 pounds, the other lot 189.2 pounds. After a week in which to accustom the pigs to their new food the experiment proper, which consisted of two periods of 28 days each, was begun November 4. During the first period Lot III received a ration consist- ing of three parts by weight of sweet potatoes and one part ground cowpeas. During this period Lot IV was fed on a ratio made up of equal weights of ground corn and ground cowpeas. Since more than two-thirds of the weight of sweet pota- toes is water, more than half of the ration of sweet potatoes and cowpeas was water. The other ration contained but little moisture, probably 10 or 12 per cent. The effort was at first made to feed equal weights of dry matter to each lot. This required that each lot should con- sume equal weights of peas and that for every pound of corn eaten by I^ot IV three pounds of sweet potatoes should be eaten by Lot III. Lot III could not be induced to eat the desired quantity of sweet potatoes. Hence each lot was fed all it would eat of its special ration. At the end of 28 days, the rations were reversed, the pigs which had formerly eaten sweet potatoes and cowpeas being now given coin and cowpeas, and vice versa. More than a week was allowed for both lots to become accustomed to their changed rations. Then the second period of the experiment, consisting of 28 days was begun December 16. The results for both periods are plainly stated in the following table : 127 Sweet potatoes vs. ground corn. First period. 1 i- TIT ' t sweet potatoes. . . "■^ ■ \ i cowpeas (ground) CD Lbs. y\ 36.7 . i ]■ (ground) ; 78.5 l.ot IV.n^^'" I. i cowpeas Second period. T t VT i ^ sweet potatoes i ■ j i cowpeas, (ground) -^''1 Lot III. 1 1 ^°^" I (ground) .... i. i cowpeas ( ^^ ' Totals for 8 weeks (1st and 2nd period.^) Ration of If «^«*^''^ Potatoes. I i cowpeas, (ground) Ration of -[ f ^^'" ^:- (ground^ . . . I i cowpeas J ^° 51.7 05.8 130.2 a o o Ex 4310 255.8 446.7 265. 877.7 520.8 ft . 8 s^ ,-5 L6.S. 11.74 3.42 15.30 5.11 13.34 4.00 cS O 5.28 3.08 7.00 4.60 6.00 3.60 ^Assuming 90 per cent, of dry matter in corn and peas and 30 per <5ent. dry matter in sweet potatoes. la both periods of the experiment the ration containing sweet potatoes was decidedly inferior to that containing corn. Taking the results for the entire eight weeks covered by the two periods of the experiment, the increase in live vs^eight was nearly twice as great with the ration containing corn as with the other. In order to produce a pound of increase in live weight there was required 13^^ pounds of the ration made up of sweet potatoes and cowpeas, or 4 pounds of the ration of corn and cowpeas. Making allowance for 70 per cent, of water in the pota- toes and 10 psr cent, in each of the grains, there was required 128 to make a pound of increase 3.6 pounds of dry matter in the grain ration and 6 pounds of dry matter in the sweet potato ration. This 'result, so disadvantageous to sweet potatoes, was probably due in part to the fact that the pigs would not eat a sufficient quantity of the bulky ration to obtain the same amount of dry matter as was furnished by full rations of the more concentrated mixture. By feeding a ration made up of equal weights of sweet potatoes and cowpeas, the daily consumption of nutritive materials would doubtless be increased, and on such a ration we might expect results more favorable to sweet potatoes. Again, hogs rooting in potato fields might eat larger quanti- ties of sweet potatoes. But the difference is apparently too wide to be ascribed wholly to the ampunt of food eaten. The figures suggest that the dry matter of sweet potatoes is inferior in composition or in digestibility to that of corn. The results show that under the conditions of this experi- ment one pound of corn was worth much more than three pounds of sweet potatoes. These figures do not enable us to place an exact value on potatoes, but indicate that pricing corn at 40 cents per bushel, sweet potatoes were worth less than 13 cents per bushel of 56 pounds. (The legal weight of a bushel of sweet potatoes varies in different states.) If corn were worth 50 cents per bushel, these results would give to sweet potatoes a value considerably below 17 cents. Probably 10 and 12 cents per bushel would be a closer estimate of the nutritive value of a bushel of potatoes fed with cowpeas in the proportions employed in this experiment. It is plain that sweet potatoes could not profitably be grown, stored, and fed to hogs, even if each bushel could be converted into pork worth 10 to 15 cents. This does not imply that sweet potatoes cannot be profitably employed as food for hogs. But a profit is possible only by saving the expense of harvesting, the heaviest single item of expense in sweet potato culture. If the hogs do the rooting, the sweet potato is doubtless a cheaper food than corn on some sandy 129 soils that yield ten to fifteen times as many bushels of sweet potatoes as of corn. The vines are also valuable as food for hogs. The value of sweet potatoes will be enhanced by feeding with them a liberal allowance of cowpeas or peanuts, which supply the nitrogenous material in which the sweet potato is deficient. EFFECT OF COWPEAS AND PEANUTS ON QUAL- ITY OF PORK. The feeding experiments with pigs conducted by the Agricultural Department of this Station during the last two years have been chiefly concerned with a comparison of the nutritive values of cowpeas, peanuts, sweet potatoes, corn and other products of Southern farms. The great aim has been to accumulate information which might make plain the meth- ods of producing pork at the least possible cost and with greatest profit. Attention has also been given to the effects of various foods on the quality of pork, ('ercain packing houses paid during the past winter extra prices for hogs that afforded the best quality of pork, that is pork with the largest proportion of lean meat. Whether such pork would bring an advanced price or not, it is certainly important that pork for the family table should be of the best quality. While pork from a thin mature hog is not desirable, lean pork from well nourished animals is more nutritious, or contains more of the very val- uable nitrogenous material, than does pork that has an ex- cessive proportion of fat. Both in these experiments and in those recorded in Alabama Bulletin No. 82 the proportion of lean meat was greater in a ration made up of equal weights of cowpeas and corn than with an exclusive corn diet. One of the corn fed pigs was very thin throughout the latter half of the experiment and yet when the carcass was examined a marked deficiency in muscular development was noted. 130 Two pigs from each of Lots I, 11, V, VI, and VII were carefully examined with reference to the weight of internal organs and amount of fat on stomach, intestines and kidneys. The results showed that the fat on stomach, and intestines constituted 4.20 per ceat of the net weight of the pigs fed on corn alone and only 2.43 per cent, of the net weight of those fed on a mixture of cowpeas and corn. There was also a slightly greater percentage of kidney fat on the lot fed on corn. The pork resulting from feeding a mixture of corn and cowpeas was scarcely distinguishable in appearance from that produced by exclusive corn feeding. EFFECT OF FOODS ON QUALITY OF LARD. Fat of pigs from Lots I., II., V., VI. and VII. was ren- dered into lard. It was evident that the firmness of this lard was greatly effected by the kind of food. Samples of lard were sent to the chemist of the Experiment Station, Prof. B. B. Ross, with a request that he determine the melting points of each sample. His report is given below : Effects of food on vxelting point of lard. Lot. No. Pig. No. Food. Lard from body fat, or kidney fat, or both Melting point of lard. > Degrees Fahren- heit. Degrees Centi- grade. IL 48 + cowpeas, I corn. Leaf lard. 114.8 46.0 II. 48 do do Body lard. 112.1 44 5 I. 47 Corn (large, fat shoat) Leaf lard. 113.0 4.5.0 I. 47 do do Body lard. 109.4 43.0 VII. 68 Corn (small, poor pig) Leaf and body lard. 109.4 43.0 VL 61 \ peanuts, ^ corn. Leaf and body lard. 104.1 40.5 V. 58 Peanuts. Leaf and body lard. 76.1 24.5 131 As pig No. 47 was in good condition when killed, and as No. 63 was not, the lard from the former may be safely taken as the more correct standard for lard from hogs fed exclusively on corn. The average of the melting points of leaf lard and body lard from this pig gives 11 1.2 degrees Fahrenheit as a standard. The average melting point of lard from the pig fed on cowpeas and corn was 113.4 degrees, or 2.2 degrees higher than that of corn lard. When equal weights of peanuts and corn were fed, the melting point of the lard was reduced 7.1 degrees Fahrenheit below the standard. When peanuts con- stituted the entire ration the melting point was lowered by 35.1 degrees. Lard from exclusive peanut feeding solidified only during the coldest weather of February, at other times in February and March becoming almost a semi-liquid. The low melting point, or want of firmness of lard, made from peanuts, injures its sale. However, cooking tests fail to reveal any real inferiority. As shown by the above table, leaf lard was slightly firmer than body lard. It is a common practice among farmers whose hogs depend largely on peanuts, sweet potatoes and acorns, to feed corn exclusively in the two or four weeks immediately pre- ceding the date of butchering. The aim is to harden the meat. With the aim of learning to what extent pork can be hardened by this process, one pig from each of the pens re- ceiving peanuts or cowpeas, was placed on an exclusive corn diet after the conclusion of the experiments described above. This corn ration was continued for one month. Then the pigs were slaughtered, the fat rendered into lard, and the melting points again determined by Professor Ross, with the following results : 132 Melting point of lard from pigs^ fed on various ration^ but on corn alone during the last month of life. Lot No. Pig No. Food up to 1 mo. before killing. Food for 1 mo. before killing. Melting point of lard. Degrees Degrees Fahrenheit Centigrade II. 45 f 1 cowpeas. i I corn. Corn. 109.4 43.0 V. 56 r J peanuts, i ^ corn. Corn. 98.6 37.0 VI. 59 Peanuts. Corn. 101.3 38.5 The month of corn feeding had a marked effect in raising- the melting point from 76.1 degrees (No. 58) up to 101.3 degrees, a temperature which was still considerably below that of corn lard. The month of corn feeding did not raise the melting point of the two samples of lard from pigs which prior to that period had received for several months a ration consisting of half corn and half peanuts. In fact, the melting points at the end of the month of exclusive corn feeding were several degrees lower than at the beginning, a variation which was probably due to individual peculiarities of the different ani- mals from which the samples of lard were made. Even after the month of exclusive corn feeding, the lard and pork from pigs formerly receiving peanuts were conspic- uosly more oily and softer than ordinary lard and pork. After one month of corn feeding, cooking tests of small sections of pork from Nos, 45, 56 and 59 were made by two families. One report was as follows : "The corn and cowpea sample [Lot 2] looked and cooked like all corn-fed pork ; very little shrinkage; flavor very fine and delicate. The all-peanut sample [Lot VII] was rather soft. 133 It shrank more than the other in cooking, but the flavor was peculiarly sweet and rich. It was preferred to either of the others by some of the family. The corn and peanut sam- ple was intermediate in character. All were pronounced very good, much better than the average pork of the market." The other report was substantially the same except that the samples from the lots fed on peanuts alone, and peanuts and corn, were not distinguishable in flavor. Even after cooking, the samples from the lots fed partially or exclusively on peanuts were more oily and less firm than ordinary pork. In brief, one month of exclusive corn feeding increased the firmness of pork made from animals previously fed on peanuts alone, but the improvement was not suflBcient to make the flesh or the lard as firm as the same articles aft'orded by animals fed entirely on corn. Further experiments in this direction are planned. 134 APPENDIX. Lungs, heart, spleen^ liver, kidneys, Jat on stomach and intes- tines, and fat around hidneys in, percentages of dressed vieight (dressed weight=100); cilso actual dressed v;eight ifi po2i?ids : -^ .,- 1 ' -^ 'O r^ I) u S bC -O 73 CD Lot. s 1 1 be a % 4J a a CO > 13 05 n Fat on st( and intes Fat aroun neys Q ' % % % % % % Lbs. I 44 47 .81 .62 .20 .27 .099 2.91 .240 4.85 6.75 50.4 I .140 3.03 .250 3.55 4.85 124.4 I Av 46 .72 .52 .24 .20 .120 2.97 .245 .280 4.20 5.80 87.4 II .090 2.10 2.n 5.90 123.9 II 48 .61 .31 .1801.98 .3102.695.11 93.8 II Av GO .57 1.13 .26 .30 .1.35 2.04 .295 2.43 5.50 108.9 V .090 4.34 .540 3.08 7.00 33.4 V 61 .64 .34 .2302. 84. 3504. 32 1 1 5.53 68 5 Y Av .89 .32 .160 3.59 .445 3.70 6.27 51.0 VI 57 58 Av 1.32 l.OI 1.17 .42 .39 .41 .170 4.77 .310 4.80 6.40 6.94 6.67 28.9 VI .1603.95 .165 4.36 .440 4.52 38.5 VI .375 4.66 33.7 VII 62 1.29 .36 .1408.63 .360 1.08 2.52 13.9 63 Av 1.98 1.64 .48 .42 .190 3.09 .1755.86 .430 4.20 .395 2.64 4.37 3.45 20.7 VII 17.3 BOTANICAL GARDEN. Bulletin No. 94. June 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. STRAWBERRIES. F. S. EARLE. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898. At COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broitn President. P. H. Mell Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Gary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g^= The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. Strawberries* BY F. S. EA.RLE. No fruit is of easier culture and none succeeds under more widely varying conditions of soil and climate than the straw- berry. Ripening as it does with the first warm days of spring, its acid juice is particularly refreshing and seems to have been fitted by nature to the needs of the system at this season. There can be no doubt that the free use of strawber- ries adds not only a pleasant and agreeable, but a very healthful feature to the spring bill of fare. This fact is appreciated by the people of the northern cities as is shown by the immense and annually increasing quantities of this fruit that find sale in these markets. Growing the berries to supply this enormous northern demand, now furnishes one of the principal and most remunerative industries for a large number of southern communities ; and it is recognized as one of the most important of horticultural money crops. As has been previously pointed out, (see Bull. 79:85) the people of this state have so far paid but little attention to commercial horticulture, although we possess a climate and soils as well adapted to the growing of fruits and vegetables as any of our neighbors. There are but few points in Alabama where strawberries are grown in sufficient quantity for ship- ment. Cullman, in Cullman county, on the Louisville and Nashville Railroad, is the largest shipping point. In the opinion of the writer the strawberry acreage of the state could be largely increased with profit, and with less chance of loss than with most other horticultural crops. This is a point however that must be left to the individual judg- ment of planters. I wish however to again call attention to the necessity of carefully studying the requirements of the 140 business, and of its adaptability to local conditions ; and especially to the necessity of providing refrigerator transporta- tion facilities before embarking heavily in the business. This, of course, where shipment to the great northern markets is the object. This necessary requirement of the best possible transportation facilities will confine the large planting of berries to a few shipping centers. For this reason, persons coming to the state for the purpose of growing berries are earnestly advised to locate at some point where the business is already established. There is, however, a considerable home market that is now very inadequately supplied, and that might well repay the attention of a great number of scattered growers. Every family in Alabama ought to have this healthful and delicious fruit on the table every day for six or eight weeks ; but not one in ten — no, not one in fifty — is thus liberally supplied. There are few families in the state outside of some of the larger cities who could not command the small amount of land and labor to raise an abundant home supply, and thus enjoy the luxury of having them fully ripened and freshly gathered as needed. Many people will, however, buy berries if offered in attractive shape and at a reasonable price, who would not take the small amount of trouble necessary to grow them. There is not a town of any size in the state where one or more farmers could not make a substantial addition to their income by plant- ing an acre or so of strawberries and marketing them regularly. At first the demand might be small but it would grow rapidly if stimulated by a constant supply, for people soon learn to eat much more fruit if it is constantly at hand in tempting condi- tion. If even a small per cent, of the people of the state can be induced to plant more berries for home consumption, this Bulletin will have accomplished its purpose. The larger com- mercial growers are mostly in possession of the information it contains. Soils axd Fertilizers. Any fairly good, well drained soil will answer for grow- ing strawberries for home use or for local markets. A soil 141 that holds moisture well is preferable to one that is too dry, but on the other hand, hill land is preferable to bottom land on account of its greater freedom from spring frosts. For growing berries for distant shipping a strong, rather stiff clay soil is greatly to be preferred to one that is sandy, because berries grown on such clay soils are firmer and carry to mar- ket in much better condition. This is a point of great practical importance to the distant shipper. Land that is full of foul weed seed or that is set to Bur- muda, coco or Johnson grass should not be selected for strawberries on account of the greatly increased labor and expense of cultivation. All but very rich land should be liberally fertilized to secure the best results, though some fruit may be expected without fertilizers even on quite thin soil. Stable manure is not advised under most circumstances on account of the danger of introducing grass and weed seeds. The proper mechanical condition and ability to resist drouth can best be secured by plowing under a crop of cow-peas well in advance of planting. This green manuring should be sup- plemented by applications of acid phosphate and potash under the row. Too large a proportion of nitrogen is not desirable, since it sometimes causes a rank growth of vines at the ex- pense of fruit, and renders the plant more liable to suffer from rust. A light top dressing of nitrate of soda applied in the spring just before blooming is often useful in increasing the size of the fruit. Preparatiox of Soil and Planting. The land for strawberries should be deeply plowed, and the plow should be quickly followed by the harrow, not once, but three or four times in a place so as to pulverize all lumps before they harden into clods, and to cover the entire surface with a coating of fine mellow soil to prevent undue evapora- tion. This quick harrowing of the soil immediately after breaking is of the utmost importance for all crops, especially on stiff lands, and it is a point that many farmers overlook. In only too many cases the rough furrows are allowed to lie and bake into clods that it may require weeks of labor to pul- 142 verize, while the moisture that should be sealed up and pre- served in the ground by the harrow for the use of the coming crop is allowed to evaporate and waste. About ten days before planting lay off the ground with a shovel plow, running the rows three to three and a half feet apart. Scatter the fertilizer in the furrow, mix by running once or twice with a scooter, and then bed as if for cotton. Just before planting drag the beds down with the back of the harrow, or with a heavy plank drag so that the top of the bed will not be more than two or three inches higher than the water furrow. This will drag all trash or clods to the middles, and will leave a bed of moist, mellow, but slightly compacted soil to receive the plants. When the plants are taken up, the old leaves and runners should be pulled off and the plants should be bunched with the roots all lying one way. It is not necessary to tie the bundles except where they are to be sold by count. Pack them closely side by side, if in a box with the roots down, or if in a barrel with the roots to the center. Always keep plants covered with dampened sacks to prevent drying. When ready to begin planting, put an inch or two of water in an ordinary wooden bucket and pack in a layer of plants with their roots in the water, this keeps them fresh and also causes the soil to adhere more closely to the roots when planted. The planting crew consists of a man with a bright, sharp spade, and a small boy with the bucket of plants. The man sets the spade in front of him, with the corner of the blade at the spot where the plant is to stand, throws his weight on it, driving the sharp blade full length in the mellow soil, and then pushes it from him so as to open a wedge shaped hole behind the spade. The boy has a plant ready, holding it by the top, and with a slight swinging motion, brings the plant to its place in the corner of the hole, with its roots extending full length, and the crown held just at the surface of the ground. The man withdraws the spade, setting it forward ready for the next plant, and as the dirt falls back about the plant he puts his foot on it, pressing it closely about the roots. With a little practice, plants can be set in 143 this way very rapidly and satisfactorily. There are just two points to keep in mind. First, the plant must be left at the right depth — not so deep as to cover the bud, nor so shallow as to expose the roots — and, second, the dirt must be packed closely about the roots. This last can be easily tested by taking hold of the plant by one leaf and trying to pull it up ; if properly set, the leaf will break without loosening the roots. Directions are often seen in print for "spreading the roots out like a fan," or for making a hole with "a mound in the middle, round which the roots can be placed in a natural posi- tion;" but time spent in such pastimes is simply wasted. New roots as they grow will quickly spread out in all directions. The office of the bundle of old roots is simply to hold the plant firmly in place and to supply it with moisture till the new roots are formed. This same method of planting with a spade can be used equally well for cabbage, tobacco, sweet potato slips, or any other small plants, and it will be found more rapid and satis- factory than the more laborious method of planting with a dibber or a trowel. The subsequent cultivation of the plants will be facili- tated by having them in perfectly straight rows. This can be done by stretching a line against which to set the spade in planting ; or a mark can be made by dragging a chain or roll- ing a light wheelbarrow along the row. A serviceable wheel marker can be made from an old buggy wheel by attaching handles wheelbarrow fashion and nailing short bits of lath to the rim at the right distance apart for the plants with the ends slightly projecting so as to leave a slight indentation in the soil. This will not only secure accurate alignment but accurate spacing as well. Plants should be set from twelve to thirty inches apart in the row, according as the variety is a good runner or not, and according to the richness of the soil and the season of planting. At the north strawberries are usually planted in the spring, while in Florida the usual practice is to plant in late summer or fall. In this state we do not need to be confined strictly to either practice, but can plant with some prospect of 144 success at any time from August to March when the soil is in a suitable condition of moisture. The greatest drawback to fall planting is the drouth that so often prevails at that sea- son. It is always more difficult to get plants to live then than in the winter or spring. In Southern Alabama strawberries planted in tbe late fall or early winter will, on rich soil, make sufficient growth during the mild winter to produce a fair crop in the spring, though not nearly so large a one as if planted in August or September. In Middle and North Ala- bama the plants will grow very little during winter, and planting should be made as early as August to secure a crop the following spring. It is always difficult to secure a supply of strong, well rooted plants as early as August, and unless the weather is unusually favorable it is difficult to get plants to live at this season when taken up and handled in the usual way. This difficulty can be avoided by striking the runners in small pots plunged in the soil along the row. Such potted plants with the ball of earth ad herein g to the roots can be safely planted at any time when the soil is in proper tilth. This method is often employed by market gardeners where land is scarce and valuable, for it enables them to take some early crop from the land before planting the strawberries. The greatest objection to adopting this method on a large scale is the expense of the pots. The labor of growing a field in this way would be less than that of planting in the spring and cultivating throughout our long summers. True the pots can be used over again year after year, but the initial expense would be heavy when many acres are grown. A modification of this system that does away with the expense of the pots consists in allowing the runners to strike in the open ground and then taking them up with a ball of earth by means of some of the various transplanters now on the market. This system has not been much practiced in this state, but it seems well adapted t;o the conditions in South Alabama, where the labor and difficulty of properly cultivating spring-set plants through the period of midsummer rains is very great, and where the fall drouths often prevent planting in the ordinary way until too late for the best results. In Middle and North 145 Alabama the average planter will usually get the best results by planting in February or early March. Plants set at this time will attempt to bear a few berries, but there will not be enough to be of value, and it is better for the vigor of the plants to cut off the flower stems and thus prevent fruiting entirely for the first season. The ripening of even a few fruits is a heavy tax on the vitality of a newly set plant that is not yet well rooted. Cultivation and Mulching. • The cultivation required for strawberries is very simple and may be made much like cotton, except that more hand work will be required after the runners begin to grow and take root. The main requirements are, first, that it be shallow so as not to disturb the short fiberous roots ; and, second, that it be frequent enough to keep down all weeds and grass, and to prevent undue evaporation by a mulch of loose surface soil. Some five-toothed cultivator like the Planet Jr. is usu- ally used for working between the rows, though good work can be done with the ordinary cotton sweep by setting the wings flat to throw as little dirt as possible. The big eye hoe used for chopping cotton is not adapted to hoeing strawber- ries. A light garden hoe should be provided and it should be used with a shuffling motion, cutting out any small grass and weeds with the forward stroke, and leveling and fining the earth with the back stroke. In working around the plant the hoe should always be tilted a little so that the corner next the plant does not penetrate more than a fourth of an inch. Deep hoeing that disturbs the roots in hot dry weather is almost surely fatal. Such careless, improper work kills more plants than any other one cause. For the same reason big weeds- should not be pulled up from among the plants in a dry time- Either wait for a rain or cut them out with a knife or chisel. Some growers follow the plan of stopping regular culti- vation about mid-summer and allowing the crab grass to grow up between the plants, only going over occasionally to chop out any big weeds that appear. If the grass does not come 146 up too thick it does not seem to seriously check the growth of the plants, and as it dies down in the fall it leaves a slight protecting mulch that prevents the baking of the soil and helps to keep the berries clean in the spring. This is, of course, a cheap method and it seems to succeed fairly well on some soils. It is doubtful, however, if it ever gives the larg- est crops, and there is always danger that the grass will grow thick and heavy enough to entirely smother the plants. Clean culture throughout the season is in most cases much more desirable. At the north, berries are usually mulched heavily with wheat straw or some similar material when freezing weather sets in, to protect the plants from injury from severe cold, or from the bad effects of frequent freezing and thawing. This mulch is left between the rows in the spring to help hold moisture and to keep the fruit clean. No winter or spring cultivation is given. Here no such mulch is necessary to protect the plants during the winter, and two or three hoeings are necessary to keep down the numerous winter growing weeds that would otherwise choke the plants before the end of the fruiting season. The last hoeing should be given just as the plants begin to bloom, and a light mulch should now be scattered about the plants to prevent the fruit from being spattered by dirt when it rains. Pine straw is often used for this purpose, where it is available, and it answers fairly well, though it is open to the objection of harboring crickets and other fruit eating insects. Probably cotton seed or cotton seed hulls furnishes the best mulch to use in this state. Only a comparatively small quantity is required to cover the exposed ground immediately about the plants. If the field is to be kept over for another crop, advantage should be taken of the first rain after the picking season is over, to bar off the rows, leaving them ten or twelve inches wide and throwing the dirt to the middles. An abundant application of fertilizer should be made in the furrows and the dirt be worked back with the cultivator before the row has time to get dried through. Subsequent cultivation is much as with new set plants. The number of crops that it will pay 147 to take from a field will depend on various circumstances. Sometimes plantings will continue to yield well for three or four years. Usually it will be found best to plow them up after the second crop. At the south where fall planting is successful, the tendency will be to take only one crop, thus occupying the land only half the year, except so far as neces- sary to grow plants for the fall setting. The advisability of keeping strawberries strictly in hills, or of allowing them to make runners and form matted rows is a question that has been widely discussed, and on which opinions and practice still differ. The bulk of the testimony seems to favor a narrow matted row, with the plants set somewhat thinly, to either a wide row or hill culture. It is safe to say that nine-tenths of the berries marketed in this country, are grown in matted^rows, and this method is recom- mended for all spring set plants. When planted in the fall, most kinds make very few runners till after the fruiting season, so that fall planting, practically means hill culture, so far at least as the first crop is concerned. For this reason, plants should be set closer in fall than in spring planting. Insects and Diseases. Strawberries are the favorite food plant of a long list of noxious insects. Some attack the leaves, others the roots, some bore into the crowns, while still others eat holes in the fruit or injure it by sucking the juice, thus causing it to "button" or dry down into hard unsightly knots. When berries are grown continuously in large quantity in any neighborhood, many of these pests are sure to become troublesome. So far, there has been very little complaint of damage in this state, and no detailed account of strawberry insects will be at- tempted here. The best preventive measure is a quick rotation of crops. The plan of plowing up fields when the crop is gathered, and replanting in the fall, where this can be successfully done, will prove very effective in controlling many of these pests. For a full account of strawberry insects, the reader is referred to Bull. 42, of the Florida station. The 148 only fungus disease that need be mentioned here, is the so-called rust or leaf spot. This causes white, red-bordered spots on the leaves ; if suflBciently abundant, it finally kills the foliage, bntits greatest damage is done by attacking the fruit stems and calyx, causing them to become brown and brittle. Such fruit is always inferior in flavor and appearance. Seri- ous damage is often done in this way, when the foliage is but little injured- This disease occurs in all parts of the country. Some varieties are much more injured by it than others, and probably our best means of combating it is by selecting resistant varieties. It was at one time held that dusting the fields with air slacked lime in the spring, helped to hold the disease in check. It will often be noticed that mulched plants are less injured than those that are unmulched. At the north many growers practice setting fire to the mulching after the crop is picked, thus burning off the leaves entirely. This plan is very effective in destroying leaf diseases and insects. It should, however, be tried with great caution, if at all, on our light soils, and only when the ground is thoroughly moist- ened by recent rains. The remedy now universally recom- mended for rust is to spray with Bordeaux mixture (6 lbs. copper sulphate, and 6 lbs. quick lime, to 50 gallons of water.) There can be no question that this is often useful, though spraying strawberries at this station, has so far yielded only negative results. More experimentation is needed to deter- mine when and how often to spray under our conditions. Marketing. Little need be said here under this heading further than to call attention to the general remarks on this subject in Bull. 79, pp. 103-110. No fruit requires greater care in han- dling than the strawberry. It is necessary to pick the fields all over carefully every day, or every other day at fartherest, in order to prevent getting over- ripe fruit in the boxes. For the same reason the pickers must be carefully watched to see that no ripe berries are left on the vines and that no over-ripe ones go in the boxes. When many hands are used an overseer 149 should be placed in charge of each gang of thirty or forty hands, whose duty it should be to pass back and forth among them constantly, inspecting the work, examining the fruit in the boxes, assigning rows, and keeping order. The berries for distant shipment should be picked as soon as they are colored all over but before they begin to soften. Some varieties will color up nicely in transit if picked a little green. This is a very desirable point in a market berry, for it is often difficult to prevent pickers from taking the fruit as soon as it is col- ored on the upper side. Kinds that do not color after picking will go into market showing so many green sides as to seriously affect prices. In picking the berry should be seized by the stem, pinching it off about half an inch below the fruit, which is then laid in the box with as little handling as pos- sible. This is a point of vital importance. Berries that are seized in the fingers and pulled off are ruined for distant ship- ment, and are made so soft and mussy as to become quickly unfit even for home use or the nearest market. The only ber- ries exposed for sale on the streets of Auburn this season were so damaged by this careless "pulling" that they were unfit for use before noon, though brought from a neighboring town only six or seven miles away. Berry pickers are usually paid by the quart, the price ranging from one to two cents in different localities. Accounts are often kept by means of printed pasteboard checks rang- ing in value from one to fifty quarts, that are handed to the picker as the berries are brought into the packing shed. These tickets are cashed at the end of the week or of the season. Packing strawberries neatly and rapidly requires skill and nimble fingers. All imperfect berries that are in sight are re- moved, and, if many are found, the box is emptied so that those in the bottom may be picked out also. The berries on the top of the box are then arranged closely side and side so that the box will be evenly and closely filled. If this is not carefully done the fruit will be either too high so as to be crushed by the cover, or not full enough so that the berries will shake about and the box will not seem over half full when 150 it reaches the market. This packing does not imply " facing " where all the big berries are put on top, a practice that it is needless to condemn ; but if honestly and skillfully done it adds materially to the market value of the fruit. Strawberries are now universally shipped in cheap quart boxes or baskets that are given away with the fruit. The old system of return packages has been abandoned in nearly all markets. Numerous styles of packages are on the market. The one should be selected that is the most popular in the cities it is proposed to supply. Strawberries that are properly handled can be usually shipped safely for twenty-four hours by express. That is, berries picked today can be shipped to markets where they can be sold tomorrow. If the weather is cool and dry they may be saleable on the second day, but there is always con- siderable risk in shipping for forty-eight hours by express. In properly managed refrigerator cars good berries will carry safely for four or five days. Planting strawberries for distant shipment is recommended only at points where such refriger- ator service can be secured. Varieties. The proper selection of varieties for a given locality is an important question with any fruit. It is especially important with strawberries since many kinds are quite local in range, doing well in one locality and perhaps failing utterly only a few miles away on a different soil or under different cultural conditions. The following thirty-five kinds were planted on the Station grounds during the fall of 1S96. They have, therefore, been under observation during two fruiting seasons. They were planted on a dry sandy ridge. Very little fertil- izer has been used and the cultivation and treatment has pur- posely been made poorer than would be given by the average market grower. The object has been to give the different kinds as severe a test as possible, believing that any kinds giv- ing satisfactory results under such conditions can safely be recommended for general planting. It is thought that the kinds here recommended can be safely planted in all parts of 151 the state. It is not intended to imply that other kinds may not do equally well or better under some of the varied condi- tions included in our territory. On stronger soils and under better cultural conditions many of the northern favorites would doubtless make a more satisfactory showing. No at- tempt has been made to measure the exact yield from each plot as it is not believed that estimates from such limited data are reliable. The following notes are not intended as descriptions of the varieties, but merely to indicate their be- havior here. Those characterized as worthless are for the most part those that lack vigor under our rather trying con- ditions. It is not implied that they are not valuable kinds in regions to which they are adapted. Planters should remember that some kinds are pistillate and will not bear unless planted near some perfect flowered varieties. The nursery catalogues always state whether flow- ers are perfect ar not. Annie Laurie — Worthless. Belmont — Worthless. Bouncer— This is evidently a large fruitful berry where it is at home, probably worthless here. Brandywine— As a rule the very large berries lack vigor here. This one seems to be an exception, and it is strongly recommended as the best of the large late kinds. Brunette — Probably worthless. BuBACH — This universal favorite has done poorly under the trying conditions of the test. Under better culture in a private garden it has done better and yielded some fine fruit, but it is much less vigorous than Brandywine and cannot be recommended for general cultivation in middle and south Alabama. It will probably do well in the northern por- tion. Clyde — Lacks vigor, worthless. Crescent— This old standby is comparatively worthless here. Eleanor— Of considerable promise, and with better care would be valuable ; worthy of farther trial. 152 Enhance — Like the last this is worthy of farther triaL It is very productive, but may prove lacking in vigor. Enormous — Large and fruitful, but foliage too weak,, worthless. Gandy — Not suited here; worthless. Gardner — This plant is more vigorous and seems better adapted to our conditions than any we have tested. It runs very freely, and the foliage is very resistant to rust. It i& fairly productive, begins ripening early and continues in bearing a long time. Unfortunately the fruit seems a little soft to stand distant shipment, and the color is too light to suit all markets. It is heartily recommended for local use, but its shipping qualities should be carefully tested before planting it largely for market. Giant — Perfectly worthless here. Glenn Mary — Unfortunately we failed to get a good stand of this valuable new berry. The few plants that lived have proved vigorous and very fruitful. The fruit is of the largest size, firm and of fine color. It is worthy of extended trial. Greenville — Worthless here. Hav aland — Vigorous and productive, but the fruit ripens so unevenly as to be practically worthless. Hoffman — This favorite southern market berry has been very disappointing, and has scored a failure under conditions where it was expected to be a leader. It is considered a standard market variety for light soils. Jessie — Vigorous and fairly productive, but never seema fully satisfactory. It has some good points as a family berry but is not suited for market. Lady Thompson — Undoubtedly the best one kind for general planting here. It is vigorous, early and productive. The fruit, while not the largest, is all good sized and of regu- lar, handsome shape. It is remarkably uniform and free from small and imperfect berries, and holds its size to the end of the season. Marshall — A promising variety, worthy of farther trial* Mary — Complete failure, worthless. 153 Meeks— Next to Gardner, the most vigorous plant on our grounds. The fruit is a dark rich red and the best in flavor of the entire lot. It begins ripening very early and continues throwing up fruit stems as late as the latest. The first ber- ries are large but the later ones run small for market. It would doubtless ship well, but unfortunately the total yield seems too small, and shy bearing must be set down as its greatest fault. Michel— This well known early berry does well here and is recommended with J.ady Thompson for general planting. Some of the Northern Experiment Stations report this as a shy bearer, but here it is the most productive kind we have, though it needs rather better conditions than the severe ones of this test. It is our earliest berry, beginning slightly in advance of Lady Thompson and continuing considerably longer in bearing. While this is a good point for home use, a long bearing season is a doubtful advantage in a market berry for the South. Some complaint has reached the Station from different parts of the state that this berry rusts badly. Here we have had no trouble with it, but the foliage is certainly more delicate than that of some of the other kinds. Parker Earle — This variety is always a failure on poor thin soils, worthless here. Rio — Seems to be worthless. Sharpless — This old favorite is worthless here. Splendid — Worthless. Sunnyside — Worthless. Sunrise — Also worthless. TuBBs— Seems fairly promising and worthy of farther trial. Warfield— This standard market berry is out of its element and worthless. William Belt — This has merit, deserves farther trial. Wilson— This old standby, the first variety to make commercial strawberry growing possible, has held its own wonderfully under the trying conditions of this test. Judged 154 by this trial alone, it could not be graded lower than third or fourth on the list as a general purpose berry. WoLVERTON — Worthless. The opinions formed of these different kinds may be summarized as follows : — Earliest berry — Michel. Best early kinds for general planting — Lady Thompson, Michel. Best large late kinds — Brandywine, Glenn Mary. Most vigorous vine and hardiest foliage — Gardner, Meeks . Promising, worthy of farther trial — Eleanor, Enhance, Marshall, Tubbs, William Belt. Of doubtful value— Bouncer, Bubach, Hoffman, Jessie, Wilson. Worthless here — Annie Laurie, Belmont, Brunette, Clyde, Crescent, Enormous, Gandy, Giant, Greenville, Havaland, Mary, Parker Earle, Rio, Sharpless, Sunnyside, Sunrise, Warfield, Wolverton. I Bulletin No. 9^. August 1898. NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN, ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. EXPERIMENTS WITH OATS. J. F. DUGGAR. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Meli Director and Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Gary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Eakle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g^" The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. Experiments With Oats* BY J. F. DUGGAR. SUMMARY. Among a number of varieties of oats tested none was found superior in yield to the common Red Rust Proof oat. Varieties which produced moderate yields of grains and relatively large amounts of tall fine straw were Myer's Turf and Hatchett's Black. These and related varieties are hardy,, and are valuable for grazing and for forage. In three different experiments Red Rust Proof oats sown in November yielded 7.9, 11.8, and 9.7 bushels per acre more than the same kind of seed sown from February 9 to March 1. The average increase in these three experiments due to fall sowing was 9.8 bushels. The period between October 1 and November 15 is sug- gested as the best time for sowing the bulk of the crop of Red Rust Proof oats in central Alabama. A comparison of cotton seed and cotton seed meal applied both in fall and spring was rendered inconclusive by reason of unfavorable weather. Cowpea vines, plowed under, increased the yield of oats sown in February to the extent of 10.4 bushels per acre. The yield of fall-sown oats on land w^here cowpea vines had been plowed under (after 11 bushels of peas per acre had been picked) was 28.6 bushels per acre against 7.1 bushels on a plot previously abandoned to weeds and crab grass, a gain of 21.5 bushels of oats. The plot on which only the roots and stubble of cowpea vines were plowed under yielded 34.4 bushels of oats per acre 158 against 9,7 bushels where German millet stubble had been plowed under, an increase of 24.7 bushels of oats per acre. Considering yield of peas and of hay and yield of the succeed- ing oat crop, it was more profitable to cut cowpeas for bay than to pick the peas and plow under the vines. Nitrate of soda applied as a top dressing on both fall- sown and spring-sown oats, was most profitable when applied not later than the last of March, or at least 55 days before the grain was mature. Eighty pounds of nitrate of soda per acre afforded a profit when applied in March. In one experiment this amount of nitrate of soda afforded a yield of 29.3 bushels of oats per acre, while 160 lbs. of nitrate of soda per acre result- ed in a yield of 34.1 bushels. This was an increase over the plot receiving no nitrate of soda of 12.9 bushels with the smaller quantity of fertilizer and 17 7 bushels with the larger amount; there was a greater profit on the investment when 80 pounds was employed. On soil well supplied with vegetable matter, plots receiv- ing 660 lbs. of slaked lime per acre at time of planting yielded more than plots not limed. But slaked lime applied as a top dressing in March on oats growing on sandy land deficient in vegetable matter failed to increase the yield. In a co-operative fertilizer experiment conducted near Auburn with oats sown in February, drought caused the crop to fail on all plots. The greatest resistance to drought and the largest yields were obtained on the plots receiving kainit. Scalding seed oats for 10 to 15 minutes in water kept at a temperature of 130 to 135 degrees Fahrenheit effectually pre- vented smut here. This is a standard, cheap, and effective method of preventing smut, and the saving resulting from this treatment of seed oats is usually 5 to 20 per cent, of the crop, and sometimes more. VARIETIES. Several varieties of oats were imported from France, and these were compared in the season of 1896-97 with varieties obtained from T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va., and with 159 home grown oats of the Red Rust Proof variety. Nearly all of the varieties from France were evidently spring oats and these proved too tender for fall sowing in this latitude. Winter killing of from one-third to two-thirds of the plants on these plots was the cause of the low yields. One foreign variety, Gray Winter, proved hardy, and for two years it has kept a rather high rank among the varieties tested. All varieties, except the Naked or Hull-less, were sown at the rate of 44 pounds of seed per acre. The eleventh- acre plots were arranged in two series, side by side. Plot 10 being opposite and near Plot 1, Plot 18 opposite Plot 9, and so on. The field, which embraced a hill- top on which there was a deep sandy, poor soil, produced a crop of cotton in 1896. The plots seemed to be of the same fectility, but the yields of the check plots of Red Kust Proof oats suggest that there was a gradual decline in the fertility from Plot 1 to 9 and from Plot 10 to 18. Varieties of oats sown November lb, 1^96. o o 7 8 !t 10 11 12 13 14 1.5 IR 17 18 VARIETY Red Rustproof Red Rust Proof Red Rust Proof Hull-less Oats Giaut White Abun- dance White Hunp;arian... Yellow Giant Hatchett's Black.... Red Rust Proof . . . . Gray Winter Beardless Red Rustproof Red Rust Proof .... Early Siberian Virginia Gray SEED FROM YIELD PER ACRE Straw i Grain -1.3 a o « ■;? Ala. Expt. Station Ala. Expt. Station Ala. Expt. Station. . . ^ France T.W.Wood & Sons, Va. France France T.W.Wood & Sons, Va, Ala Expt. Station France T.W.Wood ct Sons, Va Ala. Expt. Station T.W.Wood & Sons, Va France T.W.Wood cfr Sous, Va Lbs. Bus 888 2:i.6 901 19.7 744 16.1 653 4.4 321 3.1 603 2.8 1,019 5.4 1,219 17.7 1.074 29.7 1,354 18.4 802 14.9 892 23.5 879 20.3 939 9.9 1,317 2S.S 46 41 41 18 26 14 14 32 47 30 38 46 43 24 40 In this test Virginia Gray and Red Rust Proof stand first in yield of grain. * The plots not represented in the above table formed part of another experiment. 160 Seed of some of the above mentioned varieties was saved and sown November 6, 1897, together with a few additional varieties. In the same field was also a test of productiveness of a " spring strain " against a " fall strain " of Red Rust Proof oats. Both strains were originally from the same source, the only difference being that the seed for Plots 10 and 13 were from a crop sown in February, 1897, the "fall strain" from a crop sown in November, 1896. Varieties of oats sowji November 6, 1897. 6 O VARIETY SEEB FROM YIELD PER ACRE 4^ O CI Ph Straw Giain PhO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Delaware Winter... Virginia Gray Virginia Gray Red Rust Proof Myer'sTurf Gray Winter Hatcheti's Black... Beardless Early Siberian Red Rust Proof (spring strain) Red Rust Proof (fall strain) Red Rust Proof (fall strain) Red Rust Proof (spring strain) Delaware, crop of '96. . T.W.Wood c% Sons, Va. * Ala. Expt. Station.... Ala. Expt. Station Miss. Expt. Station t Ala. Expt. Station... * Ala. Expt. Station... * Ala. Expt. Station... * Ala. Expt. Station... Ala. Expt. Station Ala. Expt. Station.... Ala. Expt. Station ... Ala. Expt. Station — » Lbs. 783 924 1,071 1,800 1,456 1,476 1,057 1,155 1,129 936 1,122 978 1,055 Bus. 10.6 13.9 15.7 .HO. 8 15.4 19.5 20.8 27.1 13.9 27 0 21.7 28.8 30.3 30.4 315 32. 41 3 25.3 29.7 38.7 42 9 28.5 48. 38.1 48.5 47.9 In this test the Red Rust Proof variety leads in the pro- duction of grain, closely followed by Beardless ; Hatchett's Black and Gray Winter rank next. If we omit Plot 11, the figures for which are shown by the low percentage of grain to be abnormal or erroneous, there is no material difl'erence between the "spring strain " and " fall strain " of Red Rust Proof oats. This practical equality occurred in a mild winter, during which no oats of this variety were at all injured by cold on the farm of this experiment station. Possibly in a severe winter the results would be different. * Originally from T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. ; seed grown in Alabama only one year. t Originally from France; seed grown in Alabama only one year. 161 Februarj 17, seven varieties of oats named in the table "below were sown on " branch bottom land." On account of inequalities in the soil, causing poor and irregular growth over nearly all plots, except on a small strip at the east end of each, only this small measured portion of each plot was harvested. This vitiates the experiment somewhat, the yields in the following tables representing only the best portions of each plot : Varieties of oats sown February 17, 1898. o o VAKIETY. May Red Rust Proof.. Burt Virginia Gray.... Red Rust Proof. Myer's Turf Blk. Belgian Winter ■Black Mesdag ... SEED FROM YIELD PER ACRE Straw Grain Opelika, Ala Ala. Expt. Sta Miss. Expt. Sta *Ala. Expt. Sta Ala. Expt. Sta Miss. Expt. Sta 907 France , France ! 1046 Lbs. Bus. 1790 35.9 1149 23.4 1658 41.4 472 5.2 140;3 37.8 907 5.7 #« 6.2 Percent Grain. 39.9 39.6 41.7 26.4 46.3 16.6 15.9 In this test of " spring-sown " oats Burt was most pro- ductive, followed by May and Red Rust Proof. The winter varieties failed, one winter variety maturing no grain at all. What is the Best Variety of Oats? It seems that there is no one variety best for all con- ditions. The Red fJust Proof is the only one in the list tested by u.s which is worthy of the name of a " general purpose " oat in this locality. It can be sown both in fall and in late winter in this latitude. It is generally not greatly injured by rust, but is rust resistant rather than rust proof. The straw is short, an objection on very poor or stony land, since short straw means loss in harvesting. The height of straw can be increased by the liberal use of nitrogenous fertilizers, such as cotton seed, cotton seed meal, and nitrate of soda. *Originally from T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond Va.; seed grown in Alabama only one year. **Failed to produce seed when sown in February. 162 la hardiness or resistance to winter killing. Red Rust Proof is surpassed by the group of varieties embracing Myer's Turf, Virginia Gray, Delaware Winter, and Gray "Winter. All these '' grazing oats " are nearly or quite identical in most qualities, though apparently differing among themselves in productiveness. All are hardy, have tall fine straw, a low percentage of grain and a long season of growth. Two varie- ties of this group have proved totally unfit for sowing in February. Varieties of this type are preferred for grazing or forage. For sowing after Christmas the choice is between Red Rust Proof and Burt or May, the last two as grown here appearing to be identical. The Red Rust Proof is in most general repute, but some farmers prefer the Burt. As to the relative productiveness of Red Rust Proof and Burt, the latter stood first in the experiment noted above, and in a test of the two varieties made in the spring of 1896 ; in that test unfavorable weather and late sowing caused both varieties to fail, Burt yielding 9.4 bushels per acre and Red Rust Proof only 7.8 bushels. Additional evidence is needed before we can be sure that there is any material dilierence in the productiveness of these two varieties sown after Christmas. In time of ripening Burt and its equivalent (May) are earlier than the Red Rust Proof. Here Burt matured one to two weeks before Red Rust Proof sown aS the same date in spring and only one to three days later than fall sown Red Rust Proof oats. The latter variety matured 12 to 19 days earlier when sown in November than when sown in February. Myer's Turf, Virginia Gray, and Gray Winter were ten to twelve days later in maturing than Red Rust Proof sown at the same date in the fall. Hatchett's Black, a hardy and moderately productive variety, matures between Red Rust Proof and Myer's Turf. Where a large oat crop is grown it is advantageous to avoid having the entire crop ripen at once. This is an argu- ment in favor of sowing several varieties. 163 Time op Sowing. November 16, 1896, Red Rust Proof oats were sown on two plots on very poor, sandy soil, which had produced a crop of cotton in 1896. Lying between these two plots was another which was not sown until the first of the following March. In each case Red Rust Proof oats, at the rate of 44 pounds per acre, were sown broadcast on the plowed ground and cov. ered with a cultivator. The fertilizer was applied at the time of planting in each case, and was worked into the soil with a smoothing harrow. The fertilizer was applied at the same rate on each of the three plots, viz: 33 lbs. muriate of potash per acre. 110 lbs. cottonseed meal per acre. 198 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. Total, 341 lbs. per acre. Although the November sowing occurred later than was desirable, the plants of the Red Rust Proof variety sown at this time were not appreciably damaged by cold. The fall- sown oats were ripe May 31, the spring-sown oats June 12, a difference of 12 days in time of harvesting. Fall-sown vs. spring-sown oats. Plot. 1 2 3 AV.1&3 DATE OF SOWING November 16, 1896., March 1, 1897 November 16, 1896. November 16, 1896.. Gain from fall sowing. YIELD PER ACRE Straw Grain Lbs. Bu. 888 23.6 587 13.8 901 19.7 895 21.7 308 7.9 In this case there was a gain of 7.9 bushels per acre, or 57% in favor of fall-sowing, even when the date of sowing was delayed until the middle of November to allow time for gathering the preceding cotton crop. November 23, 1897, on soil somewhat similar to that on 95-2 164 which the preceding experiment was made, Red Rust Proof oats were sown on one plot and an adjoining plot was left to be sown late in the winter. February 9, 1898, this second plot was sown, all con- ditions of preparation, amount of seed, and fertilizer, being identical on the two plots. On each plot the fertilizer was' applied at the same time as the seed, in November and February respectively. The fertilizer consisted of ; 160 lbs. acid phosphate per acre. 160 lbs. cotton seed meal " 40 lbs. muriate of potash " Total, 360 lbs. The yield was 18.2 bushels per acre on the fall-sown plots, and 6.4 bushels per acre on the plot sown in February. The extremely dry weather of the latter part of the spring injured the crop on both plots, but its effects were most severely felt by spring sown oats, which being 19 days later in maturing were cut short by the continuous drought. In ordinary seasons, or on soil better supplied with moisture, there would doubtless have been less difference in yield. Another test bearing on this subject was made in 1897-98. This was made on better land than that used in the preceding experiment. As before, all conditions on both plots were made equal except that one plot was sown November 26, and the other February 9. The yield was 23.8 bushels per acre with the fall sown oats and 14.1 bushels with Red Rust Proof oats sown in February, a gain of 9.7 bushels per acre as the result of sow- ing in the fall. The results for all three experiments just mentioned are brought together in the following table : 165 Average results of fall-sown vs. spring- soion oats. DATE OF SOWING Experiment No. 1. November 18, 189().. March 1,1897 Experiment No. 2. November 23, 1897. February 9, 1898 Experiment No. o. November 26, 1897... February 9, 1898 Averages. Sown in November ... Sown in February and March Percent. Yield of Yield of grain in sheaf grain straw oats per acre per acre Percent. Bus. Lbs. 45 21.7 895 43 13.8 587 38 18.2 958 47 6.4 228 43 23.8 994 51 14.1 440 42 21.2 949 47 11.4 418 Increase of grain from fall Bus. 7.9 11.8 9.7 9.8 The averages in the above table show that oats sown in November were more productive than those sown February 9-March 1 to the extent of 9.8 bushels of grain and 531 pounds of straw per acre. In 100 pounds of unthreshed oats there was 47 pounds of grain with spring sowing, and only 42 with fall sowing, a dif- ference due to the extra height of straw of fall-sown oats. The average date of harvesting the Red Rust Proof variety was May 26 when sown in November, and June 11 when sown in February or early March. This difference of 16 days in time of maturing renders fall oats less liable to suffer from drought or other unfavorable weather conditions. It is almost universally admitted that throughout the greater part of Alabama oats sown in the fall afford larger yields than do "spring-sown oats" — by which term is meant oats sown any time in the latter half of winter or in early spring. And yet the proportion of fall -sown oats is unfortunately small. The chief causes for the failure of farmers to sow large areas of fall oats are two; (1) depredations of live stock which are so generally allowed to run at large in winter, and (2) the fear that fall oats may be winter killed. 166 The remedy for the depredations of stock is obvious, al- though its discussion is not in place here. Moreover, on many farms there are enclosed fields from which all stock can be easily excluded. The danger of winter killing is usually overestimated and the losses from this cause can be reduced by choosing the best date for sowing. Moreover, oats sown in January or Feb- ruary also run some degree of the same risk, though less fre- quently killed than oats sown from Nov. 15 to Dec. 15. Several instances are in mind where in this vicinity both spring-sown and fall-sown oats were killed on the same field during the same winter, the latter having been planted in January or February, after the fall oats had been destroyed. As intimated above, winter killing of oats is sometimes due to sowing at the wrong time in the fall. The farmer who, in this latitude, is just baginning to sow oats when Thanks- giving Day comes, a case not uncommon, is inviting this danger. To withstand the alternate freezes and thawings of winter, oats should be sown early enough to develop a strong root sys- tem before cold weather. On the other hand, it occasionally happens that Red Rust Proof oats are sown so early in the fall that on rich land they throw up seed heads before the cold weather of early spring has passed, and in this "booting" stage they are very susceptible to injury from cold. It is im- possible to name any date as absolutely the best for sowing, since this varies with difterent localities, with diflerent soils in the same locality, and even with different seasons. Observation indicates that in the central part of Alabama it is advisable to sow the bulk of the crop of Red Rust Proof oats between October 1 and November 15. These dates are not set as extreme limits even for the Red Rust Proof variety. Hardier varieties, as Turf, Virginia Gray, etc., may be sown earlier. The attempt to grow spring sown oats on poor land has brought frequent failure and has done much to discourage the culture of oats in the South. If spring-sown oats are to be produced at a profit, they must have good land, and especially they need low lying fields that are comparatively drought 167 proof. Of course fall-sown oats succeed best also on rich land, but these can often be produced at a profit on land too poor to afford a profitable crop of spring oats. Even if fall oats should be completely winter killed one year in three, the two remaining crops of fall oats, according to our experiments and observations, would afford more profit than three crops of spring oats. Another consideration in favor of fall oats is the fact that the winter growing vegeta- tion tends to prevent injurious leaching of the valuable nitrates from the soil. This is especially important on rich soils. That spring sowing is more convenient in some re- spects is a fact not to be ignored. For example, it permits oats to follow cotton, a crop which is not usually removed in time for oats to be sown at the favorable period in the fall. This objection to fall sowing may be overcome by adopting a rotation in which oats follow corn, thus : First year, cotton ; Second year, corn ; Third year, fall-sown oats, followed by cowpeas ; Fourth year, cotton again. Or where a larger proportion of cotton and a smaller pro- portion of the other crops is desired, cotton might be the crop during the first and second years of the rotation, followed by corn, which in the fourth year is followed by oats (or other small grain) and cowpeas. Both the above named rotations allow the oats to be sown in the fall, the corn crop being easily removed in time for this. Cotton Seed and Cotton Seed Meal as Fertilizers for Oats. In order to compare cotton seed with cotton seed meal, and to note the effects of each when applied in fall and in spring, the following experiment was made. November 17, 1897, on poor sandy land, five plots of Red Rust Proof oats were sown. All plots on that date were fertilized with 20© lbs. of acid phosphate and 30 lbs. of muriate of potash per acre, a combination which for brevity may be designated " mixed minerals." In addition two plots received 472 lbs. — 95-3 168 per acre of cotton seed, and another plot received 200 lbs. per acre of cotton seed meal. The cotton seed, as well as the meal and mineral fertilizers were harrowed in. March 4, a top dressing of 472 pounds of cotton seed per acre was applied to another plot and 200 pounds per acre of cotton seed meal was sown broadcast on yet another plot. Fertilizers applied in spring were not harrowed in. The oats were cut May 23. Results of applying cottonseed and cottonseed meal to oats in fall and spring. NITROGENOUS FERTILIZER PER ACRE 472 lbs. cottonseed (av. 2 plots) 200 lbs. cottonseed meal 472 lbs. cottonseed 200 lbs. cottonseed meal When applied Nov, 17 Nov. 17 March 4 March 4 YIELD PER ACRE Grain Straw Bus. 15.7 17.8 14.. 5 14.2 Lbs. 834 969 730 775 Positive conclusions are not warranted because all plots in this sandy field were so severely injured by drought. It can scarcely be doubted that under normal conditions cottonseed can be more profitably applied to oats in fall than as a top dressing in spring. Observation, not however founded upon exact experiment, leads to the belief that the same is true for cottonseed meal. An experiment comparing cottonseed, cottonseed meal, and nitrate of soda as fertilizers for spring oats was begun in 1896, but the general failure of spring-sown oats rendered valueless the data obtained in this test, as also that of experi- ments relative to thickness of seeding and to effects of dif- ferent phosphates on oats. CowPEAS AND Velvet Beans as Fertilizers foe Oats. On sandy soil in 1896 several plots were sown broadcast with the Wonderful variety of cowpeas, and an adjacent plot was sown broadcast with German millet. The German millet was plowed under, as was also the pea vines, the peas having been previously picked. 169 February 18, 1897, Red Rust Proof oats were sown after the above mentioned crops, using in both cases 100 pounds of acid phosphate and 80 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre. After cowpeas the oat straw grew to be three to four inches taller than on the plot preceded by German millet- The yields were as follows : Oats folloioing cowpeas and German millet^ 1897. YIELD PER ACRE Grain Straw Oats after cowpeas, vines plowed under Bus. 22.8 12.4 Lbs. 788 Oats after German millet, plowed under 559 Difference per acre 10.4 229 In this case cowpeas were more valuable than German millet as fertilizer for the following oat crop, the difference in favor of cowpeas being 10.4 bushels of oats per acre and 229 pounds of straw. An experiment to ascertain the manurial values of cow- peas and velvet beans, and to compare the relative fertilizer value of the entire vines with that of the roots and stubble of both plants, was begun in 1897. May 14, 1897, on poor sandy soil Wonderful cowpeas were sown on two plots, velvet beans (a leguminous plant closely related to cowpeas), on two plots, and German millet on a fifth plot. A sixth plot was prepared and fertilized but left without seed, to grow up in crab grass, poverty weed, etc. Cowpeas and velvet beans were sown in drills two feet apart, German millet broadcast. The millet was cut for hay July 16, yielding 994 pounds per acre. The cowpeas on one plot were picked September 10, yielding 11 bushels per acre. The velvet beans did not mature seed. In September, 1897, cowpeas on one plot and velvet beans on one plot were cut for hay and the stubble plowed under. The vines of cowpeas on one plot and of velvet beans on another were also plowed under on the above mentioned date. Then oats were sown at a uniform rate on all four plots, also 17U on the plot where German millet stubble had been plowed un- der and on the one where crab grass and various weeds had just been buried by the plow. On all plots oats were fertilized with 220 pounds per acre of acid phosphate and 44 pounds of muriate of potash, no nitrogen being supplied except that contained in the remains of preceding crops of cowpeas, velvet beans, etc. Yield per acre of oats grown after stubble or vines of cowpeas, velvet beans^ etc. Oats after velvet bean vines Oats after velvet bean stubble Average after velvet beau vines and stubble. Oats after cowpea vines Oats after cowpea stubble ... Average after cowpea vines and stubble Oats after crab grass and weeds Oats after German millet , Average, after noa-leguminous plants From early spring there was a marked difference in the appearance of the several plots, the plants being much greener and taller where either the stubble or vines of cowpeas had been plowed under. When the oats began to tiller, or branch, the difference increased, the plants supplied with nitrogen, through the de- cay of the stubble or vines of cowpeas and velvet beans, tiller- ing freely and growing much taller than the plants following German millet or crab grass. May 18, 1898, oats on all plots were cut. In this experiment the average yield of oats was 33.6 bushels after velvet beans, 81.6 bushels after cowpeas, and only 8.4 bushels after non-leguminous plants (crab-grass, weeds and German millet). Here is a gain of 24.2 bushels of oats and nearly three- fourths of a ton of straw as a result of growing leguminous or 171 soil-improving plants, instead of non-leguminous plants, dur- ing the preceding season. Undoubtedly this is an extreme, and not an average, case. If cottonseed meal, or other nitrogenous fertilizer, had been used on all the plots of oats, the plants on plots 2 and 5 would have made much better growth, and the difference in favor of the leguminous plants would have been reduced. A gain of five to fifteen bushels of oats per acre as a re- sult of plowing under cowpea stubble or vines would make the growing of cowpeas for fertilizer a profitable operation, and it is far safer to count on such an increase as that obtained in our first experiment, (10.4 bushels), rather than to expect such an exceptional increase as that obtained in this last ex- periment. An unexpected result of this experiment is the larger crop on the plots where only the stubble was left than on those where the vines of cowpeas and velvet beans were plowed under. The plots were of nearly uniform fertility, as judged by the location and by the uniform growth of cotton on all plots in 1896. While admitting the possibility that the two west plots (plots 3 and 6) were slightly richer than the two on the east (plots 1 and 4), the writer thinks that the difference in yield was almost wholly due (1) to the fact that the vines (especially those of the velvet beans) were not properly buried by the small plow employed, and (-2) that the seed bed for oats was more compact where only stubble was plowed under, a point of advantage, doubtless, in such a dry winter as that of 1897-98. It does not follow that the land will be permanently benefited by a cowpea stubble to a greater extent than by cowpea vines. The reverse is probably true. The effect of both stubble and vines on late corn, following oats, is now be- ing determined. It is usually more profitable, where many head of live stock are kept, to save the cowpea hay and plow under only the stubble than to pick the peas and plow under the vines. Time of Applying Nitrate of Soda. Nitrate of soda is valuable for its nitrogen, of which it contains about 16 per cent. Nitrogen in this form usually 172 costs somewhat more per pound than in the form of cotton- seed meal. Nitrate of soda is more quickly available than cottonseed meal, and hence finds its most appropiate use on vegetable or other crops in which quick growth is desired- In Europe it is also extensively used on field crops, especially as a top dressing in spring for small grain. Scattered over growing grain in the spring it does not need to be worked into the soil, but if the soil is damp a top dressing of nitrate of soda is quickly diffused. Its favorable effect may often be seen in a week in the deeper green and accelerated growth of the plants. Three series of experiments, two with fall sown oats, and one with spring oats, were made here to determine the best time of applying nitrate of soda. On Red Rust Proof oats sown in the fall on sandy up- land nitrate of soda, at the rate of 80 lbs. per acre was applied,, broadcast at several different dates in the spring of 1896. In addition to the nitrate of soda, a complete fertilizer containing cotton seed meal had been used at time of sowing. The dates of application and condition of soil and plants at the several dates follow : March 28. — Oats well branched, some leaves 6 inches long, soil rather moist, rain a few days after fertilizer was applied. April 21. — Plants beginning to throw up seed stems,^ land very dry and no rain fell until eight days after fertilizer was used. April 30. — Plants beginring to head, soil moist, rain on preceding night and also on the second day after the application of the nitrate of soda. May 12. — Heads open on all plants, soil very dry; a shower fell two days later. The grain on all plots, which were one-tenth acre in size, was harvested May 27. The results are given in the following table: 173 Time of applying nitrate of soda on fall sovm oats, 1896. 80 LBS. NITRATE OF SODA PER ACRE APPLIED No nitrate of soda (av. 2 plots). March 28 (av. 2 plots) April 21 (av. 2 plots) April :30(av. 2 plots) May 12 (1 plot) One-half on March 28 One-half on April 30 No. of YIELD PER ACRE| days before harvest Grain Straw Bus. Lbs. 16.4 590 60 29.3 923 35 19.1 680 27 21 886 15 20.7 747 60 \ 27/ 23.5 939 Increase per acre from nitrate Bus. 12.9 2.7 4.6 4.3 7.1 The largest average yield, '29.3 bushels per acre, whs obtained by applying 80 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda March !>8. Here the increase per acre attributed to %"! worth of nitrate of soda was 12.9 bushels, worth at 40 cents per bushel 15.16, leaving a net profit of $3.16 per acre from the use of this fertilizer at this date. A profit was also obtained by applying 40 pounds of nitrate of soda March 28 and an equal quantity April 30, The yield was less, however, than when the entire amount was applied March 28. Nitrate of soda applied under very unfavorable conditions April 21 brought financial loss. Later applications, although under rather favorable soil conditions, were unprofitable. The preceding experiment was in its essential points re- peated in 1897-98. Red Rust Proof oats were sown on four plots on a reddish loam soil November 17, 1897. The fertilizer used on each plot at the time of sowing consisted of 200 pounds of acid phosphate and 472 pounds of cotton seed per acre. In addition nitrate of soda at the rate of 80 pounds per acre was employed as a dressing in the spiing, two plots being thus treated March 4, 1898, a third plot on March 29, and a fourth plot on April 27. The soil was damp when the two earlier applications were made and barely dry on the suiface at the time of making the last one. The crop was harvested May 23. The results follow : 174 Time of applying nitrate of soda to J all- sown oats, 1898. 80 LBS. NITRATE OF SODA APPLIED March 4 (av. 2 plots). March 29 April 27 No. of days before harvest 80 55 26 YIELD PER ACRE Grain Straw Bus. 35.0 ;}4.3 18.8 Lbs. 1801 1901 878 In this, as in the preceding experiment, nitrate of soda was more effective when applied in March than when used in the latter part of April. Comparing the yields obtained from the application in March with the yield from the last top dressing, which was apparently inettective, we are justified in concluding that both of the earlier applications of nitrate of soda returned a profit. An experiment in applying a top dressing of nitrate of soda on spring oats was made in 1896 on reddish loam soil. Red Rust Proof were sown January 27, 1896, all plots receiv- ing equal quanities of a fertilizer containing phosphoric acid and potash, but no nitrogen. Nitrate of soda at the rate of 120 lbs. per acre was applied as a top dressing at several dates, namely : March 28, when the plants had leaves 3 to 4 inches long ; April 28, when the plants were beginning to throw up seed stems ; And May 6, when many of the panicles (heads) were show- ing. On lot of nitrate of soda was divided, half being applied March 28 and the balance April 28. On all these dates there was sufficient moisture in the soil to dissolve the nitrate of soda. The oats were cut May 29. 175 Time of applying nitrate of soda to sprinc/soion oats, 1896. 120 LBS. NITRATE OF SODA APPLIED No nitrate of soda... March 28 April 28 (av. 2 plots) May 6 One-half March 28 ... One-half April 28 No. of days before harvest YIELD PER ACRE Grain Straw 62 31 23 62 ?} Bus. 10.4 20.3 ir, . 1 10.8 13.5 Lbs. 376 414 .357 433 Increase per acre from nitrate Lbs. 9.9 2.7 .4 3.1 The results with spring oats confirm the teachings of the experiments with fall-sown oats. From these experiments it appears that the earlier top dressing of nitrate of soda re- turned a profit. It is evident that nitrate of soda when used as a top dressmg on oats should be applied not later than the last of March and at least 55 days before the grain is mature. In regard to the amount of nitrate of soda which can be profitably used in spring as a top dressing for oats, extensive experiments have not been made here. A single test in 1896 on fall sown oats gave a yield of o4.1 bushels with 160 lbs. nitrate of soda, 29.3 bushels with 80 lbs. of nitrate of soda, 16.4 bushels with no nitrate of soda. The larger and smaller amounts were applied as a top dressing on the same day, March 29. The use of 80 pounds per acre resulted in a profit ; the increase due to the additional 80 pounds just about covered the cost of the additional fertil- izer. Eighty pounds per acre is certainly safer than a larger quantity, although a heavier application sometimes proves best. Effect of Lime. February 1, 1896, Red Rust Proof oats were sown on four plots of land previously used for truck crops. The soil was rich and more abundantly supplied with vegetable matter than most of the upland in this locality. All plots were fer- tilized alike with a complete fertilizer, except that two plots, received in addition slaked lime at the rate of 660 pounds per acre. 176 la spite of the unfavorable season the yields were satis- i'actory, the two limed plots averaging 38.5 bushels per acre, the two plots not limed 25.6 bushels. There was on compar- atively rich land a difference of 12,9 bushels of oats per acre in favor of the limed plots. March 11, 1898, quick lime from the Anniston Lime and Stone Company, was weighed out at the rate of 1,000 pounds per acre, and after being slaked, was applied as a top dressing on oats sown in the fall. The soil was poor and sandy and the yields correspond- ingly small, 12.1 bushels per acre on the limed plot and 13.7 bushels on the plot not limed and used as a check. Here there was no gain effected by liming; it should be noted, however, that poor, sandy soil and late application are conditions very unfavorable for lime. January 29, oats were sown on poor, reddish land, with and without lime, the rate when lime was used being 640 pounds of slaked lime per acre. Stock broke into the field and injured the crop when the oats were ripening, hence the plots were not separately harvested. There was no difference in the growth on the limed and not limed plots, so far as could be judged by the eye. Lime hastens the rotting of vegetable matter in the soil and can be most advantageously used when the soil is abund- antly supplied with organic matter. It is also highly beneficial on acid soils. To determine whether a soil is acid, buy at a drug store a piece of blue litmus paper, keep this in a stoppered bottle until convenient to use it. Then bring it in contact with the moist soil to be tested. If the blue color of the litmus paper changes to reddish the soil is acid and will probably be helped by an application of lime. It should not be understood that the favorable effect of lime is confined to soils which show this acid reaction with litmus paper. The Agricultural Department of this station will supply litmus paper free of charge to anyone agreeing to make this test and to report results. 177 Co-operative Fertilizer Experiments. This experiment was conducted accoiding to directions by Mr. H. C. Crayton, on his farm about seven miles south of Auburn. Twelve plots, each one-eighth acre, were used. The land was gray sandy upland. Red Rust Proof oats were sown February 10, and the fertilizers were harrowed in after the grain was sown. After the date of sowing there was only an insignificant rainfall. The long continued dry weather caused the failure of the oats sown in February. On account of the extremely unfavorable conditions, re- sulting in a yield of only about one-half or one-third the usual crop on that soil, the yields given below fail to show the nor- mal effects of fertilizers. A fertilizer test reveals the manurial needs of a given soil only when the supply of moisture is sufficient to dissolve the fertilizer and cause a normal growth. The yields are here given for what they are worth. Yields of oats i?i co-operative fertilizer test. o A B 1 2 .3 4 10 FERTILIZER Amount per acre Lbs. 436 240 200 240 KIND Cottouseed Florida soft phosphate Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate No fertilizer Kainit Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Cottonseed meal Kainit Acid Phosphate Kainit No fertilizer... Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Kainit Cottonseed meal Acid phosphate Kainit , YIELD per acre Straw Lbs. 192 108 200 200 232 328 300 372 248 232 712 472 Grain Bus. 2.8 2 A] 3.0 3.0 3.4 5.1 4.4 7.3 4.2 3.4 10.0 5.6 . 178 The only fertilizer that showed any tendency to increase the yield was kainit. This does not necessarily indidate that the soil was more deficient in potash than in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. The favorable result is probably due to thfr effect of kainit on the moisture supply of the soil, a result which would not necessarily be so noticeable in seasons of normal rainfall. Prevention of Smut. Smut is the cause of much loss to those who grow oats in all parts of the United States. We have seldom noticed in Alabama a field of oats not treated for smut in which the injury due to smut could be estimated at less than five per cent, of the crop. In one locality visited just before the last crop was harvested no field was seen in which the loss could be estimated at less than twenty per cent, and in some fields it was evidently more than forty per cent. There are several methods for treating smut. The one which is used on the Station Farm with entire success and which is believed to be the cheapest and the best for our conditions is the Jensen treatment. This consists in keeping the seed oats in hot water at a temperature of from 130 to 135 degrees Fahrenheit for 10 to 15 minutes. The temperature kills the spores (so-called "seed") of the fungus which produces smut but does not interfere with the germination of the oats. An experiment to determine the amount of injury from smut was made on two plots of oats sown on poor sandy land February 12, 1896. Equal quantities of seed oats were weigh- ed out for the two plots. The seed for one plot was then placed in water at a temperature of 130 to 135 degrees Fahrenheit for ten minutes. The yield of oats was 13.1 bushels per acre with seed not treated, and 14.2 bushels with scalded seed. This is a gain of 1.1 bushels per acre or about eight per cent., obtaind at the cost of only a few minutes labor. A careful coant was made of the sound and smutted heads growing on measured and equal areas on each plot. The average results showed that on the plot with seed not 179 scalded 5 9 per cent, of the heads were destroyed by smut. Not a single head of smut could be found on the plots sown with treated seed. The gain in yield was even greater than the number of diseased stalks would indicate. This repre- sents a general truth, namely, that the average farmer is apt to underrate the amount of injury done by smut, failing to notice many of the diseased stem?, which remain dwarfed and inconspicuous, or to allow for grain which, though apparently sound, is light, as the result of smut. As estimated above, the loss in Alabama oat fields due to smut is generally greater than that noted in this experiment, where comparatively clean seed was used. By treating all the seeds for a few years in successior, and sowing grain only on fields where smut has not recently developed, the seed grown on the farm will become so free from smut spores that scalding will in time become unneces- sary. The value of the treatment given above has been con- clusively proven in many experiments in a number of statei^. The treatment is rendered easier by the following arrange- ment for heating the grain : Have a vessel for heating water and three tubs or barrels. In tub No. 1 maintain the water at a temperature of 110 to 120 degrees Fahrenheit, in No. 2 keep the water at 130 to 135 de- grees, adding cold or hot water as required, and in No. 3 keep cold water. Dip the sacks of oats for a few minutes in tub No. 1, the sole purpose of which is to prevent the cold oats from going immediately into tub No. 2, and thereby reducing the temperature too low. From tub No. 1 carry the sacks of warm oats to tub No. 2, keeping the oats submerged there and «ccasionaly stirred for ten or fifteen mmutes. Then dip the hot oats into cold water or immediately spread them to cool. Only the one vessel having water kept continuously at 180 to 135 degrees is absolutely necessary. The other two are simply conveniences to hasten the work. An accurate thermometer is absolutely necessary. Xo guess work is admissible. A good "floating dairy thermometer " can be obtained from large drug stores or from dealers in dairy gocds at a cost not exceeding 50 cents. 180 This cheap thermometer should be compared with a more expensive one to see that it is accurate. If the floating thermometer varies by a degree or two from the standard, due allowance can be made for this when using the former. Two men in an hour can treat several bushels, usually S to 4 bushels where grain is handled in one bushel sacks, or larger quantities in proportion as the sacks and hot water vessels are larger. The cost for labor should not, at current rates, exceed three cents per bushel or not over five cents per acre. In return a gain of from 1 to 8 bushels of oats per acre may be expected. The scalded oats may be sown as soon as cooled or they may be dried for later sowing, by being spread out in a thin layer and stirred, or by adding any drying material, as sand, dust, etc. BOTAJMICAL GARDEN, Bulletin No. 96. August. 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OK THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. Experiments with Crimson Clover and Hairy Vetch. J. F. DUGGAR. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS i& SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. CuLVEK Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Meli Director and Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Cary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g^^ The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. Experiments With Crimson Clover and Hairy Vetch, BY J. F. DUGGAE. SUMMARY. Clover, vetch and similar leguminous plants are able to draw much of their nitrogen from the air when enlargements called tubercules or nodules are found on their roots. They are unable to do this, or to store up fertility, when tubercules are absent. In order for tubercules to develop, specific germs or bac- teria must be present in the soil or seed, or come in contact with the young rootlets. In the regions where the clovers,, vetch, alfalfa, etc., are extensively grown, these germs become generally distributed in the soil of the entire region. In a number of localities in Alabama, where these legumes are not grown to any great extent, these germs are absent from some soils or present in insuflBcient numbers. Inoculation is the process of supplying these germs, either by scattering on a field some of the germ-laden soil from a field where these rarely grown legumes have borne tubercles,, or byjthe use of the prepared material called Nitragin, Nitragin is a concentrated germ fertilizer containing my- riads of germs which are able to cause the growth of tubercles on the roots of certain leguminous or soil improving plants. Both Nitragin and germ- laden earth were very profitably used in our experinents. Crimson clover inoculated with clover Nitragin afforded a crop of 4,057 pounds of hay per acre, while ordinary or un- treated seed gave (including many accidently inoculated 184 plants) only 761 pounds of hay. This is a gain of at least 3,296 pounds of hay per acre as the result of inoculation. Seed of hairy vetch inoculated with vetch Nitragen pro- duced hay at the rate of 3,270 pounds per acre, against 564 pounds with ordinary or untreated seed. This is an increase of 2,706 pounds of hay per acre as the result of inoculation. The cost of inoculation, using Nitragin as above, was at the rate of 12.25 per acre, leaving a large profit. In an earlier experiment here hairy vetch was inoculated with soil from an old vetch field, wihout expense except a small item for labor. This home grown inoculating material effected an increase of 2,308 pounds of hay per acre. A field once inoculated, whether naturally or artificially, remains inoculated for years. As a general rule, each division or genus of leguminous plant has its own specific or adapted germ. Nitragin is very perishable especially in warm weather and this may cause frequent failure in using it. Natural agencies are constantly at work spreading root tubercle bacteria and inoculating soils. If given sufficient time (several years) most legumes will probably develop tubercles without help from man. Artificial inoculation brings quicker success in the culture of rarely grown legumes. Inoculated hairy vetch yielded slightly less dry material in the above-ground portion and a considerably smaller weight of roots than nearly mature rye. However the inoculated vetch contained in both tops and roots a much higher percentage of the valuable element, nitrogen, than did rye, and also more than did non-inoculated vetch plants. The crop on one acre contained in tops, stubble and roots 105.5 pounds of nitrogen in the case of inoculated hairy vetch, only 26 pounds in the case of rye, and still less in non-inocu- lated vetch plants. This excess of 79.5 pounds of nitrogen stored up by vetch explains the superior fertilizer and food value of hairy vetch over rye. . Of the total nitrogen in healthy plants of crimson clover and hairy vetch, less than one- fifth was contained in the roots 185 and short stubble. The roots and stubble alone of hairy vetch contained about four-fifths as much nitrogen as the entire rye plant. Both heavy and light applications of non-nitrogenous fertilizers were profitably applied to hairy vetch. Soil Improving Plants and Root Tubercles. In several experiments described in Bulletin No. 95 of this station the land was left in a much more fertile condition by plowing under a crop of cowpea vines than by turning under a growth of crabgrass and weeds. The cowpeas had stored up fertility, the other plants had not. Examination of the roots of the plants shows that cowpea roots have many roundish enlargements, while roots of crab grass, most weeds, cotton, corn, etc., are free from swellings of this character. The name tubercle or nodule is applied to these enlarge- ments, which maybe found on all thrifty cowpea plants, clover plants, etc. If these tubercles are present the plant bearing them is a renovating or soil-improving plant. All plants on which these nodules can grow belong to the class of leguminous plants or legumes. Leguminous plants, unlike others, are able to obtain from the air a large proportion of the nitrogen required for growth. This power to collect or " fix " atmospheric nitrogen resides, not in the flowering plant itself, but in the tubercles attached to its roots. Each of these enlargements, nodules, or tubercles, is filled with myriads of miscroscopic germs or bacteria, which feed on the gaseous nitrogen found in limitless amounts in the atmosphere. Air, and consequently free or gaseous nitrogen, circulates in all cultivated soils and comes in contact with root tubercles. The germs within these nodules seize this nitrogen, which flowering plants cannot directly utilize, and change it into a form suitable for nourishing these higher plants. The nitrogenous food thus prepared in the tubercle 186 enters into the circulation in the root to which the nodule is attached, and thence is carried in the sap to build up all parts of the leguminous plant. Inoculation or Soil or Seed, Every plant suitable for the growth of root tubercles ought to have an abundant supply of them. The writer has never found a cowpea plant of suitable age and grown under normal conditions which was free from tubercles. Yet some plants that can form tubercles are sometimes found to have none. The writer has examined hundreds of individual clover and vetch plants on which there were no tubercles. For such plants the farmer has no use. They are no more doing the work they should do than is a barren stalk of corn. Why do leguminbus plants under some conditions fail to form tubercles ? It is because the proper germ (" seed," so to speak) is absent from the particular soil in which legumes grow without root nodules. In order for tubercles to form on a given leguminous plants a specific germ must be present. For clover this must be a germ or bacterium of that particular strain or stock which is accustomed to grow in clover tubercles ; for vetch it should be the kind of germ which is accustomed to grow in vetch tubercles ; and so for other plants. Inoculation consists in placing a supply of these germs in such position that the young roots of the leguminous plants will come in contact with them. We may inoculate either the soil or the seed. Individual tubercles are short-lived, and when one decays it distributes in the surrounding soil a great multitude of germs or root- tubercle bacteria which serve the purpose of seed for the next crop of tubercles. Thus in an old clover field are myriads of clover germs, in an old vetch field multitudes of vetch germs, and so for other legumes. Hence when clover follows clover or when it is sown in a locality where the growth of clover is general and clover germs generally distributed, artificial inoculation is unnecessary. 187 It was not suspected until recent years that any soils stood in need of being artificially supplied with root-nodule bacteria. Salfeld and others found that "moor soils," a small and peculiar class of peaty soils found in Europe, were benefited by artificial inoculation for certain legumes. No account of large areas of American soils needing in- oculation had been published so far as could be learned prior to Bulletin 87 of this station. That bulletin pointed out the fact that in many portions of Alabama the frequent failure of clover, alfalfa, and other rarely grown legumes was due to the absence or insufficiency of the corresponding root-nodule bacteria in the soil. Since soil of an old clover field contains abundant clover germs, since these are necessary to the abundant growth of clover, and since they are wholly or in part absent from some soils, it follows that soil from an old clover field should be added to soils thus deficient and hence unsuitable for clover. Quite recently a German firm whose American agents are Victor Koechl & Co., 79 Murray St., New York, have placed on the market a preparation called Nitragin. The several brands of Nitragin contain in concentrated form the same kinds of germs that are found in old fields of clover, vetch, alfalfa, etc. Either this prepared material or the soils containing the requisite root-nodule bacteria may be used as an inoculating material. Both have been separately used in our experiments and both have been highly beneficial. Crimson Clovek and Hairy Vktch. Before describing in detail our experiments in which there was an enormous increase in the yield of crimson clover and hairy vetch, brief notes regarding these two plants are in order. Crimson clover is an annual leguminous plant making its growth between October and May. Making all of its growth in the cooler, moister portion of the year, it escapes with less injury than does red clover from dry weather in summer. It has a head which is two or three times as long as that of red 188 clover and which is of a crimson or scarlet color. The plant grows 16 to 28 inches high, makes good pasturage, and excellent hay if cut in time. Its chief value in the South will doubtless be as a green manure for improving the soil of old cotton and corn fields. It can be sown among the standing cotton stalks in October and covered with a V- harrow or cultivator, and can be plowed under the following April in time for summer crops. Sown here as late as November 6 among cotton stalks it attained a height of 14 to 26 inches. The amount of cleaned seed required to seed an acre is 15 to 20 pounds, and the cost is usually 5 cents per pound, the seed for an acre costing 75 cents to $1.00. Hairy vetch is also an annual leguminous plant, making its growth during the same period as crimson clover and useful for the same purposes. It is a vine-like growth, and for support should be sown with some erect plant, as one of the grains. For sowing with vetch Myer's turf oat has been highly recommended by the Mississippi Experiment Station. Here this mixture, one to two pecks of vetch seed per acre and one to one and one-half bushels of oats, has been successful on rich spots, but on poor land an earlier ripening variety of oats is needed. Europeans recommend rye as an excellent plant to sow with hairy vetch, but in our experiments common Southern rye ripened too early. If vetch is sown alone for hay one bushel per acre is required. With the small grains vetch can be combined in any proportion desired. The cost of seed is about three dollars per bushel. Both crimson clover and hairy vetch should be sown in the period between September 1 and November 1, usually October 1. Earlier sowing is permissible on land not very subject to drought. Inoculation Experiments with Crimson Clover. It is almost certain that crimson clover has failed more frequently and more completely than any other plant ever 189 tested in Alabama. The cause is now revealed, and the cure for such failures in indicated by the results recently obtained in experiments conducted at this Station. Four plots, each one-twentieth acre in area, were used for an inoculation experiment with crimson clover in November, 1897. The soil was a clay loam, by no means fertile. The four plots used were all in the same terrace, acd all were prepared alike and at the same time. So far as could be learned no clover had previously been grown in this field nor in adjoining fields. Each plot was fertilized with 15 pounds acid phosphate and 2 pounds of muriate of potash. This is at the uniform rate of 300 pounds of acid phosphate and 40 pounds of muriate of potash per acre on all plots. No nitrogenous fertilizer was used on any plot. One pint of seed of crimson clover was sown on each plot ; this is at the rate of ten quarts of seeds per acre. On account of dry weather seed was not sown until November 5, 1897, which was a month later than the preferred season. The seed for Plots 1 and 3 was inoculated, that is supplied with clover germs, as follows : The seed was moistened with water to which had been added about two teaspoonsful of clover Nitragin. This is a material imported from Germany, and containing myriads of the germs such as are found on the little enlargements cr tubercles that grow on thrifty clover plants. By this means the individual seeds for Plots 1 and 3 were brought in contact with clover germs, or just such germs as the seed would come in contact with if sown on a field where clover had previously grown successfully. The seed of Plots 2 and 4 was not moistened, but sown in the usual way. As soon as seed was sown on all four plots, a harrow was run over all plots to cover seed. On account of late sowing, crimson clover plants en all plots made very little growth and all plots appeared alike until March, 1898. By this time the plots sown with inoculated seed presented a greener appearance, and on examination of the plants on the inoculated plots, enlargements or tubercles could be found on the roots. These tubercles were not present on — 96-e 190 the plots sown in the ordinary way, except on plants growing along a depression or water-furrow and in other spots near the edges of the plots and adjacent to the inoculated plots. These spots were greener than the other portions of the non- inoculated plots, and their location (in depression and along the border of the non-inoculated plots adjacent to the inoculated plots) indicated that the plants in these green spots had become inoculated by seed dragged from adjacent plots, or by the drainage water from the inoculated plots. This accidental inoculation of a part of the plots to which no clover germs were intentionally applied must be kept in mind when noting the yields. During all of March and April the plants on Plots 1 and 3. grew luxuriantly. The plots not inoculated made almost no growth in March (except on the spots accidently inoculated CRIMSON CLOVER. 18 Non-inoculated plants. 18 Inoculated plants. as above) and acquired a decided yellowish color. In April some of the non-inoculated plants, then not over two inches high, died, apparently from nitrogen starvation. Others had 191 barely sufficient vitality to throw up seed stems 4 to 7 inches high, capped by a very small bloom. Still others did not bloom, but remained stationary at a height of 2 to 4 inches. Late in April and during the first few days in May the con- trast between the inoculated and non- inoculated plants drew forth expressions of astonishment from numerous visitors to whom the. field was shown. Plots 1 and 3 were ready to be cut May 1, but for the benefit of visitors harvesting was postponed for more than a week. When cut the plants on the inoculated plots were 22 to 26 inches high and well branched. The deep green foliage was surmounted by the brilliant crimson of the blooms, the whole presenting a very attractive appearance. On plots 2 and 4 there were spots covering one-fifth to one-eighth of their area on which spots the plants presented the same luxuriant appearance as on the inoculated plots. Elsewhere on the non-inoculated plots the plants were yellow- ish, the blooms few, small, and near the ground, and the plants too small to be cut with either mower or scythe. These small plants were carefully cut with a small sickle to avoid any possible waste. In the table below are given the yields of both green for- age and hay. These figures, however, fail to do justice to the increase efl'ected by inoculation, for most of the material on the non-inoculated plots consisted of the luxuriant plants growing on accidentally inoculated spots, as before explained. Yields of crimson clover from inoculated and non-inocxdated seed. 6 &5 SEED YIELD PER ACRE o Green forage Cured hay 1 2 Inoculated Not inoculated Lbs. 16746 1277 113.33 3310 14039 2293 Lbs. 4781 464 Inoculated 3333 4 Not inoculated 10'i') Av. Av Inoculated Not inoculated 4057 761 192 In this experiment the average yield of green clover was 14,039 pounds per acre with inoculation, and only 2,292 pounds without inoculation. Of cured hay the average was 4,057 pounds per acre with inoculation, and only 761 pounds without, an increase of 8,296 pounds per acre. In regard to the cost of this beneficial treatment, Nitra- gin is quoted at 62 cents per bottle in Germany, but costs us $1.25, plus express from New York. One bottle is sufficient CRIMSON CLOVER. Inoculated plants shown in upper part of picture, non-inoculated plants in foreground. for five-eighths of an acre, so that, including express from New York, the cost of inoculation with Nitragin is about $2.25 per acre. But material obtained at home without cost can be used instead of costly Nitragin. The soil from a field where any true clover (red, crimson, white or creeping clover, etc.) has made a luxuriant growth and formed tubercles can be used to inoculate clover seed, or soil from an old vetch field may be used as inoculation material for vetch. In the following ex- periment, first published in Alabama Station Bulletin No. 87, such inexpensive inoculating material was used. 19B Hairy Vetch Inoculated with Vetch Earth. Seed of hairy vetch was sown October 17, 1896, all plots being fertilized alike with acid phosphate and sulphate of pot- ash. Before sowing, one lot of seed was dipped into water, into which there had been stirred and allowed to settle earth from a lawn, once a garden spot, where common vetch ( Vicia saliva) had for several years in succession made a luxuriant growth and formed tubercles. The plants from inoculated seed formed numerous branches, most of which were about three feet long ; those from ordinary untreated seed made but few branches, and these were only about eight inches long. The inoculated plants had large clusters of tubercles on the roots ; the others had no tubercles. The weight of cured hay was '2,540 pounds per acre from inoculated seed, and only 232 pounds from non-inoculated seed, a gain of 2,808 pounds, obtained at no other expense than that of the labor necessary to obtain the soil from the lawn where vetch had grown. Inoculation Experiment with Hairy Vetch. An experiment similar to the above was begun November 4, 1897, except that, instead of vetch earth, there was used some of the imported material prepared especially for this plant and known as vetch Nitragin. The field used was re- markably uniform in fertility, as shown by the nearly uniform yields of corn on all plots in 1897. Seed of hairy vetch was sown on one-twelfth acre plots November 4, 1897, at the rate of 30 quarts per acre. On two untreated plots seed was sown in the ordinary way. On the other plots the seed was dipped in a solution of vetch Nitragin. The plants grew off slowly on all plots and the soil con- tained sufficient nitrogen to keep the non-inoculated plants abreast of the others until spring. Then differences appeared: the non-inoculated plants being in large part reddish oi brownish. The inoculated plants had a healthy green foliage, branched much more freely than the others, and attained a 96-3 194 length of vine several times greater than did the plants on the untreated plots. On the inoculated plots large clusters of tubercles were found on the roots of plants, while on the plants grown from untreated seed tubercles were absent. About May 1 hairy vetch was ready to be cut for hay. It was cut May 9, the HAIRY VETCH. Four inoculated plants. Four non-inoculated plants. growth on only one of the non-inoculated plots being cut, the other being plowed under as part of another experiment. The growth on the two non-inoculated plots was about equal, the plants on both being reddish to brownish and having branches, most of which were only about 6 to 12 inches long. The marked differences between the inoculated and non- 195 inooulated plots were easily observed by visitors, even when standing at a considerable distance away. Yield per acre of hairy vetch from inoculated and non-inocu- lated seed. o O 10 12 Av. Av. SEED. YIELD PER ACRE. Green Forage. Inoculated Inoculated Inoculated Not inoculated Lbs. 84«0 11520 1560 Cured Hay. Lha. 3180 3360 S'iTO 564 In this experiment the average yield of cured hay per HAIRY VETCH PLOTS. luoculated plants shown in upper part of picture ; non-inoculated plants in lower part or foreground. acre was 8270 pounds with inoculated seed and only 564 pounds with ordinary seed. This is an increase of 2706 pounds of hay per acre as the result of inoculation. Inoculation Practicable. The cost of Nitragin, about 12.25 per acre, the risk of finding that it has spoiled while in transit or before use, and 196 the dislike of many farmers to undertake some unusual op- eration, are influences which will prevent most farmers from employing this method of inoculation. There is a cheaper, simpler and more practicable method of inoculation. This consists in using, instead of Nitragir, the earth from about the roots of tubercle-bearing leguminous plants. He who already has even a small area of clover grow- ing in his fields, pastures or lawn can practice inoculation at practically no expense. He can use this clover dirt in inocu- lating any true clover. If he has a plot of vetch he can use the soil from the vetch plot as inoculating material for vetch seed, or he can doubtless use effectively on vetch the earth from a part of his garden where English peas have recently grown and formed tubercles. In using earth from the garden one should first make sure that the roots of plants growing in it are not infested with nematode worms. The nematode pest occurs in many localities in the Gulf States and is especially prevalent in gar- dens. Nematode injuries consist of enlargements on the roots of plants which might be confused with the beneficial root tubercles found on all thrifty leguminous plants. Although the two have no connection, they may exist on the roots of the same plant at the same time. They may be distinguished by the fact that generally the nematode worm causes the por- tion of the small root attacked to enlarge equally or nearly equally in all directions. In other words the nematode swell- ing and the small roots are practically concentric, the root having the appearance of growing through the swelling. The small tubercle, on the other hand, is attached to the side or surface of the root. Later stages of the nematode swellings are not so easily described. The method of inoculating with soil that is usually recommended consists in scattering broadcast on the plowed ground about one ton per acre of soil from a field of clover, vetch, etc. This earth should be harrowed in promptly and thoroughly. Another method which can be used when the supply of earth for inoculation is limited, consists in Stirling the soil 197 into water and dipping the seed in the liquid. It was this method which gave us here a tenfold increase in the yield ef vetch sown in October, 1896. It would increase the chances of success to combine both methods, inoculating both seed and soil as just described. The writer would not be understood as recommending that Nitragin be used on all the seed for large areas of clover, vetch, alfalfa, etc., sown in ''cloverless" regions. Its cost and the risk of having it spoil before it is used almost prohibit its use on an extensive scale. But it is certain that Nitragin may be profitably used on the seed for a small area with a view to using the soil from the area thus inoculated for use as the inoculating material for large fields sown in subsequent years. In other words Nitragin finds its most appropriate use as a "starter," in somewhat the same sense that progressive dairy- men sometimes cause cream to sour by using a small quantity of sour milk from a creamery where the highest quality of butter is made, thus obtaining a stock of germs that are con- cerned in giving the highest flavor to butter. A bottle of Nitragin is sufficient for five-eighths of an acre, and the soil on that area is sufficient to inoculate the next year scores of acres. Employed in this way, the Nitragin may be used with great profit. Of course, earth from an old clover field may also be used as a starter for clover on a small area, furnishing the next year material for use on many acres. Any farmer can strike a balance between the two methods, setting the cheapness of the inoculating earth over against the greater amount of labor of applying it. It has been claimed that the use of Nitragin affords more complete inoculation, or a more uniform distribution of the germs and of the resulting tuber- cles. We have made no experiments bearing on this last point. Lespedeza Earth as Inoculating Material for Crimson Clover. In October, 1896, an inoculation experiment was begun with crimson clover. As this was before the days of Nitra- 198 • gin, and as we had not at hand at that time a field of any one of the true clovers, it was decided to try the efl:'ect, as an inoc- ulating material, of earth from a field of lespedeza or Japan clover. This earth was sown at the rate of 720 pounds per acre, broadcast, and harrowed in with the crimson clover seed. Although the earth employed was well supplied with the germs which cause the development of tubercles on lespedeza plants, the crimson clover plants growing on the plots Mhere it was applied formed no tubercles and failed utterly, attain- ing a height of only about three inches. Numerous experiments conducted by the writer accord with European experiments, which show that, with few ex- ceptions, the inoculation of any leguminous plant can be affected only by the root-nodule bacteria from a plant belong- ing to the same genus. Thus the germs found in lespedeza tubercles have no power to originate tubercles on crimson, red or white clover ; vetch germs have likewise no inoculating power toward the clovers, alfalfa, etc. The first word in the botanical name of a leguminous plant generally gives the key by which to determine whether its root-nodule bacteria are capable of inoculating any other given leguminous plant. The general rule is this : If the first word (generic name) of any two legumes is identical, the root-tubercle bacteria on either are capable of causing tuber- cles to grow on the other. Examples to illustrate this prin- ciple follow : (a) Crimson clover ( Trifolium incarnatuni)^ red cXovQV {Trifolium.pratense)^ white or creeping clover {Tri- folium repens), inoculated with the same material ; (b) alfalfa {Medicago saliva), bur clover {Medicago maculata), inocu- lated wich the same material. The above rule does not cover all cases ; for example, the root-nodule bacteria of the garden pea is capable of inoculat- ing vetch, in spite of the fact that the first or generic names of the two plants are not identical. Natural Methods of Inoculation. The fact that clovers and clover-like plants have inhabited the earth for ages and have regularly formed tubercles with- 199 out artificial inoculation will cause many persons to be skep- tical regarding the value of inoculation. The fact that usu- ally wild and cultivated legumes are naturally inoculated does not indicate that inoculation of certain rarely grown plants is unnecessary under all conditions. It would be just as logical to argue against plowing as a preparation for hay grasses on the ground that the grasses grow luxuriantly in their wild state without any preparation of the land. Natural methods of inoculating legumes, or of bringing the appropriate root-tubercle bacteria in contact with the roots of young legumes are as follows : (1) Decay of tubercles, on old legume roots, thus free- ing thousands of bacteria in the soil where the seed will be dropped and where the next generation of legumes will grow. (2) Transportation of germs thus freed by means of winds, flowing water, etc. (3) Inoculation of seeds before they fall by means of germ- laden soil settling upon them or spattering upon them during rains. (4) Changes in the nature or food habits of the root- nodule bacteria by which it is claimed that these germs may in time so adapt themselves as to cause tubercles on any legumegrown continuously on the same field for several years. The writer is not in possession of very direct evidence on this latter point, made by European writers, but there is certainly some indirect evidence in its favor. Wherever any of these agencies are active, inoculation is never absolutely necessary, and often superfiuous. When clover follows clover on the same land for several years in succession, we have an example of the first mentioned of these natural agencies. Of course in such a case artificial inoculation is unnecessary. The case is similar when vetch is sown on land where closely related wild plants have previously grown, a class very common in uncultivated places, wood-lands, etc. In or near garden spots and around the residence vetch is often inde- pendent of artificial inoculation. When clover is sown in a region where clovers are exten- 200 sively grown and where the dust and surface drainage waters are laden with the corresponding germs, we have an example of the second agency. The uselessness of artificial inocula- tion of alfalfa in the West, where it is so universally grown, is also apparently to be explained in the same way. We have found the cow pea under all natural conditions to be inde- pendent of artificial inoculation in the South, doubtless be- cause of the same agency. The third agency is exemplified in the case of bur clover, the burs of which usually contain some of the soil on which they have grown. The writer's experiments indicate that this plant does not need artificial inoculation if the seed is planted without being hulled. Likewise we have found les- pedeza to be independent of inoculation. As perhaps illustrative of the change by which certain bacteria adapt themselves to plants on which they would not originally cause tubercles, we may refer to the fact that on land where vetch and clover during the first year develop few or no tubercles, after a few years of continuous growth of the same plant on the same land, tubercles are found in abund- ance. A case of this kind occurred here ; hairy vetch, an anrbual plant, made a poor growth the first year, a fair growth the second year on the same plot, and a luxuriant develop- ment in subsequent years ; and this, too, in spite of the fact that in the earlier years better seasons occurred and fertili- zation was heavier than in the later years. This particular case may also owe something to the agency of germs trans- ported from an adjacent field where a closely related plant had been grown. Let us admit that if grown continuously on the same land for a suflicient length of time, clover and vetch may reach the point of producing a normal supply of tubercles. Can the farmer living in a region where the appropriate root- tubercle bacteria are not abundant afford to wait ou slow- act- ing natural agencies to inoculate his fields? Under such cir- cumstances artificial inoculation must Ve regarded, not as in opposition to natural agencies, but as a means of hastening and increasing their activity. 201 Once inoculated, whether by natural or artificial means, a soil remains inoculated as long as the same legume is grown upon it. Indeed the growth of several non-leguminous crops (such as cotton, corn, oats, etc.,) does not cause the loss of the ability of this soil to produce tubercle-bearing plants of the original legume. Cause of Frequent Failure of Nitragin. The effects of Nitragin, given in a preceding paragraph, are sufficiently startling to convince the most conservative that inoculation comes as a new and revolutionary factor in the agriculture of the Gulf States. In view of the revealed ability to grow clovers, vetches, etc., on soils previously unfit for them, the possible benefits from inoculation can scarcely be overestimated. But he who attempts to use Nitragin will, if he overlooks certain considerations, meet with some disappointments. The greatest obstacle to the general use of Nitragin in certain "cloverless" regions is the fact that this valuable material is perishable. It loses its inoculating property if long exposed to light, or if subjected to much heat, or if kept for more than two or three months. It endures longer in a cool than in a warm temperature. Nitragin shipped from Germany early enough to reach the Southern farmer in time for use on fall-sown seed runs great risk of being exposed to a tempera- ture sufficiently high to cause fermentation, and consequent death, of the germs which it contains. So many bottles of Nitragin ordered in time for use in our fall experiments have reached us in a worthless or dead condition that we would advise those who may wish to ob- tain a few bottles of Nitragin as a "starter," to order the ship- ment made from Germany about the first of February, so that the Nitragin will arrive in time for use on seed sown in March. While we have found to be dead some of the Nitragin imported in winter, the losses have been less at this season than with importations in the early fall. In some cases this dead Nitragin had been used on seed sent out to farmers as "inoculated" before its worthless con- 202 dition had been noted, thus causing failure and disappoint- ment. Co-operative Tests op Crimson Clover and Hairy Vetch. More than fifty tests of crimson clover have been made by farmers in different parts of this State. The first tests were made entirely with untreated seed. Each party making the test was requested to send to the writer late in the spring three average plants for examination. When untreated seed was used the plants were almost invariably small and either devoid of tubercles or supplied with only a limited number of very small tubercles. The same was true with hairy vetch. Our first supply of Nitragin was received January 6, 1897. It was an unsuitable time for sowing seed of any legume, but as soon as the weather permitted, seed of crimson clover and of other legumes were treated and sent through the mail for trial in different parts of the state. When used, the Nitragin was several months old and apparently too old to be of any value. At any rate the reports received indicated failure, the responsibility for which might be charged to either the un- suitable date of sowing or to the probable spoiling of the Nitragin. Moreover, there was delay in getting the seed into the ground. In the second co-operative test the conditions were scarcely better. The very dry weather prevailing in the fall of 1897 made it inexpedient to treat the seed before Novem- ber. One lot of seed was treated here November 10, another November 17, and still another November 27. As this Nitragin had been shipped from Germany in Sep- tember, at least some of the bottles had fermented before be- ing used. The sample plants sent in again showed every evi- dence of failure and the general absence of an adequate sup- ply of tubercles. There was one instance where crimson clover plants from inoculated seed were strikingly better than those from or- dinary seed. At Eutaw, Mr. R. E. Kirksey received the seed within 203 two days after they had been treated and sowed promptly, November 12. The following spring he reports as follows : "Some of the plants on the inoculated plot were dark green and a foot high, others not so high or green on the same plot. The plants on the other plot (seed not inoculated) were very small and yellow. " It is clear that Nitragin, kept here for some time in bot- tles, then opened, applied in solution to seed, and sent to farmers through the mails, has generally failed to inoculate the plants growing from the seed thus treated. This failure of co-operative tests, in connection with our success in using fresh Nitragin, suggests that those who use Nitragin must themselves open the sealed bottles, use the ma- terial on the proper seed, and plant the seed promptly. This general failure of Nitragin distributed with nu- merous delays as above, does not argue against the necessity of inoculation for crimson clover and hairy vetch in many parts of the state. The great number of plants found to be nearly or quite free from all tubercles or from those of proper size, indicates that effective inoculation would generally be beneficial to these plants. These tests of crimson clover and hairy vetch made by farmers indicate, if taken as a whole, that these two plants •cannot be successfully grown on most of the soils where they have been tried under our direction without effective artificial inoculation. Relative Yields op Rye and Hairy Vetch. Rye and hairy vetch were grown under identical condi- tions on the sandy field sown November 4, 1897. All plots were fertilized with like quantities of mineral fertilizer, using 36 quarts of seed per acre on the rye plot and 30 quarts per acre on the vetch plots. One twelfth-acre plot of rye (Plot 1) was cut April 7, when in full bloom. The rj^e on the other (Plot 2) was turned under as a fertilizer for the succeeding crop. First, however, on May 7, 1898, the nearly mature rye on a carefully selected 204 and average square yard of Plot 2 was harvested, as weie similar areas of inoculated vetch and of non-inoculated vetch on adjacent plots. The roots, to a depth of 6 inches below the surface and from an area of one square yard, were also separated from the soil by sifting, and then by repeated washing. Practically all the roots were found in the upper 6 inches. Acre-yields of hay, calculated from such small areas are liable to considerable error, but in this case they agree rather closely with the figures obtained by weighing the entiie pro j-SSaa...^, CRIMSON CLOVER. Roots and stubble from one square yard of inoculated crimson clover Roots and stubble from one square yard of non-inocu- lated crimsom clover. duct of the one-twelfth-acre plots, indicating approximate correctness.* The results follow, the weights being for air-dry material, or the natural dry condition of hay, straw, grain, etc : *The variations between the acre-yields as calculated from the large and small plots is due to the fact that the yields on larfje plots included weeds, and in certain cases some accidentally inoculated plants. In the small areas, used for sampling, no accidentally inocu- lated plants were included and all weeds were separated. 205 Weight o^f air dry material of rye and hairy vetch ; also weight of crimson clover. PLOT NO. ON 1 SQUARE YARD. ON 1 ACKE. Tops. Roots. Lbs "0.54 0.08 0.30 0.05 0.30 Tops. Roots. (Field M) 1 2 Rye, cut in full bloom, Apr. 7 Rye, nearly mature Lbs. "0.67' 0.04 0.63 0.02 1.00 Lbs. 1980 3243 194 3049 106 4840 Lbs. 2614 11 13 {Field T) 2 1 Hairy vetch, not inoculated. _ Hairy vetch, inoculated Crimson clover, not inoculated Crimson clover, inoculated... 387 1452 266 1452 The nearly mature rye on plot 2 yielded only a little greater weight of tops than did inoculated vetch. The roots of rye were much heavier than those of vetch, partly due, it is believed, to the greater amount of sand mixed with the finer rye roots. Crimson clover, being in a different field, cannot be com- pared in yield with rye and vetch. Nitro(;en in Inoculated ani> Nox-Inoculated Plants. The thoroughly dried tops and roots from sample areas of one sqaare yard each were analyzed by Dr. J. T. Anderson, associate chemist of this station. His results, — which are averages of several determina- tions in each case, — and the figures derived from them, are given in the following table : 206 Percentage and amounts per acre of nitrogen in tops and in roots and sttibble. PLOT NO. Percentage of nitrogen in air dry | 1 Weight of nitrogen per acre in Tops. Roots and stub'le Tops. Roots and stub'le Total pro- duct. {Field M) 2 11 13 {Field T) 2 1 Rye, nearly mature Hairy vetch, not inocu- lated . Hairy vetch, inoculatecL Crimson clover, not in- oculated - .- Crimson clover, inocu- lated ... Perct. 0.52 1.23 2.71 1.62 2 48 Per ct. 0.35 1.19 1.37 0.97 1.63 Lbs. 10.9 2.4 85.6 1.7 1.20 Lbs. 9.1 4.6 19.9 2.6 23 7 Lbs. 26. 7. 105.5 4.3 143.7 The quality as well as the quantity of the crop was very favorably influenced by inoculation, the percentage of nitrogen in the tops being practically doubled. The higher the per- centage of nitrogen the greater is both the food value and the fertilizer value of a plant. The tops of the rye, including the nearly mature grain and the straw, contained only 0.52 per cent, of the nitrogen, or less than one fifth as much as was contained in the tops of inoculated vetch plants. The roots of rye contained only 0.35 per cent, of nitrogen, or about one-fourth as much as the roots of inoculated vetch plants. Of intense practical interest are i.he figures showing the amount of nitrogen per acre contained in the several crops. Vetch on one acre contained in the entire plant 105 5 pounds of nitrogen, rye only 26 pounds, or about one-fourth as much, and the dwarfed vetch plants still less than rye. We may get some measure of the superiority of inocu- lated vetch over rye as a fertilizer by noting the fact that the nitrogen in one acre of the former exceeded that in an equal area of rye by 79.5 pounds. This 79 5 pounds of nitrogen would represent approximately the amount of nitrogen as- simulated by vetch /?'om the air, it we should assume that vetch 207 was able to obtain do more of its nitrogen from the soil than was rye; this assumption that rye can draw from the soil at least as much nitrogen as hairy vetch seems plausible, in view of the well known strong foraging habits of rye, as evi- denced in its successful growth on poor soil. If this assumption is correct, inoculated vetch plants have obtained practically three-fourths (105.5— 26 = 79. 5- pounds per acre) of their nitrogen from, the air. These figures seem to afford a rough measure of the fer- tilizing or renovating value of leguminous plants. Of the total nitrogen in the entire plants the roots and stubble contained 19 per cent, in the case of inoculated vetch, 16 per cent, with inoculated crimson clover, and 35 per cect. with nearly mature rye. In all cases the stubble was shorter than the mower would leave it, being only about 2 inches long in the samples analyzed. It is doubtless safe to conclude that with stubble of ordinary length fully one-fifth, and pos- sibly one-fourth, of the total nitrogen would be left in the soil after cutting the hay. With short stubble there was left on the soil in the roots and stubble of vetch about four fifths as much nitrogen as was afforded by plowing under the rye plants entire. In longer or ordinary stubble and in its roots vetch doubtless supplied as much nitrogen as both tops and roots of nearly mature rye. Fertilizer Experiment With Hairy Vetch. Three of the one twelfth-acre plots in the field sown with hairy vetch November 4, 1897, were used to ascertain the relative profits of fertilizers applied at two different rates. The land was sandy upland, hberally fertilized in recent years with commercial fertilizers. Seed of hairy vetch, inoculated with Nitragin, was sown broadcast November 4, at the rate of 30 quarts per acre. The seed was worked in with a cultivator ; the fertilizers were then spread broadcast and harrowed in. Acid phosphate at the rate of 240 pounds per acre, to- gether with muriate of potash at the rate of 40 pounds per 208 acre, and the same fertilizers in half the quantities named above, were employed. No nitrogenous fertilizer was applied to any plot. One plot received no fertilizer of any sort. In the following table $10 per ton is assumed as the price of hay : Fertilizer experiment with hairy vetch. 6 FERTILIZER PER ACRK. HAY PER ACRE, Cost of fertili- izers. Profit H o Yield. Increase over unfer- tilized plot. from fertil- izers. 16 No fertilizer Lbs. 2244 2604 3360 Lbs. 360 1116 $1.25 2.. 50 15 12 f 120 lbs. acid phosphate.. \ 20 lbs. muriate of potash ( 240 lbs acid phospate___ I 40 lbs. muriate of potash $0.55 3.08 Although liberal amounts of commercial fertilizers had been used in this field for several years previous, mineral fertilizers were profitably applied to hairy vetch. The larger application of fertilizers was more profitable than the smaller. It is believed that on average sandy land and in seasons of normal rainfall the effects of fertilizers wonld have been more pronounced. Leguminous plants (such as vetch, clover, cowpeas, etc.,) when amply supplied with tubercles, need no nitrogenous fertilizers, but are highly responsive to acid phosphate and potash salts. These plants make heavy demands on the mineral plant food of the soil. NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN. Bulletin No. 97. September, 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. •' DAIRY AND MILK INSPECTION C. A. GARY. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LkRoy Broun President. P. H. Meli Director and Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Gary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. Duggar Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver .Superintendent of Farm. 2^= The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. CONTENTS. PAGE Why Inspect DairiC'? and Dairy Products ? 213 Dairy and Milk Inspection should begin at the Dairy 214 How to make the Tuberculin Test 215 Kind and Condition of Feed 218 Time and Manner of Feeding 210 Water Supply for Dairy Cows 219 Drainage of Barns and Lots 219 Ventilation 220 Location of Dairy Barns and Buildings 220 Keeping the Cows Clean 220 Personal Cleanliness of Milker 221 Impurities found in Milk 221 Grotenfeldt's Principles to Regulate Work in Dairy Barn 222 Source of Water Used at Dairy 223 Composition of Milk 224 Fat in Milk 225 Milk Sugar or Lactose 225 Casein and Albumen in Milk 226 Ash or Mineral Matter in Milk 226 Clostrum 227 Specific Gravity of Milk 227 Variations in Composition of Normal Milk 227 Comparative Composition of various kinds of Milk 228 Determining the per cent, of Fat in Milk by Babcock Test 22S Determining the per cent, of Fat in Milk by Gravimetric Method . 2.S1 Gravimetric Method of determining the Total Solids in Milk 232 A Close Method of Estimating the Total Solids and the Solids not Fat 233 Gravimetric Determination of Ash or Salts in Milk 236 Milk Adulteration by Adding Water and Abstracting Cream 236 212 Milk Adulteiation by Adding Chemical Impurities 238 Testing for Borax and Koracic Acid in Milk 238 Testing for Salicylic Acid and its Salts in Milk 239 Testing for Alkaline Carbonates in Milk 239 Testing for Formaldehyde or Formalin in Milk 239 Testing for Annato or Coloring Matter in Milk 240 Acidity of Milk 240 Testing for Acidity of Milk 241 Bacteria in Milk 241 Quantitative and Qualitative Bacteriological Analys-is of Milk 242 Sour Milk 244 Alkaline-Producing Germs 244 Butyric Acid Fermentation 245 Ropy, Stringy or Slimy Milk 245 Chromogenic or Color-Producing Germs in Milk 246 Red Milk 246 Blue Milk 246 Yellow Milk 247 Yeasts in Milk 247 Casein Ferments* 247 Disease Producing Bacteria in Milk 248 Bacillus Tuberculosis in Milk 248 Typhoid Bacilli in Milk 250 Diphtheria Bacilli Transmitted by Milk 251 Scarlet Fever Transmitted by Milk 252 Asiatic Cholera Tiansmitted by Milk 252 Clean, Raw Milk the Best 253 Pasteurization of Milk 253 Sterilization of Milk 253 How to Disinfect a Barn or Dairy House 254 Modified Milk 254 Milk Ordinance of Montgomery, Ala 255 References 257 Dairy and Milk Inspection. WHY INSPECT DAIRIP:S AND DAIRY PRODUCTS? for the people in general, especially for invalids, infants and young children, the question of a pure milk supply is one of the foremost sanitary problems. The quantity of the staple dairy products (milk, cream, butter and cheese,) that are consumed annually make it all the more necessary that such foods should be pure and wholesome. Great Britain is said to consume annually 250,000,000 gallons of milk. The United States uses yearly 5,209,125,567 gallons. The fact that man can contract tuberculosis, typhoid fever, Asiatic cholera, scarlet fever, diphtheria, infant intestinal diseases, and possibly malaria, yellow fever and anthrax, by consuming infected milk makes it of vital importance to the public that such a valuable food should be officially inspected, and every possible means should be used to keep dairy milk clean, pure and free of disease-producing germs. Numerous epidemics* of the above named infectious diseases have been traced to an infected milk supply. It is also essential that the inspectors prevent the use of preservatives in dairy products, because such drugs are injurious to the human body. Commercial preservatives are used by ignorant or unscrupulous dairymen and milk dealers in order to keep the milk sweet for a longer time. There may be no intentional wrong on the part of the milk vendor. Ignorance and innocence may be excusable as long as human life is not at stake; but when human health is ruined and lives are sacrificed the law must come to the rescue and pro- tect public health. The city, the state or the federal govern- ment performs no more important function than that of preventing disease and protecting the health of its citizens. The question of cleanliness of milk is closely related to its *See pages 248-252. 214 purity. When an eminent bacteriologist finds that a sample of market milk in his city contains more germs than an equal quantity of sewage in the same city, it suggests the need of thorough and practical milk inspection. Milk, cream and butter may vary in their composition. Some milk may contain less than 3 per cent, of milk fat ; also much less than 9 per cent, of solids not fat; consequently such milk would contain an excess of water. Some cows may produce such poor milk, but a cow that will pay for her feed will produce a richer and better milk. However, the unscru- pulous milk dealer may abstract cream and add water and coloring matter until the milk looks yellow and rich. The average purchaser pays just as much for this poor milk as rich milk is worth. The law steps in and establishes a legal standard ; then prices should be gauged according to the degree of richness of the milk, or according to the minimum legal standard. Moreover, when milk is teeming with millions of germs that feed upon the nutritive materials of the milk its value as a food is partially or totally ruined. As a rule any germ that grows or multiplies in milk destroys partially or wholly one or more of its nutritive ingredients ; hence its value is decreased. What has been said of milk is in the main true of cream and butter. They may contain disease- producing and fer- ment-producing germs; they may vary in chemical compo- sition, a result of defects in the mode of collecting the cream and in the manufacture of the butter. Cream or butter may be adulterated and may be greatly reduced in value by partial or complete decomposition. Dairy and Milk Inspection should begin at the dairy with the tuberculin test. Every cow should be tested before she is permitted to go into the dairy barns or mingle with the herd. Every dairy owner will save time and trouble by keeping all newly purchased animals completely isolated from his herd until they have been thoroughly tested for tuberculosis and other infectious diseases. When tuberculosis once gains admission to a herd the expense of eliminaticg it from the 215 herd is always great. Losses from death and condemnation of infected animils will occur at intervals for a number of years. When a herd becomes infected the cows that react with the tuberculin test should be quarantined or destroyed. The Danish method of quarantining tuberculous cows and steril- izing the milk from such cows can not be employed in this country without having an inspector conduct the process of sterilization. Some authorities believe that tuberculous milk may contain a sufficient quantity of the poison or toxine to injure the health of persons w^ho consume such infected milk, especially if the persons are tuberculous. Hence it is the cheapest and safest to remove all tuberculous animals from the dairy herd and never thereafter use their milk as human food. The barns, stalls and watering troughs where tuberculous animals have been kept, fed and watered should be thor- oughly cleansed and disinfected. Thereafter the herd must be tested with tuberculin at least every six months. If proper hygienic conditions are maintained the number of cows that react will be fewer at the second test than at the first. The dairy herds that supply the city of Montgomery with milk have been tested twice with tuberculin. All of the cows have been tested once and part of them twice ; between the first and second tests several herds were changed by the sale of tested cows and the purchase of untested cows. The first test showed that about one per cent, of the entire number were tuberculous. In the second test about two and one- fourth per cent, of the entire number tested reacted. A dairy herd was tested by a qualified veterinarian in a place in Alabama where no law exists to enforce the removal of tuberculous animals from the dairy; over 50 per cent, of that herd of cows reacted. Tuberculin tests in Alabama have thus far proven that many herds are free of tuberculosis, some herds are slightly infected and others have been seriously infected. Hence the necessity for thorough inspection. How to Make the Tuberculin Test— Begin with a small 216 number of animals (say five to ten), and after experience has been gamed 20 to 30 may be tested at a time. It is not a good plan to test animals when the days are very hot, unless the barn is well ventilated and can be kept so cool that the cows will not become overheated during the test. The animals being tested should be fed the same kind of feed, in the same quantity, and at the same time each day of the test; they should also be watered at the same time each day. Likewise the cows should be milked at the regular time during the test. In short the cows that are being tested should be kept under exactly the same conditions during the two days of the test. If the animals to be tested are not kept in their stalls over night have them placed in their stalls at 5 o'clock in the morning. Begin taking and recording their temperatures at 6 o'clock and repeat this every two hours until 6 or 8 o'clock in the evening. At 8 or 10 o'clock in the evening inject sub- cutaneously 2 to 3 c.c. of tuberculin into each adult animal weighing 1,000 pounds or less; if the animal weighs 1,200 to 1,500 inject not less than 3 c.c; for calves use at least Ice. These doses apply to that form of tuberculin that is ready for use and not to the concentrated form. The most convenient place for injecting the tuberculin is on the side of the neck or at the upper part of the shoulder. The best form of hypodermic syringe is one that permits the needle to slip on or into the barrel, and can be thoroughly sterilized by steam, hot water or hot air. On the following morning begin to take the temperatures at 6 a. m. and repeat the same every two hours until 6 or 8 p. m., as on the previous day. Now compare the temperature records for the two days. If the temperatures are two or more degrees higher on the second day, for three or more consecutive readings or records, than on the first day the animal is sard to have "reacted." In other words the reaction says that the animal has tubercu- losis. If the temperature rises for one or two readings, then falls for one or two readings and then rises, such fluctuations will indicate that the animal is more or less suspicious and 217 should be tested again in two or three months ; in the mean time this animal should be quarantined. When the tempera- tures on the second day are not sufficiently high to indicate a good reaction, yet higher than on the first day, the animal may be regarded as a suspect, and should be quaractined and retested in three or more months; this is especially tiue if there are tuberculous animals in the heid. If the tempera- tures run above 102 degrees F. for several readings on the first day it may be difticult to obtain a distinct reaction. When the temperature remains at or above 108 degrees F. for several readings on the first day that animal should be removed and tested at some later period when its temperature is more nearly normal. As a rule it is not best to test a cow in heat, or a cow near the end of pregnancy, or a cow that has recently calved, or any animal that has just been driven a long distance, or any animal that has just been taken from a car or a boat. Always use good thermometers ; the six-inch Hicks ther- mometer is one of the best. Keep the thermometer at least five minutes in the rectum when taking the temperature. Fresh tuberculin should always be employed. This department makes tuberculin and supplies the city of Montgomery, and several veterinarians in Alabama, with tuberculin upon condi- tion that all reports of the tests are to be forwarded to this department. The following examples from actual records made in Ala- bama with tuberculin furnished by this department will illustrate cases of reactions, suspicious cases and cases with- out reactions : NO. DAV. First 6a. m 101.2 8a.m. 101 6 10am 101.2 12 ra 101 2p.m. 101.8 4p.m. 101.8 6p.m. 101.6 REMAKKS. 1 Sec'd 101.8 101.6 1 101.4 101 4 101.6 101.4 101.8 Normal or healthy. 2 First 101. 2 102 102 101.6 101.8 102 102 2 Good reaction. Sec'd 105.4 106 105.2 105.4 105.2 104.2 104 Tuberculous, [day. .3 First 102.6 102.7 103 3 103.6 103.7 103.6 Temp, too high 1st Sec'd 102 102 102.7 105.2 103 6 103.5 106 Suspicious case. 4 First 101 101.4 101.8 101.5 102.1 101.7 Sec'd 100 5 101.6 102.7 104.8 105.7 105.3 Reaction. .5 First 101.2 101.6 100.2 101.6 102.6 102.6 102 Sec'd 103 103 102.2 102 103.2 103.2 Suspicious case. 6 First 102.3 102.9 102.7 103.4 103.6 103,6 Sec'd 102.2 102.2 103 103.7 104.6 103 8 104.8 Suspicious case. 218 Tuberculosis is not the only disease that would disqualify a cow for the dairy. Animals having anthrax, Texas fever, malignant catarrh, contagious pleuro-pneumonia, cow-pox, infectious mastitis, foot-and-mouth disease, pneumonia, peii- tonitis, enteritis, gastritis, acute indigestion, actinomycosis, should not remain in the dairy while diseased, but may be returned in case of complete recovery. In other words, when cows have any disease with systemic fever, or if there is any danger of toxic products being thrown out of the system with the milk, such animals should be removed from the daiiy until they completely recover. Itllammation of one or more quarters of the udder (mammitis or garget) will usually be accompanied by curdled milk and sometimes by pus and broken down tissue elements; in such cases the milk should not be used until the parts affected become healthy. It may be well to state here that in any disease which decreases the flow of milk it is a good plan to have the cow milked three or more times a day, in order to stimulate the secretion of milk and remove the morbid products from the udder; but the milk should not be used as human food. The Kind and the Condition of the Feed used at a dairy should be carefully and frequently investigated. Distilleiy swill, old brewery grains, rotten or decayed grain of any kind, moldy hay, rotten potatoes or turnips, spoiled silage, or any kind of partially decayed feed, should be excluded from the dairy. Fresh brewery grains should be fed sparingly. As a rule good turnips should be avoided because a very small amount is liable to contaminate the milk. Loud smell- ing, fermenting silage should not be in the stalls at time of milking, because the milk is liable to absorb the bad odor and the bacteria in the silage are liable to infect the milk. Bitter weeds and wild onions should be removed from pastures, if possible, since they transmit a bitter or onion taste and cdor to the milk. Col. J. M. Falkner, of Montgomery, Ala., claims that he can remove all of the bitter taste and the onion odor by aerating the milk or cream with compressed air. Since the bitter principle of most weeds that affect milk is volatile it seems possible that compressed air aeration will remove 219 them from the milk. Boiling or sterilizing in open vessels is said to remove the bitter principle from milk. The time and niauiier of feedias: are important. As a rule it is not possible to have dust-free air in a barn if the cows are fed just previous to milking. If the hay or feed is dusty- it should be sprinkled and fed a suflBcient time before milking so that the dust may be settled, the stalls ventilated, cleaned and sprinkled or flooded previous to the time of milking. The Water Supply for the cows should be carefully guarded. It may come from a deep well, with sufficient pro- tection from surface drainage — it may be kept in clean tanks, and yet the watering troughs may be foul and filthy. The writer has observed instances where the trough was so foul and smelled so badly that the animals turned from the trough and drank the water that had collected in the puddles in the yard. Too frequently the troughs are surrounded by mud and manure, which make them very difficult to approach and extremely liable to become contaminated by the splashing and spattering of filth. The trough should be located on a slightly elevated place and surrounded with rock, brick or cobble stones and a layer of gravel, so arranged that the drainage will be away from the trough and that it will never become muddy or sloppy around the trough. The watering trough should be thoroughly scrubbed with brushes, etc., at least once per week. The dropping of saliva and particles of food from the mouth soon makes the trough foul if there is nothing else to contaminate it. Avoid ponds, artificial lakes, contaminated runs or creeks that receive surface drainage from pastures or cow lots, and shallow wells that are located in cow lots or other filthy places. C.irefully arrange the Drainage of the barns and lots. The stalls should be of proper length, neither too short or too long, and the gutter for carrying oft" the urine should be in good condition, kept clean and flooded as often as possible. The liquid manure tank which receives the urine from the gutters should be as far away from the barn as possible. The manure pile should also be some distance from the barn and as a matter of economy should be protected from the rain. It 220 is a goad plan to flood and wash the stalls and gutters once or twice per day, because nothing is more frequently injurious to the milk than the dry manure particles that float around in the air and settle on the cows, walls, etc., and then drop into the milk at time of milking. Filthy barns may be responsible for the greatest amount of bacterial infection of the milk. Good Ventilation will help purify and disinfect the barns. Doors, windows and ventilators should be sufficiently numer- ous to enable one to direct the drafts and to flood the barn with pure air and sunshine. Winter and summer ventilation may differ in degree, but it should not be neglected in winter even in colder places than in Alabama. Air spaces should be sufficient to give at least 500 cubic feet of air to each cow. Dairy cows should be given six hours of exercise in the open air every day. Of course this is best taken in a pasture, but exercise in a lot, morning and evening, is a relief from the close conflnement in stalls. The opposite extreme may be found where the cows are exposed to all kinds of cold, rainy weather. Such treatment means great loss, because it is cheaper to give protection than to give a greater amount of feed in order co produce extra animal heat. The location of the barn and other dairy buildings should be carefully selected. It is best to locate them upon elevated places where surface drainage can be readily obtained. Com- bination buildings should be avoided. It is unwise to have silos, milk room and stalls all under one roof or too near one another. Cow stalls should never surround a silo, because ventilation is poor and the cows suffer with heat. The stalls should be so arranged that the feed may be given to each animal from the front. The partitions between the stalls should prevent one animal from reaching another. The stalls should be at least four feet wide and have the proper length. If the stalls are too long the manure and urine will not fall into the gutter; if the stalls are too short the hind quarters and the tail will be in the gutter fllth when the cow lies down. The cow should be kept clean by brushing and, if neces- sary, by washing. This not only prevents milk from be- •221 coming infected, but also improves the condition of the cows to such a degree that they will give more milk. A clean cow, properly groomed, will give more and purer milk than an ungroomed cow. Dairy cows should be thoroughly brushed and cleaned at least once per day; the best time to do this is at 8 or 9 o'clock in the morning. Just before milking^ the udder, the abdomen, the flanks and thighs should be brushed, to remove all loose hair and dust particles. It is a good plan to wash the udder, especially the teats, but they should be completely dry before milking. The milker should observe strict personal cleanliness. When milking he should wear a special suit of washable overalls and jacket or a long washable apron with sleeves. It is necessary that he should have three or four changes of milking suits or aprons. The hands should be washed and the finger nails be cut close and well brushed. After milking one cow he should thoroughly cleanse his hands before milking another, because this insures greater cleanli- ness and prevents the transmission from one cow to another of such diseases as infectious garget and cow-pox. The practice, which is too common among negro servants, of wetting the teats with the milk, and milking the cow entirely by stripping, cannot be too severely condemned. The milk- ing should be done with the full hand by producing a wave of pressure that begins at the upper part of the teat or the lower part of the quarter and passes down over the teat to its lower end; this is produced by the successive closing of the thumb and fingers in a grasping manner. This involves no pulling or friction, and every drop of the milk can thus be removed from the udder. By using the stripping process in milking the friction and pulling causes scales and dust particles to fall into the milk. In order that the reader may comprehend the necessity for cleanliness in all things in connection with the dairy a list of dirt impurities t'outid ia milk by microscopic examination will here be given : Manure particles; soil particles; cow and human hair; mold, bacteria and other fungi; woolen, cotton and linen 222 threads ; fodder and other food particles ; parts of insects ; down from birds ; skin scales, etc. As much as 8 to 15 milligrams of dry impurities have been found in one litre of milk in some of the dairies in Germany. As a rule most of the impurities get into the milk at the time of milking. The fact that the dairy cows in Europe are kept more hours per day in the stall than the cows of America will account for this great quantity of impurities. When dairy cows are kept in the stalls only a short time in the morning and evening and spend the rest of their time on clean pastures they can easily be kept clean ; yet they will not be hair-clean and dust-clean without brushing and sometimes washing. But some one may say that the strainer and the separator will remove all these filth particles from the milk. It is true that many of these impurities are removed, provided they are not soluble ; but these particles inoculate the milk with various kinds of bacteria and introduce injurious soluble impurities that cannot be removed by the strainer or the separator. Milk is a good food for bacteria and many of them begin to grow and multiply as soon as they get into it; then they destroy some of the nutritive materials in the milk. Some- times the dust particles may carry disease-producing bacteria into the milk ; this is frequently the case if any of the cows in the dairy have tuberculosis in a form in which the tubercle bacilli are thrown off in the excretions ; it is also true if any of the dairy servants have tuberculosis and expectorate indis- criminately around the dairy. It is just as essential to have healthy servants in a dairy as it is to have healthy cows. Grotenfelt gives the following primary principles to regu- late the work in a dairy barn : 1. The manure is to be cleaned out one and one-half hours before milking time. 2. The stable is to be aired every time it is cleaned out. 3. The cows should be watered before every milking. 4. The feeding should take place at least one and one-half hours before milking. 5. The cow should have a rest of one and one-balf hours three times a day, during which time the stable is closed. 223 (This is applicable only where cows have no run or pasture, or are kept closely conlined for milking three or more times per day.) 6. The cows should be groomtd twice a day ; their udders, hind limbs, flanks and abdomen should be washed before every milking. 7. The cows should be allowed to exercise in winter during the warm part of the day ; (in summer or almost any season in Alabama they may be allowed to exercise during any part of the day that is most convenient.) The source of water used at the dairy for washing cans, bottles, buckets, hands, etc., is very important. It should be from a deep well that is entirely separated from the barn, from the cow lots, or any source of surface filth. The surface drainage should be away from the well and the well should be so located that the seepage will not come from any contam- inated source. The-deeper the well the less liable it is to be contaminated with germs. Also the deeper the water in the well within certain limits the purer will be the upper portions of that water, providing it is not constantly being contamin- ated by surface drainage or seepage water. As a rule, it is best to have the level of the water in the well some distance below the surface unless the well is cemented some distance below the surface. Most bacteria will not grow or multiply in water unless it contains some organic matter. Hence the bacteria that accidentally get into pure well water become inactive and sink to the bottom of the well. In other words, more bacteria are found at the bottom of the well than in any other portion of the water; consequently, the water should not be drawn directly from the bottom of the well, but may be drawn within eight or ten feet of the bottom. The out- let of a water tank should not be from the bottom ; but should be some distance above the bottom so that the germs and dirt which settle will not be carried out with the water that is used directly or indirectly for human or animal consumption, or to wash dairy apparatus. However, it is wise to have an outlet directly in the bottom of a water tank so that the tank may be thoroughly cleansed. A water tank should be cleansed 2'24 three or four times per year; this may be done by thoroughly scrubbing and washing the bottom and sides of the tank. In cleaning a well it is essential that the wall of the well, some distance above the bottom, should be thoroughly cleaned with brush and water ; then remove all the loose dirt and ^vater from the bottom of the well. If there is sufficient organic matter in well-water, germs may be growing upon the surface and sometimes below the surface ; but, as a rule, the organic matter in well water is insufficient to keep the germs growing, and the inactive or non-growing germs soon sink to the bottom of the well. When water runs low in wells, as in the fall of the year, infectious diseases (typhoid fever, etc.,) are more prevalent. Steam and hot water must of necessity be used in order to cleanse many of the dairy utensils ; but this should in no way lead one to omit securing a pure water supply for all dairy purposes. If bottles are used, they and crates in which they are carried should be thoroughly cleansed and the bottles should always be sterilized previous to tilling, because infectious diseases (diphtheria, scarlet fever, etc.,) may be carried from one family to another if the bottles are not always sterilized immediately after cleansing and before filling them. DeliTering milk in bottles is the cleanest and best method. Composition of Milk. The chief constituents of milk are water, fat, catein, albu- men, milk-sugar, and ash. Other substances are found in milk in small quantities, but they are not of sufficient import- ance to require discussion here. The terms milk solids or total solids embrace all the substances (solids) in milk except the water. The term milk serum is almost equiva-_ lent to skim or separated milk ; it embraces all the milk sub stances except the fat. The solids not fat or the serum solids include all the solid constituents of milk except the fat; the solids not fat are the casein, albumen, milk-sugar, and ash The quantity of water in milk varies from 80 to 90 per cent. As a rule cow's milk will contain from 84 to 88 per 225 cent, of water. In South Carolina the law fixes the maximum limit of water in milk at 88.5 per cent.; Minnesota, Massachu- setts and New Hampshire, at 87 per cent.; five other states, at 87.5 per cent., and eight othep states, at 88 per cent. The city of Montgomery fixes the maximum limit at 87.5 per cent. It is obvious that a high percentage of water means a poor milk and a low pei-centage of water means a rich milk, provided there are no solid adulterants added to the milk. The fat in milk is in the form of an emulsion in the milk serum. An enormous number of fat globules are suspended in the milk serum. The size of the fat globules may vary slightly in the different breeds of cattle. One drop of milk may contain 100,000,000 fat globules. Chemically speaking, milk fat is a compound of fatty acids and glycerine. About ^2 per cent, of pure milk fat is a mixture of glycerine and insoluble fatty acids (palmitic, stearic and oleic acids), and about 8 per cent, of milk fat is made up of glycerides of vola- tile fatty acids (butyric, caprylic and caproic acids). The glycerides of the volatile acids of milk fat are very unstable; they give the flavor and aroma to butter and serve to distin- guish genuine from artificial butter. When the glycerides of these volatile fatty acids are decomposed by bacteria or light, the volatile acids are set free and they produce the unpleasant odor in rancid butter. The fat in cow's milk ranges from 3 to 6 per cent.; the average is about 4 per cent. As a rule if the fat in a cow's milk falls below 3 per cent, she does not pay for her feed. The mixed milk from a dairy herd should not fall below 3 per cent, in fat contents, and, except in unusually rich milk, it will not exceed 5 per cent. The minimum legal standard for most of the states is 3 per cent.; Georgia and Minnesota require milk to contain 3.5 per cent, of butter fat; Rhode Island places the minimum limit at 2.5 per cent. The city of Montgomery requires milk to contain 3 per cent, of butter fat, and the limit should be raised to 3.5 per cent. Milk-su^ar or lactose is very similar in chemical compo- sition to cane sugar, but it is not nearly so sweet and is less soluble in water. Normal cow's milk contains from 4 to 6 — 2 '226 per cent., with an average of about 5 per cent., of milk-sugar. This average may be reduced to about 4 per cent, in sour milk. Sour milk is a result of the action of bacteria upon the milk-sugar. The bacteria decompose the milk-sugar and one of the products of this decomposition is lactic acid, which curdles the milk or precipitates the casein. If milk is kept free of bacteria, or if all the bacteria in milk are destroyed by sterilization and the milk is thereafter kept free from germs,, it will remain sweet indefinitely. Casein and albumen are the chief protein compounds of milk. When the milk is first drawn from the udder the casein is in the form of caseinogen, but it is soon changed into casein. Casein contains phosphorus and sulphur, which chemical elements are not found in any of the other protein compounds of milk. Dilute acids precipitate the casein and thus curdle the milk. If the acid is neutralized by some alkali (lime water or soda) the casein will be redissolved. Rennet will also precipitate casein, and the curd thus formed is used in making cheese; but this curd cannot be redis- solved by adding lime water or soda. The quantity of casein in cow's milk will vary from 2 to B.5 per cent. The alounien of milk is somewhat similar to that in blood and in the white of an egg. It is not precipitated by dilute acids or by rennet, but it can be coagulated by heating the milk to 170 degrees F.; it then collects in a film on the surface of the milk. The qiintity of albumen in cows' milk will range from .5 to .8 per cent. Tnere are other unstable, and somewhat indefinite, protein compounds in milk, but they are small in quantity and the chemists do not agree as to their properties. The average amaunt of total protein constituents in milk is 3.3 per cent, of the entire milk. ''Milk with a low fat content will contain more casein and albumen than fat, while the reverse is generally true in case of milk containing more than 3.5 per cent, of fat." The ash or mineral matter is made up of "chlorides and phosphates of [sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium ; iron oxide, and sulphuric and citric acid are also present in '227 smill quantities among tlie normal mineral milk constituents." The average amount of total ash in cows' milk is about .7 per cent. The mineral constituents of milk are least liable to var- iation. Clostrum or the first milk is that which is secreted imme- diately after the birth of the calf. It contains a large per- centage of albumen and ash, and a small amount of milk sugar. It is thick, yellow, and coagulates when boiled. The first milk is said to be nature's purgative to remove the meconium from the alimentary canal of the offspring. In four or five days the clostrum is no longer secreted and the milk becomes normal. Milk is slightly heavier than water; its specific gravity ranges from 1.029 to 1.034 at 60 degrees F. The variation in the specific gravity is due to the variations in the relative quantities of water and the solids in the milk. Milk that is rich in fat will usually have a low specific gravity, because the fat is lighter than water. If, however, the fat be removed the specific gravity will be raised; skim milk ranges from 1.033 to 1.037. The addition of water to milk, or the leraoval of fat from milk, are the two most common methods of fraud- ulently changing the composition, specific gravity and value of milk. Variations in the composition of normal or pure cow's milk are due to the variations in the breed, individuality of the cow, to the methods of feeding and handling, and to the length of time since the cow became fresh. It is a matter of common observation that certain breeds give richer milk than others, while some breeds may give large quantities nf rela- tively poor milk. Ditterent cows of the same breed will vary to some extent in the quality and quantity of their milk. A well balanced ration given in sufficient quantity will cause a cow to yield milk to her greatest capacity. The breed, the individuality of the cow, and the length of time since calving will also have a direct influence upon the quantity; but the (quantity of milk may be most quickly and easily changed by changing the feed and the method of handling the cow. How- ever, the richness of the milk or the proportion of fats and 228 other milk solids cannot be radically changed by varying the composition or the kind of feed. Feeding fat or giving feed almost free from fat will not materially change the ccm- position of the milk. Giving dry feed and restricting the amount of water allowed the cow may decrease the quantity of milk and slightly increase the proportion of total solids in the milk. Lomparative composition of various kinds 0/ milk. * Water Total f olitl.s Total solid s Kind of Milk Protein Fat w c. Carbo- hyilrates (milk sugar) Mineral matters (asb) Fuel value Casein Albumin Total protein per lb. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct Per ct. Per ct. Calo's Woman 87.4 12.6 1.0 1.3 2 3 3.8 6.2 0.3 319 Cow.. . 87.2 12.8 3.0 .5 3.5 3.7 4 9 .7 313 Dog ... Ewe 75.4 24.6 6.1 5 1 11.2 9.6 3 1 .7 671 80.8 19.2 5.0 1.5 6.5 6.9 4.9 .9 503 Buffalo. 81.4 18 6 5.8 .3 0.1 7.5 4.1 .9 506 Cat 82.1 17.9 3.1 6.0 9.1 3.3 4.9 .6 400 Goat. 85.7 14.3 3.2 1.1 4.3 4.8 4.4 .8 365 Llama.. 86.5 13 5 3.0 .9 3 9 3 2 5.6 .8 312 Ass 89 0 10.4 .7 1.6 2.3 1.6 6 0 .5 222 Mare . . . 91.5 8.5 1 2 .1 1.3 1.2 5.7 .3 180 * Konig, Chemie der menschlichen, Nahrunj:s und Genussmittel, 3d ed., I, pp. 267-362. Determinixg THE Per Cent. of Fat in Milk. The most simple and practicable method for closely esti- mating the per cent, of fat in milk is the one discovered by Prof. Babcock, of Wisconsin. It is now universally called The Babcock Test. The necessary apparatus consists of a centrifugal machine; graduated milk, cream, and skim milk test bottles; pipettes; an acid measure; and sulphuric acid having a specific gravity of 1.82. This apparatus may be obtained from any dairy supply house. If the centrifugal machine has a diameter of 20 inches it should be capable of making not less than 700 revolutions per minute; if the wheel is 12 inches in diameter it should make 1,200 revolutions per minute. The size and speed of the wheel should be sufficient to give enough cen- trifugal force to separate the fat. Procurinir the Sample ot Milk to be Tested.— The best 229 time to procure the sample is immediately after the milk has been drawn from the cow and before the cream begins to rise. Milk that has stood some time should be poured from one vessel into another until the cream is evenly and thoroughly distributed in the milk. It is impossible to secure an average sample of the milk when the cream is partly churned or small granules of butter appear on the surface of the milk. It is not practicable to sample a large quantity of curdled milk, but a small amount may be thoroughly mixed if the curd be dissolved by slowly adding powdered soda. The sample should be thoroughly mixed just before the pip3tte is filled. The pipette should be rinsed two or three times with the milk before it is filled ; fill the pipette up to the 17.6cc. mark; empty it into the graduated milk test bot- tle, care being taken to let the milk flow from the pipette slowly down the inside of the neck of the milk bottle. In order to get the best results the temperature of the milk should be between 60 and 70 degrees F., especially if the acid used has a specific gravity of 1.82. The milk may be cooler if the acid is a little stronger. The acid measure is now filled up to the 17.5 c.c. mark with sulphuric acid (not less than 1.82 or more than 1.83 sp. gr.); the acid should be poured slowly down the inside of the neck of the milk test bottle. Now thoroughly mix the acid and the milk in the bottle by gently shaking the bottle with a circular motion. The casein is precipitated and then dissolved, and the solution soon becomes very dark brown in color, a result of the charring of the milk sugar by the sulphuric acid. If the acid is too weak, or there is not enough acid used, it will not dissolve all of the casein ; if it is too strong, or there is too much acid, the fat may be slightly charred and black specks may collect at the bottom of the fat column. The bottles are now placed in a centrifugal machine in such a position that the wheel will be evenly balanced ; then the machine is turned at full speed for five minutes ; the bottles are taken out, filled with hot water up to the graduated scale point No. 7 ; they are then put back into the machine and whirled at full speed for one or two minutes. Some author- 230 ities advise, after whirling the bottles Ave minutes, to add or to fill the bottles with hot water up to the neck ; whirl them one minute ; then fill with hot water up to the point 7 and whirl again for one minute. After the last whirling take out the bottles, stand them in hot water, read and record the per- centages of fat. The per cent, of fat is indicated by the length of the column of liquid fat in the graduated neck of the milk tube. In measuring the length of the fat column the reading should be taken from the lower end to the extreme upper limit of the fat. The color of the fat will indicate to some extent the strength of the acid used : if the fat is quite dark the acid is too strong ; if white, undissolved material collects at the bottom of the fat ; or the fat is very light in color, the acid is too weak ; if the fat has a golden yellow color the acid has the proper strength. The following precautions should be used in making the Babcock test: 1. Secure a fair or average sample of the milk. The Scovell sample tube or the "milk thief" may be used in procuring samples from a large dairy can. 2. Secure acid of proper strength; acid having 1.82 specific gravity is usually the best. If the milk is very rich 20 to 21 c. c. of the acid may be used. 3. Be careful to pour the acid into the bottle so that it will follow the inside surface of the bottle to the bottom. This can be accomplished by slightly inclining the neck of the test bottle. 4. Carefully, slowly and thoroughly mix the acid and milk in the bottle. 5. In adding hot water to the bottles to bring the column of fat up into the graduated neck, use soft, rain, or distilled water ; never use hard water. 6. Be careful in measuring the fat ; it must be kept hot by standing the bottle in hot water, in order to measure it cor- rectly. 7. Keep the acid tightly corked with a rubber or glass stop- per, because it will quickly absorb moisture from the air and 231 become too weak. Never pour water into strong sulphuric acid. 8. The graduated test bottle, the pipettes, the acid measure, should be thoroughly cleansed immediately after finishing the test. The waste from the bottles contains a large per cent, of sulphuric acid and this is very corrosive; it should be emptied only into glass or glazed earthen vessels. 9. The temperature of the milk should be between 60 and 70 degrees F. For the analysis of cream special cream testing bottles are made; the best one is Winton's. Cream may be diluted with a definite quantity of Avater and the milk test bottles can then be used, but the cream test bottles give more accurate results. Market or dairy cream may contain as low as 9.5 per cent, of fat or as high as 40 per cent. However the per cent, of fat in cream will usually range from 15 to 30. Cream con- taining 25 per cent, of fat is rated as a rich cream. There are also special bottles for testing skim or separated milk, buttermilk and whey, in order to find their fat con- tent. The double-necked test bottle is the one that should be used. With it the fat may be estimated to single hundredths of one per cent. The Gravimetric Method of determining the fat content of milk is the most accurate. There are several modifications of this method, but the process given here is known as Adams' method.* "About 5 grams of milk are rapidly and accurately weighed in a tared platinum dish. A paper coil, made by loosely rolling up a strip of fat-free paper, about 20 inches long and. 2^ wide, held in position by a wire clamp, is held, one end up, in the dish, allowing a portion of the milk to be absoibed. The coil is reversed and the remainder of the milk to the last trace is absorbed by the other end of the coil, care being taken to handle it by the clamp only. The coil is placed in the air bath, being held in vertical position by introducing the loop of the clamp into a clasp attached to the sides of the bath. As in the case of the determination of the solids, the temper- * New York City Board of Health report 1896, p. 168. 232 ature must be constant from 100 to 105 degrees C. Two and one-half hours drying is usually sufficient. The coil is known to be dry when a cold watch-glass being held over one end of it, immediately after it is removed from the bath, does not show a deposit of moisture. In making this test the coil must be held in a vertical position. The dry coil is placed in an extracting apparatus, the form known as Knoefler's being preferred, connected with an upright condenser and a tared flask, and extracted with a pure anhydrous ethyl ether for two hours. The ether is distilled and may be used again, the flask placed on water bath until all odor of ether has disap- peared, then in air bath having a constant temperature of 100-105 degrees C.for one-half hour or until fat is of constant weight. The coil should be re-extracted until there is no longer a gain of fat. The weight of fat is calculated in the usual way. The flask used above should be dried in air bath and cooled in air-bath before weighing. A flask containing the fat should be cooled in the same way. Care must be taken not to electrify the flask by rubbing the same when dry. The ether used must be free from residue, water and alcohol. Fat-free paper (commercial) must be proved to be free from extractive matter." The Total Solids may be determined as follows: "Five grams of milk (thoroughly mixed by gentle agita- tion) are weighed in a dry, tared, flat- bottom, 'lead-tin ' or platinum capsule (diameter If inches, and f of an inch deep; it is important that the dish is no smaller than this). This dish is placed on a water bath, a piece of clean fllter paper being m contact with the bottom, and when the water has app.ireutly all evaporated is transferred to an air bath (care- fully regulated to maintain a temperature of from 100 to 105 degrees C.) and allowed to remain for 2^ hours. After cooling in a dessicator dish, and the contents are weighed, return to air bath for one-half hour and again weigh. If necessary this reheating and reweighing are repeated until solids cease to lose in weight. From this final weight calculate total solids." * * New York City Board of Health Report, 189G, p. 168. 233 A close estimate of the total solids and the solids not fat may be made when the fat content and the specific gravity of the milk are known. Determine the per cent, of fat by the Babcock Test and the specific gravity by the use of the Que- venne lactometer. (Full directions for determining the spe- cific gravity with the lactometer may be found in Farrington and WoU's "Testing Milk and Its Products," pages 80 to 85.) The specific gravity of milk should not be taken until one- half hour (better six or eight hours) after the milk has been drawn, since the specific gravity is always lower if taken immediately after the milk is drawn than it is when the milk has stood for some time. This may be due to the escape of gases or to mechanical changes in the proteids. Be careful to have the temperature of the milk as near 60 degrees F. as possible when the specific gravity is taken. After thoroughly mixing the sample, pour the milk into the lactometer cylinder and take the specific gravity at once before the cream begins to rise. If the cream rises the specific gravity will be that of skim milk. Farrington and Woll have derived the following simple formula and rules for estimating the solids not fat and the total solids : "Solids not fat equal 1/4L plus .2f Total solids equal 1/4L plus l.'if '^L being the lactometer reading at 60 degrees F. and f the per cent, of fat in the milk. " Rule a. To find the per cent, of solids not fat in the milk, add two tenths of the per cent, of fat to one-fourth of the lactometer reading, and Rule b. To find the per cent, of total solids in the milk, add one and two-tenths times the per cent, of fat to one-fourth of the lactometer reading." The following method of determining the solids not fat is taken from the Maine Experiment Station Report for 1897, page 94; but the table and the method were derived by Prof. Babcock, of Wisconsin Experiment Station : ^'Method of Haking the Test.— To take the specific grav- ity with the lactometer it is necessary (1) that milk be free 234 from air bubbles, and in order to insure this it should stand at least one-half hour after being drawn ; (2) that it should be thoroughly mixed by pouring from one vessel to another, avoiding any violent motions that would be likely to collect air bubbles, then brought to the proper temperature, 60° F., placed in a vessel of sufficient depth and diameter to allow the lactometer to float freely, and the mark on the stem to which the instrument sinks read. The lactometer can easily be read to half spaces when it is necessary to be quite accurate. In case it is not convenient to bring the milk to the temperature of 60° F., a correction may be made, where the variation is not more than 10°, by adding to the lactometer reading 0.1 for each degree the temperature exceeds 60°, and subtracting 0.1 for each degree below 60. For example, a lactometer reading of 32 at 65° F., corrected would read 32.5; at 55° F., corrected, 31.5. After finding the per cent, of fat, and taking the lactometer reading, the per cent of solids not fat may be found by the table given on page 235. Find the per cent, of fat in one of the side vertical columns, and the lactometer reading at the top of the table in the line of figures marked lactometer reading, then look down the column of figures directly under the lac- tometer reading till on line with the per cent, of fat, and the figures found at this point will be the per cent, of solids not fat in milk. For example, suppose the per cent, of fat is 4.5 and the lac- tometer reading is 32, then the per cent, of solids not fat will be 8.92. Suppose the lactometer reads 33 instead of 32 in the above example, then the per cent, of solids not fat would be 9.17. The per cent, of solids not fat added to the per cent, of fat gives total solids." 235 0^ O A( 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 14 1.5 1.6 1 7 1.8 1 9 :2.0 2.1 ^.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.0 3 1 3 3 -3.4 3.5 3.6 3 7 3.8 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4 8 4.9 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5 5 5.6 5.7 5 8 5.9 <6.0 QuEVENNE Lactometer Readings at 60 Degrees F. 26 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 6.70 6.72 6.74 6.76 6.78 6.80 6.82 6.84 6.86 6.88 6.90 6.92 6.94 6.96 6.98 7.00 7.02 7.04 7.06 7.08 6.95 6.97 6 99 7.01 7.03 7.05 7 07 7.(19 7.11 7.13 7.15 7.17 7.19 7.21 7.23 7.25 7.27 7.12 7.14 7.16 7.18 7.20 7.22 7.24 7.26 7.28 7.30 7.32 7.31 7.36 7.38 7.40 7.43 7.45 7.47 7 49 7 51 7.53 7.55 7.57 7.59 7.61 7.63 7.65 7.67 7.69 7 71 7.29 7 31 7.33 10 7.35 7.37 7.39 7.41 7 43 7.45 7.48 7.50 7.52 7.54 7.56 7.58 7.60 7 62 7 64 7.66 7.68 7.70 7.72 7.74 7.76 7.78 7.80 7.82 7.84 7.86 7.88 7.90 7 92 7.94 7.96 7.20 7.22 7 24 7.26 7.28 7.30 7.32 7.34 7.36 7.38 7.40 7.42 7.44 7.46 7.48 7.50 7 52 7.54 7.56 7.58 7.00 7.62 7.61 7 66 7 69 7.71 7.';3 7.75 7.77 7.79 7 81 7.83 7 85 7.87 7.89 7 91 7 93 7.95 7.97 7.99 8.01 8.03 8.05 8.07 8.09 8.11 8.13 8.15 8.17 8.20 8.22 7.45 7.47 7.49 7.51 7.53 7 55 7.57 7.59 7 61 7.63 7.65 7 67 7.69 7.71 7.73 7.75 7.77 7 79 7.81 7.83 7 85 7 87 7 89 7.92 7.94 7 96 7.98 6.00 8.02 8.04 8.06 8.08 8.10 8 12 8.14 8.16 8.18 8.20 8 22 8 24 8.26 8.28 8.30 8.32 8.?4 8.36 8.39 8.41 8.43 8.45 8.47 7.70 7.72 7.74 7.76 7.78 7.80 7.82 7.84 7.86 7.88 7.90 7.92 7.94 7.96 7.98 8.00 8.02 8.04 8 06 8.08 8.10 8.13 8.15 8.17 8 19 8 21 8.23 8.25 8 27 8.29 8.31 8.33 8 35 8.37 8.39 8 41 8 43 8 45 8.47 8 49 8.51 8 53 9.55 8.57 8.60 8.62 8.64 8.66 8.68 8.70 7.95 7.97 7 99 8.01 8.03 8.05 8.07 8 09 811 8.13 8.15 8.17 8.19 8.21 8 23 8.25 8.27 8.29 8 31 8.33 8.36 8.38 8.40 8.42 8.44 8 46 8.48 8.50 8 52 8.54 8.56 8.58 8 60 8.62 8.64 8.66 8.68 8.70 8.72 8.74 8.76 8.79 8.81 8.83 8.85 8 87 8.89 8.91 8.94 8.96 8.20 8 22 8.24 8.26 8.28 8 30 8.32 8.34 8.36 8.38 8 40 8.42 8.44 8.46 8 48 8 50 8.52 8.P4 8.57 8 59 8 61 8 63 8 65 8 67 8 69 8 71 8.73 8.75 8.77 8. 79 8 81 8.83 8.85 8.88 8,90 8.92 8 94 8.96 8.98 9.00 9.02 9.04 9.06 9.(8 9.10 9.12 9.15 9.17 9.19 9 21 8 98 ■ 9.23 8.45 8.47 8.49 8.51 8.53 8.55 8.57 8.59 8 61 8.63 8.66 8.68 8 70 8.72 8.74 8.76 8.78 8.80 8.82 8.84 8.f6 8.88 8 90 8.92 8 94 8.96 8.98 9.00 9.02 9.04 9 06 9.08 9.11 9.13 9.15 9 17 9.19 9.21 9 23 9 25 9.27 9.29 9 31 9.33 9.36 9 38 9.40 9.42 9.44 9.46 9.48 8.70 8.72 8.74 8.76 8.78 8.80 8.82 8.84 8.86 8.88 8 91 8 93 8.95 8.97 8 99 9.01 9.03 9 05 9 07 9 09 9 11 9.13 9.15 9.18 9 20 9 22 il/24 9.26 9.28 9.30 9.32 9.34 9.36 9.38 9.40 9 42 9.44 9.46 9.48 9.50 9. 52 9.54 9 56 9.58 9 61 9.63 9.65 9.67 9.69 9 71 9.73 8.95 8.97 8.99 9.01 9.03 !i.05 9.07 9 09 9.11 9.13 9.15 9.18 9.20 9 22 9 24 9 26 9.28 9.30 9.32 9.34 9.36 9.38 9.41 9.43 9.45 9.47 9.49 9.51 9.53 9 55 9.57 9.59 9 02 9.64 9.66 9.68 9.70 9.72 9.74 9.76 9.78 9.80 9 82 9 84 9.86 9.88 9.90 9 92 9 94 9.96 9.98 9.20 9.22 9.24 9 26 9.28 9.30 9.32 9 34 9 37 9 39 9.41 9.43 9.45 9 47 9.-9 9.51 9.53 9.55 9.57 9.59 9 61 9 (U 9.66 9 68 9.70 9.72 9.74 9.76 9.78 9.80 9.83 10.11 10 13 10.15 10.17 10.19 10.22 10.24 1.0 1.1 1.2 1 3 1.7 18 1.9 2 0 9 85 9 87 9.89 9 91 9.93 9.95 9.97 9.»9 10.01 10.03 10.05 10 07 10.09 2.7 2 8 2.9 3.0 .■! 1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3 5 3.6 3 7 3.8 3.9 4 0 4.1 4.2 4 3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5 0 5 7 5.8 5 9 6 0 236 To Determine Ash or Salts in Milk, "proceed as directed in the air-bath method for determining the total solids in milk, using a platinum dish." " The dry solids, after weighing, are gently ignited over a rose burner or in a muffled furnace, taking care not to allow the heat to rise above a dull red. When ash appears white or gray cool in a dessicator and weigh. Calculate percentage of salts or ash." * In milk inspection, as a rule, it will not be necessary to make an accurate chemical determination of the casein and albumen or the milk sugar. The question of the kind and quantity of sugar in the various forms of condensed or evapo- rated milk is important and should be investigated. For methods of determining the casein, albumen and milk sugar, we refer the reader to Farrington and Woll's "Testing Milk and Its Products," " Fresenius," and Bulletin No. 48, p. 189, Chemical Division of U. S. Department of Agriculture. Milk Adulteration. Adding water and abstracting cream are the most com- mon fraudulent means of adulterating milk. With a legal milk standard it is not difficult to detect such frauds. If there is no legal standard the inspector or his sample collector should go to the dairy and collect a control sample which he knows has not been adulterated. Every cow's milk will not meet the required legal standard in fat or solids not fat. But the purchaser of milk buys with the idea that the milk con- forms to the legal standard. If it does not the vendor should reduce the price of milk accordingly, or, better still, procure cows that will yield standard milk. The mixed milk of a herd, as a rule, will meet the legal standard if the milk is not adulterated. The removal of cream may be detected by the Babcock test the fat removed by skimming, or the deficiency in fat may be determined by the difference between the per cent, of fat ob- tained in the sample and the per cent, required by law, or the per cent of fat found in the control sample. In other words, the legal standard per cent, of fat minus the per cent, of fat * New York City Board of Health Report, 1896, p. 169. 237 found in the sample, equals the per cent, of fat removed by skimming. The following- formula?, with slight changes, are taken from WoU's Handbook for Farmers and Dairymen, 1897, pages 207-8: la the formulcB let Lf equal legal standard fat per cent. Sf equal sample fat per cent. LSnf equal legal standard per cent, of solids not fat. Snf equal sample per cent, of solids not fat. For rapid, practical results, determine the fat by the Bab- cock test, and the solids not fat by the lactometer with the rules, and table previously given. I. If cream alone is removed from the milk it may be detected by Formula : Lf — Sf = per cent, of fat removed. II. Calculations of watered milk may be based on the percentage of solids not fat in the milk by Formula : 100 — -5^^^^!^— per cent, of foreign water in milk. Example : If sample contains 7.2 per cent, solids not fat and 9 per cent, is the legal standard for solids not fat then 100 '^•"'^^°° = 20 per cent, by weight of foreign water in the sample of milk or i of the milk is added water. III. The quantity of water added may be expressed in per cent, of water added based upon the weight of the original milk. Formula : looxLSnf _ 100 = per cent, of water added to original milk. Example — Same as in II : — 100 = 25 per cent, of water added or i of 100x9 milk is added water. IV. Milk may be watered and skimmed. Determine per cent, of foreign or added water by II or III ; and the per cent, of fat removed by this Formula : Lf Lsnfxsf ^ j,gj-j^ Qf f^j. abstracted. Snf ^ 238 Exaaiple : If sample contains 8 per cent, of solids not fat and 2.5 per cent, of fat, and if 3 per cent, fat and 9 per cent, of solids not fat are the legal standards, then 3 __ 9x2.5 ^ ]g^ per cent, by weight of fat removed. o Chemical Adulterants or Impurities. Drags are added to milk as preservatives ; some are added to change the specific gravity of milk and occasionally color- ing matter is added to make the milk appear richer. Commercial milk, cream or butter may contain one or more of the following adulterants : Boracic acid, borax, salicylic acid, sodium salicylate, carbonate of soda, bicarbonate of soda, lim'e water, formalin. The majority of commercial preserva- tives are made up of one or more of the toUowing drugs : Bjrax, b3rdcic acid, sodium salycilate, salicyhc acid, and for- malin. As a rule, any preservative or coloring matter that is used in milk without giving due notice to the purchaser must be considered as a fraudulent adulteration. The follow- ing test may be made to determine the presence or absence of chemical adulterants. * 'Borax and Boracic Acid: lOOc.c. of milk are made alkaline with lime water dried, and the mixture gently burned to ash. Tae residue is acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and the mixture washed in a small flask with 20c.c. of methyl alcohol. The flask is connected with a condenser and about lOc.c. of the methyl alcohol distilled into a small platinum dish. The dish is placed in a dark closet or room and the alcohol ignited, when, if a trace of boric acid or borax were present, it burns with a grass-green flame. Blank tests must be made with the re-agents used to prove absence of boric acid in them."* " Place in a porcelain dish one drop of milk with two drops of strong hydrochloric acid and two drops of turmeric tincture ; dry this on water bath ; cool and add a drop of ammonia by * N. Y. Board of Health Report, 1896, p. 160. 239 ms.ms of a glass rod. A slaty color, changing to green, is produced if borax is present."* " Salicylic Acid or Its Salts : The milk is coagulated by means of a few drops of acetic acid and filtered, the filtrate is shaken with ethyl ether in a separating funnel. The ether is carefully drawn off and evaporated in a glass dish on the water bath. The residue, if any, is treated with a very little water, filtered, and a drop of neutral ferric chloride added. A violet color indicates presence of salicylic acid or its salts."t " 20c.c. of milk are acidulated with sulphuric acid and shaken with ether ; the ether solution is evaporated, and the residue treated with alcohol and a little iron chloride solution ; a deep violet color will be obtained'in the presence of salicylic acid."1: " Alkaline carbonates may be detected by the strong alka- line character of the ash, and by its effervescing with dilute acids. A quantitative determination may be made by titrating the water solution of the ash with n/10 sulphuric acid, using lakmoid as an indicator." 1[ "To lOc.c. of milk add lOc.c. of alcohol and a little of a one per cent, rosolic acid solution. Pure milk will give a brownish yellow color; milk to which soda has been added, a rose red color. A control experiment with milk of known purity should be made."§ '^ Formaldehyde or 'Formalin': A few drops of milk are floated on a small amount of concentrated sulphuric acid, con- taining a trace of ferric chloride. If formaldehyde is present, a violet blue ring will appear at the line of demarkation."|| "A solution of diphenylamin is made with water and just enough sulphuric acid to secure a proper solvent effect. The milk to be tested, or better the distillate therefrom, is added to this solution and boiled. If formalin is present, a white * Fariington and Woll's Testing Milk, p. 195. t N. Y. City Board of Health Report, 1896, p. 169. t Farrington and Woll's Testing Milk, p. 196. t N. Y. City Board of Health Report, 1896, p. 169. § Farrington and Woll's Testing Milk, p. 197. II N. Y. City Board of Health Report, 1896, p. 169. 1240 flocculent precipitate is formed ; if the acid used contains nitrates a green precipitate is formed." Skimmed or watered milk, or skimmed and watered milk, may iaave sufficient cheese or butter color added to give it a rich yellow appearance, which readily deceives the average purchaser. "The presence of foreign coloring matter in milk is easily shown by shaking lOc.c. of milk with an equal quantity of ether; on standing, a clear ether solution will rise to the sur- face; the solution will be yellow colored if artificial coloring matter has been added to the milk, the intensity of the color indicating the quantity added ; natural, fresh milk will give a colorless ether solution."* "Annatoor Butter Color: lOOc.c. of milk, made strongly alkaline with sodium carbonate, are placed in a small cylin- der; a strip of filter-paper, about ^ inch wide and five inches long, is introduced, and the whole allowed to stand in the dark for twelve hours. If annato is present, the strip of paper, after washing, will he a pale salmon color, which is changed to a decided pink by moistening with a solution of stannous chloride, and after drying at the temperature of the room to a bluish color, on treatment with strong sulphuric acid."t Acidity of Milli. — Freshly drawn milk exhibits an ampho- teric reaction to litmus ; it colors red litmus blue, and blue litmus red ; but in a short time after the milk is drawn, it shows an acid reaction to the phenolphtalein test. This acidity is probably due to acid phosphates, to carbonic acid gas and to the acid reaction of the casein. This milk will not taste sour and is considered sweet. The acid or sour tasting milk IS due to lactic acid, which is a product of the action of bac- teria on lactose or milk sugar. If Lhere is .3 to .35 per cent, of lactic acid in milk it will taste sour. The acid-forming bacteria get into the milk at the time of milking, through uncleanliness ; and after milking, through careless handling (keeping it in a warm room, unclean bottles or cans, adding *Farrington and Woll's Testiug Milk, p. 92. t N. Y. City Board of Health Report, J896, p. 169. 241 impure water, exposing to germ-laden air, etc.) Within cer- tain limits, the greater the number of bacteria per c.c. of milk, the greater the acidity of the milk. Hence a test for the acid- ity of the milk will give a more or less definite idea of the degree of bacterial infection, and this will suggest the clean- liness or uncleanliness of the milking and of the handling of the milk thereafter. The temperature at which the milk is kept and the age of the milk must always be taken into consideration in drawing the conclusion as to the dairy clean- liness or uncleanliness. As a rule, any acid test showing a higher per cent, of acidity than .07 is due to lactic fermenta- tion. Test for Acidity of Milk. "20c.c. of milk is measured into a pDrcelain casserole; a few drops of an alcoholic phen- olphtalein solution are added, and a soda solution (n/10) is dropped in slowly from a burette until the color of the milk remiins uniformly pinkish on agitation. Ic.c. of n/10 alkali corresponds to .009 grams of lactic acid, or to .045 per cent, when 20c.c. are taken."* Farrington's alkaline tablet test may be used more readily and conveniently.! A test for cleanliness or uncleanliness in milking and in handling milk may be more definitely determined by a bacte- riological examination ; this will determine the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter and the various kinds of bacte- ria in the milk. Bacteria in Milk. The first few streams of milk drawn from the udder con- tain bacteria; the remainder of the milk may ccme frcm the udder free of germs; but it soon becomes contaminated by mixing with the first milk, by dust, dirt, hair and other parti- cles from the cow's udder and skin ; from the hands and clothes of the milker ; from the air ; from the unclean milk vessels ; and from the impure water used in washing the milk vessels ^nd used in fraudulently adulterating the milk. When the * Fanington and Woll's Testing Milk, p. 195. t Farriugton and Woll's Testing Milk, pp. 99-105. 3 242 udder is diseased, as in tuberculosis, infectious mastitis, etc., the milk as it comes from the udder may contain tubercle bacilli or the other infectious germs. Milk being a good food for bacteria, a great majority begin to grow and multiply as soon as they get into the milk. This is especially the case if the temperature of the milk is not reduced below 45 degrees F. in a short time after the milk is drawn from the udder. Very few germs can grow at such a low temperature, and^ those that can grow under such a con- dition will do so very slowly ; many times the milk may be used before these low temperature germs can seriously injure it. Determining the number of bacteria in a cubic centimeter of milk is called a quantitative bacteriological analysis. Determining the different kinds of bacteria and their peculiar characteristics is called a qualitative bacteriological analy- sis. Many times these analyses are very difficult, tedious, and expensive. The most important conclusion to be drawn from the number of bacteria in a given quantity of milk is that, as a rule, the greater the number of bacteria the greater the filth in the milk and in the handling of the milk. Gro- tenfelt found that samples of milk drawn "in a pasture on a fresh, somewhat damp summer morning showed the following average results as regards their bacterial content:" Immediately after drawing from the udder, 10 bacteria per c.c. of milk; one half hour after milking, 88 bacteria per c.c; two hours after milking, 1,530 bacteria per c.c. These num- bers are very small, and show that the milk was as nearly free of bacteria as it is practicable to obtain it. The milkirg was done in a clean, dewy pasture, surrounded by woods, where the air was still. These were clean conditions. Gro- tenfelt further says that a sample of milk drawn in a filthy and dark cow stable showed, in three fourths of an hour after milking, "not less than 670,000 bacteria per c.c." "The bac- terial content of three samples of milk taken on thiee consec- utive days from this stable did not vary much— the analyses showing the following average figures per c.c : '5 30,000 ; 560,- 000, and 780,000." 243 Sedgwick and Batcheldor found in milk from the Boston milk supply an average of 2,335,500 bacteria per c.c. in 57 samples of milk. Sixteen samples of milk collected from groceries in Boston contained 4,577,000 per c.c, and those samples obtamed from "well-to-do families on the Back Bay " contained an average of 1,438,000. Sedgwick found that sewage of Lawrence, Mass., contained from 100,000 to 4,000,000 bacteria per c.c. Bitter places the maximum limit for milk fit for human food at 50,000 bacteria per c.c, and Buffalo puts the limit at 10,000 per c.c. The above examples of quantitative bacteriological analysis show that the greater the tilth surrounding the milking, the more the milk is handled or changed from vessel to vessel and exposed to germ-laden air, and the older the milk, the greater the number of the bacteria in the milk. In order to obtain pure milk, cleanliness must begin with the barns, cows, vessels and milkers before the milk is drawn, and be continued during the milking and throughout all the processes of handling the milk. Furthermore, the milk must be kept at or below 45 degrees F. Cleanliness is the great means of preventing bacterial contamination. Continuous vigi- lance along the line of cleanliness is the price of pure, clean, wholesome milk. The question of the kind of bacteria is very important in most instances, and somewhat indifferent in other cases. As long as the number of ordinary bacteria in milk is low they do not seriously injure the milk, unless the bacteria are dis- ease-producing, or they injure the products (butter, cheese) to be mide from the milk;. There are germs, such as Conn's "Bacillus No. 41," that are valuable because they act in such a manner as to produce a pleasant flavor and aroma in the butter made from the milk. Likewise there are useful bacteria which produce an agreeable flavor and chemical change in cheese. But, as a rule, all bacteria that grow and multiply extensively in milk or cream which is to be used without change as human food, injure more or less its nutritive value. There is possibly one exception to this general statement, but 244 this exception has not been firmly established ; some germs are said to assist in the process of digestiiig the milk in the alimen- tary canal. This supposition, however, is in want of positive proof. Experiment station men say that sour milk, which contains less nutrient material than sweet milk, will generally produce better results when fed to pigs than similar milk in a sweet condition. WoU says that this may be due to the stimu- lation of the appetite by the lactic acid in the sour milk, or in its aiding digestion by increasing the acidity of the stomach juices. Sour Milk.— The class or group of bacteria that act on milk sugar and produce lactic acid are very numerous and aie nearly always present in the milk. They multiply so rapidly that the milk soon becomes very sour. As a rule these lac- tic acid-producing bacteria grow more rapidly than any other germs, especially until the quantity of acid reaches 8 per cent.; then the lactic acid germs cease to grow. The germ that is said to be the most common lactic reagent is Hueppe's Bacillus iickli lactici. This germ will not grow in milk when the lac- tic acid reaches the limit of .8 per cent.; yet all the milk sugar is not changed into lactic acid. Several kinds of acid produc- ing bacteria may be growing at the same time in the milk ; but, as a rule, one kind soon gains the ascendancy. In the process of "ripening cream" one or more of the lac- tic acid-producing bacteria are used. Sometimes most of the accidental germs are destroyed by heating the cream or milk to about 158 degrees F.; after cooling it to below 100 degrees iF., the cream or milk is inoculated with a specific germ that will produce the ripening or souring, and at the same time .give a pleasant taste and aroma to the butter. As a rule, if the milk and cream are kept clean the ripening will take place as the result of the few germs that accidentally infect them ; and the butter will have a pleasant taste and aroma. The lactic acid-producing bacteria form the greatest num- ber of accidental germs in milk ; they are non-spore forming bacteria and consequently can be killed by heating the milk to 158 degrees F. for 20 or 30 minutes. Alkaline-Producing Germs. — There are several bacteria 245 that will cause milk to exhibit an alkaline reaction. At times these germs are very injurious, yet they may not seriously interfere with the milk unless it stands for some time. How- ever, they frequently prevent the ripening of cream and thus seriously interfere in the proccbs of making butter. When they predoininate in the dairy the best way to eradicate them is by thoroughly cleaning and disinfecting the barns, buck- ets, cans, churns, etc. At the same time it may be best to inoculate the fresh milk or cream, or pasteurized milk or cream, with a favorable germ by using a pure culture, or by using ripe cream or buttermilk from another dairy where they are making good butter. Butyric Acid Fermentation may be a result of the action of one of several groups of bacteria upon the glyceride of butyric acid. This action sets free the butyric acid and produces the well known rancid or bitter taste of old butter. Butyric fermentation may occur in milk and give it a bitter taste. This bitter taste may be distinguished from the bitter that is produced by the cow eating bitter weed {^Ilelomivi teimitolium, etc.,) by the fact that the bitter from the bitter weed is present in the milk immediately after it is drf^.wn, and the bitter taste produced by bacteria appears some time after milking, or may appear some time after the milk has been boiled or cooked. According to Freudenreich certain forms of casein and milk-sugar fermentations may result in producing a bitter product. Some claim that the bitter product is produced by spore-forming bacteria that act chielly upon the casein or albumen. Bitter-producing germs must be fought by cleanliness and disinfection. Bitter milk from bitter weeds must be fought by removing the weeds from the pasture or feed; by aerating the milk or by boiling the milk in an open vessel. The last mentioned method is doubtful. Ropy, Stringy or Slimy Milk may be produced by a number of different species of bacteria. It may be a result of a series of fermentations, a kind of decomposition. Some investigators have isolated from ropy milk micrococci or spherical celled bacteria, while others have isolated bacilli or 246 rod like bacteria. In fact, nearly twenty species of bacteria have been found that will produce ropy milk. In some cases the ropiness appears to be due to " the swollen outer cell membrane of the bacteria themselves; in others it is due to different substances formed from the proteids in the milk, and, occasionally, the milk sugar." (Russell.) Ropy milk bacteria can be eradicated from the dairy by cleanliness, disinfection, and possibly by sterilizing. In Hol- land slimy or ropy fermentation of milk is desired in the manufacture of Edam cheese. The Norwegians make a pop- ular drink by producing a slimy change in milk ; the milk is infected by introducing the leaves of the common butterwort. Chroniogenic or Color-Producing germs are sometimes found in milk. Red Milk maybe due to the presence of blood from an injured or diseased udder. In such cases the milk will appear red at the time of milking. Milk may appear red when one or more of pigment-producing germs grow in it. The most common germ that produces this red tinged milk is called the bacillus prodigiosus. This germ is reported to be rarely, if ever, found in America. However, in October, 1897, the writer isolated it from a rotten cotton boll. Another red milk germ is the bacillus lactis erythrogenes (Hueppe). Sar- cina rosea is also said to produce a red color in milk. These red milk germs not only develop a red pigment in milk, but also produce coagulation of the casein. The bacillvs jjrodigi- osus may form trimethylrain, which gives milk a herring like smell and taste. Cleanliness and disinfection are the means of getting rid of the red milk germs. Blue Milk may be a result of the growth of certain geims in milk. This must not be confounded with what is com- monly known as blue milk, which is blue-tinted, poor milk, or milk that appears blue after the cream has been removed. The blue pigment, developed by the baciUus cyanogenns, will appear, in from one to three days after infection or inoculation, as isolated, bluish colored patches on the surface of the milk ; after a time the entire surface of the milk may become coated with a blue film. The action of this germ on the milk is unknown. Butter made from infected cream will not 247 keep well. This germ is easily killed by heat and disinfect- ants, but it will survive a long period of drying. Yellow Milk may appear as the result of the action of sev- eral species of germs. Some of these precipitate and then dissolve the casein. Some produce a bright lemon color in milk, while others give the milk an orange tint. Violet and green tints may be produced by certain pigment-producing germs. These germs are rarely found in milk. When they occar, myre attention to cleanliness will eliminate them from the dairy. The Yeasts usually produce in milk an alcoholic fermenta- tion ; they change the milk sugar into alcohol, water and carbonic acid gas. Skimmed milk may be inoculated with yeast and a very nutritive drink, called kephir or koumiss, will be pioduced. Kephir is usually made from cows' milk, while koumiss is made from mares' milk. Yeast fungi are the predominating organisms in these alcoholic fermentations of milk ; but there may be some bacteria and molds in the mixture. Koumiss is said to be more easily digested than milk and is sometimes given to invalids instead of milk. Casein Ferments are all spore-forming bacteria, and con- sequently are very difficult to destroy. The tyrotherix group of bacteria, first studied by Duclaux, and the potato bacillus {bacillus mesentericus vulgatus) and the bacillus sxibtilis are some of the germs that produce casein fermentation. Some germs may break up or decompose the casein and produce unpleasant smelling gases, carbonic acid gas, ammonia and water; such germs usually decompose the casein without precipitating it. Other germs may precipitate and then dissolve the casein. Still other casein ferments simply coag- ulate the casein ; some of these coagulate the casein very like the rennet ferment. In fact Conn has prepared a germ in the form of a dry powder, which acts like rennet on milk casein. Casein ferments may act after the lactic fermentation is completed; and, "in all probability, they are intimately con- cerned in the curing of cheese in which the casein is broken down into soluble compounds." (Russell.) 248 DlSEASE-PltODUCINci BaCTEKIA. The most important disease-producing germ that is found in milk is the bacillus tuberculosis. This germ may gain admission to the milk from a tuberculous udder ; it may occasionally get into the milk with the dust that has been infected by the expectoration of tuberculous persons ^nd tuberculous cattle. Tubercle bacilli do not grow or multiply to any appreciable degree in commercial milk, because the growing temperature limits* are between 80 and 104 degrees F., and, when under the most favorable growing conditions, they grow very slowly. In the mixed milk from a herd or in the milk from a single cow the number of tubercle bacilli are so few that it is very difficult to find them' by microscopic examination. Generally not more than one cow in a heid will have tuberculosis of the udder or of the lymphatic glands near the udder ; consequently, in the mixed milk of a herd, the tubercle bacilli are so few that it is almost impossible to detect them. In some cases the germs in milk may be thrown to the bottom of a small vessel and then examined. The fol- lowing method,t described by Hammond, a student of the McGill Veterinary College, is one of the most practicable: " Taking milk to which (preferably in order to arrest the growth of other bacteria which are apt to hide the tubercle bacilli) 5 per cent, of glacial carbolic acid has been added, put 15 c.c. of the milk into each of the two tubes, then centrifu- galize it for 25 minutes (preferably in the hand centrifugal machine manufactured by Bausch and Lorab, Rochester, N. Y.); the supernating fluid is poured off; the precipitated debris, bacteria, etc., which contains the bacilli, is then treated with about 3 c.c. of a 5 per cent, caustic potash solu- tion, is mixed up thoroughly by giving a good shake and is left for two or three minutes. The tube is then filled up to the 15 c.c. mark with distilled water and centrifugalized for * The variety of tubercle bacilli in fish may grow at a much lower temperature, and the variety of tubercle bacilli in birds may grow at a higher temperature. t American Veterinary Review, Aug., 1898, p. 322. 249 about twenty minutes. If now the supernating fluid be taken off the minute quantity of debris at the base of the tube can be examined right away; or, if the material is required in a purer condition, completely free from caustic potash, a series of dilutions and centrifugalizations with distilled water can be carried on." With a drop of the sediment from the bottom of a tube make a smear on a clean cover glass ; stain with Gray's or Ziel's carbol-fuchsin, warm and allow stain to remain five to ten minutes; decolorize for a few seconds in a 10 to 20 per cent, acid solution (hydrochloric, nitric or sulphuric acid); wash in distilled water, dry and mount in balsam. Examine with a one-twelfth or a one-sixteenth-inch oil-immersion objective. The tubercle bacilli will have a distinct red color, while all other germs will be decolorized. A few drops of the sediment from the bottom of a centrifu- gdlized milk may be injected into the abdomen, under the skin or into a vein, of a rabbit or guinea pig. In from ten to twenty days the guinea pig will have developed sufficient tuberculous changes to permit one to make an accurate microscopic test for tubercle bacilli. The question as to whether a tuberculous cow without apparent tuberculosis of the udder will throw off tubercle bacilli in the milk is not fully determined; but it is very probable that such cows will not give infectious milk. Some authorities have conveyed tuberculosis to pigs by feeding them milk from tuberculous cows : the udder may have been involved in all of these cases. No doubt many infants, chil- dren and some grown persons contract tuberculosis by drink- ing infected milk. If the dairy cows have not been tested with tuberculin for tuberculosis it is always the safest to pasteurize or sterilize the cream, butter and milk that come& from such a dairy. Some have thought that the separator would remove all the germs from the milk and cream, but the fact is that germs remain in the cream and the milk after the process of separation. Consequently dairy herds that supply milk, cream or butter to the public should be tested with tuberculin, and all animals that react should be removed from 250 the herd. Cream and butter from a tuberculous cow are almost as infectious as the milk. The most practicable and positive method of determining the presence or absence of tuberculosis in a herd is the tuber- culin test. Every cow should be tested at least once a year; and in herds where tuberculosis has been found every cow should be tested twice a year. Remember that a physical examination of the cow or a microscopic test of the milk are not as far-reaching or accurate in picking out of the herd every animal that is tuberculous as the tuberculin test. How- ever, these aids to a diagnosis may supplement, or may be u&ed in connection with, the tuberculin test. It may be well to state here that tubercle bacilli, from man, cattle, birds and fish, are the game or identical, but slightly modified by the variations in the condition of the different hosts. Yet, under favorable conditions, tubercle bacilli from cattle can be transmitted to man, and the bacilli from man may be transmitted to cattle. Tubercle bacilli from birds and fish cannot readily be transmitted to man or other ani- mals, but such infection may occur because the germ is only slightly modified in fish and birds. T^'phoid bacilli have been found in milk. Hart reports fifty epidemics of typhoid fever with 3,500 cases, and Dr. Freeman, of New York, collected records of fifty- three epi- demics with 3,226 cases ; in all of these epidemics the typhoid bacilli were distributed by milk infected with that geim. When typhoid cases appear along a certain milk-wagon route, or when many of the patrons of a certain milk depot contract typhoid fever, the health officers at once search for the source of the infection at the dairy from whence the milk comes. The milk is most frequently infected with typhoid bacilli by using infected water to wash the milk cans, bottles, separ- ators, hands, etc. The water in a well or river may become infected by surface drainage. This is very frequently the case when a dairy hand or some one near the dairy has typhoid fever. It is usually a result of careless handling of stools ard urine from a typhoid patient. According to a recent investi- gator,* the urine from a typhoid patient will contain typhoid * Central Bl'ttfur Bac, Band XXIII, No. 14, p. 517. 251 bacilli for one to two months, during the fever and con- valescing period and for some time afterwards. Typhoid bacilli will grow and multiply very readily in milk when the temperature is between 80 and 100 degrees F. According to Framkel and others,* typhoid bacilli may live, and in some instances grow, in butter-milk having an acid reaction. According to Russell, t milk may become infected with typhoid germs in the following ways : " 1. Infection by the milker who has been near a person sick with the fever, and whose clothes have become infected. " 2. Infection of the milk by allowing it to stand in a room that was next to that occupied by a typhoid patient. "3. Direct infection of milk vessels by infected water used for cleansing purposes." Diphtheria is another disease that is sometimes transmit- ted by means of infected milk. Ernest Hart, of England, collected statistics of seven epidemics of diphtheria, with 500 cases ; and Dr. Freeman, of New York, obtained records of eleven epidemics, with 501 cases : all of these eighteen epi- demics were transmitted by means of infected milk. Klein claims that he found diphtheria bacilli in the milk of two inoculated cows. Abbott failed to find the germ in a similar experiment. The actual infection of cows with diphtheria bacilli may not be fully determined, but the clinical records of diphtheria epidemics show conclusively that milk can be the carrier of the germ. Sternberg says: "Milk is a favora- ble medium for the growth of this bacillus, and, as it grows at a comparatively low temperature (58 degrees F.), it is evident that this fluid may become a medium for conveying the bacillus from an infected source to the throats of pre- viously healthy children." t Abbott says that the bacillus of diptheria is destroyed by 'heating, for ten minutes, at 58 degrees C. or 136.4 degrees F. Hence pasteurizing or sterilizmg will readily destroy them. But the best plan is for the inspector to see that there is no * Central Bl'tt. fur Bac, Band XXIII, No. 17, p. 752. t Russell's Dairy Bacteriology, p. 97. J Manual of Bacteriology, p. 362. 252 contamination at the dairy or in the handling of the milk by persons that have been near diphtheria patients, or by keep- ing the milk in or near rooms or houses where diphtheria exists. Scarlet Fever may be transmitted by means of infected milk. The real cause of this disease has not been discovered, yet several epidemics of scarlet fever have been traced to infected milk. Hart records fifteen epidemics of scarlet fever,, with 800 cases, and Dr. Freeman gives twenty-six epidemics^ with 1,593 cases : all of these forty-one epidemics were traced to infected milk. It has been reported that cattle and horses have scarlet fever, but this has been disputed by good author- ities. No person or substances coming from a house where scarlet fever exists should be permitted at or near a dairy; at least such persons should never be allowed to work in a dairy.. Neither should milk be placed in or near an infected bouse. Asiatic Cholera has been transmitted in India by means of infected milk. Milk may become infected by the use of infected water or by infected clothes of a dairy servant. The comma bacillus can live and grow in milk until the milk becomes distinctly acid. This germ is killed by heating for ten minutes at 52 degrees C. or 125.6 degrees F. During cholera epidemics the milk supply should be carefully guarded, since it may be the means of spreading the disease. Epidemics of acute poisoning, throat troubles and footaod- mouth disease have been reported as having been tiansmitted by infected milk. It is also possible that cow-pox, yellow fever and malarial fever may be transmitted by means of infected milk. The most common and constant germ found in the manure of cattle and other animals is the hacillns coli cortimiinisy which closely resembles the typhoid bacillus. It, no doubt, causes serious intestinal troubles (indigestion, diarrhea, etc.,) among infants and children; consequently it is imperative that every effort be made to prevent manurial infection of milk. Milk may be put in condition to be kept sweet and whole- some by various processes. The use of difUgs or chemical 253 :agents is, in any form, an adulteration; therefore they cannot be legally used. Physical agents, that do not change or decrease the nutritive value of the milk, may be used. But the best way to keep milk sweet and fresh is to prevent infection or contamination of the milk by strict and forced cleanliness. Clean, raw milk is now considered the purest, the most easily digested, aud the bestot ail kinds of milk. But if the dairy is not run on strict lines of cleanliness and all diseased cows are not removed from the herd, the dairy- man, the milk dealer, or the consumer may be compelled to use some physical agent to destroy the germs and thus preserve the milk, and many times prevent disease. Germ- laden milk should be pasteurized or sterilized. Pasteurization of milk consists in heating the milk to 158- 167 degrees F. for 20 to 30 minutes ; then it should be cooled as rapidly as possible ; placed upon ice and kept there until used. Physicians are inclined to object to pasteurized milk, because the useful ('?), digestive-aiding bacteria and the albu- men ferments are destroyed. Pasteurization will not destroy the spores of the injurious germs, but it will nearly always kill the adult bacteria in the milk, and if the process is repeated on three consecutive days it will destroy all of the bacteria in the milk. Technically speaking. Sterilization means the complete destruction of all the germs in milk. This may be accom- plished by heating the milk to 212 degrees for 15 minutes at or about the same time on three consecutive days ; or by heating the milk, under pressure, to 260 to 300 degrees F. Ordinarily, sterilization means heating the milk to 212 degrees F. for 20 to 30 minutes. It will impart a burnt or cooked taste to the milk, coagulate the albumen, cause the globules of fat to unite, convert the soluble into insoluble lime salts, destroy the useful (?) germs, and change the color of the milk. Some of these changes seroiusly interfeie with the nutri- tive value and digestibility of the milk. Ordinary steriliza- tion will not always kill the spores of the injurious bacteria, yet it will kill all of the adult germs. Sterilized and pasteur- ized milk may become sour in 48 hours if it is not kept on ice. 254 For an extended discussion of tbe methods of sterilization- and pasteurization see Bulletin No. 44 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, and Bulletin No. 53 of the Alabama Experiment Station. How to Disinfect a Barn or Dairy House.— The ceiling and the walls should be as smooth as possible, so that little or no dust will be caught by them ; they should also be made of material that will stand washing. It goes without saying that the floors should be made to stand frequent flooding and scouring. In disinfecting the first requisite is thorough cleansing of ceiling and walls with water, soap and brush. If possible use hot instead of cold water. The floors should then b3 scrupulously cleansed. The walls and ceiling may next be covered with a whitewash that contains one fluid ounce of formalin or carbolic acid to every gallon of whitewash ; or formalin may be added to water in the proportion of one fluid ounce to one gallon of water, and sprinkled over the ceiling, the walls and floors at night. The building should then be kept closed until next morning, when it may be thoroughly ventilated. A 2 to 4 per cent, solution of creolin may be used instead of the formalin solution. A strong formaldehyde gas generator may be kept going in the cleaned and closed build- ing during the night. If the dairy buildings are kept scru- pulously clean it will not be necessary to disinfect them more frequently than once a year. Modified Milk.— This term usually means the changing of cow's milk so that its composition will be very near the same as mother's or woman's milk. According to chemical analy- ses cow's milk contains about three times as much casein as woman's milk, and the latter contains 6.2 per cent, of milk sugar, while the former contains only 4.9 per cent. Hence, if cow's milk is fed to an infant, the milk should be so modified that its composition will closely approximate that of mother's milk. In some of the large cities the Walker-Gordon Labor- atory Company prepare and sell modified milk ; but a rela- tively accurate modified milk may be made at home under the direction of the family physician or the qualified graduate nurse. This subject is very plainly treated in " The Care and 255 Feeding of Children," by Dr. Holt. This little book costs only 50 cents, and every mother should read it and practice what it teaches. The law given below is the one in force in the city of Montgomery, Ala. The minimum limit for milk fat or butter fat should be 3.5 instead of 3 per cent. Furthermore the pro- vision that permits persons who own one or two cows to sell milk without paying city license or without having their cows inspected for tuberculosis is very poor sanitary med- icine. These cows, above all others, are most liable to have tuberculosis, because they are so closely confined, fed family slops, and are more frequently in close contact with tubercu- lous persons. Every cow which produces commercial milk should be frequently inspected and tested, once or twice a year, for tuberculosis. AN ORDINANCE To Regulatk the Salk of Milk in tiik City ok Mont(;o.mkry. Be it ordained by the City Council of Montgomery^ as follows: Section 1. That all milk dealers, firms or corporations and dairymen, who sell or supply milk in any way to or for the people of Montgomery shall be required to take out an annual license from the City Clerk at the rate of five dollars for ten cows and under, and ten dollars for any number exceeding ten cows; provided, that this shall not apply to persons who have not exceeding two cows for family use, selling their sur- plus milk to immediate neighbors. Sec. 2. Be it further ordained^ That no person, firm or cor- poration shall sell, exchange or deliver, or transport, or have have in his or her or their possession for the purpose of sale any milk which contains more than eighty-seven and fifty one-hundredths (87.50) per centum of water, or less than 3 per cent, of butter fat, and the specific gravity of which at sixty (60) degrees Fah. shall be between one and twenty- nine one-thousandths (1.029) and one and thirty-three one- thousandths (1.033); and all milk of a lower grade or quality 256 than specificed by this section shall be taken and condemned as adulterated and impure, and the vendor thereof fined as provided for in section VII. Sec. 3. Be it fitrther ordained, That all skimmed or separ- ated milk that is to be sold or held for sale in any way by any person, firm or corporation, shall contain not less than nine ^9) per centum of milk solids, exclusive of butter fat. Vio- lations of this section shall be punished as provided for in section VII. Sec. 4. Be it further ordained, That all additions to milk •of water, ice, chalk, borax, salicylate of soda, or any coloring matter, or any substance which changes the taste, the specific ^gravity, the color, or the normal chemical constituents of the milk, shall render it impure, unfit for sale, and the possessor thereof liable to a fine. Sec. 5. Be it further ordained. That all dairy cows, which produce milk for the Montgomery market shall be free from all diseases that would in any way aftect the milk, especially •of all infectious diseases that are communicable to man or produce an elevation of systemic temperature, such as tuber- culosis, anthrax, Texas fever, pneumonia, parturient apoplexy (milk fever), malignant catarrh, etc., etc. No cow shall be used in a dairy which supplies milk to the people of Mont- gomery, unless she has been tested by the inspector with tuberculin for tuberculosis. All dairy cows thus tested shall be marked in the ear with a tag bearing a serial number, and " Montgomery, Ala.," and such cows may be re-tested as often as the inspector may deem it necessary. Sec. 6. Be it further ordained, That dairy cows producing milk for the Montgomery market shall not be fed distillery waste, usually called "swill," or upon any substance in a state of putrifaction or rottenness, or upon any other substance that is unwholesome, or that will in any way affect the healthfulness of the milk. Furthermore, the cows of the dairy shall be allowed free -movement in the open air at least six (6) hours every day. The barns, sheds and stalls in which said cows are fed and milked shall be properly ventilated, lighted, drained and 257 cleaned, all of which shall be subject to inspection by the inspector. Sec. 7, Be it further ordained. That any violation of the foregoing sections shall be punished by a fine of not less than one ($1.00) dollar or more than one hundred ($100.00) dollars for each and every offense. Adopted September 28, 1896. Approved September 30, 1896. The references consulted in the preparation of this bulletin were : Manual of Bacteriology, by Sternberg. Principles of Bacteriology, by Abbott. Dairy Bacteriology, by Grotenfelt and Woll. Dairy Bacteriology, by Russell. Testing Milk and Its Products, by Farrington and Woll. New York City Board of Health Report, 1896. Chicago Board of Health Reports, 1895-1896. Milk, Its Nature and Composition, by Aikman. Milk Legislation, by George Abbott. Care and Feeding of Children, by Dr. Holt. Milk as a Food', by U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 74. Souring of Milk, by U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 29. Facts About Milk, by U. S. Dep't of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin No. 42. Directions for Using the Babcock Milk Test, Bulletin No. 33, Pennsylvania Experiment Station. Modification of the Babcock Method, Bulletin No. 31, Maine Experiment Station. The Babcock Method, Bulletin No. 117, Connecticut Exper- iment Station, Milk Sampling, Bulletin No. 31, Delaware Experiment Station. Experiments in Ripening Cream, Bulletin No. 16, Con- necticut Experiment Station. Food Preservatives, Bulletin No. 118, Cornell University Experiment Station. — 4 '258 Ropiness in Milk, Bulletin No. 140, Michigan Experiment Station. Cleanliness in Handling Milk, Bulletin No. 21, North Dakota Experiment Station. The Relation of Water Supply to Animal Diseases, Bulle- tin No. 70, Purdue University Experiment Station. Pasteurization of Milk and Cream for Direct Consump- tion, Bulletin No. 44, Wisconsin Experiment Station. Zeitschrift fur Fleisch und Milchhygiene, by Ostertag. Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde und Infee- tionkrankheiten. owiai\;;l ^c/V. Bulletin No. 98. November, 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AUBURN. ORCHARD NOTES. F. S. EARLE. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope 'Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Mell Director and Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Gary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. Duggar Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. 2l^=" The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. CONTENTS. PACE Apples 263 Drawbacks to Apple Culture 260 "Whole Root" vs. "Piece Root" Apple Trees , 267 Northern vs. Southern Grown Apple Nursery Stock 268 Japanese vs. French Pear Stocks for the South 269 The Stringfellow Method of Short Root Pruning 269 The Blooming Season of Plums 271 Spraying with Whitewash to Retard Blooming 274 Japanese Persimmons 275 Orchard Notes* Apples. Notwithstanding the vast planting of fruit trees through- out the South during recent years, very little attention has been given to the apple. It is an unfortunate fact that Ala- bama does not begin to grow apples enough to supply the home market, and that those brought in from the North are usually poor in quality and are sold at so high a price as to prevent their coming into general use as food. It is not unus- ual for apples and oranges to sell at the same price per dozen in our markets. There seems to be no good reason why we should not have a much more abundant home supply of this most useful fruit. In the laudable effort to achieve our agricul- tural independence by growing all possible food supplies at home, apples are worthy of attention as well as corn or pork. It is true that Middle and South Alabama are below the apple belt proper, and it is perhaps not likely that apple growing will ever reach large commercial proportions in these parts of the State, but with a little care a good home supply can be grown. Some portions of North Alabama seem to be partic- ularly well adapted to apples, and the planting of commer- cial orchards is earnestly recommended in those localities. No horticultural investment is safer or more certain to yield reasonable and regular profits than a suitably located orchard of properly selected market apples. It is just at this point that the prospective planter will meet his greatest difficulty, for it is still an open question what varieties are best adapted to, the different parts of the State. One great cause for failure in apple planting at the South has been the selection of varieties not suited to our con 264 ditions. Many of the familiar Northern market varieties will fail entirely if planted here. Some varieties, it is true, are suited to a wide range of conditions, and will succeed both North and South, but if we are to build up an important Southern apple industry we must mostly rely on apples of Southern origin. As an aid in the study of this important question of varie- ties there has been planted at this Station during the last two years an orchard of between eighty and ninety kinds selected from those that seemed to give most promise of being useful for this section. It will, of course, be a number of years before results of value can be expected from this planting. It is also intended to procure scions of all the promising native seedlings and local varieties that can be found in dif- ferent parts of the State. By bringing them all togetner on the Station grounds it is hoped that ultimately some may be selected that will prove more valuable under our conditions than the standard kinds now usually planted. The co-opera- tion in this work of all persons in the State who are inter- ested in fruits, is earnestly desired, and the Station will feel under special obligations to any one who will send scions of fine native apples, or who will put us in communication with parties who can furnish such scions. Scions may be cut at any time during the winter while the trees are dormant, and can be sent by mail done up with a little moss or damp grass to keep them fresh. An apple orchard of some forty-five varieties, two trees of a kind, was planted on the Station grounds in March, 1885. The location selected was rather an unfortunate one, being on a poor gravelly knoll. Apples thrive best on a moist and rather stiff soil. Frequent changes in^the management have not led to the carrying out of any continuous system of orchard cul- ture, and a small orchard always seems to suffer more in pro- portion than a large one from the depredations of insects, birds and boys. For these reasons, although the orchard has borne some fruit for several years past, it is not yet possible to express any final opinion as to the value of the different kinds. There is, however, one result that may be recorded ' 265 now, and that is as to the comparative vigor and hardiness of the trees. Many kinds of apple trees are feeble and short lived here, and in planting an orchard it is, of course, vitally important to select only such kinds as are likely to make vig- orous, long lived trees. Of the forty-five kinds originally planted in this orchard, fourteen are now dead, seven are still alive but seem feeble and out of condition, while the follow- ing twenty-four kinds have proven healthy and fairly vigo- rous under the rather severe conditions of this test: American Golden Russet, Ben Davis, Cannon Pearmain, Carter's Blue, Early Red Margaret, Elgin Pippin, Golden Pippin, Habershaip, Hames, Hews' Virginia, Hiley's Eureka, Horn, Kittageskee, Limbertwig, Rawls' Jennet, Red Astrachan,^ Romanite, Shannon Pippm, Shockley, Terry's Winter, Thornton's Seedling, Winesap, Yellow English, Topp's Favorite. Of these the largest trees are Red Astrachan and Romanite. It must not be understood that this list is recomended for general planting. It is only intended to record the fact that these trees have remained sound and healty under rather try- ing conditions. Much more is required than the mere fact of a healthy tree to make a profitable market apple. As a provisional list covering a range of season from early summer to late winter the following may be suggested : Early Harvest, Red June, Red Astrachan, Horse, Carter's Blue, Ben Davis, Limbertwig, Winesap, York Imperial, Yates. Shockley. 266 Drawbacks to Apple Culture in Alabama. The two most serious enemies to profitable apple growing' so far encountered are the various summer rots that attack the green fruit on the tree, and the green louse or aphis. The first of these can doubtless be held in check in some measure by thorough spraying with Bordeaux Mixture, but they are notoriously hard diseases to fully control. A caneful selection of varieties will do much to do away with this trouble, as some kinds are much more resistant than others. The green aphis is very abundant here, and is a veritable pest, especially on young trees. Persistent attempts have been made during the past three summers to control this in- sect by spraying with the mechanical mixture of kerosene and water. With the Deming pump, set to throw only ten per cent, of kerosene, great damage is done to the new leaves and young shoots, and though many of the lice are killed enough are always protected by the curled up leaves to quickly restock the trees. It has not been found possible to rid the trees of them by this means. This is in striking contrast to the result with the somewhat similar plum aphis. The plum foliage is not at all injured by applications as strong even as twenty per cent, kerosene; and at this strength a single spraying will entirely clean up the worst infested tree. Other remedies will be tried during the coming season. The apple scab, so troublesome in most parts of the North and East, is seldom seen here. The ccdlin moth, which causes worms in the fruit, and the borers in the trunks, aie both troublesome, but perhaps no more so than in most apple growing regions. Twig blight, which is the same as the fire blight in the pear, often does considerable harm by killing the blossoms and fruit spurs. Apple wood is not as suscepti- ble to this disease as pear wood, and it seldom progresses far enough to threaten the life of the tree. It seems probable that blight rarely passes the winter in apple wocd, but that it is brought to the trees afresh every spring from blighting pear trees. 267 "Whole Root" vs. "Piece Root" Apple Teees. la April, 1897, the Station received from the Department of Agriculture at Washington, Division of Pomology, twenty va- rieties of Hungarian apples. There were three trees of each kind. One had been grafted on a whole root, one on the upper half of a root, and one on the lower half of a root. The trees were all rather undersized yearlings. They were care- fully inspected as planted, but no constant difference could be noted in favor of either method of grafting. If anything, the half root trees had developed a better root system than the whole root trees, but the tops averaged about alike. Notwithstanding the lateness of the season most of the trees lived, but they made very little growth during the first year. The past summer they have mostly made a very good growth. The following measurements, the heights in feet and tenths, the caliper near the ground in inches and tenths, were made on October 31, 1898: Whoi-e Root Top Half Root Bottom Half Root Caliper Height Caliper Heigbt Caliper Height Oszi-Vai .7* .7 .4* .9 1.1 1.1 .8 .3* .5* 1.1 1.1 1.0 .5 .7 .9 1.2 1.3 4.0 5.3 3.5 4.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 4.0 7.0 5.7 3.5 2.7 3.0 4.7 6.5 8.0 1.0 ■"i'.o .8 .9 1.0 6.5 '"5. 5 3.7 4.7 4.5 .7 1.0 1.0 .9 1.2 5 3 Sabadka 5.9 Yakor 5 0 Sekula 5.5 Kecskemet 6.3 Buda Summer Pasman Masfvur 1.1 1.0 1.3 ""i'.o .6 .6 6.7 7.0 7.5 "'3.5 3.0 4.0 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.0 1.0 .7 .5* .9 1.2 5.7 Eper 7.0 Metell 7.5 Hyari Piros 5.5 Ponyik 3.5 Cillagos Saxon Priest.. 3.7 3.0 Selvmes 4.3 Summer Wafer Noble Savar 1.1 1.1 .9 6.0 7.0 3.5 6.7 Dam .7 3.0 Metalybi .8 1.1 4.0 4.0 Battyani Average, leaving out those accidentally injured 1.1 5.0 1. 4.0 .953 1 4.829 .966 5 5.206 .98 4 5.246 Number of trees dead * Tree accidentally injured in cultivation. 268 After throwing out those where the growth has been re- tarded by some accidental injury the average of the measure- ments shows a slight advantage both in caliper and height in favor of the trees made on the lower half of the root. The whole root trees average slightly smaller than either of the others. These differences are too slight to be very convincing, but they seem to indicate that the extravagant claims of the advocates of "whole root" trees are not well founded. Northern vs. Southern Grown Apple Nursery Stock. Of the apple trees planted at the Station during January, 1898, part were grown in Missouri, part in Alabama, and part in Georgia. All were first-class in every particular and while planting them the evenly good quality of the stock from the different sources was particularly noted. On March 11 it was observed that the Missouri grown trees were beginning to leaf out freely, while those from Ala- bama and Georgia were still entirely dormant. Trees from the Department of Agriculture at Washington, planted the spring before, and those in the old orchard, were also dormant. The young trees all finally started a little before the old ones, but those from Missouri averaged at least ten days earlier than the others. They not only leafed out but started into rapid growth much the earliest, and held the advantage all through the first part of the] growing season. Finally the Southern trees caught up with them, and there was little, if any, difference between the lots at the end of the season. These trees will be watched with interest another spring to see if they still feel the effect of ^their former Northern en- vironment; but it is altogether probable that they will have become so acclimated as to start no earlier than the others. 269 Japanese vs. French Pear Stocks for the South. Twenty Bartlett pear trees were planted in February, 1896, on poor, gravelly soil. All were from the same nursery and have received the same treatment. Ten of the trees were on Japanese seedling roots, and ten on the usual French seed- lings. From the first the trees on Japanese roots have been the most vigorous, and now they average fully twice the size of those on French roots. The Stringfellow Method of Short Root Pruning. The method of pruning away practically all the roots of a young tree before planting it, leaving only short stubs half an inch long or less, seems to be finding an increasing num- ber of advocates. This new method runs so exactly counter to the established practice and teaching of generations of orchardists and nurserymen that conservative people find it diflQcult to believe the favorable reports of it that they see in print. Hiving been taught all our lives the necessity for keeping the root system of the young tree as nearly intact as ' possible when moving it from the nursery to the orchard, it gives one a shock to be told that it would be better to cut it away entirely. Tne advocates of this system claim that with trees so treated the new roots, springing direct from the crown and from the short stubs, assume a more natural position and strike down more deeply into the soil than when trees are planted in the usual way; and that consequently the tree is more vigorous and longer lived. Second, they point to the undoubted fact that the new plan is much the cheaper. Less care would be required in digging the trees in the nur- sery; a good share of the top and roots could be cut away 270 before shipping, thus saving in boxing and freights; and finally the expensive digging of large holes could be dis- pensed with, and in properly prepared soil the tree, whittled to a neat stub, could be simply shoved into the ground, or planted in a dibble hole like a cutting. This system of planting originated on the gulf coast of Texas, and has been most extensively practiced there. Bein^ familiar with gulf coast soils and knowing their soft, moist character and great drouth resisting capacity, and their espe- cial adaptability to the growth of all kinds of cuttings, my own opinion was that most of the successes reported with short root pruning were due to the character of the soil, and that it would be likely to fail disastrously on hard and clayey or drouthy land. In planting some pears and peaches during Febiuary, 1896, it was determined to try the experiment. In two rows each of pears and peaches, running twenty-four trees to the row, half the trees were root pruned, leaving stubs less than half an inch long. The others were planted in the usual way;, alternating three of the root pruned and three not root pruned trees. The peaches were Lady Ingold, Hale's Early, Alexan- der, Elberta, Tillotson, Early Crawford, Mountain Rose, and Stump. The pears were Bartlett on French roots, Bartlett on Japanese roots, and Keiffer on Japanese roots. All were well grown one year olds. The soil was a hard, gravelly hill- side, with stiff clay sub-soil, and so poor and drouthy that it only made five bushels of corn to the acre the previous season. No more trying condition could be conceived for the test, and it was with many misgivings that the carefully whittled stubs,, looking like inverted walking canes, were planted in such uncongenial surroundings. All, of course, were fertilized and cultivated alike. To add to the severity of the test a drouth set in early in April, with unseasonable heat, lasting till the first week in June. On April 15 it was noted that;;the root pruned trees were starting much more feebly and slowly than the others,. but by April 27 they had fully caught up, and from that day to this the closest inspection has failed to detect any differ- 271 ence between them. One peach tree from the pruned and one from the unpruned lots have died. The pears are a per- fect stand. Certainly so far no increased vigor has been ob- served in the root pruned trees ; but on the other hand no disadvantage can be detected, and the conditions could hardly have been more severe. What the final difference will be, if any, on the health and longevity of the trees, of course, remains to be seen. The Blooming Season or Plums. The flowers of many varieties of plums are now known to be infertile to their own pollen. In order to produce full cicps it is necessary that the flowers receive pollen from some other variety. To insure this cross pollenation it is necessary to mingle different varieties in the orchard and not plant large blocks of any one kind. Since different varieties of plums have slightly different blooming seasons it becomes necessary to carefully note the blooming habit of each variety, in order to so mate the kinds that those standing near each other in the orchard shall bloom at the same season. At the South the difference in the blooming season of dif- ferent kinds is much greater than at the North. The proper mating of varieties is consequently even more important here than there; nor can we be guided by Northern experience, since the sequence of blooming is often quite different here.* The following notes on the blooming of plums on the Station grounds are published as a contribution to this im- portant subject. In 1896 the blooming season was rather late. On March 2 some varieties were almost in bloom, but none were quite open. March 9 : Abundance — buds separated, not opening. Babcock — just opening. * For a fall discussion of this subject, with tables giving the bloom- ing season of the different varieties at the North, see Bulletin 53 of the Vermont Experiment Station, by F. A Waugh. 272 Bailey's Japan— buds white, not open. Berckmans — just opening. Blood Plum — full bloom. Burbank — nearly full bloom. Chabot — just opening. Excelsior — nearly full bloom. Golden Beauty — almost dormant. Kelsey — full bloom. Kerr — buds not open. Mariana — just opening. Ogon — dormant. Prunus Pissardi — nearly full bloom. Red June — buds hardly separated. Satsuma — full bloom. Wild Goose — just opening. Crawford Peach — just opening. In 1897 the blooming season was nearly two weeks earlier. No notes were taken, but the sequence was nearly as in 1896. 1898. February 14 — Blood plum No. 8 (of Berckmans)^ full bloom. February 26 — Wild Chickasaw plums beginning to bloom. March 11 — Wild Chickasaw plums past full bloom. 273 s a ^? c o u ^ > > = Ji :S ° '" txi a o c L. a; ~ S , C O ■a -2 EC = 00 03 WW - S3 ^^ a a be B tX) be bO «^ * C3 -J S B-_==r5 - .;^ ■" >i ^ ^^ C '^^ X — .^ ."* "" ,•* ^ ,X " ^" ^ .^"^ '*' ••-.■"o^cS •-•::— ^— =.5 .= .s = -r_ ., _- >>>,« « — -s ""C^C ^C"" air-a aZi; X"3 i^ ic- « •- a)_2t.3saiu:ic3a3!rt-^ — — Scs-— -t-oia^ 4^ X a ~ ^__ o ® o 5 f- a c« a-H a) S§f a - .5 a ~ *^ ^ a a a s c - o - ■3 a-c a >.= >>§ = — r--^ K-r cj—, ■«•::; ."2 .£2 : — a a a u : a a a a cS 3 5 S ■ o |2a = o o o a ^ _ • <«>^" = -^ .i! 2 82 2 >^ "^ ™ TZ i S^^ ii-l^lf >-i-S|^-| a' a 0 1) b^^5 bii__ : M it CO -X 5 a •^ a = ?; a) c — — -w fc- c ^ a u^u.*^^'/^a*-* <* aio:s._cso.rsa • ^ *J ^ *i ^ c 'S 0) > tX) a o o a o « a.tfo .._ c« P « S 2m^S 2.S_S rs o— I' 3) O o 3 5=^ o=fS=a •- .2 =5 : .a '.a 5 fe ci t- - a a> ; a O) w *J t a a o c tJ) a^— i.4J-3^*^a)'30«fc, ^=~ S 5 a 2 3~ 2 2^ « i cf. OS I. 4J a f- a' c ^ < c a ^3 ■■^ a <« 5 ) ^ ' r 0) ,^ ■liTS-a r/l tfj 0 0 c a 1— I SC5S c 2^ i 274 March 21. Peaches now in fullest bloom. Late blooming kinds like Alexander beginning to open. These kinds may be roughly classified as to time of bloom- ing in the neighborhood of Auburn about as follows, each group comprising those blooming near enough together in ordinary seasons to affect cross pollenation : Earliest Bloomer — Blood plum No. 3. Very Early Bloomers — Blood plum No. 4, Kelsey, Sat- suraa, Wild Chickasaw, Wickson, Excelsior, Emerson, Prunus Pissardi, Lone Star. Both these groups bloom before peaches and are liable to be killed by spring freezes. Early Bloomers — Burbank, Mariana, Berckmans, Chabot> Botan, Bailey's Japan, Yellow Japan, Hattankio, and Eabcock. These bloom about with the early blooming peaches. Medium Bloomers — Yellow Fleshed Botan, Munson, Bab- cock, Orient, Berger, Gold, Red June, Normand, Abundance, Rockford, Transparent, Wild Goose, Wooten, Botan, Kerr. These bloom with the later peaches and aie comparatively safe from frost. Late Bloomers — Maru, Long Fruited, Red Nagate, Golden Beauty, Newton, President Wilder, Wayland, Chas. Downirg, Weaver, Milton, Whittaker. Very Late Bloomers — Ogon, Willaid, Hammer, Wyant, Yosobe, and Hawkeye. A number of the names given in the above lists are usually considered synonyms. They are given just as the tiees were sent out by four prominent nurseries. No attempt is made at this time to untangle the nomenclature. Spraying with Whiteavash to Retard Blooming. The success reported by the Missouri Experiment Station (Bull. 38) in retarding the blooming of peaches in the spring by keeping the trees whitened by spraying with whittwath, suggested the trial of a like experiment heie. On February 2, 1898, every other tree in one row each of peaches, plums and pears was sprayed with whitewash. A rain followed within a few days that washed off part of the 275 whitewash, so about a week later the same trees were sprayed a^ain. This second spraying left them quite thoroughly whitened. The trees at this time were still entirely dormant. On March 11, these trees were carefully examined, but it was impossible then or_at any later time to detect any difference between the sprayed and the unsprayed trees. It is true that the whitewash had been partly washed off by rains subsequent to the second spraying, but the sprayed trees were still conspicuously whitened and could be distin- guished at a considerable distance. This experiment is not considered conclusive, but the result is recoided for what it may be worth. Japaistese Persimmons. This comparatively new fruit seems to be gradually win- ning its way to popular favor. Its many good qualities sug- gest that it should be much more widely planted both for home use and for market. It grows readily in all parts of Alabama and is a very abundant and constant bearer. It starts into growth quite early in the spring so that the wood is occasionally injured by late freezes, but the flowers, coming as they do on the new wood of this season's growth, are never killed by cold. Trees begin bearing very young, often the first year after planting. They are of dwarfish habit, and may be planted as close as ten or twelve feet apart each way. They should receive liberal fertilizing and good cultivation to enable them to carry their heavy annual crops. Considerable confusion exists as to the names of varieties of Japanese persimmons. The trees on the Station grounds were mostly procured from G. L. Tabor, of Glen St. Mary Fla., and his names are used in the following notes. Some of the trees have borne three consecutive crops, the oldest were planted in 1895. Tabor's No. 28. Fruited in 1897 and 1898. Productive, early, fruit small to medium, irregularly flattened to nearly globular, point flat or sunken, dark orange red, flesh dotted 276 and streaked with black or entirely yellow in seedless speci- mens, sweet, fine flavor, without astringency even when still hard, cracks and rots in wet weather. Tree resembles Zingi; a strong grower. - Tane Nashe. Fruited in 1897 and 1898. Tree feeble, slow grower, not very productive, fruit one of the finest, large, sub-conic, pointed, yellowish red, sometimes blotched with black, fiesh yellow, usually seedless; astringent till fully ripe, then sweet, melting, good. Medium season. So far it decid- edly lacks in vigor and productiveness here. YeddoIchi. Fruited in 1896, 1897 and 1898. Very pro- ductive, fruit medium, flattened to depressed globular, smooth, yellowish red with white bloom, flesh yellow, seedless, astrin- gent till nearly soft, then sweet, good. Season medium to late. Much like Tane Nashe in tree and fruit, scarcely so large but much more productive and reliable; cne of the best we have tested; leaves fall rather early. Tabor classes this with the dark fleshed kinds, but with us it has been uniformly yellow and seedless. Okame. Fruited in 1896, 1897 and 1898. Very productive, fruit large, flattened and somewhat angled, deep orange red with some bloom, flesh yellow, mostly seedless, astringent till soft, late ; tree stronger grower and leaves smaller and hanging longer than in Yeddo Ichi and Tane Nashe. The best market variety we have fruited. Costata. Fruited in 1896, 1897 and 1898. Fairly pro- ductive, fruit large, sub-conic, pointed, somewhat angled, dark orange with bloom, flesh yellow, seedless, astringent till soft. Tree a good grower. A good market variety, but scarcely equal to Okame or Yeddo Ichi. Tabor's No. 129. Fruited in 1898 only. Very productive, Fruit small, somewhat acorn shaped, pointed, dark yellowish red with glandular sub-pellucid dots, some bloom; flesh dark brown, seedy, very crisp, juicy and high flavored, not at all astringent, can be eaten while quite hard, one of the best in quality, early, tree a good grower. Hyakume. Fruited in 1898. Fairly productive, fruits large, subovoid, flesh somewhat blackened. A showy kind. 277 Yemon. Fruited in 1896, 1897 and 1898. Productive, fruits large, smooth, slightly flattened, light yellow, flesh yellow or dark, slightly astringent till soft, early, leaves fall early. A valuable kind. ZiNGi. Fruited in 1897 and 1S98. Productive, fruit small, nearly globular, dark red, flesh dark, nearly black, slightly astringent till nearly soft, crisp, good quality, early, tree a strong grower with foliage hanging late. The dark fleshed early kinds like Zingi and Tabor's No. 23 and No. 129 are badly wasted by the attacks of various fruit eating insects, and they seem somewhat inclined to crack and rot in wet weather. It is doubtful if they will prove as profit- able for market as the later yellow fleshed kinds. They have, however, a rather more sprightly flavor and will be relished by people who find the others a little too cloying. Our present experience would indicate Okame, Yeddo Ichi, Costata and Yemon as the best market kinds, and valued about in the order named. Bulletin No. 99. December, 1898. ALABAMA ^'^^O^/^, Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Agricultural and Mechanical College, AUBURN. COTTON RUST. F. S. EARLE. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. Culver Union Springs. J. G, Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Mell Director and Botanist. B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Cary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g^= The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. Cotton Rust. SUMMARY. Cotton Rust is primarily a physiological disease. It is induced when any sudden check to active growth so lowers the vitality of the plant as to permit the attack of Macros- 2)orium nigricantiwn^ Alternari s;;. Cercospora gossypina or other fungi that are facultative parasites and that spot and destroy the leaves. It has also been called Black Rust, Yellow Leaf Blight, and Mosaic Disease. It occurs throughout the older cotton states. It is worse on old worn sandy lands, but it may occur on any land when the humus is exhausted, also sometimes on wet poorly drained lands, and occasionally on any character of soil under unfavorable weather conditions. It may usually be entirely prevented by ameliorating the soil conditions, giving better drainage, incorporating more vegetable matter in the soil, and by supplying abundant plant food in complete fertilizers, especially those rich in potash. The cheapest and most available method of soil improve- ment is by green manuring with cow peas and other legu- minous crops, supplemented by mineral fertilizers and the feeding of much more live stock. On some soils potash salts act as an almost complete pre- ventive of cotton rust. Sulphate of potash, muriate of potash and kainit seem to be equally effective in proportion to the per cent, of potash contained. At present prices, the muriate is the cheapest form in which to apply potash. 282 In Central Alabama, especially in the more sandy soils, the disease commonly known as Rust often causes serious in- jury to the cotton crop. This disease causes the spotting and finally the premature falling of the leaves, thus bringing the growing season to an end in August or early September instead of in November. As a result the number of bolls that mature is greatly reduced, and the fibre in those that do open is often light and inferior. The name Rust is evidently a misnomer for this disease, sinc3 it has nothing in common with the true rusts like those that attack small grain. It is, however, thoroughly established in popular usage, and that, after all, should be the guide in selecting popular names for plant diseases. It is true that other diseases are sometimes confused with this one under the name of Cotton Rust ; but nineteen out of twenty cotton growers have this disease in mind when they use this name. This disease has been fully discussed by Dr. Atkinson in Bulletins 27, 36 and 41 of this Station, and later in the com- prehensive work on the Cotton Plant, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture as Bulletin 33 of the Office of Experiment Stations. In these publications it has been variously called " Rust," " Black Rust," "Yellow Leaf Blight," and " Mosaic Disease." The simple term Rust is retained here as being the one in general popular use. The officers of this Station have continued the study of this disease and it seems opportune to record our more recent experience with it in view of the heavy losses occasioned by it during the past two years, and especially to call attention to it in connection with the present serious crisis that confronts our cotton industry. The following quotation is from Dr. Atkinson's article on Cotton Diseases in Bulletin 33, pages 279-283, of the Office of Experiment Stations, referred to above. It is reproduced here as expressing his latest published views of this disease, and because the earlier bulletins of this Station are now largely out of print. Mosaic Disease, or Yellow Leaf Blight. " The later stages of this disease probably form the larger part of the troubles which are termed " black rust." The name 283 mosaic disease, or yellow leaf blight, is quite characteristic of the early stages of the trouble as it is here delined, and ren- ders it possible to differentiate it readily from the other troubles, which are often spoken of as " black rust," but which are in reality quite different in their nature. The term "yellow leaf blight" was first used by the author in 1892* '• M3saic disease" was added to this term or used synonym- ously, a few months later.f The latter seems the more ap- propriate, but since the former was first used in differentiating this peculiar disease from the others, it seems well at least to continue its use in the literature of the subject for the present. During very rapid progress of the disease also the mosaic character of the leaf is not so apparent as during the normal development. " In 1891 a preliminary investigation of the so-called black rust was made. I The study was confined entirely to the or- ganisms present on the leaf and other parts of the plant, and it was not possible at that time to do more than to record the presence of certain fungus organisms, to observe their botan- ical characters, and to note the fact that their presence at least hastened the destruction of the plant. " The following year investigations taken up at the begin- ning of the season confirmed the view that the organisms hastened the destruction of the plant, and at the same time demonstrated the fact that the organisms did not initiate the disease but only aggravated it. " The results of the trials of Bordeaux mixture, eau celeste, and copper sulphate indicated that this disease could not be prevented by the application of fungicides, and cotfiimed the conclusion, drawn from observations of a different character, that it was due to physiological causes. " Experiments conducted under the direction of the author in several localities in Alabama during two seasons showed a considerable reduction of the disease on plats where kainit was the fertilizer used. " At Auburn an experiment was conducted on three plats. Plat No. 1, on which cow peas had been grown, received before plowing a heavy dressing of kainit and acid phosphate. No nitrogenous fertilizer was applied. Plat No. 2 received nitrate of soda in addition to other fertilizers, but no kainit. Plat No. 3 received a complete fertilizer. In July there was a per- ceptible yellowing of the plants in plat 1, while plats 2 and 3 ♦Alabama College Sta. Bui. 36. t Alabama College Sta. Bui. 41. t Alabama College Sta. Bui, 27; Bot. Gaz , 16 (1891; No. 3, pp. 61-65. 284 bore a rich green foliage. The yellow color of the plants in plat i was evenly distributed over the leaf, there being no in- dication of the mosaic arrangement so characteristic of the disease. In September the plants were matured, and only a few showed any sign of the disease. The yellow color of the plants was due to the acid phosphate and kainit ripening the plants prematurely (acid phosphate being known to produce this effect), along with a suffused yellowing of the plants. " Early in August the plants in plats 2 and 3 were badly a ected, the leaves showing the checkered appearance of the disease, and were an easy prey for such fungi as 3Iacrosj)or- ium nigncantium and Cercospora f/ossypina, resulting in their curling up, drying and falling off". "In a field of cotton of 3 or 4 acres near the scene of the above experiment the plants in May and June were very prom- ising, but in August the disease had appeared to such an extent that the yield fell off at least one-half of what would have ordinarily been expected. The fertilizer used in this case was stable manure, cotton seed and acid phosphate. "■ These experiments seem to show what has for some time been held by a number of intelligent planters who have ex- psrimeflted with kainit as a fertilizer. It has been quite fre- quently noted that with quite large applications of kainit ttiere was no appreciable increase in the yield of cotton. This occurs in those seasons when the rains are quite fre- quent, not long continued, and keep the soil moist and the plant in normal growth. On the other hand, during dry sea- sons as well as seasons of drought followed by long-continued rains, kainit has a perceptible, sometimes a remarkable in- fluence in increasing the yield. This, with the well-known effect of such salts in changing the physical condition of the soil, leads to the belief that the increased yield and the comparative freedom from disease result from the action of the kainit in binding more firmly together the soil particles, so that it is more retentive of moisture or more able to draw it up from below.* Salt and wood ashes are known to pro- duce much the same results in the soil.f Rolling the land is frequently resorted to in order to produce the same effect. Iq the cultivation of cotton the more progressive planters are careful to prepare the land well before planting, and then to cultivate only the surface soil afterwards, in some cases scraping the surface of the soil with a " sweep" to a depth of only a few inches. This leaves the underlying soil undis- *A.labama CollP^e Sta. Bui. 36. tSee article on climatology and soils, p. 160. 285 tnrbed, and there is no break in the continuity of the surface tilni on the soil particles below the few inches which ha\e been stirred. The few inches of soil which have been stiritd thus act as a mulch. " (Jharacters of the disease. — In the normal and usual pro- gress of the disease there first appears a peculiar yellowing of the leaf, which gives it a checkered or mosaic appearance. The yellow color appears in small areas, and bears a definite relation to the venation of the leaf, being bounded by veinlets which subtend areas more or less rectangular in outline. The green color is found along the larger and intermediate veins. The portions of the mesonhyll lying along the veins, being near the channels for the distribution of the nutriment, re- ceive a better supply of moisture and assimilative material than the areas farther away, and those along the smaller and terminal ramification of the vascular channels at a time when the supply is being cut short because of unfavorable condi- tions of the soil. They are thus enabled to hold the green color and continue the activities of the leaf for a longer pe- riod, while the angular areas most remote from the sources of supply are the first to feel the loss, and the deficient nutrition is manifested by the yellow color of the parts. "During the first stages of the disease this color mny be- come very pronounced, but later it may be marred by the ap- pearance of discolored spots produced by the growth of fungus organisms in the tissues, weakened by the failing nutrition of the plant. Soon, however, there appear minute brownish spots in the yellowish areas, which increase in size centrifu- gally, assuming a circular outline and marked by concentric rings. The concentric rings are probably due to the periodic growth of the fungus threads within the tissues, the period- icity being produced by variations in the temperature. The first fungus, which in most cases appears following the mo- saic condition of the leaf, is Macrosporium nigricantivm Atk. As the leaf thus becomes in a badly diseased condition, the Macrosporium is likely to be soon followed by an Alternaria.* The black hypha? and spores of these two fungi soon give a black appearance to nearly the entire leaf, from which the disease takes the name of "black rust." These are not, how- ever, the only fungi which are found as accompaniments of the later stages of the disease. Colletotrichum gossypii South- *This may be Alternaria tenuis Nees, which Gasparrini found with other molds as an accompaniment of the disease of cotton in Italy known as Pelagra. (See Gasparrini, Observationi sopra una malattia del cotone, etc. Inst. D'Incoraggiamento. Napoli, 1865.) 286 worth is sometimes found, and Cercospora gossypina Cooke, as well as its perfect stage, Sphmrella gossypina Atkinson is a very common accompaniment of the trouble. The accompan- iment of the Cercospora stage of Sphoerella gossypina fre- quently produces a separate type of the disease, especially when this fungus is more abundant than either the Macros- porium or Alternaria. This usually occurs when the disease progresses quite rapidly through the earlier stages, so that the yellow color is soon diffused somewhat evenly over the entire leaf or a large part of it." During the summer of 1896 the rust appeared to a limited extent in the cotton plots grown on the Station farm. The exp3riments in progress included fertilizer tests (see Bulletin 76, p.p. 20-23), in some of which considerable quantities of kainit were used, but under the prevailing soil and weather conditions it seemed to have no appreciable effect in controll- ing the disease, the rusted areas crossing the kainit plots ir- regularly. This unexpected result served to call attention to the fact that neither the supply of potash in the soil nor the effect of the kainit on its mechanical condition were the only factors to be considered in studying the rust problem. The season of 1897 proved to be a very bad one for cot- ton rust. In the poorer sandy fields south of Auburn the stalks were nearly all bare of leaves by the first of Septem- ber. In riding about the country it was everywhere noticed that on the old fence rows that had been cleared up and put in cultivation since the passage of a stock law a few years ago, the cotton was still green ; and it remained green and vigorous throughout the season in striking contrast to the bare rusted stalks in the remainder of the fields. Here then seemed to be a key to the trouble. These old sandy fields had been cultivated in cotton season after season for many years, until their original fertility had been entirely exhausted. The supply of vegetable matter or humus in par- ticular was very scanty. The small amount of commercial fer- tilizer put down with the seed in the spring, usually about 100 pounds per acre, served to give the young plants a start, but by midsummer it was exhausted, leaving the plant with nothing to support it during the trying process of flowering and fruit- 287 ing. The consequent weakening of the vital forces of the plant, the stoppage of growth, and the partial ripening of the leaves left them in a state unable to resist the attacks of the various species of fungi connected with this disease that de- veloped rapidly during a period of warm rains early in August. The fence row land on the other hand had for years been allowed to grow up in weeds and bushes that had shaded it and caught the wash from the cultivated portions. It was black with humus formed from the annual decay of the weeds, leaves and grass. In other words, its fertility had been con- served and built up while that of the cultivated portion had been wasted. As a consequence its chemical and mechanical composition, in other words its tilth, was such as to retain sufficient moisture and furnish appropriate food to keep the cotton plant in a constant condition of vigorous growth and thus to enable it to repel its fungous foes. This observation repeated again and again by the road- sides was more convincing than any single experiment could have been, no matter how carefully planned or elaborate. It seemed to teach the plain lesson that to prevent Cotton Rust it was first necessary to restore the lost fertility of our worn out lands, not only by supplying lacking chemical elements like potash, but above all by supplying the needed vegetable matter for the formation of an abundant supply of humus, so necessary for preserving a uniform water supply. In order to test this view more fully and to bring the matter somewhat widely to the attention of representative farmers, a simple co-operative experiment was planned, and the following circular letter was sent to numerous addresses in this and other of the cotton States : Auburn, Ala., Dec. 29, 1897. " Dear Sir — The loss caused by Cotton Rust in many parts of the State during the past season serves to forcibly call at- tention to the need for further study of this obscure disease. The rust referred to is the one that has been variously called " Black Rust," « Yellow Leaf Blight," and « Mosaic Disease" in the publications of this Station. The exact symptoms vary 288 with the character of the season, but its chief features are, first, a weakening of the vitality of the plant from any cause during mid-summer ; and second, the rapid development on the weakened leaves of one or more species of fungi, causing dead blackened spots and ultimately the premature falling of the leaf. Fortunately the species of fungi connected with this disease do not have the power of attacking cotton foliage that is in a strong, actively growing condition. The lessened vitality that renders the leaves subject to attack may be caused by improper soil conditions, by prolonged drought, by too much rain, or probably by any other cause that tends to suddenly check the growth of the plant. If it were possible to keep cotton actively growing without any set backs throughout the entire season, there would be little or no lia- bility to loss from rust. " Obviously, then, our problem in seeking are medy for this disease is to learn to so treat our cotton fields as to main- tain as nearly as possible this desired condition of continuous, uninterrupted growth. "Owing to the great diversity of our soils and the varying character of the seasons, it is difiicult or impossible to devise any one plan of treatment that would prove successful in all cases. The Experiment Station, therefore, earnestly desires your CO operation in studying this question under the condi- tions existing in your own Jocality. " Experiments conducted by Dr. Atkinson and others show that in some cases applications of kainit have a remarkable effect in preventing rust. My own observations during the past two years seem to show, at least for our thin hill lands, that those soils well supplied with vegetable matter, such as, new ground, old fence rows, and lots near stables have suffered much less than old fields, where the vegetable matter or humus has been exhausted by constant cropping. " Since this question is one of such general interest will you aid us by answering the following questions, and by carrying out the simple experiment suggested below, and reporting its results to me? "1. Have you suffered from the rust either in 1896 or 189/ .'' If so, what per cent, of your crop do you estimate as lost? " 2. What is the character of your soil ? In what kind of locations has the rust been worse with you ? "3. Have you used kainit in your fertilizer? Ifso,inwhat quantity and what effect, if any,"have you observed from it as to rust? "4. Is new or old land most subject to rust in your locality ? 289 " 5. Have you noticed whether plants growing in old fence rows, near barns or in other unusually rich spots, withstand the rust better than those in the open field? Experiment. " Stake out four plots each 1 rod wide and 4 rods long in the field you consider most likely to rust badly. Be sure that the soil in all the plots is of uniform quality, and that it has had similar treatment as to crops and fertilizers for the past two years. Do not place the plots so that the wash from one will run down over another, but give each as nearly as possi- ble the same slope and exposure. On the first plot broadcast evenly a big one-horse wagon load (1000 pounds) of fresh stable manure and plow it in. Plot 2, give the same quantity of stable manure but add 20 pounds of kainit and plow in. Plot 3, give 20 pounds of i^ainit but no stable manure, plow. Plot 4, plow at the same time as the others, but give no application. " The plots should be prepared well in advance of planting, say before the middle cf February, so that the soil may be- come somewhat compacted and the marrure be partially de- composed. Treat these plots exactly like the rest of the field, fertilizing, bedding, planting and cultivating all alike. Make notes from time to time on their comparative growth and ap- pearance, and if the rust appears count the plants on each plot separately, noting the number entirely free from rust, the number slightly afteeted, and the number seriously in- jured. Send me samples of the rusted leaves in order to de- termine certainly the nature of the disease. "Be careful not to confuse this rust with the "Angular Leaf Spot," where the leaves show clear watery spots and blotches ; with the " white mildew," where the leaves look white and frosted on the under side ; with " Frenching," where the stem is brown inside and the whole plant sickly ; nor with the "Boll Rot." "The object of this experiment is two-fold, to test the ef- fect of kainit in preventing the disease under as many widely varying conditions as possible ; and also to test the effect of largely increasing the soil humus and consequently its water holding and drought resisting capacity. The stable manure is suggested as being the quickest and easiest way of doing this on a small scale. Under the present agricultural condi- tions at the South, plowing under cow peas and other reno- vating crops would have to be depended on for doing this on a larger scale. 290 " All communications in regard to plant diseases should be addressed to the undersigned. F. S. Eakle, " Biologist Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala." The sending out of the above circular led to an interest- ing and extended correspondence from which the following letters and portions of letters are published, as showing a rather close agreement among widely scattered observers as to the conditions favoring this disease, and also as indicating to some extent its geographical distribution. From Director R. J. Redding, Experiment, Ga. : " I have had but little experience with so-called cotton rust. I have for many years been an advocate for, and have practiced, high manuring with complete fertilizers, and have had very little rust. 1 favor the theory that rust— so-called — is invited by a deficiency of plant food in the soil, and that it rarely, if ever, appears on soils that have been liberally and judiciously fertilized. We have never had a dozen plants so affected on this Station Farm, and I attribute our exemption to rotation, complete fertilizers, and plenty of them." Those who have had the pleasure of inspecting the splen- did farm of the Georgia Experiment Station, and of noting the almost psrfect state of tilth to which it has been brought, will be in a position to appreciate the more fully the above forcible statements by Director Redding. From Prof. J. S. Newman, Clemson College, S. C: u * * * Yes, I observed the experiments conducted by Prof. Atkinson The effects of potash were very marked, and were corroborative of results which I had previously ob- tained. In one of the early bulletins* of the Alabama Sta- tion you will find a report of the number of rusted stalks on plots upon which no potash was used compared with the num- ber where it was used. "There is no question about the fact that kainit exerts an influence beneficial to plants by its power of conserving moisture, and I think there is .little doubt also of its effect in preventing rust on cotton independently of this power. Its effect in periods of drought have been very marked in effect- ing increased growth." From Director R. L. Bennett, Arkansas Experiment Sta- tion, Fayetteville, Ark.: *Bul. 22, pp. 19-21. 291 "Cotton rust occurs only to a very limited extent in this State, and farmsrs are indifferent to it. There is little worn land in this State, and still less fertilizers are used on cotton." From Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Biologist of the Florida Experi- ment Station, Lake City, Fla.: " I have yet to receive the first specimens of diseased cot- ton in the State of Florida. Of course, this does not mean that this plant is not diseased in this State, but it is not one of those plants that is grown by those people who are most interested in better farming and better cultivation. Still, we hiV3 somi very excsUent people who are growing cotton and making money out of it in this State." [Doubtless sea island cotton is referred to.] From Prof. B. C. Pittuck, Agriculturist of the Texas Ex- periment Station, College Station, Texas : "The position and nature of our experimental work this year render us unable to co-operate with you in this test. "1. Little or none in our section. "2. Prairie; postoak loam underlaid by stiff blue clay subsoil. "3. We have used kainit, but no rust occurred; hence effect has not been noted. "4. Rast when observed, 'with one exception, has always been on old land. " 5. Have never noticed rust on land rich in humus." From Director William C. Stubbs, Audubon Park, New Orleans, La.: " I will instruct the farm managers of our three stations to notice any appearances of rust in cotton, and also to assist you in tracing the cause. We have such a variety of soils upon the three stations that we can very easily, perhaps, as- sist you in tracing this out ; although I beg to say that we are rarely ever troubled with rust on either of our stations, notwithstanding we are cultivating uplands at Calhoun that originally would not make a bale to ten acres. I agree with you, however, that soil exhaustion of humus is the main cause on our uplands. This is demonstrated very largely in a coun- try where fences have been removed, and we frequently find the cotton rusted to the old fence row ; there we find it en- tirely clear of rust. If you will read a bulletin that we have published, you will find that a rotation of oats, cowpeas, cot- ton, corn and cowpeas, with suitable fertilizers for each crop, has proven in North Louisiana to be one of the most certain 292 and rapid methods of building up our poor soils, and at the same time giving an increased profit with each crop." This three-year rotation of oats (or other small grain) followed by peas, cotton, and corn with peas is essentially the one that has been recommended again and again by all the Southern Experiment Stations. There can be no doubt that its general adoption, together with the breeding of enough live stock, horses, mules, cattle, sheep and hogs, to consume on the farm the crops of oats, corn and peas and the cotton seed, would revolutionize Southern agricultural condi- tions, and banish forever many of the evils with whic.] we are now confronted. The great success in growing hairy vetch and crimson clover recently made at this Station by means of soil inoculation (see Bulls. 87 and 96) indicate that these win- ter-growing legumes may be used in connection with the above rotation with even greater beneficial results. From H. Benton, Acting Director of the Canebrake Ex- periment Station, Uniontown, Ala.: " I shall be glad to co-operate with you in proposed ex- periments with cotton rust. "1. My individual crop has suffered from rust but lit- tle either in 1896 or 1897, but on thin lands, not properly rotated, near me ' rust ' frequently causes a loss of from one- fourth to one-third of the crop. " 2. The character of soil subject to rust in this section is what is called here ' White Prairie ' and ' Yellow Shelly Land,' probably worse on the latter. I have never seen any rust on the Station except in a rich black bottom, and that in quite a small place. I am unable to account for it in this par- ticular place, as other places where the land seems the same are never troubled with it [perhaps lack of drainage.] "3. I will give experience for past year on a neighbor's farm. Size of plots 1-16 acre : Yield Seed Cotton. Plot 1 — 16 lbs. common salt plowed in July 21 72^ lbs. Plot 2—8 lbs. sul. potash plowed in July 23 79| Plot 3 — Bordeaux mixture sprayed July 23 71 Plot 4 — Bordeaux mixture and saturated sul. potash sprayed July 23 65^ Plot 5— Nothing 54f 293 " Old land is most affected by rust. , Seldom find it in new or rich land. » Plants growing in fence rows, old barn lots or rich spots seldom b3C3me affected with rust, but when they do the dis- ease seems to be as deadly as on poor soil." From J. W. Eubank, Pine Level, Ala. : « 1. Yes, in both years, 1896 and 1897, about 20 per cent. " 2. Sandy with yellow clay sub-soil. It has been worse on black floury soil that is common in pine lands. " 3. I have not used kamit. " 4. Old worn land every time. " 5. Have noticed it for a series of years, dating back as far as 1849. My long experience and close observation have long since settled the question of cotton rust with me. All forms, colors, and names of rusts in or peculiar to the cotton pUnt are nothiug more or less than poverty. Give the soil all the plant food and moisture required by the cotton plant, with proDsr caltivation, and all forms of rust peculiar to the plant will be unknown." From W. G. Bevill, Bevill, Ala. : " Will say in response to your questions : " 1. I have suft"ered from rust in 1896 and 1897 about 33^ per cent, where kainit was not used. " 2. Sandy land, some with clay subsoil and some with- out. It is worse when there is no clay subsoil. " 3. I used kainit in 1897 on part of my crop, between 75 and 100 pounds per acre. Where I did not use the kainit rust reduced the yield at least 33^ per cent, with the same amount of other fertilizers. 4. "Old land seems to rust worse than new. I had one patch of an acre and a half that I fertilized with about 450 bushels of barnyard manure, composted with about 400 pounds each of acid phosphate and kainit. If it had any rust at all, I did not see it. I gathered from the 14- acres over 1,500 pounds of lint cotton. There are several large trees around one side ot the patch, and about a dozen peach trees on the other. Where it was not injured by the trees it made a the rate of three bales to the acre." Mr. Bevill has evidently discovered the true remedy for ■cotton rust. Unfortunately, in some seasons, such heavy manuring may lead to serious loss from boll rot. From G. R. Banks, Tallassee, Ala.: 294 "1,1 have suffered very little from rust in 1896 or 1897, yet there have been some spots of it each year on my place. « 2. I have every variety of soil. Rust is worse in the gray soils that are the poorest ; however, of a very wet year the black loam lands suifer, sometimes seriously, as well as level red lands. « 3. I have not used kainit. "4. Old lands. "5. They certainly do. Some twelve years since I removed a fence by burning it. It shows plainly now, and I do not remember seeing rust on it. I threshed wheat about twenty years ago, and left the straw in the field. There has been no rust in any of the places. Where fodder has been stacked in the fields the same good results are visible. Where there are large crops of peavines (say 15 to 20 tons per acre when green) left to rot on the ground, I have never seen rust for several years. I, however, attribute this to the mechanical a& well as chemical condition of the soil. I have experienced good results in preventing rust by using a mole-shaped, 15-inch foot subsoil plow following a two-horse turning plow on level red lands." This report is very interesting and instructive, especially in regard to the benefit from the use of the subsoil plow. It illustrates the necessity for studying local conditions, and of adapting remedial measures to them, since on the light soils of the Station Farm (see Bull. 76 and 89) and on the sandy land of Mr. Moore near Auburn (seep. 301) subsoiling has given very little result. From J.M. Ballard, Superintendent of Experiment Farm, Jackson, Ala. : " 1. I have suffered from rust, both in 1896 and 1897, on account of drouth, which lasted throughout the cotton grow- ing season. It is hard to ascertain the proper per cent, of loss by rust, but can say with safety 10 per cent. " 2. My soil is a coarse red soil of a thirsty nature. Rust is most prevalent in the thin sandy portion, those places most destitute of vegetable matter. "3. I have used kainit with success at the rate of 20O pounds per acre. " 4. Old lands which have been in cultivation for a num- ber of years and which have about exhausted all their vege- table matter are most subject to rust in this section. « 5. I have noticed that new ground, fence rows and lot& 295 near stables withstand rust better than old lands void of humus." From J. H. Evans, Therissa, Ga. : "I have been using German kainit on parts of my lands most affected by rust for several years and am well pleased with the results." From S. M. Cathcart, Rehoboth, Ala. : " We have cotton rust more or less every year on our old worn lands. It is worse on sandy swamp or bottom lands. My soil is gray sandy upland with sandy subsoil, and sandy bottom lands with sandy subsoil. I have used kainit some. Think it prevents rust to some extent. Cotton rusts very little on new land, old fence rows and rich spots near barns. I think if we will keep the soil filled with vegetable matter there will be very little rust." From Frank Shackelford, Sr., Colquitt, Ala.: "My experience coincides with yours that cotton seldom rusts that grows on fence rows, ditch banks or other unus- ually rich spots, especially so if made rich by barn yaid manure." From H. H. Hayes, Camden, Ala. : " 1. My cotton was not damaged by rust in 1896, but in 1897 it was injured about one-fourth by black rust. " 2. My land is a gray sand with clay foundation about ten or twelve inches deep. It rusts worse where the sand is coarsest. There was not much difference in 1897, nearly all the gray land rusted. " 3. I have not used kainit. " 4. New land does not rust. Old fence rows do not rust. Rich places do not rust. Old land rusts worse than fresh land. " I think the seasons have more to do with cotton rust than the land. Some years one place will rust and the next year it will not, and some other places will rust that did not that year." From H. L. Bedford, of the Cotton Planters' Journal, Bailey, Tenn. : " 1. Have never been seriously troubled by rust. " 2. My soil is a clay loam. Rust is worse on worn land deficient in drainage. Observed it once on new land full of 296 partially decomposed vegetable matter, such as chips, trash, etc. "3. Yes, frequently, in varying quantities, but took no notice of effect in relation to rust. " 4. Old land. "5. Have never noticed it in places mentioned." From George McDonald, Cuthbert, Ga.: " We suffer very little in this section from cotton rust." From Ernesto Madero y Huosl, Parras, Coahuila, Mexico: " We have not noticed in this vicinity any other than the ordinary diseases of the cotton plant, sach as the root vwrm in the month of April, or the leaf worm from August to Sep- tember when the season is rainy. We have not seen yet the "black rust" about which you inquire, and we do not know its symptoms, but it must be said that our lands are very fer- tile and rich, consequently giving very good crops." From William Strang, Piggott, Ark.: « I have not grown cotton in the last fifteen years. The immediate cause of my quitting it was a failure of my crop through the rust. I had in five acres of rich gum land, nearly fresh, had been cropped two years in corn and was full of humus. Cotton was planted early in May, and had been thinned to a stand and cultivated. About the second week of June we had much rain and continued cloudy, chilly weather. The sudden checking of growth was disastrous, and the field made less than a bale. Similar land in the same locility was similarly affected, but cotton on poorer soils dirt not suffer nearly so much. I have always attributed the rust to the sudden checking of the growth." This may or may not have been the disease under inves- tigation. The sudden checking of growth from any cause is certainly one of the predisposing causes. From G. W. Rhodes, Saville, Ala.: " I have suffered very little from rust the past year, as 1 do not plant lands that will rust. We have a variety of soils in this county, mostly a gray land with subsoil from one to ten feet deep, though we have a red clay or stiff soil and also a fine close gray soil. Our deep sandy soil is more subject to rust than the others, but all will rust when badly worn. The cause of rust in our section is the lack of proper vegetable matter or humus. New ground will not rust until the humus is exhausted. As the land becomes worn rust will appear unless humus is supplied. I have noticed cow lots built on 297 old worn lands where the cows were penned until the land became rich. When the pens were removed and the lands planted in cotton there was no rust on the rich spot, but all around it rusted badly. * * * I have tried kainit with compost and with other manures. While probably there is some good in it, in my judgment it should not be recommended, to eradicate rust. From C. C. L. Dill, Dillberg, Ala.: " 1. I have used kainit and have not suffered from rust during 1896 and 1897. Before I began the use of kainit Host by rust. " 2. Soil sandy loam with clay subsoil. ' o. I use 100 lbs. kainit, 100 lbs. acid phosphate, and 100 lbs. guano per acre in the drill. " 4. In rich land,'hew or old, where the plants are strong and thrifty, I have never been seriously injured by rust. 5. "The very best cotton that we have is in old fence rows, near barns or old cow pens, especially the cow pens." From R. P. Johnson, Smithville, Ga. : " We have had rust in this section the past year a little worse than the previous year, next crop we expect to have still more. I have had the rust problem solved ever since it first made its appearance to any extent in this section. Have not planted any cotton for ten years. I am satisfied that I could plant a crop and not have a rust spot on it. Why ? Be- cause it has had a rest from constant clean culture. It has been run in corn, watermelons, peas, oats, vegetables, and right here lies the whole solution of the lust trouble: diver- sity of crops is the key note to the whole business." From G. H. Turner, Burgess, Miss.: • "1. Yes, some of our cotton suffered badly in 1897. We suppose loss would amount to at least 50 per cent, in some patches, while in others in similar soils and under apparently exactly similar conditions there "was none. "2. A sandy loam. Kust has been worst in lowland, branch bottoms, and on old well worn land that was deficient in humus. The mere fact of its lowness cuts no figure, from the fact that the land on which we made three bales per acre was still lower. " 3. Have never used kainit as a preventive of rust, but have used fertilizers containing kainit. Have never had the slightest trouble whenever and wherever complete fertilizers were used. Last year a piece of ground right through the center of a cotton patch to which 'phosphate alone was applied, 298 rusted to fully as great an extent as that on either side of it, yet the yield was about 100 per cent, better than on that to which no phosphate was applied, " 4. New grounds are, in this section and in our experi- ence, seldom, if ever, troubled with rust, especially if the ground is comparatively high and dry, " 5, Our experience and observation tends to confirm us in the opinion that as long as land is abundantly supplied with humus as in old fence rows, near barns, new ground, etc., in short, wherever the land from the presence of this same hu- mus is loose, open, mellow and porous, such land will never suffer to any great extent from rust. On the contrary, when- ever and wherever this humus is deficient and the land packs and bakes after every rain, the roots being thus deprived of air, the plant begins to suffer, the root first and finally the foliage," From J. A. Peterkin, Fort Motte, S. C, : « I have every foot of my land in oats that is subject to the so-called rust. There are several kinds of land that are subject to this trouble; viz.: a hill slope where the sand has collected near or adjoining a bottom. This will make healthy cotton if the weather is dry from the time the bolls form till it matures, but in wet seasons the soil does not dry out and air cannot enter except through the foliage, which becomes diseased, and then follows the death of the plant ; the deep growing roots are first destroyed. Another class of land that will rust is a black or gray bottom with pipe-clay subsoil. A thin, hard crust forms on the surface, water is retained near the surface by the clay. Any character of rock that forms a pan like the clay causes the same effect, I have a neighbor who has succeeded in making good cotton on bottom land with this pipe-clay subsoil. He has it first thoroughly open drained, then tile drained every twenty feet. He uses stable manure, acid phosphate and kainit. I consider thorough drainage and fertilizers a remedy for the rust." A careful reading of the above letters seems to justify the following conclusions : 1. This disease is largely confined to the older cotton growing States, and it prevails over considerable portions of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi. 2. It is usually worse on old, worn, sandy lands, but it may appear on any kind of soil when the humus is greatly exhausted. Ta all such cases the building up of Lhe general 299 fertility of the soil by plowing in vegetable matter and espe- -cially animal manures will do much to prevent rust. The ap- plication of kainit is often very beneficial. 3. Low wet lands and seepy hillsides are also subject to rust. In these cases better drainage, together with proper fertilizer, will give relief. 4. Sporadic cases of rust may be expected on almost any kind of soil in very unfavorable seasons. The following experiments conducted in 1898 serve to still further corroborate these conclusions, and they also bring out a few other points of interest : Experiments on the Station Farm. Prof. Duggar kindly consented to plant some potash fer- tilizer tests with cotton on land known to be subject to rust. The place selected was on top of a dry, gravelly knoll. On September 4 these plots were carefully examined, and the fol- lowing results noted : Plot 1. Some short point rows and an outside row unfertilized as a check ; leaves practically all off. Plat 2. Four rows fertilized at rate of 50 pounds muriate of potash, 120 lbs cotton seed meal and 240 pounds acid phos- phate; very good condition, an occasional rusted plant, but fully 90 per cent, of foliage green. Plot 3. Four rows ; 1,000 pounds potash feldspar, 120 pounds cotton seed meal and 240 pounds acid phosphate ; leaves practically all off; the feldspar seems to be entirely inert. Plot 4. Four rows ; 120 pounds cotton seed meal, 240 pounds acid phosphate, no potash ; leaves practically all off, perhaps 2 per cent, still green. Plot 5. Four rows ; t^O pounds kainit, 120 pounds cotton seed meal, 240 pounds acid phosphate; about 10 per cent, still green, balance all oft\ Plot 6. Four rows ; 1 00 pounds kainit ; 120 pounds cotton seed meal, 240 pounds acid phosphate ; about 50 per cent, of plants green, balance with leaves cff. Plot 7. 200 pounds kainit, 120 pounds cotton seed meal, 240 pounds acid phosphate ; about 70 per cent, of plants green. Plot 8. Check; about 2 per cent, green. This experiment is interesting in showing the raaiked effect of potash fertilizers in holding the foliage and prevent- 300 ing rust on dry, thin soil, under the weather conditions of 1898. It also shows that applications of less than 100 pounds per acre of kainit did but little good, and that 50 pounds of muriate of potash was more effective than 200 pounds of kainit. It must be admitted that the soil conditions slightly- favored the muriate plot, but later in the season the differ- ence of rust in its favor became much more pronounced than at the time of this observation. This result is important as indicating that the muriate will be at least equally as effective as the kainit used in quantities proportionate to the actual potash content of each, a point that has not been previously determined. It also seems to indicate that it is the actual manurial value of the potash that is effective in preventing rust, rather than the supposed effect of these salts on the water-holding capacity, or surface tension of the soil, since the common salt and other impurities in the kainit would exert almost as much of this influence, pound per pound, as the potash. The other cotton plots on the Station Farm were all on better soil and were but little injured by rust. On those that received muriate of potash and cotton seed meal the foliage was hardly so good as when a complete fertilizer was used. Iq the variety tests the short-limbed, rather dwaifish kinds seemed, as a rule, to suffer more than the rank-growing, longer-limbed varieties. Observation on Ri:sidual Effect of Stable Manure on the Farm of Mr. Flanagan, near Auburn. A field near the road was planted in watermelons in 1897. A large amount of stable manure was applied under the melon row. In 1898 this field was put in cotton, and the rows were so spaced that every third one came on the old melon row. All were fertilized and worked alike. On passing this field on September 5, it was noted that the row over the old melon row was rank and green, with no rust, while the two rows between were much smaller and were almost entirely bare of leaves. 301 Experiments on the Farm of Mr. James Moore Near Auburn. The Experiment Station Farm lies near the dividing line between the red clays of the Piedmont region and the sandy lands of the lower levels to the southward. It is hardly typical of either class of soils. Through the kindness of Mr. James Maore of Auburn, it has been possible to try some cotton rust experiments on the typical sandy soil of Middle Ala- bama at his farm three miles south of Auburn. These experi- ments while on the same general line as the co-operative one suggested in the circular letter p.289 were rather more extended and included differences in the preparation of the soil as well as the different use of fertilizers. Two series of plots were laid out in the fall in different fields and bands across each lot of plots were plowed and seeded to oats to test the effect of a winter cover in preserving the fertility of the soil. The soil was poor and as the oats were planted rather late they had made but little growth before being plowed down in the spring, so that this feature of the experiment w^as without result. Early in spring part of the oat bands and parts of the unseed- ed land were plowed with a turning plow followed in the same furrow by a scooter that loosened or subsoiled the ground to a depth of ten or twelve inches. The remainder of of the land was not broken but was laid off, fertilized and bedded in the way usual in these light sandy soils. During a rather severe spring drouth Mr. Moore thought that these subsoiled strips held moisture better than the unbroken land and that the plants grew off rather better. During the latter part of the season rains were seasonable and this slight advantage was lost. At harvest time there was no appreciable difference and it seemed to have no effect in preventing rust. Moore Experiment No. 1.— The field selected for this set of plots was in corn and cow peas in 1897 and a large crop of pea vines was left to decay on the land. On March 25, 1898, plots 7^ rods long and 1 rod wide were laid off in this field crossing the bands that had been seeded to oats and these that had been subsoiled. Mr. Moore was using on his general crop 302 about 100 pounds per acre of a "potash phosphate" guaran- teed to carry 2 per cent, of potash. This was applied to all the experiment plots in the drill the same as to all the rest of his crop. In addition the following were applied : Plots 1 and 2 — Stable manure, a large one-horse wagon load to each plot, broadcasted and covered by bedding up the rows. Plots 3 and 4 — Each 50 pounds of kainit. Plots 5 and 6 — Check. Plot 7 — 50 pounds acid phosphate. Plot 8 — 50 pounds acid phosphate and 25 pounds nitrate of soda. One end of this plot also received muriate of potash at the rate of 500 pounds per acre. Plot 9 — 25 pounds nitrate of soda. Plot 10 — 8 pounds nitrate of soda. Plot 11— Check. All were planted and cultivated alike throughout the sea- son. Inspection on August 8 showed that, while the crop as a whole had made less growth than was expected from the large growth of peas the previous year, still it was almost en- tirely free from rust, and the foliage had a good healthy color. The stable manure and the nitrate of soda plots had decidedly outgrown the others, and the foliage was still greener and ranker. The heavy applications of kainit and of acid phos- phate seemed to have had no effect whatever. There was noth- ing by which they could have been distirguished from the re- mainder of the field. On a second inspection September 5, the conditions were still much the same. The general crop was ripening and the foliage beginning to change color so that the stable manure and nitrate of soda plots stood out even more distinctly than before. The acid phosphate plot seemed quite mature and a larger proportion of bolls were opened than on the others. The phosphate and nitrate row was per- haps a little better than that which had only the 25 pounds of nitrate, but the difference was slight. The 25 pounds of ni- trate gave a much better growth than the 8 pounds, though that plot was conspicuously better than the checks. The 303 heavy application of Ifainit on plots 3 and 4 still showed no effect whatever. At this date there was a little spotting of the foliage in this field, but not enough anywhere to do ma- terial damage. The pronounced effect of the nitrogenous fertilizers and the lack of effect from the potash and phos- phate in this field was a great surprise, as it was thought that the previous pea crop had furnished nearly nitrogen enough to supply the needs of the cotton crop. The general better tilth of the land on account of the pea crop at least served to ward ott" the rust, as many neighboring fields suffered badly, although the trouble was less serious than in 1897. MooRE Experiment No. 2.— The land for this experiment was selected because it was very old and thin, and had the reputation of being more subject to rust than any other field on the farm. It was in cotton in 1897 and the crop was prac- tically all ruined by ruse. The fertilizers were not put down for this experiment till April 12. As in the other case all re- ceived Mr. Moore's "potash phosphate" at the rate of 100 pounds per acre. Here the rows were about 18 rods long, and the following plots were laid out : Plot 1— Check. Plot 2 — Kainit at rate of 500 pounds per acre. ptot 3 — Kainit at rate of 500 pounds per acre, acid phos- phate at rate of 200 pounds per acre, and nitrate of soda at rate of 100 pounds per acre. Plot 4— Check. Plot 5 — Kainit, 500 pounds per acre. Plot 6— Check. Plot 7 — Muriate of potash, 125 pounds per acre. Owing to a misunderstanding Mr. Moore had used all of, his stable manure so that none was available for this test. On August 8 the check rows were found to be very poor, plants only 12 to 18 inches high, and carrying very few bolls. The foliage was badly spotted and fully 10 per cent, of the plants had entirely lost their leaves. In the kainit plots the plants were about twice as tall as in the check rows. They were slender and not much branched 304 and the leaves, though healthy and not at all spotted, had a peculiar yellowish green cast, indicating lack of nitrogen. The muriate of potash plot was in exactly the same condition. It was impossible to note any difference between them. Both the muriate, kainit and check plots were found to be shedding the bolls of the top crop very badly. Plot 3, with the complete fertilizer, was by far the best of the lot. The plants were tall and well branched, and were very heavily fruited. They were also setting a heavy top crop, with no sign of shedding the bolls. The foliage was green and luxuriant. On September 5 the check rows were almost entirely bare of leaves, and the crop so poor as to be hardly worth picking. The kainit and muriate plots were still perfectly green and healthy. A few of the plants with the complete fertilizer were showing some spotted leaves, but the plot as a whole was in splendid condition, and was opening a crop that was esti- mated by good judges at fully a bale to the acre. This experiment was very interesting as showing the marked effect of the potash fertilizers in preventing rust in this old worn-out, sandy land. It also fully corroborated the result on the Station Farm obtained with the muriate of pot- ash. The same thing was noted again later in the season on the farm of the District Agricultural School at Albertville where, in a fertilizer experiment, muriate and sulphate of potash were used in comparison with kainit. All three seemed to have a similar effect in preserving the foliage. It seems, therefore, safe to say that one pound of muriate of potash will equal four pounds of kainit in preventing rust. At most interior points the muriate will, therefore, be the cheaper of the two to use. The most unexpected result of this experiment was the getting so fine a crop from land of this particular character on the complete fertilizer plot by the use of commercial fertilizers alone. Like some of the sandy lands near the coast, this particular soil seemed to have a good water-holding capacity, and the rains were fairly seasonable. It can hardly be expected that this result could be duplicated in a season so unfavorable as that of 1897. 305 Experiment by Mr. J. P. Alvis, Auburn, Ala. The soil was worn and sandy, much like that at Mr. Moore's, and it was known to be subject to rust. One plot was manured with hog manure in the row, another had kainit at the rate of 100 pounds per acre. The untreated portion of the field rusted badly. The hog manure plot was some better, though it, too, suffered from rust. The kainit plot was almost entirely free from rust, and remained green throughout the season. Mr. Alvis plans to use kainit on his entire crop next season. Experiment by Mr. J. W. Eubank, Pine Level, Ala. Plots fertilized as suggested in circular (p. 289). Soil sandy with yellow clay subsoil (See letter, p. 293). On September 5 Mr. Eubank reports the result of the first picking on Sep- tember 2 and gives the following notes : Treatment. Condition. Yield, First Picking, Sept. 2. Plot 1. Stable manure About 4 per cent, of plants show rust. ... 1,480 lbs. per acre. Plot 2. Stable and kainit manure No rust, leaves green. 480 lbs. per acre. Plot 3. Kainit Plot 4. Check No rust, leaves reddish and yellowish green. All rusted, only 12 plants left with green leaves 3(i0 lbs. per acre. 240 lbs. per acre. He adds that plot 1 was far in advance of the others throughout the season in growth and in maturity of fruit, and that all the plots seemed free from rust until the heavy rains early in August. The final report on this interesting experiment has not yet been received. There can be no question, however, that in the later pickings plot 2 will show to better advantage. The effect of potash in retarding maturity is well known, and it is to this eft^ect that its power in preventing rust is doubt- less due. Maturity could have been hastened by the addition of acid phosphate. 306 Experiment by Mr. J, A. Evans, Therissa, Ga. Mr. Evans used a compost consisting of one part acid phosphate to four parts of stable manure, putting down at the rate of 1,000 lbs per acre in the drill. On this compost^ in the row before bedding, he scattered kainit in quantity ranging from 50 to 100 lbs per acre in certain spots most sub- ject to rust. Owing to a storm that badly injured the cotton as it was opening he did not keep a record of the weights of cotton picked from these plots, but he states that he is satis- fied that when as much as 100 lbs. per acre of kainit was used that the yield was fully doubled, and that when less amounts were used the improvement was less in proportion. Where no kainit was used the cotton stopped growing and died much earlier, and the foliage and stalks were at least onethiid smaller. He considers the kainit not only a successful pre- ventive of rust but a valuable fertilizer for his lands. Mr. Evans induced a neighbor, Mr. James Williams, tO' test the kainit also, Mr. Williams used at the rate of 100 lbs. of kainit per acre on some spots very subject to rust, and Mr. Evans states that it more than doubled the yield. This land was evidently in need of potash as a manure. In connection with the liberal application of compost and acid phosphate it made a complete fertilizer and that is un- doubtedly the need of many of our southern soils. Experiment by Mr. G. H. Turner, Burgess, Miss. Mr. Turner reports as follows under date of November 1: " The experiment spoken of was undertaken and carried through, but owing to peculiarities of the season the results are nil, as we have not had a particle of rust anywhere. Not only is this the case with us, but there has been a remark- able immunity from rust throughout this entire section. I do not know of a single farm infested with it this year, let it be ever so poverty stricken or ever so destitute of humus. There are other things that contribute toward an epidemic of rust besides the lack of either humus or chemical elements. The season has been exceptionally seasonable for uplands and 307 altogether too wet for bottoms ; yet we have the largest crop probably ever made in this section, bottom and top ciop heavy, middle crop scattering." Mr. Turner is undoubtedly right in stating that other things besides humus and chemical elements are connected with epidemics of rust. Favorably seasons may go far to- ward otf-setting the ill effects of poor soils and again on the best of soils unfavorable seasons may produce sporadic out- breaks of the disease. When the sum of all the conditions is such that the cotton plant grows continuously and without interruption from one end of the season to the other there will be no rust. To produce a serious outbreak of the disease we must have, first, conditions that check the growth of the cotton and impair its vitality ; and, second, weather condi- tions that favor the rapid growth of the fungus enemies that are connected with the disease. As the factors that go to con- stitute climatic conditions or « the seasons" are so largely be- yond our control, it is only by ameliorating the condition of the soil that we can hope to cope with the disease, and even then our best efforts may sometimes be foiled by exceptionally unfavorable seasons. Experiment on the Farm of the District Agricultural School at Abbeville, Ala. Undertaken by Prof. S. T. Slaton, the Agriculturist, and Keported on by His Successor, Prof. P. M. McIntyre. Plot No. 1.— Stable manure in the drill. Plot No. 2. — Stable manure broadcast. Plot No. 3.— Kainit. Plot No. 4.— Check. Under date of October 13, Prof. Mclntrye reports that plot 4 was very badly rusted and in fact had no leaves left on it. The other three plots all had plenty of foliage left but all had suffered to some extent. Plot 2, with manure applied broad- cast, seemed to be in the best condition ; plot 1 next and plot 3 next. 308 Experiment by C. C. L. Dill, Dillburg, Ala. First picking reported October 3 : Plot 1. — 1 load stable manure, 4^ lbs. seed cotton. Plot 2. — 1 load stable manure and kainit, 54 lbs. seed cotton. Plot 3. — Nothing, 20 lbs. seed cotton. He says that when there was no kainit there wfis some rast, and the cotton was not so well fruited and did not stay green so long as when the kainit was used, though both the manured plots made fine cotton. Experiment by Director G. W. Carver, of the Experiment Station of the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, Tuskegee, Ala. The details were carried out exactly as suggested in the circular (p. 289). Report under date of October 6, as follows : " Plot 1 — Stable manure. Scarcely any rust, only a few plants showed signs of Macrosporiura and Cercospora. It held its leaves well and fruited heavily. Stalks large and fine. Plot 2 — Stable manure and kainit. Only an occasional leaf affected with rust. Plants unusually fine and well fruited. One plant had a little Bamidaria. - Plot 3 — Kainit. Rusted badly in spots. Plants all pale and rather small. It had both Macrosporium^ Cercospora and Ramularia. Plants not counted, but estimate fully one-third of plot afl'ected. Plot 4 — Nearly every plant rusted and dropped its leaves. Plants very small, bolls inferior ; did not see an average of four bolls to the stalk." In this carefully conducted experiment the soil was evi- dently too poor to respond to the potash alone. It needed the complete fertilizer furnished by the stable manure as well as its beneficial mechanical effects. Taking the view of the matter that seems to be forced on us by the evidence that has been given in such detail in the foregoing pages, and which has come from so many different sources, cotton rust simply becomes another argument, and a very potent one, too, in favor of diversifying our crops, of keeping more live stock, and of adopting some systematic ro- 309 tation that will provide frequent crops of cow peas and other leguminous plants to aid in building up the fertility of our soils. All thoughtful people are agreed that the practice of growing nothing but cotton year after year has been the fruit- ful cause of many of the grave problems that now confront the Southern farmer. This better method that shall be con- serving and adding to the fertility of our soil instead of rap- idly depleting it, is demanded by every consideration of business prudence, and of justice to the generations that are to follow us. When these thin lands of the South shall be de- voted two years out of every three to the growth of forage crops, including peas and other legumes, which, together with the cotton seed, shall be fed to live stock, thus producing an abundant supply of home-made manure, to be supplemented by the purchase of such mineral fertilizers as experience indi- cates as necessary, then will cotton rust largely disappear, together with most of the other agricultural ills that now con- front us, and the " New South " will have indeed become a reality. IM I— V BOTANICAL GARDEN. Bulletin No. ioo. December, 1898. ALABAMA Agricultural Experiment Station OF THE Agricultural and Mechanical College, AUBURN. LAWNS, PASTURES AND HAY. p. H. MELL. BIRMINGHAM ROBERTS & SON. 1898 COMMITTEE OF TRUSTEES ON EXPERIMENT STATION. I. F. CuLVEB Union Springs. J. G. Gilchrist Hope Hull. H. Clay Armstrong Auburn. STATION COUNCIL. Wm. LeRoy Broun President. P. H. Mell Director and Botanist- B. B. Ross Chemist. C. A. Gary, D. V. M Veterinarian. J. F. DuGGAR Agriculturist. F. S. Earle Biologist and Horticulturist. *C. F. Baker Entomologist. J. T. Anderson Associate Chemist. ASSISTANTS. C. L. Hare First Assistant Chemist. R. G. Williams Second Assistant Chemist. T. U. Culver Superintendent of Farm. g:^= The Bulletins of this Station will be sent free to any citizen of the State on application to the Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Alabama. *On leave of absence in South America. LAWNS, PASTURES AND HAY. So many inquiries have reached the Station during the past year from people in Alabama, concerning the methods for grass cultivation, and the grasses best suited for lawns and pastures, the author has deemed it wise to issue this bulletin conveying the information desired. There is a bright outlook for the future when the farmers are seeking for instructions how to make pastures and cure hay. It is an indication that more milk and butter of a superior quality, and finer grades of beef, will soon be placed on the markets of the State by a larger number of farmers. The climate and soil of Alabama are so well adapted to grass cultivation, there is no excuse for any farmer buying hay from other sections of the country. If he will raise his own hay and keep in good condition a first-class pasture, there will be but little chance for introducing into his lands the seeds of injurious weeds, so often to be found in bales of hay shipped from distant sections of the United States. For instance, such an obnoxious plant as the Russian thistle has no doubt been scattered in many portions of the country through the forage purchased by farmers who have failed to produce on their own lands a sufficient amount of hay to supply the necessary food for their cattle. Now that the serious problem is presenting itself to the consideration of the people : What can be done to in- duce the farmers to plant less 5-cent cotton, and to so diversify their crops as to make the farms self-sustaining ? may not one solution be in the raising of cattle, which will result in turning much of the land into grass for pasturage and hay ? This bulletin is, therefore, written with the hope that an impetus will be given in that direction, so that in the 314 raising of fine breeds of cattle all over the State, the farms may be turned into paying institutions. The Lawn. A lawn cannot be successfully developed in one season, but it requires care in the selection of seed or sod and judi- cious labor in the preparation of the land. The first year is required to give the grass a firm hold on the soil, and even much of the second year is at times necessary to permit a uniform covering of the surface, particularly in those in- stances where the grass has been drilled or the sod set out in bunches. The first matter of importance for consideration is the thorough preparation of the land. The character of soil best suited for the cultivation of grass is a sandy loam with a clay subsoil. The land should be well drained to prevent a too wet condition, which v/ill result in sourness. Plow deep in the fall, after broadcasting an ample supply of stable manure or ground bone and cottonseed meal. If the land is not situated in a limestone region, and there is a deficiency of lime, this substance must also be broadcast before plowing. A liberal application of air-slaked lime, or land-plaster, should be made — at least, ten to twenty bushels per acre, where there is a deficiency. No definite rules, however, can be given as to the amount of lime required. The question de- pends entirely upon the character of the soil. In those por- tions of Alabama where marls are common the land for grass cultivation will be greatly improved by broadcasting the marl and ploughing in. In this case the application of lime will not be necessary, since this substance is one of the chief ingredients in the marl. After plowing deep so that the soil will be thoroughly loosened, the harrow must be run over several times until the clods are broken, the earth finely pulverized, and the surface is rendered level. If the land is poor in humus or organic matter, and there is not a sufficient supply of stable manure available, it will be wise to first sow in peas, and turn them under before attempting to grow grass. When 315 the grass has become well established it will be greatly improved by an occasional top-dressing with nitrate of soda and cottonseed meal. On small lawns old plastering from the walls of buildings, when well pulverized, makes an ex- cellent top-dressing, when applied in December or January. The winter rains will soon beat the plaster into the soil around the roots of the plants. Wood ashes are also excel- lent fertilizers. Immediately after the grass seeds are sown, the roller must be run over the lawn, so that the soil will be packed around the small seeds to insure germination. Care must be exercised, however, not to cover deeper than one eighth to one-quarter of an inch; otherwise the vitality will be ex- hausted before the young plants reach the surface of the ground. The roller is the best and most satisfactory way of covering the seeds. During the growing season, and just after the mowing, it will improve the lawn to run the roller over the grass occasionally. Early in the fall the mowing must be discontniued, so that the grass will recuperate for the winter's cold. Selection of Seed and the Time for Sowing. The heat of the summer's sun is so great and long-con- tinued in many sections of the South, most of the grasses so popular in the northern portions of the country are destroyed, and their cultivation, except in shaded yards, becomes almost impossible. The summer months are also so often deficient in rainfall, it is important that provision should be made for the frequent watering of the lawn, if a green, vigorous con- dition is to be preserved. For these reasons it becomes necessary to select those grasses which will best stand the heat of the Southern sun, and will also live through the dry seasons. Among the number of the best lawn grasses suited to Alabama soils and climate may be mentioned the following. Only five species and one variety are given, because, in the opinion of the author, these are sufficient for general de- mands. The list will produce lawns of even texture, uniform sward and permanency : 316 Bermuda Grass ( Cynodon dactylon^ Pers). — This is purely a Southern grass in its habits and adaptability. It is, how- ever, an introduced species, and does not mature its seeds except in the extreme South. It thrives best in the sun, and in a rich soil will grow rapidly, resulting in a beautiful, green sward. The growth is by underground stems, and after once obtaining hold in the land it will require but little care and attention, except the occasional fertilizing to keep the soil in a healthy condition for growth, and the regular sprink- ling when the dryness of the atmosphere demands the appli- cation of water. Bermuda grass is propagated by cutting into short pieces the underground stems and sowing them over the well- prepared soil and harrowing in ; or by breaking up the turfs into small bunches and dropping them into holes made by means of a hoe, and covering them with earth. Where there is a large supply of the grass available, sodding may be resorted to, and this will insure a completed lawn in a much shorter period of time than secured by either one of the other methods. After the grass has been growing for some time, and weeds and other foreign, undesirable plants begin to show themselves, hand weeding must be resorted to. This will be quite laborious at first, but the beautiful and regular lawn resulting will more than repay the time and attention expended in eradicating the weeds. St. Lucik Grass.— This is a variety of the Bermuda, and is very popular in many portions of Florida. A small plot has been cultivated for two years in the botanic garden of the Alabama Experiment Station, and it is proving to be an excellent grass for this latitude. It is not so tenacious in its hold on the soil as is the case with the Bermuda, and it can therefore be more easily eradicated if it is desirable to use the land for other crops. The blades are of a lighter tint of green, but in other respects it closely resembles Bermuda. Carpet Grass {Paspalum compressum, (Sw.) Nees). — A creeping plant which throws up a slender flower branch and delights in a moist soil. As its name indicates, it covers the ground like a green carpet, and is exceptionally uniform in the sward it produces. It is a fine grass for low lands, and will even produce good results in rich uplands where moisture is not so abundant. It is growing successfully in a sandy soil on the grounds of the botanic garden, where other grasses have failed to yield good results. This grass is particularly well adapted to nearly all sections of South Alabama, and 317 will grow with more or less success in most parts of the State. It can now be called one of the wild species of Ala- bama, since it is growing at will in Middle and Southern Alabama. Kentucky Blue Grass {Poa 2yfcite7isis, Linn). — It is a waste of time and money to place this grass in soils which are exposed to hot summer suns, because it can not stand successfully the continued heat. But in yards where there is ample shade produced by oaks, elms and other trees, ex- cepting pines and cedars, it will thrive well and will produce a lawn not to be surpassed in beauty of color and texture by any other grasses. An advantage it has, that is one of special merit, is the green color it retains through most of the winter and the early, vigorous growth it puts on in the early sprmg before any other grasses are showing any life. St. Augustine Grass (Stetiotcqyhrum dimidiatiim, Linn. Brongn). — In Charleston, S.C., and also in portions of Florida this grass is favorably thought of for lawns. It produces a larger blade than the preceding grasses. It readily takes root at the joints of the creeping stems and soon covers the sur- face with an even sward. This grass prefers the climate near the coast and will grow well in sandy soils. No experi- ments have been made with the St. Augustine grass at the Alabama Experiment Station, but the reports made to the author by reliable parties living in Jacksonville, Fla., and Charleston, S. C, satisfactorily estabhshed the plant as a desirable lawn grass for the coast region. It can be propa- gated by sets or cuttings by sowing the seeds in drills from which, after the first season, the sets may be taken and placed in the soil where the lawn is to be made. The best time for sowing the seed of grass or planting the sod is in the late fall or in December. Favorable results, however, may be obtained sometimes by seeding in the early spring, provided the following summer is not too dry. The diflQculty in spring planting consists in the inability of the young and tender plant to withstand the late spring and early summer heat before the roots have had time to penetrate deep into the soil and supply the needed moisture. On the other hand, when the seeding takes place in the fall or early winter the growth obtained by the plants gives them suffi- cient strength to withstand the heat of spring and summer, 318 and the chances of surviving the first year's trials are de- cidedly greater than when the planting is postponed until spring. Pastures and Grasses Suitable foe Making Hat. The preparation of the land for the establishment of a first-class pasture must be accomplished in the same manner as that given for making a lawn. Plow deep and thoroughly, fertilize with stable manure or ground bone, cottonseed meal and nitrate of soda. A good formula is as follows : PER ACRE. Ground bone 300 to 400 lbs. Cottonseed meal . . 100 lbs. Nitrate of soda 50 to 100 lbs. The harrow must be run over the land in order to reduce the soil to an even condition and completely pulverize it. Sow the seed at the rate of 50 to 60 pounds per acre, and sow on a day when the air is in least commotion, so that there may be a uniform scattering of the seeds ; otherwise the grass will come up in thick and thin patches, making an unsightly pasture. After the seed has been properly scat- tered run the roller over the land, or if a roller is not avail- able, brush drawn over the field several times will cover the the seed. It is best to sow just before a rain, to insure germination. In order to produce a pasture throughout most of the year, the species of grasses may be mixed which mature their seeds at different seasons of the year. For instance, barnyard grass is a summer species, and rescue grass gives a green sward late in the fall. Texas blue grass is a so-called winter grass, although it also produces one of the best grasses for summer grazing and for making hay. Mixing these grasses in proportions to furnish 50 to 60 pounds of seed per acre will give continued pasturage throughout most of the year. There is nothing better, however, than a field occupied alone by Texas blue grass or by Bermuda, to be used for either pasturing cattle or to be allowed to grow and cut for hay. 319 The following list of grasses contains the species which will be found amply sufficient for the demands of the cattle raiser and farmer in Alabama, both for pasturage and for making hay : Bermuda Grass {Cynodon dactylon). Texas Blue Grass {Poa arachnifera, Torr).— This grass is propagated by cuttings, or by seeds, or by sods. It stands the drought well, and will grow on any good soil which is in a well-drained condition. The name was given to this grass because it originated in Texas, but it is now well known in mast sections of the South, and is becoming more and more popular as rapidly as its fine properties are understood. It is not incorrect to call it a winter grass, since it makes most of its growth in the winter months. When growing in a strong soil which has been thoroughly prepared this grass furnishes an excellent hay and will stand the trampling of cattle better probably than any other grass. Rescue Grass {Bromns unioloides, Willd).— This may be also called a winter grass, since it obtains most of its growth in the winter mouths. If it is cut regularly and not allowed to go to seed it will continue green a considerable portion of the year, and will supply a fairly good pasture after most of the other grasses have died down. Orchard Grass {Dactylis c/lomerata, Linn). — For the extreme south this grass will be found not so sure as the others mentioned in this list. It will produce, however, in the middle and northern portions of Alabama, in good soil, from three to four tons of hay per acre. Barnyard Grass (Panicum crus-galli, Linn).— This grass is so common, it will require no special mention in this con- nection. The farmers of this State are quite familiar with it. Barnyard grass is more suitable for feeding green to cattle than for making hay, because of its moist, succulent stems, which render it difficult to cure for hay. Tall or Meadow Fescue {Festiica elatior, Linn). — This is excellent for either pasture or for making hay, and will give a luxuriant growth on well-prepared rich soils. i New York Botanical Garden Library 3 5185 00259 6599