S.U?

f

tf

^s

Vol I, No. 1, N.Z. JOUKNAL OP SCIENCE (New Issue) JANUAEY, 1891.

Judicio per pende . et si tibi ver a videntur

Dede inanus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra.

— Lucretius.

The New Zealand Journal of Science was first published just nine
years ago and alter an existence of four years, its publication was
suspended until better times should dawn on tlie Oolony. The causes
which led to the discontinuance of the periodical were stated in the
last number, that of November, 1885. Thèse causes may agàin leacl
to the suspension of the présent issue, but we trust that by the
exercise of a more severe economy in management, ail expenses but
the most necessary will be eliminated, and thus the Journal will be
kept going as long as a minimum number of subscribers can be got.
As was stated in the circulai* sent out on Ist November, 1890, there is
no margin of profit in the publication of such a periodical, unless the
subscribers are far more numerous than past expérience leads us to
expect. Should, however, the number of subscribers exceed oui-
anticipations, then the size of the publication will be increased, and
we may even hope to résume illustrations. As we hâve no machinery
for the collection of subscriptions, it must be understood that ail
subscribers are expected to pay in advance, as on no other plan can
the venture be carried out.

As regards the lines on which the publication will be conducted,
past expérience may supply a few hints. It is intended, as far as
possible, to exclude ail purely technical matter such as descriptions of
species, &c, except where brief détails may be introduced descriptive
of authors' papers. Where it is désirable to give information on
purely technical papers relating to New Zealand, the attempt will be
made to obtain simple and concise abstracts. It is hoped that ail
scientific papers relating to tins colony, or containing matter of
spécial interest in this part of the world, will be brought under the
notice of the Editor. Notes on Natural History, Acclimatisation and
kindred subjects ought to bulk largely in such a periodical. We
should also like to see our columns made use of for the discussion of
scientific methods in mining and other applied arts, which are of
immense use in a colony like this.

It may be asked : What is there in the signs of the times which
should lead to greater anticipations of success than in 1882? We
reply that in view of the récent formation of the Australasian
Association for the advancement of Science, ancl the fact that its
meeting this season is to be held in New Zealand, the time seems
opportune for reviving the Journal. Such a gathering of scientific
men in thèse islands, can hardly fail to excite a spirit of renewed
activity among some whose interest may be flagging.

Every year there will probably be a more and more determined
attempt to eut out of the annual Parliamentary estimâtes of this
colony the small vote which secures the publication of the Transac-
tions of the New Zealand Institute. The class of men who are being

2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

roturned by many of tlie constituencies can hardly be expected to do
anything to foster au institution regarding whose aims and benefits
fchey can only havc the haziest ideas, beyond that it is mainly sup-
ported by mon who are not of tlieir class. Unfortunately there is
but little cohésion among the différent branches of the Institute,
beyond what is secured by tlieir belonging to a central governing
body in Wellington. Now a periodical like the Journal of Science
should i'urnish just such a means of communication between the
bocieties affiliated to the Institute as would serve to bind them
togethcr and bring them more into touch with one another. It is
hoped, fcherefore, that thèse Societies will do what lies in tlieir power
to foster the Journal.

Duiïng the former period of its existence the publication was
conducted at the sole risk of one individual. On the présent occasion
the attempt lias been made to interest a larger number of persons in
the venture, and it is gratifying to record that the f ollowing gentlemen
havc undertaken to act as sponsors for the new issue : —

A. S. Atkinson, Nelson ; F. R. Chapman, Dunedin ; Chas.
Chilton, Port Chalmers ; J. D. Enys, Castle Hill, Canterbury ;
Dr. T. M. Hocken, Dunedin ; Professor Hutton, Christchurch ; R. M.
Laing, Christchurch ; Jas. McKerrow, Wellington ; S. Percy Smith,
Wellington ; and G. M. Thomson, Dunedin.

It now rests with those who take an interest in matters scientific,
to see that they do their part to back the efforts of thèse gentlemen,
and make the New Zealand Journal of Science a success.

ON THE HISTORY OF THE KIWI.*

BY PROF. T. JEFFEKY PARKER, F.R.S.

The précise history of any existing animal or plant is extremely
diilicult to get at and can only be known with certainty by the
discovery of a complète séries of fossils linking it to the extinct
ancestral forai from which it sprang. Naturally such complète
historiés are among the rarest of biological triumphs, and even
partial historiés such as we hâve of many of the Mammalia are only
obtainable in very favourable cases. As a rule we hâve to dépend
upon the évidence afforded by anatom}' and embryolog}r.

Anatomy is an exact and most valuable guide to affinit}r,
espe sially between closely allied forms, but no truth has been more
abundantly proved by récent research than that results obtained by

*This iirticlc is a senii-popular abstractof my paper "Observations on the Anatomy
and Development of Aptéryx," shortly to be published in the Philosophical
Transactions.

HISTOEY OF THE KIWI. 5

this method must be tested and corrected at every point by the study
of development : it is impossible to understand thoroughly the
structure of any species or of any organ until we know something of
its becoming. As the organism develops from the simple egg-cell
to the complète adult, it passes rapidly through stages corresponding
in a gênerai way to those which its ancestors passed through in the
course of their évolution, during long âges, from some simple
unicellular form, and it is the récognition of this principle — that
individual is a recapitulation of ancestral development — that has
given to embryology so important a place in modem biological work.

The Kiwi — including under that name the four species of the
genus Aptéryx — is the most anomalous and aberrant of existing
birds, and, living as it does only in the three islands of the New
Zealand group, may be considérée! as one of the proudest possessions
of our colony.

Aptéryx is sharply distinguished from ail other birds by the
position of the nostrils which are at the tip of the long beak instead
of near the base. It is also remarkable for its small eyes and its
wonderfully perfect olfactory organs, ail other existing birds having
large eyes and a comparatively poorly developed organ of smell.
The eye, moreover, differs from that of ail known birds in being
devoid of the pecten> a plaited process of the choroid coat which
extends from near the entrance of the optic nerve to the back of the
crystalline lens.

The Kiwi is placed, along with the Ostrich, Rhea, Emu, Casso-
wary and Moa, in the sub-class Ratit.e, ail other existing birds
being included under a second sub-class Carinat.e. The distinctive
characters of thèse two groups may be very briefly summarized
and are, for the most part, connected with the power of flight
possessed by the great majority of the Carinatœ and the absence of
that power in the Ratitre, which are without exception terrestrial
birds with extremely small and insignificant wings — quite incapable
of raising their usually bulky bodies from the ground.

1. In R-atitœ the feathers are evenly distributed over the body :
in Carinatœ they usually spring from well defined feather tracts
separated from one another by featherless spaces.

2. In Caiïnatre there are large tail-feathers or rectrices arranged
in a semicircle around the blunt tail proper or uropygium (" par son 's
nose ") : in Ratitœ there are no well defined rectrices.

3. In Carinatre the barbules of the feathers are bound together
by means of microscopic hooklets so that the whole vane of the
feather forms a cohérent membrane : in Ratitœ there are no hooklets,
the barbules are therefore disconnected and the feathers hâve a
downy or more or less hair-like appearance.

4. In Carinatre the breast-bone is a large transversely curved
bone provided with a keel for the attachment of the pectoral
muscles: in Ratitœ the sternum is usually flat and never has a
keel.

4 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

5. In Carinatse the scapula and eoracoid — tlie two chief bones oi*
the shoulder-girdle- are large and set to one anotlier at an angle
which is usually acute tliough it may rise to 106°. There is nearly
always a furcnla or merry thought attached to a process of the
scapnla called the acromion and to two processes of the eoracoid, the
acrocoracoid or clavicular process and the procoracoid process. In
the Hatita* the eoracoid and scapular are small, fused together into a
single bone. and their long axes make an obtuse angle : the fnrcula
is either absent or greatly reduced and the acromion, acrocoracoid,
and procoracoid processes are reduced to mère insignificant tubercles.

G. The quadrate, or bone by which the lower jaw articulâtes
wïth the skull, lias a double head in Carinata?, a single head in Ratita».
As it is singlc-headed also in embryo Carinatœ this character is
usually held to indicate the more primitive position of the Ratitre.

7. In Ratito) the hinder ends of the pterygoid bones of the skull
articulate with a pair of large basi-pterygoid processes which spring
from the body of the basi-sphenoid bone : in Carinata* the basi-
pterygoid processes are small, spring as a rule from the base of the
rostrum of the basi-sphenoid, not from the body of the bone, and
articulate with the pterygoids some distance from their posterior
ends.

8. The vomer of Ratitse is a large broad bone : in Carinatai it is
usually small.

Zoologists are agreed as to the origin of birds from some kind ol
reptilian ancestor, but there are many différences of opinion as to the
relations of the two sub-classes. The older ornithologists considered
the whole of the Ratitse as an orcler (Cursores) équivalent not to the
whole of the Carinata: but to one of its subdivisions, such as Passeres,
Gallinœ, &c. The view now generally adopted is that the Ratitœ
include several orders, each of which, although containing only one
or two gênera, is the zoological équivalent of an entire order of
Carinata?. This view is taken by, inter alla, Prof. A. Newton (Encyc.
Brit., Art, Ornithology) and Prof. Fiirbringer whose learned and
colossal work on the Morphology and Classification of Birds lias
brought the results of ail former workers to a focus and lias provided
the student of the group with a critical summary of the entire
subject such as has never been attempted before.

Tàking, then, the Ratita: and Carinata: as fairly équivalent
groups the question arises what is their relation to one another?
There are three views taken by modem writers on this matter.

1. The Ratitae represent an ancient type of birds derived from
flightless reptilian ancestors. According to this view the progenitors
of the group hâve never possessed the power of flight, and their
relations to the Carinata; may be expressed diagranimatically as

follows : —

HLSTOEY OF THE KIWI.

Carinatre

Katitre

The power of flight may be supposée!' to hâve been acquired at the
point x.

2. The earliest birds were able to fly: from them were descended
(a) the Carinatœ in which the power of flight was retained, and (b)
the Ratitœ in which it was lost in the course of évolution, the
assumption of a purely cursorial mode of life being accompanied by
degeneration of the wings and other parts connected with the
function of flight. This view is illustrated by the following diagram,
x again representing the point at which aerial progression began : —

Carinatre
I

Eatitœ

3. The third hypothesis is a modification of the second. It also
supposes that the earliest birds could fly and that the Batitte arose
from thèse, their organs of flight becoming dêgenerate ; but instead
of supposing a single group to arise in this way and afterwards, by
divergence of characters, to split up into the various forms of Ratita3
now existing, it assumes that each of thèse groups arose separately
from primitive flying birds. Thus while hypothèses (1) and (2)
asciïbe a single or monophyletic origin to the Ratitse, hypothesis (3)
imagines them to hâve had a multiple or polyphyletic origin. The
following diagram — taken from Fiirbringer's elaborate "Stammbaum,"
— expresses this theory, x having the same significance as before : —

Carinatœ

Rhea

Struthio

Aptéryx

Dinornis

6 .JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

1 propose to give a brief account of the salient points in the
development of the Kiwi, pointing out their bearing upon the three
théories just enuntiated.

In the earliest stages, as might hâve been expected, there is
little of importance to record, the resemblance to ordinary birds being
vory close. One interesting point must, however, be mentioned,
although it lias no bearing upon the origin of birds. Tn a stage
corresponding with a chick of about the sixth day of incubation there
is a distinct operculum or gill-cover extending back from the hyoid
arch over the 2nd and 3rd viscéral clefts. As far as I am aware no
such structure has been found in any vertebrate animal above the
Amphibia.

The feathers first make their appearance when the embryo is about
GO mm. long and corresponds in its gênerai characters with a chick of
the 8th-9th day. They do not appear evenly ail over the body, but as
a comparatively narrow tract along the middle of the back and after-
wards spreading on to the thighs. Later a tract appears on each
side of the belly and smaller tracts on the wings, ail being separated
by well marked featherless spaces. Even in the adult the most
important of thèse spaces can be traced.

In the adult there is a loose fold of skin on the anterior border
of the wing between the upper arm and the fore- arm, and a similar
fold on its posterior aspect between the upper arm and the body.
Thèse obviously correspond to the alar membrane so characteristic of
ordinary birds. Moreover the adult has a well-marked séries of
wing-quills covered by regularly arranged upper coverts.

Thèse facts certainly seem to indicate that the ancestors of
the Kiwi had the interrupted pterylosis or feather-arrangement
characteristic of Carinatio, and that their fore-limbs were true wings.

A minor circumstance which appears to point to the same
conclusion is the fact that a sleeping Kiwi assumes precisely the
same attitude as an ordinary carinate bird, the head being thrust
under the side feathers between the body and the upwardly-directed
elbow.

The development of the wing and of the parts in connection
with it is also interesting. At an early stage the fore-limb ends in a
three-toed paw, the digits represented being the 1 st, 2nd and 3rd :
later on the lst and 3rd digits cease to grow and the fore-limb
assumes the form of an ordinary bird's wing with a greatly elongated
ond digit and small first and third digits. Still later the lst and
3rd digits disappear as distinct structures and the wing becomes the
small one-fiugered organ characteristic of the adult.

The skeleton of the wing shows similar changes : at first there
are five distinct carpals and three mctacarpals. As growth goes on
the carpals of the lower or distal row unité with the 2nd and 3rd
metacarpals, exactly as in existing birds. The upper or proximal
carpals may either imite with the carpo-metacarpus thus formed or

HISTORY OF THE KIWI. 7

may remain distinct. AU thèse facts seem to indicate that the fore-
limb of Aptéryx lias passed through a stage in which it was a true
wing.

The sternum or breast-bone of ordinary birds is a large keeled
bone, placed almost horizontally : that of the Kiwi is flat and lias a
vertical position. In a young embryo, however, the cartilage from
which the breast-bone arises is almost horizontal, and in three adult
spécimens I hâve found a low médian ridge, obviously the vestige of
a keel.

In Carinatœ the coracoid takes an oblique position while in
Aptéryx it is vertical : in an embryo shortly before the appearance
of the feathers the coracoid is obliquely placed, the vertical position
being gradually assumed at the same time as that of the sternum.

Moreover there are distinct vestiges even in the adult of the
acromion, acrocoracoid, and procoracoid processes, and the coraco-
scapular angle sometimes sinks as low as 122°, although it may rise
to 150°. As in some of the Carinatee this angle is as much as 106°,
the gap between the two groups becomes comparatively slight.

Further évidence in the same direction is furnished by the
muscles of flight. The elevator of the wing (subclavius) arises from
the coracoid and passes over the acrocoracoid process to reach the
dorsal aspect of the humérus exactly as in Carinatee.

The most characteristic feature in the brain of birds is the
position of the optic lobes which lie, not on the dorsal surface as in
other Vertebrata, but one on each side. In Aptéryx, in accordance
with the small size of the eyes, the optic lobes are greatly reduced
in size and are situated on the base of the brain. It is interesting to
find that in young embryo s thèse lobes are situated on the upper
surface and in close contact with one another, exactly as in a reptile :
at about the time when the feathers appear they separate from one
another and pass one to each side of the brain, precisely as in
ordinary birds : finally as the end of incubation is approached they
diminish immensely in proportional size and corne to lie on the under
surface.

It has been mentioned that the Kiwi is the only bird in which
the eye is devoid of a pecten. This peculiarity only applies in
strictness to the adult : in advanced embryos a small but distinct
pecten is présent.

The vertébral column and the hind limb of Aptéryx are those of
a perfectly typical bird — more typical indeed than those of many
Carinata?, for instance the Penguins. The pelvis is also strictly avian
although simpler than that of most birds.

So far, then, the structure and development of Aptéryx seem to
indicate that the ancestors of this extraordinary member of the class
were typical flying birds, having interrupted plumage, a keeled
sternum placed horizontally, a shoulder girdle of the usual avian

8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

character, and truo wings, Le. fore limbs in which the liand has
only three digits, the distal carpals are fused with the metacarpals,
ancî the air-resisting surface is furnished by regularly arrangée!
feathers.

lt still remains to say something about the structure of the skull,
which in certain respects is quite unique, presenting characters met
with in no other bird.

In the skull of any bird except the Kiwi we notice three chief
régions ; the rounded brain case behind, the narrow pointed beak in
front, and between thèse the orbital région consisting of the two
immense eye-sockets separated from one another by a vertical plate
of bone called the inter-orbital septum. Tins corresponds to the
bone of the mammalian skull known as the pre-sphenoid, and its
peculiar character in the bird is due to the enormously developed
eyes encroaching upon surrounding parts and squeezing the inter-
vening portion of the skull into a nat plate. In the hinder portion of
the beak are contained thin scroll-like bones, the turbinais, very much
smaller than the corresponding bones in the skull of a mammal and
lying altogether in front of the eyes. In the entire head they are
covered by délicate mucous membrane to which the olfactory nerve is
distributed and therefore constitute the organ of smell. Lastly the
extern al nostrils are situated at a considérable distance from the
pointed end of the beak.

In the Kiwi two striking changes hâve taken place simulta-
neously. The eyes, undergoing a graduai diminution in size, hâve
retreated from the médian plane, a considérable space being left
between them and the presphenoid, At the same time the turbinais
hâve enlarged immensely, and, extending backwards, hâve filled
up the space between the presphenoid and the eyes, actually
reaching as far back as the posterior boundary of the latter.
Thus the skull of Aptéryx differs from that of ail other birds, firstly
in the small size of the orbits, and secondly in having those cavities
separated from one another not by a thin inter-orbital septum, but
by a spongy mass of bone formed by the posterior portion of the
turbinais.

The turbinais are as complète as those of a dog, and are divisible
into two régions, a hinder olfactory région covered by a délicate single
laver of epithelium and supplied by the olfactory nerve, and an
anterior respiratory région covered by a many-laj-ered horny
epithelium and supplied by the fifth nerve. Up to the middle of
incubation the whole of the respiratory région of the nasal chamber
is filled up by a solid mass of epithelial cells so that there is no
pansage to the exterior by the nostrils.

In early embryos the form of the head and the position of the
nostrils is normal, but soon after an undoubted bird-form is assumed
the nostrils are found to hâve their final position at the end of the
beak. Jiy this time the turbinais are already large but do not extend
so far back as in the adult.

HABITS OF EUROPEAN SPARROW. 9

As in Carinatœ the quadrate in its earliest stages articulâtes
with the skull by a single head, but in the advanced embryo the
articulation becomes distinctly double, one faoet coming in contact
with a cartilaginous socket furnished by the prootic, another by a
perfectly distinct socket furnished jointly by the alisphenoid and the
squamosal. The singie-headed character of the quadrate is thus
shown to be a secondary and not a primitive character. Even in the
adult the head shows an indistinct séparation into two surfaces.

(To be continued.)

ON THE BREEDING HABITS OF THE EUROPEAN
SPARROW (Passer domesticusj IN NEW ZEALAND.*

BY T. W KIRK, F.R.M. & L.SS., (Lônd.)

The author stated that he had been for some years collecting
évidence on the sparrow question in New Zealand. He divided the
subject into various sections, but remarked that, as there was not y et
sumcient reliable évidence to hand, on which to forai an unbiassed judg-
ment, as to the question of whether the sparrow did more good than
harm, he would confine himself to the breeding habits of Passe?' domes-
ticus in New Zealand; leavingfor a future occasion the complète history
of the sparrow in tins country, which he hoped ère long to submit. He
then went on to say that the statements on the breedmg habits, though
brief, are the resuit of numerous enquiries, and of lengthened personal
observations. It is hoped that their publication may induce other
persons who hâve made reliable notes, to help, by recording their obser-
vations and expérience. " I shall assume, for the purposes of the
calculation I am about to make, thafc no extensive action is taken by
man for the destruction of his small opponent, if such lie is to be callecl,
and as the natural enemies in tins country are hardly worth mentioning,
we will allow only for accidentai and natural deaths. Speaking of the
natural enemies, reminds me of an incident I once noted between
Featherston and Martinborough, showing to what lengths the daring
and cool impudence of the sparrow will sometimes go. Hearing a most
unusual noise, as though ail the small birds in the country had joined
in one grand quarrel, I looked up and saw a large hawk (E. gouldl, a
carrion feeder) being buffeted by a flock of sparrows, I should say
several hundreds ; they kept dashing at hirn in scores, and from ail
points at once. The unfortunate hawk was quifce powerless, indeed lie
seemed to hâve no heart leffc, for he did not attempt to retaliate, and his
defence was of the feeblest ; at last, approaching some scrub, lie made a
rush, indicative of a forlorn hope, gained the shelter, and there remained.
I watched for fully ha lf an hour, but he did not re-appear. The spar-
rows congregated in groups about the bushes, keeping up a constant

*Abstract of a paper read at the meeting of the Wellington Philosophical Society, on

2nd July last.

IO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

chattering and noise, evidently on the lookout for the enemy, and con-
gratulating themaelves upon having secured a victory. I hâve heard of
sparrows attacking and drivingaway pigeons and other birds, but do not
remember any record of their daring to attack a hawk. In this part of
tlie Colony the breeding season of the sparrow begins in spring, and
ends late in the autumn. The first broods appear in September, and
the last in April. I bave examined a great many nests, but never
found less than five eggs under a sitting bird, more often six, and
frequently seven. Thèse are usually ail laid in one week. Incubation
occupies tbirteen days. The young are fed in the nest for eight or nine
days. They then return to the nest for two or three nights, after whicli
they hâve to feed and lodge themselves, sometimes assisted by the maie
bird. In five instances fresh eggs were found in the nest, along with
partly-fledged young. Both parent birds work in feeding the young till
they leave the nest, and at first I was much puzzled to account for the
fact that the second laying of eggs was not spoiled during the absence
of the mother. From my observation I am convinced that the chief
portion of the work of incubation, that is, after the first brood is
hatched, is thrown on the young birds; for it must be apparent that the
beat arising from the crowding of five or six young birds into a nest
would be sufficient to cause incubation. So that by the time the young
birds are finally turned out, the earlier laid of the next batch are within
a few days of issuing from the shells. Therefore the mother is confined
to the nest for little more than lialf the time to hatch the first brood of
the season. Then after a very few days the process is again repeated.
This does not occur in every nest, but it is a very important item to be
noted when considering the "rate of increase." Moreover, in one
instance, at least, the young birds belongïng to the first brood, raised in
September, were themselves breeding at the end of March. I can speak
positive ly, as in the hope of proving wThether the birds of one brood
mated among themselves, I fastened a bit of red stuff round the leg of
each. The only one I saw after they were turned out by their parents
was a lien, which had mated witli a maie from another brood, built a
nest close to lier old home, and actnally reared a brood of her own at
the same time as her mother was closing her arduous duties for the
season. Froni two nests I was able to prove that seven broods issued
the year before last, but for the purposes of the calculation I am about
to make, we will take it that the average is five broods of six each.
This is below the mark. We then allow one-third of the annual
increase for deaths. Hère are the results ": —

3Jr. Kirk then read his calculations, of which the following is a
summary. Starting with one pair, we shall hâve —

At end of First Year (allowing for deaths one-third) 1 1 pairs.

„ „ Second „ „ „ „ 121 „

„ „ Third „ „ „ „ 1,331 ,,

Fourth ., „ „ „ 14,641 „

Fifth „ „ „ „ ,,146,051 „

j?

He concluded as follows : —

" This does not take into account those early broods which are them-
selves breeding ; nor does it allow more than five broods a year, while

HABITS OF EUROPE AN SPARROW. I I

six and even seven are of common occurrence. Further, the clutches of
eggs ofien number more than six : so that we started on a low basis,
and the allowance of one-third is, I think, more than ample." The
following discussion ensued: —

Mr. Travers said that Mr. Kirk's views regarding the food of the
sparrow did not agrée with naturalists in other countries. His expé-
rience led him to believe that their principal food was insects. The
Cicadœ especially are caught in hundreds by them. It would be
difficult to ascertain, as suggested, by dissection, whether they contained
insect food or grain. If the increase is anything like what Mr. Kirk
contends, the air would be full of thèse birds. The increase really
dépends on the amount of food they can get. That thèse birds are
useful to the agriculturist is beyond question. The increase in crops
is in proportion to the spread ot the sparrow. The insects which used
to swarm in the plains in the south hâve now almost disappeared, owing
to the sparrow, and the grain ha s increased. The caterpillars, once so
numerous, are disappearing from the same cause. In Hungary they
made war against the sparrows ; but after a time they had to get them
back again, so that they miglit protect the wheat from the insects. The
sparrow was also a good scavenger. It was said that the sparrow
destroyed the grape, but it turned out to be the Zosterops, or the Minah.
The hawk mentioned as being attacked by sparrows is the kind that
never touches sparrows. He was an ardent admirer of the sparrow,
and he did not think we should grudge ihe small amount of grain they
consumed, when they were in other ways so useful.

Sir Walter Buller said he was prepared to accept his full share
of the responsibility for the introduction of the sparrow, by the Wan-
ganui Acclimatisation Society in 1866. While fully admitting and
deploring the déprédations committed by this bird on the settlers' crops
at certain seasons of the year, he cousidered that the sparrow was an
insectivorous bird in the strictest sensé ; and believing, as he did, that
the balance of évidence was strongly in its favour, he never lost an
opportunity, in public or in private, of putting in a plea for poor perse-
cuted Passer domesticus. He déclarée! that during the breeding season
the sparrow was the farmer's best friencl, for the young broods were
supplied entirely on insecfc food. Mr. Kirk's observations on the
fecundity of this bird in New Zealand, would give some idea of the
great service he performed. The sparrow had also proved instrumental
in exterminating the variegated Scotch thistle, which at one time
threatened to overrun this country, by feeding on (he seeds, and
preventing their dissémination.

Mr. Denton said that it was almost impossible to ikeep sparrows
entirely alive on grain ; they must hâve insects.

Mr. Hudson remarked that of course the great disappearance in
insect-life hère would in some measure be accounted for by the clearing
of the bush, and draining of the swampy land ; no doubt the sparrow
had doue -his share. He did not think it much advantage to have the
Cicadœ destroyed, for they did no harm.

12 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

Mr. Travers difîered from Mr. Hudson ; the Gicxdœ damaged the
introduced fcrecs considerably, and often so much as to cause tïiem to
die altogether.

Mr. Richardson pointed ont that nunibers of sparrows were often
destroyed by strong gales of wind and rain.

Mr. Kh:k. in reply, said that most of tlie discussion was on points
wliicli had not been raised in hia paper ; indeed, lie had specially
mentioned that there waa not yet to liand sufîicient reliable évidence
on which to found an impartial judgment as to wliether the sparrow
was more bénéficiai than hurtful to agriculture and horticulture. As,
however, the question had been introduced, hc would state that when
he entered upon this investigation he was as staunch a supporter of the
sparrow as Mr. Travers or Sir Walter Buller. He was afraid, however,
that he should now hâve to modify his views very much. There coulcl
be no doubt that the sparrow ate many thousands of insects, and did a
amount of good. The point to be settled was, Did lie exact more
grain, fruit, etc., in payment for those services than those services were
worth l He was intimately acquainted with M. Michelet's book, "The
Bird," referred to by Mr. Travers, but he must draw attention to the
fact that tlie author's remarks did not apply to New Zealand, where the
rate of increase of the sparrow was phénoménal. He was of course
aware that the large hawk mentioned did not feed on living birds, and
was therefore the more surprised that the sparrows should venture to
attack such a powerful opponent. Exception had been taken to his
calcula lions, and Mr. Travers stated that at the rate mentioned the air
would be " full of sparrows." He had already said that the calculation
w;-s based upon the assumption that no active agencies were employed
by mail for the destruction of the sparrow ; but we ail knew that
poisoning on a large scale was indulged in. He was convinced that the
one-third of the animal increase was ample to allow for accidentai and
natural deaths He might mention that the balance of évidence so far
was against the sparrow. Miss Ormerod, Consulting Entomologist to
the Royal Agricultural Society, a most ardent champion of the sparrow,
had investigated the question in England, and had been obliged to
abandon his cause. Professor Riley, Entomologist, and Messrs.
Hartman and Barrons, Ornithologists of the U. S. Department of
Agriculture, had been compelled to cast their votes against the "cussed
little Britisher." If the sparrow had been condemned in England,
where, according to Sir Walter Buller, it usually reared but two broods
ar, what would be the resuit in this country, where the output
from a single nest was five, six, and even seven broods a season? The
sparrow did good work by eating the seeds of the large thistle, but the
goldfinch and green linnet indulged even more in that habit. In
conclusion, he would say that he for one would be very sorry to see the
sparrow exterminated ; but he was convinced some systematic steps
would hâve to be taken to restrict the increase. The sparrow was like
alcoholic liquor : good in modération, but decidedly harmful in excess.

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND. 1$

THE ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW ZEALAND.

Some important additions hâve boen made to the Avifamia of New
Zealand during the last year. At a meeting of the Wellington Philo-
sophical Society, held on the 2nd July last, Sir Walter Buller exhibited
a huge Kiwi from Stewart's Island, which he referred to Aptéryx
maxima of M. Jules Yerreaux (Bonap. Comp. Rend. Acad. Se., xliii.,
p. 841). Two of the largest spécimens of Aptéryx austredis (maie and
f emale) were on the table for comparison ; and he pointed out that
this new bird had a bill fully an inch and a half longer, with propor-
tionately robust f eet ; and that the claws, instead of being long and
sharp pointed as in Aptéryx austredis, were short, broad, and blunt at
the tip. He also pointed out other distinguishing peculiarities in the
plumage. JReferring to the history of this species, he said that the
well-known French naturalist named had, as far back as 1856, distin-
guished it from the othérs on what appeared at the timë to be very
insufficient data ; and a year or two later the government of New
Zealand published in the Gazette a report by Drs. Sclater and Hoch-
stetter, " On oui* présent knowledge of the species of Aptéryx" in
which spécial attention was called to Jules Yerreaux' s new forai, and
the colonists invited to look for it. When, in 1871, Prof essor Hutton
published his " Catalogue of New Zealand Bircls," he referred the
large Grey Kiwi of the South Island (Aptéryx haasii) to Aptéryx maxima.
But Sir Walter Buller himself, in his first édition of " The Birds of
New Zealand," dissented from this view, expressing himself as
follows : — " The évidence, as far as it goes, would seem to indicate the
existence of a much larger species of Kiwi than any of the foregoing
— in fact, a bird equalling in size a full-grown turkey. For this
reason I hâve considered it safer to retain Aptéryx haasti as a recog-
nised species, and to leave the further elucidation of the question to
the zeal and enter prise of future explorers ia the land of the Aptéryx."
Seventeen years had elapsed since this was written, and at length the
véritable Aptéryx maxima had turned up in Stewart's Island, the
spécimen now before the meeting being undoubtedly the only example
known in any public or private collection. Sir Walter Buller tlien
proceeded to give an interesting account of the geographical distribu-
tion of the various species of Aptéryx, and the circumstances of their
development. Aptéryx bulleri is confined to the North Island, Aptéryx
australis to the South Island, and Aptéryx maxima to Stewart's Island ;
whilst Aptéryx oweni, inhabiting the colder régions of the South, lias
also been found on the snow-line to the north of Oook's Strait. Ail
thèse species hâve doubtless sprung from a common parent, and the
insular séparation has existed for a sufficiently long period of time to
admit of the development of distinct species under the ordinary laws
of évolution. Whilst on this subject, Sir W^alter Buller said he would
take occasion to refer to some remarks made by a former Président
when Mr. B. B. Sharpe's paper was read, changing the name of the
North Island bird from Aptéryx mautelli to Aptéryx bulleri. In the
discussion which the President's remarks evoked, Mr. Maskell and
others appeared to reproach him (Sir Walter) with having, as it were,
fîlched the name from Mr. Mantell, who had so long enjoyed it. As

U

JOUKXAL OF SCIENCE;

a matter o£ fact, he (tlio speaker) had nothing to do with the change
of Dame, beyond submitting his séries of spécimens to Mr. Sharpe's
critical judgment; and he was aftenyards merely the "passive
bucket" in communicating Mr. Sharpe's paper to the Society. In

jting the speaker'fl name to distinguiah the species, Mr. Sharpe
only gave effeet to a suggestion made by Dr. Otto Finsch, of Bremen,
many years before. Àgreeing, as he did, in the technical accuracy of
Mr. Sharpe's conclusions, ho (Sir Walter Buller) had no alternative
but to adopt the proposée! new name. As a rule, however, his own
tendeneies were coneervative, and throughout his work he had, in
regard to nomenclature, observed as far as possible the rule of "quitta

movere." For example, lie had declined to follow Dr. Meyer, of
Dresden, in substituting the name of Notornis ïiochstettcri for Notornis
mantétti, because he did not consider that the différences shown to
exist behveen the fossil and the récent birdswere sufficient to warrant
the change. On the other hand, he had not hesitated to expunge
from the list of species St?ingops greyi (so named by Mr. G. R. Grey
in compliment to Sir George Grey) as soon as he had satisfied himself
that it was a mère variety of the common Stringops hah'optUuSi He
was very glad however, of the opportunifcy afterwards of re-connecting
Sir George Grey's name with the New Zealand Avifauna by dedicating
to him a new form of Ocydromus. Sir Walter Buller concluded his
remarks by saying that in such matters as tins, people should not be
thin-skinned, for a scientist should hâve nothing before him but the
elucidation of truth, and in the fixing or altering of names there can
no escape from the accepted rules of zoological nomenclature.

An active discussion, led offby Mr. Maskell, then followed as to
the value of characters now generally accepted by naturalists in the
establishment of species.

Sir Walter Buller, in reply, saicl that the only importance he
attachée! to systematic classification was as an aid to memory in the
study of the natural objects themselves. Birds, like other animais,
resolved themselves into natural groups, and could be most con-
veniently studied in that manner. The discrimination of gênera and
S})ecies was, after ail, empiric, and often very arbitaiy. Nothing was
easier than to raise the quœstio vexata, What constitutes the différence
between a species and a permanent variety? On no point probably
were naturalists so much divided — some carrying their discrimination
of form s to an extrême, other s erring in an opposite direction. In
fact most systematists might be divided into two classes — " lumpers "
and " splitters." The thing was to hit the happy mean. There was
much truth in what Mr. Maskell had said, and no doubt modifications
of structure were of the first importance in the discrimination of
species ; but, as to nomenclature, it seemed to him that simplicity
was the thing of ail others to be desired. To adopt the System more
or less in use among ornithologïsts of making sub-species or varieties
was to his mind very objcctionable, because it had the effect of
encumbering the literature with names. For example, Aptéryx
bidleri, as it is now called, appeared in Dr. Finsch's list as Aptéryx
australis variety mantelli According to the generally-accepted view
among English systematists, the amount of variation necessary to
constitute a species is not of much importance, and may be left to

ORNITHOLOGY OF NEW ZKALAND. 15

individual opinion, so long as it is persistent or constant. For liis
own part, he was quite indiffèrent whether the pétrel now exhibited,
and which he had named Œstrelata affinis, was regarded as a distinct
species or a permanent race, so long as the différence of character
was recognised. Admitting the distinction, it was merely a question
of convenience with systematists whether to call it by a distinctive
name, or to designate it " Species A, variety B." Dr. Finsch
considered that this, and Œstrelata mollis, of which spécimens were
on the table for comparison, were varieties of one and the same
species. But Mr. Osbert Salvin, our great authority on Pétrels, had
unhesitatingly pronounced them distinct species. They, belonged,
however, to the same natural group, and were closely allied.
Although easily discriminated now, no naturalist of the présent
day would deny that they had originally sprung from a common
parent. This followed of necessity from an acceptance of the theory
of évolution. As to the alleged worthlessness of colour as a criterion
for discriminating species, he could not agrée with Mr. Maskell,
because our whole expérience was opposed to such an argument.
The cases put forward by that gentleman were not in point. For
example, the condition of the albino Tui exhibited that evening was
due to an accidentai absence of the colouring pigment in the feathers.
It was merely a lusus naturœ, or a freak of nature. However many
examples of this kind might be met with, no naturalist of any
expérience would think of creating a new species out of such material.
So in the case of individual peculiarities of plumage mentioned by
him. No one would prétend that thèse were of spécifie value. Some
birds, for example the red grouse (or brown ptarmigan), one of the
commonest birds of Great Britain, is so variable in color that scarcely
two maies can be found with precisely the same markings, and this is
likewise the case with the common albatross and some other sea
birds. This variability of plumage becomes, then, a character of the
species. But if you meet with, say, two forms of sea-gull, one having
a black head and the other a white head, breeding true, and
presenting this constant character, an ornithologist would, as a matter
of course, treat them as distinct species, although he might not be
able to discover any other points of différence. On the other hand
there is a phase of colouring known as dimorphism, which obtains
among some species] of sea-birds— some individuals being dark and
others white in one and the same species. Other birds, again, pass
through several distinct phases of plumage in their progress from
youth to maturity, Thèse adolescent states, and the known instances
of dimorphic colouration, do not by any means affect the argument
that colour is an important external character in the détermination of
species. On the main question, however, of manifest structural or
organic différence as the surest guide in the differentiation, Sir
Walter Buller said that he quite agreed with Mr. Maskell. He
would reminci the meeting that the study of birds had of ten to be
prosecuted with nothing before theinvestigator but skinand feathers,
and that the systematist could only make the most of the materials
before him. He did not believe that it would be possible to attain
perfection in classification till the internai characters and anatomy of
ever}^ known bird had been as completely examined and iilustrated as
ihàt of the common rock dove (Columba lima) had been by the late
Professor Macgillivray.

IÔ JOURNAL 9F SCIENCE.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZBALAND.

l'.V GEO. M. THOMSON, F.L.S.

Among fche mimerons interesting and remtrkable cases of
naturalisation, or, as it is somewhat improporly called, ac climatisation
in tins colony, none surpasses in its interest and far-reaching results
that of tlie liumble-bee. For many years the agriculturists, espe-
cially of the South island, liad been under the necessity of annually
importing ail the supplies of Red (lover secd which they required, so
to obviate the contiuually recurring expense and to ensure the pro-
duction of a valuable seed within the colony, the Canterbury Acclima-
tisation Society was induced to împort humble-bees. With the steps
taken to accomplish tins object, I hâve not to do at présent, though a
brief history of tins part of the undertaking would, no cloubt, be
interesting.

At the very outset, however, a niistake seems to hâve been made,
which shows how îimch in the dark many of those are who guide the
community in aeclimatisation matters, and how largely chance often
bulks in the final results of such experiments. Red Clover (Trifolium
pratense) differs from VThite Clover (Tr repens) and many other papi-
lionaceous flowers in having its nectar secreted at the base of a tube
9 to 10 mm. (about ?ths. of an inch) long, formed by the cohésion of
the nine inferior stamens with each other and with the claws of the
petals. Tnstead, therefore, of an insect being able to thrust its trunk
down to the nectary by the two small openings which lie, one on each
sidc of the superior stamens, as in "White Clover, it must insert it
directly down the staminal tube. Only in tins way can the insect
receive a dusting of pollen, and so ensure cross-fertilization of the
flowers, without which this.species is practically stérile. "In order
to reach the honey in this way, an insect must possess a proboscis at
least 9 to 10 mm. long."* This fact was probably not known to any
one in New Zealand when the importation of humble-bees was
decided upon. Only the fact was known that humble-bees were the
principal agents in fertilizing red clover, and in sending for thèse
insects, the species which is probably the most abundant in England,
viz., Bombus terrestris, was selected. According to Millier, who is the
best authority on the subject, B. terrestris does not enter the flowers of
red clover in a legitimate way and so bring about cross-fertilization,
but al way s makes a hole near the base of the flower and sucks the
nectar through this. Its trunk is not more than from 7 to 9 mm.
long, so that only the largest females coulcl reach the base of the
flower. On the other hand, it is the case in Germany at least, that
no less than twelve other species of Bombas or humble-bees having
trunks varying from 10 to 15 mm. in length, legitimately visit and
fertilize the red clover. Of course the pollen and stigma of this
flower are accessible to ail insects which are heavy enough to press
down the keel, and if bées visit the flowers for pollen only they will
uo doubt bring about cross-fertilisation. This may account for an

*"The Fertilisation of Flowers," by Prof. Hermarm Miiller.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZKALAND. IJ

interesting example given me by Mr. Wm. Martin, of Fairfield, near
Dunedin, who informs me tliat as far back as 1858 lie obtained a
large quantity of very fine seed off a small patch of red clover which
he had under cultivation.

I hâve never myself observed our introduced humble-bee biting
the tubes of red clover, nor liave enquiries to observers throughout
Canterbury and Otago elicited any information, beyond the fact that
the flowers always seem to be visitée! in a legitimate manner. And it
is a further interesting facfc, that though at first sight the wrong
species of insect appears to hâve been introduced, yet the resuit
sought to be attained by its introduction lias been secured. Yet it
would not hâve been at ail remarkable, if the experiment had resulted
in failure as far at least as red clover is concerned, were it not that
under altered conditions, insects, like ail other organisms, appear to
hâve marvellous powers of adaptation.

In March, 1885, the Otago Acclimatisation Society liberated 93
females (queens) of Bombiis terrestris in the neighbourhood of Christ-
church. They appear to hâve established themselves at once and
increased rapidly. In January, 1886, two were seen by Mr. J. D.
Enys at Castle Hill on the West Coast road, and early in 1887 they
were reported from Kaikoura in the North, and Timaru in the South,
while by the autumn of the same year they had become established
in the Oamaru district. Towards the very end of the same year they
had spread up the Waitaki basin, through the Lindis pass and were
^Observed on the Hawea flats. In Dunedin they appeared quite
suddenly in the second week of February, 1888, and were almost
simultaneously reported from Waihola, 30 miles south-west. In
Novembei> 1889, they were first recorded from the head of Lake
Wakatipu, and in the beginning of 1890 were observed in the neigh-
bourhood of Invercargill. I hâve no accurate record of their spread
in the North Island. It may be considérée! certain that Cook's Strait
would hâve proved an insurmoun table natural barrier, but spécimens
hâve been repeatedly liberated within the last two or three years in
the North Island. It seems doubtful, according to Mr. G-. V. Hudson,
whether they hâve yet become established. I hâve, however, records
of their occurrence, both from Auckland and Wellington, and would
be glad to hâve further information on this point.

Professor Hutton informs me that occasionally he has seen
queen bées which were quite black, that is without .the white and
orange bands so characteristic of Bombus terrestris. It will be
interesting to learn whether this variety has been observed elsewhere
than in Christchurch.

One of the most interesting results of the introduction of foreign
species of plants or animais into a new country, is that it becomes
possible to watch and place upon record every change which the
organism undergoes. As soon as humblo-bees appeared in this
neighbourhood, I resolved to dévote a good deal of attention to them,
and hâve already observed several détails concerning their life-history,
which show, it seems to me, that they may be expected to undergo
considérable change in their habits, and may prove in time to be a
not un-mixed blessing.

l8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Tho first point to bo noticed about them is that hère the bées
hâve few or no enemies except small boys, and perhaps bee-keepers.
In their native habitats they hâve to contend against very numerous
enemies, and most readers will remember Darwin's famous remarks*
about humble-bees and iield-mice : — " The number of humble-bees
in any district dépends in a great measure on the number of field-
mice, which destroy their combs and nests ; and Col. Newman, who
has long attended to the habits of humble-bees, believes that ' more
than two-thirds of them are thus destroyed over ail England.' Now
the number of mice is largely dépendent, as every one knows, on the
number of cats ; and Col. Newman says, ' Near villages and small
towns I hâve found the nests of humble-bees more numerous than
elsewhere, wilich I attribute to the number of cats that destroy the
mice.' Hence it is quite crédible that the présence of a féline
animal in large numbers in a district might détermine, through the
intervention first of mice and then of bées, the frequency of certain
fiowers in that district." Mice are by no means abundant in the
open country in New Zealand, at least in those parts where rabbits
and introduccd small birds hâve become a pest, and where,
consequently, cats are encouraged. Nor can I find tîiat there are
any other enemies of the bées hère that are at ail conspicuous. Some
of the insects are, however, extraordinarily infested by mites, which
cover parts of the body — especially the bare posterior portion of tho
thorax — to such an extent as to completely hide the integument.
Thèse mites were no doubt introduced originally with the first bées,
but I cannot say whether they are a greater pest hère than in the
Old Country.

A second remarkable point in connection with the life of the
humble-bees is, that in many parts of the Colony they do not appear
to hibernate at ail. In England those insects which survive the
winter appear about April, and immediately proceed to seek out
suitable quarters for the establishment of their homes. Mr. Hudson
tells me that the neuters do not appear until June.

In this part of the colony the past winter was extremely mild, and
the hibernation of the bées was very short. I saw them nearly daily
on various flowers right through the summer and autumn up till 5th
June. On the following day the weather became suddenly cold with
frost at night, and the humble-bees disappeared until August 13th,
when they were again seen. For nearly a month afterwards the
weather remained fine, and night frosts were fréquent, yet for a few
hours in the hottest part of the day the bées were seen regularly.
Mr. James Gilmore of Goodwood, about 30 miles North of Dunedin,
states that he saw them right through the winter, except in rainy
weather. In the middle of July, when the nights and mornings
Avère very frosty, the bées came out in the middle of the day if the
sun was shining. If this is so in this comparatively cold part of the
colony, we inay expect that in those parts where frost is unknown no
hibernation will take place at ail. It is worthy of note, however, that
only large females survive the winter. This season the first small
bées of the new brood were seen by me on 22nd November.

* "Origin of Specîe?," 6th Kdit., p. 57.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZEALAND. 19

The rate of increase of thé humble-bee has been so great in this
colony, that the question has arisen in my mind as to whether they
will not become as serious a nuisance as far as honey is concernée!, as
the rabbit has proved to the farmer and squatter. This may seem to
be an improbability to many persons who hâve never seriously con-
sidered the matter, especially as humble-bees do not visit many of the
flowers which supply nectar to the hive-bee. But the fact remains
that in those districts where the former hâve been very abundant the
supply of honey has enormously diminished during the last two
seasons, and many skilled bee-keepers are beginning to attribute a
considérable share at least of this falling off to the humble-bees. To
see how far thèse insects are adapting themselves to new flowers, I
hâve for a considérable time past kept a record of the flowers which
they visit, and those which they leave alone. I hâve noticed them on
many species of introduced plants which they never appear to visit in
Europe, and it will be interesting to note whether with increased
numbers they are extending their search for nectar to flowers at
présent neglected by them. Two facts hâve particularly struck me
in this connection. One is that they seldom visit white flowers ; I
know only about half-a-dozen altogether, though on some of thèse,
like Plums, Cherries and Pears they are to be found very abundantry.
The other is that with two exceptions I hâve never heard of them
visiting the flowers of indigenous plants. The exceptions are Fuchsia
excorticata which they appear frequently to visit, and the Ngaio
(Myoporum lœtum) on which they hâve been seen by Mr. A. S.
Fleming, of Palmerston S.*

Another curious fact about them is that in one district they will
absolutely neglect flowers which they fréquent in another part.
Many observers crédit certain flowers with intoxicating the bées, but
as the flowers recorded by one are not so credited by others, the
question of so-called intoxication must be looked upon as quite
unsettled, and is worthy of investigation, Again, in one part the
bées pierce the tubes of certain flowers which, in another neighbour-
hood, sometimes only three or four miles away, they visit legitimately.
I hâve thought it worth while hère to give a complète list of the
flowers— ail introduced but the above two — on which I hâve observed
humble-bees, or hâve trustworthy records of their visits. Under the
various flowers I hâve made remarks which occur to me as bearing on
the question. Such a minute attention to détails may appear to
some unnecessary, but it must be remembered that what may prove
to be a biological problem of great ultimate interest is hère being
worked out before our eyes, and as we hâve the commencement of it
within our observation now, it would be a mistake to allow any détail
however apparently insignificant to escape attention. To facilitate
référence I hâve arranged the flowers noted hère according to their
natural orders.

Ranunculace^:.

Anémone — single red, blue and parti-coloured hybrids; occa-
sionally visited.

Delphinium — blue hybrids, and also on Annual Larkspurs.
Aquilegia — hybrids. I hâve seen them on Columbines of

* Within the last day or two (Dec. 26th) I hâve seen small bées on Veronica clliptica.

20 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

varieras colours, except white. Frequently the tubes of
thèse flowers are punctured by the bées.

Berbeeidje.

Berberis (Mahonia) Darwinii. Often visited.

Papayerace.e.

P a paver. Ail sorts of single poppies are greatly visited by
humble-bees; one correspondent considers that they become
intoxicated by the nectar "of thèse flowers. I hâve never
myself observée! this effect.

l'\\MAKIACE/E.

Dielytra spectabilis. Thèse flowers are great favourites, but
as the nectar cannot be reached legitimately, the bées light
on the outside of the keeled sepals and puncture them near
the base. In the neighbourhood of Dunedin this spring it
was almost impossible to get a spray of Dielytra which had
not been more or less disfigured by humble-bees.

Crucifeb^e.

Cabbage flowers (Brassica oUracea) are frequented by
numbers of bées.

Wallflower (Cheiranthus cheiri) is also a great favourite.
Virginian Stock (Cheiranthus9: sp.) occasionally visited.

PcESEDÀCEiE.

Reseda odorata. Mignonette is totally neglected in many
gardens, while in others it is constantly visited. No doubt
bées acquire tastes, and havo their individual i>references.

VlOLARIE.E.

Viola odorata. Violets are constantly visited in some
gardens and are quite neglected in others. The same
remark applies to the Pansy ( V. tricolor and its hybrids), of
which I hâve seen both white and yellow varieties visited,
but not frequently.

I hâve no record of a single Caryophyllaceous flower being
visited by humble-bees

Hypericinee.

Hypericum sp. A. large kind of St. John's Wort in my
garden is occasionally visited.

Malyace^e.

Abutilon sp. Reported from Christchurch ; I hâve not
observed them in Dunedin, where Abutilon is mainly a
greenhouse plant.

Tiliace.e.

The Lime-tree (Tilia europea) when in flower attracts the
humble-bees (as well as other insects) in great numbers.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZEALAND. 21

Geraniace^e

Scarlet Géranium (Pelargonium sp.) is occasionally visited.
Indian Cress or Garden Nasturtium (Tropœolum majus) is
frequently visited.
Leguminos^e.

Ulex Europœus. I hâve only once seen the humble-bee on
this plant. As a correspondent remarks, "it is rather
singular that this most plentiful of spring flowers appears to
be neglected by humble-bees." I am even more struck with
the fact that it is almost totally neglected by hive-bees also.
In many parts near Dunedin there are miles of gorse hedges
which in the months of September, October and November
are blazing with flowers, and the air is heavy with their
porfume, yet hardly an insect is to be seen on them. I am
also struck with the fact that T hâve no record of humble-
bees on the flowers either of Broom (Cytisus sco]?a?'iits) or
Laburnum (G. labumum). Yet it is probable that thèse
flowers are occasionally visited, as in Europe they are fre-
quented by Bombus terrestris in great numbers. None of
the three flowers named contain nectar, hence they would
only be visited by bées for pollen.

Trifolium pratense. As has been already said the humble-
bee was originally introduced to fertilise the Red Clover.
In Europe the tube of the flower is almost invariably pierced
by Bombus terrestris, but I hâve not a single record of this
mode of getting the nectar from any of my New Zealand
correspondents.

Trifolium repens. White clover is not mentioned by H.
Miiller among the flowers visited, but I hâve seen small
neuters among our humble-bees, at work upon it.
Sweet Pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is frequently visited.
Faba vulgaris. Bées are very fond of the flowers of the
Bean ; they appear always to bite a hole into the tube.
Wistaria sinensis is a great favourite. According to Mr.
A. D. Bell, the bées get intoxicated with the honey (?) and
afterwards crawl helplessly on the ground below the plant.

I hâve no record of humble-bees visiting the flowers of Lupins,
which in Europe, according to Darwin, dépend on thèse insects for
their fertilisation. In his "Fertilisation of Flowers" (p. 188) H.
Miiller states that " Mr. Swale observed that in New Zealand culti-
vated varieties of Lupinus were unf ertile unless he released the stamens
with a pin." On reading this, it at once occurred to me that I had
frequently seen Lupins seeding in gardens hère, and this was verified
by my wife, who had frequently gathered seeds of Lupins both hère
and in Christchurch. On applying to Mr. Martin, of Fairfield, for a
vérification of this fact, he informs me that he has had about a dozen
varieties in cultivation for the last twenty or thirty years, and never
had any diiïiculty in obtaining seed from them, many sowing
themselves.

One observer records having seen a humble-bee on flowers of
Wattle. I hâve never seen bées of any kind on the flowers of Acacia,
and am inclined to think that a mistake has been made.

2 2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

In Europe humble-bees visit Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus comiculatus),
Vetch (Vicia sepium) and Scarlet Runner Beans (Phaseolus coccineus) ;
T liavc no record of them in the colony.

Rosace.*:.

The Plum (Prunus communia) and Cherry (P. cerasus) are

visited by the "bées in great numbers.

On the Cherry-Laurel (P. lauro-cerasus), I bave also seen

them in abundance.

The Peach (Persica vulgaris) is less frequently visited.

On Apple-blossom (Pyrus malus) I bave seldom seen them,

though in Europe they visit the trees in great numbers.

On the Pear (P. communis), on the other hand, Millier

states that the bées seldom visit the flowers, and fly away

after trying a few only. Hère, I hâve seen the trees

swarming with humble-bees.

Cydonia japonica is another favourite with thèse insects.

In Europe, humble-bees visit various species of Spirœa or
Meadow-sweet, and Rubus (Blackberry, Raspberry, &c.) ; I hâve no
record of them in New Zealand.

Saxifrages.

Escallonia macrantha occasionally visited.

Ribes. Ail the species, including R. fruticosus (Flowering

Currant), R. nigrum and R. rubrum (Black, Red, and White

Currants) and R. cjrossularia (Gooseberry), are visited by

numbers of humble-bees.

Deutzia sp. I hâve observed the bées abundantly on a

double pink Deutzia in my garden, although the ordinary

single white species is never visited by them.

Crassulacejs.

Sedum sp. I hâve occasionally seen a yellow-flowered
species visited.

Crassula sp. The same remark applies to a pink Crassula
in my garden.

Myrtaces.

Eucalyptus globidus. According to observations made by
Mr. Laing and others in Christchurch, the bées become
intoxicated by the nectar from the flowers of the Blue Gum,
and are frequently to be found on the ground under thèse
trees in a state of complète helplessness, apparently scarcely
able to crawl.

OXAGRARIES.

Fuchsia excorticata. This species, which is a great favourite

with the hive-bee, is occasionally visited by humble-bees.

The latter species, however, swarm on the hybrid (South

American) fuchsias which occur in gardons.

Godetia. The brightly-coloured varieties are much visited,

but the white flowers appear to be ignored.

Œnothera. A correspondent from Waitepeka reports bées

as common on the flowers of the Yellow Evening-primrose.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZEALAND. 23

FICOIDE.E.

Mesembryanthemum sjy. A brilliant crimson-flowered species
appears to be very attractive.

Umbellifer^:.

Parsley (Petroselinum sativum) is the only umbelliferous
plant said to be visited by humble-bees. I hâve not seen
them on it myself, but am informed by a correspondent at
Waitepeka, that they abound on it in his garden.

Caprifoliace^e

Laurustinus (Yibumum tinus) and Honeysuckle (Lonic&ra
sp.) are very niuch frequented. The common honeysuckle
(L. periclymenwm) has a very long tube, and in Europe is
only fertilised by hawk-moths. It will be remarkable if
Bombus terrestris is able to get the nectar from it without
puncturing the corolla.

Dipsacacel*:.

Scabious (Scabiosa atropwrpurea), especially the dark-
coloured varieties are especial favourites of the humble-
bees.

Composite.

In ail this enormous order, which is so abundantly represented
both in the garden and the fieid, I hâve only observed the bées on
nine species of flowers, none of which, however, were white.

Sunflower (Hdianthus), frequently visited.
Dahlia, single yellow and red flowers of this genus are
great favourites. A correspondent in Christchurch says : —
" On thèse I hâve often noticed that the bées appear to be
more or less stupefied, remaining on the flower in the same
position for an hour or so, and then falling to the ground
and buzzing about in a helpless manner when disturbed."
I hâve never observed this in my own garden where the
dahlias are abundant, and are much visited by the bées.
Gaillardia and hybrid Marigolcls (Calendida) are often
visited.

Thistle (Carduus lanceolatus). This flower, especially in
North Otago, affords food to myriads of bées. An observer,
long résident near Otepopo, informs me that the difficulty
of getting through a pièce of country infested with thistles,
has of late years been enormously increased, for timid per-
sons, by the swarms of humble-bees which are to be formel
among the flowers.

A Christchurch observer considers that they become intoxicated
by the nectar of the thistle-flowers ; this has not been verified.

Globe Artichoke (Cynara). Thèse plants when in flower in
my garden are frequently visited. Another great favourite
is the Blue Corn-flower or Cornbottle (Centaurea cyanus).

24 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The only ligulifloral composites on which I hâve seen humble-
bees are Danclelion ( Taraocacum dens-leonis), and — more sparingly —
Tape "YVeed (H y pocha' ris radicata.)

Campanulace^e.

Canterbury Bell (Campanula média) is frequently visited.
Lobelia cri mis (hybrid). Beds of this plant proved very
attractive to the bées last summer.

Erice.e.

Various cultivated Heaths (Prica) both purple and white

are visited by the bées. T hâve never found or heard of

them on long-tubed species however.

Rhododendron. Occasionally bées visit the brilliantly-

coloured species.

Arbutus unedo. The flowers are often visited by humble-

bees which, however, always appear to puncture the corolla.

Primulace^e.

The différent forms of the genus Primula cultivated in
gardens nnder the names of Polyanthuses and Primroses
are hybrids probably between P. vulgaris, P. veris, and P.
elatior. I hâve found bées on both varieties, and also on
Auriculas (P. auricida.') Millier says of Bombus terrestris
that it " makes a hole in the corolla- tube, a little above the
calyx, sometimes biting it with its mandible, sometimes
piercing it with its maxillœ, and so reaching the honey with
its tongue, (I hâve sometimes seen this bee, before boring
the flower, make several attempts to reach the honey in the
legitimate way, — this observation is of interest, as proving
that the bee is not guided by instinct to the plant adapted
for it, but that it makes experiments, and gets its honey
where and how it can.") I hâve watched bées on the
flowers of Polyanthus and could only detect them brushing
up the pollen, but never piercing the corolla so as to reach
the nectar. Millier further states that " pollen-collecting
bées are only able to secure their pollen in short-styled
flowers ; they learn to recognise the long-styled plants at a
distance and to avoid them, and then never perform cross-
fertilisation but very often self -fertilisation." However this
may be, one interesting resuit I lmve noted in my own
garden is, that this last spring, for the first time in my
expérience in New Zealand, my Polyanthuses hâve sown
themselves in the flower-borders. Attempts hâve often
been made both hère and în other parts to naturalise the
Primrose and Cowslip in the woods and waste places, but
hitherto without success. Now it would seem as if by the
agency of the humble-bees this might be possible.

BORAGINEiE.

Anchusa sp. A large species in my garden is greatly
frequented by the bées.

THE HUMBLE-BEE IN NEW ZEALAND. 25

SOLANE^E.

Solanum jasminoides. According to an Oamaru correspon-
dent this plant is a great favourite.

Pétunia. One correspondent bas observed them on thèse
flowers.

SCROPHULARINE.E.

Linaria. Two cultivated species, one with white and purple
flowers, the other (L. tristis) with yellow and crimson
flowers, are frequently visited by the bées in the normal
manner.

Antirrhinum (Frogsniouth or Snapdragon.) Thèse flowers,
like those of Linaria, are only fertilised by humble-bees, and
are much visited by them. According to Mr. Page of
Christchurch, the bées puncture the corollas, and this is
particularly the case as the season advances. Presumably
therefore it is the small bées which learn this habit only,
the larger ones being both strong enough to open the
corolla and having probosces long enough to reach the
nectar.

Pentstemon. Thèse flowers are regularly visited.
Digitalis purpurea. The Foxglove is a great favourite with
humble-bees. I fincl however the flowers are perfectly self-
fertile, as it blooms ail the year round with us and sets seed
in ail weathers ; this too, happened long before humble-bees
were introduced.

Veronica. I hâve never seen the bées on any of the native
species of this genus (except V. elliptica, noted on p. 19),
but on the purple, and especially the crimson hybrids found
in many gardens they are to be seen in abundance. While
neglecting white flowers, the bées seem to be particularly
attracted to red and blue flowers.

Bignoniacejs.

Eccremocarpus scaber. According to a Christchurch corres-
pondent, thèse flowers are always punctured by the bées for
their nectar.

Verbenaceje.

Ngaio (Myoporum lœtum) is visited by the bées, according to
Mr. Fleming of Palmerston S.

Labiat^e.

Rosemary {Rosmarinus) is eagerly sought after by the bées.
Salvia Grahami. According to the Editor of the "New
Zealand Country Journal," the bées bite the flowers of this
plant a little above the calyx. I find them common on a
a species of Stachys.

Many flowers of this order are regularly visited in Europe
by humble-bees, e.g. Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) and Mar-
joram. I hâve no record of their being so visited hère.

Proteaceje.

Hakea sp. I hâve obseived the btes in great numbers on
the flowers of a pink species.

26 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sai.icink.k.

The Goat-willow (Salix caprea) is visited both for pollen and
nectar. I hâve also secn the bées on the pistillate flowers
of onc of the Poplars (Populus nigra), presumably for the
sweet (?) sécrétion which is found on the whole inflorescence.

Tride;e.

The bées occasionally visit the flowers of a dark blue species
of Iris in my garden ; I hâve not seen them on flowers of
any other colour.

Crocus. Several observers hâve recorded them from white
flowers, but on no other colour.

Amaryllide.k.

The Snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) is one of the few whito
flowers visited by humble-bees.

Karcissus. I hâve notes of the bées visiting single and
double Daffodils, single Jonquils, and both white and yellow
hybrid Polyanthus Narcissus. In ail those flowers having a
tube-like corona, the bées alight on the perianth and pierce
the tube to reach the nectar.

Ltliace.e.

ïulips are frequently visited by humble-bees, so also are
Hyacinths. In many gardens I hâve noticed that the
latter flowers are visited legitimately, while in others in a
différent district, three or four miles away, the perianths
are invariably pierced by the bées. There is no doubt that
when once a humble-bee has learned the art of getting
nectar in an easy manner, it teaches others the art, so that
ail in a district acquire it. Growers of hyacinths in districts
where the bées pierce the flowers, were this last spring in
despair over the wholesale destruction of their favourite
flower.

There can be no doubt that the list of flowers gïven above is still
very incomplète, and others who will take the trouble to record their
observations will be able to supplément it largely. It will be of
interest also to watch whether as the bées increase, they extend their
visits to flowers which at présent are passed over.

Another point worth noting is as to the "swarming" of humble-
bees. The life-history and social economy of thèse insects are quite
différent from those of hive-bees, and the habit of ,'swarming in the
former is not at first sight a probable one, yet both in Britain and in
this colony, it has been anirmed that swarms of humble-bees hâve
been seen. There is evidently ample room for observational work in
connection with the development of Bombus terrestris in New Zealand.

THE TUATARA. 2>]

PRELIMINARY NOTE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE

TUATARA (Sphenodon punctaium).*

BY PROF. A. P. W. THOMAS, M. A., F. G. S., F.L.S., University Collège,
Auckland, N.Z.

A grant was made by tlie Royal Society in the year 1884 to Pro-
fessor T. J. Parker, of Dunedin, for the study of the development of
Aptéryx, Sphenodon, and Callorhynchus. As Sphenodon does not occur
near Dunedin, but is found chiefly on outlying islands belonging to the
province of Auckland, at the opposite end of the colony, Professor
Parker invited me to join him in the investigation of this form.

We gathered from what had been written on the natural history of
the tuatara, as well as from oral information obtained from those who
were best acquainted with the New Zealand faima, that the month of
February was probably the time at which the tuatara bred.

We therefore started from Auckland at the beginning of February,
1885, for what appeared the most promising hunting-ground — the
islancl of Karewa, some ten miles from Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty.
Mr. A. Reischek, a naturalist well known by his researches on the
natural history of New Zealand, who had already had opportunities of
observing the tuatara, was good enough to accompany us.

The island of Karewa is situated some four miles from the main-
land; it is little more than a rock which rises with précipitons sides
high above the sea. At one spot onl}T can a landing be effected, as the
island is exposed to the océan swell rolling in from the open Pacific,
whilst the shores are for the greater part formed by unscaleable clifFs of
rhyolitic rock. Our first atteinpt at landing was frastrated by the
swell, but a day later a second attempt was successful.

The végétation on the island is largely composed of small karaka
trees and thickets of coprosma. The light, loose soil between the roots
of trees and the rocks is mined by countless burrows, in which live
mutton-birds {Puffinus tenuirostris) and tuataras.

On the " Chicken Islands " the tuataras hâve been described by
Mr. Reischek as living with certain other sea-birds, namely, another
species of Puffinus (P. gavius) and two species of Procellaria. This
has been cited in ' Nature't as an interesting case of commensalism, and
and it is there stated that the birds " live in holes dug out by the
tuataras and keep apparently on the best terms with them." It is
stated that the tuatara generally lives on the right and the sea-bird on
the left of the inner chamber.

I believe it is quite a mistake to suppose that any friendly relation
whatever exists between the tuataras and the birds, and that hère, as
in the somewhat similar case of the prairie dog and rattlesnake, the idea
of friendliness is quite out of place. It is true that the tuatara some-
times makes use of the burrows of the mutton-bird (though I hâve

*From the " Proceedings of the Royal Society," Vol. 48.

t October 19th, 1882. See also "Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,"

Vol. XIV., p. 274.

28 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

never fourni a tuatara living m the same burrow as a mutton-bird), but
it cannot be said that the two species ever live on more favourable
ternis fchan those of mutual toleration. At one time I kept two kiwis
in a large house with a number of tuataras, and a tuatara would at
times shelter itself in the same box or corner as a kiwi — the two never
attempting to fight, the tuatara hiding itself under the kiwi as it would
do under a stone, whilst the kiwi seemed not to notice its présence.
The tuatara seems to enter the burrow of the mutton-bird just as it
would shelter itself in any other hole in the ground.

In any case, the tuatara must be an untrustworthy associate, for
on four occasions I hâve seen or captured tuataras with young mutton-
bircls in their mouths. It is probably a truer view of the situation to
suppose that the chance of getting a nestling renders the burrows of the
mutton-bird more attractive to the tuatara.

Dr. Giinther, in the absence of personal observation, supposed that
the tuatara was incapable of burrowing. It is, however, certain that it
can burrow well in such light soil as is found on Karewa, and even in
the clay soil on which my lizard-houses are situated the animais hâve
made burrows fully two feet in length, in which they are completely
hiclden. Not ail the lizards, however, are so industrious ; most of them
hâve contented themselves with the artificial burrows. in llie shape of
long wooden boxes and drain pipes, with which they hâve been provided.

We spent some days camping on the island and captured a number
of tuataras, but searched in vain for eggs, though we opened up many
burrows in the hope of tinding them. The smallest tuatara found was
4-9 inches in length. Not finding eggs, we dissected several tuataras,
thinking that the condition of the ovaries might tell us whether we
were too early or too late in the breeding season, but the dissection
revealed no eggs at ail approaching maturity.

We took away from the island a number of tuataras, hoping that
they would breed in captivity. Some of thèse were taken by Professor
Parker to Dunedin, a rather larger number being kept by me in
Auckland, as it was thought that the warmer climate of the northern
part of the colony would be more favourable.

Up to the beginning of January, 1886, no eggs Lad been obtained
from my tuataras, and, as regards the lizards I then possessed, any
such hope was futile, for I shortly afterwards discovered that ail my
tuataras (twenty-nine in number) were maies. Thinking that oui*
visit the previous summer had been too late in the season, I déterminée!
to make another expédition to Karewa, tins time at my own expense.
Professor Parker was unable to join me, owing to the great distance of
Dunedin from the spot ; ho was, moreover, engaged in working at the
development of the kiwi. From this date, therefore, the whole of the
work fell into my hands. I spent three or four days at the beginning
of January in camp alone on Karewa ; but, although a month earlier
in the s;eason than on the occasion of the previous visit, I was again
unsuccessral in procuring a single egg of the tuatara.

I made, however, a step in advance by discovering the external
différences between the sexes. We had been assured by those familiar
with the tuatara that there was no différence in the external characters

THE TUATAKA. 29

of tlie sexes, and this statement seemed to be borne ont by what we
could learn from the literature of tlie subjeot. Thus, Dr. Newman, tlie
latest writer on the subject, said* : "The maies are so like the females
that they hâve not yet been distingnisued with certain ty."

" The maie tnatara has no spécial strong marked tints, no spécial
personal attraction ; and, nnlike the maies of several other species of
lizards, are not much, if at ail, bigger than the females. The absence
of spécial sexual attributes is perhaps due, &c."

On clissecting and carefully comparing a number of tuataras, I
found that the current statements were not correct. There need
seldom be any difficulty in distinguishiiig the sexes ; the maie is much
larger, and lias the crests on neck and back far more strongly developed.
In the fully adult maie, the crests with their white spines are veiy
conspicuous ; in the female, the crests are low, and the spines are
reduced to a row of white points along the back. The maie, too, is of
more robust build, its coloration is somewhat brighter, and it is more
pugnacious. During the breeding season the crests in the maie become
at tirnes turgid and swollen, the spines standing stifrly up, and giviug
the animal a much more antique and grotesque appearance. It must
be noted, however, that a good deal of variation occurs in both the
tints and brightness of colour in both sexes, and the spines are larger
in some females than in others.

The discovery of the external characters of the sexes showed me
that ail the tuataras I had kept for the past year (twenty-nine in
number) were maies. This arose chiefiy from the fact that maies are'
more easily obtained than females ; but it is possible that our désire to
obtain the largest, most vigorous, and fully adult animais for breeding
accounts in part for our having retained only maies for breeding
purposes.

On the occasion of this second visit I semu-ed as m any females as I
could, but found more difficulty in obtaining females than maies, so
that I set a number of maies at liberty as being superfluous. The
apparently greater abundance of the maies is perhaps due to the
females seeking concealment more than the other sex ; at any rate, I
am led to suggest this from the observation of my tuataras kept in
confinement. The instinct of concealment would, of course, be of
spécial value to a female laden with eggs.

Notwithstanding that I now possessed a dozen pairs of tuataras, 110
eggs were obtained till the following summer. The lizards had been
kept in large houses and were well cared for, and appeared in good
health, but would not breed. Captivity would seem to interfère with
their reproductive powers, an effect which would hardly be anticipated
with animais of so sluggish a nature.

I could only refer their sterility in confinement to a change in
some of the conditions of life conséquent on captivity, and endeavouring
therefore, to make their surroundings approximate more closely to the
natural ones, I had still larger houses constructed, and extensive runs
on the open ground enclosed.

It was not, however, till January, 18S9, that eggs were obtained,
and even then some of them were infertile. Weary of the constant
watching of the lizards in previous summers, I took a short holiday at
the New Year, and during au absence of five or six days a female

* "Transactions New Zealand Institute," vol. iO, p. 225.

JO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

tizard died, but waa not notieed by the attendant in charge. On my

return I fourni that it had contained twelve fully formed eggs; tliey
had, however, began to putrefy. A second female laid ten eggs, which
proved infertile. A third, which promised well, died from inability to
lay its eggs. It waa closely watched, and dissected within an hour of

its death. The oviducts contained four and five eggs respectively, fully
formed and ready for laying. From thèse eggs were obtained a number
of embryos at varions stages of development, from a stage equal to a
two days' chick up to a stage shortly before hatchiug. This year I
lioped to obtain a further supply of embryos, but only one female lias
laid, and lier eggs were infertile.

The eggs of the tuatara are oval in form, both ends being of equal
diameter, and vary in length from 2*5 to 3-35 cm. The egg-shell is
probably much like that of other oviparous lizards, being tough, flexible,
and very elastic; it contains a varying amount of carbonate of lime.
The eggs dry and shrivel with great readiness when exposed to the
air, and must, therefore, be kept in damp surroundings. On the other
hand, excess of moisture encourages the growth cf micro-organisms in
the mucus with whicli the eggs are frequently covered when laid, and
such foreign growths tend to the destruction of the contents.

On the whole, the gênerai features of the development are closely
similar to those in other lizards ; I propose, therefore, to reserve the
détails until a complète account can be given. I may, however, mention
that the pinçai eye becomes a promint feature at an early stage. When
pigment is deposited in the skin, an oval spot is left free from it over'
the eye, and through this the dark pigment of the retina shows clearly.
Spencer has stated that there is in Splmxodon very little external trace
of the pineal eye. This is true of the adult, but in the recently hatched
tuatara the pineal eye still shows as a dark spot through the translucent
skin over the pariétal foramen. This I hâve been able to observe even
in a tuatara 8 inches in length. But as the tuatara grows older the
skin over the pineal eye becomes more opaque, and though in some
individuals the scantier development of the pigment over the pariétal
foramen affords a feeble indication of the position of the eye, yet in
others the pigment is deposited there as elsewhere, so that ail external
trace of the eye is finally lost.

GENERAL NOTES.

The Birds of New Zealand." — Lovers of books will regret to

learn that two shipments of Sir Walter Buller's " Birds of New
Zealand " hâve been lost at sea. In the early part of last year over a
hundred copies of this work destined for Auckland subscribers went
down in the ill-fated steamer " Maitai," when she struck on a rock ofF
Mercvuy Island; and now, by the mysterious loss of the barque
"Assaye,"on lier voyage from London> one hundred and forty more
subscribers' copies hâve disappeared. The édition having been strictly
limited to one tJiousand, and the colour stones having been destroyed
(so as to keep faith with the subscribers), the commercial value of the
copies that remain ought to be considerably enhanced ; indeed, we are
informed that Messrs. E. A. Petherick & Co., the well known Sydney
booksellers, sold their last copy for £16, being five pounds in excess of

GENERAL NOTES. 31

the original price paid by original subscribers in this colony. Sub-
scribers who possess this work will, however, do well to retain it ; for
there is no reason why it should not, like the former édition, rise to a
phénoménal value in the course of a few years. The cost of producing
the highly finished illustrations in colours is so enormous that it is
hardly likely ever to reach a third édition ; whilst on the other hand,
the birds themselves are becoming so rapidly extinct that ère long
many of the species will be a mère memory of the past. We hâve
lately seen a letter from Sir George Grey, in which lie refers to it as
"a valuable and beautiful work," which lie lias added to his
munificent gifts of books to the Auckland Free Library. Professor
McCoy, F.R.S., the accomplished Director-General of the National
Muséum at Melbourne, who is himself engaged on the Fauna of
Victoria, says, in a letter to Sir Walter Buller : — " T congratulate y ou
"heartily on the magnificent work which you hâve completed — taking
•' letterpress and figures together, far and away the finest local Fauna
"the Colonies hâve seen. You hâve shewn the way, but it will be
u very hard indeed to folio w."

The Spread of Ferrets, Weasels and Stoats in the South
Island. — The action of the Government of this colony in introducing
thèse noxious vermin, at the instigation of a few runholders, proves to
be a most disastrous experimant as far as the indigenous avifauna is
concerned. The following extract is instructive. It is taken from the
report furnished to the Surveyor-General by Mr. G. Mueller, Chief
Surveyor of Westland, ofa " Reconnaissance Survey of the head-waters
of the Okuru, Acton, and Burke Hivers, Westland," and appears in the
last report (1890) of the Survey DepartmeDt. Mr. Mueller says : —
" During the past summer several weasels and ferrets were caught and
killecl at the Okuru and Waiatoto settlements. Thèse créatures were
taken close to, and some within a mile from, the sea coast. To the
question as to where they corne from there could be only one auswer :
nobody introduced them into Westland, and hence they must hâve
been the progeuy of those imported by the Government, and must hâve
found their way across the Dividing Range, from either Otago or Can-
terbury, or both. But in the absence of any signs of rabbits about the
coast settlements, it is difficult to understand what biought thèse créa-
tures over. This mystery was effectually cleared up on my exploration
trip. We were prepared to meet with rabbits on the first day's travel
inland, but we were disappointed. It was not until we got near the
Actor, about nineteen miles from the sea-coast, that we noticed the first
traces of rabbits, and it was not until we got to the very head-waters of
the Okuru that we saw the rabbits in numbers. The ferrets and
weasels, no doubt came up the Dividing Range with the rabbits, but as
soon as they discovered our ground-birds — our kakapos, kiwis, wood-
hens, blue-ducks, and such like — they followed up the more palatable
game. This is what brought the ferrets and weasels down to the coast
settlements, and the rabbits on our side of the dividing range will
henceforth be left undisturbed and be allowed to spread as they pleasa.
Past expériences hâve satisfied me that rabbits ne ver will do much
mischief on the West Coast. Years ago they were turned oui in
several parts of Westland — parts most favourable to them, open lands
and sandhills — but they ail died out. The climate is evidently too
damp for them, and they certainly will never thrive in oui* dense bush-

32 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

country. But, as regards tho ferrets, weasels, &c, they will tlirive, and
will continue to thrivo until tlie extermination of our ground-birds,
which lias now begun, is fully aecomplished. That I am not prophecy-
ing evil without good ground I may prove by tlie following : — ïn ail
ray explorations on the coast, the certainty of getting a good supply of
birds made it ])ossible to keep the provision swags, which men had to
carry, within reasonable weights and dimensions. On this last trip of
mine rather more than the usnal amount of provisions was taken, but
in spite of this précaution, the party had to be put on short rations for
the last three days — namely, one scone per man per day. The further
inland the more plentiful the birds, used to be the rule; but that is
reversed now. At the head of the Okuru and the Burke some nights
passed during which we never heard the screech of the kakapo or the
shrill whistle of the kiwi ; and, as for the blue-ducks, we saw only three
during the whole time we were ou t. In tonner times while camping
near the head-waters of any of the rivers, the fighting of the kakapos
amongst themselves, and the constant call of the other birds around the
tent and camp-fire during the night, often kept people from sleeping.
This lias ail changea1 now ; at least in the southern part of the West
Coast absolute stillness reigns at night, and there is nothing to keep a
traveller from sleeping, except owing to the absence of birds — an empty
stomach."

"Select Extua-Tkopical Plants," by Baron Ferd. Von Miieller.
— This valuable work has now reached its seventh édition, and is greatlv
enlarged in bulk and usefulness. Every species of useful plant suitable
for cultivation within the temperate and warm temperate zones is
treated of, its gênerai character, uses, and native habitat being given.
At the end are given tables, indicating ail the gênera of thèse plants
according to their uses, thus greatly facilitating référence. Other
useful tables give (a) the names of the plants according to their
geogvaphical distribution, (b) important cultural plants arrangea
according to the length of time they require to yield a return,
(c) those adapted for a frostless climate, (d) those adapted even for
very cold régions, and (e) those fitted even for the driest climate. A
very full index to vernacular names concludes this useful volume.
Editions of this useful work hâve already appeared in India and the
United States. It has also passed througli a German édition by Dr»
Goeze, and a French recast by Professor Nauclin. It is nlso appearing
now in a Spanish translation ' by Professor Kurtz. Thèse facts show
how much the work is in demand among ail the colonising peoples of
tlie world.

Fortiicomixg Botanical WoRits. — Ail botanists will be rejoiced
to hear that u The Student's Handbook of the New Zealand Flora," by
Mr. Thos. Kirk, F.L.S., of Wellington, is now in the printer's hands,
though it will probably not be completed for some time yet. Judging
by the spécimen pages received, the work will be of a very handy size
and excellcntly printed, while the author's naine is a guarantee of its
botanical value.

Another work, which will very shortly be published, is an " Intro-
duction to Structural Botany, for use in New Zealand Schoo.ls," by Mr.
Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. ltwill be a small volume of about 150 pages
illustrated by over 200 figures, drawn on wood by the author.

Both works are being printed at the Government Printing Office.

MEETINGS OF SOCIËTIES. 33

Are there an y Freshwater Crayfish in Fiji. — A freshwater
crayfish belonging to the same genus as those from New Zealand
— Paraneplirops — is saicl to be founcl in Fiji, and is mentioned by
Professor Huxley in his paper on Freshwater Crayfish in the
"Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1878," p. 770. The statement
appears to rest on spécimens in the British Muséum, and Professor
Walter Faxon in his " Revision of the Âstacidse," suggests that the
locality-labels are perhaps erroneous. For some years past I hâve been
watching for an opportnnity to get spécimens from Fiji if possible, so
as to settle the question, but it was not till this year that I could hear
of anyone to collect for me. Through Professor Hutton I tlien became
acquainted by correspoudence with Mr. H. H. Thiele of Nansori, Fiji,
and this gentleman very kindly set to work at once to collecl for me,
and I received a bottle of spécimens from him in August last.
Unfortunatefy, however, thèse spécimens turned ont to be Freshwater
Prawns or Shrimps (Palaemon), not Crayfish {Pavaneplirops), so that
they were of no use in settling the particular question at issue.
However it seems that Freshwater Crayfish must undoubtedly exist in
Fiji, for in October, 1889, Major W. G. Mair kindly wrote to me to
say that his late brother, H. A. Mair, who is well known as a keen
observer and collecter in Natural History, had lived for some years in
Fiji, principally in Ovalau and Yiti-Levu, and had caught Crayfish in
the mountain streams of thèse places, which appeared to him to be
identical with those found in Rotorua, Rotoiti, and other lakes of the
North Island. If any of the readers of the " New Zealand Journal of
Science " can give me any further information on the matter, or can get
spécimens for me I shall be much indebted to them. — Chas. Chilton,
Port Chalmers, 6tli December, 1890.

New Zealand Entomology. — Our readers will be glad to learn
that Mr. G. Y. Hudson of Wellington is about to publish a popular
handbook of the insects of New Zealand, with -coloured illustrations
from drawings by himself. The book will be issuecl at Ten Shillings,
and will form an acceptable addition to our local literature. Â
référence to this publication will be found at p. 48, in the report of the
meeting of the Wellington Philosophical Society, held on 29th October.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

OTAGO INSTTTUTE.

Dunedin, 14th October, 1890.— Rev. H. Belcher, M.A., LL.D.,
Président, in the chair.

Papers. — (1) "On a new parasitic Copepod," by Geo. M. Thomson,
F.L.S. The author described and figurée] a new species of Lepeopli-
theirus which was forwarded to him by Mr. J. F. Erecson, of Waipapapa
Point Lighthouse, and which he lias named after that excellent observer
and collector L. Erecsoni. It is a small species, and was taken in con-
sidérable numbers on the bodies of the Moki {Latris ciliaris). Mr.
Thomson then gave a popular account, aided by numerous diagrams, of
the form, development and mode of life of the ecto parasites belonging
to the Copepoda.

34 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

(2) ': On two ncw species of Cumacea," by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S.
The author pointed ont that no Crustaceans of tliis group liad previously
heon found in New Zealand. The two species described and figured
belong respeetively to the gênera Cyclaspis and Diastylis and were taken
with the dredge in the Bay of Islands. Small spécimens of the Cyclaspis
were also taken with the surface-net in Otago Harbour.

The genus Cyclaspis was originally founded on a deep-sea form G.
longicaudata, found by Professor Sars off the Coast of Norway and
again at great depths in the Atlantic. A second species was subse-
quently found in the Mediterranean, and the " Challenger " Expédition
broughc back three more, ail belonging to the Australian seas. The
New Zealand species though very distinct from ail the others appears
to be most nearly allied to the Australian C. pusïlli.

The genus Diastylis is largely represented, especially in the
Northern Océan. The local species appears to be quite distinct from
any of the 31 species previously described.

(3) " Notes on the New Zealand Squillidœ" by Chas Chilton,
M. A., B.Sc. In this paper it was shown that the two species of
SquilUdœ given in Miers' " Catalogue of the N.Z. Crustacea," viz : —
Squilla nepa and Gonodactylus trispinosus — are not represented from
New Zealand in any colonial collection, and that it is very doubtful
Avhether they really belong to the New Zealand fauna. The only
species actually known from New Zealand are Squilla armata recorded
from Wellington by Mr. T. W. Kirk, and Lysiosquilla spinosa, the
latter being taken to include Coronis spinosa Wood-Mason, Squilla
indefensa Kirk, Squilla lœvis Hutton, and Squilla tridentata Thomson.
This species is widely distributed over New Zealand and the adjoining
islands. Both sexes are fully described and measurements for
comparison with the species described by Brooks in the " "Report on the
'Challenger' Stomatopoda," are also given. The peculiar structure
found on the endopodite of the first abdominal appendage of the maie is
also described and figured.

(4) " On the changes in form of a parasitic Isopod (Nerocila)" by
Chas. Chilton, M.A., B.Sc. This paper contained a few notes on a
parasitic isopod — Nerocila macleayii, Leach, of which A7, novœ-zealandiœ
Schiodte and Meinert, is considered a synonym. The younger forms
which difFer from the adult females in the breadth of the body, eyes,
prominence of epimera, &c , are described and compared with the adult,
and figures of each are given.

(5) " On the origin of the Sternum," by Professor T. Jeffery
Parker, F.E..S. The author contrasts the two forms of Sternum found
in Vertebrata, the costal sternum of Amniota and the omo-sternum (pre-
and post-omo-sternum) of Amphibia, and attempts to show how, in spite
of their différent ontogeny, they may be genetically connected. He also
describes the shoulder-girdle of Natidanus indicus and draws attention
to the fact that its mid-ventral portion is formed by two distinct cartila-
ginous éléments, apparentljT the pre- and post-omo sternum. This
appears to be the first instance hitherto recorded of the occurrence of
a sternum in fishes.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 35

ANNUAL MEETING.

Dunedin, 18th Novembar, 1890.— Rev. H. Belclier, M. A., LL.D.,
Président, in the chair.

Paper. — The Président read a paper on Ibsen's Works.

ANNUAL REPORT.

The Secretary (Prof essor Gibbons) read the annual report as
follows :— -

In presenting their report for the past session the council has to
again express its regret that the meetings of the sociefcy hâve not been
more largely attended by the members and the public. The System of
sending out post cards to members on the eve of each meeting has been
abandoned in favour of putting an advertisement in the newspapers,
without producing any appréciable change in the numbers attending
the meetings. A conversazione was held on Mardi 1, during the visit
of the Senate of the New Zealand University to Dunedin. During the
session six gênerai meetings were held. At the first an interesting
account was given by Mr. Chapman of his visit to the outlying
islands south of New Zealand when lie exhibited maps and spéci-
mens of the birds and plants obtained on them. At the July
meeting a paper " On the extinction of the Moa " was read by Rev.
Mr. Christie, of Waikouaiti ; and at the September meeting a paper
" On the food of the Moa and its extinction," by Mr. Vincent Pyke,
was also read. At the August meeting a paper " On the philosophy of
David Hunie " was read by Professor Salmoncl. At the other meetings
papers were read as follows: —"A new species of Megeis," by Mr.
Goyen; " Description of Native plants," by Mr. Pétrie; " The etymo-
logy of the Penguin," by Dr. Belcher ; " On the Cat in Ancient Italy,"
by Dr. Belcher; " On the anatomy of the Red Cod (Lotella Bacchus) "
by Mr. Beattie ; " The New Zealand Squillidse," and ". The change in
the form of an Isopod," by Mr. Chilton; "On a new parasitic Copepod,"
and "Two species of Cumacea," by Mr. Thomson; "On the origin of the
Sternum," by Professor Parker. In the course of the session a new
bookcase has been obtained for the library, to which numerous additions
of books hâve been made, including Day's " Fishes of India" ; and a
large number of back volumes of periodicals hâve been bound. A
microscope-attachment to the magie lantern has been obtained, which
the council hope will prove an additional attraction to the meetings.
During the session four new members were elected. The number on
the roll is now 123, of whom 10 are life members. The balance-sheet
shows a balance from last year of £76 2s. ld., subscriptions to date
£129 2s. 6d., making total receipts £205 4s. 7d. Cash expenditure,
£96 5s. 7d. ; leaving a crédit balance of «£108 19s. The liabilities
amount to £50. There is also a sum of £277 14s. standing in the
bank on fixed deposit.

On the motion of Mr. A. Wilson, M.A., the report was adopted.

The following gentlemen were elected ofhce-bearers for 1891: —
Président : Professor F. B. de M. Gibbons, M. A. Vice-Présidents :
Rev. H. Belcher, M.A., LL.D., and Mr. C. W. Adams. Hon.

36 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Secretary: Mr. A. Hamilton. Hon. Treasurer : Mr. E. Melland.
Council : Professors Parker, FR.S., and Scott, M.D., Drs. Hocken,
F.L.S., and de Zoucbe, Messrs. F. R. Chapman, D. Pétrie, M. A., and
Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. Auditor : Mr. D. Brent, M.A.

Mr. D. Brent mentioned tliat the Otago Institute had now corne
of âge — tliat was to say, it was just 21 years old. On July 3,
1869, Mr. J. S. Webb, who took a very active part in the foimdation
of the institute, convened a meeting in the long room of the Athenamm
Hall, at which Dr. Hocken was also présent. About three weeks after-
wards a meeting was held in the Provincial Council library, at which
the Otago Institute was formally constituted. A list of the original
members showed 80 names, and on looking over it lie was surprisecl to
iind tliat 20 of them still belonged to the institute. They were : —
Messrs. C. W. Adams, G. M. Barr, A. Bathgate, L. O. Beal, A.
Beverly, D. Brent, Robert Chapman, W. Fraser (Enrnscleugh), Dr.
Hocken, James M'Kerrow, W. Martin (Green Island) A. C. Purdie,
E. C. Quickj James Rattray, Hon. W. H. Reynolds, G. G. Russell,
H. Skey, and Sir R. Stout. Others had left the colony, but the
following original members had since passed away : — Messrs. W.
Arthur, Dr. Borrows, R. Gillies, S. Hawthorne, W. Langlands, J.
Macandrew, W. D. Murison, A. C. Strode, and J. T. Thomson. Judge
Ward presided at the meeting to which lie had just made référence,
and ^Fessrs. J. S. Webb and Dr. Hocken were the first joint secretaries.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Wellington, 23rd July, 1890.— Charles Hulke, F.C.S., Président,
in the chair.

New Member. — Mr. J. W. Poynton.

Papers. — (1) " Curiosities of Polynesian Speech," by E. Tregear,
F.R.G.S. Mr. Tregear said that having been for some years employed
in the comparative study of the Polynesian dialects, lie had devoted
himself to the task of collating différent vocabularies and putting them
into a position wherein they could be easily examined. The Maori
language was a brancïi of a great family of human speech, and any
effort made to understand it in its original purity would fail if it was
studied without the light thrown upon it by the sister dialects. In
many of the islands inhabited by the fair Polynesians letters had been
lost froni their alphabets, and the work of an investigator was cramped
if lie had not the time or energy to accumulate the material at présent
lying in a chaotic state. His Comparative Dictionary was an
endeavour to produce a work tending to simplify this labour, and to
allow a student to perceive at a glance what words or probable words
were équivalent to those in use in New Zealand. Any attempt to
compare the Polynesian language withthe speech of peoples dwelling on
the great continents would also be simplifiée! by the existence of such a
handbook. During the course of his investigations lie had searched
tbrough hiindreds of old poems, legends, <kc, and had coinpared the
mythologies, généalogies, àc, of celebrated deities, and heroes, as given
in New Zealand, Samoa, Tahiti, Tonga, Rtratonga, the Marquesas,

MEETINGS OF SOC1ETIES. 37

Hawaii, &c., in ordcr that tlie book might serve as a classical dictionary
for Polynesia. The work had proved so interesting to him that lie
believed some of the results might also be of interest to the members of
the Society, and lie proposed to adduce some examples of words, showing
the curions letter-chano-es and remarkable distortions of meanino- in

o o

many cases. Mr. Tregear then gave at length comparatives and mean-
ings of the Maori words koi, kao, ehu, ike, hune, hono, whenua, raumati,
kerokero, taurekareka, erangi, ua, ivhakairo, mua, hoa, mahara, kokiri,
tarepar&pa, mangere, ?'omi, &c, &c.

In the second part of his paper Mr. Tregear said, that the habit of
substituting a lost consonant between two vowels, or before a word
oommencing with a vowel, became so confirmed with one accustomed to
study the Eastern Polynesian dialects that it was almcst impossible not
to read Maori in the same way. Some of the words used by the Maori
people had a double forni, with or without the k ; and other words, if
compared with similar forms in the différent dialects, appeared to hâve
lost a consonant. It was possible, lie believed, by comparative study,
to restore the lost consonants in the Maori language, although it would
need much study and great care. The resuit of his research was that,
although the New Zealand Maori had lost less than any of the other
Oceanic dialects, it was by îio means the primitive and virgin speech
commonly supposée!.

The Président congratulatcd the members upon the fact of this
paper being the first one that had been offered in compétition for the
Society 's medals, although he was afraid that the author would hâve the
field to himself. As regards this paper it was a most interesting one, not
only on account of the subjects but on account of the manner in which
the subject had been treated. Those who took an interest in thèse
matters should be thankful for any addition made to oui* knowledge of
thèse dialects ; the more so when such work was done as a labour of
love. The way in which the author had made a comparative analysis
of the différent Polynesian dialects threw a new light entirely upon
them. Some persons might consider such a paper dry, but the author,
from the novel manner in which he had treated his subject, had made
it very interesting, and the suggestions were extremely valuable. The
great value of this paper lay in the author's views on the reconstruction
of the originals of the numerous dialects in use in Polynesia.

(2) "On the New Zealand Cicadœ," by G. V. Hudson, F.E.S.
The author began by drawing attention to the erroneous name of
" locust " whiCh was frequently applied to the Cicadœ, and pointed ont
that they had no manner of affinity with that family of insects. Allu-
sion was also made to the fact that they were essentially charac'.eristic
of the tropical and warmer temperate régions of the world. The
apparatus which enables the maies to make the well-known chirping
was then briefly described, as well as the ovipositors of the females.
Six species of Cicadœ were noticecl, and their habits, àc, described, two
of which, Cicada singulata and muta, were already known, and four,
C. tristis, C. aprilina, C. cassée, C. iolantlie, were new species. The
author then recounted a few observations lie had made on the life-
histories of the Cicadœ, and pointed ont what a large amount of
investigation was still needed in that direction.

38 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Mr. T. W. Kirk was surprised that this interesting genus had
hitherto been almost passée! over by New Zealand entomologists. The
paper just read would be extremely Velcome to naturalists. As far
back as 1872,. tlie latc Dr. Powell described, in the "Transactions of
the New Zealand Institutc," tlie striduïating organs of the New Zealand
species, and about two years ago Mr. Lucas did the same for Australia.
Mr. Hudson made no mention in his paper of the destructive habits of
the Cicadœ. A few days after tlie female emerged she commenced to
lav. Making a longitudinal slit in the bark of the tree, she proceeds to
saw a number of V-shaped cuts in the wood so as to raise the fibres and
prevent the bark from healing. She then deposits lier eggs in pairs in
each wound. The total laying sometimes amounts to hundreds. The
female then dies, the eggs hatch, and the young grub drops to the
ground, and then undergoes the transformation mentioned by Mr.
Hudson. The Clcada prefers the Manuka, but nothing cornes amiss,
and the young shoots of orchard trees sometimes sufi'er considerably ;
the damaged shoots, if not killed, generally break ofT when the fruit
begins to swell. As regards the pupa being mistaken for mole-crickets,
lie might say that there certainly were véritable English mole -crickets
in New Zealand. He had exhibited spécimens which were alive wheai
received.

Mr. Maskell had seen twigs of fruit- and other trees damaged by
thèse insects, but he did not think the urgency was so great as supposed ;
still it was sufncient to make those concernée! take steps to prevent it.

Mr. Hudson, in reply, said that he had not in this paper gone into
the subject of the eggs of the Cicadœ; indeed lie had great difïiculty in
procuriug eggs, and would be glad to get theni from any member.

Wellington, 13th August, 1890— Charles Hulke, F.C.S., Président,
in the chair.

Paper. — uOn some Means for increasing the scale of Photographie
Lenses, and the use of telescopic powers in connection with an ordinary
Caméra," by Alex. McKay, F.G.S. This is a discovery in the arfc of
photograpliy, by which, through the use of telescopic powers in
connection with an ordinary caméra, photographs of remarkable
correetness in ail matters of détail may be taken several miles distant.
(The author described in détail the séries of experiments lie had made
in perfecting his process.) In the first place, by the use of a telescopic
eyepiece, consisting of one or more dispersion-lenscs of différent powers,
photographs 011 an increased scale, and greater size can be produced
from the same standpoint without it being necessary to use a caméra
other than that which is h'tting to the photographie object in the first
instance. The Instrument may also be used in connection with
niicroscopic photography. Secondly, a travelling screw, Connecting the
two parts of the telescopic tube, which, with a thread of, or approaching,
40 to the inch, afïords the required degree of nicety in atljusting the
objective and the eyepiece. Thirdty, a focusing-glass or eyepiece, to
be used in the position of the focusing-screen, enables the use of a
focusing-cloth to be dispensed with, and also the screen in giving the

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES 39

final and highest degree of sharpness to the picture, and by means of a
sliding part or travelling screw it may be made to adjust différences in
the length of the foci resulting from the use of imperfect lenses in the
other optical parts of the instrument. Mr. McKay concluded by
stating that he was taking steps to procure protection of his invention,
and in due time he hoped to secure patent rights for the sa me, and
such other improvements as may yet be effectcd. Several hundreds of
views of the North and South Island taken by the new process were
afterwards shown with a lantern, and comparisons made with those
taken by the ordinary process.

Mr. W. T. L. Travers expressed the opinion that the discovery
would completely revolutionise photography, and wonld prove most
valuable for astronomical research and for the purposes cf warfare.

Sir James Hector considered that the thanks of the Society was
due to Mr. McKay for having brought his important discovery before
the members. He had perfected his invention after years of work and
at great expense.

Mr. Field said he suspected the so-called invention was no new
thing, as he had seen photographs of Auckland which, taken from the
North Shore, showed the minutest détails of the buildings and shore
line on the opposite side of Waitemata Harbour.

Mr. E. C. Harding said that the possibilités of Mr. McKay's
discovery seemed only to hâve been faintly indicated in what had been
said that evening, and, for his own part, he was most impressed by its
value in connection with the graphie arts. The comparative views of
the same landscape as taken by the ordinary lens and by the telescopic
combination were specially interesting and instructive; and the
question had been raised as to which of the two processes was the
more artistic, or more closely resembled the effect to the eye. The
différence between two snch photographs was obvious, and the question
raised was one in dispute among artists themselves. It was the
acceptée! practice in painting to give well-defined détail both to near
and distant objects, though it was impossible for the eye, without a
change of focus, to recognise both in nature. Hence the contention of
the impressionists that the conventional style was false, and the
practice on their part of representing some portion of the picture in
détail and slurring over the rest. He considered that the conventional
art and the pictures taken by Mr. McKay's process, representing both
the nearest and most distant objects with perfect clearness. were truer,
both to art and nature, as the necessary change of focus in the hum an
eye was so rapidly and unconsciously effected. Mr. McKay's discovery,
therefore, was quite as important on artistic as on scientific grounds.

The Président (Mr Hulke) said that members had overlooked the
fact that Mr. McKay's discovery would materially lessen the load
photographers hâve to carry at the présent time, and that the number
of lenses required would by the same means be lessened. The pictures
referred to by Mr. Field were taken by a good but ordinary instrument.
Mr. McKay's invention would be invaluable to geologists.

40 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Wellington, 8th Ootober, 1890.— C. Hulke, F.C.S., Président, in
tin4 chair.

New Member. — Mr. W. Barton.

Papers.- (1) " Furtlier Coccid Notes, with descriptions of new
species from Ne1* Zealand, Australia, and Fiji," by Mr. W. M. Maskell.
Tlie author said that as this was a technical paper hc would not read
it in full. He might explain that it was in continuation of similar
pjapers read last year and in former years on work he had been engaged
in for the last fonrteen years. It described about twenty new species —
five from Australia, one from Fiji, and the rest from New Zealand.
Plates figuring thèse accompanied the paper. The paper also contained
remarks on formcrly described species in this and other parts of the
world. ] Te also exhibited about 150 différent species of insects, inclu-
ding chose he had already described, together with others from various
localities. He regretted much that entomologiste generally did not
think it worth their while to study this particular family, the coccidœ.
He believed that lie himself was the only person in New Zealand who
had published anything about it. Outside New Zealand there were not
more than eight or ten who gave attention to scale insecte. This was a
bad thing, and he felt it much, as he had hère no one to discuss the
subject with, or to correct him if he fell into any errors. Two
gentlemen at Reefton collected for and assisted him greatly, but they
did not write on the subject and relied entirely on him for détermi-
nations— there was no one to keep him straight, so to say. But
chiefly he regretted that entomologiste would not départ from the
gênerai groove of butterflies, moths, and beetles. We knew pretty
well ail that can be known of thèse; at least their study had been so
close that the varieties seemed now-a-days only trivial. In the coccida3
there was infinité variety and work of the greatest interest — a
variety of life-history, habits, and customs that seemed greater than
that afforded by any other brandi of entomology. He gave instances
of peculiarities in thèse insects — wonderful vitality in some cases, and
about the boring habits of one particular insect after it had thrown off
legs, mouth, &c. — ail tending to prove that thèse little despised
créatures were more interesting for study than ail the butterflies.

Mr. Hudson said that he wislied to say a few words on the
subject of gênerai entomology. While fully appreciating the great
value and interest attaching to the study of the coccidre he felt
confident that any other family of insects closely investigated would
yield equally interesting résulte. After showing the limited extent of
the coccidse, compared with the remainder of the great class insecta, he
pointed ont the vast variety existing in the habits of various other
families and orders, commencing with the lepidoptera. He said that
soi ne fed on the leaves of plants, some on roots, some burrowed in the
stems of trees, making a trap-door to protect themselves from enemies.
Others again constructed cases which they dragged about with them,
while others, among the minute species, tunnelled between the layers
of leaves, lived in the kernels of fruits, nuts, seeds, &c, &c. Their
mode of passing the winter was equally varied. Some hibernated,
laying their eggs on the spronting plants in the spring, others spent
the saine- period in the ground or in cocoons as pupae, others hibernated
as larvae, while others again passed the inclement months in the eg^

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 41

state. Turning to the coleoptera or beetles, equal variety in habits
was found to exist. Many species burroweci through trees in the larva
state, others were camivorous, forming pitfalls in the earth to capture
their prey. As a striking instance of diversity of habit the genus
Sitaris was mentioned. This beetle laid an enorinous number of eggs
near the entrance to the nests of various species of solitary bées.
Thèse eggs hatched out as minute active insects with six legs. Numbers
of them perished, but a few managed to jump on to the bées as they
visited their nests. Hère the larva remained until the bee was in her
own cell, where she deposited an egg which noated on the top of the
honey that the bee had industriously stored up for her offspring. As
soon as the Sitaris larva got a chance it left the bee and juniped on to
the egg, which it then devoured. Casting its skin it now appeared as
an ordinary beetle-grub, feeding on the honey until it was ail consumed,
when it was transformed into a pupa, from which the beetle finally
issued. The remarkable habits of social insects were also alluded to,
and the number of the other orders of insects compared with the
hemiptera, of which the coccida? were but a small family. He did not
wish to detain the Society further, but hoped that he had said enough
to show that the whole insect world was teeming with interest and
variety.

Mr. Travers : The great value of Mr. Maskell's work lias been the
determining of insects that hâve been so injurions to our fruit and
other trees, and the pointing out of remédies to be applied to prevent
damage. The fruit-growers of New Zealand are under great obligations
to Mr. Maskell ; so that although Mr. Maskell's labours are principally
of value from a scientiûc point of view, yet for économie purposes they
hâve been of the greatest benefit. Had it not been for his great
labours many of thèse pests would hâve escaped observation and hâve
gone on doing the greatest mischief. Beetles and other insects are also
very injurious to trees, and are easily introduced from other countries,
so that anyone who dévotes his attention to the observation of the
life-history of such objects is deserving of crédit.

Mr. Maskell, in reply, said Iiq did not wish it to be understood
that he thought the study of other forms of insect life had 110 interest.
He considérée!, however, that there was very little new to be gathered
in other branches of entomology — the subject of butterflies and beetles
had been pretty well worked out, while there was still ao much to learn
from the study of the coccidae. What he was doing now was purely for
science — he was rather sick of the économie side of the question. His
reasons were partly personal, no doubt, as he found great numbers of
persons ready to ask advice as to the means of treating their trees and
improving their property, but nobody seemed to recollect that their
adviser might bave économie necessities of his own, or to think' it
necessary to offer the least rémunération for the advice. But,
principally, he found that whatever counsels might be given, the chief
object of many persons seemed to be to introduce at once confusion and
uncertainty. For example, in the case of phylloxéra, which is now
well-established in New Zealand, in view of the wretched obstructiveness
of the colonists, he had considered it his duty to strongly recommend to
the Grovernment and to Parliament the total destruction of ail vines in
the infected districts. At once the newspapers threw, as it were, a wet

42 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

blanket over the proposai by terming it "drastic," a word which.
frigbtened everybody ; uiembers of Parliament with a gênerai élection
in view deolined to study the real interests of their constituents in
comparison with their votes, and so nothing was done, and phylloxéra
is now spreading at its own swcet will through the North Island. In
fact the "économie " side of the matter was enough to sicken anybody,
and be had in the présent paper left it entirely aside.

Mr. Hulke : Mr. Maskell's remark* on tins snbject were most
interesting, given as they had been to-night in a popular manner, and
quite within the capacity of ail to understand and apply. He

considered that Mr. Maskell's work had not only a great scientific
value, but had been most bénéficiai to agriculture «'enerallv.

(2) " On the Life History of the New Zealand Glow-Worm," by
G. V. Hudson, F.E.8. The author gave a most interesting account of
thèse curions insects, and illustrated bis remarks by drawings of the
stages of development of the worm. He dwelt particularly on the
peculiarity of the light given by thèse créatures in ail their forms of
growth. ;

Mr. Travers said that thèse worms were first mentioned by Hoch-
stetter, but he did not think they had been described.

Mr. Maskell : Has the light been microscopically examined?
Coultl it possibly be phosphorent infusovia 1 It might not be at the
will of the insect that the light went out; as described by Mr. Hudson.
He was sorry that Mr. Hudson did not describe the insect himself,
instead of sending it to some one else to do. He thought Mr. Hudson
was quite able to describe his own insects.

Mr. Poynton was of opinion that the extinction of the light was
quite a voluntary act on the part of the worm. He had seen numbers
on the West Coast, and was quite satisfied of tins.

Mr. Hudson, in reply, said that he was confident that the
extinction of the light of the glow-worm was a voluntary act on the
part of the larva, and, as such, could not possibly be due to parasitic
infusoria. It was also al most incredible than an aggregation of animal-
euhe could give such a brilliant light. He felt sure that the organ lie
had described produced the light at the will of the insect, but its use
he was entirely unable to explain.

Wellington, 29th October, 1890.— Charles Hulke, F.C.S., Président,
in the chair.

It was announced that in conformity with the Act, Mr. Charles
Hulke had been nominated to vote in the élection of Governors of the
New Zealand Institute for the ensuing year.

Papers. — (1) "An exhibition of new and interesting forms of New
Zealand Birds with remarks thereon," by Sir Walter Buller, K.C.M.G.,
F.R.S. The author said that probably no section of New Zealand
Zoology had îcceived such careful attention or been so thoroughly worked
(.ut as the Birds Their beauty of form and colour and the peculiar

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 43

interest attaching to their life history — their natural habits, their song,
their wonderful modes of nidification — and their gênerai ministration
to the wants and caprices of man, ail tended to niake the study of our
birds more attractive than that of any other branch of natural history.
So much had already been written on the subject that it might
reasonably hâve been looked upon as an exliansted field, but so far frorn
this being the case, new forms and characters of bird-life, and new facts
in the history of even our commonest species were being continually
brought to light, and it seemed to the author that, after the manner of
the Zoological Society of London, which had proved so eminently
successful, the best mode of bringing observations of the kind before
such a Society as this was to exhibit spécimens wherever practicable,
and to make brief remarks upon them by way of explanation or sugges-
tion. By this means facts and observations of a valuable kind might
often be elicited during the customary discussion that follows the
reading of a paper. The author then exhibited and remarkerf upon the
following species : —

Miro traversi, Buller. Obtained at the Snares, where iir-is compa-
ratively numerous. It inhabits the Chatbam Islands, but has never
been met with in any part of New Zealand, or on the Auckland, Camp-
bell, Antipodes, or Bounty Islands. The author ofiered no explanation
of this very remarkable distribution.

Splimcmcus fulvus, Gray. Also from the Snares, where this species
inhabits the trees, instead of fern-beds and swamp végétation like its
near ally {S. imnctatus) in New Zealand. The author pointée! ont
modifications in structure, apparently the resuit of this différent habit
of life.

Prosthemadera novœ-zealandiœ, Gmelin. A very remarkable spéci-
men of the Tui, almost a pure albino, was exhibited, and mention made
of several other departures from the normal character.

Platycercits novœ-zealandiœ, Sparrm. A pair from Antipodes Is-
lands was exhibited, showing a larger mixture of yellow in the plumage
than ordinary New Zealand examples, and some interesting particulars
given respecting the local varieties of this highly variable species.

Gcdlinago aucklandica, Gray. Of this rare Snipe two spécimens
were shewn from the Snares and two from the Auckland Islands. The
sexes are alike, but the birds from the former locality are some shades
darker in plumage than those from the Auckland Islands, and ought
perhaps to be referred to Gcdlinago pusiUa.

Tringa canutus, Linn. A spécimen of this cosmopolitan species
(tbe Common Knot) from Pelorus Sound, just passing into the suramer
plumage, was next commented on.

Larus novœ-hollandiœ, Stephens. A fine spécimen of this bird
from Otago was shewn to the meeting, and also an apparently new and
undescribed Gull, which was critically compared with Larus scopidinus
and Larus bulleri, to bring out the points of différence.

Ocydromus earli, Gray. An example of the true 0. earh from
Marlborough was exhibited, and an interesting account given by the

44 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

author of his discovcry, that the common Woodhen of the North
[sland, till then supposed to be Ocydromus earli, w«s rcally without
name. Finding. when lie looked over the old type-collection of birds
in the British Muséum, that Sir George Grey had been one of the
earliest and most libéral contributors of spécimens from New Zealand,
he decided to dedicate the species to him, and named it accordingly
Ocydromus greyi.

Nycticorax cahdonicus, Gmelin. A very beautiful spécimen of the
Naakeen Night Héron, with white occipital plumes, rolled in the form
of a queue and fully seven inches in length, was then lianded round,
and gave the author further subject-mattev. Tins bird, presumably a
visitant from Australia, was shot at the mouth of Catlins River, in
Otago.

Diomedea fidiginosa, Latham. The next subject was a nestling
Sooty Albatross, remarkable for its thick covering of warm woolly
down. enveloping the body like a great blanket.

Œstrelata mollis, Gmel. ; Œstrelata affinis, Buller ; and Puffinus
gavia, Forster. The exhibition of a séries of spécimens of thèse
somewhat rare species was accompanied by a dissertation on Pétrels, in
the course of which some very curious facts were given.

Puffinus bulleri (so named by Mr. Salvin, the great authority on
Pétrels) and a species of Eudyptes (Crested Penguin), which the author
had not yet been able to détermine, were the last birds noticed. Of
Puffinus bulleri, only three spécimens are known, one of which is in
the Colouy, and another in the British Muséum collection. Of the
Penguin supposed to be new, the author lias lately received two
spécimens from the West Coast Sounds. He concluded his paper with
an expression of regret that the unique example of Hutton's Black
Penguin (Eudyptes atratus) had been lost, with many other treasures,
by the wreck of the " Assaye."

Mr. Maskell : The remarks made by Sir Walter Buller, who was
an acknowledged authority on the subject of Ornithology, were most
interesting, and the spécimens exhibited very beautiful. Without
wishing to make any renections on the work done by Sir Walter
Buller, he would like to say a few words regarding the establishment of
species. It was a rule in almost ail branches of science to establish
what tliev called species on grounds that seemed to him very unsatis-
factory, and from his own expérience and reading for over twenty years
he was led to the conviction that scientific works generally were
oveiloaded with species determined in a very vague manner. This
applied to ail branches of natural science. Mère différences in colour
seemed sntKcient to account for thousands of so-called species when in
his opinion the birds or insects were really the same, but slightly varied.
He thought it would be quite as correct to say that ail bay horses were
of one species and ail bJack horses another, as to say that birds in other
respects alike were of différent species because they were différent in
colour. Why should science be so loaded up with différences merely on
account of colour, especially as so few agrée as to colour, which dépends
so much on the formation of the human eye ? If there is any organic
différence that would be quite another matter.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIEF. 45

Mr. Hudson would like to remind Mr. Maskell that domestic
productions vary more than those in a wild state, because in selecting
animais and plants for his use raan has always taken those that vary in
the direction he requires, hence domestic animais and plants hâve a
tendency to vary in ail directions.

Mr. Robert Pharazyn said that the question was largely one of
expérience — there were some branches of science where colour would
not apply, such as chemistry. In natufal history colour would hâve
greater weight, but it was really for naturalists themselves to judge
from expérience. If différence of colour proved to be followed by
différence in structure or habit, then it would certainly be reliable.
Animais were mucli alike in habit, and it would hardly apply to them.
We must associate colour with other characters before it can be generally
used in selecting species.

Mr. McKay said that colour was often the resuit of a structural
peculiarity, and in many instances must be regardée! as spécifie ;
nacreous and iridescent shells might be mentioned as illustrating this.
While believing that colour was never purely accidentai, as contended
by Mr. Maskell, he did not think that colour-spots in ail cases could be
used to détermine spécifie différences. With respect to the occurrence
of a species of "Robin on the Snares and Chatham Islands, but not
found elsewhere within the New Zealand area, he thought this might
be accounted. for on the supposition that the species had established
itself on thèse now separate and distant islands at a tirae when the
Snares and Chatham Islands were coniiecied with each other, and
formed part of a large island which also included New Zealand.

Mr. Henley thought the establishment of true species was a matter
that was determined by the instincts of the animais themselves. In the
cases of tamed quadrupeds, referred to by Mr. Maskell, the animais
recognised no distinction — to a horse every other horse was also a horse;
every dog recognised his species in any other dog. If this were not so —
if gray horses refused to associate with bay horses, and if, except in
cases of close confinement, horses of the two colours did not cross, they
might fairly be considered to be two species. If they clid not cross the
colours would be persistent, as a rule, in the offspiing. In cases of wild
animais and birds if individuals différent in colour, but seemingly alike
in other respects, never coupled, the colour alone noted a différence of
species. Whether this instinct for separate breeding was likely to be
présent in spécial instances of birds with peculiar-coloured plumage,
onîy one or two spécimens of which birds had been collected, only a
specialist was compétent to décide, and lie would probably base his
opinion npon points, the cumulative force of which, sufficiently plain to
himself, he might find it difïicult to explain to others. If albinos were
sporadically produced in sufîicient numbers to find albinos for partners,
and never obtained partners of the normal colour of the species, they
would probably hâve a large proportion of albinos in their offspring,
and would soon form a species that he thought ail naturalists would
recognise as such.

Mr. T. W. Kirk mentioned having seen a spécimen of the Nankeen
night-heron near the mouth of the Pahau river in Mardi last. The

46 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

bird had been slightly wounded. but managed to escape capture. Sir
Walter had exhibited an albino tui. Now it was well known that
birds in New Zealand sbowed a decided tendency to assume abnormal
plumage. Nor was the peculiarity confinée! to native species. There
was in the Muséum a black skylark; lie had seen several spécimens of
goldfîncb exhibiting unusual colours ; and early tins year lie had noted
a sparrow baving white wing-feathers, black head, and normal-coloured
tail, while the whole of the remainîng portions were a decided red.
This spécimen lived with a large flock of ordinary sparrows about a
wool-shed on the East Coast. Could Sir Walter suggest any theory to
account for thèse fréquent freaks? Also could he explain the reason
wby dimorphic phases of plumage were présent in some species?

Mr. Richardson pointed ont that on the Kermadec Islands the
mutton birds were so numerous as to form an article of food for those
who were unfortunate enough to live there.

(2) "Notes on the Entomology of the Inland Kaikouras," by G. V.
Hudson, F.E.S. Perhaps one of the most beautiful of the many objects
that can be seen, on a clear day, from the hills in the neighbourhood of
Wellington, is Mount Tapueawaeonuku, standing prominent on the
north-eastern end of the South Islancl, and having from Wellington a
south-westerly direction. It had often been my ambition, while col-
lecting on thèse hills, to cross the Straits and explore this fine looking
mountain which appeared so likely to be teeming with new and inte-
resting insects. How far m y expectations were fulfilled will appear
from the following account of a visit I made to the district, in company
witl) a friend, last February.

Leaving Wellington at three o'clock on the morning of February
9th, we arrived in Blenheim about midday, remaining there until the
following morning, when we left by coach for Kekerangu, where we
arrived at five o'clock on the evening of the 11 th. The ride is some-
what uninteresting after leaving Blenheim, the country, which is very
hilly, consisting almost entirely of tussock-grass. Tt is absolutely teem-
ing with rabbits, as many as six or eight individuals being often noticed
at the same time. The only really striking features on this journey are
the gigantic escarpments eut out by the Awatere River.

On the morning of February 12 th. we left the Kekerangu sheep-
station and proceeded straight up the valley for about a mile, where we
foimd the stream divided. Hère considei-able time was lost in taking
the right-hand branch of the stream instead of the left one, along which
the track to Mount Tapueawaeonuku goes. In thèse ravines, which are
densely wooded on each side, large quantities of Mecyna deprivalis
occurred, both as larvaî and perfect insects. We also observed some
lovely spécimens of Vanessa cardia, an insect that lias been unusually
abundant this year in the Wellington district. About one o'clock we
left the bed of the stream, near a small galvanised iron hut, and
aacended the hills to an élévation of 1900 feet. The weather was now
\ ery gloomy, and we could only obtain occasional glimpses of the moun-
t.iiiis between the clouds, which however appeared very imposing.
Absolutely no insects were to be seen, and at five o'clock we were very
elad to reach Coverham.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 47

Leaving hère first thing tlie following morning, we arrived at the
Dee Hutt. situated immediately at tlie foot of Tapueawaeonukn, about
two o'clock in tlie aftemoon. The weather was wet and misérable, so
of course no work coulcl be clone that clay. On Thursday, 13th, we
made our way for some distance up the bed of the Dee stream, but
found the travelling very bad. Hère we only took a few spécimens of
Chrysophantis boldenarum, which slightly differ from those from Nelson
and the Wairarapa; also, two Cicada muta and a few Aclenonyx bembi-
dioides under stones near the stream. We then attempted to make our
way on to the hills, but were prevented by the precipitous sides of the
creek. At 11 o'clock a thick mist came up, which effectually stopped
ail further work for the day. On Friday, 14th, we started at six
o'clock with the intention of collecting on some of the higher spurs of
the mountain. After mucli difficulty we succeeded in attaining an
élévation of 4600 feet, but the outlook from tins point was so extremely
uninviting that I decided to return. Above 3000 feet Argyrophenga
antipodum occurred, as well as Cicada ca$sio%)e and Notoreas crephos,
besides a few Cicada muta, var. sub-alpina. When J say that this was
by far the best day's collecting we had, and that ail the above species
and many others may be taken in great numbers on the Dun Mountain,
near Nelson, the extremely improductive nature of the locality may
perhaps be understood.

During the two following days I collected in the Dee and Clarence
Yalleys, with the resuit of one grasshopper, resembling very closely the
grey stones in the stream, A. bembidioides, Cicindela feredayi, Lyrcea
alectoraria, a small black Larentia sp. (?) ail common and wicïely distri-
buted insects. I should also mention that the little grasshopper Calop-
tenus marginalis occurs in this district, in countless numbers, amongst
the tussock grass.

On Monday, 17th, we retumed to Coverham. Tuesday, 18th, was
wet, and on Wednesday we ascended the Chalk Range at the back of
Coverham. At 2500 feet Argyrophenga antipodum again occurred, also
Asophodes abrogia, besides a small species of Syrphus, the three last
being the only insects of any conséquence taken during the whole
expédition.

On Thursday we left Coverham, and on Friday Kekerangu, arriving
in Wellington at an early h our on Saturday morning.

In conclusion I must certainly recommend future entomologists in
New Zealand not to visit the Inland Kaikoura mountains if they wish
to hâve a successful holiday.

Mr. Maskell was well acquainted with this part of the country,
and lie was not surprised to hear that it was such poor ground for the
collection of insects. Large fires had frequently swept the surface cf ail
growth, and this no doubt would be unfavourable to insect life.

Mr. Mackay thought that probably the reason why so few species
of insects were found in this locality was that as high and mouutainous
country this corner of the South Island was of very récent date, and it
might be that many species had not yet found their way into the région
in question, or had been there for so short a time that by évolution
fresh species had not as yet made their appearance.

jS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Mr. Hulke took this opportuuity oi stating that, as agreed upon at
a former meeting, lie had in company with Sir W. Buller waited on tlie
Minister of Education to urge the Government to assist Mr. Hudson in
the publication of lus new work on New Zealand Entomology, with the
resuit that tlie Government had agreed to take a thousand copies for
distribution among the State schools of the colony. He was sure that
the merabers would be glad to hear that tliey had been so successful.

Mr. Hudson thanked the Président, Sir W. Buller, and the
members generally for the intercst tliey were taking in the production
of lus work.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

Christchurch, November Gth, 1890. — Annual Meeting.

Papers. — (1) "New Land and Fresh Water Shells," by H. Suter.
(Communicated by the Secretary).

(2) " Miscellaneous notes on Land and Fresh Water Shells," by
H. Suter. (Communicated by the Secretary).

(3) "Appendix to Paper on Drift Formation," by J. Hardcastle.

(4) "On the occurrence of Struthious remains in a sub-dolerite bed
of latérite, near Timarn," by H. 0. Forbes, F.R.G.S. (Communicated
by the Secretary).

(5) "On the Earthquake of the 27th December, 1888," by G.
Hosbon, M.A.

'ta'

(G) "New Species of Lepidoptera," by E. Meyrick, F.Z.S., &c.

The annual report and balance-sheet were read and adopted. The
following is an abstract : — " During the year seven ordinary meetings
hâve been held at which sixteen papers hâve been read ; which may be
classified as folio ws : — Geology and Palreontology (5), Zoology (4), Seis-
mology (3), Meteorology (2), Miscellaneous (2). This shows an advance
of five* in comparison with the number read last year. There is also a
slight increase in membership compared with last year ; the number
now on the books being 98, as compared with 86 in 1889. At the
meeting in May, Mr. J. T. Meeson was elected Président in the place of
Mr. S. H. Seager résignée! . Mr. R. W. Fereday was elected Vice-Prési-
dent in place of Mr. Meeson. There is a crédit balance of £24 10s. ld.

The following were elected officers for the ensuing year : — Président:
Prof. F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. Vice-Présidents : J. T. Meeson, B.A. ;
T. W. Naylor-Beckett, F.L.S. Treasurer : J. T. Meeson, B.A. Secre-
tary : R. M. Laing, M.A., B.Sc. Council : R. W. Fereday, F.G.S.,
W. 11. Symes, M.D., R. H. Webb, F.R.M.S., - Jennings, M.D., G. A.
Mannering, F. Barkas.

Tlie retiring Président read an address, and the newly-elected
Président dismissed the meeting.

UG.91,

.

WISE, GAFFIN & CO.

AJtE PÙBLISHERS OF

Pétries First (ïeourapliy ls.

Pétries Geography ot ^few Xealand ls.
Goyens Complète Aritluiietie . Od.

Answers to same Od.

Goyens Exercises in tlie (onipoitiid Rides ls. <»d.

Aiiswers ls. ttd.

Curnows Primer ol Enolish History ls.

Tliomson's \ew Zealand Feras . Os.

The Storv of tlie Otage Chine h and f Cloth :*s. (Ml.

Settlemeiit. By Be\. È. Stnart Ross \ Paper 2s.

Education and Education ists in Otago.

By Bev. C. Stiiart Ross 3s. Od.

~^3JZtt

WISE, GAFFIN & GO.,

108 PRINCES STREET,
DUNEDIN.

Matthe» i Baxter & Co.: (Jouerai Plantera, Dowling Street, Duneclin.

£*&. nuu.

MAROH, 1891.

No. 2, Vol. I. (New Issue.)

THE

A

\j

NEW ZEALAND

n

Ullil

i

(1

DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY.

Judicio perpende : et si tibi vera videntur

Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcinyere contraX'

CONTENTS :

The Forthcoming "Flora" of. New Zeaîand ...

Some Notes on the Occurrence of the Trap-door Spider at Lyttelton. Robt

M. Laing, B.Sc.
An Edible Fungus of New Zealand
New Caledonia Nickel Ores. Thomas Mooue
On tho Discovery of the Nickel-Iron AUoy Awaruite. Prof. G. H. F. Ulrich,

F.G.S. ... ... ... ... ...

On the History of the Kiwi. Prof. T. J. Paukeb, F.R.S.

Botanical Notes. D. Pétrie, M. A., F. L. S. ...

General Notes—

Effects of Thunder on Miik— Escallonia macrantha and Becs— Fcrtilisati»
Flowers by Honey-bces— On the rreservation of Solution of
Hydrogcn— The Anatoiny of a New Zcalaml Earth-worm— Récent 1
Natural History of New Zealand— -Occurrence of Glow-worms in a
Humble-bces.

Australasian Association for the Advancsment of Science

Notes of the Meeting

On the Préservation of the Native Fauna and Flora of New Zealand— The '
of some Australian Tribes.

Meetings of Societies

Linnçan Society of New Sôuth Wales.

PAGE

19

52

55

58

60

m

08
71

)ii of Native
Sulphuretted
apers on the
Deep Cave—

75
93
Buil-roârer"

95

PRIOE, 2s. ; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. 6cL

Posted — Australia, America, and Britain, l°2s. 6d.

jhtmïrm, ft.S.:

MATTHEWS, BAXTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, DOWLING STREET
WISE, CAFF1N k CO., 108 PRINCES STREET.

loi L, No. 2, N.Z. J0IJBNAL OF SCIENCE (New Issue) MAKOH, 1891.

THE FORTHCOMING "FLORA" OF NEW ZEALAND.

Our last issue contained the announcement that there is every
prospect of the early appearance of a new Students' Flora of the
colony, from the pen of Mr. Thos. Kirk, F.L.S., of Wellington. For
the formidable task which he lias set himself Mr. Kirk possesses
many high qualifications, and ail interested in the study of the native
Fowering Plants and Ferns will regard the completion of his work
with satisfaction.

Many years ago the Government of the Colony spent a con-
sidérable sum in helping to bring out Sir Joseph Hooker's well known
Handbook, and we feel confident that the Government of the day
will equally recognise the duty of providing the very modest subsidy
which Mr. Kirk considers a suflicient reward for many years of loving
and laborious préparation for this work.

The need of a new Flora will be disputed by no one who knows
anything about the subject. Not only is kir Joseph Hooker's
Handbook out of print, and procurable only at a high premium on
the original price, but since its publication the number of fiowering
plants has been augmented by nearly a third. The description of alï
thèse new species are scattered through the twenty-two volumes of
the "Transactions of the N.Z. Institute," and a few other publications,
and are practically inaccessible to young workers, as well as to ail
who do not live in or near the few populous centres where literary
and scientific interests are actively cultivated. Nor is this ail. We
greatly need an authoritative revision of the new matter published in
this sporadic fashion, such as Mr. Kirk, from his wide expérience in
the field and his ripe and extensive knowledge, is well qualified to
give us. The extraordinarily numerous discoveries that hâve been
made in the Hawke's Bay district in récent years evidently demand
careful reconsideration, an ordeal that may very well resuit in a
considérable réduction in the number of new species that will be
permanently recognised from that district. The same process will
be applied, doubtless on a much smaller scale, to the récent additions
from other parts of the colony as well. In discharging this dis-
agreeable but highly salutary duty to the goddess of Science, Mr.
Kirk may certainly count on the sympathy and support of most of
the botanical workers and students in the colony. Judicial revision
of established species usually f ails to the lot of a succeeding génération
of workers, and this avoids the heartburning and disappointment by
which the process is likely enough to be attended in the présent case.
We trust that no personal considérations will be allowed to interfère
with a rigid performance of this scientific duty.

In compiling a new Flora of a région now fairly well explored,
many improvements can be made on the arrangement and infor-
mation in Hooker's Handbock. In the first place the naming of not
a few gênera and species will hâve to be corrected in conséquence of
the more accurate knowledge we now possess of their history and
affinities. The gênera will be brought into harmony with Bentham

5<D JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

and Hooker's great work on the "Gênera Plantarum," and the errors
in the naming of species, chiefly caused by the admission of names
that must give way to prior ones, which hâve been brought to light
by the researches of Bentham and F. von Mueller, will be corrected.
It is important that the sj^nonyinj" should be fully worked out, but
in the absence of a large botanical library of référence it may be
doubted if tins départaient of the work can at présent be adequately
carried out. Difîiculties of the same kind will beset another point of
great importance — the systematic working out of the geographical
distribution beyond the colony of the gênera and species of plants
native to it. Tins is a task demanding for its adéquate performance
years of patient and laborious research as well as access to large
libraries, and it cannot, we fear, be satisfactorily done by any botanist
résident in our islands. But on the principle that half a loaf is
better than no bread we shall welcome the incorporation of such an
account of the facts of floral distribution as can be made out from the
data available, and trust that in particular ail endémie species will be
noted as such.

It is usual in the Floras of Great Britain to indicate the
pronunciation of the names of the gênera and species, and Mr.
Kirk will do well to follow this useful custom. The question of
giviug native or vernacular names by which the commoner species
are known is beset by peculiar difîiculties. In the North Island the
Maori names are very generally used by those who take an interest
in native plants, but in the South, chiefly because of the original
sparseness of the native population thèse names are little known or
used. Nor is this the only dimeulty, for différent popular names are
attached to the same plant in différent districts of the colony and
even in différent parts of the same district. The perversity with
which the true ' beeches ' hâve become popularly known as ' birches,'
and différent kinds of ' mapau ' as ' maples '—a popular name which
includes small trees of widely distinct Natural Orders, is enough to
fill with despair any botanist who desires to foster a System of
popular names that will be free from misleading and inaccurate
suggestions. The Maori names are for the most part free from this
taint, but the settlers' names often show it in its worst form. Even
in naming trees of such économie importance as the native pin es,
usage varies not only between North and South, but even within the
limits of so restricted an area as Otago and Southland. M any of the
native names are certain to pass into permanent popular use, such for
ex ample as tutu, rirriu, hinau, raupo, ngaio, &c. ; and the samo may
be said of a small number of settlers' names, such as spear-grass,
ironwood, broadleaf, pepp&r tree, &c. But the vast majority of con-
spicuous native plants are still practically destitute of vernacular
names, and in fixing names for thèse, the influence of good judgment
in selecting suitable names, where such exist, for such a work as a
new popular Flora can hardi}" fail to be considérable. In a good
many cases it should be possible to bring into popular use the
ordinary generic names of botanists, such as Veronica, Olearia,
Coprosma, &c, though there are obvious limits to this. Into this
maze of dimeulty and confusion we hope Mr. Kirk's labours will
introduce some measnre of order and light, and pave the way for
greater improvement in years to corne.

TUE "FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. 51

The list of foreign. plants now widely naturalised in the colony
is already very extensive, and to be in any way complète a new Flora
must contain descriptions of thèse. We do not know whether it is
the author's intention to include thèse, but it is plain that their
omission will detract from the value and utility of his work. Such
plants as chipkweeds, docks, thistles, cat's-ear, horehound, and numerous
grasses are now very plentiful in ail the settled parts of the country,
while not a few hâve invaded purely pastoral country and are as well
established there, and to ail appearance as permanent denizens of the
country as most of the truly indigenous species. No doubt the
inclusion of the chief introduced species will considerably swell the
size of the volume and even add to its cost, but their omission would
be a blunder of capital importance.

The géographie range of the species within the colony will cer-
tainly receive due notice from Mr. Kirk. On this subject his personal
knowledge is unrivalled, and he will be a churlish worker who will
not gladly help him with materials for working out the détails of
local distribution with the greatest possible accuracy and minuteness.
The Handbook con tains a great mass of valuable facts relating to
local distribution ; but the range there assigned to species is not
unfrequently far wider than subséquent exploration will permit us
to accept. Poa anceps, Forst., for example, seems to be unknown in
the southern half of the South Island, though the Handbook says it
is the common Poa of the islands ; and many more facts of the same
kind could be adduced. Mr. Kirk will correct for us errors of this
kind, and he will also be able to establish a more extended range for
many species recorded in the Handbook from a single locality or from
restricted areas. A full and accurate knowledge of range and
distribution of species will be one of the chief benetits which the new
Flora will conter on botanical students. Such a knowledge will be of
the utmost service for clearing up the characters and limits of the
species in the large and variable gênera, such as Veronica, Celmisia,
Epilobium, and Pittosporum; it should throw some light on the
existence or otherwise of hybrids in such variable gênera ; it should
help us to see some little way into the history of the genesis of manj*
of the species that now inhabit the colony ; and it should aid us in
indicating the channels by which particular species hâve migrated
from their centres of greatest density. In fact no information which
the new Flora may contain will hâve more importance for the
elucidation of floral biological questions than a full account of the
facts of local distribution. In this field much still remains for future
générations to work out, but the few local workers hâve already
garnered a harvest of minute information that is as creditable to
their industry as it is likely to be fruitful in important conclusions.

There is but one more topic to which we need refer. In the
préface to the third édition of Sir Joseph Hooker's " Students' Flora
of the British Islands," he says — " I hâve ventured to introduce into
" this édition, under the description of the flowers of various gênera,
"characters concerned in the process of fertilisation,— as, whether
" wind-fertilised (anemophilous), insect fertilised (entomophilous), or
" self -fertilised ; also whether honey is secreted in the flower ; and
" whether the stamens and stigmas ripen together (homogamous), or

52 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

" the anthers first (protrandrous), or the stigma first (proterogynous)."
We skall be pleased to find that Mr. Kirk has not overlooked this
very interesting group of characters, which offer spécial attraction to
observera, and might lead many to take an interest in elucidating
questions of this kind without having to acquire any profound
knowledge of Botany. Mr. G. M. Thomson, F.L.S., has published
an important paper on the subject, and additional observations hâve
been made since it appeared, both by him and by other botanical
workers. The results of thèse observations should, if possible, be
incorporated in the forthcoming work.

We wish Mr. Kirk a continuance of good health to carry throngh
this important work, and substantial support from students of science
and the Government of the colony.

SOME NOTES ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TRAP-DOOR
SPIOER (Nemesia gilliesh*) AT LYTTELTON.

BY ROBT. M. LAING, B.Sc.

This spider seems to be very much more widely distributed, than
was at first presumed. It has been found in Auckland and Nelson ;
but T am not aware that it has been hitherto described from Canter-
bury. Probably a closer search will show that it is common on hills
and downs throughout the colony.

At Lyttelton it first came under my notice on a bank in a
garden beneath some overhanging fruit trees. The ground in that
situation must hâve been overturned at least several times during
the last twenty years ; but the locality seemed to suit the spider for
I hâve counted there as many as seventeen trap doors in a square foot
of ground under a gooseberry tree. However it is also common on
the hills everywhere about the town from sea level up to a height of
at least six or seven hundred feet. I hâve also obtained spécimens
from the neighbourhood of Sumner, Dyer's Pass, and the Bridle-path ;
and it will undoubtedly be met with elsewhere on the hills. The
only place on the plains where I hâve found it is in the Heathcote
Valley ; but even there it was within a hundred yards of the hills, on
the side of a dry ditch.

Unfortunately I hâve not been able to study the habits of the
animal so closely as I should hâve liked to hâve done ; but there are
a few points, that I hâve noted, which may be of interest ; and a few
others in which I differ from the late Mr. Gillies, in his very full and
able papert upon the subject.

Mr. Gillies states that he only once found them on the southern
or shady side of a slope. " In ail other situations," he says, ': where I
hâve observed them, the nests are always on northern or sunny slopes
of greater or less steepness, never in stony or rocky ground, and never

* T hâve to thank Mr. P. (Joyen. Inspector of Schools, for the identification of my

spécimens,
t " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," Vol. VIII., p. 222.

THE TRAP-DOOK SPIDER. 53

actually in the face of a bank so as to be the cause of the trap-door
shutting to by its own weight ; but always each nest on a little bit of
flat, or almost flat ground."

My observations differ from those recorded hère in several
points. Near Lyttelton the nests are to be found on banks facing
ail points of the compass, and in shady as well as sunny spots. Some
of the largest I hâve seen were in a small, moist, open-air fernery,
overhung by trees, and facing eastward. Again ail the ground
around Lyttelton is more or less stony or rocky, and nests are
frequently found in places where there are only a few inches of soil
above the solid bed rock. They are frequently also to be found in
the face of a bank ; and more of ten than not their position is such
that the force of gravity must assist the door in shutting. In fact it
seems to me doubtful, whether the spider does ever instinctively
choose or make a flat surface for the commencement of its nest.

The trap-door is almost invariably concealed, so that it can only
be detected by a close observer. With practice however the majority
can be recognised by their external appearance. In many cases the
mud on the door forms a protubérance slightly higher than the
surrounding surface. In one case I noticed as much as half an inch
of soil upon the lid. This is generally of considérable assistance in
enabling one to discover the nest in the naked soil ; but it often
occurs that one may suspect the présence of a nest from external
indications, but cannot be certain of it until the door lias been raised
with a stick or straw. In ground covered with végétation their
discovery is rendered more difficult by plant growths which com-
pletely conceal the trap-door; but I cannot think with Mr. Gillies
that the spider actually plants and cultivâtes thèse for the purposes
of déception. One of the best concealed doors that I hâve seen was
covered with moss, and so indistinguishable was it, that it could only
hâve been discovered by accident ; but of course there was a bed of
moss covering the ground for a foot or two ail round it.

With one exception ail the doors, that I hâve found, hâve fitted
over the mouth of the nest, and not into it like a cork or plug.
In the exceptional case the hole was also peculiar, as it was the only
one that I hâve seen, which sloped upward from its entrance. The
majority, (particularly those on the sides of batks), make an acute
angle with the surface on their lower sides, and after coatinuing in
the same direction for two or three inches, bend nearly vertically
downwards. None of any length appear to be straight.. In the
exceptional case already referred to, the hole was aftewards found to
be only three inches long, and proportionately narrow. I removed
the lid and found that on the following day it had been replaced by
a similar one (i.e. one of the cork type). Unfortunately I did not
obtain the spider itself. With regard to the renewal of the lid, I
may say that I hâve observed it, in several cases. The work is
generally done in a single night, occasionally in two. Once I observed
the replacement in the course of a night of more than half a square
inch of surface, that had been sheared from the side of a nest with a
spade.

My observations with regard to the holes themselves agrée very
largely with those of Mr. Gillies. I found them to be from ten

54 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

iuches to a foot in length. The deepest one measured was fifteen
inches. In order to trace their direction in dry, friable soil, I
sonietimes poured plaster of Paris in at the door ; and I found this
was of considérable assistance. In this way I obtained two spiders
embedded in one hole.

i hâve observed plugging up of the holes on various occasions ;
but not to such a puzzling extent as Mr. G illies has. I am not at ail
sure that it was the work of the spider. In some cases it seemed
possible that it might hâve been caused by the washing down of the
soil iïom above on to the lid. However I was not able to détermine
definitely that this had taken place in any particular instance. In
one case on raisiug a trap-door, the mouth of the nest beneath it was
found to be completely closed by a layer of cobweb. This was on
Mardi 28th, 1890. On the 13th April, on examining the same hole,
I found a small opening in the web, but not large enough to admit of
the exit of the spider. This sma'l aperture had probably resulted
from stress of weather, or some other natural causes. Being afraid
that it might increase, and thus definite proof of the continued
confinement of the spider might be lost, I dug out the nest, and
found its owner at the bottom, at the depth of a little more than a
foot, in a comatose condition. I kept this spider in an empty bottle
for some hours, but it remained motionless, and it was not till it had
been in spirits for a minute or twro that it commenced to move*. It
can scarcely hâve been a case of hibernation as the season was not
far enough advanced for that ; and the spiders certainly remain
active until the end of June. Whatever may be the explanation of
thèse closed nests, they are not unfrequently to be met writh, and
certainly require further investigation.

On the other hand, inhabited nests without doors of any kind,
are sometimes to be lound. A number of such occur on a hill slope
on the east side of Mt. Pleasant, at an élévation of six or seven
hundred feet. In the locality referred to the surface of the ground
is covered to the depth of an mch or two with loose sticks and dried
leaves, that hâve fallen from coprosmas and other shrubby plants
growing near. Hère several lidless nests were discovered coming up
through the dead twigs. The spider had probably found it impossible
to attach its door to the loose sticks ; but in some cases, as a slight
protection, the wreb was turned over at the edge and carried along
the twigs for the distance of half an inch ail round. A spider wTas
taken from one of thèse holes ; and where the ground was free from
leaves close at hand, trap-door nests of the ordinary type were found.

I hâve only a few remarks to offer as to the habits of the animal.
I hâve not seen them outside of their nests during the diy.
Apparently they seek their food only by night. After dark one
evening in March, 1890, I took a light into the garden, and on
approacbing a particular trap-door that I had frequently noted before,
I saw it quickly shut down through the space of about one-sixth of

* (I am informod by a friend in the Oamaru district, that lie has frequently seen
trap-door suidera running along the ground, pursued by a small, black wasp — probably
;i gpeciea oî / ompifou. Thèse wasps sting tin; Bpiders, and by this means render them
comatose. In tins condition they are stored up in the wasp's nest, and serve as food
for the larva. This may be the explanation of the fact mentioned by Mr. Laing.
Edit.)

THE TRAP-DOOR SPIDER. 55

an inch. On coming back to the same spot a minute or two after-
wards, I found the door open to the same extent as before, and the
body of the spider could be seen indistinctly beneath it. I caught a
moth and killed it, and put it up towards the hole on the end of a
stick. It was instantly seized and drawn in by the spider, and the
door was completely closed. On raising it, the spider was seen with
its prey an inch or two down the hole ; but it speedily retreated still
further. I repeatedly made similar experiments with this spider and
one or two others. On one occasion I fastened the body of a
spécimen of the same species firmly to a stick and put it up towards
the door of a nest. The owner of the nest came out aud tugged at
the stick, in a way that could be distinctly felt ; but finally getting
alarrned it retreated.

I watched several spiders until the middle of June, when change
of résidence put an end to my opportunities. They could always be
seen peering out from beneath their doors after dark; and apparently
were not at ail alarmed by the light, nor at my présence, for they
hâve frequently corne out of their nests to seize an offered fly, and
hâve remained out for several minutes. Apparently it is their habit
to watch for insects from the inside of their doors, and dart out and
seize them as they approach. They do not appear to corne outside,
except to seize their prey.

In addition to Nemesia, Migas distinctus and a probably un-
described species of Ariadne, both ground spiders, are to be found on
the Lyttelton hills. The latter occurs at an altitude of 1,000 feet, in
holes of an inch or two in length, one-quarter of an inch in diameter,
without lids, and lined with a dense layer of white web. This spider
takes advantage of cracks in the face of a bank for the commencement
of its nest, enlarges them a little, and weaves a cylindrical web
inside. They do not appear to be very common.

There are many problems of interest awaiting solution with
regard to the distribution and habits of thèse spiders ; and any one
who lives in a neighbourhood where they occur will find in them a
very interesting study.

AN EDIBLE FIJNGUS OF NEW ZEALAND.

(Hirneola poly tricha, Montagne).*

For some years an edible fungus, a product of the New Zealand
forests, has become an important article of commerce between that
colony and China. The fungus belongs to the same genus as the
European Jews'-Ear (Hirneola Auricula-judœ), a tough but gelatinous
fungus formerly in réputation as an ingrédient of gargles. The
New Zealand fungus now under notice (Hirneola polytricha), is well
described by W. Colenso., F.R.S., in the "Transactions of the
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society, 1884-85 " : —

* "Kew Bulletin,' October, 1890.

50 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

" Himeola poli/tricha was first made known to science by Mon-
tagne as belonging to this genus, and as being an inhabitant of the
East Tndies and Java, thougb, like our two other species, it was first
published as belonging to the closely allied genus Exidia, there being
but a very small natural différence between thèse two gênera. This
species is thus briefly described by Berkeley (translated and abridged
froni Montagne): ' sub-hemispherical, cup-shaped, expanded, lobed,
densely villous externally with grey hairs, disk purplish-brown.'

" It is of various sizcs and, I might also add, of shapes ; some
measuring a few inches, and when wet filling a large teacup or small
basin ; a large dry spécimen weighing only 2J drams. It is found
growing on the trunks of many trees, both on living and on rotten
ones (especially on the latter while standing), particularly on
Coryitocarpus lœvigata and on Melicytus ramiflorus, both of thèse
trees being endémie as to genus as well as to species. The former
tree is mostly contined to the sea-shore, where it ol'ten forms dense
and continuous thickets. In such situations it is generally of small
size, but when standing apart it is of much larger dimensions, and
not unfrequently in suitable spots it wears an imposing appearance
from its large, green, and glossy persistent laurel-like leaves. The
latter tree is scattered plentifully throughout the country, and the
foliage of both being evergreen, they are eagerly browsed on by
cattle.

"The only market for this fungus is China. From officiai
information obtained from Hongkong, we find that it is largely used
by the Chinese in soups with farinaceous seeds, and also as a
medicine, being highly esteemed. The Chinese hâve long been in
the habit of using another species of this same genus that is
indigenous in North China, and also of importing another species
from other isles in the Pacific ; so that the use of this kind of fungus
as an article of food is not new with them. Who can say in this
article of food, that Western pride may not again hâve to learn
something more from this ancien t, highly- civilised, and much-injured
people ?

" At first, and for some time, our New Zealand fungus was only
exported in small quantities. The demand, however, rapidly in-
creasing, and the article being plentiful and obtained at little cost,
save the easy and untaught labour of gathering and drying it, its
export rapidly increased. The drying of it, if collected damp, was an
easy matter — merely spreading it in the air and sun till dry, which
soon takes place, when it is roughly packed in sacks, and if kept dry
keeps good and sound for a very long time. The price paid to the
collectors for it was originally small, only ld. a pound; at this figure
it remained for some time. H is now nominally 2Jd. in some places,
which sum, however, is often paid in barter*. It is said to be sold in
the China shops at about lUd. or more retail. I am not aware of the
actual price obtained by the exporter, but we find that its declared
value at the Customs has ranged from £33 to nearly £53 per ton,
which no doubt is much under the real value.

* I should, however, mention that in the spring of 1883, a large paity of Maoris
residing on the West Coast, near Mount Egmont, who had for some years been
collecting and Btoring fungus there, sold the lot to an Auckland agent and dealer, but
took the total sum, upwards of £425, in hard cash.

AN EDIBLE FUNGUS. 57

" During the last twelve years no less that 1,858 tons of this
fungus hâve been exported, valued at £79,752, as is more particularly
shown in the following return, which I hâve compiled from sources
published in the Government statistical papers : —

ÏËAKS.

QUANTITY.

Declared Value.

Tons. Cwt.

£

1872

58 0

1927

1873

95 0

1195

1874

118 0

6226

1875

112 0

5744

1876

132 0

6224

1877

220 0

11318

1878

103 0

5178

1879

59 5

2744

1880

183 12

6123

1881

187 11

8192

1882

339 17

15581

1883

250 6

9300

1,858 11 79,752

"I should observe that the officiai entries show that those
exports are confined to the Northern island, and only from two
ports there — viz.,Auckland and Wellington — except some small lots
amounting to 7 tons, exported from Poverty Bay and Napier in the
last two years, 1882 and 1883. The fungus, however, may hâve been
extensively collected in the districts containing those two larger
ports."

In order to test the value of the New Zealand fungus as an
article of food, a supply of it was recently obtained for Kew, by Mr.
Thomas Kirk, Chief (Jonservator of State Forests, Wellington, N.Z.

A portion of this supply was submitted for analysis to Professor
Church, F.R.S., who has been good enough to furnish the following
interesting note : —

Himeola polyto'icha,

" A sample of this fungus, in the air-dried condition as received,
was prepared for analysis by careful brushing and the removal of a
few fragments of obviously foreign substances. It gave the following
percentages : —

Water ... ... ... ... 17'0

Albuminoids (calculated from total Nitrogen)

Carbohydrates, digestible

Caibohydrates, indigestible

Fat (Ether extract)

Ash

6-8
70'5
1-9
1-5
2 3

A few remarks as to thèse ligures will prove useful in appreciating
the food-value of this fungus. First of ail the nitrogen présent does
not ail exist in the form of albuminoids. The coagulable albuminoids,
as estimated by the phénol method, amount to 5-4 per ceut. ; the
remainder of the nitrogen occurring chiefly as amides, is not nutritive.
If this resuit be accepted, the proportion of albuminoids to digestible
carbohydrates plus the starch — équivalent of the fat, becomes 1:13-7
instead of 1:10 9, as shown by the per-centages recorded above.
Anyhow, this fungus is singularly poor in albuminoid or muscle-
forming substances, and differs remarkably in this respect from the
numerous edible fungi of which analyses hâve been previously made.
In thèse analyses we find at least twice or thrice as much albuminoid
matters, often more.

58 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

"The substance or group of substances which I hâve called
M digestible carbohvdrates " contains neither starch, nor inulin, nor
cellulose. Its chief constituent is a gum-like body apparently allied
to bassorin and well worthy of further examination. It swells up
greatly in water and is soluble in dilute warm solutions of caustic
alkalies. Its solutions gelatinize on cooling. I hâve observed what
seems to be the same compound in other species of fungi, and it is
probable that it lias been described under several différent names.
The fungus now being discussed contains so large a proportion of
this body that it présents a very convenient material for its isolation
and the study of its composition and properties.

u The ash of this fungus is rich in potash and phosphoric acid.
Of the former constituent the ash contains no less than 42-02 per
cent. ; of the latter 20*02. Thèse proportions are exceeded in the
ash of other species ; moreover, the amount of ash in one hundred
parts of this Hirneola is much lower than that recorded for other
fungi.

"(Sigmd) A. H. Church."

NEW CALEDONIA NICKEL ORES.*

BY THOMAS MOORE.

Amongst the many ore deposits and formations of this island
few are probably of greater interest, either from a chemical or
commercial point of view, than those of nickel. The nickeliferous
ore commonly known as garnierite, is almost invariably found either
in, or at least in close proximity to, those huge masses and mountains
of serpentine which form a characteristic feature of the place, and
are as diversified in their extent as in their richness, With but one
or two exceptions it is found only on elevated positions, often at the
very summits of thèse mountains, not unusually accompanied by
chrome iron ore, and surrounded by a peculiar red earth rich in iron,
which by being alternately deluged by the rains and baked by the
sun has become hardened together into a compact mass. The
nickeliferous mountains présent a very bare, sombre and uninviting
appearance ; végétation is extremely sparse and scanty, and the few
stunted shrubs growing there seem only to intensify the barrenness
of the dull and monotonous région, contrasting strangely with the
profuse tropical growth on the lower levels. The colour of the ore
varies from the blue green in the poorer spécimens to a warm dark
green in the richer, and passing by almost imperceptible shades to a
light brown, and, fmally, to a fine chocolaté colour. The rich ore is
generaliy a mechanical mixture of apparently homogeneous green or
brown substance, with rounded pebbles of serpentine, forming a kind
of agglomerate, or it is interstitially deposited between thin layers of
quartz, steatite, and various hydrated silicates of magnésium.

Miners recognise three varieties of the ore, Le. quartz rich green,
magiH'Hia rich green, and the brown ore. The first is characterised

* "Chemical News," October lOth, 18u0.

NEW CALEDONTA NICKEL ORES. 59

by the large aniount of silica it contains, generally as minute
glistening crystals of quartz, or in the amorphous condition. The
magnesia ore contains only a small quantity of quartz, but a very
considérable amount of magnésium silicates, and has a paler green
colour than the former. The brown ore is the least common variety,
is very soft, and as a rule contains only small quantities of quartz
and magnesia, but much ferrie oxide. Generally speaking, however,
they are classified into the green and the brown minerais.

From time to time analyses of the ore hâve been published,
leading to a variety of formulai with this feature only in common, that
it is a hydrated silicate of nickel, in which the nickel is replaced to a
greater or lesser extent by magnesia or oxide of iron. Perhaps the
various complicated and somewhat contradictory formulas devised
may be accounted for by the difficulty in obtaining pure pièces, and
that the tinely intermixed quartz may hâve escaped observation, thus
giving a percentage which does not truly represent the combined
silica, but rather that of silica + quartz, for pièces of the ore which to
the eye appear thoroughly homogeneous in the great majority of
cases give an amount of insoluble silica varying from 2 to 10 per cent.
N evertheless, I hâve frequently observed that those ores containing
much magnesia give différences in analysis which do not agrée
relatively to any distinct formulas, but seem rather to indicate a
mixture of silicates; as, however, the magnesia diminishes, thèse
différences are gradually reduced, and the composition then becomes
more constant, and more closely compiles with the calculated
numbers, except for the combined water, for which ) hâve been
unable to find a constant factor. Having excellent opportunities
for procuring pure spécimens, and from the many hundreds of
analyses made of the same, there seems to be no doubt that both
kinds of ore approach very nearly to hydrated sesqui-silicates of
nickel giving a formula of 7 NiO, 6 SiG2, x H20, part of the nickel
in the green ore being replaced by magnesia, oxide of iron, or
alumina, the magnesia predominating, whilst in the brown the oxide
of iron is in excess. The following carelully executed analyses of
both ores give only the amount of soluble silica, as in those cases
when quartz was présent it has been calculated out : —

I.

IL

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

Si02

35-55

36-24

35-25

34-78

35-80

20-57

NiO

48-38

44 94

46-30

43-79

43-54

15-56

MgO

5-02

875

—

2-75

2-65

0-81

Fe.0,

1-41

0-21

9-00

6-30

10-73

49 03

A1,03

1-09

1-03

—

—

— .

0r2O3

0-15

—

014

—

—

3.82

MnO

—

—

—

—

019

trace

H20

8-85

8-98

9-20

12-40

8-00

10-32

100-45 10015 99-89 100*02 100*91 100-11

Nos. I and 2 represent the composition of the green ore. The colour
is a fine brilliant grass-green. Hardness, 2-3. Specilic gravity, 3*00.
Streak light green, waxy lustre, and slightly translucent at the thin
edges. Before the blowpipe the colour darkens, becoming dark olive
green ; in présence of much ferrie oxide, red.

Nos. 3, 4, 5 and 6 give the composition of différent brown ores.
The colour varies from light brown to a deep sometimes slightly
translucent chocolaté ; streak yellow or brownish yellow ; the fracture

ÔO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

is conchoidal, with a very strong résinons lustre. Hardness and
spécifie gravity about the same as the green ore, and rather more
brittle. The very light brown species (No. 6), bear a great resem-
blance to limonite, and are so soft as to be easily marked by the nail.
They, however, do not appear to belong to the same class of cres
as mentioned above, as the silica fluctuâtes with the nickel and
magnésium oxides, and is sometimes very low, as little as 5 per cent,
being not unusual. A fact worth noting in connection with oxide of
iron deposits is, that although containing oxide of chromium up
to 8 per cent., they are easily and entirely soluble in warm dilute
hydrochloric acid.

Exposed to the action of the weather ail thèse ores gradually
crumble to a powder, the brown exhibiting tins to a more marked
extent than the green. They are easily dissolved by hot hydrochloric
acid, and the silica which séparâtes out does not take the gelatinous
condition. Up to the présent no trace of crystalline character has
been found, although some magnesia-rich spécimens occasionally
présent an appearance similar to asbestos.

Thio, New Caledonia, July 20th, 1890.

ON THE DISCOVERY, MODE OF OCCURRENCE, AND

DISTRIBUTION OF THE NICKEL-IRON ALLOY

AVVARUITE, ON THE WEST COAST OF

THE SOUTH ISLAND OF NEW

ZEALAND.*

BY PROFESSOR G. H. F. ULRICH, F. G. S.

In October 1885, Mr. W. Skev, Government Analyst, read a paper
before the New Zealand Pbilosophical Society, Wellington, announcing
the discovery of a Nickel-lron Alloy, which he recognised as a new
minerai species and named " Awaruite." The discovery was made in a
collection of minerais sent to the Government Laboratory by Mr.
Macfarlane, the Warden of the Jackson's Bay District, which includes
Big Bay (Maori name, " Awarua"), Barn Bay, and other Bays in that
part of the West Coast of the î^outh Islancl. Mr. Skey found the new
minerai as small grains or scales in a sample of heavy black sand,
reported as saved by alluvial min ers in Barn Bay; and he gave in his
paper, besides descriptions of the physical character of the alloy and
ita minerai associâtes, interesting particulars concerning its behaviour
towards a solution of cuprous sulphate acidulated with hydrochloric
acid, and its quantitative chemical composition as: — Ni = 67'63, Co —
0-70, Fe = 31-02, 8 = 0-22, SiOa=(H3; Formula » 2 Ni + Fe; Sp. Gr.
= 8*1 ; Hardness about 5. He considérer! the alloy as the second of its
kind, of terrestrial origin, so far discovered, under the impression that
the known Nickel-lron '• Oktibbehite " (Ni + Fe), which is a météorite
found in Oktibbeha City, North Americat, was the Jirst alloy of tins

' l'roin tlio "Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society," for November 1890,

Vol. xlvi.
t Wadswortli's " Lithological Studins,"1 Table II., page xiv.

ON THE DISCOVERY OF AWARUITE. 6l

kind of terrestrial origin ; and he also suggested that the minerai would
be found in some basic rock in the vicinity of Barn Bay. Mr. Skey's
paper appeared in the Transactions of the New Zealand Tnstitute for
1885, and was reprinted with some additions in the Animal Report, for
1885-86, of the Colonial Muséum and Laboratory, Wellington. The
additions concerned the results of Mr. Skey's examination of other three
samples of heavy black sand : namely, No. 1, from Barn Bay, contained
no Awaruite ; No. 2, from Callery's Creek, contained 4 % , and No. 3,
from the Gorge River, 45*36 %. Amongst other minerais sent with
the samples of black sand Mr. Skey mentions a hydrous ferruginous
serpentine ; and in a footnote he states " this serpentine proves to be
the matrix of the nickel-minerai Awaruite, in which it is dispersed in
minute grains, in the same manner as metallic copper occurs in
serpentine in Aniseed Valley near Nelson."

On seeing the notices about Mr. Skey's first paper (October 1885),
giving full particulars regarding discovery, composition, <fcc, of the new
minerai, in the daily newspapers, and Seing cognisant of the fact of
Oktibbehite being a météorite, and therefore Awaruite not being the
second (as Mr. Skey supposed), but really the first nickel-iron alloy of
telluric origin, a fact that greatly heightened the scientific interest
attaching to it, I at once communicated with some friends at Hokitika
and Ross on the West Coast, and was successful in procuring, through
their agency, a small parcel of the nickeliferous sand. In order to gain
information regarding the spécial locality of occurrence of the alloy, and
what was of most importance, about the nature of the rocks in the
vicinity from which it was likely to be dériver!, I also wrote to Mr.
Gerhard Mueller, Chief Surveyor, Hokitika, and Mr. D. Macfarlane,
Warden of Jackson's Bay, two men to whom before ail others belongs
the crédit of having by dangerous explorations procured nearly ail the
reliable information we havp of the topographical and geological features
of that wild part of the West Coast in which the new minerai was
found.

Mr. Mueller kindly responded by furnishing me with a copy of the
topographical plan of the country under notice, which he had prepared
from his surveys and explorations, and also with his Report thereon ;
while Mr. Macfarlane was good enough to inform me that the Red-hill
mountain-complex and the Olivine Range, depicted on Mr. Mueller's
plan, largely consisted of olivine-rock, which he was the first to
recognise as such, and on account of which Mr. Mueller adopted the
name Olivine Range. Regarding my request for spécimens of the rocks
from the locality where Awaruite occurs, he intimated his intention of
shortly making a journey through the district, when he would specially
collect for me the spécimens asked for. This journey did not, however,
take place, and no further information was received until the beginning
of May 1886, when two of my students, Messrs. Henderson and
Butement, submitted to me a small collection of rocks and minerai
spécimens which during the early part of the year they had brought
from an exploring-trip extending from the head of Lake Wakatipu
across the Dividing Range and through the Red Hill district down to
the west coast of the Island. They had spent several weeks in
exploring the wild, inhospitable région of the Red Hill, an enterprise
only rendered possible through the fortunate circumstance that just

62 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

ai that time a well-equipped party of gold-prospectors were camping on
the Red llill, at a height of nearly 3,000 feet. To one of them, Capt.
\falcolm, T am indebted for several rock-specimens mentioned further
on. The collection mentioned, owing to ditficulty of carnage, consisted
mostly of chips and sinall pièces, amongst which varieties of peridotite
and serpentine claimed most attention. The several spécimens are
more fullv described in the seqnel. They were obtained in varions
places on the Red Hill Range, along fcbe red-weathered outcrop (hence
the Dame "Red Hill") of the peridotite; but those of the serpentine
varieties corne principallv from the slope of the range, falling towards
the Jerry River, a tributary of the Gorge River. One of thèse latter
spécimens, of thin lamellar (antigorite-like) structure, was found to be
impregnated with fine specks, of silverv-white colour and metallic
lustre, which on examination proved to be the nevv minerai Awaruite.
In most of the other serpentine spécimens whitish metallic-looking
specks were also discovered, but they ail turned ont to be pyrite,
except in one pièce of common dark green serpentine, which yielded
after crushing and washing, from amongst a small amount of pyrite
powder, a small hackly grain of the alloy.

Up to the time of this discovery of the matrix-rock of the Awaruite
nothing was known or had been published about a similar discovery
by anyone elsewhere* ; but in answer to a letter I wrote to Mr.
Macfarlane, pointing ont the discovery and asking for any spécimens of
peridotite and serpentine he might hâve preserved from his previous
explorations, he informed me that he had also noticed the metallic
specks and would send a number of spécimens containing them. Thèse
I received some months later, but found only two spécimens (dark-
green serpentine) with unmistakeable Awaruite in them, the metallic
specks in the remainder proving to be pyrite. Uonsiderîng the great
scientific interest attaching to the discovery of the minerai and its
matrix combined, because of the apparent close relationship of the
occurrence to certain of the stony météorites, and apprehending the find
in danger of being quite overlooked, from the fact that, although made
public in New Zealand nearly a year previous, no notice of it had up
to that time appeared in " Nature " and other English and foreign
scientific journals of eminence, I wrote letters to a number of dis-
tinguished authors, specially interested in the study of the peridotite
rocks in England, America, and Germany, giving the main particulars
of the occurrence of the minerai and the results of Mr. Skey's work.
The Président of the Geological Society at that time, Professor Judd,
being one amongst the number, considered my communication of
sufficient interest to be brought befoie the Society, and announcei at
the same time my intention of submitting a paper regarding the
discovery, providing I was successful in procuring more detailed
information about the geology of the country in which it was made,
and more material to work upont. In pursuance of this project T hâve

* Mr. Skey's footnote to his second paper in the " Annual Report of the Colonial
Muséum and Laboratory," quoted in the foregoing, appeared .several months after my
find became known.

t In the "Abstractof the ProceedingS " of the Society at that Meeting, Quart.
Journ. Qeol. Soc. vol. xliii. 1887, Proceed. p. 3, the crédit of having discovered the
Awaruite i.s given to me, no doubt through some misuuderstanding, whil.st Mr. Skey,
as the analyst and mimer of it, is not mentioned ; and it is further stated that I
eonsider Awaruite and the météorite Oktibbehite as identical in chemical composition.

ON THE DISCOYERY OF AWARUITE. 63

since written to and interviewée! a number of persons who, I thought,
could aid me in the matter. The results of thèse endeavouvs hâve not,
however, T am sorry to say, corne up to my expectations, owing to loss
and damage of spécimens sent to me, and varions other mishaps. Thns
my hope that some, from amongst quite a little army of prospectors
(abont 150 men) who, aided by the Government, Janded towards the
end of 1886 in Big Bay, woulcl collect and send spécimens was quite
disappointed, as not one of the party penetrated as far inland as the
Red Hill. In fact they soon became so dissatisfied with the hard work
of exploring the rough country that they hurriedly left the district in
troops, and very soon after not one of them remained In 1887, I was,
however, gratined in receiving from Mr. Macfarlane a larger sample of
the Awarnite-bearing sand from the Gorge River, together with portions
of a serpentine pebble of nephritic aspect, containing small specks of
Awaruite. During the same year, and again in 188£, an intrepid,
enterprising prospector, Mr. Robert Paulin, with several hired men,
traversed the Red Hill district in various directions, prospecting the
rivera and creeks ; and from him I received last year, besides a few
more spécimens of serpentine and other rocks, some valuable notes,
accompanied by a sketch-plan of the district, indicating the distribution
of the Awaruite and the extent of the peridotite and serpentine rocks.
The several small rock-samples so far enumerated, of which the collection
brought by Messrs. Henderson and Butement was the most diversified
and important, hâve thus been ail the available material to work upon ;
whilst regarding the gênerai geological structure of the country, and
more especially the mode of occurrence and extent of the peridotite
and derived serpentine rocks, I can only give an imperfect oatline,
gathered from the reports and notes received from Mr. Gerhard
Mueller, Messrs. Henderson and Butement, Mr. Macfat lane, Capt.
Malcolm, Mr. Paulin, and several other persons I met since who hâve
traverse! the district.

Regarding the gênerai geological structure of the country it is
reported that the ranges from near the sea-coast inland to the ice-clad
Dividing Range, except where broken through by the peridotite and
derived serpentine rocks, consist of metamorphic schists (gneiss, mica-
schist, and chlorite-schist) with occasional massive protrusions and
probably large dykes of granité and quartz porphyry. Judging from a
few small spécimens obtained from Mr. Paulin, the granité is medium-
grained and rather felspathic (felspar fljsh-coloured), with principally
dark mica ; whilst the gneiss and mica-schist are of ordinary character,
showing also mainly dark mica. Where the spurs from the high
ranges do not directly dip steep into the océan, massive deposits of
sandstone and shale and in some cases limestone, of probably older
Tertiary âge, overlie the old rocks along the coast to pretty high up the
easy slopes of the spurs ; whilst down the main river-valleys, mostly
on both sides, descend extensive high terraces of boulder-drift and hard

In conséquence of thèse niistakes Sir James Hector, the Directov of the Geological
Survey of New Zealand, in a letter in the March number of ' Nature ' 1887, casts a
suspicion of piracy upon me regarding the discovery of the minerai, and accuses me of
ignorance as to the second point, although perfectly innocent on both thèse charges, as
my letters to Professors Judd, Bonney, and others can prove. I hâve nevertheless
considered it necessary to lay before the Society the foregoing succinct statements of
facts relatin g to the matter, which will afford the explanation which Sir James Hector
says the case requires.

6j JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

conglomérâtes, of morainic character in the higher parts of the valleys.
Jn the embouchures of the rivera there are generally bars or delta-like
accumulations of more récent driit. rl he prospecting of the terrace-
drifts for gold and tracing the gold to its original deposits (quartz-reefs)
waa the main object of the large prospecting party previously referred
to.

Corning now to the peridotite and serpentine rocks, the following
extracts are of importance. The Chief Surveyor, Mr. Gerhard Mueller,
in his report of his explorations*, states on this head as follows : — "The
mcst remarkable feature about the district appears to me to be that of
the Olivine Ra*ige on the East of Cascade River. It is a red and
violet looking mass, and, from about 1,000 feet above the river, devoid
of almost every vestige of végétation. It is of the same formation
of which the Cascade Plateau and a great part of the country of the
Gorge and Jerry valleys consist. The Red Hill (5,000-6,000 feet)
itself is olivine- rock, whilst the spurs running therefrom are a sort of
greyish slate with grey granité belts hère and there through them. An
extraordinary red granité bel! is seen in the Jerry River a little above
the proposed road-crossing. The olivine formation is traceable as far as
tha Humboldt Mountains; the last indication of it I saw on the low
saddle, from which the Barrier and Olivine Branches (Creeks) and the
Hidden Falls Creek rise; the extent of it there does not exceed a couple
of acres, but is very marked and distinct." In a letter to me, August
lst, 1889, Mr. R. Paulin, in explanation of his sketch-plan, states: —
" The Red Hill forma' ion (olivine and serpentine) occurs ail over the
parts I hâve marked with red Unes. The Red Hill and Olivine Ranges
are for the most part bare of timber, and the formation is very
conspicuous, owing to the burnt-brick colour which the rock assumes
where exposed to the atmosphère. Both the Olivine and Hope Ranges
are very much broken and shattered, containing no mass of rock that
has not cracks in ail directions. This is not so much the case in the
Red Hill Ranges."

From thèse extracts it will be seen that the rocks under notice
compose, in the région of the Awaruite discovery, a couiplex of high
massive ranges, the most prominent of which are the Red Hill and
Olivine Ranges, and which comprise an area of about 25 miles in length
north and south, and 16 miles in width east and west. The rocks,
however, doubtless extend (probably with interruptions and for certain
much contracted in width) much further south ward, even beyond the
point Mr. Mueller m« ntions near the Humboldt Mountains (about 6£
miles S. by W. from the juuction of the Barrier Creek with the Pyke
River). What leads to this conclusion is, that Messrs. Henderson and
Butement saw con^picuously bare and red-coloured mountains and
ridgea (like those of the Red Hill Range) further southward, near
Lake Harris Saddle, thewateished between the Route Burn (a tributary
of the Dart River falling into Lake Wakatipu) and the Hollyford
River; and that they found boulders of olivine rock and serpentine in
one of the cie< ks rismg near that saddle and falling into the Hollyford
River. Still another important proof is that at the head of the Caples

* Report on West Coast between Cascade Plateau and Jackson's Kiver on the
Nortb, and Lake M'Krrrow and Holiyford Valh y on the South ; in the " Keport of
the Survey Lepaitment of N.Z. for the year 1883-84," p. 73.

ON THE DISCOVERY OF AWARUITE. 65

River (about 22 miles S. of the junction of Barrier Creek and Pyke
River) there occurs in massive outcrops a dark-green serpentine, closely
resembling that of the Red Hill and enclosing veins and bunches of
compact talc (steatite).

With regard to the geological relations of the peridotite and
serpentine rocks to the enclosing crystalline schiste, there can be no
doubt, according to Messrs. Henderson's and Butement's observations
that the former are intrusive through the latter ; several places haying
been observed by them where the strike of the schists was right against
the peridotite and serpentine outcrops.

Among the spécimens, from the Cascade River at the foot of the
Olivine Range are pièces of a hard néphrite like serpentine (bowenite?),
containing small specks of Awaruite embedded in it. The spécimens
are evidently portions of rolled pebbles.

The first sample of the Awaruite-bearing black sand examined by
Mr. Skey was supposed to hâve corne' from Barn Bay ; but it was
subsequently proved to hâve been washed from the drift of the Gorge
River. The valley of this river has since generally been considered to
be the only plaça of occurrence of the minerai, and is, indeed, the one
in which it has so far been proved to exist in largest quantity. Mr. G.
Mueller, the Chief Surveyor, in answer to my enquiries on this point,
states : — "The minerai is found in the bed and the banks of the Gorge
River, and the ground covered by the mineral-leases applied for with
the view of working the nickel is marked in red on the lithograph-plan
enclosed. Thèse deposits hâve evidently been brougbt across the
saddle into the Gorge River from the Olivine Range at the back
of it."

As, in considération of the large extent of the peridotite or serpen-
tine rocks, it seemed to me very unlikely that the occurrence of the
minerai should be confined to the Gorge River only, I specially
requested Mr. R. Paulin, before he set out on his exploring and pros-
pecting trip, to look out for the alloy in the olivine and serpentine
rocks and the drift of the rivers and creeks he prospected. In his
explanatorv letter to me he states as follows : — " I hâve found small
specks of nickel in the rocks of various localities, most conspicuous at
Silver Creek (a tributary of the Jerry River rising in the Red Hill
Range), and I think that it occurs throughout the whole formation.
The free nickel found in différent river-beds is much coarser than any
T hâve seen in the stone. On the Red Hill itself I found nickel 2,400
feet above the sea-level." The area of distribution of the Awaruite is
thus by Mr. Paulin's observations proved to be far more extensive than
first imagined, and it may be larger still, for I see nothing unreasonable
in his belief that the minerai occurs impregnated in the matrix through-
out the whole extent of the peridotite and serpentine rocks ; and,
inferentially, in the liberated state in the drifts derived therefrom.
The graduai gathering of practical proof of this, however, will, I fear,
take a long time, owing to the great hardships and dangers connected
i with prospecting in that wild, inhospitable district. The supposed
1 récognition of Awaruite distributed through the rock will also, in many

66 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

cases, not be free from doubt, imless the specks be detached and
specially tested. Tliis is on acconnt of the smallness of the specks, and
their fréquent association with, and gênerai resemblance in colour to,
grains of pyrite, which may therefo»*e be easily mistaken for it. The
simplest test in the case of detached specks is by application of the
magnet, which energetically attracts the Awaruite specks, but leaves
those of pyrite unaffected. The malleability of the specks affords
another proof of their identity.

ON THE HISTORY OF THE KIWI *

BY PROF. T. JEFFERY PARKER, F.R.S.

The development of the brain présents some points of interest-
The brain of birds closely resembles that of reptiles, differing
chiefly in the fact that owing to the increased size of the central
hémisphères and cerebellum the optic lobes which in reptiles lie in
contact with one another on the upper surface of the brain, are pushed
outwards and corne to lie, widely separated from each other, one on
each side.

In the embryo of the kiwTi, as in that of other birds, the brain is
at one stage precisely like that of a reptile, having a pair of large
optic lobes closely applied to one another, on the upper surface. As
development goes on the optic lobes gradually separate from one
another and take up a position on the sides of the brain, the
cerebellum and cerebrum at the same time uniting between them.
At tins stage, therefore, the brain is precisely like that of an
ordinary typical bird. Later on the eye undergoes a relative
dimunition in size, the optic lobes also become smaller in proportion
to the remaining part of the organ, and being overgrown by the
cerebrum corne to lie in the adult on the under surface of the brain,
wrhere they form a pair of insignificant élévations. It may a]so be
mentioned that, apart from the optic lobes, the brain of Aptéryx is by
no means of a low type ; the cérébral hémisphères are, in fact, as
large in proportion to the brain as in a passerine bird.

80 far, it will be seen, the study of the development of the kiwi
certainly tends to show that its relation to ordinary or carinate birds
is closer than would be expected from a study of the adult anatomy.
There is, however, one very striking point of divergence.

The " tail " of a carinate bird consists of a variable number of
tail-quills, covered above and below by smaller feathers or tail-coverts,
and arranged in a half-circle round the true tail of the bird — the
small conical projection known as the " parson's nose " or uropygium.
In order to support thèse feathers the last few vertèbre are united
into a strong conical mass or " ploughshare bone." In the kiwi
there is never any trace of tail-quills, the uropygium being from its
first formation to adult lifo a naked stump quite devoid of feathers.

Continuée! roui page 9.

HISTORY OF THE KIWI. 6?

Nevertheless a true though small ploughsharebone is formed by the
fusion of two or three vertebrae. As the only function of this bone is
to support the tail-quills its présence in Aptéryx seems to indicate
that the ancestors of the bird had tail-quills to be supported.

On the whole it will be seen that the study of the development
of the kiwi tends to lessen the gulf between it and ordinary birds,
and to show that its ancestors probably possessed many of the more
important and distinctive features which characterise the Carinatae of
to-day. The facts clearly indicate that the founder of the Apterygian
house had interrupted plumage, functional wings, an ordinary avian
tail, a keeled sternum, a double-headed quadrate, latéral optic lobes,
and a pecten in the eye, in other words that the ancestors of the
genus were typical flying birds and not bird-like reptiles. It would
seem, therefore, that the facts tell strongly against hypothesis (1) of
the origin of the Ratitae (diagram p. ô*).

As to the relative probability of hypothesis (2) and (3) we hâve
unfortunately only detached observations on the development of the
other Ratitae, and hâve therefore to rely mainly upon comparative
anatomy.

Of the eight characters enumerated above (p. 3), as separating
the Ratitae from the Carinatae it will be noticed that the first five are
directly connected with the power of flight. We should expect to find
such adaptive characters in purely cursorial birds whether they arose
from a common stock or sprang separately from early flying birds,
and as a matter of fact they occur to a greater or less extent in such
flightless birds as the Dodo, Weka, Notornis, etc., which we know
hâve no genetic connection with one another, but hâve independently
acquired the characteristics of flightlessness. I think, therefore, that
the possession of the characters referred to, by the whole of the
Ratitae is no argument for the common origin.

The peculiarity of the quadrate has been shown to be a secondary
matter, and we hâve left only the characters of the base of the skull.
Thèse certain ly form an excellent diagnostic character by which the
whole of the Ratitae are separated from the majority of the Carinatae,
but even hère the distinction is not absolute for the Tinamous
approach in many respects more nearly to the Ratitae than to the rest
of the Carinatse. Still it seems probable that the various gênera of
Ratitae must hâve diverged from the main line of descent at a
comparatively early period, though perhaps not earlier than some of
the existing orders of Carinatae. The Penguins, for instance, are far
more reptilian in their vertébral column and less typical in the
structure of their wings than the Ratitae. The Ostrich, however,
shows the unique and very reptilian character of two claws on the
wing, and the very gênerai présence of wing-claws in the group is a
distinctly primitive character.

Leaving the skull, in which the whole group shows primitive
characters, and the wing and related parts in which the resemblances
between the gênera are largely adaptive, we find the range of
variation in the Ratitae to be very great indeed. Two gênera (Aptéryx
and Dinornis) hâve a normal 4-toed foot; in three others (Cassowary,

* In this diagram (top of p. 5) the letter r should be placed above the origin of the line

leading to Ratitœ.

68 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Emu, and Rhea) the hind-toe or liallux has disappeared ; while in
another (O strie h) only two toes are left. The pelvis of the kiwi and
moa is of the simplest avian type, both pubis and ischia being free ;
in the cassowary and emu the ischium unités with the ilium ; in the
rhea the ischia unité with one another above the intestines — a unique
arrangeaient; in the ostrich the pubis unité to form a sympophysis
as in most of the higher vertebrates. The feathers hâve an after-
shaft in the emu, cassowary and moa, none in the ostrich, or rhea, or
kiwi. In no order of carinate birds do we find such a wide range of
variation as this, and when we add to the characters enumerated the
extraordinavily aberrant skull and the structure of the egg shell of
Aptéryx, the total atrophy of the wings in Dinornis, and even of
the shoulder-girdle in some species of the genus, and the striking
différences between the sterna, the shoulder-girdle, and the wings of
the various gênera, we are forced to the conclusion that the existing
or lately extinct cursorial birds now known to us are divisible into
five wellmarked orders, each the équivalent of an entire order of
Carinatœ. Of thèse one order con tains the ostrich alone, another the
rheas, a third the emu and the cassowaries, a fourth the moas, and a
fifth the kiwis.

As to the relation of the kiwi to the other gênera it has been
shown to be most nearly allied as far as its skeleton is concerned, to
the moa, differing from it however in many important respects. It
must certainly hâve been isolated at a very distant period, and as far
as we can see some of its more striking peculiarities are distinctly
correlated to its method of feeding. Most nocturnal animais hâve
large eyes suited for taking the utmost advantage of the semi-
darkness, but the kiwi, finding its prey by scent alone, has developed
an extraordinarily perfect olfactory sensé, while at the same time,
having no need to keep watch against beasts of prey, its eyes hâve
diminished in size and efficiency to a degree elsewhere unknown in
the bird class.

BOTANICAL NOTES.

BY D. PETRIE, M.A., F.L.S.

Carmichœlia compacta, D. Pétrie. This is by far the most showy
of the ' native brooms ' tbund in the Soutb Island, and is hardly
inferior in appearance to the beautiful G. odorata, Colenso, of the North
Island. It has a strong and very agreeable scent, and in tins respect
has no rival in the genus. This species is well worthy of cultivation as
an ornamental under-shrub, but I hâve had no success in my attempts
to raise it from seed. A light sandy soil suits it veiy well, and in its
native valleys it nowhere grows so luxuriantly as in such situations.

TUlœa purpurata, Hook, f. This species, hitherto known in our
colony only from the North Island, has now been found in Otago. I
gathered nu mérous young spécimens in the neighbourhood of Penibroke
(Lake Wanaka), in the last days of Novcmber of last year. It is a
very small species, and from its inconspicuous character easily over-

BOTANICAL NOTES. 69

looked. No doubt it has a wide distribution over the South Island,
and may be looked for in spots where temporary pools form in wet
weather.

Acœna Buchanani, Hook, f. In the u Handbook of the New
Zealand Flora " this species is said to hâve a single stamen I hâve
long had doubts as to the accuracy of this statement, and an exami-
na tion of a considérable number of spécimens, gathered in the original
habitat, shows that the number of stamens is constantly two. It has
also two styles. The yellowish-green hue of the leaves, usually so
characteristic of the plant in the valleys of the Upper Clutha, does not
hold in other localities such as Spear Grass Fiat and Ida Valley. I
make this statement on the supposition that the species of Acœna from
the latter localities is A. Buchanani (Hook, f.), as I hâve every reason
to believe that it is.

Rhipogonum scandens, Forster. After examining a large séries of
the fruits of the ' supple-jack ' I find that the berry is fréquent 1 y
3-seeded with ail the seeds of the ordinary size, and occasionally
4-seeded, in which case one or two of the seeds are smaller than usual.
I hâve not had opportunity to examine the ovary, which is doubtless
3-celled, though more than one ovule must now and then occur in some
of the cells. This point is well worth working out, and I hope some
naturalist living near a pièce of virgin bush will undertake its
investigation.

Salicornia indica?, Will. In this our common littoral 'glass-wort,'
some of the flowers are hermaphrodite. The perfect flowers are, I
think, proterogynous. The number of stamens is constantly two.
Many flower spikes are, I believe, purely pistillate without a trace
of stamens, and in thèse the mature cônes are smaller than those found
on the hermaphrodite spikes. It would be well if thèse observations,
made at Dunedin, were checked in some other part of the colony.

Gratiola nana, Bentham. In this species the stigma is bi-lamellate,
and the lamelle are very sensitive. When touched with the tip of a
blade of grass they close at once. The movement begins very promptly
and is, I think, confined to the inferior plate, which rises up so as to
press against the immobile superior one. Most likely the lighting of
pollen grains on the stigmatic surface would suffice to initiate the
movement of closing, and its signifiée nce would in that case lie in
its rendering the escape of pollen impossible. When mechanically
irritated the closure of the lamellse is not persistent but passes off in a
few minutes.

Proterandry in the Gentians. I hâve always found the flowers of
Gentiana montana, Forst., G. pleurogynoides, Griesb., and G. saxosa,
Forst., strongly proterandrous. The stigmatic lobes are closely appressed
and too immature for fertilisation when the pollen is shed from the
anthers. This would prevent a single flower from fertilising itself, but
it would not preclude différent flowers in the same plant from fertilising
one atiother. The extrorse position of the anthers is doubtless another
adaptation for making self-fertilisation difficult.

Plagianthus Lyallii, Hook, f. This species of ' ribbon-wood ' was
formerly ranked in the genus Hoheria, A. Cunn., and there seem to be
good reasons for doubting if that is not its proper position. Be this as

7<D JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

it mav, it is certain tliat the styles are not " stigmatiferous towards the
apex along the inner face." The stigmas are eonstantly capitate,
without a trace of the decurrence of the stigmatic surface along the
style. The number of styles is twelve or by abortion less. When they
are fewer than twelve, rudiments of the déficient styles are nearly
ahvavs to be found. The perfect fruit lias twelve compressed carpels,
and I hâve never found tins nuniber exceeded. Three or more of thèse
are usually barren, but in a perfect capsule the twelve are very plainly
recognisable. Thèse peculiaritics do not accord well with the generic
character of Plagiantlius, and the plant is evidently on the border-land
between Hoheria and that genus. If our plant is still to be ranked as
a Plagiai itl lus there seem to be very scanty reasons for maintaining
Hoheria as a genus distinct froni Plagiantlius. This small tree is one
of the most beautiful of the native shrubs. It is now pretty freely
cultivated in private gardens in Dunedin, and is greatly admired for
its copions clusters of scented iiowers that look quite as gay as cherry-
blossom. The season of flowering is Christmas time It is easily
propagatecl by cuttings, but seedlings are difficult to get, as the seeds
are very generally eaten by the larva of some small insect. The seeds
of Hoheria populnea, A. Cunn., are attacked in exactly the same way,
probably by the same larva, and this is perhaps an additional reason
for considering the plant a Hoheria rather than a Plagiantlius.

Lepilœna, sp. Some years ago Mr. Thos. Kirk. F.L.S., noticed
the occurrence of this genus in New Zealand. I hâve reason to think
that our species is distinct from any of those found in Australia, and I
propose for it the provisional name of Lepilœna mouandra. Tt is very
abundant in many fresh and brackish waters of Otago.

Sciropus (Isolepis) basilaris, Hook, f. This rare species, which lias
uritil recently been found only in one locality in Hawke's Bay, is
now found to occur in Otago, near Coal Creek (Koxburgh). I hâve
repeatedly collected it about a mile and a half to the north of Coal
Creek on the road to Alexandra South, but until last year I was unable
to get the fruit, and was therefo e uncertain about its identification.
Though previously known only from low levels it will probably prove a
sub-alpine plant, and be found in many localities between Otago and
Hawke's Bay.

Zannichellia palustris, L. Though this species is given in the
Handbeok it bas recently been suspected that Sir Joseph Hooker had
mistaken the indigenous species of Lepilœna for it. This, however, is
very improbable, as the true Zannichellia jmlustris L., grows in the
lagoon at Waikouaiti, where I gathered it at the end of January last.
The présence of a n aie fiower at the base ol the pistillate one, and the
curious obliquely peltate stigmas at once distinguish it from the
disecious Lepilœna.

GENERAL NOTES. J\

GENERAL NOTES.

Epfects of Thunder on Milk. — A thuncler-storm is generally
believed to be a bad thing for a dairy. An Italian savant, Prof essor
G. Tolomei, lias macle some experinients on the relation of electricity to
the souring of milk. He found, according to The Boston Médical and
Surgical Journal, that the passage of an electric carrent directly
through the milk not only did not hasten, but actually delayed
acidulation ; milk so treated not becoming sour until from the sixth
to the ninth day, whereas milk not so electrified became markedly
acid on the third day. When, however, the surface of a quantity of
milk was brought close under the two balls of a Holtz machine, the
milk soon became sour, and this effect he attributes to the ozone
generated. — (" Science.")

Escallonia Macrantha and Bées. — This plant is very extensively
grown about Dunedin both as an ornamentaJ shrub and as a hedge-row
plant in gardens. This season it has ftowered profusely and has been
visited by swarms both of humble- and honey-bees. Thèse insects,
however, appear seldom to visit the flowers in a legitimate manner,
and consequently it almost never matures its ovary with us. The five
red petals hâve long parallel claws standing edge to edge, and in very
close contact except near the base where they are sufficiently separated
to leave a narrow clef t. The bee lights on t'.e side of the fiower with
its head directed towards the base of the calyx, and thrusting its
proboscis between the petals, sips ont. the abundant nectar without
ever touching either stigma or anthers. ' Bées appear to be so apt to
learn dodges from one another, that ail those in one neighbourhood may
apparently acquire a habit which is not known elsewhere. It would be
interesting, therefore, to learn whether the above mode of extracting
the nectar from Escallonia flowers is universal, or whether it is only
local.— G. M. T.

Fertilisation of Native Flowers by Honey-bees. — Out of the
large number of plants indigenous to thèse islands, it is surprising how
few of them are visited by hive-bees. I hâve kept a record for a long
time past of ail the flowers on which I hâve seen bées, and hâve also
received from the members of the Otago Beekeepers' Association a
list — accompanied by spécimens — of the plants on which they hâve
observed bées. The following is a tolerably complète list of those from
which honey is collected in the neighbourhood of Dunedin : —

Clematis indivisa (probably for pollen only) ; White Mapau —
Pittosporum eugenioides ; Black Mapau — Pittosporum tenuifolium ;
Mako-mako — Aristotelia racemosa ; Hina-hina — Melicytus ramiflorus ;
Fuchsia excorticata ; Lawyer — Rubus australis ; Kowhai — Sophora
tetraptera ; Manuka — Leptospernnmi scopariam ; Celmisia coriacea ;
Myrtles — both Myrtas obcordata and M. pedunculata ; Convolvulus
tuguriorum (for pollen only) ; Veronica traversii and Veronica sali-
cornioides. I shall be glad to hâve records of any others. — G. M. T.

On the Préservation of Solution of Sulphuretted Hydrogen.
— On the 15th November last, I published in the "Chemical News" a
note on the use of glycerin in preserving sulphuretted hydrogen in

y 2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

solution. The experiments I quoted showed most conclusively that
glycerin is most bénéficiai in tins way, and it occurred to me that
certain other analogous substances would probably act in a similar
manner. I hâve made rough qualitative trials, which prove this to
be the case. About five months ago I sealed up bottles containing
respectively —

(a) sulphuretted hydrogen water

(b) sulphuretted hydrogen water with sugar

(c) sulphuretted hydrogen water with salicylic acid.

I hâve opened thèse to-day, and find that solution (a) gives no reaction
with lead acétate and is entirely free from odour ; whilst solutions (b)
and (c) hâve a strong odour of the gas, and yield copions précipitâtes

with lead acétate The amount of sugar used was 2

per cent., and of salicylic acid 1 per cent. — A. J. Shilton, F.C.S., in
"Chemical News" of lOth October, 1890.

The Anatomy of a New Zealand Earth-worm. — In a notice of a
paper " On the Homology between Génital Ducts and Nephridia in the
Oligochseta," by Frank E. Beddard, M.A., Prosector of the Zoological
Society, presented to the Royal Society on November 27th, the
following occurs, (Nature of 4th December) : —

" I hâve lately had the opportunity of studying the development
of the New Zealand species Acanthodrilus multiporus. The sum of
money which the Government Grant Committee of the Royal Society
were good enough to place at my disposai has enabled me lo defray the
expenses of this investigation.

" Tn the young embryos of this worm each segment is furnished
with a pair of nephridia, each opening by a ciliated funnel into the
segment in front of that which carries the dorsally placed external pore.
In later stages the funnels degenerate, and that portion of the tube
which immediately follows the funnel becomes solicl, losing its lumen ;
at the same time the nephridium branches, and communicates with the
exterior by numerous pores. At a comparatively early stage, four
pairs of gonads are developed in segments X.— XIII. ; each of thèse is
situated on the posterior wall of its segment, as in Acanthodrilus
unnectens, and not on the anterior wall, as in the majority of earth-
worms. When the gonads first appear, the nephridial funnels, with
which they are in close contact, are still ciliated, and their lumen is
prolonged into the nephridium for a short distance. Later the ci lia
are lost, and the funnels increase greatly in size, while those of the
neighbouring segments — in fact, ail the remaining funnels — remain
stationary for a time, and then become more and more degenerate.
The arge funnels of the génital segments become the funnels of the
vasa differentia and oviducts ; it will be observed that the number of
ovaries and oviducal funnels (two pairs) at first corresponds to that
of the testes and sperm duct funnels; subsequently the gonads and
commencing oviducts of segment XIJ. atrophy. Each of thèse large
funnels is continued into a solid rod which passes back through the
sep tu m, and then becomes continuons with a coiled tuft of tubules, in
which there is an évident lumen, and which is a part of the nephridium
of its segment, in the segments in front of and behind the génital
segments, the rudinientary funnels communicate in the same way with

GENERAL NOTES. 73

a solid rod of cells which runs straight for a short distance and then
becomes coiled and twisted upon itself and provided with a distinct
lumen. In fact, apart from the relative size of the funnels and the
présence of the gonads, it would be impossible to state from which
segment a given section through the terminal portion of a nephridium
had been taken. In a later stage the large funnels of the génital
segments become ciliated, but this ciliation takes place before there is
any marked change in the tube which is connected with the funnel.

" In the young worm which has just esoaped from the cocoon the
funnels are ciliated, and they are each of them connected by a short
tube, in which a lumen has been developed, but which ends blindly in
close proximity to a coil of nephridia. No trace of any nephridial tube
other than the sperm duct or oviduct could be observed, whereas in the
preceding and succeeding segments the rudimentary nephridial funnel,
and a straight tube leading from it direct to the body wall, was
perfectly plain. Dr. Bergh has figured, in bis account of the develop-
ment of the generative organs of Lumbricus, a nephridial funnel in
close contact with the funnel of the génital duct. It may be suggested
that a corresponding funnel has been overlooked in the embryo
Acanthodrilus; the continuity of a structure, identical (at first) with
the nephridia of the segments in front and behind, with the génital
funnels, seems to show that a search for a small nephridial funnel
would be fruit] ess.

"I can only explain thèse facts by the supposition that in Acantho-
drilus multiporus the génital funnels and a portion at least of the
ducts are formed out of nephridia. This mode of development is a
confirmation, to me unexpectecl, of Balfour's suggestion that in the
Oligochaeta the nephridium is broken up into a génital and an excretory
portion.

" In the comparison of the facts, briefly described hère, with the
apparently independent origin of the generative ducts in other Oligo-
chseta, it must be borne in mind that in Acanthodrilus the ségrégation
of the nephridium into several almost detached tracts communicating
with the exterior by their own ducts précèdes the formation of the
génital ducts."

Récent Papers on the Natural History of New Zealand. —

Maskell, W. M., " Icerya Puixhasii, and its insect-enemies in New

Zealand." Entom. Monthly Mag. (2). Vol. L, No. 1, p. 17-19.
Hudson, G. Y., "The life-history of Simaethis combinata, Walk."

Entom. Monthly Mag. (2). Vol. I , No. 1, p. 22-23.
Hudson, G. V., "On the flight of Atta antarctica.'' Entom. Monthlv

Mag. (2). Vol. L. No. 1, p. 23.
Smith, W. W., " On Mecyna polygonalis, Treitschke, in New Zealand."

Entom. Monthly Mag. (2). Vol. L, No. 2, p. 51-52.
Meyrick, E., " Mecyna polygonalis, Tr. in New Zealand." Entom.

Monthly Mag. (2). Vol. L, No. 3, p. 87-88.
Hudson, G. V., " Abundance of Vanessa cardui in New Zealand."

Entomologist, Vol. 23, Apr., p. 133.

Occurrence of Glow worms in a Deep Cave, — Mr. A. Pbilpott
of Mt. Linton station sends the following interesting note on the
occurrence of glow-worms in the limestone caves near Olifden station,

74 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Waiu river, Southland. He visited the caves in November last, with
two companions. He says : — " Having visited the cave, we were
returning and were within a few chains ot the month wben one of us
noticed a light at the end of one of the numerous alleys running off
froui the main cave. Thinking it was an outlet from the cave I went
towards it, but as I drew nearer, the light became smaller changing
from a pale yellow to bine, till when I had got right up to it, it
appeared as a small but brilliant blue spot and I saw that it proceeded
from a worm which seemed to be fixed to the wall by a few silken
threads. Near it was a second worm, but I do not remember whether
it emitted a light or not. The worms were about one inch long, flesh-
coloured, and light apparently came from near the head. They seemed
to hâve the power of putting ont the light at will, for after I had
regained my companions no light could be seen. The change in the
colour of the lighted may hâve been due to my approaching it with a
lighted candie.

Humble-Bees. — Mr. L. Cockayne of Dilcoosha, Styx, near Christ-
church, who is well known as a collector of Alpine plants, and a
cultivator and introducer of European Alpines, sends the folio wing
notes of plants visited by huinble-bees, in addition to those mentioned
in Mr. Thomson 's paper, p. 16 : —

Ranunculace^:.

Aquilegia chrysantha.
Nigella damascena. .

Papaverace^e.

Papaver alpinum. On the red-flowered, but never on the
white variety.
Bartonia aurea.
Arge7)ione mexicana.
Bocconia cordata.

Geraniace^e.

Erodium manescavi.
Géranium jwatense.

Rosaces.

Spirœa, two shrubby species.

Rubus idœusfl. pi. One of the few white-flowered plants on

which humble-bees hâve been observed.

Composite.

Centaurea austriaca.

Dahlia Juarezi, and its varie ties.

Ilelianthus muWflorus. The flowers of tins species of Sun-

flower intoxicate the bées.

SoLANEJE.

Nicotiana affinis — another of the white flowers visited.

ScROPHULARINE^E.

Linaria antiearia.
Lina/ria m'iccdonica.

GENERAL NOTES. 75

Labiatae.

Dracocephcdum Ruprechti. The bées are very fond of the
flowers of this plant, the nectar of which completely intoxicates
or stupéfies them. Mr. Cockayne says : — " I took three bées
off the flowers at the sarae time, ail in a helpless state, and
put them under a tumbler. In an hour's time one had
recovered and was able to fly away, another died during the
clay, and the third was, on the next day, as weak as when
captured."

Mrs. Mason of Paradise, Glenorchy, reports that since the cutting-
down of the broom — which was almost the only plant visited in that
district, humble-bees hâve not been seen this season until very recently,
when one or two hâve been observed on the flowers of the honeysuckle.

To the list given in my paper on p. 16, I hâve to add the
following : —

Ranunculaceje.

Nigella damascena.

Caryophylle^e.

Dianthus Jimbriatus.
Iride^e.

Gladiolus, a crimson hybrid.

COMMELYNEJE.

Tradescantia virginica, on the blue, but not on the white-
flower-ed variety.

On ail thèse only small bées were seen, and thèse sparingly. —
G. M. T.

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

OF SCIENCE.

CHRISTCHURCH MEETING.

The third meeting of the Australasian Association was opened in

; Christchurch, on Thursday, 15th January, and was formally brought to

| a close on the 22nd. Froni every point of view the meeting was

i a success. The arrangements were excellent throughout. numerous

matters of great interest were brought forward and discussed in the

various sections, the attend ance of members and their friends was very

goocl, while the kindness and hospitality of the people of Christchurch

made the stay of the visitors very pleasant. Not only were there

numerous eminent représentatives from ail the Australian colonies, but

; the meeting was honoured by the présence of Professor Goodale,

; Professor of Botany in Harvard University, and Président of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science, which body had

76 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

commissioned him to convey fraternal greetings to the Australasian
Association. To crown ail the weather was favourable, by no means
too warm, ancî characterised by the absence of the hot winds which had
been so prévalent throughout the earlier part of the summer. The
Canterbnry Collège Board of Governors had placed the Collège, the
Boys' High School and the School of Art at the disposai of the local
committee. Ail the varions section rooms were therefore in such close
and convenient proximity, that members could step out of one and into
another, withont that waste of time and energy which seemed to harass
visitors so much at the Melbourne meeting. The crédit for carrying
the meeting to such a successful issue is mainly due to the local
secretary, Professor Hutton, who appears to hâve spared no trouble to
bring things into complète order. Everything went like clockwork
from start to finish.

On the opening day the first meeting was that of the General
Committee, under the chairmanship of Baron F. von Mueller, the
retiring Président. A very enthusiastic vote of thanks was passed to
Professor Hutton for his services as local secretary, and to Professor
Liversidge as gênerai secretary.

The following were appointed office-bearers for the 1892 meeting: —
Président, Sir R. Hamilton (Governor of Tasmania and Président of the
Royal Society of Tasmania) ; General Secretary, Mr. Alex Morton ;
General Treasurer, Mr. H. C. Russsell, C.M.G., F.R S. (Sydney);
Local Secretaries, Professor Baldwin Spencer (Victoria), F. Wright
(South Australia), J. Shirley (Queensland), Professer Parker, F.R. S.,
Otago University (New Zealand).

It was resolved to hold the fifth meeting in Adelaide, the date of
it to be fixed at the Hobart meeting. The report of the Committee
appointed to draft a revised code of laws for the Association was
brought up, and the proposais for amendment were distributed amongst
the members of the Committee for considération.

In the afternoon Sir James and Lady Hector received the members
of the Association and their friends in the grounds of Christ's Collège.

In the evening the annual public meeting of the Association was
held in the Provincial Council Charnber, an élégant and suitable room,
which was crowded in every part. The chair was occupied by the
retiring Président, Baron von Mueller. He was supported on his
right by his Excellency the Governor, and on his left by Sir James
Hector, the President-elect.

Baron von Mueller having introduced his successor to the meeting,
vacated the chair, which was then taken by Sir James Hector.

His Excellency the Governor then said : — Sir James Hector,
ladies and gentlemen, before proceeding to any further business this
evening I am going to ask your permission to say a few words of
welcome to those who are strangers in our midst. Upon the occasion
of their visiting New Zealand I think nothing strikes the English
visitor to the colonies more tlian the constant récurrence of institutions
similar to those which lie lias left behind him in England. He finds
that the colonies havegrafted on to their social System those institutions
which the expeiience of nine centuries lias enabled England to bring to
their présent perfection. At the saine time you hâve carefully striven

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. JJ

to prevent, and at their first appearance to uproot, those evils from
which tlie Mother Country has not yet been able to free herself. Thus
you find the same beautiful forms of Divine worship in Christchurch
Cathedral, in your churches and chapels, as we hâve at Home. The
youth of ail classes hâve the advantages of elementary éducation as they
hâve at Home, with this différence, that hère it is without direct cost
to the parents, who are relieved of the charge of their children during
the troublesome years of infancy, and who, by leaving thein at school
till riper years, may obtain for them something more than an éducation
which is elementary. You hâve public schools on the lines of those of
Eton and Harrow, to whose agency illustrious statesmen and warriors
hâve attributed much of England's pre-eminence among nations ; and
you possess richly eudowed institutions for training adults, not only in
intellectual pursuits, but also in those arts which enable men to subdue
the wilderness, and to make the earth bring forth lier increase. Let me,
in passing, pay a warm tribute to the valuable work carried on by the
University of New Zealand, whose career and position, both in respect
of curriculum and number of stiulents, compare favourably with the
older institutions of Sydney and Melbourne. The ladies présent will
not forget that récognition is due from their sex to the liberal-minded
action of this University in having been the hrst to open its doors to
women students by conferring on them equality with men in the matter
of degrees. On the other hand, you hâve not allowed that great social
question which is convulsing Europe, the disposai of the indigent poor,
to become a source of discontent and disturbance. You hâve avoided
the pauper workhouses where the State grudgingly gives a maintenance
to the aged life-long worker, under conditions the least agreeable in life
lest any should be found to wish to go and do likewise. What wonder,
then, that such an institution as the British Association should hâve its
counterpart in Australasia, an Association eminently fitted to Hourish
in such coramunities as thèse, removing science from the pursuit only
of the few and marking the democracy of knowledge, by sympathy
begetting knowledge and adding again to sympathy. You hâve chosen
as your place of meeting this year the colony over which I hâve the
honour to préside in the name of lier Majesty, and, in my dual capacity
as the Queen's représentative (for does not your very name dénote a
bond ot Impérial unity in its purpose 1), and as the mouthpiece of this
important community, I bid you a hearty welcome to our shor es. If a
layman may express an opinion on such a point, I would say that I
think the sélection has been eminently a wise one, and that there are
reasons why this meeting should be the most interesting yet held by
the Association, for in New Zealand you may find objects of scientific
interest which will, I believe, amply repay you for your voyage of
1,200 miles, as I hâve found them repay my less cultured mind for its
voyage of 12,000. Certain I am that no word of regret ever fell from
any member of the British Association that that Association should
hâve transferred its sphère of opérations in 1884 from Great Britain to
one of the younger members of the British Empire ; and, if in Canada,
why, at some future time, with our présent improved steam com-
munication, should not the British Association meet in Australia, or
| even in New Zealand1? On that occasion. Lord Laudsowne, Governor-
General of Canada, commenter! on the dtfticulty with which Science
would hâve to contend in competing with material activity in a young

78 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

country. No doubt the leisured class is less numerous, till recently
had no existence in the colonies, and is of slow growth, being constantly
depleted by those who, having earned their leisure, choose to spend it
elsewhere. There is mue h truth in his remark ; but, on the other
hand, the outdoor life of a very large section of the community is
conducive to a knowledge of and interest in Nature and Natural
History. The toil hère is not so unremitting or so unremunerative as
in other older communities, and more spare moments can be devoted to
the observation and study of living lorms and natural features. It is
in tins respect I apprehend that you welcome among you so large an
admixture of the po|)ular, or, it I may so distinguish it, " lay " élément,
and especially may I say of ladies whose time is likely to be more at
their own disposai, and who can take an active and seemly interest in
scientific research. I venture to think that the Association should
urge upon this "lay" class particularly, the value, not only of the
acquisition and diffusion of knowledge, but also of scientific method.
Scientific method is of spécial value in thèse days, because information
is so easily acquired froni text books, popular lectures, and magazine
articles, that people are tempted to plume themselves on the possession
of scientific knowledge, whereas they are in reality acquiring slipshod
habits of thought and study. Moreover, with more careful direction
their talents might enable them to act as guides and instructors in
science to those who must lie trained from its éléments. Again, in a
country like New Zealand, where there exist so many new varieties of
life, how désirable is accuracy of observation ; what to observe, when to
observe, and how to take notes of our observations, are habits specially
needful of acquisition. It is better to err on the side of noting sorne-
thing which may hâve been already observed, than to risk missing an
opportunity of contributing information concerning the structure and
habits of those plants and animais as to which science is still in a state
of infantile ignorance. Although our Président is a gentleman of the
first rank in the field of scientific research, and although we hâve
among us many eminent men who dévote themselves to the study of
various phenomena, there are many problems still unsolved. But we
entertain high expectations that the assembling of so many men of
science from other parts of the world will illumine our efforts to fathom
some of the mysteries with which nature has surrounded this, to us,
new world of life. I think, ladies aud gentlemen, that both in respect
of scenery and natural phenomena you will find much that is not only
interesting, but unique, in New Zealand. No matter to which spécial
branch of science you may hâve devoted yourself, you will find
something to study in New Zealand, and in New Zealand alone.
Meteorologists will find something remarkable in the diversities of
climate over a country containing from semi-tropical Auckland to
antarctic Southland, but 100,000 square miles. They will note the
action produced on the rainfall by our great central range of Alps, and
the wonderful difïerence within a few miles in the végétation and
appearance of the country. On the western side dense green forests,
and on the eastern side vast brown plains ; and they will, perhaps, be
able to f xplain to us why Cook's Strait has earned the réputation of
being the blast-pipe of the Pacific. The naturalist will hâve ample
opportunity to study the marvellously successful results of acclimati-
sation. The Australian memberswill be specially interested to compare

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 79

whether chose results hâve been most successful hère or on the
Continent in the cases of the rabbit and the sparrow. Interesting and
curious also are our deep sea Jfish, such as the frost fish, which ne ver
allows man to catch it, but which occasionally offers himself as a
voluntary sacrifice on the gastronomie altar. As regards New Zealand
quadrupeds, the labours oi the naturalist will be considerably lightened
by the knowledge that but one existed, and that that one is believed to
be extinct. He may, however, be able to enlighten us as to the
true character of the vegetable Caterpillar, which, going into the
ground a grub, ought, according to European ideas, to émerge as a
perfect insect, but in a very antipodean fashion, appears to become a
plant instead. The ornithologist, under the able guidance of Sir
Walter Bu] 1er, will be able to study our so-called wingless birds, and to
tell us what prospect they hâve, now that men and dogs hâve corne to
chase them, of recovering the use of those limbs of which long désuétude
appears to hâve cleprived them ; and whether there is any chance of
curing the kea of his acquired taste for sheep fat, which lias turned a
comical and interesting parrot into one of the anathematised class of
native pests. The botanist should revel in our wealth of feras and
alpine plants, and may perhaps décide for us whether that complète
illustration of parasitical growth, the rata, initiâtes its all-devouring
embrace as a suppliant at the feet of its victim or round the neck of
the devoted object of its affection. Also, may not our farmers look to
the botanist for some help in the pursuit of agriculture, t.) learn
something new of plant life, of suitability of soils and of insect pests,
so that not only our moral but also our material position may be the
better for this meeting. The geologist will find an opportunity for
studying the efïects of volcanic éruption, of which Tarawera offers an
example hardly to be equalled within easy reach of civilisation. The
Australian mineralogists may find an opportunity for comparing their
mo;e continuons auriferous reefs with our rich but sadly broken strata
in New Zealand. The palseontologists will find a curious remnant of
otherwise extinct reptiles in the Tuatara lizard, and, close at hand, in
the admirably arranged Muséum at Christchurch, materials for a study
of the extinct moa Possibly they may give us some contribution to
the controversy respecting the co-existence in New Zealand of that
gigantic bird with man. The anthropologist will find in the Maories a
most interesting example of the advanced civilisation of a Native race,
and will be able to witness, not only the effects of their participation in
the advantages enjoyed by Europeans, but also the results of an
admixture of the races in ali classes of society. iStatisticians and social
economists at Home will look with interest for some fresh light on the
interesting thoughts suggested by Mr. Ravenstein at Leeds concerning
the future of the human race, as to the period of time which may be
estimated to elapse before the world will cease to be able, under présent
conditions, to support its increasing population. Thèse are only a few
subjects of interest which strike the least scientific among you, and
without doubt many more will reveal themselves to the searching eye
of science in New Zealand, Y our labours should teach us that neither
in the case of nations nor of individuals do the pleasures of life consist
solely in the making of money, and that there are many who,
disregarding selfish considérations of material wealth, prefer to dévote
their talents to the pursuit of knowledge and the discussion of its

80 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

results. Thèse philosophera hâve embraced the principles which Plato,
in his " Repnhlic " counsels us to adopt towards oui* rulers and
guardians, the people, that they •' may grow up, not amid images of
deformity whicli will gradually poison and corrupt their soûls, but in a
land of health and beauty, where they will drink in from every object
sweet and harmonious influences. "

A vote of thanks to the retiring Président, Baron von Mueller,
nioved by Mr. Morton of Hobart, and seconded by Professor W. H.
WaiTen of Sydney, was carried by acclamation.

The Chairman then invited Professor Goodale, Président of the
American Association for the Advancement of Science, to address the
meeting.

Professor Goodale, who was received with loud and continued
applause, said — Mr. Président, your Excellency, ladies and gentlemen,
— M y first duty is to thank you heartily Sir James, and you, m y dear
Baron, for the very warm welcome you hâve extended to me. Be
assured that thèse cordial expressions are most sincerely appreciated.
My second duty is to bring to you greetings from the American
Association for the Advancement of Science. When, a few years ago,
we learned that one of yonr most energetic professors had taken in
hand the formation of an Australasian Association, somewhat on the
Unes of the British Association and our own, we took the deepest
interest in the plans, for we hoped that you would realise what we hâve
secured. In thèse days of extrême specialism there is need of a broad
gênerai association, so that specialists might conter to^ether ; that they
can wiclen the outlook and that those who are cultivating s m ail portions
of the field can see that the ground near to the fence is not neglected.
Now, under a gênerai association like this, specialists can meet and
confer together, and they can préserve that which they certainly h ope
to préserve. Then again we hâve found, and I hâve no doubt you will
find, that gênerai meetings of associations like this diminish, if they
don't fully prevent and remove personal misunderstandings. Some-
times thèse misunderstandings are allowed to grow until at last they
are intensified. In associations like the British Association and our
own we dnd the tendency to anything like personal différences to
diminish and disappear, and I hope you will find the same. We hâve
found that the British Association and our own hâve always done good,
by their visits, to the community where the meetings were held. A
good many hâve criticised unfavourably this migratory tendency,
holding that it is better to hâve the meetings in some central place.
But it seems that in this the old fable cornes back, that " strength
seems to be restoied every time we touch new ground." This migratory
tendency is the snrvival of the migratory tendency inherited from our
ancestors. I feel very sure if you were to put it to the vote in the
British Association you would not receive a single positive vote in
favour of substituting for thèse missions, as we may call them, one
résident place. Now, when we heard that an Australasian Association
was to be formed in this manner, our hopes and best wishes went
ont to you, and wnen the opportunity came to présent félicitations
on your success it was most eagerly accepted ; so that I hâve now
gif at pleasnre in presenting, on behalf of the Association I represent,
our congratulations upon the pronounced success of the Australasian

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 8l

Association. The American Association is not limited to the United
States. As his Excellency the Governor has told you, the British
Association met on Canadian soil. Some of our meetings are also held
in the large centres of the Dominion of Canada, and the meeting of the
British Association was really a joint meeting of the two Associations.
We sometimes think that blocd is thicker than water. Now, niy
honoured colleagues, through me, extend to you an invitation to visit
our Association. Do not regard it as one of those gênerai invitations
which means just drop in as you piss by ; but if you find you can be
présent at any of our meetings just inform our General Secretary, and
when you did meet, then the gênerai invitation, you would tind would
be converted into a spécifie one. I again thank you for your cordial
welcome, and, congratulating the Association upon its past and présent
success, I hâve only now to express on behalf of our Association, and
on my own behalf, our best wishes for Australasia and the Australasian
Association.

Sir James Hector then delivered the following presidential address
— When I rashly replied in the affirmative to the cablegram which I
received from our Secretary in Melbourne, asking me to undertake the
honourable and responsible duties which I hâve to commence this
evening, I fear I did not fully realise the difficulties of the position,
: but since then the sensé of my unfitnesss for the task has become very
oppressive. To address an assembly of this kind on gênerai science
must involve unusual ditficulties, owing to the audience being largely
composed of those who, only taking a casual interest in scientific
discussions, look chiefly to the results ; while, at the sa me time, there
are présent specialists in almost every branch of knowledge. I feel
that on this occasion I must be ruled by the interest of the majority,
and claim the forbearance of my fellow workers in science if I hâve to
refer in a sketchy way to subjects in which th'ey are deeply interested,
and far more learned than I profess to be. Seeing that I am addressing
a Christchurch Rudience I hope I may be permitted, in the fir»t place,
to say a word concerning one whose scientific services should, without
doubt, hâve obtained for him the position of first Président in New
Zealand of the Australasian Association. We natnrally recall the
name of Sir Julius Von Haast on this occasion, and mourn for the loss
the colony has sustained of one who for thirty years occupied a most
prominent position. His early reseaiches in the North lsland in
company with Von Hochstetter, were folio wed by the exploration of
the remote districts on the west coast of Nelson, after which Canterbury
secured his distinguished services, and enabled him to leave that
monument of varied scientific knowledge, shrewd cap^city and inde-
fatigable industry which is to be found in the Canterbury Muséum.
There are others of our fellow-colonists whose wide range of expérience
would hâve peculiarly fitted them to act as your Président, and I am
able to say thaf had our vétéran colonist and explorer Sir George Grey
felt more assured in health and strength it would hâve been your
pleasure this evening to listen to a flood of éloquence on ail scientific
topics that relate to the future development of Australasia. There is
another name I feel must be mentioned as one who should hâve been
in this position had his health permitted. I refer to the Eev. William
Colenso, who is not only the greatest authority on the folk-lore of the
Maoris, on whom he was among the first to confer a printed literature

82 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

in tbeir own lauguage. His long-continued work as a field naturalist,
and espeeially as a botanist, is exceedingly interestiug, seeing that it
loi ins a Connecting link that lias continned the early spirit of natnral
histoi y ceseapoh in New Zealand, that commencée! with Banks and
Solander, and was continued by Menzies, Lesson, the two Cunninghams,
and Sir Joseph Hooker, prior to the arrivai of colonists. Thus we still
hâve in my esteemed friend, Mr. Colenso, an active vétéran naturalist
of what we inay call the old school of explorers. It is wonderful to
n ilict that little more than fifty years ago this European colony was
represented by a few fishing hamlets on the seaboard of a country
occu])ied by a considérable native population. To the early explorers,
and even down to a much later date, the obstacles that beset their path
were very différent from those of the présent time ; often obstructive
Natives, no roads, no steamers, no railways. Had an Association then
existed and desired to promote science by giving our visitors an
opportunity of visiting the remote parts of the islands, the same
excursions which hâve on this occasion been planned to occupy a few
dayB, would hâve occupied as many months, and then be accomplished
only with great hardship and difiiculty. 1 must ask the young and
rising génération of colonial naturalists to bear this in mind when they
haye to criticise and add to the work of their predecessors. Such
names of early colonists as Bidwill, Sinclair, Monro, Mantell, Travers,
and many others should ever be held in esteem as those who, amidst
ail the arduous trials of early colonisation, never lost sight of their
duty towards the advancement of science in New Zealand. I will not
attempt to particularise other names from amongst our existing, and,
though small in number, very active corps of scientific workers. They
are hère, or should be, to speak for themselves in the sectional work ;
and 1 hâve no doubt some of those who did me the great honour of
placing me in my présent position are secretly congratulating themselves
that they hâve secured for themselves the position of free lances on this
occasion. This is now the third annual gathering of this Association,
and New Zealand should feel honoured that it has at so early a date in
the Association's history been iselected to the turn in rotation as the
place of meeting among so many divisions of the great colony of
Australasia. The two volumes of the Transactions of the Association,
already in the hands of members, are quite sufficient to prove that the
hopes of its founders — or rather, I may almost say, the founder —
Prof'essor Liversidge of Sydney, hâve been amply fulhlled. The papers
read before the diffèrent sections, and the addresses delivered, hâve in
my opinion, to a most remarkable extent, embodied information and
discussions which were not likely to be produced as the result of any of
our local scientific organisations. The authors seemed to hâve felt it
incumbent on thern to place their subjects in the environment of
Australasia, and rot in relation to the colony they represent. This, I
take it, is the first truly effective step towards Fédération which has
yet been achieved, and I trust that ail our members will continue to be
imbued with this spirit. Politicians should take this well to heart.
Let theni continue to nid ail efforts that wil) tend to bring scientific
accumulations in thèse colonies into a common store, so that each may
discover for wliat purpose it lias been best adapted by nature, and of
paying proper politieal regpect in fiscal policy to one another, each may
prosper to the full extent of its natural advantages. But it is not alone

AUSTRAL ASIAN ASSOCIATION. 83

in the value of the papers communicated that the Association contributes
to advance true civilisation in the colonies. The face to face conférence,
the personal cont ict of the active workers in différent Unes of scientific
work, must greatly facilitate the more thorough understanding of the
work which has been done and which is still undone. A vague idea,
simmerin^ in the brain of one scientist who thinks light of it because
it has no spécial application in his particular environ ment, may, by
personal converse, flash into important results in the minci of another
who has had the difficultés facing him, but without the happy thought
occurring. It would be rather interesting for someone with leisure to
endeavour to recount how many great discoveries hâve eventuated in
this manner. In casting my thoughts for a particular subject on which
to address the Association I felt perplexed. Présidents of similar
Associations in the Old World, who are in constant contact with the
actual progress in scientific thought, feel that a mère récital of the
achievements during their previous term is sufficient to command
interest ; but in the colonies most of us are eut off from personal
converse with the leading minds by whom the scientific afflatns is
communicated ; and in our suspense for the tardy arrivai of the officiai
publications of the societies, we hâve to feed our minds with science
from periodical literature. But even in this respect my own current
éducation is very defective, as I réside in the capital city of New
Zealand, which has no collège with a professional staff whose duty,
pleasure and interest it is to maintain themselves on a level with the
différent branches of knowledge they represent. I therefore decided
that instead of endeavouring to review what had been done in the way
of scientific progress, even in Australasia, it would be better to confine
my remarks to New Zealand — the more so that this is the first occasion
that there has been a gathering of what must, to some extent, be
considered to be an outside audience for the colony. To endeavour to
describe, even briefly, the progress made in the science of a new country
is, however, almost like writing its minute history. Every step in its
réclamation from a wild state of nature has depended on the application
of scientific knowledge, and the reason for the rapid advance in thèse
colonies is chiefly to be attributed to their having had the advantage of
ail modem resources to hand. As in most otber matters in New
Zealand there is a sharp line dividing the progress into two distinct
periods, the first before and the second after the formation of the colony
in 1840. With référence to the former perio I it is not requisite that
much should be said on this occasion. From the time of Captain
Cook's voyages, owing to his attractive narrative, New Zealand acquired
intense interest for naturalists. His descriptions of the country and its
productions, seeing that he only gathered them from a few places
where he landed on the coast, are singularly accurate. But I think
rather too much is sometimes endeavoured to be proved from the
négative évidence of his not having observed certain objects. x\s an
instance, it has been asserted that if any of the many forms of the moa
still survived, Captain Cook must hâve been informed of the fact. Yet
we find that he lay for weeks in Queen Charlotte Sound and in Dusky
Sound, where ail night long the cry of the kiwi must hâve been heard
just as now, and that he also obtained and took Home mats and other
articles of Native manufacture, trimmed with kiwi's skins ; and that
most likely the mouse-coloured quadruped which was seen at Dusky

84 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sound by his uien when clearing the bush was only a grey kiwi ; and
yet the discovery of tins interesting bird was not made till forty years
after Cook's visit. As a scientifa'c geographer Cook stands unrivalled,
considering the appliances at his disposai His longitudes of New
Zealand are wonderfully accu rate, especially those computed from what
he called his " rated watches," the first type of the modéra marine
chronometer, which he was almost the first navigator to use. The
result of a récent measurement of the meridian différence from
Greenwich by magnetic signais is only two geographical miles east
of Captain Cook's longitude. He also observed the variation and dip
of the magnetic needle, and from his record it would appear that during
the hundred years which elapsed up to the time of the Challenger's
visit, the south-seeking end of the needle had changed its position 2J
deg. westward, and inclines 1| deg. more towards the South magnetic
pôle. Captain Cook also recorded an interesting faot, which, so far as
I am aware, has not been since repeated or verified in New Zealand.
He found that the pendulum of his astronemical clock, the length of
which had been adjusted to swing true seconds at Greenwich, lost at
the rate of 46 sec. daily at Ship Cove in Queen Charlotte Sound. This
is, I believe, an indication of a greater loss of the attraction of gravity
than would occur in a corresponding North latitude. The additions to
our scientihc knowledge of New Zealand, acquired through the visits'of
the other exploring ships of early navigators, the seulement of sealers
and whalers on the coast, and of pakeha Maories in the interior were
ail usef ul, but of too slight a character to require spécial mention. The
greatest additions to science were made by the missionaries, who in the
work of spreading Christianity among the Natives, had the service ot
able and zealous men who mastere l the Native dialects, reduced them
to a written language, collected and placed on record the traditional
knowledge of the interesting Maori, and had among their nuinbers
some industrious natutalists who ne ver lost au opportunity of collecting
natural objects. The history of how the country, under the mixed
influences for good and for evil which prevailed almost without
Government control till 1840, gradually was ripened for the colonist,
is familiar to ail. The new era may be said to hâve begun with
DiefFenbach, a naturalist who was empioyed by the New Zealand
Company. He travelled and obtained much information, but did not
collect to any great extent, and, in fact, appears not to hâve anticipated
that much remained to be discovered. For his conclusion is that the
smallness of the number of the species of animais and plants then
known — about one-tenth of our présent lists — was not due to want of
acquaintance with the country, but to paucity of life forms. The chief
scientific value of his published work is the appendix, giving the first
systematic list of the fauna and flora of the country, the former being
oompiled by the late Dr. Gray of the British Muséum. The next gieat
scientific work done for New Zealand was the Admirality survey of the
coast Une, which is a perfect marvel of accurate topography, and one of
the greatest boons the colony has îeceived from the Mother Country.
The enormous labour and ex pense which was incurred on this survey at
an early date in the history of the colony is a substantial évidence of
the confidence in its future development and commercial requirements
which animated the Home Goverment. On the visit of the Austrian
exploring ship " Novara " to Auckland in 1859, Von Hochstetter was

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 85

left behind, at the request of the Government, to make a prolonged
excursion to the North Island and in Nelson ; and he it was who laid
the foundation of our knowledge of the stratigraphical geology of New
Zealand. Since then the work of scientitic research has been chiefly
the resuit of State surveys, aided materially by the zeal of members
of the New Zealand Tnstitnte, and of late years by an increasing band
of young studehts, who are fast coming to the front under the careful
science training that is afforded by our University Collèges. In the
epoch of their development the Australasian colonies hâve been
singularly fortunate. The period that applies to New Zealand is
contemporaneous with the reign of Her Majesty, which has been
signalised by enormous strides in science. It has been a period of
gathering into working form immense stores of previously-acquired
observation and experiment, and of an escape of the scientitic mind
from the trammels of superstition and hazy spéculation regarding what
may be termed corn mon things. Laborious work has been done and
many grand généralisations hâve been arrived at in physical science ;
but still, in the work of bringing things to the actual experiment,
investigators were bound by imperfect and feeble hypothèses and
supposed natural barriers among the sciences. But science is one and
indivisible, and its subdivisions, such as physics, chemistry, biology, are
only matters of convenience for study. The methods are the same in
ail, and their common object is the discovery of the great laws of order
under which this universe lias been evoked by the great Suprême
Power. The great fondamental advance during the last hfty years
has been the achievement of far reaching généralisations, which hâve
provided the scientitic worker with powerful weapons of research.
Thus the modem " atomic theory," with its new and clearer conceptions
of the in ti mate nature of the éléments and their compounds that
constitute the earth and ail that it supports, has given rise to a new
chemistry, in which the synthetical or building-up method of proof is
already working marvels in its application to manufactures. It is,
moreover, creating a growing belief that ail matter is one, and reviving
the old idea that the inorganic elementary units are merely centres of
motion spécial ised in a homogeneous médium, and that thèse units hâve
been continued on through time, but with such individual variations as
give rise to derivative groups, just as we find has been the case in the
field of organic créations. The idea embodied in this spéculation likens
the molécule to the vortex rings which Helmholtz found must continue
to exist for ever, if in a perfect fluid free from ail friction they are once
generated, as a resuit of impacting motion. There is something very
attractive in this theory of the constitution of matter which has been
advocated by Sir William Thomson. He illustrâtes it by likening the
form of atoms to smoke rings in the atmosphère, which, were they
only formed under circumstances such as above described. must
continue to move without changing form, distinguished only from
the surrounding médium by their motion. As long as the original
conditions of the liquid exist they must continue to revolve. Nothing
can separate, divide, or destroy them, and no new units can be formed
in the liquid without a fresh application of the créative impact. The
doctrine of the conservation of energy is a second powerful instrument
of research that has developed within our own times. How it has
cieared away the cobwebs that formerly encrusted our ideas about the

86 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

BÎmplest agencies tliat are at work aronnd us. How it bas so simplified
tlie teaching of the laws that order the conversion of internai motions
of bodies into phases which represent light, beat, electricity, is abundantly
proved by the facility with which the mechanicians are every day
snatching the protean forms of energy for the service of man with
increasing economy. Thèse great strides which hâve been made in
physical science hâve not as yet incited much original work in this
colony. But now that physical laboratoires are established in sorae
degree at the various collège centres, we will be expected, ère long, to
contribute our mite to the vast store. In practical works ol physical
research we miss in New Zealand the stimulus the sister colonies
receive from their first-class observatories, supplied with ail the most
modem instruments of research, wielded by such distinguished astro-
nomers as Ellery, Russell, and Todd, whose discoveries secure renown
for their separate colonies. I ara quite prepared to admit that the
reduplication of observatories in about the same latitude, merely for the
study of the heavenly bodies, would be rather a matter of scientific
luxnry. The few degrees of additional élévation of the South Polar
îvgion which would be gained by an observatory situated even in the
extrême south of New Zealand could hardly be expected to disclose
phenomena that would escape the vigilance of the Melbourne obser-
vatory. But star gazing is only one branch of the routine work of an
observatory. It is true we hâve a moderate but efficient observatory
establishment in New Zealand sufricient for distributing correct mean
time, and that our meridian distance from Greenwich h as been
satisfactorily determined by telegraph ; also, thanks to the energy and
skill of the Survey Department, despite most formidable natural
obstructions, the major triangulation and meridian circuits hâve
estiblished the basis of our land survey maps on a satisfactory footing,
so that the sub-divisions of the land for settlement and the adoption
and blending of the excellent work done by the Provincial Governments
of the colony is being rapidly overtaken. Further, 1 hâve already
recalled how much the colony is indebted to the Mother Country for
the completeness and détail of the coastal and harbour charts. But
there is much work that should be controlled by a physical observatory
that is really urgently required. I may give a few illustrations. The
tidal movements round the coast are still imperfectly ascertained, and
the causes of their irregular variation can ne ver be understood until
we hâve a synchronous System of tide meters, and a more widely
extended séries of deep-sea soundings. Excepting the Challenger
soundings on the line of the Sydney cable, and a few casts taken by the
United State ship "Enterprise," the depths of the océan surrounding
New Zealand hâve not been ascertained with that accuracy which many
interesting problems in physical geography and geology demand. It is
supposed to be the culmination of a great submarine plateau ; but how
far that plateau extends, Connecting the southern islands towards the
great Antarctic land, and how far to the eastward, is still an unsolved
question. Then, again, the direction and intensity of the magnetic
currents in and around New Zealand require further close investigation,
which can only be controlled from an observatory. Even in the
matter of secular changes in the variation of the compass we find that
the marine charts instruct that an allowance of increased easterly
variation of 2 min. per annum must be made, and as this has now

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 87

accumulated since 1850 it in volves a very sensible correction to be
adopted by a shipmaster in making the land or standing along the
coast, but we find from the recently publisbed work of the "Challenger"
that this tendency to change has for some time back ceased to affect
the New Zealand area, and as the déduction appears only to hâve been
founded on a single triplet observation of the dip taken at Wellington
and one azimuth observation taken at Cape Palliser, it would be well
to hâve this fact verified. With regard to the local variation in the
magnetic currents on land and close in shore, the requirement for
exact survey is even more imperative. Captain Creak, in his splendid
essay, quotes the observations made by the late Surveyor-General Mr
J. T. Thomson, at the Bluff Hill, which indicate that a compass on the
Dorth side was deflected more than 9 deg. to the west, while on the east
side of the hill the deflection is 46 deg. to the east of the average
déviation in Foveaux Strait. He adds that if a similar island-like hill
happened to occur on the coast, but submerged beneath the sea to a
sufficient depth for navigation, serious accidents might take place, and
he instances a case near Cossack, on the north coast of Australia, when
H. M " Medea," sailing on a straight course in eight fathoms of water,
experienced a compass deflection of 30 deg. for the distance of a mile.
A glance at the variation entered on the meridian circuit maps of New
Zealand shows that on land we hâve extraordinary différences between
différent trig. stations at short distances apart. For instance, in our
close vicinity, at Mount Pleasant, behind Godley Head lighthouse, at
the entrance to Lyttelton harbour, the variation is only 9 deg. 3 min.
east, or 6 deg. less than the normal ; while at Rolleston it is 15 deg.
33 min., and at Lake Coleridge 14 deg. 2 min. In Otago we hâve still
greater différences reeorded, for we find on Flagstaff Hill, which is an
igneous formation, 14 deg. 34 min., while at Nenthorn, thirty miles to
the North, in a schist formation, we find an entry of 35 deg 41 min.
In view of the fact that attention has been recently directed to the
marked effects on the direction and intensity of the terrestriàl magnetic
currents of great lines of fault along which movements hâve taken
place, such as those which bring widelv différent geological formations
into discordant contact, with the probable production of minerai veins,
this subject of spécial magnetic surve)S is deserving of being under-
taken in New Zealand. In Japan and in the United States of
America the results hâve already proved highly suggestive. A
comparison between this country and Japan by such observations,
especially if combined with systematic and synchronous records by
modem seismographic instruments would be of gre.it service to the
physical geologist. There are many features in coin mon, and many
quite reversed in the orographie and other physical features of thèse
two countries. Both are formed by the crests of great earth waves
lying north-east and south-west, and parallel ta, but distant from.
continental areas, and both are traversed by great longitudinal faults
and fissures, and each by one great transverse fault. Dr. Nauman, in
a récent paper, alludes to this in Japan as the Fossa Magna, and it
corresponds in position in relation to Japan with Cook Strait in relation
to New Zealand. But the Fossa Magna of Japan has been filled up
with volcanic products, and is the seat of the loftiest active volcano in
Japan. In Cook Strait and its vicinity, as you are aware, there are
no volcanic rocks, but there and southward, through the Kaikouras,

88 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

évidence of fault movements on a large scale is apparent, and it would
be most interesting to ascertain if the remarkable déviation frora the
normal in direction and force of the magnetic currents, which are
experienced in Japan, are also found in New Zealand. For it is
évident that if they are in any way related to the strain of cross
fractures in the earth's crust, the observation would tend to eliminate
the local influence of the volcanic rocks which are présent in one case
and absent in the other. With référence to earthquakes also, few, if
any, but very local shocks experienced in New Zealand hâve originated
from any volcanic focus we are acquainted with, while a westerly
propagation of the ordinary vibrations rarely passes the great fault that
marks the Une of active volcanic disturbance. In Japan, also, out of
a bout 480 shocks which are felt each year in that country, each of
which, on avéra ge, shakes about one thousand square miles, there are
many that cannot be asctïbed to volcanic origin. There are many
other problems of practical importance that can only be studied from
the base Une of a properly equipped observatory. Thèse will readily
occur to physical students, who are better acquainted with the subject
than I am. I can only express the hope that the improved circum-
stances of the colony will soon permit some steps to be taken.
Already in this city, I understand some funds hâve been subscribed.
As an educational institution, to give practical application to our
students in physical science, geodesy, and navigation, it would clearly
hâve a spécifie value that would greatly benefit the colony. Another
great branch of physical science, chemistry, should le of intense
interest to colonists in a new country. Much useful work has been
done, though not by many workers. The chief application of this
science has been naturaily to promote the development of minerai
wealth, to assist agriculture, and for the régulation of mercantile
contracts. I cannot refrain from mentioning the name of William
Skey, analyst to the Geological Survey, as the chemist whose researches
during the last twenty-eight years hâve far surpassed any other in
New Zealand. Outside his laborious officiai duties he has found time
to make about sixty original contributions to chemical science, such as
researches into the electrical properties of metallic sulphides — the
discovery of the ferro-nickel alloy awaruite in the ultra-basic rocks of
West Otago, which is highly interesting as it is the first récognition of
this meteoric-like iron as native to our planet — the discovery that the
hydrocarbon in the gas shales is chemically and not merely mechanically
combined with the clay base — of a remarkable colour test for the
présence of magnesia and the isolation of the poisonous principle in
many of our native shrubs. His récent discovery, that the fatty oils
treated with aniline form alkaloids, also hints at an important new
departure in organic chemistry. His suggestion of the hot-air blow
pipe, and of the application of cyanide of potassium to the saving of
gold, and many other practical applications of his chemical knowledge,
are distinguished services to science, of which New Zealand should be
proud. In connection with the subject of chemistry, there is a point of
vast importance to the future of the pastoral and agricultural interests
of IS ew Zealand, to which attention was directed some years ago by Mr.
Pond, of Auckland. That is the rapid détérioration which the soil
uiust be undergoing by the steady export of the constituents on which
plant and animal life must dépend for nourishment. He calculated

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 89

that in 1883 the intrinsic value of the fixed nitrogen and phosphoric
acid and potash sent out annually was £592,000, taking into account
the wool and the wheat alone. Now that we hâve to add to that the
exported carcases of beef and mntton, bones and ail, the annual loss
must be immensely greater. The proper cure, would, of course, be to
bring back return cargoes of artificial manure, but even then its
application to most of our pastoral lands would be out of the question.
I sincerely hope that the problem will be taken in hand by the
Agricultural Collège at Lincoln as a matter deserving of practical study
and investigation. I hâve already referred to several great générali-
sations which hâve exercised a powerful influence in advancing science
during the period I marked out for review, but so far as influencing
the gênerai current of thought, and almost entirely revolutionising the
prévalent notions of scientinc workers in every department of know-
ledge, the most potent of the period has been the establishment of what
has been termed the doctrine of évolution. The simple conception of
the relation of ail created things by the bond of continuous inheritance
has given life to the dead bones of an accumulated mass of observed
facts, each valuable in itself, but, as a whole, breaking down by its own
weight. Before this master-key was provided by the lucid instruction
of Darwin and Wallace, it was beyond the power of the human mind
to grasp and use in biological research the great wealth of minute
anatomical and physiological détails. The previous ideas of the
independent création of each species of animal and plant in a little
Garden of Eden of its own must appear puérile and absurd to the
young naturalist of the présent day ; but in my own Collège days to
hâve expressed any doubts on the subject would hâve involved a sure
and certain pluck from the examiner. I remember well that I first
obtained a copy of Darwin's " Origin of Species " in San Francisco
when on my way home from a three years' sojourn among the Red
Indiaas in the Rocky Mountains. Having heard nothing of the
controversies, I received the teaching with enthusiasm, and felt very
much surprised on returning to my aima mater to find that I was
treated as a heretic and a backslider. Nowadays it is diûicult to
realise what ail the fuss and fierce controversy was about, and the
rising school of naturalists hâve much cause for congratulation that
they can start fair on a well-assured logical basis of thought, and steer
clear of the many complicated and purely idéal Systems which were
formerly in vogue for explaining the intentions of the Creator and for
torturing the unfortunate students. The doctrine of évolution was the
simple-minded acceptance of the invariability of cause and efFect in the
organic world as in the inorganic ; and to understand his subject in any
branch of natural science, the learner has now only to apply himself to
trace in minutest détail the successive steps in the development of the
phenomena he desires to study. With energetic leaders educated in
such vitfws, and who, after their arrivai in the colony, felt less
controversial restraint, it is not wonderful that natural history, and
especially biology, should hâve attracted so many ardent workers, and
that the results should hâve been so good. A rough test may be
applied by comparing the number of species of animais and plants
which had been described before the foundation of the colony and those
up to the présent lime. In 1840, Dr. Gray's list in Deiffenbach's work
gives the number of described species of animais as 594. The number

90 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

now recognised and described is 5,498. The number of mammalia bas
been doubled through the more accurate stu ly of our seals, whales, and
dolphins. Then the list of birda bas been increased from eighty-four to
195, chiefly through the exertions of Sir Walter Bul.ler, whose great
standard work on our avifauna bas gained crédit and renown for
the wliole colony. The number of fishes and mollusca has been more
tban trebled, almost wholly by the indefatigable work of our Secretary,
Professor Hutton. But the greatest increase is in the group which Dr.
Gray placed as Anmilosa. which, chiefly through the discovery of new
forms of insect life, has risen from 156 in 1840, to 4,295, of which over
2,000 are new beetles described by Captain Broun, of Auckland. When
we turn to botany we find that Deiffenbach, who appears to bave
carefully collected ail the références to date in 1840, states the flora to
comprise 632 plants of ail kinds, and, as I bave already mentioned, did
not expect that any more would be found. But by the time of the
publication of Hooker's " Flora of New Zealand " (1863), a work which
has been of inestimable value to our colonists, we find the number of
indigenous plants described had been increased to 2450. Armed with
the invaluable guidance afforded by Hooker's " Handbook," our colonial
botanists hâve renewed the search, and hâve since then discovered 1,469
new species, so that our plant census at the présent date gives a total of
3,919 species. It would be impossible to make mention of ail who
bave contiïbuted to tins resuit as collectors, and hardly even to indicate
more than a few of those to whom science is indebted for the description
of the plants. The history of our post Hookerian botany is scattered
about in scientific periodical literature, and as Hooker's Handbook is
now quite out of print, it is obvious that, as the new discoveries
constitute more than one-third of the total flora, it is most important
that our young botanists should be fully equipped with ail that has
been ascertained by those who hâve preceded them. I am glad to be
able to announce that such a work, in the form of a new édition of the
" Handbook of the Flora of New Zealand," approved by Sir Joseph
Hooker, is now in an advanced state of préparation by Professor
Thomas Kirk, who has already distinguished himself as the author of
our " Forest Flora." Mr. Kirk's long expérience as a systematic
botanist and his personal knowledge of the flora of every part of the
colony, acquired during the exercise of his duties as Conservator of
Forests, point to him as the fitting man to undertake the task. But
quite apart from the work of increasing the local collections which bear
on biological studies, New Zealand stands out prominently in ail
discussions on the subject of geographical biology. It stands as a lone
zoological area, minute in area, but on equal terms as far as regards the
antiquity and peculiar features ot its fauna, with nearly ail the larger
continents in the aggregate. In conséquence of this, many phih.sophical
essaya — such, for instance, as Hooker's introductory essay to the early
folio édition of the "Flora," the essays by Hutton, Travers, aud othera
and also the New Zealand références in Wallace's works, bave ail
contributed essentially to the vital question of the causes which bave
brought about the distribution and geographical affinities of plants and
animais, and bave thus been of use in hastening the adoption of the
doctrine of évolution. But much still remains to be done. Both as
regards its fauna and its flora, New Zealand has always been treated as
too much of a whole quantity, and in conséquence percentage schedules

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION. 91

prepared for comparing with the fauna and flora of other areas fail
from this cause. It is absolutely necessary to discriminate not only
localities, but also to study more carefully the relative abundance of
individuals as well as of species before-instituting comparisons. The
facility and rapidity with which change is efFected at the présent time
should put as against rashly accepting species which may hâve been
accidentai intruders, though wafted by natural causes, as belonging to
the original endémie fauna and flora. Further close and extended
study, especially of our marine fauna, is urgently required. We hâve
little knowleclge beyond the littoral zone, except when a great storm
heaves up a gathering of nondescript or rare treasure from the deep.
Of dredging we hâve had but little done, and only in shallow waters,
with thp exception of a few casts of the deep sea trawl from the
"Challenger." When funds permit, a zoological station for the study of
the habits of our sea fishes and for the propagation of such introductions
as the lobster and the crab would be advantatageous. I observe that
lately such an establishment has been placed on the Island of Mull, in
Scotland, at a cost of £400, and that it is expected to be nearly self-
supporting. With respect to food fishes, and still more with respect to
some terrestrial forms of life, we, in common with ail the Australasian
colonies, require a more scientific and a less casual System of acclimati-
sation than we hâve had in the past. One must talk with bated breath
of the injuries that hâve been inflicted on thèse colonies by the rash
disturbance of the balance of nature Had our enthusiasm been properly
controlled by foresight, our settlers would probably not hâve to grieve
over the losses they now suffer through many insect pests. through
small birds and rabbits, and which they will in the future sufFei
through the vermin that are now being spread in ail directions.

There are many other points that I intencled to touch upon, but
ail bave been forestalled by the remarks of his Excellency the Governor
and Mr. Goodale. L am the better pleased that thèse gentlemen hâve
spoken upon them, as they were reraarks relating to the advantages of
the Association. I feel, however, that I would hâve like-l to hâve given
a description of what had been ascertained relating to the geology of
New Zealand. I might state that the early explorers appeared to
hâve had only the most vague ideas of the geologies of the countries
they explored. Indeed, the whole science of geology seemed to hâve
been almost brought into existence during the last fifty or fifty-five
years. It existed only as drawing its knowledge from other branches
of science; it barely existed as a science until thèse branches had
become established. In New Zealand our geological explorations hâve
been made since the matters I hâve referred to hâve been settled, and
the resuit has been that we hâve attained compétent and tolerably
complète knowledge of the structure of the country. New Zealand is
probably the outerop of a great earth-wave, the hollow of which formed
the submarine plateau lying to the east. New Zealand appears to hâve
first originated as dry land in the palseozoic times, merely as volcanic
islands rising in a sea of moderate depth. After the palseozoic period
there appears to hâve been a great blank in the geological formation.
It was a period during which no deposits took place, and it is probable
that ail which had been deposited were removed."

Ç2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sir James Hector then went on to trace the various formations,
referred to the first traces fourni of the moa at Timaru, and then
leaving that subject stated that at the sectional meeting on ethnology
there would be presented to the Associations the first proof-sheets of a
great lexicon of the languages spoken in the Pacific Islands, especially
by the natives in the Sandwich Islands, of Tongo, and of New Zealand.
It was being prepared by Mr. Tregear, one of the most profound
workers in New Zealand in Maori niythology.

"There is another snbject on which I would like to touch. It is
conceming the great Antarctic continent, but as I understand Baron von
Mueller wishes the discussion of the question to be deferred for Saturda)'
forenoon, I will say no more upon it. I hâve to apologise for the very
feeble manner in which I hâve attempted to perform my duties, though I
hâve the most perfect confidencei n the success of the Association. I think
it is about twenty-four years since Mr. Travers got the A et passed
which established the JNew Zealand Institute, In a very small way it
was an association of scientists, and it was founded to absorb and
render permanent the active endeavours in ail part of the colony to
advance the interests of science. How well it has succeeded is known
by ail. Baron Mueller has kindly attributed its success to me, but I
must really disclaim that and say its success was due to the wise framer
of the spécial Act. I hope to see the colonies united together as one
whole in this matter ; the whole of the Australasian colonies are not
too large to combine for the purpose, and I hope that the inclusion of
New Zealand in the magie circle will corne about in time. In conclusion
I will express the wish that the visitors may hâve a pleasant sojourn in
New Zealand. I trust that I hâve succeeded in proving the claims of
this colony as a place for the meeting of the Association, and that I
hâve shown th^re is enough scientific work to merit such récognition as
we hâve received, and I think 1 hâve shown that New Zealand has great
capabilities for scientific research, and that there is still a great deal to
be done."

Mr. F. de C. Malet moved, and the Mayor of Christchurch
seconded the folio wing resolution, which was carried by acclamation —
" That the best thanks of the Australasian Association for the
Advancement of Science be accorded to his Excellency the Governor
for the distinction he has conferred upon the Association by his
présence hère this evening."

NOTES OF THE MEETING. 93

NOTES OF THE MEETING.

(1). THE PRESERVATION OF THE NATIVE FAUNA AND
FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND.

(Read before Section D (Biology).)

BY PROFESSOR A. P, W. THOMAS, M. A., F.L.S.,
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, AUCKLAND.

"The préservation of the native Fauna and Flora of New Zealand
is an object which will command the interest and sympathy of the
Australasian Association, and an expression of opinion on their part
may do much to forward this object.

"The Little Barrier Island in the Hauraki Gulf, appears to be a
suitable locality for the formation of one or more Reserves where the
fauna (and also the flora) could be protected from the destruction
which, it is well known, is overtaking so many of the rarer and more
interesting species.

" The island is of little or no value for settlement as it is very
rugged and quite inaccessible except in the finest weather. On the
other hand it would be a very suitable place for the préservation of
the native fauna. It is of sufficient size, being some 5 miles across,
and rising as it does to the height of 3,300 feet it affords a considérable
variety of cîimatic conditions. Its isolation and the difficulty of landing
will render it secure from marauder s and from the danger of bush-
fires, so great every where on the main-land. Moreover it is still well
covered with mixed native forest and a number of the rarer of our
native animais occur there.

" Sirnilar reasons point to the suitability of Resolution Island,
Dusky Sound, for the préservation of characteristic forms from the
South Island.

" The purchase of Little Barrier Island is, I believe, now being
effected by the Crown Lands Department, and I wish to suggest that
on the completion of the purchase the island should be declared a
Forest reserve and régulations framed forbidding the destruction of
the native plants or animais on the island.

" It might, perhaps, be found désirable to give the Council of the
Auckland Institute some share in the supervision of the island, as
they hâve already taken much interest in the matter.

" I wish therefore to propose the following resolutions : —

" 1. That in the interests of Science it is most désirable that some
step should be taken to establish one or more Reserves where
the native flora and fauna of New Zealand may be preserved
from destruction.

" 2. That the Little Barrier Island and Resolution Island, Dusky
Sound, appear to be most suitable localities for such Reserves.

" 3. That a copy of the above resolutions be forwarded to the
Hon. the Minister of Lands."

The resolutions "were seconded by Mr. Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S ,
and were carried unanimously.

94 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

(2/) THE "BULL ROARER" OF SOME AUSTRALIAN

TRIBES.

In his presidential address to Section G (Anthropology), Mr.
A. W. Howitt makes the following référence to the use of this
curious instrument : —

"One of the most remarkable facts brought out by the comparison
of initiation cérémonies is the universality of the use in them, or in
connection with them, of a wooden instrument, which is a child's toy
in Kngland, and which is there known as a "bull roarer." As I
remember to hâve made and used one as a child, it was about eight
inches in length by three in width, which when whirled round at the
end of a cord caused a loud humming or roaring sound. Throughout
Australia, so far as my investigations hâve extended, it is one of the
most sacred and secret objects appertaining to the cérémonies. It is
not permitted to women or children, I may say to the uninitiated
generally, to see it, under pain of death. The novices were told that
if they made it known to women or children their punishment would
be death, either by actual violence or by magie. So secret was this
object kept among the Kumai, that intimately as I was acquainted
with them it was not exhibited to me at their Bora, until the old men
had been fully satisfied that I had been présent at that of their
neighbours, the Murring, and that I had then seen it, had become
acquainted with its use, and were convincingly told I had possession
of one which had been used in their cérémonies. The reverential
awe with which one of thèse sacred objects is viewed by the initiated
when carried round to authenticate the message calling a cérémonial
assemby is most striking. I hâve not observed it merely once but
many times, and cannot feel any doubt about the depth of feeling of
révérence in the minds of the Aborigines in regard toit. A peculiar
sacredness is attachcd to it from several reasons, among which the
principal are that it is taught that the first one was made by the
Supernatural Being who first instituted the cérémonies, and the roar
emitted by it when in use is his voice calling upon those assembled to
perform the rites. It is the voice of Baraine, Daramulun, Mungan,
however he may be called in the several languages, but in those tribes
with whose cérémonies I hâve acquaintance he is also more familiarly
called 'our father ' The universality of its use, and under the same
conditions in world-wide localities, is one of the most puzzling
questions in this branch of anthropology, and can only, as it seems to
me, point to the extrême antiquity of its use. As I bave said, it is
used universally in Australia. Its use is recorded at the West Coast
of Africa, where it is called ' the voice of Oro.' The Maories, the
Zulus, the Navajoes use it in their cérémonies, and it has been
pointed out by Andrew Lang that its use in the Dionysiac Mysteries
is clearly indicated by a a passage in the scholiast, M. Clemens,
of Alexandria. In his interesting chapter on the bull roarer in
' Custom and Myth,' Mr. Lang well says that in ail probability
the présence of this implement in Greek Mysteries was a survival
from the time ' when the Greeks were in the social condition of
Australians.' "

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 95

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
Annual Meeting.

Sydney, 2Sth January, 1891. — Dr. J. C. Cox, Vice-Président, in
the chair.

The Chairman delivered the Annual Address, first alluding to
the exceptional and melancholy circumstances in which he was called
upon to préside, for which reason he should confine his remarks
almost entirely to the considération of matters which directly or
indirectly concerned Science in this colony. He then proceeded to
review the affairs and progress of the Society during the past year,
referring at length to the loss sustained by it in the lamented death
of Professor Stephens. He then passed to the considération of the
officiai récognition of the claims of Agriculture and Forestry to be dealt
with in accordance with the teachings of modem science, and of the
good, from an educational point of view, likely to accrue from the
establishmeut of country muséums. Finally, at'ter pointing out that
Australiaoffered an unrivalled opportunity of working up completely,
and under the most favourable circumstances, the flora and fauna,
specially interesting in itself, of one of the great tracts of the globe, he
proceeded to inquire how it was that with such a splendid harvest still
waiting to be gathered, in spite of ail that has yet been accomplished,
the number of workers was relatively so f ew ; this question being too
complex for exhaustive treatment on that occasion, he offered some
remarks on a threefold aspect of it, attributing the slow increase in
the number of enthusiastic amateur naturalists partly to defective
educational methods which leave our children blind to the beauties
and attractions of Nature which surround them on every hand ; and
partly to the want of descriptive catalogues, and weli-illustrated
handbooks written from the Australian standpoint ; while the very
slender mducement to our young men to qualify themselves for the
serious pursuit of Science sufficiently accounted for the smallness of
the number who did so, the matter resolving itself into a question, as
Huxley puts it, " of living or starving."

The Hon. Dr. Norton, Hon. Treasurer, laid before the Meeting
his financial statement, and concluded by saying " I hâve further to
report that by deed of 5th December, 1890, Sir William Macleay has
transferred to the Society the Linnean Hall, with the land on which
it stands having a frontage of 179 feet to Bay Street by a depth of
120 feet; and that by deed of the same date Sir William has
transferred to the Society by way of endowment a mortgage of
£14,000 bearing interest at the rate of £5 per cent, per annum.
The deeds by which thèse transfers hâve been effected are now in my
hands."

On the motion of Mr. R. Etheridge it was unanimously and most
gratefully resolved that the heartiest vote of thanks possible be
accorded to Sir William Macleay in récognition of the ]atest of his
many munificent benefactions to the Society ; and that the Chairman
be requested to give etfect to the resolution.

96 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The following gentlemen were elected Office-bearers and Council
for 1891.— Président: Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.!Sc. Vice-
Présidents: James C. Cox, M.D., F.L.S., C S. Wilkinson, F.L.S.,
F.G.S., Rev. W. Woolls, Ph.D., F.L.S. Honorary Secretaries : The
Hon. Sir. William Macleay, Kt., M.L.C., F.L.S., and P. N. Trebeck,
J.P. Honorary Treasurer : The Hon. James Norton. LL.D., M.L.C.
Director and Librarian: J. J. Fletcher, M. A., B.Sc. Council: Messrs.
John Brazier, F.L.S. , T. W. Edgeworth David, B.A., F.G.S., H. Deane,
M. A., CE., Thomas Dixson, M.B., Ch.M., Robert Etheridge, Junr.,
J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., F.C.S., E. G. W. Palmer, Percival R. Pedley,
and Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M S.

Ordinary Meeting.

Dr. J. C. Cox, Vice-Président, in the chair.

New Member. — Mr. Walter S. Duncan, Inverell.

Paper. — " Notes on the Occurrence of Stilbite in the eruptive
rocks of Jamberoo, N.S.W." By B. G. Engelhardt.

Mr. David remarked that the occurrence of stilbite at Kiama
was very interesting. He too had noticed the présence of the same
minerai with remarkable persistence in the lavas which are inter-
bedded with the productive coal-measures of Raymond Terrace,
Maitland, and Greta, which lavas are probably of near about the
same âge as those of Kiama. Mr. R. L. Jack, F. G. S., the Govt.
Geologist of Queensland, has recorded the occurrence of a similar
minerai iu the lavas which there underlie the Bowen River coal-field.
This is the tirst record however, of the occurrence of stilbite at
Kiama.

Mr. Brazier exhibited a lamp of native pottery from the Pelew
Islands, collected by. Dr. John Kabe. Also on behalf of Mr. R. C.
Rossiter, Corr. Member, of Nouméa, New Caledonia, two very fine
examples of Oyprœa tic/ris, Linné, having the dorsal surface of a fine
bright yellow colour with veiy few spots, the margins having the
spots very small and of a beautiful cream colour.

Mr. Froggatt exhibited two spécimens of a grasshopper (Fam.
Gryllidœ), taken at Double Bay, which fréquents the fiowers of
Eucalyptus coryinbosa in order to capture the common honey bées
{Apis mdlifica) visiting the blossoms.

Also, a few spécimens of Hymenoptera received from the Rev. T.
Blackburn, B.A., who captured them on the snow at altitudes of from
5,000 to 6,100 feet, during his trip to the Australian Alps, Victoria,
last November.

Mr. Musson exhibited on behalf of Mr. Moseley of Narrabri, an
example of the freckled duck, Anas nœvosa, Gould, obtained at
Narran, near Angledool, not far from the Queensland border, early in
December last.

The Rev. 11. Collie showed an interesting collection of sponges
from Wollongong, and u fine spécimen of Gorgonia from Thursday
Island.

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.

ARE PUBLISHERS OF

Pétries First Geography ls.

Petrie's Geography of New Zealand ls.
Goyen's Complète Arithmetic . »d.

Alisiers to same 9d.

Goyen's Exercises in the Compound Itules ls. 6d.

Answers ls. Gd.

Curnow's Primer of English History ls,

Tliomson's ]Vew Zealand Ferns . Os.

The Story of the Otago Clmrch and f Cloth 3s. Od.

Settlemcnt. By Rev. C. Striait Ross \ Paper 3s.

Education and Educationists in Otago.

By Rev. C. Stuart Ross ... 3s. 6d.

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.

108 PRINCES STREET,
DUNEDIN.

Matthewa, Baxter à Ûo., General Printers, Dowling Street, Dune clin.

22AUG.9!

MAY, 1891.

No. 3, Vol. I. (New Issue.)

THE

NEW ZEALAND

ni i m

in
jli

DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY.

Judicio perpende : et si tibi vera videntur

Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. \

CONTENTS :

PAGE

The Moa in Australia. C. W. De Vis, M. A. ... ... . ... 97

Further Notes on Nemesia Gillfesii. W.W.Smith ... ... ... 101

The Maori-Polynesian Comparative Dictionary ... ... ... ... 103

What caused the Obliquity of the Ecliptic ... ... ... ... 105

Scientiâc Metalhirgy and Mining ... ... ... ... 111

An Experiment concerning the absence of Colour from the lower sides of Fiat

Fishes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 117

Marriage among Deaf -mutes ... ... ... ... ... 121

General Notes— ... ... ... ... ... ... 120

Obituary Notice of Prof. W. J. Steplieiis of Sydney— List of Fisltes of New
'Zealand— Crustacea raised from driod New Zealand Miid— Idotca
lacustris (G.M.T.)

Meetings of Societies - ... ... ... 132

Liuucan Society of New South Wales— -Fiel«l Naturalists' Club of Victoria
— lioyal Society of Victoria— Wellington Philosopbical Society.

PRIOE, 2s.; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION, 10s. Ôd.

Posted — Australia, America, and Britain, 12s. 6d.

MATTHEWS, BAXTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, DOWLING STREET.
WISE, CAFF1N k CO., 108 PKIXCES STREET.

Vol. I, Ko. 3, N.Z. JOÏÏBNAL OF SCIENCE (New Issue) MAY, 1891.
THE MO A IN AUSÏRALIA.

BY C. AV. De VIS, M. A., Qiieensland Muséum.

Récent discovery in Lord Howe's Island lias proved that post-
tertiary Australia extended far to the east of its présent shores.
Still it remains true tîiat if among tbe results of enquiry into the past
phases of Australian life there be one suggestive of the possible
inter- relation of faunas apparently as distinct in history as in location,
it is the discovery of a bird identical with the Moas of New Zealand,
and of others so near akin to them as to bave been pardonably
mistaken for them by acute observers. Fossils so like Moa bon es as
the latter must necessarily hâve been, clearly show that the évolution
of thèse grand birds was not initiated in their récent island home, but
that it had already made considérable progress in that portion of a
far-reaching continent which we now name Australia, when a period
was put to the Nototherian âge by desolating outfîows of lava over
the greater part of the land. Having regard to the improbability of
birds so organized effecting a passage over sea under any ordinary
circumstances, we can hardly escape the further conclusion that New
Zealand's entire séparation from the continental area was brought
about in time not more remote than that era of intense volcanic
activity ; one is even tempted to surmise, and it appears very
possible to do so without absurdity, that it was one among the consé-
quences of that very manifestation of energy. But this is an instance
of speaking without book on a question which should be rigorously,
as it may be conficlently, left for décision in the hands of New
Zealand geologists. Cumulative évidence to the same effect but still
more explicit in kind is yielded by a relie of a true Dinornis. From it
we gather that the process of évolution had in the self-same place
and time accomplished more than we could hâve justly anticipated
without such warrant — the production of that more complète depar-
ture from the rest of the Struthionidœ which we recognize in the Moa
type. And again, as the ' wolves ' and ' devils ' of Tasmania, the
'crowned pigeons' of New Guinea, and the 'wallabies ' of those and
other Pacific islands hâve been eut off from the common ancestral
seat of their gênera, so also hâve the Moas.

It is incleed somewhat strange that the notion of the same genus
of birds existing at one time in Australia and at a later period in
New Zealand should ever hâve been thought inadmissable — yet it is
difficult to see what other conception of the case could hâve been in
the mind of Sir Richard Owen when he spoke of the advent of an
Australian moa as ' an exceptional extension' of a New Zealand genus
to Australia.' At the same time it is by no means to be regretted
that Owen did take this view, and that in conséquence he regardée!
with susjncion any Australian claim to Moa rank, however well
accredited It is to the stimulation of his critical faculty by incre-
dulity that we owe the full assurance that there bas existed a bird
which, though not Dinornis, had much in it pertaining to Dinornis, a

98 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE

degree of aftinity which under the circumstances could not hâve been
overstated, but, as stated, is quite sufficient to shew that Australia
was the nursery of tko sept.

But let us quit generalities for the more immédiate object in hand,
viz., a brief review of the recorded occurrences of the Moa stock in
Australian deposits. As if to excite a hope that such occurrences
wpuld be fréquent, the first of ail the extinct birds of Australia to be
drawn from those deposits andmadeknown to science was astruthious
bird dwarfing in size not only existing Cassowaries and Emus, but the
Emu which was contemporary with it. A thighbone of this bird was
discovered in the ycar 1836 by Sir Thomas Mitchell Li abrecchia cave
in Wellington Valley, New South Wales. It was examined by Sir
Richard Owen and figured by him in an appendix to MitchelTs
'Three Expéditions into the Tnterior of Eastern Australia,' 1838.
At that time, as we are subsequently informed, Owen determined the
bone ' to belong to a large bird probably from its size struthious or
brevipennate, but not presenting in its fémur characters which
justified him in suggesting closer affinities.' The study of Moa bones
in after years enabled him, lie says, to perceive that in some features
of importance the cave fémur 'resembles that bone in the Emu rather
than in Dinornis.' We learn further that cthe length of this fossil
was 13 inches, the breadth of the middle of the shaft not quite 3
inches' — measurements which are noteworthy, as they render it
apparent that in its dilated proportions the bone was much more like
the Dinornis fémur than that of the Emu which has a breadth of
only 1J inches to a length of 8| inches.

Thirty-three years elapsed before any further light was thrown
upon a problem which was sumciently obscure. It then issued from
the Peak Downs, near the centre of Queensland, where in 1869 a well
was being sunk. The workmen passed through thirty feet of the
residuum of basaltic décomposition, the ' black son" characteristic of
'Downs' country, then through 150 feet of drift pebblesand boulders.
Lying on one of the boulders, at 180 feet from the surface, they met
with a short thick fémur, which was happily preserved from the
usual fate experienced by such finds, and more happily, passed into
the hands of the well-known geologist, the Rev. W. B. Clarke. In
concert with Mr. G. Krefft, then Curator of the Australian Muséum,
Mr. Clarke compared it with moa bones, with the resuit that he felt
himself justified in announcing the discovery in the Geological
Magazine of that year in a letter entitled ' Dinornis an Australian
genus.' At Sir R. Owen's solicitation a cast of this bone was sent to
him by the Trustées of the Australian Muséum, and this, in 1872,
formed the subject of a communication from Owen to the Geogra-
phical Societ}r (Trans., vol. 8, p. 381). After pointing out at length
the characters in which this fémur resembles Dinornis and Dromœus
(Emu) respect! vely, the examiner décides "that in its essential
characters it resembles more that bone in the Emu than in the Moa,
and that the characters in which it more resembles Dinornis are
concomitant with and related to the more gênerai strength and
robustness of the bone, from which we may infer that the species
manifested dinornithic strength and proportions of the hind limbs
combined with characters of closer affinity to the existing more

THE MOA IN AUSTRALIA. 99

slender limbed and swifter wingless bird peculiar to the Australian
continent." To the bircl represented by the fossil Owen gave the
name Dromornis, a name significant of his conception of the para-
mount affinity displayed by its fémur. If with that judgment a
succeeding observer finds it impossible to completely harmonize his
own conclusion, and says so, it is because in this case compulsion
rides roughshod over péril. That the Dromornis bone has important
features which relate it to the Emu rather than to the Moa is a
position which is unassailable — but that thèse alone are its ' essential '
characters is a postulate and one that has no right to command
assent. Essential they are among the Dromsean features of the bone;
but of the compound Dromornis bone as a whole they form but a
part of the essentials. The absence of the air-duc t communicating
with the interior of the bone, a characteristic dinornithic feature, seems
quite as important as a structural index to habit as the Dromtean set
of the head of the bone, and being strictly dinorthic, it is not ' related
to the gênerai strength and robustness of the bone ' but to its compara-
tive solidity. A gain the ' dinornithic strength and proportions of the
hind-limbs ' is a reminder which should carry more weight than it
was probably intended to bear, but is nevertheless but a partial
statement of the fact — for it leaves out of considération the great
différence in the relative proportions of the bone under examination.
It is not that the bone is altogether larger or smaller in the same
ratios of length and breadth but in différent ratios — the Dromornis
and Dinornis ratio being much the same. The Dromornis fémur is
but one-thircl longer than that of the Emu, yet its shaft is twice as
thick transversely, and its upper end is more than twice as broad.
With such bones the bird would probably hâve the gênerai appear-
ance, the gait and habits of a Moa rather than those of an Emu. In
short, Dromornis exhibits at the least an intermediate form between
the Moa and Emu, probably a nearer approximation to the former
than to the latter.

After another interval of fifteen years a third dinornithic bone
was picked up in King's Creek, on the Darling Downs, by Mr.
Daniels, and by him presented with other contemporaneous fossils to
the Queensland Muséum. This again présents the upper end of a
thighbone, but minus the upper part of the great trochanter, which
appears to hâve been shorn off by the abrading action of drift sand
while the bone projected from the bed of a watercourse — in other
respects it is in excellent préservation. Repeated comparison of this
bone with species of Dinornis, with Dromornis, Casuarius, Dromseus,
Struthio and Rhea has removed from the mind of its describer ail
doubt of the former existence of the typical Moa in Australia. To
him it appears to resemble as closely any one of the fémurs from New
Zealand as any two of thèse, specifically différent, resemble each
other, a view which of course implies the absence from it of features
notably présent in the Emu bone. The most important of thèse is
one to which référence has already been made. The ' head ' of the
bone or that hemispherical projection which fits into the corres-
ponding cavity of the hip-bone stands out prominently in the Moas in
conséquence of the neck behind it being somewhat long and of
considerably diminished diameter, whereas in the Emu the neck is

ÎOO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

short and thick, so that the limits of tlie head, especially on its upper
surface, arc less distinguishable. In tins feature, casier to recognize
by inspection tlian by description, Dromornis agrées with tlie Emu,
While the Quccnsland Moa exhibits the comparatively slender neck
and wcll-defined head of its New Zealand successors. It is not
necessary at this moment to insist upon the value of the several
eharacters which aid in the generic identification of this bone with
Dinornis — they are to be found by anyone sufficiently interested in
the matter in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland for
1 884 — to others a recapitulation of them would be tedious.

Unfortunately the identification has not yet been supported by
further testimony, a circumstance which can hardly be thought sur-
prising when the extrême slowness with which dinornithic remains
hâve been brought to light is borne in mind — three bones in over
half-a-century lias been the rate of discovery hitherto. Adding to
thèse three, others from which no précise information can be derived,
viz., two ribs provisionally referred to Dromornis and the shaft of a
fémur too imperfect for détermination, but certainly not Dromornis,
and in ail probability, not Dinornis, ail the fossils of this kind known
to the writer hâve been mentioned. In a fairly numerous collection
of bones of contemporary birds the paucity of such fossils is conspi-
cuous, but it would hardly be safe to infer from that circumstance
that the birds themselves were rare. The most we can say is that they
were not among the ordinary frequenters of the lower levels in which
the ossiferous drifts of the period were accumulating. Is is therefore
with sustained eagerness that every fresh tribute of bones is received
and inspected, since the hope is always présent that it may contain
some further proof of the reality of the Queensland Moa as convincing
to others as it would be welcome to its assertor.

Be it at the same time observed that there is no reason why a
greater amount of proof should be demanded in this case than in
others. There is no inhérent improbability involved by it so great as
to justify inordinate doubt, since the passage of Dromornis into
Dinornis is not so long and difncult a matter as to require for its
accomplishment a new home and a geological remove. The only
objection to be raised against it is that it confirais and accentuâtes
the antécédent diâiculty created by Dromornis itself, the difïiculty of
accounting for the présence of Moas in New Zealand under their
lately existing circumstances. It is not a mystery that they should
hâve been there at ail since it is atrything but incredible that a subsi-
denec of ten or twelve thousand feet should during a geological âge
which has seen the whole Australian fauna profoundly changed, hâve
taken place in an area liable to volcanic disturbance such as we see
effects of in Australia and feel the throes of in New Zealand. Before
that subsidence, Mount Cook from a height about equal to the Cordil-
leran peak of clevatiori, Aconcagua, would hâve looked down and over
continuons land as far as the snoweapped mountains of Queensland,
the view unhindered by the intervening peak of Lord Howe's Island,
the refuge of Meiolanian reptiles once in communication with their
kinsfolk in Australia. The true difïiculty is not the isolation of New
Zealand from Australia, but the strange isolation of the Moas from
ail other forms peculiar to Australian life. Why should their stock

THE MOA IN AUSTRALIE. IOI

alone hâve escaped to an eminence of the sinking surface, or alone
been introduced into the insulated land, or alone survived some
change in its life conditions fatal to the rest? The Moa in New
Zealand is the question that calls for an explanation, and in proof
that it does call for an explanation and is not to be dismissed as a
voiceless phantasy, we point to Dromornis followed (structurally) by
Dinornis in Australia, and we wait for its solution in the work of
New Zealand's naturalists.

FURTHER NOTES ON NEMESIA GILLIESII.

The interesting notes by Mr. R. M. Laing " On the occurrence
of the Trap-door Spider at Lyttelton," which appeared in the March
number of this Journal, add considerably to oui* knowledge of the
habits, economy, and distribution of the species. As it is not
uncommon hère about the terraces and river flats, and in neglected
gardens, it certainly coincides with Mr. Laing's remark that the
spider " seems to be much more widely distributed than was at first
presumed." A few years ago I examinée! numbers of their nests in
the Waiareka valley, near Oamaru, the locality, I believe, where the
original spécimens were obtained, but ail the spécimens and their
nests that \ hâve observée! hère, are much smaller than those occur-
ring near Oamaru. The various habitats and positions of the nests
observed by Mr. Laing at Lyttelton, would apply in most instances
hère, but I observe that the lining or web, covering the walls of the
nests, varies greatly in texture according to the loose or binding
nature of the soil in which they occur. When the nests are con-
structee! in fine sandy soil they are frequently lineel with a thick
white web, which doubtless prevents the nests from caving in, and
probably afîbrds warmth and makes them more impervious to wet.
In this district they are founcl commonly in the open among low
herbage growing on the river flats, and on the slopes of the terraces
at various grades, but in the Waiareka valley, Oamaru, I found them
more numerous in a long belt of gum trees than on the open downs.
This was probably due to the groune! not being disturbed by the
plough, or by sheep anc! cattle depasturing on it, as well as its forming
the chief haunt of nocturnal insects in a district where the native
végétation is very scant.

Mr. Laing's remarks on the structure of the trap-doors, and the
difficulty of detecting them in some situations, would appear to
indicate the présence of mimetic resemblances, yet under certain
conditions the nests are at times very easily detected. For instance,
when any nests occurring on bare ground and that are more or less
covered with fine loose earth hâve the trap-doors moved on damp
nights or after rain, the first sunshine afterwards soon dries the fine
loose soil covering the doors, and leaves conspicuous rings or circulai1
patches of dry soil over and around them. Such indications of the

102 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

spider 's présence niay soinetimes possibly enable theîr enemies, the
highly sensitive and * keen-eyed Pojnpilus to capture them. Where
the nests occur among moss as mentioned by Mr. Laing, or among
low, closo-growing végétation their présence is at ail times more
difficult to detect. I think Mr. Laing's description of the form and
structure of the trap-doors is most probably the right one, as T hâve
invariably lound them to be flat, or very slightly arched, but never
plug-shaped. Of course there may occasionally be exceptions, but
such may sometimes be the resuit of accident, caused by arry weight
resting or falling on the lid. I however, think that the flat-door
would naturally be more serviceable to the spiders, in enabling them
to insert their claws between the top of the nest and the door when
opening it. In the case of the exceptional nest with a " cork-type "
door, it is to be regretted that Mr. Laing did not capture the spider
within it.

In regard to the editorial footnote to Mr. Laing's paper (page 54)
on the subject of wasps stinging spiders, and rendering them for a
time comatose, I may hère briefly ref er to the habits of Pompilus (Prioc-
nemis) fugax, one of the handsomest of our native wasps. Unlike many
indigenous Hymenoptera in New Zealand, it appears to increase
slowly in numbers in cultivated districts. This appears to be due to
the présence of a common spider* (Cambridge^ fasciata), which it
captures and stores in its nest to feed its larva. Like the introduced
humble-bee it generally builds its nest in dry cavities or cracks in
raised sod-banks beneath gorse hedges. The nests are built with
soft clay, which apparently undergoes some process of refinement by
the wasps cluring their élaboration. The wasps appoar hère about
the middle of November, and until the middle of January may
oscasionally be seen hunting vigorously for their prey about gorse
hedges, aud clumps of young Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)%
The motions of the wasps when in search of spiders are rapid and
wary. When hunting on the grouncl they run and leap a few paces
alternately— the antennœ and wings meanwhile quivering rapidly.
Although 1 hâve never observed a wasp seize a spider when running
over the low herbage, I am inclined to think that they are in search
of spiders that inhabit or conceal themselves in such situations.
When the wasps are hunting in gorse hedges, it is remarkable how
swiftly they move through or over the plants, stopping suddcnly at
intervais, and remaining motionless for a few seconds, as if listening
eautiously for sounds or movements of their prey. I hâve never seen
a wasp actually seize and kill a spider, but I hâve on several occasions
seen them dragging the insensible and dead spiders to their nest.
Jt the spider is a large one, the wasp walks backwards dragging it
along by a succession of jerks. They sometimes mutilate the spiders
before plastering them up in the egg cells, as L hâve found the
mutilated Limbs of several spiders in différent cells.t According to

* Lately namc d for me by Mr. Coyen, of the Otago Education Department.

! In ■■' p i" c '" On New Speciea of New Zealand Aranere'* (Tran*. N.Z. Institute,
y.»]. XXII., p. 269) Mr. Qoyen mentions the difficulty of capturing swift-running,
1 rog-limtx d Bpidera intact, it is possible that the wasps, in seizing thèse spiders, may

aionally detacfa a limb in the struggle, without succeeding in stinging the spider,
which may .- un-'tiines account for the présence of their limbs in certain cells.

FURTHER NOTES ON NEMESIA GILLIESII. IO3

my expérience with the nests the number of egg-cells or chambers in
each is from five to eight, and they vary considerably in size. I may
add that on December 26th last, I was stung between the fingers by
one of thèse wasps, but the sting was neither so sore or painful as the
sting of the humble-bee (Apis mellifica). I may also add that two
other species of spider-hunting wasps, viz., P. monachus and P. carbo-
narias, are both common in the Waiareka valley, the locality where
the trap-door spider exists in great numbers.

W. W. Smith.

THE MAORI-POLYNESIAN COMPARATIVE
DICTIONARY.

BY EDWARD TREGEAR.
Lyon & Blair, Wellington, 1891.

Cari Abel in one of Lis Essays says — " If two or more languages
are contrasted, each being previously analysed, tins comparison of
thoroughly prepared materials will hâve paved the way to realise national
peculiarities of thought. As there are hardly any words in any two
languages eompletely representing each other, the amonnt of conscious
knowledge to be gainecl by the comparison of what exists half iincon-
sciously in every land, cannot be overestimated. . . It seems to us,
that linguistic science, psychologicalh conceivecl, contains a wealth of
the most interesting and important tasks scarcely dreamt of till now."

In the book now before us Mr. Tregear lias présentée! to the scientific
world a mine of precious material, much of it new, sonie till now buried
in little known works, ail of it interesting. The words of Cari Abel
quoted above are fully justified by the results now laid before us of a
comparison of Polynesian words and ideas. The Maori stuclent in
particular will welcome the opportunity now afforcled to him of com-
paring the forms and équivalent values of cognate words in the great
Polynesian area, and not only does the author extend the facilities for
linguistic comparisons, but he now for the first time présents a Compa-
rative Mythology of Oceania. This has long been neecled and will be
warmly welcomed. The thorough way in which the author works may
be well seen under the word Haiwaiki — there is in this article alone
the material for a volume. See also the hero-god — Wenuku, the story
of his eventful life and of his magical powers would furnish the motif
for an epic of Homeric interest. Then again the Hina myth is not only
a celebrated one in Maori lore but variants, ail telling of the cloings of
Hina "lovely blossom, whose home is in the sky," are found in Hawaii,
Manahiki, Samoa, and Mangaia (possibly the original home of Cockneys,
as there they persistently drop the letter h). Hère also we make the
acquaintance of the great Hine-mu-te-po, the gocldess of the realm of
night, in trying to pass through whose domain, to deliver the soûls of

104 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

mon from death, Main was slain. At page 558 we fincl the New
Z» aland Déluge Legends, and also the very curious Marquesan version of
Te Tai Toko, or the Flood, with its remarkable parallelisni with the
Chaldean accounts.

The materials hère indicated are carefully put togetlier and the
needful références duly given. One very useful part of the book is the
list of works consultée! by the author, as it gives in a liandy form a list
of the chief authorities on the gênerai Ethnology of the South Seas.
The wliole of the readers of this Journal will, I am sure, sympathise
with Mr. Tregear's note on page XII. ? concerning Mr. Colenso's great
Lexicon of the Maori language, and will, with him, continue to hope
that the patient, eariiest and scholarly labour of a long and well spent
life will yet be " boni into the world of letters." Although dealing
more strictly with the word forms of the Maori language, Mr. Colenso's
Maori Lexicon uiust contain much of that spécial knowledge of the
Maori race, of which, in New Zealand, he is the sole possessor.

Of the philological value of the kindred words brought togetlier
by Mr. Tregear, it will be for the student of philology to judge in the
light of the ever advancing knowledge of the national psychology of the
races of the Pacific. From the great island of New Guinea we may
expect much valuable material for the philologist, as that area seems to
be a definite point of contact between a conquering and a conquered
race. We are as yet only in the dawn of the light which will be thrown
by philological research on the race problems of existing nations.

Turning to another branch of the enquiry we find that at the end
of the book are given "endless généalogies" — extracts from the "Burke
and Debrett " of Polynesia. Beside thèse lines of ancestry, those who
" came over with the Oonqueror " are mushrooms indeed. Look at that
of Minirapa Tamahiwaki of the Chatham Islands, who proudly counts
180 générations of forefathers; of Relia of the Uriwera tribe, with 135
ancestors ; of the Chiefs of Hawaii, and of the Kings of Rarotonga and
Raiatea. Hère we hâve linguistic monuments of past âges equal in
interest to the dynasties of Egypt, and lights though dim, on the
childhood of the world.

As a contribution to the gênerai history of the Maori people the
book is of spécial value, and now that the author of the " History of
the Maori " lias passed to his rest, it is to be hoped that the Government
will see their way to place the remainder of the work of the late Mr.
John White in the hands of Mr. Tregear for publication. It is to be
desired however, that at some future time the volumes already issued of
that work will be re-edited, and the plates which at présent disgrâce
the work be replaced by some more suited to its character.

Mr. Tregear, and the public generally, are much indebted to the
publishera for the extremely creditable form in which the Maori
Comparative Dictionary is issued; considering the difficulties of the
work the errors and defects are trifling, and its publication marks an
<-ta in the literary history of the colony.

Mr. Tregear's patient labour of many years is thus launched on the
Bea of 1 itéra tu re, but before leaving the subject it will be as well to
ditect the attention of ail interested in Maori matters to a paper on

THE OBLIQUIÏY OF THE ECLIPTIC. 105

"The Maoris of New Zealand," by Mr. Tregear, published in volume
XIX. of the " Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, 1890." The
paper lias been written in reply to the code of " Questions " published
in the " Journal of the Anthropological Institute," volume XVIII. ;
and next to the essay by the Eev. W. Colenso, on the Maoris, published
in the first volume of the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute,"
contains the fullest and best account of the Natives of thèse Islands.

A. H.

WHAT CAUSED THE OBLIQUITY OF THE
ECLIPTIC.

The following letter by T. A. Bereman, of Mt. Pleasant, Io.,
appeared in Science of 13th February. In view of the attention now
being given to the subject of Antarctic Exploration, it is interesting
and suggestive: —

" It is diflicult to bring the mind to believe that there ever was a
time when there were no seasons, — spring, summer, autumn, and winter,
— as now. In attempting to account for natural phenomena, we hâve
nearly always assumée! that the axis of the earth was originally inclined
to the plane of the ecliptic at an angle of 23 J°, as we now fine! it, and
of course we in conséquence hâve formed in our minds the idea of the
annual récurrence of the seasons through ail geological time ; but the
élimination of the seasons from the early history of the earth lias been
forced upon us by the accumulation of facts from the geological record.
There is abundant évidence to prove the existence of tropical or sub-
tropical animais and plants in Arctic latitudes as late as the tertiary.
In Professor Dana's " Manual of Geology" (third édition, p. 352) that
author says, ' If we draw any conclusion from the facts, it must be that
température of the Arctic zone différée! little from that of Europe and
America. Through the whole hémisphère, and we may siy world,
there was a génial atmosphère for one uniform type of vegetables, and
there were génial waters for corals and brachiopods.' Scarcely any one
now, who is conversant with the facts, will deny that the early histery
of the earth was marked with a uniform, or nearly uniform, température,
in ail latitudes, prior to and including most of the tertiary. The main
différence of opinion existing now among scientific men is how to
account for such uniform, world climate.

" So of the glacial period. Every one aduiits that the great array
of facts justifies the conclusion that the pôles of the earth were, since
the tertiary, covered with great ice caps or sheets several thousand feet
thick, and reaching down to the 40th parallel of latitude, constituting
the great glacial period. There is a wide divergence of opinion, how-
ever, as to the origin or cause of this glacial cold. Mr. Croll, in his
4 Climate and Time,' lias formulated a theory, derived from the secular
changes in the eccentricity of the earth 's oibit, through whicli lie fiuds

IOÔ JOURNAL 01< SCIENCE.

b place for the glacial period ; but thia theory, if true, must provide for
alternation of warm and cold periods at the pôles throughout ail geo-
logical time. Professor James Geikie of Scotland, in lus ' Great Ice

A.ge/ indorses thia theory, and attempts to find évidences of former
glacial action, not only in the tertiary, but also in mesozoic and
paleozoic timcs. But the weight of the évidence seems to be against
fchia theory, and Mr. Geikie himself admits that that mnch of lus
'évidence ' is ' not very convincing.'

" The best and most satisfactory explanation of the warm and cold
periods at the pôles lias been made by Professor C. B. Warring, in a
paper read by him before the New York Academy of Science, and pub-
lished in the Popular Science Monthly for July, 1886\ This paper
mérita a much more extended notice than it has apparently received, for
its author has very strongly fortified his several propositions. Briefly,
his argument is this : The existence of tropical vegetables in Arctic
latitudes cannot be supported upon the theory of a warm tempéra-
ture only. Light was as necessary as heat ; and this light must also
hâve been unitorm and unbroken by long periods of darkness, for if
there had been a long night of four months in every year, as now, it
would hâve been fatal to ail plants, and even many or most of the
animais. Therefore, down to nearly the close of the tertiary, the axis
of the earth was perpendicular to the ecliptic, and the days and nights
were everywhere and always equal. The température was kept up by
means of the carbonic acid and aqueous vapor in the atmosphère, which
formed a sort of 'double blanket,' and served to retain the heat radiated
from the sun. After a long period the carbonic acid was most of it
taken up from the atmosphère to form onr coal-beds, peat, petroleum,
graphite, etc. This process was followed by a thinning of the retaining
cover. The heat from the sun was not ail retained, but was lost again
by escaping into stellar space. ' Holes in the blanket' appeared at the
pôles, ice and snow began to accumulate there, and eventually the
glacial epoch was inaugurated. Furthermore, he shows, that, according
to the nebular hypothesis, the axes of the earth and moon ought to hâve
been, in their normal condition, parallel with each other, and both
perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic ; but instead, the earth's axis
is inclined 23J°, while the moon's axis is practically perpendicular, it
being inclined only 1° 30'. The change, therefore, was with that of the
earth, and was effected since the moon's séparation from the earth. 'In
view of ail thèse facts,' he says, ' it seems most probable that in that
blank interval the glacial epochj or more largely between the end of the
miocène and the beginning of the Champlain, that movement occurred
which gave the earth seasons, unequal days and nighta, and greatly
enlarged its limits of inhabitability. . . . When the axis became
oblique, more solar heat fell within the polar circle, thèse régions became
warmer, and the glacial epoch departed. If thèse conditions — a perpen-
dicular axis and high uplifts — could be to-day restored, the atmosphère
remaining as it is, the glacial epoch would return.'

•'It is the purpose of the présent article to emphasise the reasons
for believing the direction of the earth's axis was changed about the
time stated abovc, and also to suggest the probable cause of the change.
In order to do this more intelligently, we must take a more comprehen

THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. IOJ

sive view of the glacial epoch and ail its attendant phenomena than is
nsually foimd in any one or many of tlie text-books, or papers, reports,
and lectures, upon tlie subject. Of ail tlie geological changes and révo-
lutions in tlie eartli, ont of whicli lias been evolved tlie présent world of
animal and plant life, tlie glacial epocli is certainly tlie most unique,
and full of interest to the scientific observer. What causée! tlie glacial
cold has been the constant inquiry, but never answered, ever since it
was first proposed some forty or fifty years ago. Why should corals
live in security in Spitzbergen, and the red-woods of California and the
cypress-trees of the southern United States flourish in the north of
Greenland as late as tertiary times, where now are the alniost constant
rigors of an Arctic winter ? What caused the récession of the glaciers,
and why may we not hâve a récurrence of them % What influence, if
any, did the polar ice-caps exert upon the ocean-level and ocean-
currents'? Were the ice-caps equal in magnitude ; and if not, what
effects, if any, followed such inequality, from the attraction of the sun
and moon upon the mass of the earth, thus abnormally distributed %
Thèse questions and kindred ones must be considered before we are
prepared to comprehend the full significance and conséquence of the
glacial epoch.

"It seems incredible that a great ice-cap, several thousand feet
thick, should accumulate, and remain throughout the summer, in the
temperate zones, if the ecliptic were as oblique in those times as now.
The sun on the 21st of June would be nearly perpendicular to the
southern limit of the glacier, and would certainly exert a powerful
influence in preventing its formation or accumulation south of the
northern limits of Minnesota. On the other hand, hower, if we place
the sun continuously perpendicular at the equator, the temperate zone
would be characterized by continuai spring weather similar to that
occurring in April at the présent time. In such case we may readily
conclude that the précipitations of snow might be greater than that
melted by the slanting rays of the vernal sun, and hence might continue
to increase, and form a glacier of ice.

"It appears that the polar ice-caps in glacial times extended as far
as the 30th parallel of latitude from either pôle ; in some places the
north glacier in the United States extended as far south as the 39th
and even to the 3Sth parallel ; and in South America Professor Agassiz
found évidences of glacial action as far north as the 37th parallel. Mr.
D. Forbes informée! Mr. Darwin that lie had seen ice-worn rocks and
scratchecl stones at about 12,000 feet height, between 13° and 30° south
latitude. There seems also some évidence of glacial action in the south-
east corner of Australia. In northern Asia, owing to the great extent
of land surface, it may be reasonably iriferred that the southern limit of
the glacier was much beyond that in the United States. The mountain
ranges in both hémisphères cloubtless were covered with a much greater
accumulation of snow and ice than they are at présent, extending at
that time to withiu the tropics, and perhaps to the equator. But from
the whole record, we may safely assume 40° as the average limit of
each, the southern being the more widely extended of the two. There
are many évidences that thèse ice-sheets were not confined to the land,
but that they crossed gulfs, seas, and even océans. Professor H. Carvill

IOS JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Lewis, in a lecture* pnblishod in the 'Journal of the Franklin Institute
for April, ISS-*», says, ' It probably also filled the bed of tlie Atlantic
with ice far south of Greenland, fche edge of the glacier reaching from
Newfoundland te southern [reland in a concave Une;' and Professor
Geikie says the German Océan was entirely filled with ice. Similar
évidence luis been fourni as to tlie antarctic glacier. We hâve therefore
two magnificent circular polar ice-caps, each of them nearly 7,000 miles
in diaraeter, and the two covering about 61,000,000 square miles of the
earth's surface, leaving a zone of non-glaciated surface at the equator of
nbont 130,000,000 square miles; so that, at tlie culmination of the
glacial epoch, nearly one-third of the earth's surface was covered with
ice.

" If, uow, we could ascertain the thickness of thèse great glaciers,
we could easily estimate tlie amount of tlie earth's mass taken up in
the form of aqueous vapour, transferred to the polar areas, and there
deposited in the form of snow and ice. While admitting the incom-
pleteness of the record, the weight of the évidence at présent is to the
eftect that the antarctic glacier was much larger tban the arctic. Upon
gênerai reasoning, tins ought to hâve been true ; for three-fourths of
the land surface of the earth are in the northern hémisphère, and the
amount of Water suface in the southern and northern hémisphères res-
pective!)- is in the ratio of 85 to 60. In the southern hémisphère,
therefore, there ought to hâve been a greater amount of evaporation ;
and, in the absence of any known air-currents to oarry this evaporation
to the north of the equator, there would necessarily be a greater amount
of précipitation in the southern hémisphère, and consequently a greater
accumulation of ice. That such was the fact in glacial times, seems to
be indicated by what is conceded to be an imperfect record. Professor
Dana, in his ' Manual of Geology,' estimâtes the thickness of the
northern glacier in America to hâve been 11,500 feet on the watershed
of Canada. Professor Le Conte, in his ' Eléments of Geology,' says,
1 The archaean région of Canada seems to hâve been . . . covered
with a gênerai ice mantle 3,000 to 6,000 feet thick / and Professor
James Geikie says the Scandinavian ice-sheet ' could hardly hâve been
less than 6,000 or 7,000 feet thick.' As Norway extends nearly to the
72nd parallel of north latitude, it is not probable that the northern
glacier exceeded two miles in thickness at its greatest height. Professor
Le Conte says, ' Greenland is apparently entirely covered with an
immense sheet of ice, several thousand feet thick. which moves slowly
seaward, and enters the océan tlirough immense fiords. Judging from
the immense barrier of icebergs found by Capt. Wilkes on its coast, the
antarctic continent is probably even more thickly covered with ice than
Greenland.' Sir James Clark Ross reports having sailed for several
liuudred miles along a perpendicular wall of ice 180 to 200 feet liigh in
the antarctic continent, and found only one place where the top of the

ould be seen from the mast-head of his ship ; and Capts. Cook and
Wilkes both confirm the report of a large ice-sheet in that part of the
world. Professor Croll, in ' Olimate and Time,' estimâtes from ail the
data at hand, that tbe thickness of the southern ice-cap at its greatest
height is no less than twelve miles. It is not probable that the
antarctic glacier was much, if any, higher than this in glacial times; for
it will be readily understood, that, after the glaciation had proceeded so

THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPT1C. 109

far as to place the south pôle in tlie midst of a vast ice-plain, the in-
coming clouds froin the surrounding océans would deposit most of their
inoisture before reaching tlie centre, and the glacier would be built up
at or near its circumference. Rence we should expect to find the
glacier, instead of thinning gradually from twelve miles at the centre to
nothing at its outward edges. would présent more the appearance of a
great section of a hollow sphère of nearly uniform thickness, laid over
the earth at the pôle.

" Further confirmation of this view is found in the fact that the
southern hémisphère lias a cooler mean annual température thaii the
northern. Mr. Croll says this is due to the constant transference of
heat to the north by means of ocean-currents, nearly ail the great
currents originating south of the equator; while Sir Charles Lyell
thinks the true cause lies in the fact of the smaller extent of land
surface in the south. It is also true that from Mardi 20 to Sept. 22 —
the duration of the sun's northern declination — there are 186 days,
while from the autumnal to the vernal equinox there are only 179
days : the northern summer is therefore seven days longer than tlie
southern summer, and the southern winter is that rnuch longer than the
northern. If this inequality in the length of the summer and winter
in the two hémisphères had its origin during the glacial epoch, it would
at least hâve the effect of meltiug the ice in the north more rapidly
than in the southern hémisphère ; and if it existed before glacial times,
the effect would hâve been to accelerate the growtli of the southern ice-
cap more rapidly than that of the northern.

"At the culmination of the glacial epoch, therefore, we may assume
that the northern glacier was of an average thickness of 1 mile, and in
extent about 25,000,000 square miles, making 25,000,000 cubic miles
of ice : that the area covered by the southern glacier was about
30,000,000 square miles, and 5 miles of average thickness, making
150,000,000 cubic miles of ice \ and the two extending over more than
one-fourth of the earth's surface, and aggregating 175,000,000 cubic
miles of ice. Thèse two gigantic ' fos^ils ' would be equal in siz î to
about one-thirtietb part of the bulk of the 1110011, and would represent
an amount of evaporation from the water surface of the earth sufficieiit
to lower the sea-level more than 5,000 feet, or about one mile.

" Now, I submit that the attraction of the sun and moon upon this
mass of ice would, if continued for a long time, be sunïcient to effect
some change in the direction of the earth's axis. Just how rnuch that
change would be, I hâve 11 ot determined ; but that there would be some
change seems to be évident from the bare statement of the proposition.
When we consider that this matter lias been removed to the pôles from
the equatorial régions, the inequality of distribution of the earth's mass
would be greatly augmented. The action and re-action of the sun and
moon and the planets on the protubérant mass of matter about the
equator produce what is called ' nutation,' and the precession of the
equinoxe^. Now, this mass being equally distributed around the earth
like a ring at the equator, only the nutation, or nodding, of the axis is
produced. But in case of the antarctic ice-cap the resuit of the attrac-
tion would be somewh \,t différent ; for, this being largely at one side o..-

IlO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

at the pôle, and tlic uiean attraction of tlie moon being in the plane of
the ccliptic, Lta tendency would be to draw the mass towards tlie ecliptic
— so far, at least, until an eqnilibriiiin should be found.

"That the relative magnitudes of the two polar ice-sheets sliould
always remain tlie same, would hardlv be presumed. The sinking of
fche ice to the bottom of the Northern Atlantic would neeessarily eut off
the Gulf Stream, and prevent its further progress northward, if it
existed in preglacial times. Even if the ice extended only a few
hundred feet below the surface, it would materially interfère with that
current, since it is a broad shallow stream, flowing upon the top of the
océan. Similar conditions in the southern océan might hâve aided tlie
panses already named in effecting a change or changes in the relative
sizes of the two great glaciers. During such changes, therefore, if any
existed, oscillations of the earth's axis may hâve occurred before it
becarae fixed as at présent. We should therefore expect to fincl pauses
in the recession, and perhaps a re-advance, of the northern glacier; and
such we do actually find from an examination of the great Kettle
Moi-aine in the northern United States, and of the reindeer epoch in
Europe.

"As already statecl, the ocean-level would be very materially
lowered. Thus we can account, in part at least, for the land élévations
in high latitudes, to which ail geologists resort for a partial explanation
of glacial phenomena. True, tins lowering of the level would be co-
extensive with the entire océan surface ; and the old shore-lines would
be found, if discovered at ail, below the présent water-level. But, as
Professor Dana says, ' élévations of land do not leave accessible records
like subsidences.' One of 'the strongest évidences of land élévation is
the existence of numerous extensive fiords, which Professor Dana says
are ' valleys of érosion,' and which Professor Le Conte calls ' half-sub-
merged glacial valleys.' But, as the ice did not exist at sea-level in low
latitudes, thèse fiords are not found there as fossil remains to mark the
degree of élévation. But we know that England was united to the
continent of Europe by dry land, that the Mediterranean sea was an
interlocked fresh-water lake, that the delta of the Mississippi was at
least 400 feet higher than it is at présent, and that rnany of the islands
of the Pacific Océan were at a higher level. Professor Winchell, in his
' Pre-Ada mites,' says that probably the now sunken continent of
Lemuria, in the Indian Océan, was dry land during the glacial period,
as were also some of the Malay Islands and others. Professor Le Conte
says, ' The boldness of the whole Pacific coast, especially in high lati-
tudes, indicates a previous more elevated condition of the land surface
[during fche quaternary] than now exists ;' and Mr. Darwin thinks that
'at tins period of extrême cold the climate under the equator at the
level of the sea was about the same with that now felt there at the
height of six or seven thousand feet.'

" Moreover, if this inequality in the amount of the accumulation
at the two pôles existed as intimated, it would be sufficient to remove
the centre of gravity of the earth a little to the southward of its former
position. This would be followcd by a greater flow of water from the
north polar régions ; and hère we would hâve another cause of land
élévation in high northern latitudes, since lowering the water is equiva-

THE OBLIQUITY OF THE ECLIPTIC. I I I

lent to an élévation of tlie land. Wbile tbere may hâve been local
élévations and subsidences of the land surface in higli latitudes cluring
tlie glacial and Champlain periods, there seems to be strong reason for
believing tliat the growth and decay of the two great ice-barriers added
inaterially to such changes of level by alternately lowering and elevating
the gênerai océan surface. Tins lowering of the sea-level might be
taken into account in considering the question of the geographical
distribution of plants and animais ; but it is not my design to pursue
that brandi of the subject hère.

"The suggestion hère made tliat the large accumulation of the
earth's mass at the south pôle was one of the contributive causes of the
change in the direction of the earth's axis, is but a corollary to Dr.
Warring's statement, that ' between the end of the miocène and the
beginning of the Champlain, that movement occurred which gave the
earth seasons, unequal days and nights, and greatly enlarged its limita
of inhabitability.' "

SCIENTIFIC METALLURGY AND MINING.

The inaugural address of the présent session of the Otago Univer-
isity was delivered by Mr. David Wilkinson, Fellow of the Royal School
of Mines, who is the newly appointed lecturer on Metallurgy. We
reproduce the conclusion of Mr. Wilkinson's address, which dealt with
the importance of scientific metallurgy and mining from a commercial
as well as an educational point of view.

" We are now arriving at the conclusion that the training of the
■workshop and of the mine, however valuable, can each be advantageously
supplemented by the training to be obtained in the laboratory and the
lecture room. It is noticeable hère how extremely utilitarian we are
becoming. We are not now entirely satisfied with the élégance, suavity
.and refinement that is undoubtedly imparted by contact with the
classical authors. The slow, easy-going times of the begiuuiug of tins
century hâve passée! away in the eternal compétition of nations and of
individuals. We can no longer afford to let those chances of advance-
ment slip which hâve been so readily taken advantage of by other
people. Thus we arrive at the Englishman's unfailing query, do the
benefits to be derived from the training you speak of more than
counterbalance the expenditure of money and energy required for tins
purpose'? The advantage to the individual at anyrate is unquestionable.
To confine ourselves again to illustrations from the mining world.
How often lias it been pointed out that the tendency of the purely
practical man is to suppose that the methods he lias learnt in his
particular district are applicable to ail conditions. I may say, without
fear of contradiction, that the man who knows his work, by the training
of his hançls and the éducation of his mind, must possess greater
adaptability than the man who works only by rule of tliuinb. His

l [ 2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

éducation lias been obtained in a small school, and unless he possesses
rare intelligence hia knowledge will be correspondingly narrow. It
woukl not be difficult to give you inany examples of this froni that
mosi conservative of Bnglish counties — Ôornwall. From the younger
minera thore one hears continually the observation : We are 20 years
behind the Americans in mining methods. Vet the Cornish miner, as
an individual, is not surpassed by any other miner in the world. One
coùld not point to bet ter ex amples for illnstrating this than those which
can be seen or read of in the United States. Disregarding thèse,
however, for the moment, t sliould like to give you two examples
whiclî are now historical. Fol- the appréciation of our first example it
is necessary to nnderstand how gold occurs in the Iodes from which it
can be economically extracted. Gold may be said to occur in two
conditions — first, as a native métal ; and, second, in intimate com-
bination with other metallic compounds. When found native, gold
readily alloys with mercury, forming an amalgam. Advantage is taken
of this fact in the ordinary séparation of gold from its veinstuff. In
tins case mercury is used as a collecting agent, as owing to its affinity
for gold it readily absorbs any fine particles which are bronght into
contact with it. When sufficiently saturated, the mercury with the
alloyed gold is collected, placed in a retort and heated. By this
treatment the mercury is distillcd from the gold and can be used again
for the same purpose. Thus its extraction is comparatively simple.
The only important question being how much there is of it. But when
gold occurs in combination with metallic compounds like ordinary
mundic. it will not readily alloy itself with mercury, and the ordinary
treatment fails to extract it. The cause of this failure does not seem to
hâve been fully recognised until one of those patient and ingénions
mon, known as German professors, not only saw the reason of this
difficulty, but completely surmounted it, The substance in which gold
is most generally found in this obstreperous condition is a componnd of
iron and sulphur. Now, Plattner réasoned thus : Either the gold is in
some form of chemical combination with the sulphur of the pyrites, or
it occurs as plates of almost infinitésimal thickness between the
crystalline plates of the minerai. In other words, it is occluded by the
minerai. Whatever the condition may be, the crystalline character of
the mundic will be destroycd by roasting it, and so the gold will be
liberated. Then possibly one may be able to extract the gold with
mercury. But hère a new difficulty is found. By roasting tins
mundic, an oxide of iron is formed, and it is found that this iron oxide
has a deleterious cffect on the mercury. In gold-mining phraseology, it
''■ Bickens " it. Thus it was neccssary to tack about for a new method,
and final ly he hit upon the plan of treating this refractory gold with
chlorine and then dissolving the chlorinated gold in water. By thèse
lia-ans Plattner first solved the economical extraction of ore from
pyrites. Ilis plan has been largely adoptée! in America and Australia,
and is now the source of considérable profit to gold mining companies.
The Mount Morgan ore is, I believe, entirely treated by this process.
May f ask your attention wîiile I give you another example of this
adaptability, one that lias exerted a tremendous influence upon a still
more important industry. At the British Association meeting in 1865,
Sir II. Bessemer announced, amid considérable surprise and conster-

8CIENTIFIC METALLURGY AND MINING. II3

nation, the fact that lie had discovered a new method of producing steel
direct from pig iron. Tlie gênerai practice to produce steel at this time
was first by converting pig iron into wrouglit iron, and then by a slow
and expensive process to change wrouglit iron into steel. This was a
very circuitous way of ultimately making steel, for steel, speaking
roughly, is intermediate in comparison with pig iron on the one hand
and wrouglit iron on the other. The old process is something analagons
to the action of the man who wishes to travel from Dunedin to Welling-
ton, and who, to faciltate matters, goes first to Auckland. Bessemer saw
this very clearly, and not only this, but the fact that steel cou! cl not be
applied to many ordinary purposes unless some other process were
inventée!. To convei-t pig into wrouglit iron a puddling furnace is
used. In this furnace the iron is inelted and exposée! for a considérable
time to the oxygen of the atmosphère and to the influence of a spécial
furnace lining composed of oxide of iron, by this means the various
impurities in tlie iron are burnt ont. In this process considérable fuel
is used to keep the iron in a molten state. With characteristic boldness
Bessemer said in effect, why should not the beat given out in burning
thèse impurities be used for keeping the iron in a molten state. If
insteacl of passing the air over the surface of the métal, it could be
urged through the métal so that the oxygen could come into contact
with every particle almost simultaneously, then the process that now
requires considérable labour and time could be completed muçh more
efficaciously in a few minutes and with very little labour. For boldness
of conception such a suggestion lias perhaps never been equalled in the
metallurgical art. The thought of urging air through tons of molten
iron was rash enough to frighten the most courageous of iron smelters.
How will the iron be kept molten, how will you prevent the burning of
the iron and its conséquent utter détérioration 1 Bessemer heeded not
thèse gloomy foreboclings, but for 15 years worked at lus great
invention, and ultimately overcame those enormous mechanical diffi-
culties which beset every proposée! change in the treatment of large
masses of métal, and particularly so, when that métal lias a high
melting point. The effects of this invention upon the steel industry
were simply marvellous. Steel at this time was selling at more than
£50 per ton, and could only be obtained in small quantities. The price
has since fallen to £10 per ton, and the increase in its use is most
extraordinary. There is perhaps no article of commerce the use of
which has increased so rapidly. It is said that at the time of this
invention, 51,000 tons of steel were produced annually in Shefiield.
Now the production has to be estimated by millions of tons. Steel is
thus rapidly replacing cast and wrouglit iron for ail conditions where
strength and homogeneity are required. It would require a considérable
length of time to enumerate the many ways in which this invention has
benefited the engineering profession. How it has given to them greater
possibilities, and a much wider field for their ingenuity I will merely
mention one that you are ail familiar with. The Forth bridge may,
perhaps be regarded as one of the finest structures erected cluring this
century, and one of which Scotland may justly be proud. I ara not
overstepping the mark, indeed, I am only repeating the words of a
great authority on this subject, when I say that it could never hâve
been built if the inventions of Bessemer, and of his equally famous

114 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

contemporary Sir C. W. Siemens, had not been accomplished facts.
[ndeed, it would be exU-emely difficult to exaggerate the influence
that thèse inventions hâve had upon tlie progress of mankind. It was
not many years after Bessemer had perfected hia invention that Dr.
Percy pointed ont the fact that in the Bessemer process, as then
practised, one objectionable ingrédient was not eliminated. This was
phosphorus, and its présence in steel caused the métal to be brittle, and,
for some purposes, totally untrustworthy. Dr. Percy's warning was for
some time disregarded, until ' true as steel ' became a phrase of no
meaning, if certain kinds of métal were included in this category. Thus
there appeared to be no possibility of applying this extraordinary process
to the pig iron produced from the cheapest and most abundant ores
— because they contained too much phosphorus. This process that had
so revolutionised the steel industry appeared to be strictly limited in its
application. It was no doubt with considérable pride that the late Dr.
Percy could in his later years point to the fact that this difiiculty had
been completely solved by three of his own pupils. The solution of
this problem is without doubt one of the strongest évidences of the
value of scientific éducation. The cause of the rétention of the
phosphorus was carefully traced. Experiments were tried time after
time to discover a method of getting rid of this élément without
damaging the métal ; and at last, after months of patient toil a process
was discovered and placed upon a working basis. Without the
assistance of the analytical chemist progress in this direction would
hâve been hopeless. The exact relation between the method of
producin£ the steel, its composition, and its resulting physical
properties, can only be traced by most accurate analyses. This
statement is also true of ail metallurgical industries. Unless the
battery manager can accurately détermine the average value of his
ore and also of his tailings, how can lie possibly estimate the success of
his work or the direction in which the waste of gold is taking place.
If again, the lead smelter is unable to estimate the silver a ad lead in
his slag or by analysis to gauge the fusibility of the extraneous
material he wishes to flux, how will he be sure that lie is not allowing
the precious métal to run to waste, or that he is not in great danger of
having his furnace choked. I believe we should not hâve to travel far
to find instances of this kind. The same statements are also true of the
more spéculative and uncertain mining industry. If to an always risky
industry like that of mining there are added the mistakes due to careless
or ineflicient workmanship, or the misleading statements of professional
speculators, is it any wonder that this otherwise interesting and lucrative
profession ofttimes shows unmistakable symptoms of decay. By endea-
vouring to raise the standard of intelligence in this spécial direction, we
aie only attempting what we hâve successfully achieved in medicine, in
literature, and in many other branches of art and science. It is inte-
resting and encouraging to know that we are not alone in this respect.
Passing through the United States one is astonished at the extraordinary
vigour of this movement. Boston can boast the finest institute of
technology in the world. New York State, Pennsylvania, Michigan,
Colorado, California, and many other States are well equipped, not only
with univeisities, but also with technical collèges, and mining with its
attendant sciences is, without doubt, the raost important branch of

SCIENTIITC METALLURGY AND MINING. 115

technology taught in thèse institutions. In crossing the States I had
the privilège of visiting two of thèse schools. The first was tlie one
joined to Columbia Collège, New York city, and the second was the
University of California. It is noticeable that in the formation of our
curriculum, except in one or two particulars, we hâve eonsciously or
unconsciously copied thèse two most prominent of American collèges.
At Columbia Collège no student, unless he is a graduate, is allowed to
dabble with the separate subjects. He is compelled to pass through a
systematic course of study extending over four years, this rnle being
ostensibly framed for the purpose of making the éducation as trust-
worthy and as complète as possible. Perhaps the most noticeable fact
in the Calitornian School of Mines is the thorough equipment of the
laboratories. Hère one can see a gold extraction plant, second perhaps
to none in the States for efficiency in the working of small parcels of
ore. With this machinery at Iris command the student can make
himself familiar with the peculiarities of the ores from différent
counties, and with the difficulties met with in the winning of the
precious métal from them. Let us hère observe that many of thèse
instiutions are State paid. So much fer America. Turning now to
the old world we find that notwithstanding the proverbial slowness of
our countrymen in the adoption of new methods, there has been for 40
years a Royal School of Mines in London. Some of the most eminent
British geologists, metallurgists, chemists, and mining engineers hâve
passed through this school. Today there are nearly 300 individual
students on the books. I say individual advisedly, for, owing to the
great demand for admission, a doubling of the laboratory accomodation
is contemplated. But though there are so many in attendance at this
place, it is worth our while to notice that there is an average of only 26
turned ont each year from the mining and metallurgical branches. It
is noteworthy also that in this instance the school is supported by the
State, although every reasonable effort is made to render it self-
supporting. In Cornwall, also, a school of mines was established a few
years ago, and bids fair to occupy a high position in this pluckiest of
mining countries. In France there is the Ecole des Mines, and in
Germany ther© are more of thèse académies than in any other country
in Europe. To Germany doubtless belongs the crédit of having first
recognised the importance of technical training ; and both Englishmen
and Americans hâve largely availed themselves of the superior training
to be obtained at such places as Wiesbaden, Heidelberg, Clausthal, and
Freiberg. It would indeed be strange if in a continent ]ike Australia,
possessing such vast stores of minerai wealth and so many vigorous
sons to gather it, it would indeed be strange if a movement of a similar
nature had not been successfully advocated. But it is not so. New
South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia hâve ail established schools
of mines, and to us also, belongs the crédit of recognising the
importance of this innovation on our old educational establishments.
Perhaps it would not be out of place if I were to give a brief
account of what we hâve done and what we wish to do in the future.
In accordance with the practice of the most notable institutions, the
mining student is first educated in those fundamental sciences, without
a knowledge of which no man can hope to study any subject in a
scientific manner. Thèse are mathematics, physics, chemistrv, and

I 1 6 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

mechanics. Thc-v must always form the basis of a truly scientific
éducation, and there is much wisdom in insisting upon the study of
thoin. Tlicn, as subjects more especially adapted to their work, we
hâve the courses of geology, mineralogy, applied mechanics, mining
geology, mining and metallurgy ; and as practical work there are the
courses of mine surveying, practical mineralogy, inoluding petrography
and blowpipc analysis, and also assaying. Thus you see the training is
intended to be suffîciently broad and comprehensive. In thus making
so many subjects eompulsory we are only folio wing the ad vice of the
most eminent educational authorities, wilich is : ' Do not spécialise too
soon, for each man lias a faculty for sorae separate branch, and lie will
ultimately be attracted strongly, and will probably dévote himself
al most entirely to this branch. If lie does this too early in life, he will
feel the need of a broad or libéral éducation before lie lias advance4
veryfar; for the sciences are so intertwined that it is impossible to
study one for any length of time without requiring the knowledge of
lialf a dozen more.' There is just one more remark to make upon this
subject. The opinion of most men who hâve been connected for years
with large scientific institutions is, that there is nothing so stimulating
to an advanced student as the struggle for the elucidation of some
problem. In this kind of work his power of applying the principles of
the sciences he lias learnecl, and his manipulative abilities are tested
ofttimes to their utmost, and it is in this kind of work that he discovers,
so to speak, his grit. Hence, though we are at the beginning, really;
only of our work, yet we may hope in the not distant future to
approach and to cvercome those problems of mining and metallurgical
interest which are always to be found in a comparatively young country

like New Zealand The thorough investigation

as to the acquisition of its minerai wealth is to the State as a whole of
paramount importance. Excuse me for again referring to the United
States, I do so because I know of no better example. The rapid growth
of the States in population and wealth is a fact patent to ail. Now,
however much we may be opposed to a rapid increase in population,
and particularly of an increase due to the mixture of sucli heterogeneous
people as those ot the States, yet we are by no means averse to a similar
increase of wealth. It would not be difficult to prove that this
unparalleled development is largely due to the opening up of vast
minerai resources. Thus the production of the valuable fuels and
metals lias increased at a rate unprecedented in the history of mankind.
The output of coal for example in the year 1860 was 15,000,000 tons,
but the output in 1889 was 132,500,000 tons. In the year 1852 the
output of copper was only 1,000 tons, in 1890 it was 121,560 tons, or
half that of the total output of the world. The production of gold even
now is al most equal to that of the whole of Australasia. But the
increase in the production of iron is, perhaps, the most marvellous of
ail, for while in 1852 only 5-11,990 tons of pig iron were made, in 1890
the output reached the gigantic total of 10,250,000. For many years
it 1ms bcaten ail other countries in the production of silver, and last
year the enormous total of 4,167,0001b troy was obtained. We can
form no proper estimate of this stupendous quantity. Just as this
acquisition of wealth from the working of minerai deposits lias been the
gréa test factor in the growth of the States, so also it was this which

SCIENT1FIC METALLURGY AND MINING. 117

caused the rapid colonisation of New South Wales, of Victoria, and of
New Zealand. Since those early and successful efforts to work the gold
deposits of this country there lias been a long lull in this industry, and
we h ope that we are now at the nadir of oui* decrease. It seems to me
that when the improvement does corne, it will be in the for m, either of
the discovery of Iodes other than in our gold reefs, or beds other than
those of coal, or, as is perhaps more likely, of the successful working of
our présent low grade ores. It has been stated that the greatest
wealth, mineralogically speaking, of a country is to be found in her
poorest ores, and though at first sight this may seem a paradox, expé-
rience has proved it to be true. In conclusion, let us notice that t!ie.
success of our educational institutions does not rest entirely with the
staff, or even with the students. Unless we hâve the sympathy of an
enlightened public opinion we shall be hampered in our endeavours.
We expect, we claim this sympathy, and I believe that in this also, we
shall not be disappointed."

AN EXPERIMENT CONCERNING THE ABSENCE

OF COLOUR FROM THE LOWER SIDES

OF FLAT FISHES.

BY J. T. CUNNINGHAM, M. A., Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
" Zoologischer Anzeiger," 18th January, 1891, No. 354, p. 27.

One of the most interesting questions which biological research has
still to décide is whether adaptations in organisms are due to the natural
sélection of indefinite variations or to the definite influence of the
conditions of life. One school of evolutionists, that of which Weismann
is one of the most eminent leaders, maintains that every character in
animais is an adaptation and every adaptation is sutnciently explained
by indefinite variation and natural sélection. Another school believes
that many things are not adaptations and that those characters which
are adapted are due to the definite influence of conditions. The former
school would I suppose maintain that the whiteness of the lower sides
of flat-fishes was an adaptation, and was due to sélection. What is the
especial advantage of this character to flat fishes I am unable to perceive.
But it seems to me more probable that it is due in some way to the fact
that little or no light can fall on the lower sides of thèse fishes, because
thèse sides are generally in contact with the grouncl.

The following experiment seems to me to support very strongly the
latter views ; it was carried out in the Plymouth Laboratory of the
Marine Biological Association.

At the beginning of last May I received from Mevagissey in Corn-
wall a large number of young flounders (Pleuronectes flesus) in process
of metamorphosis. They were very transparent and measured 11.5 to
12.7 mm in length. In a few the metamorphosis was almost complète
the left eye having reached the eclge of the head but in the majority the
left eye though it had commencée! its "migration" was still on the lower
side. The little fish had already developed the habit of lying on the

I 1 8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

bottom od the left side. Nearly ail the pigment, Le. the chromato-
phores had disappeared from the îower side, where only a few scattered
black and yellow colis remaîned : on tlie upper side the pigmentation
w;is considérable, but not so fully developed as in the adult.

On May 8th I took about 15 or 1G of thèse small flounders and
placed them in a glass vessel without sand. Tins vessel I placed on a
plate of glass supported at the ends by two supports. Beneath the glass
plate 1 arrangea a mirror about 15 inches by 12, sloping it at an angle
of 15D. The. top and sides of the vessel containing thcfisli were covered
with opaque material, and tlirough the cover were passed a jet deliver-
ing water and an outflow pipe connected with an overflowing bottle a
little distance off, so that a constant circulation of sea water was main-
tained in the vessel while the level of the water in it remained constant.
The whole apparatus was placed in front of a south win-low from which
the light fell on the mirror and was reflected vertically upwards on to
the bottom of the vessel containing the fish : as the fish were usually
resting on this bottom their lower sides were illuminated while their
upper sides were kept in the dark.

At the same time I kept a large number of the same young flounders
living under ordinary conditions in table-tanks at the bottom of which
was a laver of fine sand.

I fed thèse young flounders first with minute crustacea sifted ont
from weeds gathered on the shore, and afterwards with minced worm,
and they ail throve well and grew rapidly.

On June 21st I took out one of the spécimens from the mirror-
apparatus and examined it. It was 2.7 cm in length. Another spécimen
taken from an ordinary tank for comparison was 2.6 cm long. The
différence between the lower sides of thèse two was as follows : In the
mirror-specimeii there was an opaque white layer ail over the wall of
the abdominal cavity, the rest of the skin being translucent. In the
normal spécimen this coating was confined to the edges of the same
area. There were a few scattered black chroma tophores on the lower
side of the head in each spécimen, but rather more in the mirror spécimen
than in the other.

It is évident that thèse différences are not very important, and I
think it is reasonable to conclude that at this time, one month and a
liait' after the commencement of the experiment, the lower sides of the
mirror-specimens had become, by inherited tendency, as destitute of
pigment as those of the spécimens under the ordinary conditions.

But two months afterwards namely on August 27thall the flounders
in the mirror apparatus die 1. The cause of death was this. After my
return from Norway on August 13th I noticed that the fish in the
apparatus very frequently clung to the sides of the vessel instead of
lying on the bottom, and as the sides were darkened, while they were
in this position their upper sides only were exposed to the light from
the mirror. In order to prevent this I introduced a horizontal partition
of network so as to keep the fish on the bottom of the vessel ; but the
netting soon got obstructed with remains of the food, and the water
below the partition was thus eut off from the circulation so that the
fish were asphyxiated.

AN EXPEKIMENT. IIÇ

The following are the notes I made fïom my examination of the
fish iminediately after their death : —

1. 3.2 cm in length : black and yellow chromatophores on the
lower surface of the longitudinal fins and in a broad band on each side
of the lower surface of the body ; also on the edges of the lower side of
the head.

2. 3.7 cm in length. Normal pigment ail over the same band at
the edges of the body on the lower side : also in the angle behind the
operculum and on the lower pectoral.

3. 3.2 cm in length. Pigmentation on the lower sides as in 1 and
2 but not quite so much of it.

4. 6.3 cm in length. A small patch of chromatophores both black
and yellow in the area covered by the lower pectoral, and extending
beyond that area.

5. 4.2 cm in length. Little pigment on the lowti- side; a little on
the pectoral, on the edges of the head, and near the ventral edge behind
the operculum.

6. 5.7 cm in length. Pigment on the rays of the lower pectoral,
and on the dorsal edge of the head.

7. 5.3 cm in length. Pigment on lower side of head near edges ;
on lower branchiostegal membrane a good deal.

8. 4.3 cm in length. Scattered black chromatophores behind body
cavity.

9. 5.8 cm in length. A few black chromatophores near dorsal
edge of lower side of the head.

10. 5.5 cm in length. A few scattered black chromatophores over
the lower side, especially behind the body cavity on the ventral half.

11. 5.3 cm in length. No pigment on lower side except on lower
surface of the tail.

12. 5.8 cm in length. No pigment on lower side.

13. 3.3 cm in length. No pigment on the under side.

At the same time I examined 4 of the spécimens which had been
kept cluring the same time on a sandy bottom in the aquarium and
found no pigment on the lower sides of either. I hâve also frequently
had occasion to examine other of thèse spécimens of the young flounders
of the same âge kept in the tanks since last May, and hâve never seen
any pigment on the lower sides of any.

To show the significance of this expeiïment it must be mentioned
that the colours of flat-fishes always " dépend on three and only three
kinds of cellular éléments, namely the black chromatophores, yellow or
orange-yellow chromatophores, both of which are capable of expansion
and contraction, and thirdly the iridocytes which are strongly reflecting
and white or slightly iridescent, and which are fixed in shape and size.
The iridocytes are alone présent on the lower sides of normal flat-fishes,
and give them their opaque white appearance.

Of the above 13 spécimens whose lower sides had been exposed to
light for less than 4 months only three had faileù to devolope black and

120 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

yellow chromatophores in tlie skin of those sides. Tliree showcd very
well developed banda of pigment qnite similar to that of the upper side
over tlio area occupied by the muscles of the longitudinal fins. The
other 7 spécimens possessed a less quantity of pigment on the lower it
la true, but chromatophores were présent in one part or another where
they are not présent in the spécimens living in the ordinary way onsand.

The question of course arises, how are thèse pigment cells developed,
by migration from the uppersideî from wandering lymphatic cells1? or
from unpigmented cells already présent in the same position before 1
Thèse questions I cannot at présent answer, but am now endeavouring
to find replies to thcm. I think the third suggestion the niost probable.
The chromatophores in flat-fishes are situated in the derma between the
surface of the scales and the epidermis.

Of course I am well aware that spécimens of flounders and other
fiat-fishes are occasionally taken from the sea in which both sides are
coloured, or in which there are coloured spots on the lower side. But I
scarcely think any one will maintain that the condition of the spécimens
in m y experiment can be supposed to be a case of accidentai variation.
On the other hand it is always possible that abnormal pigmentation on
the lower sides of free-living spécimens is due to peculiarities of
environment or habit.

I hâve other experiments in progress which I hope will further
elucidate the relation of the pigmentation of the flat-fishes to the action
of light. For the présent I will conclude with a brief summary of what
previous writers hâve said as to the causes of the absence of chromato-
phores from the lower side. Prof. Alexander Agassiz in his paper on
the "Development of the Flounders" * published in 1878, says that the
attempt which lie made of placing the glass dish containing young flat-
fishes at a height over a table, and thus allowing the light to corne from
below as well as from ail other sides, failed in arresting the transfer of
the eye, and also produced no effect in retaining the pigment spots of
the blind side longer than in spécimens struck by the light only
normally from above. Prof. Agassiz in the first place did not use a
miiror, and in the second place he evidently expected that the effect if
any would be to arrest the metamorphosis. The idea on which I found
my experiments is that the inherited tendency will cause the metamor-
phosis to take place even when the conditions are reversed, but that when
the reversed conditions are kept up long enough a new metamorphosis
will be induced in the opposite direction to the first.

Prof. Agassiz refers in the same paper to Pouchet's resea relies on
chromatophorest saying that they point most plainly to the partial
atrophy of the great sympathetic nerve, effected during the passage of
the eye from the right to the left or vice versa, as the cause of the
absence of chromatophores from the lower sides of flat-fishes. I hâve
read Pouchet's paper referred to below, and can find no mention what-
ever of any suggested cause of the absence of colour on the lower sides
of flat-fishes. Pouchet found that section of the great sympathetic put
an end to the changes of colour under the influence of light, but he

* Procecdings Amer. Acad. Arts and Se. Vol. XIV.

+ (J. Pouchet, Des Changements de Coloration sous l'Influence des Nerfs. Arch.
de Physiol. et d'Anat. 1870.

MARRIAGE AMONG DEAF-MUTES. 12 T

distinctly says that it made no différence whether the left or the right
eye was extirpated in the turbot. In either case the changes of colour
went on as before when the fish was changed from one bottom to
another, but when both eyes were extirpated the changes ceasecl.

Finally I must refer to the reraarks of Prof. Semperin his "Animal
Life" * wlio says that the absence of colour in animais is certainly not
to be ascribed to the absence of light, since we know that animal pigment
like vegetable pigment can be developed in total darkness, and in fact is
so developed normally in many animais.

MARRIAGE AMONG DEAF-MUTES.

An Address delivered by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, on Mardi 6th, 1891.
("Science,1' Vol. XVII., p. 160).

It always gives me pleasure to respond to the invitation of tho
members of the Literary Society of Kendall Green, and it will ahvays
be my object in addressing you to choose subjects that will be of
interest and importance to you in your future lives. You hâve corne
together hère from every part of the United States to receive in the
National Collège for Deaf-Mutes that higher éducation which you
cannot obtain in the States from which you came.

Tn a very little while — it may be in one year, or two years, or
more — you will separate from one another, and each go back singly to
the places from which you came, to begin the battle of life. You will
go out into the great world, — the world of hearing and speaking
people, a world of people who cannot spell upon their fingers or make
signs. Are you prepared for that change, and what is to be your
position in that world ?

I would bave you ail remember that 3*011 yourselves are a part of
that great world of hearing and speaking people. You are not a
race distinct and apart, and you must fulfil the duties of life, and
make your way to honourable positions among hearing and speaking
people.

Now, I hâve considered what subject I could bring to your
attention to-night the considération of which would be of assistance
to you when you go out into the world ; and there is no subject, I am
sure, that lies closer to your hearts than the subject of marriage.

It is a very dimcult thing for me to speak to you upon that
subject, because I know that an idea has gone forth, and is very
generally believed in by the deaf of this country, that I want to
prevent you from marrying as you choose. and that I hâve tried to
pass a law to interfère with your marriages. But, my friends, it is
not true. I hâve never done such a thing, nor do I intend to ; and
before I speak upon this subject I want you distinctly to understand
that I hâve no intention of interfering with your liberty of marriage.

* Natural conditions of Existence as tbey affect Animal Life. £ni ec it., p. 90.

122

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

You can marry whom you choose, and I hope you will be happy. It
is not for me to blâme you for marrying to suit yourselves ; for you
ail know tlmt I myself, the sou of a deaf mother, bave married a deaf
wife.

I think, however, tbat it is tbc duty of every good man and
every good woman to remember that children follow marriage, and I
am sure that there is no one aniong tho deaf who desires to hâve bis
affliction handed down to bis children. You ail know that I bave
devoted considérable study and thought to the subject of the inheri-
tance of deafness, and if you will put away préjudice out of your
minas, and take up my researches relating to ths deaf, you will find
something that may be of value to you ail.

We ail know that some of the deaf bave deaf children, — not ail,
not even the majority, but some, — a comparatively small number. In
the vast majority of cases there are no deaf offspring, but in the
remaining cases the proportion of offspring born deaf is very large, —
so large as to cause alarm to thoughtful minds. Will it not be of
interest and importance to you to find out why thèse few bave deaf
offspring. It may not be of much importance to you to inquire
whether by and by, in a hundred years or so, we may bave a deaf
variety of the human race. That is a matter of great interest to
scientific men, but not of spécial value to you. What you want to
know, and what you are interested in, is this : are you yourself liable
to bave deaf offspring ? Now, one value that you will find in my
researches is this : that you can gain information that may assure
you that you may increase your liability to bave deaf offspring or
diminish it, according to the way in which you marry.

The Eev. W. W. Turner of Hartford was the first, I think, who
showed that those who are born deaf bave a greater liability to bave
deaf offspring than those who are not. He showed, that where a
person born deaf marries another person born deaf, in this case about
one-third of the children are deaf. Mr. Job Williams, the présent
principal of the Hartford Institution, has still more recently examined
the subject; and, in a letter published in Science a short time ago, he
arrives at the saine conclusion, — about one-third arc born deaf. In
1888, Mr. Connor, the principal of the Georgia Institution, made an
examination of the results of the marriages of bis pupils, and his
statistics are published in 'Tacts and Opinions relating to the Deaf."
He also cornes to the same conclusion, — about one-third are born
deaf.

The following table will show you the exact figures : —

Table I. — Concerniny the Offspring of Couples Both of Whom ivere

born De«f

Authority.

O aï

et 0>;~

lit

Total
Number of
Children.

o

<U r> (V

1 6

Percentage
«>f Chil-
dren who
are deaf.

Number of
Deaf Chil-
dren to
every 100
Eamilies,

Turner (1868) .
Connoi
Williams (1

24

ir,

52

57
59

151

17
19

48

29-8
32 4
31-8

70\S *
118-7
92-3

MARRIAGE AMONG DEAF-MUTES.

12

It is obvious that persons born deaf run considérable risk of
having deaf offspring if they marry persons who are also born deaf.

If we take ail tlie marriages of congenitally deaf persons, without
référence to whether they married deaf or hearing persons, we bave
five independent sets of statistics from which we may dérive infor-
mation regarding tlie effects upon tlie offspring. ( 1 ) My ovvn
researches indicate that where one or both of the parties were born
deaf there will be fifteen deaf children in every hundred families ;
Dr. Gillett's statistics give eighteen deaf children to every hundred
families ; (3) Dr. Turner's, thirty-two ; (4) Mr. Williams's, forty-
seven ; and (5) Mr. Connor's, ninety-nve.

Table II. — Conccraing the Offspring of Couples One or Both of Whom

were born Deaf.

Authority.

5 S
^

fc

p G d s* 03 g
S- £ 03^0 >JS

Turner(1868) ...

190

61

32-1

Bell (1883)

3G0

50

15'5

Connor (1888) ...

22

21

9V4

Gillett (1891) ...

71

13

18-3

Williams (1891)

211

101

47-8

Persons who are reported deaf from birth, as a class, exhibit
a tendency to transmit the defect ; and yet when we corne to
individual cases we cannot décide with absolute certainty that any
one was born deaf. Some who are reported deaf from birth probably
lost hearing in infancy; others reported deaf in infancy were probably
born deaf. For educational purposes the distinction may be im-
material, but in the study of inheritance it makes ail the différence
in the world whether the deafness occurred before or after birth.
Now, in my researches I think I hâve found a surer and more safe
guide to those cases that are liable to transmit the defect.

The new guide that I would give you is this : look at the family
rather than at the individual. You will find in certain families that
one child is deaf and ail the rest hearing, the ancestors and other
relatives also being free from deafness. This is what is known as a
** sporadic " case of deafness, — deafness which afflicts one only in a
family.

Well, the deafness in sufh cases may be accidentai. There is no
proof that such deafness is liable to be inherited, excepting where the
person is reported deaf from birth. In the vast majority of cases
reported deaf from birth there is an undoubted tendency to inheri-
tance; but where the deafness is caused by meningitis, S3arlet-fever,
or like causes, and no other case of deafness exists in the family,
there is probably little, if any, tendency to inheritance. But when
you hâve two members of your family deaf, or three, or four, or five,
there you hâve the proof that a tendency to dtainess exists in the
family. What I tcrm " family deafness " exists there. Something
lias been transmitted from the parents to the children that lias

[24

.KHRXAL OF SCIENCE.

causée] deafness, or helped to cause it. I remember a case in whick
there werë four children in one family deaf, and nonc of them were
boni deaf. One child became deaf, perhaps, from measles, another
from scurlet-fever, etc, I do not now remember exactly what causes
were stated. They became deaf, however, at différent times, and from
apparently accidentai causes. But can we consider that it was
accidentai that there should hâve been four children in one family
deaf ! The fact that a number of children in the same family are
deaf points to an inherited tendency to deafness in the family. One
resuit of my researches is to show the great importance of studying
the results of marriages of persons who corne from families of that
kind. My results, however, until veritied by other observers, should
be received as probable oiily, and not certainly proved.

So far as I can find out, the hereditary character of the defect in
a family is roughly indicated by the proportion of the family who are
deaf. If you make a fraction, and place the number of deaf children
above as the numerator, and the total number of children below as
the denominator, for example, -J-, that fraction will give you some idea
of the tendency to deafness in that family : one child in six is deaf.
Again, take a case in which three out of six are deaf (f ). Now, the
tendency to transmit the deafness in this family ({!) will be greater
than in that ( (\). Every member of the first family (-;!-), whether deaf
or hearing, will hâve a greater tendency to hâve deaf children than the
members of the other ((\). In gênerai, the tendency to transmit
deafness is greatest in those families that hâve the largest proportion
of deaf members, and smallest in those that hâve the least. This
conclusion is exceedingly probable, and should therefore be taken as
a guide by those who désire to avoid the production of deaf offspring.
If you marry a hearing person who lias three or four deaf brothers
and sisters, the probability of your having deaf children will be
greater than if you marry a deaf person (not born deaf) who has no
deaf relatives.

The statistics collated by me ("Memoir," p. 25) indicate that 816
marriages of deaf-mutes produce 82 deaf children : in other words,
every 100 marriages are productive of 10 deaf children. This is a
resuit independent of the cause of deafness, — an average of ail cases
consider éd. Eliminating 40 cases where the cause of deafness is not
giveU, I divide the 776 cases into 4 classes : —

Table III.

•

u œ

Number

of

Deaf

Children.

Percentage.
Number of
Deaf Chil-
dren to
every 100
Families,

M is 1. Not boni deaf, no deaf relatives
1 1 sa 2. Xot born deaf, deaf relatives
Born deaf , no deaf relatives

''. lîorn deaf, deaf relatives

363

53

130

230

18

5

15

41

47

9-4

11-5

17'8

The percentage results are shown by themselves in the following
table (Table IV.), in which the figures indicate the number of deaf

MARRIAGE AMONG DEAF-MUTES.

125

children produced by every 100 marriages of persons belonging ta
Classes 1, 2, 3, and 4.

Table IV.

Period of Life when Deafness

Character of the Deafness.

OCCURREO.

Sporadic Deafness.

Family Deafness.

After birth
Birth

47
11-5

9-4

17-8

My statistics are confessedly very imperfect, and many persons
hâve liastily concluded that the results are therefore of no value or
significance. This, however, is not the case ; for the imperfection of
the statistics assures us that the figures given are ail under estimâtes,
the true number of deaf children in every case being greater than
that mentioned. As a matter of fact, ail the statistics since collectée!
by others hâve shown larger percentages.

While it is believed that the true percentages are larger than
those given, it is probable that they are proportion ately larger ; so
that we may conclude with probable accuracy that persons belonging
to Class 4 are more liable to hâve deaf children than those belongmg
to Class 3, those of Class 3 more liable than those belonging to Class
2, and those belonging to Class 1 are the least liable of any, to hâve
deaf offspring. The relative liabilities are probably represented by
the percentage figures.

The results are imperfect from another cause. The institution
reports from which the statistics were compiled did not give détails
concerning both the parties to a marriage.

Tt would be stated that Mr. So-and-so " married a deaf-mute ; "
but no information would be given as to whether his wife was born
deaf or not, or whether she had or had not deaf relatives. I hâve
only been able, therefore, to classify the marriages by one side. For
example: the results noted for Class 1 give the summation of ail
marriages of persons not born deaf who hâve no deaf relatives, quite
regardless of the fact that some of them may hâve married congénital
deaf -mutes, others semi mutes, and still others hearing persons. We
may deduce, however, from the figures, that, if the husband belongs
to Class 1, his liability to hâve deaf offspring will be greatest if his
wife belong to Class 4, and least if she belongs to Class 1, etc.

Now that Professor Fay lias taken up the subject, I hope that
we may obtain statistics of greater accuracy and importance than any
y et compiled.

When we obtain statistics classified by both parties to the
marriage, I think it will be found, that, where persons belonging to
Class 1 marry persons also belonging to Class 1, there will be 110 deaf
offspring, or, at least, that the percentage of deaf offspring will be
insignificant ; for surely accidentai deafness is no more liable to be
inherited than the accidentai loss of an arm in battle, for instance.
If, however, a person born without an arm should marry a person
also born without an arm, some of the children would probably
exhibit the same defect. In a similar manner, persons belongmg to

120 JOURNAL OF sriKXCK.

OlasBee 2, 3, and 4 exbibit a décidée! tendency to transmit deafness ta
their offspring.

Now, there is a law of heredity that may afford great conifort ta
inany of the deaf, — the law of reversion. There is a very strong
tendency in offspring to revert to the normal type of the race. It
requires constant sélection from génération to génération on both.
sides to perpetuate any abnormal peculiarity. There will always,
therefore, be a tendency to produce hearing children rather than
deaf, excepting in cases where both parties to a marriage corne from
families belonging to Classes 2, 3, and 4.

Probabilités for Your Guidance.

Whatever may be the character of the deafness in your own case,
you will probably diminish your liability to hâve deaf offspring (1) by
marrying a hearing person in whose family there is no deafness ; (2)
marrying a deaf person (not born deaf) who has no deaf relatives
(Class 1), or a hearing brother or sister of such a person.

On the other hand, you will probably increase your liability to
hâve deaf offspring (1) by marrying a deaf person (not born deaf) who
has deaf relatives (Class 2), or a hearing brother or sister of such a
person ; (2) by marrying a deaf person (born deaf) who has no deaf
relatives (Class 3), or a hearing brother or sister of such a person ; (3)
by marrying a deaf person (born deaf) who has deaf relatives (Class
4), or a hearing brother or sister of such a person.

Of course, if you yourself were born deaf, or hâve deaf relatives,
it is perfectly possible that in any event some of your children may
be deaf. Still, I am inclined to think, that, if you marry a member of
a family in which there is no deafness (or only a single case of non-
congenital deafness), you will not only hâve fewer deaf children than
if you married into a family containing a congénital deaf-mute, or a
number of deaf persons, but the deafness of yowo children will not
tend so strongly to be handed down to the grandchildren. The ten-
dency to inheritance will be weakened in the one case, and intensified
in the other : that is, in the former case your deaf child will hâve a
less tendency to transmit his defect to his children than you yourself
possess ; in the latter case a greater tendency.

Take the case of a family in which three or four children are
born deaf.

Now, suppose that ail the members of this family and their deaf
descendants are careful to marry only into families which are free
from deafness, or which contain only single cases of non-congenital
deafness. Then the probabilities are that ai each génération the
percentage of children born deaf will be less, and the proportion of
hearing children greater, until finally the deaf tendency disappears,
and ail the descendants will hear.

On the other hand, suppose that the members of this family and
their deaf descendants marry into families containing a congénital
deaf-mute, or containing several deaf persons. Then the probabilities
are that at each génération the percentage of children born deaf will
increase, and the proportion of hearing children will be less, until
finally the tendency to produce hearing offspring disappears, and ail

MARRIAGE AMONG DEAF-MUTES. I27

the descendants will be deaf. This family would then constitute a
deaf variety of the race, in which deaf offspring would be the rule,
and hearing offspring the exception.

Now, the point that I would impress upon you ail is the signifi-
cance of family deafness. I would hâve you remember that ail the
members of a family in which there are a number of deaf-mutes hâve
a liability to produce deaf offspring, the hearing members of the
family as well as the deaf members.

This, I think, is the explanation of the curious fact that the con-
genitally deaf pupils of the Hartford Institution who married hearing
persons had a larger percentage of deaf children than those who
married deaf-mutes. It is probable that many of the hearing persons
they married had brothers or sisters who were born deaf.

Cases will constantly arise in which a proposed marriage will
appear undesirable and désirable both at the same time. For
example : a semi-mute having no deaf relatives may form an attach-
ment for a congenitally deaf person in whose family deafness may be
hereditary. Of course, I hâve nothing to say as to what the young
people should do : that is a matter for them to décide. I cannot even
undertake to advise. The semi-mute will hâve no tendency to hâve
deaf children if he or she will marry a person of similar kind (Class
1), or marry a hearing person belonging to a family in which there is
no deafness : hence this person, by marrying a congenitally deaf
person in whose family deafness is hereditary, will create a liability to
hâve deaf offspring which would not otherwise exist. From this
point of view, the marriage is undesirable.

On the other hand, from the point [of view of the person born
deaf, such a marriage is extremely désirable, for it will diminish the
hereditary tendency in his family. In such a case, the friends of one
party would probably favour the union, and the friends of the other
advise against it; and the mutual friends of both could only say, " It
is désirable to one, and undesirable to the other : we cannot advise ;
your own hearts must décide the matter."

Now, I hâve corne before you to-night to show you that there may
be something in my researches of benefit to you ; I want also to assure
you that there is nothing of harm, I want to disabuse your minds
entirely of the idea that I intend or désire to interfère with your
perfect liberty of choice. I claim the right to advise you as I would
advise my own children, or any young people in whom I feel an
interest. In this matter my views coincide very closely with those
recently expressed by Président Gallaudet through the columns of
Science. You hâve to live in a world of hearing and speaking people,
and every thing that will help you to mingle with hearing and speak-
ing people will promote your welfare and happiness. A hearing
partner will wecl you to the hearing world, and be of inestimable
value to you in ail the relations of life. Not only will your own success
in life be thereby incieased, but the welfare of your children will be
materially promoted. It is surely to the interests of children, both
deaf and hearing, trat at least one of their parents should hear.

128 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

T would therefore hold before you as tlie idéal marriage a mar-
riage with a hearing person. Do not let any one place in your minds
the idca that such a marriage cannot be a happyone. Do not let any
one mate you believe that you cannot find a hearing person who will
treat you as an equal. The chances are infinitely more in your favour
that ont of the millions of hearing persons in thiscountry you may be
able to find one with whom you may be happy than that you shonld
finid one among the smaller numbers of the deaf.

I think the sentiment is hurtful that makes }rou believe you can
only be happy with a deaf companion. That is a mistake, and, I
belitve, a grave one. I would have you believe that the welfare of
yourself and your children will be greatly promoted by marriage with
a hearing partner, if you can find one with whom you can be happy.

And now, my friends, I must thank you very much for the atten-
tive way in which you have listened to me, and I hope you will ail
dispel from your minds any idea that I intend to interfère with your
hberty of marriage. I know that very grave misconceptions of my
jDesition and views have been circulated during the past few years
among the deaf, and I want you to help me in dispelling thèse ideas.

Thèse misconceptions have arisen chieny, I think, from too great
reliance upon newspaper stories and second-hand information. The
newspapers seem to know a good deal more about my opinions and
views than 1 do myself, and I am constantly seeing items about myself
that have utterly no basis in fact. Only a few weeks ago I read in a
newspaper a long report of an interview with me that never took
place. The substance of that article hassince been copiedfrom paper
to paper ail over the United States. I hai^pened to be suffering from
a slight headache when the reporter called at my hôtel, and I thought
this would aflord a good excuse for avoiding an interview. I therefore
sent my compliments to the reporter, and begged to be excused. He
went away, and I thought that that wras the end of the matter. A las,
no ! Next morning I found myself in the paper, in large capitals,
giving forth opinions relating to the éducation of the deaf that I had
never expressed.

Now, I would impress upon your minds the fact that if you wTant
to do a man justice, you should believe what a man says himself
rather than what people say he says. There is no man in America, I
think, who lias been more interviewed by newspaper reporters than I
have, and I can assure 3-ou that I have never yet seen a report of an
interview with me that was free from error.

But now I begin to be afraid of you ; for you are the interviewera
in this case, and I wonder how I shall be reported by you in the
newspapers of the deaf. I am talking to you by worcl of mouth, while
my friend, Prof essor Fay, is translating what I say into the sign-
language. Then by and by you will translate it ail back again into
English for the benefit of your deaf friends in distant parts. You
are the interviewers this time, and I fear you are just as liable to
m ike errors of statement as the ordinary newspaper reporter. I
hue therefore brought with me to-night a gentleman who lias taken
a sténographie account of ail that I am saying to you. T will look

GENERAL NOTES. 129

over his notes and correct them, and then it will afford me pleasure
to présent every member of the Literary Society with a printed copy
of my remarks. Allow me, therefore, to request the correspondents
of distant papers kindly to reserve their notes of my remarks until
tliey can get my own words in black and white.

I mnst thank you very much for the attention with which you
hâve listened to me, and in conclusion I would simply say, that, if any
one hère desires to ask me questions upon the subject of my address,
I shall be happy to do my best to reply.

GENERAL NOTES.

In his presidential address to the Linnean Society of New South
Wales, the chairman, Dr. J. C. Cox, made the folio wing référence to
the late Président of the Society: — "William John Stephens was born
on July 16, 1829, at Levens, in Westmoreland, where his father was
the vicar. He was educated first at the Haversham Grammar School,
an ancient foundation which has turned out many distinguished
scholars, and subsequently at Marlborough Collège, where he was one
of the 200 pupils with which that institution opened. In due course
he became captam of Marlborough, and gained the Latin Verse and
English Verse prizes, the Plater prize, the Drawing prize, and the
Collège exhibition. Before leaving Marlborough he won a ïabarden-
ship at Queen's Collège, Oxford, and rnatriculated. in that L^niversity.
He took his B.A. in 1852, with first-class honours in classics, and
third-class honours in mathematics and physics. Soon after he was
elected fellow and appointed tutor of Queen's. Among his pupils
during this period were Dr. Percival, formerly of Clifton, now head-
master of Rugby; and Dr. Thornton, Bishop of Ballarat. While at
Oxford he read widely and deeply in the ancient classics, the love of
which never afterwards deserted him. Hère also he laid the founda-
tion of that varied learning which eminently distinguished him. At
Oxford, too, in his early manhood, he first took up the study of
geology, and threw himself into that science with great zeal. To
geology he soon added botany, in both of which he took keen interest.

"In 1856, at the instigation of Sir Charles Nicholson, he applied
for the headmastership of the Sydney Grammar School, which had
just been founded ; and he was elected to that position on the recom-
mendation of Dr. Jowett. After ten years' work at the Grammar
School he resigned his headmastership, and established a school of
his own in Darlinghurst-road, which was known as the New School,
and afterwards as Eaglesfield. This school he continued to conduct
till his appointaient, in 1882, to the Professorship of Natural History
at the Sydney University — the title of which was afterwards changect,
upon a redistribution of work on the foundation of certain addition al
chairs, to that of Geology and Palœontology.

"His death took place on Saturclay, November 22, after short
but severe illness, a fatal termination being unexpected until the clay
before his death. On November 24th his remains were followed to
the grave by a large concourse of friends, colleagues, and officiai

130 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

représentatives of the varions institutions and societies with whicli he
had been connected, old pupils, and University students.

" For a period of nearly tliirty-fivc years then Prof essor Stephens
iived in our midst, labouring uninterruptedly in tlie cause of higher
éducation, yet finding time and inclination to give the colony at large
the benefit of lus extensive knowledge and expérience b}r his connec-
tion with several of our important public institutions sucli as tbe
Public Library of wliich lie was Chairman of Trustées, and the
Australian Muséum of which he was a member of the Board. For a

also he was Président of the Sydney Brandi of the Geographical
Society of Australia. In his favourite pursuit of Natural Science he
was actively identified fîrstly with our fore-runner, the Entomological
Society of New South Wales, and afterwards with tins Society clating
from its inception, having been a member of Councii during the years
187.) and 1876, Président in 1877 and 1878, Vice-Président in"l879
and 1880, Co-Honorary Sccretary in 1881-8-1, and again Président
from 1885 to the close of his life in November 1890."

List of Fisiies of N.Z. — Under date, Christchurch, loth April,
1891, Prof essor Hutton writes :— "In my List of the Fishes of New
Zealand published in the ' Transactions N.Z. Institute,' vol. xxii, p.
275, I hâve omitted the folio wing species.

" 139a. Labrichthys roseipunctata, Hutton, ' Trans. N.Z. Inst.' vol.
xii, p. 155.''

Crustacea haised from uried New Zealand mud. — At the
request of Professor G. O Sars, of Christiania, Norway, I sent that
gentleman during last summer, some samples of dried mud taken
from l'resh-water ponds or lagoons. One lot was collected by Mr.
Chilton at Eyretown, Canterbury, from a locality which yields
abundance of Boeckia triarticulata, as wTell as other forms of minute
crustacea. Two other lots were taken from dried-up lagoons in the
Taieri Plaiu. The materials were sent by post in April last,. and on
receipt were at once placed in suitable aquaria. From letters
received since it is interesting to learn that the results of the
experiment hâve proved very satisfactory. In nearly ail the aquaria
préparée! with mud from Eyretown Daphnia similis, (mihi), lias been
successfully hatched, and lias increased in a very remarkable manner.
Along with this numerous spécimens of a Cypris appeared. This
species Prof. Sars takes to be my Cypris ciliata, and he was at
ffrst inclined to consider it as Ilerpetocypris stanleyana, (King),
which he lias raised from dried Australian (QueenslamP mud.
But another form raised from the Taieri mud agrées much more
closely with King's species, as subsequently described by Mr.
Brady. The Eyretown mud also yielded spécimens of a very distinct
and beautiful species of Diaptomus, which is probably identical with
my Boeckia triarticulata. Prof. Sars goes on to say : — "The parcel of
mud from the neighbourhood of Dunedin lias, besides the above-
mentioned Cypris, yielded numerous spécimens of a Simocephalus,
which I stipose to be your Daphnia obtusata, a species of Ceriodaphnia,
a small Chydorua (probably your C. minutvA), and four additional
species of Ostracoda, viz., two species of Ilerpetocypris (one of which
h;isalso beeu raised from Australian mud and described as H viridula,
Brady), one species of Cypridopsiê, and one of Notodromas (of which

GENERAL NOTES. 131

latter I hâve, however, as yet only found a single spécimen). My
experiments will be continued next sumnier, and I do not doubt that
some of the species, at least of the Ostracoda, will reappear in the
aquaria, after they hâve been dried up during the winter." Thèse
results are veiy interesting, and it would greatly inerease the value of
Prof. Sar's researches in this direction, if samples of mud from the
North Island were forwarded to him. I shall be glad to receive and
forward any which are forthcoming. The spécimens obtained by
myself were nearly cubical blocks about four inches deep. — Geo. M.
Thomson, Dunedin, 25th April, 1891.

Idotea lacustris (G. M. Thomson). — This species was originally
described by Mr. Thomson in 1879. It is chiefly remarkable beeau^e
of its occurrence in fresh water as the genus to which it be'ongs is
distinctly marine, and it is the only fresh water Isopod at présent
known in New Zealand, with the exception of some snbterranean
fornis. It has been taken at différent times in the Tomahawk
Lagoon, near Dunedin, but it lias been a little uncertain whether it
lived there permanently in fresh water or only came up Avhen a very
high tide rendered communication with the lagoon possible.* It has
never been taken in the sea on the New Zealand coasts, but in the
British Muséum collections there are spécimens from Port Henry,
Straits of Magellan (Dr. E. P. Coppinger), which are very nearly if
not quite identical with the New Zealand species. The exact local ity
of the Magellan species does not appear to be known, but probably
they were marine in habitat. So much was known about the species
when Miers wrote Iris "Révision of the ïdoteidse," and though I after-
wards described the species in greater détail in my " Révision of the
N.Z. Idoteida:" (Trans. N.Z. Inst. XXL, p. 191), ï was not then able
to give any further information as to its distribution. In January of
this year, however, Messrs. V/m. Cron and D. Strachan, two enthu-
siastic young collectors who hâve often helped me, brought me some
spécimens of what appeared to be Idotea lacustris from the Mihiwaka
Creek, near the mouth of the Deborah Bay Tunnel, above Port
Chalmers, a place perhaps about 200 feet above. sea level. I
hâve since collectée! numerous spécimens from the creek; the}r
are found on the under surface of stones and boulders in the
sinall mountain stream, and undoubtedly are permanent fresh
water inhabitants. On examina tion thèse spécimens were found
to differ constantly from the Tomahawk Lagoon spécimens in
several small points ; thus the eyes are much smaller, the inner
antennse are longer and the outer antennœ more slender, there
is a small dépression in the front margïn of the head which
alters the appearance of the margin, the last segment of the abdomen
bears only one pair of sutures instead of two, &c. Thèse différences
though small in amount are somewhat numerous, and an examination
of a considérable number of spécimens from both localities proves
that they are constant. They are quite as important as différences
that are often held to distinguish species, but in this case it will
probably be better and less misleading if the two forms are consi-
dered as distinct varieties of the same species. It would be

* I hâve found it lately in ail parts of the lagoon, quite away from tidal influence
and where the water is always quite fresh. — G. M. T.

! 32 .JOURNAL ()F SCIENCE.

interesting fco know if Idotea lacustris were once widely distributed in
New Zealand as a fresh water species or not; at any rate its discovery
in a small niountain stream taken in conjunction with the discovery
l>v Mr. Thomson of Pherusa cœrulea in a small stream at the top of
the Old Man Range at 3000 feet élévation (see " N.Z. Journal of
Science, IL, p. 576), shows that we hâve still much to learn about the
smaller inhabitants of thèse streams, and that further search in such
localities may lead to interesting results. — Chas. Chilton.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

ANNUAL MEETING.

Sydney, 28th January, 1891. — Dr. J. C. Cox, Vice-Président, in
the chair.

The chairman delivered the annual address, from which we extract
the following : —

"Among the events of the year at home there are several worthy
of notice on this occasion.

" First, I may mention the publication of the researches of Mr. A.
S. Woodward, F.Z.S., F.G.S., of the British Muséum, on 'The Fossil
Fishes of the Hawkesbury Séries at Gosford,'* a contribution to our
knowledge of the Hawkesbury formation of the greatest interest and
importance. Références to the collections will be found in two papers
by Professor Stephens in Vols. I (2nd Ser.). p. 1175, and II, p. 156 of
our Proceedings. In an introductory note to Mr. Woodward's mono-
graph, Mr. T. W. Edgeworth David, B.A., deals with the stratigraphical
position of the Gosford fish-bed, in référence to which lie says that it is
at présent 'doubtful whether the bed belongs to the lower portion of
the Hawkesbury Sandstone or to the upper portion of the Narrabeen
Shales.' The séries of nearly 400 spécimens was richer in individuals
thân in représentatives of many species, Mr. Woodward distributing them
among the various orders represented as follows: — One Selachian of the
family Cestraciontidœ, one species of a new genus (Gosfordia) of Dipnoi,
the remainder being referable to nine gênera (two proposed as new) and
seventeen species (ail but two being new) of Ganoidei. In concluding
liis paper Mr. Woodward says, 'perhaps the most important fact, how-
ever, is the absence in the Hawkesbury beds of fishes with well-
developed vertébral centra. So far as can be determined from

the tisbes, therefore, the Hawkesbury beds may be regarded as homo-
taxial with the Keuper of Europe, or, at latest, with the Rhaetic.'

"The monograph is well illustrated; and we must congratulate not
only Mr. Woodward on the successful issue of this excellent pièce of
woik, but the Department of Mines on its publication of the volume
witbin the colony. . . . Certainly the year 1890 has been prolific
of swaiius of animal life, not always bénéficiai, as well as of the

* [ssued as " Memoirs of the Geological Survey of N.S.YV., Pal.-eontology, No. 4."
Sydney, Coveinment Printer, 1890.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIE3 133

attacks of fungoid pests. To some of thèse your attention has been
drawn from time to tirae at our meetings by the exhibition of
spécimens, and by the remarks which thèse provoked. Early in
the year many vineyards in certain districts both in this colony
and Victoria were infested by myriads of bugs which I am informed
by Mr. Skuse, who has submitted spécimens to Dr. Bergroth of
Einland, are probably an undescribed species of Xysius (family
Lygœidœ), a genus not hitherto recorded from Australia.

uLast summer and again this year pastoralists in the eastern
colonies and South Australia hâve been troubled witb plagues of locusts
( sometimes referred to as Pachytylus australis, Brunn., but reported as
Ghortologa australis by Mr. Koebele, as determined by Saussure),
which this year especially hâve so accumulated in places as to impecle
railway traffic on some of our country lines by reason of the greasiness
imparted to the rails. Mr. Koebele in lus report quotes the opinion of
a South Australian observer ' that only in sucli unusually dry seasons
as the présent (1888) would the locusts migrate, there beiug no food
left for them in the interior of South Australia.' This hypothesis does
not seem to be borne out by the expérience of last year which was
anything but a dry one, As yet we hâve had only preliminary reports
on thèse matters. There is much room for investigation on the lines
laid down in an article in ' Nature ' (Feb. 27th, 1890, p. 403) based on
a Report by Mr. Cotes of the Indian Muséum, Calcutta, from which we
learn that India has been somewhat similary plagued with locusts of
récent years. Locusts are not altogether a new pest with us, thougk
records of their déprédations in the past appear to be scanty. and their
visitations not to hâve been of so desperately destructive a character;
nevertheless a few références to their prevalence in this colony in
former years will be found in Mr. Russell's ' Climate of New South
Wales,' p. 27. It is also possible too that we are now in some measure
reaping the results of the reckless and wanton destruction of many of
our native birds which has been going on for so long.

" In this connection also phylloxéra as well as rabbits might also
elaini mention, though 1 need not go into détails.

"The past year has also furnished us with instances of migratory
flights of butterflies of at least one species Belenois (Pierls) teutonia,
Don., as reported at our last meeting. The spécimens then exhibited
were from Inverell, but in the 'Echo' of récent date, swarms, probably
of the same species, were reported from Emmaville. In Vol. VIT. of
our Proceedings will be found a record of similar swarms of the same
species observée! at Tamworth by one of our rnembers in December,
1882.

" In this, as in other cases of animais which periodically attract
notice by their appearance in migratory swarms, our country rnembers
will do well to be on the alert in observing and recording, as we hâve
much yet to learn in thèse matters, and the records of the past are
neither so complète nor so systematic as is to be desired.

" Dr. A. Barclay, of the Bengal Médical Service, early in the year
contributed an important paper to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, in
which lie deals with the subject of the prevalence and character of Bust
and Mildew on wheat in India. The number of the journal containing
this paper has not yet reached us, but the gist of it will be found in

134 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

another paper by tho sarne author in the 'Journal of Botany,' XXVIII.,
p. 257 (September, 1890), from whicli I take tlie following passage: —
4 So far as I liave been able to gather, the most prévalent form of rust
on wheat. barlcy, and oats in India is Puccinia rubigo-vera, D.C., and
not P. graminis, Pers. And this is true of the outer Himalayan
région, where rust is very prévalent, and where three species of
barberry are common (B. lycium, Roy le; B. aristata, D.C. ; B. vulgaris,
L ), one of which, B. lycium, bears an ^Ecidium abundantly. At the
saine time, I hâve neveu been able to find an ^Scidium on any species
of Boragineœ in the Himalayan uegion, and none is known on the
plains. Whilst P. rubigo-vera is apparently by far the commonest
rust in India, P. graminis is not wholly unknown. I hâve received
spécimens of P. graminis from Jeypore, about 200 mile* in a direct
Une from the nearest known habitat of barberry ; but I hâve never seen
a spécimen on the cuops actually in the neighbouuhood of secidium-
beauing bauberry. Thèse facts are sufficient to show the raysteuy in
which the subject heue is involved, and that it needs miich moue study
before anything useful can be wuitten on it. The fungus on Linum
('Ulsee') is appauently extremely common over large areas of the plains.
It is often so closely concurrent with rust on wheat and barley, that the
uredo stage on Linum has often been supposed to be the cause of the
rust on wheat. This supposition, however, cannot be entertained, with
ouu présent knowledge, by botanists. The fungus on Linum is probably
a complète autœcious species.'

" I especially draw your attention to this mattei because our
fellow-member, Dr. Cobb, whose récent accession to our little band
of wouking membeus we aue glad to welcome, and who since lus
connection with the Department of Aguicultnue has had undeu investi-
gation the question of uust on wheat in this colony, at an early stage
of his observations also found that in the spécimens submitted to him
by far the commonest rust was Puccinia rubigo-vera, D.C., and not P.
graminis. This resuit was some raonths ago announced in the daily
papers, and full particulars are given in the ' Agricultural Gazette,'
Vol. I., No. 3, p. 185.

" To the newly established Forest Department ouu hopes tuun not
only fou a check to the wliolesale destruction of timbeu which lias been
going on fou so long, to the conseuving of such areas as aue still
available, and to the planting and ueplanting of suitable tracts of
countuy, but fou the uealisation in this colony of a matteu touched upon
by Bauon von Muelleu, in his puesidential address at the second meeting
of the Australasian Association, namely the setting apart of areas in
différent and suitable parts of the colony in which the végétation and
its accompanying fauna may be left nntouched, and preserved for
educational purposes. Surely our utilitarian necessities are not of so
pressing a character as to require every square foot of our richest and
beat timbered areas to be delivered up to the settler's axe and fire-stick.
Comparatively few of even our native -born population know by
expérience, from artistic représentations, or even by adéquate descrip-
tion, the beauty and luxuriance of our brushes and semi-tropical scrubs,
now alas in danger of altogether disappearing. As means of communi-
cation improve, as they are steadily doing, such districts as I speak of
will be gradually brought within easy reach of the metropolis, and thus

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 135

become more accessible to the naturalist, the artist, the writer, and the
lover of nature, let us hope not when ifc is altogether too late, and when
the characteristic végétation has entirely disappeared.

" Of the good likely to accrue f rom the establishment in some of
our country towns of branches of the Sydney Technological Muséum
much may I think be anticipated. The conditions of existence in a
young country like this seem naturally to lead to more or less
centralisation, in scientific as in so many other matters. Now the
dulness attendant upon life in an average country town to the man who
is not fortified against it by the pursuit of some rational hobby is a stern
reality often leading to misapplied énergies and utter waste of time, not
to speak of the acquisition of undesirable habits. Yet very often it is
in the immédiate neighbourhood of just such local ities that there are
spécial opportunities of observing particularly interesting species of
plants or animais in a state of nature, of working out the stratigraphical
or pala3ontological relations of particular strata, of obtaining important
data relating to the scientific aspect of mining, or of collecting relies and
traditions of the fast disappearing black-fellow ; and too frequently it is
exactly in such localities that such opportunities excite little or no
interest whatever. Not absolutely always, however, I am glad to be
able to state, since we number among our ovvn members a few who
under such circumstances hâve risen to the occasion ; but our Societies
want more of such men, and the colony at large needs more of them.
Country muséums in the hands of judicious curators alive to the value
of their opportunities may become directly éducative, and do much
towards supplying the présent want of means of fostering a love of
nature in the rising génération, as well as offer a counter attraction to
those very much less rational and undesirable ways of ' killing ' time,
which too frequently présent themselves. In answer to my enquiries
Mr. Maiden has been good enough to furnish me with the following
particulars which I am glad to make use of : —

" ' Local muséums in connection with the Sydney Technological
Muséum hâve been established at Goulburn, Bathurst, West Maitland,
and Newcastle, and another will shortly be opened at Broken Hill.'

"'The exhibits are housed in substantial buildings — the large halls
of the Mechanics' Institutes being rented at Goulburn and Newcastle,
while at West Maitland the large hall of the old Masonic buildings is
utilisée!. '

" ' At West Maitland the local Science Association has presentod
its valuable natural history collection to the Muséum, and at the other
centres scientific societies hâve been started which will assist in the
working-up of the muséums, so that most of thèse muséums will contain
a natural history side as well.'

"' The local science master, or head of the local Technical School,
is the curator, and he corresponds direct with the Curator of the Sydney
Technological Muséum in matters of muséum détail. He is quite at
liberty to dévote a portion of his time to original research, or to give
lectures, &c.'

" ' Each muséum contains aboat 2,000 specimers exhibited in
suitable show-cases. Endeavours are béing made to form in each
muséum a display of the products of the district in which it is situatad,

136 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

and substantiel additions to the collections bave been received already.
Numcrous applications for the formation of muséums in différent
centres of population bave been receivecl, but at présent it is proposed
to confine tlieni to towns in whicli teclmical collèges hâve already been
founded.' "

Sydney, February 25th, 1891. — The Hon. James Norton, LL.T).,
MiL.C, in the chair.

Papers. — (1) " On the Anatomy of some Tasmanian Land Snails,"
by C. Hcdley, F.L.S., Corr. Mem. This paper is a contribution to a
knowledge of the soft parts of Bidimus dufresni, Leach, B. tasmanicus,
Pfr., Anoglypta launcestonensis, Reeve, Rhytida lampra, Pfr., Helicarion
verreauoci, Pfr., and Cystopelta petterdi, Tate.

(2) " Notes on a small Collection of Hymenoptera from Narrabri,
N.S.W," by. W. W. Froggatt. The writer gives a list of the species
comprised in the collection exhibited by Mr. Musson at the December
Meeting. The occurrence of Thynnus Brenchleyi, Smith, a species rare
in collections, previously only recorded from Champion Bay, W.A., is
particularly interesting.

(3) " Description of a new Species of Tortricidœ" by J. Hartley
Durrant. ( ' Communicated by A. Sidney Olliff). A new species of
Paheobia from Tumut and M t. Kosciusko is described under the name
P. lonyestriata.

(4) "Stray Notes on Lepidoptera," No. 2, by A. Sidney Olliff, F.E.S.
A short note descriptive of a new species of Libythea from Somerset, N.
Australia, proposed to be called L. nicevillei, hitherto confounded with
L, myrrha, Godart, and of a singular variety of Euschemon Rafflesiœ
from the Richmond River, N.S. Wales. A spécimen of the butterfly
was exhibited.

(5) " Notes on Australian Aboriginal Stone Weapons and Imple-
ments." Nos. i.-xv., by R. Etheridge, jun. A continuation of former
Notes read before this Society. The author now describes additional
stone knives from Northern Australia, and one made of bottle glass ;
small and beautifully formed spear-heads from Kimberley; larger lanceo-
late spear-heads from Nicholson River and Settlement Creek, N.W.
Carpentaria ; talismanic stones from New England and North Queens-
land, the latter a very interesting tael formed of two rock crystals joined
by a gum-cement mixed with human hair; a gouge from North Queens-
land ; and an awl, or some form of piercing instrument, made of a nail,
and portion of a human radius. The author is indebted for an oppor-
tunity of describing thèse interesting spécimens to the kindness of Mr.
C. W. de Vis, M. A., Curator of the Queensland Muséum, and Messrs.
W. W. Froggatt and E. C. Blomfleld.

Mr. Etheridge showed a fine collection of aboriginal stone knives
and implements in illustration of his paper.

Among exhibits, Mr. Hedley showed a colony of the nests of a
trap-door spider, together with spécimens of the animal, from Rose Bay.
Tlif.se spidera are abundant round Sydney, occurring even in the j)ublic
parks of the city. A favourite spot for them is a patch of moss3r earth

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 137

in the crevice of a santlstone rock. The species exhibited forms a wafeiv
like lid, not as in souie species a thick door like a gun-wad. The présence
of several egg-bags in the larger burrows would indicatethat the présent
month (February), is the breeding season.

Mr. Fletcher exhibited tw3 spécimens of a land planarian (Bipalium
kewense, Moseley,) collected by Mr. J. J. Lister at Upoln, Samoa, under
stones in the bnsh ; and a spécimen of the same species from Eltham,
Victoria, collected by Mr. W. W. Smith ; sëeing that tins planarian lias
now undoubtedly been introdnced into many widely separated localities.
and that the species of the genus whose habitats are certainly known
belong to the Palœarctic and Oriental régions, there seems little gronnd
for supposing it to be indigenous in Samoa.

Also two instances of floral prolitication in the " Flannel-ttower '!
(Actinotus helianthï), in which from the ordinary umbsls spring, in 0113
case abont seven, in the other eleven small secondary umbels each with
its involucre of woolly bracts ; the spécimens wère gathered at Oatley a
few days ago.

Also living spécimens of three species of frogs (If/jla cœrulea. H.
peronii, and Limnodynastes salminii, Str.), brought fVoui Goîiigra 0:1
the Nainoi, near Walgett, by Mr. A. Carson ; thèse spécimens offer
fresh évidence of the very wide distribution of thèse three species in the
interior of the colony ; in the spécimens of L. salminii the dors il strip3s
which in spirit spécimens are pink or rose-red are of quite a différent
tint, being a bright ochreous-yellow. Spécimens of an interesting frog
(Hyla gracilenta) from the Richmond River were also exhibited; the
species lias not previously been recorded from N.S. W.

Sydney, Mardi 25th, 1891. — Professor Haswell, M. A. D.Sc,

Président, in the chair.

New niember. — Mr. Oswald B. Lower, Adelaide.

Papers. — (1) " On the Classification of Eucalypts," by Rev. W,
Woolls, Ph.D., F.L.S. After critically reviewing the characters of
Eucalypts which hâve, from time to time, been made use of for
classificatory purposes, more particularly those of the anthers and of the
bark as set forth in the antherial and cortical Systems of Bentham and
Mueller, the author suggests the probable value of a classification based
on the characters of the fruit— such as sliape, position of the capsules,
the number of cells, and the appaarance of the valves, &c.

(2) "On the Trail of an extinct Bird," by C. W. De Vis, M.A.,
Oorr. Mem. A new genus an 1 species (Lithophaps ulnaris) are
provisionally proposed for an extinct pigeon whose ulna was found in
deposits of the Nototherian period at Warwick, Darling Downs,
Queensland.

(3) "Note on an Extinct Eagle," by C. W. De Vis, M. A., Corr.
Mem. The generic name Taphaetits is now proposed for a bird whose
fémur came to light in the same deposits as the ulna of Lithophaps, and
which présents characters irreconcilable with those of any genus known
to the writer. To the same genus in ail probability must be referred
the species previously described as Croaetus braehialis (Proc. Roy. Sec.

138 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Qsld., Vol. VI., p. 161), its correct association with the genus Uroaetus
being now more than doubtful.

Both papers were illustrated by speciments of the fossil bones
referred to.

(4) "The Land Molluscan Fauna of Britisli New Guinea," by
C. Hedley, F.L.S., Corr. Mcm The species already described are
enumerated iind discussed, sundry errors in classification and habitat
being rectified, and twenty species mostly collected by the author
himself d 11 ring a récent tour in Papua are described as new. Anatomi-
ical descriptions of a few species are included.

Mr. Fletcher exhibited for Mr. J. H. Rose two living spécimens
of an inland species of frog (Chiroleptes ])latycephalus, Gthr.), obtained
near Walgett, previonsly only recorded from Bourke and Dandaloo,
N.S.W. It is an expert burrower, Mr. Rose reporting that he has
ne ver met with it above ground.

FIELD NATURALISTS' CLUB OF VICTORIA.

Melbourne, 9th March, 1891. — D. Best, Esq., in the chair.

The report of the Club's récent excursion to Heidelberg was reacl
by Mr. F. G. A. Barnard.

Papers. — (1) "Sagacity of Insects," by J. Lidgett.

(2) "On the Australian Bustard," by C. French, F.L.S.

(3) " An Acid Sécrétion from the Seeds of Grevillea mimosoides,"
by Nicholas Holtz. The sécrétion which is powerful and acrid enough
to produce sores, the scars of which remain for many months after, is
thought to be useful in protecting the seeds from the attacks of
cockatoos.

A number of natural history notes were communicated asfollows: —

(1) " On the occurrence of the Comb-crested Parra in Victoria," by
A. J. Campbell.

(2) "How Fliesdie," by G. H. Hennell.

(3) " On the impaling of Butterflies on Thistles," by G. Lyell, Jim.

(4) " On the Earthworm," and

(5) " A new Potato disease," both by G. Renner.

A large number of articles of interest were exhibited.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

Melbourne, 12th March, 1891. — At the annual meeting the follow-
iog gentlemen were elected office-bearers for the year: — Président :
Professer W, C. Kernot, M. A., CE. Vice-Presiclents : J. Cosmo New-
berry, C.M.G., B.Sc, and E. J. White, F.R.A.S. Hon. Treasurer :
C. R. Blackett, F.C.S. Hon. Librarian : J. E. Neilcl, M.D. Hon.
Secretarie8 : IF. K. Rusden, and Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, M. A.

MEETINGS OF 80CIETIES. I39

Members of Council: A. W. Howitt, F.G.S., J. Jamieson, M.D., Pro-
fessor Laurie, M.A., A. H. S. Lucas, M. A., Professor R. T. Lyle, M.A.,
A. Sutherland, M. A., C. A. Topp, M. A., A. S. Way, M. A. The follow-
ing Members continu ing to liold office from 1890- -R. L. J. Ellery,
F.R.S., G. S. Griffiths, F.G.S., Professor Orme Masson, M. A., and Mr.
H. Moors.

An ordinary meeting was held afterwards.

Papers. — (1) "A new species of Dictyon&rua" by T. S. Hall, M. A.

(2) " A preliminary account of Synute pulchella, a new genus aud
species of Calcareous Sponge," by Arthur Dendy, D.Sc.

(3) "The Geology of the Southern portion of the Mooratool
Valley," by T. S. Hall, M. A., and G. B. Pritchard.

Melbourne, 9 th April. — Papers. — (1) "On the Occurrence of the
Genus Belonostomus in the Rolling Downs Formation (Cretaceous) of
Central Queensland," by R. Etheridge, «Tun., F. G. S., Palœontologist to
the Geological Survey of New South Wales, and Arthur Smith Wool-
ward, F.Z.S., of the British Muséum.

(2) "Note from the Biological Laboratory of the Melbourne
University," by Professor W. Baldwin Spencer, M. A.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.*

ANNUAL MEETING.

Wellington, 13& February, 1891.— Chas. Hulke, Esq., Président,
in the chair.

New Member. — Mr. W. T. Cohen.

The following is an abstract of the aunual report: — The Report
stated that dur ing the past year six gênerai meetings kacVboen held,
which had on the whole been fairly well attended, and some interesting
discussions had taken place on the various papers read, as will be seen
from the reports of the proceedings published in the usual libéral
manner by Messrs. Lyon and Blair in their Monthly Record and Review.
The titles of the papers, with the names of the authors, were given,
inaking a total of twenty-five. Four new members hacl been electecl
during the year, the total number of members now on the books
being one hundred and fifty. The reseipts during the year amounted
to £150 3s. 6d., and the expenditure was £120 4s. 3d., leaving a
balance of £29 19s. 3d. ; there was also a fixecl deposit in the bank
of £20, the first payment to the prize fund.

The following office bearers were elected : — Président, Mr. E.
Tregear; Vice-Présidents, Mr. A. McKay and the Hon. R. Pharazyn;
Council, Sir J. Hector, Sir W. Buller, Messrs. W. M. Maskell, A. de B.
Brandon, G. V. Hudson, W. T. L. Travers, aiid C. Hulke ; Secretary
and Treasurer, R. B. Gore ; Auditor, T. King.

* Our report is taken from the Monthly Rccjrd and Review.

140 JOURNAL Oï SCIENCE.

Papers.— (1) "On a Deposit of Diatomaceous Earth at the Bay
of Islands," by A. McKay, F.G.S. The author stated that lie had had
an opportuni t.y of examining a deposit of diatomaceous earth about
half a mile to the east of the résidence of the Hon. Henry Williams,
and that lie brought samples from the upper surface, and from about
one foot below the surface of the deposit, which were submitted to
Mr. Maskell, who found only récent species in the samples from the
upper part, and fossil forms only in the samples taken at about a foot
from the surface of the deposit. Such being the resuit of the exami-
nations made by Mr. Maskell, on his describing the conditions under
which the deposit had accumulated, by way of explanation of the facts
Mr. Maskell suggested that probably an older diatomaceous deposit
had been denuded for supply of the lower part of the deposit under
description, and in which only fossil forms are found, while the higher
and last deposits were manifestly due to diatoms which (of récent
forms only) had lived and died within the area wherein their remains
had accumulated. But this is not the only explanation that may be
advanced, and lie (Mr. McKay) deemed it necessary to describe more
elosely the position of the deposit and the conditions under which it
had accumulated. Àfter giving a full account of the locality in ques-
tion, and the position of the spécimens collectée!, Mr. McKay stated
that on the stones and fern fronds which are under water when the
basin is full, the green living diatoms are deposited, forming a coating
of from (lin. to iin. thick, according to circumstances. This deposit
round the margin of the basin soon bleaches white on the surface.
According to Mr. Maskell it is almost wholly composed of living
forms of diatomacea?. Very probably the same samples, Mr. McKay
thought, would be found among the grass -roots, and for the first few
inches into the deposit filling the basin itself. Unfortunately, Mr.
McKay did not bring samples to prove that such is the case ; but it
is so self-evident that this must be so that no doubts need be ventured
on the subject. The deposits in the middle of the basin are 6ft. to
8ft. thick, and were exposed by the cutting-down of a cattle-track
crossing the creek at this place. Mr. McKay took a sample from
about lft. below the surface. Some of this also was examined by Mr.
Maskell, whose décision as to the fossil nature of the species forming
this part of the deposit lias already been stated. Subsequently Mr.
Maskell forwarded samples to England, which were examined by one
of the chief authorities on diatoms, whose décision was in accordance
with the conclusion Mr. Maskell had already arrived at. Such were
the facts of the case, and such the conclusions arrived at by compétent
authorities. And yet lie (Mr. McKay) was not satisfied that the true
explanation had been hit upon ; and hère lie ventured a theory of
explanation to which, though there might be objections grave as
applied to Mr. Maskell's explanation, they were yet not the same, and
he had therefore written the paper so that the Societ}' might hâve an
opportunity of debating the probabilities of each. Considering the
conditions under which the diatomaceous deposits had accumulated,
it was reasonable to expect that the récent forms of diatoms would be
found in the lowest, as well as the highest, beds of the deposit; and it
was certainly surprising that the upper beds, or latest part of the
deposit, should be wholly composée! of récent species, which were
absent from the middle and lower parts. It was quite a possibility

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 14T

that the fossil-species forming the bulk of the deposit had been derived
from an older deposit, either forming the bed of the lake or now
buried beneath the scoria liills to the east of Paoroa. But it seemed
to him that, in order to account for the facts of the case, it must be
supposed that at first only fossil-species carried along the underground
channels were deposited in the little basins whence the spécimens
were obtained. And as the deposit was entirely composed of fossil-
species to within lf t. of the présent surface, the introduction or
appearance of living forms was of very récent date. As, however, the
whole deposit was manifestly of quite récent date, and as at first the
conditions were as fit for the existence of récent forms of diatoms as
they now were, it seemed extraordinary that throughout the deposit
there was not a mixture of fossil and living species. Taking thèse
facts into account, he (Mr. McKay) would prefer to account for the
difference-in the species found in the top and bottom beds of the
deposit, by supposing that the species first living in the pond gave
place to other forms, either modified descendants of the original
species or species introduced from différent stocks, and in this way
would avoid the necessity of hypothecating an older deposit, the exis-
tence of which had not been proved, and, at the same time account
for the separateness of the living and extinct forms as they were
found in the higher and lower parts of the deposit. He would hère
add that as the surface-layers were formed whoîly of living forms, and
ail were extinct at about lft. 6in. from the surface, it seemed reason-
able to suppose that at, say, 6ft. from the surface other and quite
distinct species might be found. And as Mr. Williams informed him,
he (Mr. Williams) dug into the deposit to a yet greater clepth without
passing through it. Other and quite distinct species, it was probable,
would be found in the flrst-named and lower parts of the deposits.
If samples were taken not more than 6in. apart in the section of the
deepest part of the deposit, an examination of thèse would be likely to
set at rest any cloubts as to the true origin and mode of accumulation,
since it was mainly a derived and secondary deposit ; then from about
lft. from the surface to the greatest depth there should be little
variation of the specitic forms ; while on the other hand, if the species
changed more than once, that would go far to prove the correetness
of liis theory on the subject.

Mr. Maskell said that as he had been referred to in Mr. McKay's
paper, it would be necessary for him to ask the writer's leave to add a
a short note for the Transactions, explaining his view of this rather
puzzling matter. He had no pretensions to a knowledge of geology ;
but it was possible that a micoscopist's observations might sometimes
corne in useful as an aid to a geologist, and perhaps this was the case
in the présent instance. Put very shortly, the point was this : When
Mr. McKay handed over to him some spécimens of thèse diatomaceous
deposits, he was at once struck with three peculiarities in them.
First, the upper deposit évident ly owed ils greenish tinge to the
présence of endochrome in the diatoms, showing therefore that thèse
organisms were not only récent, but alive. S'eeondly, the lower
deposit, on the other hand, was not only pure white, from the absence
of any endochrome, but also remarkably and exceutionally clean and
clear from sand and dirt, having ail the appearance of a perfectly

142 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

pure fossil diatomaceoue mass. Thirdly (and this was the important
it), in the upper deposit he found only a quantity of two species of
the gênera Melosira and Himantidium, with a very few Navicuke;
whilst in the lower deposit, witb 011e species of Melosira, and a few
Naviculae, there were many spécimens of a pcculiarly-shaped diatom,
whicb, from the distinct cross visible on it, lie took for a Stauroneis.
llaviug Bubmitted spécimens of tins to Dr. de Lautour, of Oamaru, a
leading diatomist of the colony, that gentleman considered it as a new
species; and he agreed with Mr. Maskell that it was undoubtedly
1 fossil.' Spécimens of the deposit were also sent to Mr. Grove, one
of the lirst authoritics in England on diatoms, and to Mr. Hardman,
another very eminent student of the same family at Liverpool ; and
thes:> gentlemen, whilst ascribing this particular diatom to the genus
Aclmanthes, also agreed that it was clearly fossil. Now, the resuit of
thèse investigations showed positively, as he thought, that there is a
radical and important différence between the two deposits. The
upper one is récent, with living diatoms and no Aclmanthes ; the
lower one is conspicuously full of Aclmanthes, quite in a fossil state.
Jf the geological évidence taken by itself, seemed to point to a simi-
larity of conditions and of time in which both deposits were formed,
the microscopical observations went to show that there must hâve
bcen a considérable différence of time; at least. It seemed to him
that the two classes of évidence would hâve to be taken together ; or.
at least, the indications of the microscope should receive full attention.
The case certainly was a peculiar one, as the two deposits were so
closely adjoined.

Mr. Hulke supposed that Mr. McKay wished to show that he
had évidence of évolution, while Mr. Maskell contendecl that this had
not been proved. Had thèse deposits been bones, Mr. McKay would
not, he presumed, say they were the same had the bones been of
distinct forms. It would be interesting to know whether the lower
deposits were much abraded.

Mr. McKay briefly replied, and said he felt sure that his state-
ments would be fully borne out by anyone carefully examining the
district where thèse deposits had been found.

(2) «On the Botany of Antipodes Island," by T. Kirk, F.G.S.
Antipodes Island is about 4G0 miles from Port Chalmers in a
southerly direction, and is simply the crater of an extinct volcano.
An overilow of lava on the eastern side lias formed an angle where a
landing may be made with some difficulty, but only in the finest
weather. In ail other places the clifïs are steep, so that the island is
practically inaccessible. The albatross and other oceanic birds brecd
on the island, which, in some places, is dotted over with the nests of
the great albatross, constructed of earth, built up into a truncated
about eighteen inches high, slightly concave on the upper
surface, and usually coiitaining one large egg. The highest point
on the island, Mount Galloway, a rounded hill, is about 1,320 feet
above sea level. There is not a tree on the island; nothing much
1 v than a gooseberry bush. rThe chief végétation consists of
masses of coarse sedges and grass. The island is about as desolate a
place as can well be imagined. Some bushy scrubs at the base of
Mount Galloway were enlivened by the yellow-headed parroquet,

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 143

which was rather common although not abundant. About fifty-five
species of plants were collectée!, of which the most striking was
named Pleurophyllum criniferum, witli smootli leaves something like
rhubarb leaves, and erect stems five feet high, carrying large disc-like
lieads of reddish-purple flowers; it is found also on the Auckland and
Campbell Islands. Two plants are peculiar to this little island : a
pretty Gentian witli yellow or red stems and leaves. The yellow-
stemmed form has white flowers ; that with the red stems, white
flowers striped with red, the resnlt in both being that the flowers are
inconspicuous ; the other plant is a large herbaceous Grounclsel,
resembling in some respects a species found 011 the Falklancl Is]ands.

(3) "On the Botany of the Snares," by T. Kirk, F.G.S. The
Snares consist of a group of rocky islands, situate near the 48th
parallel of south latitude, and about sixty-five miles from the South
Cape of Stewart's Island. The principal island is inhabitée! by
thousands of crested penguins, which perch on the trees in rare
numbers, forming ' rookeries ' cluring a greater part of the year, but
during the breeding-season the trees are forsaken. In many places
the grounc! is honeycombed by pétrels, which occur in large numbers.
Several land-birds were noticed : a small snipe found also on the
Auckland Islands ; a small bird only known elsewhere on the Chat-
ham Islands ; and the South Island grass-bird ; ail species with yery
poor powers of fiight. Two fur-seals were also noticed. The island is
remarkable for the occurrence of two grand trees, Senecio Muelleri,
which is probably the largest species of the genus, and one of the
granclest, the trunk being sometimes two feet in diameter, and the
tree twenty-five feet high. The other is Olearia Lyalli, which is
nearly thirty feet high, with leaves from four to seven inches in
length, white on back surfaces, and producing racemes of large
button-like veivety flower-heacls on the tips of the branches. Both
thèse trees are amoiigst the rare plants of the world, the first being
confinée! to the Snares and Herekopere Islancl, the other to the Snares
anc! the Auckland islands. The puuui is a strong growing herb,
which resembles in most particulars the punui of Stewart's Island.
The leaves are sometimes two feet across, ane! are carriee! on leaf-
stalks as thick as a rhubarb-stalk. About twenty-five other kinels
were observée!, two or three of which hac! evidently been introducecl
by sealers.

(4) " On the Wanclering Albatross, with an exhibition of spéci-
mens and the détermination of a new species ÇDiomedea régla)," by
Sir Walter Buller, K.C.M.G , F.R.S. The paper reviewed the history
of Diomedea exulans, and referred to an exhibition of spécimens made
by the author at a meeting of the Wellington Philosophical Society
on February 13th, 1885, when lie had expresseel his conviction that
two clistinct species of wandej ing albatross were being confoundeel
under the above name. He ha! lately hael an opportunity of
examining sixteen examples of the supposée! new bird (collectée! at
Campbell Island, on the Auckland Islands, and off the New Zealanel
coast), ane! he hael no hésitation whatever in eleclaring it to be a
distinct species, reaclily distinguishable from Dijniedea exulans by its
larger size, by its perfectly white head and neck from the nest to
maturity, and by its having the bare eyelids jet-black, at ail âges,

144 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

instead of being greenish-purple as in tbe other species. Tins
albatross being nndonbtedly the noblest of the entire group, lie
Belects loi- it the distinctive spécifie naine of Diomedea regia. Its
gréai breediDg-place is Campbell Island, where it nests some five
weeks earlier than Diomedea exuîans does on the Auckland Islands.
Captain Fairchild, who bas made the breeding habits of the albatross
lus spécial Btudy for some years past, was till lately of opinion that
tins larger species never came farther north to breed ; but on the
occasion of his récent visit to the Auckland Islands, lie found a colony
of them breeding there, but in a separate locality and quite distant
from Diomedea exulans. Hère, too, in the Auckland Islands, the two
species observed their own breeding times, Diomedea regia actually
hatching ont its young whilst the other species was only preparing to
lay. Amongst the hundreds of nests of the latter examined by
him only one contained eggs (two instead of one, a very unusual
ciremnstance). The author's collection c nitains a fine séries of skins
of both species. Diomedea regia lias a perfectly white head, neck,
and body, with blackish-brown shoulders and wings, even from the
r.tst ; one of the exhibits liaving still remnants of the down adhering
to the plumage. Apart from the much larger size of the bill
(exceeding eight inches, measured along the column), it is further
distinguished from the common species by liaving a distinct black
line along the cutting edge of the upper mandible. Diomedea exidans,
on the other hand, lias a dark coloured nestling, and the young bird
of the first }"ear lias a uniform sooty-gray plumage, with a white face.
The bird passes through many phases in its progress towards
maturity, and no two individuals are exactly alike in the délicate
markings of their plumage. In his'Birdsof New Zealand ' (vol. h,
pp. 190-192), the author has described no less than ten of thèse
interniediate or transitional states.

The following papers were then taken as read : —

(5) " On the Fossil Flora of New Zealand," by Professor Van
Ettinghausen; communicated by Sir James Hector, F.B.S.

(6) " On Pleurophyllum, with description of New Species," by
T. Kirk, F.L.S.

(7) "On the New Zealand Species of Centrolepsis," by T. Kirk.

(8) '• On the Macrocephalous Olearias," by T. Kirk.

(9) " Notes on certain Carices," by T. Kirk.

(10) "Farther Notes on New Zealand Fishes," by Sir James
Hector.

(11) "On Patent Fuel," by Sir James Hector.

(12) " On the Discovervof Leiodon Kemains in Middle Waipara,"
by J. McKay, F.G.S.

' 13) ': On Belemnites australis with Dicotyledonous Leaves," by A.
McKay.

(14) •• On the Alleged Insular Character of Young Secondary and
()1 1er Teitiary Formations in Ncav Zealand," by A. McKay.

(15) "On Lithological Characters in Séquence as a Means of
C< -relation and as indicative of Age," by A. McKay.

WISE, CAFFIN & GO.

AKK P0BLISHÉRS OF

Pétries First tieograpliy ..-",. . is.

Pétries Geography of \ew Zealand ls.
Goyens Complète Arithiiietie . 9d.

Answers to same od.

Goyen's Exercises in tlie Compoimd Unies ls. od.

Answers 1s. od.

Cnrnow's Primer of Englisli Ilistory ls.

Tlioiiisons Xew Zealand Ferns Os.

Tlie Story of tlie Otago Cliureii and ( €lotli Us. Od.

Settleiiient. By Rev. C. Stnart Ross \ Paper 2s.

Education and Edneationists in Ota»o.

By Rev. C. Stnart Ross . 3s. Od.

WISE, GAFFIN & CO.

108 PRINCES STREET,
DUNEDIN.

Matthews, EfcxtertS il Printers, Dowiing Stiret, Dunedin.

22ÀUG.91

JtJLY, 1891.

No. 4, Vol. I. (New Issue.)

THE

NEW ZEALAND

ITnUT

J1LI

u6

DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY.

^

Judicio perpende : et si tibi vera videntur

Dede inanus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra. \

CONTENTS :

The Parliament of New Zealand in its relations to Science

Source of the Gold at the Thames. Capt. F. W. Hutton, F.G.S. ...

The remarkable hailstorm at Owaka, in January last. J. T. Bryant

The Geographical Distribution of the fresh-water Mussels. H. von Jhering ...

On the Great Oar-Fish. H. O. Forbes

Végétation of Lord Howe Is1 and. W. Botting Hemsley

The Botany of the Snares. T. Kirk

Récent additions to the Fera Flora of New Zealand

General Notes —

Removlng Tassels from Corn— Souring of Milk during thundcr-storms—
Transmission of Heveditary Characters— Auckland Institnte— Theory
of the Structure of the Placenta— Humble-becs in the North Isiand
—T. W. Kirk, F.L.s.

Meetings of Societies ...

Otagolnstitute— Philosophical Instituteof Canterbury— Auckland Institute
— Linnean Society of New South Wales— Royal Society of New
South Wales— Royal Society of Victoria.

PRICE, 2s. ; ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTIQN, 10s. G

Posted — Australie/,, America, and Britain, 12s. 6d.

page

145

146

149

151

154

159

161

166

169

175

§mxùxxxt Ijt.&i

MATTHEWS, BAXTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, DOWLING STREET.
WISE, CAFFIN & CO., 108 PRINCES STREET.

Vol. I., No. 4, N.Z. JOUKNAL OP SCIENCE (New Issue) JULY 891

THE PARLIAMENT OF NEW ZEALAND IN ITS
RELATIONS TO SCIENCE.

The columns of a scientific publication do not constitute a suitable
place in which to discuss questions of politics, and it is therefore from
no political stand point that we propose to look at the subject of the
probable views of the présent parliament of New Zealand on matters of
scientific interest. Of late years the tendency lias been towards a
steady retrogression in the educational status of our House of Repré-
sentatives. The men electecl to represent the people at the seat of
government may be as able and as earnest as their predecessors ever
were, but their educational calibre is decideclly lower than it used to be
ten or twenty years ago. In tins respect the présent House lias
probably reached a lower depth than any of those which preceded it.
The men elected by most of the urban coustituencies cannot. and we
believe do not lay claim to belong to the best educated portion of the
community, and hence the bearing of the présent House towards
scientific questions will be watched with interest and considérable
anxiety. New Zealand h as in the past achieved a very high réputation
cutside of its own narrow borders for the enlightened policy which its
successive governments hâve pursued in matters scientific. Its survey
department lias always been presided over by men of high standing in
their profession, whose efforts to do high-class work hâve been
repeateclly recognized. The geological survey lias since its inception
been under the distinguished management of Sir James Hector, who,
with the aid of able assistants, lias year by year added to the kuow-
ledge of the geological history of the colony, until it may well be
questioned whether any part of the world lias been so well worked out
within such a short period and with such small means. We may
probably rest assured that the présent House will not do anything to
cripple either of thèse branches of the service, because the practical
value of their work commends itself even to the non-scientific mind.
Indeed this is the only aspect in which scientific work is apt to be
regarded by the 6i ^>olloi, and it is as the outcome of tins utilitarian way
of looking at things that we anticipate any trouble or difficulty is likely
to occur.

Attention has already been cirawn towards such a sweeping réduc-
tion in the stafï of the Colonial Muséum in Wellington that the best
thing that could now be done would be to shut it up altogether. For
years there lias been a growing tendency to starve this institution, and
now we believe that there is actuallv no one left in charge beyond a
mère caretaker. Sir James ITector's work covers a large field, Mr.
Skey, who has so long acted as Colonial Analyst, always has his hands
full of work, and Mr. Gore must hâve an amoimt of clérical work to get
through which would satisfy even the Minister of Lands. But there is
no one left to receive and properly préserve perishable spécimens which
may be left at the Muséum, no taxiderinist or articulator to set up the

146 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

materiala already accumulated. For years past an immense amount of
material illustrating the natural liisiory of thèse islands must hâve corne
into fche hands of the Muséum authorities, but without means, no

Curator can do anything in the way of preserving and suitably exhi-
bitîng such materia), and so its educational value is entirely lost. The
collections of the geological survey alone ave mostly stored in boxes
where no one ever sees them.

Another direction in which the action of the présent House and
Government will be critically surveyed both within and outside the
Colony is in its bearing towards the proposed Antarctic Exploration
expédition. The important additions to be made to a knowledge of the
unknown régions surrounding the South Pôle will hardly commend
themselves to oui* présent rulers as a raison cV être for the proposed
expédition. But the possibilities of opening up valuable whale and
other fisheries which from their «reographical position would probably
be largely controlled from New Zealand ports is an argument which
may carry considérable weight.

We hear sinister rumours about the intention of certain Hon.
members to move in the direction of repealing the New Zealancl
Tnstitute Act. The total cost to the Colony under this Àct is a sum of
<£500 voted annually for the publication of the volume of its Tran-
sactions. We venture to affirm that there are few amounts for which
the Colony gets better value, and which bring equal crédit on the
community. The suppression of the annual vote would be stigmatised
and properly so, as the resuit of ignorance.

There hâve been already, on the part of the so-called ••labour"
représentatives in the présent House, indications that they will give
careful considération to questions of the nature hinted at above. The
real danger to enlightened administration does not, however, lie so
much with this class as with that very considérable section of " clap-
trap " politicians, who will do anything to catch a little cheap applause,
and who are the most dangerous class vvhen questions of éducation
and science are concerned.

SOURCE OF THE GOLD AT THE THAMES.

BY CAPTAIN F. W. HUTTON, F. G. S.

The geological structure of the Thames district is asfollows: —
A sedimentary formation composée! of dark coloured sandstones and
slates, which are not younger than Triassic, is overlain quite uncon-
formably by a younger volcanic formation, in which ail the gold
mines are situated. So far nearly ail New Zealancl geologists are in

ement; but opinions differ as to whether any long interval of
tirne séparâtes the volcanic rocks into two distinct séries, the older of
which is alone auriferous, or whether ail should be considered as
] of 0 e 1 eries.

SOURCE OF THE GOLD AT THE THAMES I47

The gold appears to hâve corne oufc of the volcanic rocks and not
to hâve been introduced from below through Iodes traversing the old
sedimentary rocks. The reasons for this opinion are (1) that after
nearly forty years' prospecting auriferous reefs hâve only been found
in the volcanic séries or in the slates immediately in contact with them.
(2) The gold veins are often small, irregular and branching, soine-
tinaes only a quarter-of-an-inch thick, and often die oui They veiy
rarely lead into large reefs, and when they do so, thèse large reefs are
barren. (3) The amount of gold in the veins varies with the state of
décomposition of the country rock, the veins in clecomposed rock
being richer than those in undecomposed rock. This being so it will
be interesting to see what process of décomposition has gone on in
the rocks, which has resulted in concentrating gold in the veins.

The volcanic rocks themselves were originally lava streams of
that variety called andésite. They consisted of a ground-mass, partly
glassy and partly stony, containing abundance of fine grains of mag-
netite and crystals of titaniferous iron-ore. In this ground-mass were
larger crystals of lime and soda felspars and of some ferro-magnesian
minerais, usually augite alone, but sometimes with hypersthene in
addition, and more rarely hornblende. When fresh the rocks are
dark grey to black in colour, and a close inspection shows the small
white crystals of felspar embedded in the dark ground-mass. Small
patches of thèse undecomposed rocks are still found hère and there,
but the mass of the rocks are now soft and light coloured, grey or
greenish, or occasionally red. The original dark colour of the rocks
was due to the iron ores and ferro-magnesian minerais they contained,
and the change of colour is due to the décomposition of thèse
minerais. In some places the magnetite has been changed into
hématite and the rock has become red, as between the Karaka and
Hape creeks, but this change is comparatively rare. In nearly ail
cases the ferro-magnesian minerais — Augite, Hypersthene, and Horn-
blende,— hâve been altered into chlorite, and this newly formed
chlorite was also often deposited as infiltrations in the ground-mass,
giving the rocks a green colour. In some rocks the décomposition
has gone no further, but in others another change took place the
felspars being decomposed into quartz, caîcite, and kaolin, while the
chlorite was gradually dissolvecl out, leaving the rocks nearly white,
but coloured grey by small specks of iron ore. At the same time the
titaniferous iron ore was changed into an opaque white minerai called
leucoxene, giving the rock a spotted appearance. In some cases a
still further change took place, the iron oxides being hydrated and
gradually removed, and the calcite leached out, leaving nothing but
quartz, kaolin, leucoxene, and pyrites.

The first séries of changes took place at depths sufficientiy great
to be beyond the direct action of surface agents, and was probably
produced by the percolation 01 warm acidulated water. The second
set of changes were no doubt due to the direct action of cold carbo-
nated surface water in limited quantity ; and the third set 01 changes
to the same agent but in much larger quantity. The second and
third set of changes would be gradually brought about by the
removal of the overlying rocks by denudation. The first séries of

148 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

changes is probably connectée! with the volcanic action which caused
the éruption of the lava streams.

The pyrites fourni in the rocks was probably formed while the
first séries of changes was going ou, but would be quite independent
of them. Pyrites is never found as an original minerai in lava
streams, but is always formed subsequently from the magnetite by
the passage of sulphuretted hydrogen through the rock.

The gold occurs in the veins in four différent ways (1) in auri-
ferous pyrites, (2) scattered in small grains through massive quartz,
(3) in threads or scales between the points of quartz crystals in comby
veins, the quartz at the base of the crystals being often stained red,
and (4) in calcite, but only very rarely. It is never found enclosed
in a quartz crystal. The auriferous veins usually contain abundance
of pyrites, but other sulphides — stibnite, blende, arsenical-pyrites, and
copper-py rites — are in small quantity only, and thèse hâve been
introduced subsequently to the gold. The carbonates of lime and iron
hâve also been introduced into the veins after the quartz.

Now how far do thèse facts of décomposition of the rocks and of
précipitation in the veins tally with each other ? The iïrst change in
the rocks was the conversion of the ferro-magnesian constituents into
chlorite. Now thèse minerais are anhydrous bisilicates of lime,
magnesia, and iron, with some alumina ; while chlorite is a hydrous
magnesian unisilicate with some alumina. Consequently in the
process of transforming augite into chlorite ; silica, lime, and some
iron must hâve been liberated; and we can easily conceive that
the lime, being soluble, was entirely removed, while the silica and the
iron might hâve been deposited in the fissures and the iron converted
into pyrites by sulphuretted hydrogen. And if the ferro-magnesian
minerais originally contained gold it might hâve been in part
removed and deposited with the pyrites. During the second séries
of changes, which I hâve described, no more iron would be removed,
but the whole of the chlorite with the remaining gold would be
dissolved with the silica of the felspars and auriferous quartz would be
deposited in the veins. If the décomposition of the felspars took
longer than that of the chlorites, which is very probable, pure
crystallised quartz might subsequently be deposited on the auriferous
quartz. In the third séries of changes the carbonates, which had
been formed during the second séries of changes, would be dissolved
and part may hâve been deposited occasionally on the quartz.

It will be thus seen that the two sets of facts tally very well, but
there is no apparent reason why the sulphides of antimony, zinc,
arsenic, and copper, should hâve been formed subsequently to the
pyrites. Absence of gold in the well crystallised quartz shews that
silica continued to be removed after ail the gold had gone ; and we
might account for the fine threads and scales of gold between the points
of quartz crystals by snpposing that during the second or third séries
of changes, the auriferous pyrites in the veins was, in some places,
dissolved and that the gold was redeposited, while the sulphur and
most of the iron was removed as sulphate of iron, nothing but red
stains 1 eing left behind.

REMARK ABLE HAILSTORM.

149

The only assumption that has been made is that the ferro-
raagnesian minerais originally contained gold, and this assumption is
warrantable because, botk in Europe and in North America, gold and
silver as well as many other metals hâve actually been found to exisfc
in small quantity in thèse ferro-magnesian minerais, and Mr. Becker
has shewn, almost conclusively, that the gold of the Comstock Iode
has been derived from them. If this hypothesis is the true one for
the Thames, I should expect that, as the whole of the gold in the
veins in the hard dark rocks is due to the first set of changes, it would
exist chiefly as aurif erous pyrites, while in the softer and more decom-
posed rocks more gold would be added in auriferous quartz without
pyrites. This however is based on the supposition that the gold has
not travelled far in the fissures, which may be incorrect. Another
déduction from the hypothesis is that the pyrites in the rock, away
from the veins, is non-aurif erous, for it is formed directly from the
magnetite, while the auriferous pyrites has been formed from iron
origiLally in the ferro-magnesian minerais, part of which may
however hâve been subsequently deposited as secondary magnetite.

THE REMARKABLE HAILSTORM AT OWAKA,
IN JANUARY LAST.

BY J. T. BRYANT.

An extraordinary hailstorm took place on the 23rd January, 1891,
at Owaka, Clutha County, Otago, N.Z. The storm covered ground
about 16 miles long by from half-a-mile to a mile wide. It commenced
at the head of the valley and travelled down to the sea. At the head
of the valley the hail began to descend first, and fell in large lumps like
potatoes, about 3J inches long by 2J inches ; as they fell on the soft
ground they buried themselves. When they fell on grassy land they
rebounded several feet into the air, and when they fell on corrugated
iron roofs they broke through or split the iron open. One place was
seen where the iron overlapped and the two parts were cracked. As
the storm came down the valley, the pièces of ice diminished in size but
increased in number and quanti ty until it reached the lower part, wheie
I observed it. Hère, after the storm, I picked up several pièces and
found them to be from 4^ to 5^ inches in circumference, but the
greater number were about the size of a blackbird's egg, and when split
open showed a core about the size of a pea, with three and sometimes
four distinct coats surrounding it.

At the head of the valley the pièces of ice lay on the ground like
potatoes on a newly dug field, and little or no damage was done to the
crops there ; but where the storm passed over the forest it broke ofF the
small branches of the trees. The greatest damage was done in the
lower part of the valley where the standing ciops of oats were beaten
down and not one stalk left standing. The edge of the storm where it

I50 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

went tlirougli a field was quite distinct. In two cases the fariner
afterwards rcaped the onc-lialf of the field not so severely affected.

For two or three days previously the weatlier had been very warm.
At 3.30 p. ni. on the 23rd, black clouds began to gather and thimder to
roll, m half-an-hour more the thunder commenced to rattle incessantly
and so continned for an honr. I saw no lightning except a brown
flash or two, as if a bird had flown swiftly by; but the lightning
showed itself in large sheets in the next valley, five miles north, where
no bail fell.

The tlninder advanced until it was nearly over head, but it seemed
a great many miles off. Long banks of cloncls came from the cast and
then ascended straight np. About 5 p.m. I conld see the storm coming
down the valley. Presently it reached the house. The view of ail
objects a hundred yards distant was shut ont by the downponr of
hailstones ; tliey battered the roof as if determined to crash it down ;
they struck the panes of glass in the Windows and hurled the fragments
across the room. The noise was terrifie. We placée! the children in
the strongest room in the house, for we momentarily expected the roof
to be crushed in. The ground outside was white with liait ; streams of
water rushed wildly in ail directions, for it was the middle of sumnier
and the ice melted as it fell. Ln about twenty minutes the storm had
passed. Heaps of ice lay in varions places from 15 to 20 inches deep.
The largest pièces of ice appeared to be made up of several smaller ones
frozen together for they were of very irregular shape. I send a rough
map of the district with the course of the storm outlined, showing the
place of greatest density. There was no wind. The largest pièces of
ice were not cubical ; they were flattish, long, and broad, but not very
deep. Some were clear, and others milky-white. There had been a
heavy shower of rain early in the morning.

From the évidence, collected from half-a-dozen reliable men and
from the position of the broken oat stalks, as well as from my own
observation, I feel inclined to the folio wing theory : —

The cloudy envelope over the valley became charged with electricity
to an extraordinary degree, until it became an electric storm which
began to circle round and to ascend into very high régions, carrying
with it masses of vapour. The higher masses of vapour were first
converted into ice-drops ; thèse were dashed together and congealed,
forming the largest ice pièces. The lower masses of vapour were then
changed into bail. The largest pièces being the first formecl were the
first to fall, increasing their size as they fell through those below. The
smaller bail came from the centre of the storm nearest to the earth.
The whole must hâve resembled the figure usually given of a water-
spout ; but in this case the water was turned into ice-drops.

[Mr. Bryant's interesting account is drawn partly from his own
observations, and in part from the évidence of a number of settlers in
the Owaka district who were eye-witnesses of, and in some cases,
sufferers by the storm, viz. : — Rev. W. G. McLaren, Messrs. Morton
(who was at the head of the valley and measured the hailstones just
after they fell), McCalman, junr., Clapperton, Todd, Dalton, Young,
and others. A correspondent of the Clutha Leader says : — " The iron

FRESH-WATEE MUSSELS. 151

roof of Mr. Brugh's woo]-shed was riddled. Mr. Garry had also 21
holes made in his iron roof by the hail." In Mr. Jno. Thomson's house
a new iron roof ineasuring 43 feet by 36 feet had 53 holes knocked
throngh it. Mr. Morton reports having measured a pièce of ice which
fell that day, and which was 12 inches long by 5 inches broad —
thickness not given. He also says — "I measured a nmnber of hail-
stones which averaged 3| inches in diameter." Owins to the war

ning

given by the dense gathering of the clouds and the preliminaiy thunder
neither people nor cattle were hurt, as ail had time to get under shelter.
— Edit.1

THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE
FRESH-WATER MUSSELS.

BY DE. H. VON JHERING, OF P.IO GRANDE DO SUL.
(From "Das Ausland fur Erd-und Vôlkerkunde, " 1890, Stuttgart).

The exchange of mammals between NTorth and South America
took place only towards the end of the tertiary period. The Okl
World with North America seems to be the land where the placental
mammals originated ; those families which are characteiïstic of South
America, especially the Kodentia, occurred in early tertiary times
only in Europe not in Nforth America, and South America, therefore
must hâve obtained its original stock of mammals from the Old
World. The subsidence of the old communicating bridge (the
Atlantis) and the continuance of the central- American sea up to the
end of the tertiary epoch gave, in conséquence of the long isolation,
the peculiar character to the South American fauna. The littoral
marine mollusca will in time help to identify the extension of the still
fabulous Atlantis. The number of molluscs already known from
South America and the Antilles on one side, from the Mediterranean
and West coast of Africa on the other side, is already considérable.
Recently some Nudibranchiatse, hitherto known only from the Medi-
terranean and the East Atlantic Océan, hâve been found : Boris
verrucosa on the coast of Brazil by myself, and Tethys leporina in the
Gulf of Mexico by Bergh.

The geographical distribution, together with the geological
appearance and distribution of the mammals during the tertiary
period gives an excellent opportunity for ascertaining the distribution
of land and water during that period. But for the Secondary epoch,
when there were hardly any placental mammals, thèse means are of
no avail. Hère the fauna of the fresh-water may help us. On study-
ing the fresh-water fishes with regard to their distribution it is
surprising to find that they show quite différent geographical régions
to those of the land-fauna. A map of the différent régions of fresh-
water fishes has quite another aspect than one on which Waliace's
régions of the land-fauna are entered.

I52 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

This fact lias hitherto been much neglected, nor has it been
satisfactorily explainod. Is it not surprising in the higkest degree to
see on suck a map Ckile and Patagonia separated from the remaining
part of South America, and united with New Zealand ? We shall see
that the fresh-water mollusca show a similar appearance. And yet
the explanation is not difficult to be given. The study of the fresh-
water mollusca shows that the earliest palœontological gênera are at
the same time cosmopolitan or most widely distributed in ail parts of
the earth and on many of the larger islands, the gênera Planorbis,
Physa, Limnœa, and Ancylus are found.

Ail thèse gênera appear already in the Jura, partly even in the
the Carboniferous and represent the oldest, palœozic fresh-water fauna.
The genus Unio shows very much the same distribution, appearing
also already in the Jura formation, whilst ail the gênera of the
Najadœ, coming into existence much later, hâve a perfectly différent
geographical distribution. Especially Anodonta, which appears only
in the tertiary period, and Ampidlaria and its nearest allies show a
much narrower distribution, they are missing both in Chilo and West
Peru as well as in New Zealand and Australia. When thèse gênera
originated and began to spread, there was evidently no land-com-
munication between the Asiatic continent and its islands, and
Australasia. The numerous species of those gênera could therefore
not reach Australia and New Zealand.

A similar case lies before us in the fresh-water fauna of Chile
and Peru, which shows the old fresh-water gênera, but not the
younger gênera Ampullaria and Anodonta.

Besides some widely distributed gênera, the f amily of the Najadœ
has a number of smaller gênera, some of thôni inhabiting Africa, but
the greater number South America. Of the latter belong to the
Anodonta group : Aplodon, Spix (Monocondylœa), Mycetopus and
Columba (Leila) \ to the Unio group : Hyria, Castalia and Castalina.

Ail the Najadœ of South America just mentioned are nearly
related, as shown by the mode of hatching the embryos. The South
American embryos are developed in the internai branchice, whilst the
European Najadœ hatch their larvœ in the external branchise.
Nothing is known of the development of the African Najadœ.
Perhaps they will show some of the peculiarities of the South
American Najadœ.

The distribution of the gênera of the Najadœ over South America
is very peculiar. West of the Andes, in Peru and Chile, the genus
Unio alone is found, which occurs also everywhcre in the eastern
parts. In the latter parts of South America we find in addition the
afore-mentioned gênera, peculiar to this country.

Previous to the upheaval of the Andes, in the place of the Chile
of to-day, there must hâve been land in existence richly provided with
fresh water ; which is proved by the gênera of fresh-water animais
common to Chile and La Plata. The fauna of the La Plata and Rio
Grande do Sul waters is much richer than that of Chile, but the
gênera of the latter are also found east of the Andes. Amongst the
Najada) is : —

FRESH-WATER MUSSELS. 153

Unio auratus, from Chile, closely allied to Unio rliuacoicus of Uruguay

„ araucanus „ „ „ „ „ faba „

„ atratus „ „ „ „ ,, lepidior „

„ montanus „ „ „ „ „ Beskeanus of S. Paulo.

They are so nearly allied that the question may be raised whether
they belong to one species or not.

Of Crustacea, Parastacus and uEglœa lœvis are common to Chile
and Rio Grande do Sul, the latter having in both places the parasite
Temnocephala. Most important is the relation between the La Plata
and Chile fauna. The upheaval of the Andes in the beginning of the
tertiary period divided a formerly united territory into two parts,
between which no more exchange was possible. The gênera and
species common to both parts represent the original stock of fresh-
water animais, but what is only found in Eastern South America
represents the tertiary addition, coming from the East.

AU we know about fossil fresh-water mollusca confirms this
hypothesis. The only genus of the Najadœ reaching far in the
Secondary epoch is the genus Unio, and this is the most widely
distributed, the only one really cosmopolitan. As in Chile, no
Anodonta hâve been found in Australia and New Zealand, nor
Ampullaria either, though this genus is nowhere missing from the
Philippine Islands to Brazil. Dr. Giïnther unités the fresh-water
fishes of Chile and New Zealand in one région ; the study of the
Najadœ confirms it. Unio mutabilis, Lea, found in New Zealand and
Australia, has its nearest ally in Unio auratus of Chile.

The absence of alligators and turtles from Western South
America can only be explained by their immigration having taken
place in tertiary times. As in Najadœ there is also a very great
différence in the Chelonia of North and South America. A fauna
common to North and South America does not exist, but on the
contrary only the greatest contrasts. This fact can only be
understood by admitting a séparation up to the end of the tertiary
epoch.

The iresh-water fishes of North America are those of the
palœarctic région; but the Characinidœ, Chromidœ, &c, of South
America hâve their représentatives in Africa, There must hâve been
land communication between Africa and South America. The
African Testudo sulcata is also found in Patagonia.

Of the Pontaderiœ, common in South America, not only several
gênera, but also one species, Eicliliomia natans, occur in tropical
Africa, besides Pistia stratiotes, Lemna polyrhiza and other Brazilian
water-plants. The world-wide distribution of many species of water-
plants, from East Prussia to Australia, and from South America to
East India could not be understood if we did not suppose that they
are very old forms, existing already in the Secondary period, and
whose distribution occurred at a time when the now scparated
continents were continuons.

The marine littoral mollusca of East and West America consist,
with the exception of one ^iplionaria and Cuspidaria patogonica, of
quite différent species and partly of différent gênera.

154 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

It seems that during thc Secondary period there were four more
or lcss continuons lands; three archî-continents formed, an arctic,
an antarctic and a tropic atlantic. The first is identical with Heil-
prin's holarctic région. The connexion between Europe and North
America nmst hâve been more extended, vfhilst there was, up to the
tertiary period, no land communication [with South America, or at
least only formed by a numbcr of islands.

The connexion between South America and Africa seems to be
eonfirmed also by the as yet but little studied Xajadœ. The African
Iridina imdSpatha havetheir nearest allies in Mycetopus and Anodonta
of South America, Iridina, or similar forms, are also found in the
eocene fresh-water dcposits of Brazil, which very likely are erroneously
considered by White as cretaceous. Even in Australia and Asia we
nnd a Mycetopus or allied genus. Tliose fragile, elongated, iridina-like
forms are therefore those which appear next to Unio. Their scanty
distribution in Australia and absence from New Zealand and Chile
show that the land-bridge which once existed between Australia and
the Indo-Malayan territory disappeared during, or shortly after, the
cretaceous epoch, at which time the immigration of Mycetopus had
takcn place. H ad it been longer in existence, Australia would also
hâve received a stock of placental mammals î The tertiary gênera of
the Nagadœ and the Amjmllariœ could therefore not reach Australia
nor New Zealand.

Many observations on the structure of the umbo seem to prove a
near connexion between the African and South American Unio, but
only the examination of the animais can solve the question.

Additional to the archiboreal and archiatlantic continents there
would be the archiaustral continent, reaching from Chile over New
Zealand to Australia.

The study of the fresh-water fauna will help us principally or
perhaps exclusively to gain a proper knowledge of the geographical
distribution of the organisms during the Secondary epoch as well as
for the distribution of land and water during that period.

ON THE GREAT OAR-FISH.*

BY H. O. FOKBES.

On the morning of the 28th of May I received a note from Mr.
Warnes, the fishmonger, requesting me to inspect a curious fish
eaught in Okain's Bay, Banks Peninsula, on the 26th, and which he
was bringing up to town that day. On its arrivai in Christchurch in
the afternoon I found the fish to be a species of Reycdecus, or oar-fish
of umisually large proportions.

Jù'jalecus is a genus of fishes beloDging to the family Trachyp-
t&'idcp, or ribbon-fishes. According to Dr. GUnther, of the British

A paper communicated to the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury.

ON THE GREAT OAR-FISH. 155

Muséum, they " are true deep sea fislies, met with in ail parts of the
océan, generally found when floating dead on the surface or thrown
ashore by the waves. Their body is like a band, spécimens from 15
to 20 feet long being only from 10 to 12 inches deep, and about an
inch or two broad at their thickest part. The eye is large and
latéral ; the mouth small, armed with very feeble teeth, or altogether
wanting them; the head deep and short A high dorsal fin runs
along the whole length of the back, and is supported by extremely
numerous and fragile rays; its foremost portion on the head is
detached from the rest of the fin, and is composed of very elongate
flexible spines." There is no anal fin. The ventral fins are reduced
to a single long filament, terminating in an oar-blade-like expansion.
The coloration of the body is of a beautiful glistening hue, like frosted
silver, admirably set off by the rich rosy red colour of their dorsal
and ventral fins. Black spots and irregular streaks, especially in the
front part of the body, contribute their share toward the effective
adornment of this singular fish. " At what depth Ribbon-fishes live
is not known; probably the depths vary for différent species, but
although none hâve yet been obtained by means of the deep sea
dredge, they must be abundant in ail océans, as dead fishes, or
fragments of them, are frequently obtained. There is no doubt that
fishes with such délicate appendages as their crest and ventral fins,
are bred and live in depths where the water is absolutely quiet, as a
sojourn in the disturbed water of the surface would deprive them at
once of organs which must be of some utility for their préservation."
The Oar-fishes are the largest of the deep-sea fishes known. They
dérive their name from the singular form of their ventral fins, which
reduced to one long slender and fragile filament, terminating in
an oar-blade-like expansion which, projecting from its sides for a
distance, in our spécimen, of nearly 3J feet, are functionally useless.

The Regaleci, or Oared-Ribbon fishes, hâve been taken in the
Mediterranean, in the North and South Atlantic, and in the Indian
océans ; in Australian waters, one has been taken off the coast of
Victoria, and several on the shores of this colony ; but they are very
scarce, not more than twenty captures having been recordcd from
England in the space of a century and a-half, and not more than
thirteen from the coasts of Norway. The présent spécimen is the
tenth caught in New Zealand. I take from a paper read before the
Otago Institute by Professor Parker, F.R.S., Avho has compiled a list
of thèse captures up to the date of his communication, describing the
eighth species taken on our coast, the following notes : — Of thèse one
wascaptured at Nelson in 1860, a second at Jackson's Bay in 1874,
another (Regalecus imcificus, Haast) which is now in the Oanterbuvy
Muséum, as well as a drawing of it by Dr. Powell, was caught at New
Brighton in 1876; a fourth was cast ashore on Little Waimangarao
beach, on the West Coast of the South Tslaud ; a fifth (R. bccnksil) at
Cape Farewell in 1877; the sixth v^as thrown on the shore near
Moeraki about the year 1881, ancl near the same place the seventh
also (Regalecus argenteus, Parker) on the 14th June, 1883, whose
skeleton is now in the British Muséum, South Kensington ; the
eighth — a spécimen of the same species — :ame ashorj in Otago
Harbour about ten miles north of Dunedin, on June 3r 1. 1857, and

156 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

is now in the Otago Muséum, while the ninth was taken in Nelson
Earbour on the 23rd September, 1890. Of the fewer than twenty
spécimens captured in England, eleven arc referable, the same author
observes, to a single specics (Regalecus banksii), while one is assigned
tu Regalecus grittii. The spécimen captured in May, 1878, between
Victoria and Tasmania lias been identified by Sir Fred. McCoy as
R galecus banksii. Taking as oui* guide, however, the key to the
species of Regalecus given by Professor Parker in vol. xvi. of the
"Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," it ought, it would
appear, to bear the name of R. grillii, on account of the number of
its dorsal fin rays. This spécimen bas been described and figured by
Sir Frederick in the iifteenth décade of the Prodromus of the Zoology
of Victoria. After a careful comparison of the descriptions and figures
of the species of Regalecus known to me, I hâve corne to the conclusion
that the species that lias been exhibited during the past week in Christ-
church is identical with that taken off the Australian coast, viz., to
the species described by Lindroth, under the name of Regalecus grillii.
In an addendum to his paper in the twentieth volume of the
" Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," Professor Parker, who
while writing his excellent monograph on R. argenteus, gave the
literature of the subject his careful attention, writes : — " Everything
seems to lead to the conclusion that most of the supposed species of
Regalecus are identical, and that the more récent spécifie names
(including argenteus) will hâve to give way, probably in favour of
Ascanius's original name glesne." The synonomy of the species is
rather involved, and the works necessary to its elucidation are not
within my attainment hère. Professor Parker's opinion, however, is
entitled to very great weight, and the observations on the présent
spécimen tend to support it. This new spécimen, therefore, ought
stiïctly to be denominated R. glesne; but for the présent I shall
speak of it under the name R. grillii, to indicate that in my opinion it
belongs to the same species as Lindroth described.

This fish had been exhibited in Lyttelton, I believe, befere being
brought to Christchurch, and had unfortunately, in its various
transports, and perhaps also in its capture — for it was still alive
when caught — suftered to some extent. It had lost much of its
brilliant colouring, and most of the singular rays of its crest, as well
as received damage to the long rays of the ventral fins. With
thèse exceptions, however, the spécimen was a particularly fine and
complète one. The Regaleci being deep sea denizens are generally
found to hâve suffered on approaching the surface, from the expansion
of their internai gases, conséquent on the diminution of pressure;
but the spécimen under description showed no signs of any "loosening
or tearing of its ligaments and tissues," by its ascent to the surface of
the sea.

The name Regalecus means King of the Herrings, because one of
the carliest spécimens taken on the British coast was first seen on the
11 herring ground," and being of a silvery hue, as is also the herring,
the fishermen imagined they had discovered a mighty herring.

It bas been supposed that the Sea Serpents so often observed,
Lut never caught, may probably be spécimens of great oar-fishes

ON THE GREAT OAR-FISH. 1 57

swimming near the surface, a supposition I do not myself feel
inclined to subscribe to.

The following notes were drawn up under considérable dis-
advantages, owing to the fish being under exhibition at the time,
and that in a very badly-lighted room. I had to writc ainidst a
talkative crowd, while my observations were confined to the one side
— naturally the best — exposed to the public. Imperfect as they may
be, I lay them before the Institute as a contribution toward our
better knowledge — still very imperfect — of this rare genus of fishes.

It is remarkable that ail the New Zealand spécimens hâve been
found on the South Island; and like ail the other spécimens,
European or New Zealand, (except the Nelson Harbour one, which
was a maie), whose scx has been determined, the présent is a female,
and it has occurred on our shores at the same peiïod of the year (the
Spring and early winter), as they hâve invariably done.

In order to facilitate comparison with the observations recorded
by Prof. Parker in the Transactions of this Institute for 1887, I shall
arrange my notes under the same heads and in the order adopted by
him.

Size, Proportions and Number of Fin Ray s. — It will be seen from
the accompanying measurements that the présent is the largest
spécimen of Regalecus yet taken on the coast, its length being 1 8 f eet
10 inches, with its protrusile mouth not extended. It is probable,
however, that it does not exceed by much the length attained by
Prof. Parker's Otago Harbour spécimen when complète. This
spécimen was broken across, and he conjectures that it was most
likely about 1 7 feet in length. Its ribbon-like form is indicated by
the proportion of its height to its length, which was y1^, the New
Brighton spécimen was TT, the Moeraki spécimen, sent to London,
-^q, while the Victorian spécimen was still more band-like, its height
being only -^ of its total length. The Otago harbour spécimen is
given as TT, but if this were corrected for the length that the fish is
conjectured, as stated above, to hâve reached, the proportion of
height to length would closely approximate to that of the Okain's Bay
example. In this spécimen the neck crest is damaged, and a gap
occurs in the dorsal fin, so that it is clirncult, with absolute accuracy,
to détermine the number of fin rays. Taking 14, the number given
by Professor Parker in the Otago Harbour spécimens, as the probable
number hère, thèse were succeeded by 221 rays anterior to the gap,
in which 1 7 were made out, — but there may hâve been one more, — and
succeeded by 170 more to the termination of the tail, giving in ail
422, which cornes very close to the number recorded by Lindroth in
R. G?'illii, and by Professor McCoy in the Yictorian spécimen, which
is 423.

Tail. — In the présent spécimen the tail is almost perfect, a mère
fraction onhy being possibly absent. It terminâtes in a point, and is
curved upwards for its terminal few inches. The dorsal fin extended,
I am convinced, to, but it did not pass, I am certain, the extrême
point. Its fin rays hâve been broken off for the last few inches, but
with a magnifying glass it was possible to detect their broken
extremities. There is, therefore, no caudal fin. There

158 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

of any old fracture having at any time taken place, as the body
graduâtes gently from bead to tail. It would seem, tberefore, tbat
tbe supposition tbat tbe end of tbe tail " bas been lost as a useless
appendage at a mucb earlier period of tbe life of the fisb," wbicb bas
arisen from tbe circumstances tbat tbese fisbes are so often found in
a truncated condition, is probably groundless, and tbeir mutilation is
merely tbe resuit of accident. Moreover as tbe stomacb bas an
extraordinary caecal prolongation wbicb extends for many feet bebind
tbe anus, it is évident tbat a loss of any considérable lengtb of its tail
would probably be fatal to tbe fisb.

Colour and Markings. — In gênerai appearance tbe fisb presented,
on its arrivai in Cbristcburcb, numerous brigbt silvery patcbes, and
indications tbat tbis colour bad covered tbe wbole gênerai surface of
tbe fisb. Tbese patcbes were eventually lost, and tbe fisb assumed a
ligbt greyisb colour. Its crest, its dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins
bad faded to a dark salmon red colour. In some ligbts it could be
detected tbat dark spots and stripes bad been dispersed over tbe
anterior part of tbe body, but tbey bad almost faded out at tbe date
of examination. As to tbeir number, form, and situation, I can,
tberefore, speak witb no certamty. On tbe sides of tbe body tbere
are five (5) well-defined black bars or ridges, running longitudinally.
Tbese bands on examination proved to be composed of raised
tubercles, and tbey are distinctly separated by interspaces, wbicb
in tbe fresb fisb would be brigbt silvery stripes, quite free of
tubercles, as a sensitive finger passed along tbem discovers only tbe
very finest skin granulations. Above tbe uppermost of tbese bars,
and separated by a smooth interspace, a broader tuberculated band
extends up to tbe base of tbe dorsal fin. Tbe tubercles in tbis band
are not so rougb as on tbe latéral bars. Toward the tail and at a
few feet anterior to it tbese bars become lost, and excbange tbeir
dark colour for a silvery wbite. Tbe second, wbicb is tbe most
prominent of ail, runs furtbest along tbe body and is finally lost at
two feet from tbe tail, where tbe tubercuiation entirely ceases and tbe
rest of tbe body is soft and glistening. Tbe first true bar and tbe
sub-dorsal fin-band pass forward, whicb is not tbe case witb tbe
otbers, and terminate tbe front of tbe bead above tbe anterior margin
of tbe eye. Tbe latéral line cuts tbe second, third, and fourtb true
bar (or ridge) a little posterior to tbe bead margin of tbe operculum,
wbile tbe fiftb follows tbe latéral line for a great part of its lengtb.
Tbe ventral surface is very rougbly tuberculated, rougber tban any
otber part of tbe body, tbe tubercles presenting a suspicion of points.
Bebind tbe anus tbe surface is very dark coloured, and was probably
black in tbe living fisb.

In its internai anatomy tbis oar-fisb agreed so closely witb tbat
already described as to require no further remark bere. Tbe liver,
howeyer, must arrest tbe attention of anyone opening tbe body of

Uecvs by its pink colour, From tbis organ, wben placed in spirit,
escaped a very large quantity of a deep salmon-coloured oil. In tbe
ovaria tberc were very minute ova, but, as in ail tbe otber spécimens
hitherto examined, tbey were unimpregnated, as tbe winter is
evidently not tbeir breeding season.

Tbe lïegalec/.'.s bas no teetb; and I found in tbe œsopbagus only a

VEGETATION OF LORD HOWE ISLAND. 159

gelatinous glairy fluid, mingled with a quantity of very fine grey
sand, whfle the food in the stomach consisted of finely-comminuted
matter, entirely structureless under the microscope, lt is probable,
that Regalecus finds its food in the minute animal forais, or débris,
among the fine sand at the bottom of sfcill, deep waters.

As was found in the gigantic skate recently thrown on the
Sumner coast, this Regalecus was infested to an extraordinary degree
with intestinal worms, thousands extruding themselves from the
liver as it lay on the table. They were found in the œsophagus also.
Perhaps thèse fishes become infested during the winter season with
those parasites, and in their désire to rid themselves, it may be that
they seek shallower water and are thus thrown on our coasts, by
currents, in a dying state.

I hâve to record my thanks to Mr. Warnes and the syndicate
exhibiting this fish for their extrême courtesy and good nature in
allowing myself and my assistant to intrude on their show whenever
we desired, in order to make the notes recorded above, and especially
for their kindness in permitting us to remove the fish from its stand
for the purpose of obtaining a photograph of it.

I am indebted also to Mr. Sparks, the taxidermist of the
Muséum, for his help and care in taking the measurements.

VEGETATION OF LORD HOWE ISLAND.

BY W. BOTTING HEMSLEY.

(From " Nature," April 16th, 1891).

There is nothing absolutely new to announce concerning the
flora of this remote islet but what has been published in the form of
Government reports, which hâve a comparatively restricted circulation,
and many persons who would be interested in their contents are
unaware of their existence. And even when one knows of the exis-
tence of such reports, it is often difficult to procure them. Through
the intermediary of Sir Saul Samuel, Agent-General for New South
Wales, the library of the Royal Gardens, Kew, has just received a
copy of a report on the state and prospects of Lord Howe Island,
with a number of photographie illustrations of the scenery and végé-
tation of the island ; and it is on account of thèse illustrations that I
hâve thought it worth while making known to the readers of Nature
the existence of such a report, though it was published as long ago as
1882. Unlike the majority of such documents, this report is too
meagre : " Thompson's farm " and other matters being mentioned
and illustrated in such a manner as to take for granted an amount of
previous knowledge that very few readers could possîbly hâve
possessed.

Although so remote and so small, Lord Howe island supports an
indigenous flora of a highly interesting character, especially inte-

IÔO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

resting because it includes some plants whose nearest allies are
natives of New Zealand. ïhe island is about 300 miles from Port
Macquarie, tlie nearest point of tlie Australian mainland, in 31° 30'
S. latitude. It is seven miles long, with an average breadth of about
a mile, and tlie basait mountains rise to a height of nearly 3000 feet.
The soil is fertile, and is, or rather was, everywhere covered with
végétation. The scenery is beautiful ; the climate is described as
unsurpassable, and a great future is predicted for the island as a
sanatorium, "when the Australian colonies become more densely
inhabited." Without waiting for the time when Australia will be
crowded with inhabitants, Lord Howe Island might be made a
pleasant holiday resort, involving just enough of a sea voyage to be
exciting and exhilarating, and not long enough to be monotonous.

The most complète account of the flora yet published is by Mr.
Charles Moore, Director of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, N.S.W.,
though many of the new plants then— 1869 — collected by him hâve
since been published in various books and periodicals. The domi-
nating feature in the végétation is composed of palms, of which there
are three or four species peculiar to this island — a condition of things
paralleled in remote insular floras only in the Seychelles. Next in
interest and prominence are the four or five endémie species of tree
ferns, which, however, we are informed, in the illustrated report
referred to, by the Hon. J. Bowie Wilson (botany by Mr. J. Duff),
are fast disappearing from the lowlands, and will soon be extinct if
their removal is not absolutely prohibited. In this connection one is
gratified to find both the chief of the Commission of Exploration, and
the botanist attached thereto, strongly urging the Government to
take active steps to préserve the beautiful végétation of the island, and
especially to make no concessions, nor grant any leases that might
entail any further destruction of the woods. Commonest among
the other trees are Hibiscus Patersonii, Myoporum acuminatum, and
Ochrosia clliptica—&\\ three Australian trees ; one or more species of
Ficus, and one or more endémie species of screw-pine. One of the
vegetable wonders of the island is a huge banyan-tree (Ficus sp.), said
to cover three acres of ground ; but no particulars are given of this
remarkable tree, beyond a photograph of a portion of it. This is
rather disappointing, because of ail the famous banyan-trees in India,
some of which are encouraged by artificial means in the development
of the acrial descending roots, which eventually become auxiliary
trunks, few surpass in size this one, on such a speck of an island.
The celebrated banyan between Poona and Kolapore, in the Bombay
Presidency, is, indeed, the only one, of which 1 hâve found a record,
that covers a greater area than the Lord Howe Island banyan, and
that, according to measurements given of the spread of its branches,
must cover between six and seven acres.

In striking contrast to the flora of Australia, the flora of Lord
Howe Island, like that of New Zealand, contains exceedingly few
sp ciefl of the large natural order Leguminosse. Out of five species
collected, three are common sea-side plants that often establish
themselves on a shore from seeds cast up by the waves. Of the
other two, one belongs to the otherwise exclusively New Zealand
genus Carmichaelia, and the other, Sophora chrysophylla, is also a

TITE BOTANY OF THE SNARES. l6l

native of the mountains of the Sandwich Islands, and has hitherto
been found nowhere between thèse two distant parts of the immense
Pacific Océan, and nowhere else in the world. From the foregoing
notes inay be gathered what an interesting flora that of Lord Howe
Island is, and it is to be hoped that the recommendations of the
Commissioners for its préservation hâve been carried out by the
Government of New South Wales.

THE BOTANY OF THE SNARES.

BY T. KIRK, F.L.S.

Tlie Snares comprise several rocky islands situate on the 48th
parallel of south latitude and about 65 miles in a south-westerly
direction from the extrême southem point of Stewart Island. . Owing
to their being outside the direct track of vessels they are but rarely
visited, so that hitherto nothing bas been known of their fauna or
flora. My visit was restricted to a few hours in January, 1890, when
I was able to lancl on the largest island, which is of irregular outline
and about a mile and a half in its greatest diameter. The clifFs are
steep and lofty, but a good boat harbour exists on the north-east side.
The rocks are granitic, and the greatest altitude does not exceecl 480
feet. The rocks are everywhere coverecl with a deep layer of peat.

There is but little fresh water on the island ; two small rills issuing
from swampy ground unité before reaching the clifFs, but the water is
undrinkable, being polluted by the penguins ; and the few swamp-
plants that occur exist under difficulties, being continually flattened
under the broad feet of thèse birds, which abound everywhere, their
numbers being but little reduced by the predaceous sea-hawks, which
swoop down upon unguarded eggs or young birds, and are almost ready
to attack man himself.

The crested penguins (Eudyptes ixichyrhynchus) exercise an injurious
effect upon large portions of the woody végétation; they sélect sheltered
places with an open aspect, where they perch upon the trees in vast
numbers, forming large "rookeries" ; the trees thus honoured by their
présence are soon killed by their pungent ordure. Various pétrels — the
" mutton-birds " of the Maoris — forai their burrows amongst the roots
of the trees, and may be heard mewing and puling in ail directions.
Several interesting land birds inhabit the island, the more noticeable
being the Auckland Island Snipe (Gallinago Aucklandica) ; the grass
bird (Sphœneacus fulvus), although now rare on the mainland, was
fréquent on this little island, and associated with a small robin (Miro
Traversii) only known elsewhere on the Chatham Islands. The
occurrence of birds with such weak power of flight on thèse lonely
islands is very suggestive.

The true fur-seal was formerly plentiful on the Snares, but has
almost become extirpated through the continuons visits of sealers, who
hâve unintentionally introduced a few plants from the mainland.

* From "The Journal of Botany."

IÔ2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The greater portion of the island is covered with light and occa-
sionally open bush, which never exceeds tbirty feet in height. In a
few places a dense scrubby growth of Veronica elliptica, five to eight
feet high, requires some exertion to force one's way through, the
difliculty being aggravated by the penguins, which make vicious snaps
at the legs, while the explorer is held fast by entangled branches above.
Usually a belt of open land covered with tussock occurs between tho
bush and the inargin of the cliff, and a few small open patches occur also
in the central parts of the island. In places where patches of bush hâve
been felled by sealers the ground is covered with a dense growth of
Veronica elliptica intermixed with tussock.

Approaching the island on a fine morning in January, the attention
is at once arrested by the peculiar grey or whitish hue of the foliage,
flecked hère and there with green on the lower margin of the bush.
On landing tins is found to arise from the abundance of Olearia Lyallii^
which is the principal tree on the island, and forms the greater portion
of the arboreal végétation. When growing in level situations of an
open character it is a noble erect tree, with rather open spreading
branches ; but when growing on sloping hillsides exposed to the wind
it is often inclined, or with a prostrate trunk, the roots> partly from
the burrowing of the pétrels, being torn out ; on the soil the branches
rooting at their tips give rise to new trunks, which in their turn are
brought to the ground and repeat the process. The short trunks are
sonietimes three feet in diameter, but the majority were from one to
two feet, the extrême height of the tree rarely exceeding twenty-eight
feet.

The mature leaves of this fine tree are excessively rigid and
coriaceous, with a very short, almost sheathing pétiole, orbicular-ovate
or broadly ovate, and abruptly acuminate, from three to seven inches in
length, white, with appressed tomentum on both surfaces, although that
on the upper surface usually disappears during the first winter. The
flower-heads are produced in terminal racemes from three to eight
inches in length, and are rayless; the rachis, peduncles, bracts, and
outer involucral leaves are clothed with close snow-white tomentum,
which forms a striking contrast with the almost black discoid heads,
mostly composed of perfect florets. The involucral leaves are arrangea!
in from five to eight séries.

Although this fine plant differs widely in its gênerai appearance
from 0. colensoi, it is difîicult to point out good distinctive characters.
It diverges chiefly in the more open habit, stouter branches, broader
leaves with the pubescence partially persistent above, and especially in
the involucral leaves being arranged in from five to eight séries ; the
last character alone being of any importance. The cultivator, however,
will always consider it distinct. It is restricted to the Snares and to
the Auckland Islands.

The patches of green amongst the white masses of the Olearia were
caused by another grand plant, Senecio Muelleri T. Kirk,* a noble
species originally described from spécimens collected on Herekopere
Island, but the spécimens in the original habitat are not nearly so
large as those on the Snares, where it attains the extrême height of

* "Transactions of New Zealand Institute," vol. xv., p. 359.

BOTANY OF THE SNARES. 163

twenty-six feet, with a short trunk two feet in diameter. The branches
are somewhat naked, so that the tree présents a straggling appearance,
but the handsome foliage and large terminal panicles of yellow flowers,
place it amongst the finest members of a large genus abounding in
grand species.

Veronica elliptica, which lias been already mentioned, complètes
the short list of ligneous plants ; it is, however, of a more robust form
than the plant found on Stewart Island and at the Bluff, the flowers
being larger, with pure white corollas, which are never pencilled or
streaked.

The open land is coverecl with tussocks of the fine grass Poafoliosa
Hook. f., a., freely interspersed with masses of Car ex trijida, the largest
of the New Zealancl species ; a few small plants of no great importance
are hidden away in the hollows between them.

One of the most interesting plants in the island is Colobanthus
muscoides. Hook. f., which hitherto has been considered endémie on the
Auckland, Campbell, and Macquarrie Islands, where it is plentiful. It
is rare and local on the Snares, and appears to be confined to a small
swamp in the centre of the island, but its discovery extends its northern
range fuliy 150 miles; subsequently I observed it on Antipodes Island,
which shows a still wider extension of its range in an easterly direction.
It forms rather large dense masses, the inner portion consisting of the
partially decomposed stems and leaves of old plants and the roots of
young plants. The seeds often germinate in the capsule, and it was no
uncommon thing to find capsules still attached to the stem, and with
apparently perfect seeds embedded some three or four inches below the
surface of the mass, the old surface having become covered with a
growth of young plants too quickly to allow of the germination of the
buried seeds.

Another interesting plant was a new Ligusticu7?i, which I hâve
named L. acutifolium ; it was only observed in one place, at an altitude
of about 350 feet above sea level ; its stems below the leaves were
nearly as thick as a man's wrist, the eiitire plant being four feet high :
a description is appended.

The most striking herbaceous plant is undoubtedly the punui,
Aralia Lyallii T. Kirk, var. robusta, the large orbicular leaves of
which are sometimes two feet in diameter. It differs from the typical
form in the absence of the remarkable stolons of that plant ; in the
pétioles being very stout, fiât on the upper surface and convex beneath,
giving a plano-convex section ; and in being solid, or nearly so, instead
of terete, thin-walled, and fistulose. The flowers also, although forming
equally large masses with the type, are individually smaller, and
invariably of a pale dull yellow hue, never lurid ; but there is no
structural différence, although it must be admitted that at first sight
the plant appears to cliffer widely from the type.

Lepidium oleraceum Forst. (" Cook's scurvy-grass ") was found in
one or two places on the cliffs, associated with Myosotis capitata var.
albida, a form not infrequent on the cliffs of Stewart Island.

The only ferns collected were Lomaria dura Moore, Asplenium
obtusatum Forster, and Asjndium aculeatum Swartz, var. vestitum. It

164 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

had long been thouglit possible that tree-ferns might extend to the
Snares, but none were observed. The extrême southern limit of tree-
fcrns therefore is the South Cape of Stewart Island, in S. latitude
47° 20\ instead of 45° 50\ as usually stated in our text-books.

A few naturalised plants hâve been introduced by the sealere,
and four or five indigenous species from the raainland hâve become
established in the Snares by the same agency.

The total number of Phanerogams and Ferns observed in the
island was under thirty, but my visit was too brief to allow of an
exhaustive examination being made ; it is not probable that any large
number of species will be added.

Mosses are exceptionally rare ; a few Lichens were observed, but
no Fungi or Hepaticre. No opportunity of coliecting Marine Algse
was afForded.

I append a description of the more remarkable species : —

Ligusticum acutifolium, sp. n. A stout herb 3-5 ft. high, root-
stock as thick as a man's wrist. Leaves 2 ft. long or more, 6"-9"
broad, oblong, or ovate-oblong, tripinnate ; segments large, acute ;
pétiole with the upper part of the sheath free, forming a ligule. Stem
stout, much branched; flowers not seen. Fruiting umbels 2//-2-J"
diameter, compound, dense ; carpels ■&* long, exceeding the pedicels,
3-5 ribbed.

Hab. The Snares.

A handsome species, allied to L. intermedium Hook, f. and L.
Lyàllii Hook. f., but distinguished from the former by the ligulate
pétiole, acute segments, smaller umbels, and shorter fruits \ from the
latter by the broad segments of the leaves and broad ligulate petiolate
sheath ; and from both alike by the absence of viscid, milky juice.
The sheathing bracts are leafy at the tips and unusually large, some-
times exceeding the flowering branches.

Aralia Lyàllii T. Kirk, var. robusta. — More robust and less hispid
than the type. Stolons absent. Pétioles flat above, convex below,
solid or nearly so ; teeth more strongly mucronate. Flowers smaller,
petals shorter, dull yellow.

Hab. The Snares.

The typical plant, which is found on Stewart Island and islands in
Foveaux Strait, has softer and more hairy foliage ; terete, thin-walled,
fistulose pétioles ; lurid, purple flowers ; stout stolons as thick as a
man's finger, and which are at first erect. No différence is presented
in the form of the leaves, the curious tubular ligule at the base of the
pétiole, nor in the structure of the fruit.

Deschamp sia gracillima, sp. n. — An erect, tufted, glabrous species.
Cul m very slender, 2//-5" high ; leaves in volute, narrow, almost filiform,
sheathfl sliglitly inflated ; ligule entire or lacerate. Panicle j"— 2* long,
open ; brandies few, capillary ; spikelets few, 2-flowered ; outer glumes
unequal, 5-nerved ; flowering glumes with a pencil of hairs at the base,
ovate, truncate, minutely 3-5-toothed, or else with a short dorsal awn
inserted just below the apex ; paler, minutely ciliated ; rachilla silky ;
lodicules 3 ; grain free.

BOTANY OF THE SNARES. 165

Hab. Carnley Harbour, Auckland Islands, 1,000 ft., T. Kirh.

The flowering glumes in some instances are deeply and evenly
toothed, in others the teeth are shallow, or the margin is merely erose.
The lower flower is sessile within the outer glumes ; the upper is
carried on a short stipe, which is invariably silky. The grain is very
large for the size of the flower.

Deschampsia Hookeri mihi. — Catabrosa antarctica Hook. f. FI.
Antarc. i. 102, t. 56 ; FI. N. Z. i. 308 ; Handbook K Z. FI. 330 ; J.
Buchanan, Indig. Grasses of N. Z., t. 41. Triodia, Benth. and Hook.
f. Gen. PI. iii. 1176.

Mr. N. E. Brown having referred this plant to Deschampsia, Pal.,
in the Kew Herbarium, a new spécifie name is rendered necessary, the
one which it bears as a Catabrosa having been appropriated to a Chilian
species, Aira antarctica Hook. f., which has been removed to Des-
champsia by M. Desvaux. No name can be more appropriate than
thàt of its original discoverer.

Culms very slender, erect or clecumbent, 3"— 18" high. Leaves
in volute, narrow or almost filiform, longer or shorter than the culms ;
sheaths slightly inflatecl, grooved ; ligule very long and narrow. Panicle
very slender 2//-8// long, contracted or effuse ; branches capillary, often
trichotomous ; spikelets few, pedicillate, glistening, 2-flowered ; outer
gis. unequal, obscurely 3-nerved; flowering gl. ovate, truncate, minutely
toothed or erose, obscurely 5-nerved, with a short awn inserted im-
mediately beneath the apex or 0, or with the médian nerve excurrent ;
palea equalling the flowering gl. ; rachilla glabrous or silky, often
reduced to a mère point. Lodicules 3. Anthers very short and broacl.
Grain free.

a. The larger outer glume equalling the lowest flower ; pedicel of
upper fl. glabrous or with a few short hairs ; awn présent or 0 ; rachilla
glabrous when présent.

b. The larger outer glume half the length of the lowest flouer,
pedicel of upper flower silky, awn usually présent, rachilla silky.

Hab. Central mountain range of the north and south islands.
Antipodes island. Auckland Islands. Campbell Island. Sea level to
5,000 ft. Also in Chili.

This plant aflbrds an instance of the clifîiculty attending the
limitation of the gênera of Grasses, on account of the distinctive
characters being chiefly drawn from organs usually considered to be
of but secondary importance. In some states ail the spikelets are
perfectly awnless ; in others the awn is represented by the short,
excurrent, médian nerve of the flowering glume alone, ancl when
présent is never inserted below the middle of the glume ; ail characters
in which it diverges from the typical form of Deschampsia. In some
instances the truncate flowering glume is minutely but distinctly
3-toothed, as in Triodia Br., to which it is referred by the learned
authors of the Gênera Plantarum ; in others it is rather waved at the
margin than erose, with or without a minute projection of the médian
nerve, and in this state rnay well be referred to Catabrosa Beauv., in
which it was originally placed by its discoverer, who evidently observée!
the close gênerai resemblance ot the flowers to those of Deschampsia.

I 66 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

It varies considerably in habit and stature, but in the fruiting
state the leaves are shorter than the culms, the panicle is usually effuse,
and the capillary branches rigid. Two forms are easily distingaished by
bhe relative lengths of the lowest flower and the largest outer glume, as
stated above ; the awn is usually situate just below the apex of the
flowering glume, and sometimes does not project beyond it, or but very
slightlv, when it is liable to be mistaken for a prolongation of the médian
nerve ; in niost cases, however, it is well developed and unmistakable,
but it is rarely situate below the upper third of the glume and never
below the middle. In some panicles the upper flower is invariably
awned and the lower awnless ; but the panicles from the same plants
vary greatly in tins respect. Another variable character is found in
the rachilla, which, in the form with small outer glume, is always
présent and very silky, but is often wanting in the form with a large
outer glume, and when présent is usually glabrous. A similar varia-
tion is seen in the pedicel of the upper flower, and in the présence
or absence of a small panicle of silky hairs at the base of either flower.
The grain is very large for the size of the flower.

I hâve for some years past distributed spécimens of an élégant
form of tins plant, with an elongated panicle and glumes of a faint
purplish hue, under the name of Triodia antarctica Benth. and Hook.
f., var. purpurea ; and Mr. Pétrie informs me that lie has described a
similar plant, under the name of Deschamjma Chapmanii, but I hâve
not seen his description.

RECENT ADDITIONS TO THE FERN FLORA
OF NEW ZEALAND.

Nearly every volume of the Transactions of the New Zealand
Institute for the past ten or fifteen years has contained descriptions of
new species of plants, and among thèse new feras hâve been frequently
included. When the présent writer brought out his " Feras and Fera
Allies of New Zealand " in 1882. he felt compelled to reduce many of
thèse new species to the rank of mère varieties of already known forms,
a course which subjected liim in certain quarters to considérable
obloquy. The latest number of the "Annals of Botany" contains the
first part of a paper* by Mr. J. G. Baker in which ail new feras which
hâve been discovered or described since 1874 are summarised. The
fbllowing notes are extracted from tins paper and will enable collectons
of New Zealand feras to reduce some of their aberrant forms to their
correct species. — G. M. T.

* "Asummary of the new Ferns which hâve been discovered or described since
1874," by J. G. Baker, F.R.S., Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew,
"Annals of Botany." April, 1891, p. 181.

FERN FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. 167

Gleichenia, Sm,

G. circinata, Sw. I cannot specifically separate G. patens^ Colenso,
in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 212.

G. rupestris, R. Br., must evidently be placed as a mère variety of
G. circinata. (See also " Ferns ancl Fern Allies of N.Z." p. 25).

G. littoralis, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1883, p. 334, I cannot
separate from G. flabellata,

Cyathea, Sm.

G medullaris, Sw. I cannot separate G polyneuron, Colenso, in
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1878, p, 429.

G. dealbata, Sw. I cannot separate G. tricolor, Colenso, in Trans.
N.Z. Inst. xv., p. 304.

Hemitelia, B. Br.

H. Smithii, Hook. I cannot separate H. stdkdata, Colenso, in
Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1885, p. 222.

Hymenophyllum, Smith.

H, Armstrongii, ¥L\vk ; Baker, in Hook, le, tab. 1614 = ^T. mêla-
nocheïlos, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xvii., p. 255, is the
same as Trichomanes Armstrongii, Baker, Syn. Fil. edit. 2,
p. 465.

H. polyanthos, Sw. I cannot separate'i/. lophocarpum, Colenso, in
Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1884, p. 255.

H. villosum, Colenso ; Kirk, in Trans. N.Z. Inst. x., p. 395. Mid-
way between polyanthos and demissum, more deltoid in ontline
than the former, with narrower segments and smaller sori.

H. montanum, Kirk, in Trans. N.Z. Inst. x., p. 394, tab. 21, fig.
B, Like dwarf australe, with very jagged indusia.

H, demissum, Sw. I cannot separate H. megalocarpum, Colenso,
in Trans. N.Z. Inst. xv., p. 308.

H, erecto-alatum, Colenso, in Tran. N.Z. Inst., 1878, p. 431. — Not
seen. Said to corne in between dilatatum and pidcherrimum,

H. rufescens, Kirk, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1878, p. 457, tab. 19, fig.

A, I am not sure that this is specifically distinct from

H. subtilissimum, Knnze.

H. tunbridgense, Sm. I cannot clearly separate H. picsillum, revo-
lutum or pygmeeum, Colenso, New Zealand ferns described in
the Transactions of the N.Z. Inst. for 1879-1880.

Trichomanes, Linn.

T. venosum, K. Br. I cannot separate T. venustidum, Colenso, in
Trans. N.Z. Inst. xii., p. 366.

Dicksonia, L'Herit.

D. fibroia, Colenso. I cannot separate specifically D. sparmanniana
Coleuso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1879, p. 363, nor D '. microcarpa,

l68 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 214. The Chatham
Island Dicksonia is said to be intermediate between the Aus-
tralian antarctica and the New Zealand fibrosa.

D% squarrosa, Sw. I cannot separate specifically D. gracilis,
Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1882, p. 306.

Davallia.

D. Tasmani, Cheeseman ; Field, Ferns of New Zealand, p. 75, tab.
24, fig. 5. Kermadec Islands, Cheeseman. Near pyxidata
and canariensis. One of the very few endémie plants of this
small group of islands.

Cystopteris, Bernh.

C.fragilis, Berh. I can only separate as geographical varieties
C. novae-zealandiœ, Armstrong, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1880, p.
360, and the Anstralian Woodsia lactivirens, Prentice.

Lindsaya, Dryand.

L. linearis, Sw. I can only separate as a slight variety L. trilobata,
Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1883, p. 345.

L. viridis, Colenso, Fil. Nov. Zeal. 14. Allied to L. microphylla,
Sw., from which it differs by much closer regularly cuneate
final segments, and sub-davallioid sori.

Adiantum, Linn.

A. diaphanam, Blume — A. heteromorphum, Colenso, Field, Ferns
N.Z., p. 80, is a variety, and I cannot separate specifically A.
polymorplium and A. tuberosum, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst.,
1888, p. 215-217.

A. affine, Willd.,var. intermedium, Benth., FI. Austral, vii., p. 725,
Queensland and New South Wales, differs from the N.Z. type
by its transversely oblong sori ; var. chathamicum, Field,
Ferns N.Z., p. 81, Chatham Island, is less compound than the
type, with longer final segments. See also var. heteropliyllum,
Colenso, in Trans, N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 218.

Cheilaxthes, Sw.

C. tenuifolia, Sw. It seems impossible to draw any definite linc of
démarcation between tenuifolia and Sieberi. I cannot separate
specifically C. Kirkii, Armst., in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1880, p.

36, non Hook., (and) Pteris alpina, Field, Ferns of N.Z.

p. 97, tab. 98, fig. 3.

Pteris, Linn.

P. cretica, L I cannot specifically separate the N.Z. P. loma-

rioides, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1880. p. 380; Field,
Ferns of N.Z , p. 91, tab 25, fig. 4.

P. nvicUenta, A. Cunn. I cannot separate specifically P. j>endula,
Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 218.

GENERAL NOTES. 169

Lomaria, Willd.

L. vulcanica, Blume. I cannot separate specifically L. paucijuga,
Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 222.

L. lanceolata, Spreng. I cannot separate specifically L. aggregata,
Cplenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1888, p. 223; Field, Ferns
N.Z., p. 103, tab. 29, fîg. 7.

L. parvifolia, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst. 1888, p. 224. Exactly
matclies our type spécimen of L. pumila, Raoul, whicli can
scarcely be regarded as more than a variety of L. alpina. See
Field, Ferns N.Z., p. 106.

L. membranaoea, Colenso. I cannot separate specifically L. oligo-
neuron, Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst., 1883, p. 346.

Doodia, K. Br.

D. caudata, R. Br. I cannot separate specifically D. squarrosa,
Colenso, in Trans. N.Z. Inst,, 1880, p. 332.

(To be continued.)

GENERAL NOTES.

Removing Tassels from Corn. — Experiments with strawberries
made at the Ohio Experiment Station indicate that pollen-bearing is
an exhaustive process, and that larger yields of fruit, as a rule, niay
be expected from those varieties which produce pollen so sparingly
that a small proportion of other varieties producing pollen abundantly
must be planted with them in order to insure a full crop, than from
those which produce sufficient pollen for self-fertilization.

The following very interesting and valuable experiment on corn,
made by the experiment station of Cornell University, at Ithaca, N.Y.,
gives strong support to this theory.

It has been claimed that if the tassels were removed from corn
before they hâve produced pollen, the strength thus saved to the
plant would be turned to the ovaries, and a larger amount of grain be
produced. To test the effect of this theory, the following trial was
made during the past season.

In the gênerai cornfield a plot of forty-eight rows, with forty-two
hills in each row, was selected for the experiment. From each alter-
nate row the tassels were removed as soon as they appeared, and
before any pollen had fallen. The remaining rows were left undis-
turbed. The corn was Sibley's Pride of the North, planted the last
week in May in hills three feet six inches by three feet eight inches,
on dry, gravelly, moderately fertile soil.

On July 21 the earliest tassels began to make their appearance
in the folds of the upper leaves, and were removed as soon as they

I/O

JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

could be seen, and before they were fully developed. A slight pull
was sufficient to break the stalk just below the tassel, and tlie removal
was easy and rapid.

On July 25 the plot was gone c-ver again for the removal of such
tassels as had appeared sincc the previous work, and at tins time by
far the greatest number of the tassels were removed.

On July 28, when the plot was gone over for the third time, the
effects of the tasselling became apparent in the increased number of
silks that were visible on the rows from which the tassels had been
removed.

On the 1,008 tasselled hills there were visible 591 silks; on the
1,008 untasselled, 393 silks.

On Aug. 4 the plot was gone over for the last time, but only a
few tassels were found on the very latest stalks. The prépondérance
of visible silk on the tasselled rows was still manifest, there being at
this time 3,542 silks visible on the tasselled rows, and but 2,044 on
the untasselled rows. The corn was allowed to stand without cutting
until ripe.

Sept. 29 to Oct. 1 the rows were eut and husked, and the stalks
and ears weighed and counted, with the following results : —

Aggregate
Yield.

Comparative
Yield.

* à

H„2

•ji ""d
© %
% 0

Si

-3 à

03 O
S .2

m T3

s 0

Number of good ears

Number of poor ears

Number of abortive ears

Total number of ears

"YVeigbt of merchantable corn (pounds)

Weight of poor corn (pounds ...

Number of stalks

100 stalks weigbed (pounds)

1551
628

2566

4745
710
130

4186
82

2338
885
951

4174

1078
187

4228
79

100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100

151

141

37

88

152

144

101

96

It will thus be seen that the number of good ears and the weight
of merchantable corn were both a little more than .fîfty per cent,
greater on the rows from which the tassels were removed than upon
those upon which the tassels were left. This is not only true of the
two sets of rows as a whole, but with the individual rows as well. In
no case did a row upon which the tassels were left produce anywhere
near as much as the tasselled rows on either side of it. In fact, the
results given above are really the aggregate results of twenty-four
distinct duplicate experiments, each of which alone showed the same
thing as the aggregate of ail.

By abortive ears is meant those sets that made only a bunch of
husks, and sometimes a small cob, but no grain. It will be noticed
that the total of the good, poor, and abortive ears is about fourteen
per cent, greater on the rows on which the tassels were left, while the
weight of merchantable corn is more than fîfty per cent, greater on
those rows from which the tassels were removed. — Science, March

27th, 1891, p. 171.

GENERAL NOTES. Ijl

The Souring of Milk during Thunder-storms.*- -In Science of
Sept. 19, 1890, appeared a short note on some work recently done in
Italy by Professor Tolomei on the souring of milk during th under -
storms. Professor Tolomei concludes that there is a sufficient amount
of ozone generated at such times to coagulate milk by a process of
direct oxidation, and a conséquent production of lactic acid.t

Similar results hâve been obtained by other experimenters, and
some hâve even gone so far as to say that free oxygen, when in
contact with milk, will generate enough lactic acid to coagulate its
caséine.

Thèse results are very différent from some obtained in this labora-
tory. While working on the bacteria in milk the idea occurred to us
to find out, if possible, the truth of the somewhat widely accepted
theory that milk will sour with extrême rapidity during thunder-
storms. Although the statement that this is an oxidising action had
been frequently made, a Mr. Iles of Baltimore was the first, so far as I
know, to perform any experiments in this direction.J His method
was to subject milk to the action of ozone, generated by an electric
spark passed through oxygen, above the milk. He found a rapid
coagulation produced, which he attributed to the direct oxidising
action of the ozone.

Our method was similar to that of Mr. Iles's. A Wolff bottle
was filled about one-third full of milk, and the air in the bottle
displaced by pure oxygen. Through the opposite necks wires leading
from a Holtz induction machine were passed into the interior, and the
necks plugged tightly with cotton to prevent any escape of oxygen ;
ozone was then generated by passing a spark across through the
oxygen from one pôle to the other. In some cases, instead of the
spark, a " silent discharge " of electricity from the two pôles was used
to generate ozone.

In ail cases a second bottle was partially filled with milk, and
kept as a "control;" i.e., one in which the milk is left in its normal
condition.

For some of our experiments three bottles were used,- one left
as a control ; a second filled with milk and oxygen ; while a third was
filled, like the second, with milk and oxygen, and then treated with
the electricity. We thus had milk under three conditions : 1. In its
normal state; 2. Under the influence of free oxygen; 3. Under the
influence of free oxygen plus a certain amount of ozone. The elec-
tricity, in ail cases, was passed through the oxygen for at least half
an hour. That a considérable quantity of ozone was generated, was
shown by its odor, and strong action on starch-iodine paper. Our
results were very différent from those given by Iles and Tolomei.
The milk treated with ozone, or simply pure oxygen, soured a little,
but only a little, f aster than normal milk. If the milk in the control
coagulated in thirty-six hour s, the milk experimented on coagulated
only an hour or two earlier.

Science, March, 27th, 1891, p. 178.
*h A more extended account of Professor Tolomei's experiments is given in Bicder-
manrCi C entrai- Blatt fur Agriculturchemie, 1890, p. 538.

î Chemical News, vol. xxxvi. p. 237.

172 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Tliis resuit waa very constant. In a considérable number of
expérimente, using milk of ail degrees of sweetness, from tliat just
i'rom the eow to that a day or more old, the same result followed, — a
sliglit hastening of the time of coagulation in milk treated with ozone
or oxygen. Between the time of coagulation of milk treated simply
with oxygen, and that treated with oxygen plus ozone, no perceptible
différence could be noticed.

We bad, tlien, in our expérimente, produced a slight hastening
of the time of coagulation. Was tins a direct oxidation ? From the
fact tliat it required over a day to act, it seemed likely tliat it could
not be. If, however, it were an oxidation, it ought to act as well on
sterilized milk — i.e, milk in which ail bacteria hâve been killed by
heat — as on ordinary milk. We therefore, before introducing the
oxygen, sterilized the milk. In this case no coagulation occurred.
Milk that had been treated at two separate times, a week apart, with
oxygen and ozone, was kept for over two months without the
appearance of the least sign of coagulation.

Briefly summed up, then, our results were as folio ws : —

1. Milk, under the influence of oxygen, or oxygen and ozone,
coagulâtes somewhat earlier than when left in its normal condition.

2. This action does not take place if the milk has been sterilized,
and is kept from contact with unfiltered air.

3. It is probably, therefore, not an oxidation. The conclusion
drawn from this is that the souring was simply produced by an
unusually rapid growth of bacteria. The bacteria of milk are mostly
aérobic, and would undoubtedly be stimulated to rapid growth by free
oxygen or ozone.

If in a thunderstorm ozone is set free, as some observer s claim,
its action on bacteria would perhaps explain the efiects produced at
such times. I am inclined to think, however, that a more probable
reason is to be found in the gênerai conditions of the atmosphère
preceding and during the storm. It has been found in our laboratory
that bacteria growing on gélatine will multiply with unusual rapidity
during warm, sultry weather. Now, thèse are the atmospheric con-
ditions that usually précède and accompany thunder-storms. It
seems to me most likely, therefore, that whatever rapid souring occurs
is due to an unusually rapid growth of bacteria, caused by especially
favourable conditions of the atmosphère.

The expérience of the proprietor of a neighbouring creamery
confirais to a certain extent thèse conclusions. He finds, that, if milk
is kept at a uniformly low température during the thunder-storm
season, no trouble results from rapid souring, indicating that this
souring, when it occurs, is duo more to a high température and sultry
atmosphère than to the ozone in the air. If this were a process of
direct oxidation, it should take place, partially at least, at the lower
température.

Professor Tolomei finds, also, that a slight electric current, if
less than three ampères, will hâve a preservative effect on milk, the
current being passed directly through the liquid. A current greater
than three ampères will décompose the milk.

GENERAL NOTES. I 73

In our experiments, a current of less than one-fortieth of an
ampère was sufficient to produce décomposition, with a certain amount
of coagulation at each électrode. A stronger current would produce
complète coagulation, with the somewhat curious resuit that the
coagulum was strongly acid at the 'positive pôle, and more feebly
alkaline at the négative pôle.

Aaron L. Treadwell.
Wesleyan University,

Middletown, Conn., March 20.

In apaper "On some aspects of Acclimatisation in NewZealand,"
read before the Australasian Association at its Christchurch meeting
by Mr. G. M. Thomson, the following remarkable case of hereditary
transmission of an apparently defective characteristic was described
as follows : — " In the district of Strath Taieri, in Otago, some years
ago, certain sheep on one of the runs — probably the progeny of a
single ram, were found to be evidently short- winded. Apparently the
action of the heart was defective, for when thèse sheep were driven,
they would run with the rest ôf the flock for a short distance and then
lie down panting. The resuit of this peculiar affection was that at
nearly every mustering thèse short-winded sheep used to be left
behind, being unable to be driven with the rest. Sometimes they
were brought on more slowly afterwards, but if it happened to be
shearing time they were simply caught and shom where they lay.
As a resuit of this peculiar condition a form of artificial sélection was
set up, the vigorous sheep being constantly drafted away for sale, &c,
while this defective strain increased with great rapidity throughout
the district, for whenever the mobs were mustered for the market,
shearing, or drafting, thèse 'cranky' sheep (as they came to be called)
were left behind. This defective character appeared in every succeed-
ing génération, and seemed to increase in force, reminding cne of the
Ancon sheep referred to by Darwin. At first, of course, the character
was not recognised as ' hereditary,' but as the members of this cranky
breed increased to a very serious extent and spread over the district,
it came at last to be recognised as a local variety. When the runs,
on which thèse sheep were abundant, were eut up and sold or re-
leased in smaller areas a few years ago, the purchasers found it
necessary for the protection of their own interests to exterminate the
variety, of which hundreds were found straggling over the country.
This was easily and effectually done in the following manner : — As
soon as a sheep was observée! it was pursuecl, but after running for a
couple of hundred yards at a great rate of speed, it would drop down
panting behind a big stone or other shelter, and seemed incapable for
a time of rising and renewing its flight. It was immediately des-
troyed, and in this manner a useless — but to the naturalist a very
interesting variety, was eliminated."

Auckland Institute. — From the annual report of this Society,
adopted on 16th February, we learn that the following gentlemen
hâve been elected officers for the présent season : — Président : Prof.
F. D. Brown, F. O.S. ; Vice-Présidents : Messrs. J. Stewart, CE., and

174 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

J. Martin, F.R.G.S. ; Council : Revs. J. Bâtes and J. Campbell, Prof.
A. P. Thomas, F.L.S., Messrs. W. Berry, C. Cooper, T. Humphries,
E. A. Mackechnie, T. Peacock, J. A. Pond, F.C.S., A. G. Purchas,
M.R.C.S., and E. Withy ; Secretary and Treasurer : T. F. Cheeseman,
Esq., F.L.S., F.Z.S. The membership of the Institute shows a slight
decrease, 205 names being on the roll. The income of the Society for
the past year, exclusive of a balance in hand at the commencement of
the year of £204 14s. 6d., was £861 14s. 3d., and the expenditure
amounted to £987 8s. 9d. This excess of expenditure reduced the
balance in the Bank of New Zealand to £79. The Muséum has
received several important additions during the year, including a col-
lection of animais from Bornéo and a number of Maori ethnological
spécimens. Captain Gilbert Mair has also deposited in the Muséum
his Maori collection, which is one of the most complète in the colony.
The attendance of the public on each Sunday has averaged 173, on
week days it is estimated at about 70. Of the 22 papers read before
the Institute during last Session, a number contain valuable additions
to the scientific knowledge of the colony.

Theory of the Structure of the Placenta. — In the " Ana-
tomischer Anzeiger" of llth March, Prof. Minot of Harvard Médical
School has an article under the above heading, in which he sum-
marises the results of his own researches and those of others as
follows (p. 130) : — According to the views explained in the preceding
pages, I hold the placenta to be an organ of the chorion; that
primitively the chorion had its own circulation, and formed the
discoidal placenta by developing villi which grew down into the
degenerating utérine mucosa ; by the degeneration of the maternai
tissues the maternai blood is brought closer to the villi, and the
degeneration may go so far that ail the tissue of the utérus between
the villi disappears ; a layer of the mucosa is preserved between the
ends of the villi and the muscularis uteri to form the so called
decidua ; the placenta receives its foetal blood by the means of large
vessels running in the mesoderm of the allantois. From this discoidal
chorionic placenta the zonary placenta of carnivora, the diffuse
placenta of the lower primates, and the metadiscoidal placenta of
man hâve been evolved.

" A second type of placenta, perhaps evolved from the first is
found in ungulates, and is characterised by a vascular allantoic vesicle
uniting with a non vascular chorion to form the foetal placenta, and
by the absence of degeneration in the maternai tissue. This type is
the allantoic placenta, which offers many interesting modifications."

Humble-bees in the North Island. — In his letter of May 25th,
the Waikato correspondent of the Auckland Star says: " The humble-
bees that I send you down were caught on Richmond Downs estate,
ni YYalton, Thames Valley. I could hâve caught a good many more,
but thought it best to send three only, as I am not sure that they
will Ktïind the journey well, I having no proper boxes to put them in.
Judgiûg by the numbers I hâve seen lately, I am convinced that they
are now thoroughly established, and that this district could supply

GENERAL NOTES. 175

others which require them in any number. It was at Richmond that
I heard of them first having been seen two years ago, and at that
time it was very much doubted if it was a fact, but it is now a
oertainty. They are to be seen now on flowers, and in numbers on
the Scotch thistle heads, which are yet fresh, and also on the hakea
hedges, which flower at this season of the year. Tf the introduction
of this bee means, as they say it does, the inoculation of the clover
seeds, they are indeed valuable. What an immense saving it would
he could we grow our own clovers. I should say, roughly speaking,
that not less than £6,000 to £8,000 has been spent in this Thames
Valley alone on clover seeds during the past season or two. And
clover grows so well hère, too, that large yields might be looked for."

T. W. Kirk, F.L.S — We regret very much to hear that in their
zeal for retrenching the Civil Service, Ministers hâve eut down the
staff of the Colonial Muséum, dispensing with Mr. Kirk's services.
The circumstances connected with his retirement almost justify the
use of the term "brutal," which is used by one correspondent in
référence to this retrenchment. Mr. Kirk has been for many years
connected with the Colonial Muséum, has taken an active part in the
•establishment and carrying on of the Wellington Field Naturalists'
Club, and has from time to time published papers on various bio-
logical subjects. We shall be glad to hear that lie has been able to
obtain occupation whereby his scientific acquirements will not be lost
to this colony.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

Dunedin, June 9th, 1891.— Prof essor F. B. de M. Gibbons, M. A.,
Président, in the chair.

New Members. — Messrs. T. G. Brick ell and D. Wilkinson.

Papers. — (1) " On a disease which has attacked the American
Brook Trout (Salmo fontinalis) in the Acclimatisation Society 's ponds,"
by Professor J. H. Scott, M.D. Dr. Scott stated that he found a
structure which corresponded closely with what in mammals was called
cancer. It was a fatal and malignant spreading tumour in the throat
of the fish, and it seemed to be confined to the American brook trout,
though Mr. Deans, the Acclimatisation Society 's curator, informed him
that a similar disease had attacked the Rhine trout in the ponds at
Masterton, Wairarapa. Dr. Hocken inquired whether Dr. Scott con-
sidered the disease was the same as affected the trout in Lake Wakatipu
some years ago — a disease which compelled the trout to corne to the
surface of the water and which was not confined to a spot under the
lower jaw but extended forward and enveloped both jaws in a large
inass. Professor Parker said that if he was not mistaken, the disease

176 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

in the case mentioned by Dr. Hocken was caused by fungus and was
aimilar to the sand disease, whicb was well known in Europe, and Mr.
F. R. Cbapman remarked that about two years ago the native fish, the
inunga, in Lakc Wakatipu, were found in the condition referred to by
Dr. Hocken, presenting a iluffy, feathery appearance on the under side.
Mr. A. Hamilton desired to know if the disease in the American brook
trout was likely to be induced or accelerated by the artificial food
supplied to the fish, and also whether it was likely to detrimentally
affect the eating properties of the fish. In reply to this Dr. Scott said
that the causation of cancer was a thing about whicb there was still a
great deal to be learned, and while lie thought there was no doubt that
the fish were injured from an eating point of view, he did not consider
there was the least danger of cancer being obtained from them, because
he did not think cancer was inoculable at ail.

(2) "Note on the Structure of the Mammalian ovum," by Professor
Parker, F.R.S. "Sections of the ovary of a kitten recently prepared for
my practical class exhibited the unusual character of a number (6 or 8)
of nuclear bodies in the vitellus. Each is globular, about -~^ mm. in
diameter, and consists of a cortical and a medullary substance taking on
slightly différent tinta with borax -carminé. They are apparently ger-
minal spots whicb hâve passed from the germinal vesicle into the
vitellus, a phenomenon which seems to hâve been described by His in
fish es, and by Baltiani, Fol, Houle and Sabatier in Myriapods and
Ascidians, but as far as I hâve been able to ascertain lias not previously
been observée! in Mammals. (See Leyclig, Zool. Anzeiger, vol. x, 1887,
p. 626). The germinal vesicle contains, as usual, a single germinal
spot."

(3) " On Yolcanic appearcinces in Dowling Street, Dunedin," by
L. 0. Beal.

(4) " On Dactylanthus taylori" by A. Hamilton. " In the first

volume of this Magazine I recorded the finding of a plant of Dacty-
lanthus at Tarawera, about halfway between Napier and Lake Taupo,
on the Great North lioacl. Since then I hâve found more or less perfect
spécimens in that immédiate neighbourhood, and sent good examples of
maie and female liowers to Kew, preserved in spirits, for a more detailed

mination thaï) was possible in the original pressed type spécimens
foi warded so long ago by the Rev. Richard Taylor. Through the kind-

3 of a friend of mine, Mr. K. Newton, of Napier, I am enabkd to
add another locality for this interesting root parasite. During a survey
of the country at the back of Nuhaka, a native seulement, between
Wairoa and the Napier Peninsula, Hawkes Bay, Mr. Newton collected
t\\ o femâle flowering bracts and brought them to Napier. He lias since
forwarded to me the large tuberous portion of the plant, but I regret
that in fhe packing or during the journey ail the shoots hâve been
rubbed or broken off. The inconspicuous character of the plant, its
apparent Bcarceness, and its probable extinction in the near future,
must be my excuse for sending you this note."

Mr. Hamilton addetl — ft On this block of country, which lias only
just been Burveyed, there is a warm minerai spring, and the water
from it lias been unalysed at the Colonial Laboratory, as follows: —

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 177

" cl This is a clear, colourless, and highly saline water containing
1723 grains of fixed sait per gallon, only 22 grains of which
is silica. Tlie remaining portion is principally composed of
alkaline chlorides, with a fair proportion of alkaline carbonates,
It is rich in iodine.

"b. Tins water contains 216 grains of fixed salts per gallon, and
thèse are almost entirely composed of alkaline clilorides. It
is feebly alkaline and contains distinct traces of iodine.

"Front thèse results it appears that both samples belong to the group
known as the ' alkaline chlorinated ' waters. The sample a should,
when triecl, prove to be a valuable minerai water, and resembles that of
Wiesbaden, also that of Harrogate and Cheltenham, but is much more
highly charged witli salts than they are, the spécifie gravity being that
of genuine sea water.

u Thèse springs may be of public use and interest in the future.
The Government reserved an area of 1,200 acres around them as a hot
spring area. The springs flow into the Nuhaka river about 10 miles
from the m ou th."

Professor Parker exhibited a séries of spécimens of Ileodictyon
cibarium — a fungus found in the busli near Dunedin — mounted in
alcohol for démonstration purposes, viz. : —

1. The entire immature fungus.

2. The same in section, showing the thick brownish wall or peri-

dhim, the white net-like receptacuhcm, and the blackish gléba
or spore-forming tissue.

3. A similar préparation with the gleba removed to show the

receptaculum.

4. The fungus at the period of dehiscence showing the receptaculum

escaping from the ruptured peridium.

5. The liberated and fully expandecl receptaculum.

Professor Parker also drew attention to some Tasmanian Sponges
presentecl to the Muséum.

Mr. F. R. Chapman exhibited two cards of Maori bone implements,
comprising fish-hooks, shawl-pins, neck ornaments, and ear pendants.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

Christchurch, 4th June, 1891. —

Papers.— (1) "On the Foliated rocks of Otago," by Professor F. W.
Hutton, F.G.S. The foliated rocks of Otago are found in two districts
separated from each other by a band of sandstones and slates, about
eight miles broacl at its narrowest, which belong to the Maitai or
Carboniferous System.

(1) Northern Otago.

The rocks of central and north-eastern Otago are raica-schists and
phyllites, which hâve been thougbt to be the altered équivalents of the
fossiliferous Silurian and Ordovician rocks of north-western Nelson.

178 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The reason for tins opinion was, that it was supposed tliat tlie two sets
of rocks, in tlie north and in tlie south, could be traced continnously,
and that one could be proved to pass into tlie other. But in 1887 tlie
author found that the two tracts were not continuous, but were sepa-
rated along the line of the Buller River by a band of Maitai slates and
granité,* thus destroying the only évidence for their corrélation. In
the présent paper the author shows that the schists of Northern Otago
are mctamorphic rock, but that the metamorpliism lias been caused
neither by crushing nor by contact with niasses of igneous rocks, but is
due to their having been deposited in the Archœan Era, wlien the earth
was much hotter than now. They are therefore older than the
Silurians and Ordovicians of Nelson.

(2) Western Otago.

The foliated rocks of the West Coast Sounds, from Milford to
Dusky, hâve been generally regarded as consisting principally of typical
gueisses of Archsean âge, and as passing below the mica-schists of
Northern Otago. The author however finds, from an examination of
rocks collected during the excursion of the Australasian Association to
the Sounds, that thèse rocks are ail Schistose Diorites of eruptive origin
associated with other Diorites and Gabbros. In the paper the rocks are
considered as Hornblende Diorites, but it is probable that they were
originally Augite Diorites. The following rocks are described : — Mica
Diorite, Hornblende Diorite, Enstatite Diorite, and Enstatite Gabbro.

The absence of contortion and the almost universal westerly dip of
the foliation planes are strong ^évidence that thèse rocks are not
Archsean. On their flanks there is found in places a séries of sedi-
mentary rocks altered by contact, which Sir James Hector considers to
be probably Devonian. If this be so the eruptive Diorites must be
younger than Devonian and may be connected with the G-reenstone-tuffs
of the Route Burn and Greenstone Hiver west of Lake Wakatipu.

(2) " On a Spécimen of Regalecus from O'Kain's Bay," by H. 0.
Forbes, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c, (see p. 154.)

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

Auckland, June 8th, 1891. — Professor F. D. Brown, Président, in
the chair.

New Members. — Messrs. T. Allen, Auckland; E. S. Brookes, jun.,
Wharehine ; Rev. H. S. Davies. Lake Takapuna ; W. G. Rathbone,
Auckland ; and Dr. T. 0. Williams, Thames.

The Secretary announced an extensive list of donations to the
Muséum and Library.

The Président delivered the annual address.

After dealing with the subject of reading of scientific papers at
their meetings, which lie considered to be a survival from those times
when literary work was chiefly conveyed orally, lie then dealt with the
great value of the Muséum to the city, laying particular stress on the
importance of extending the popular branch of the collections, and of

* " On the Geology of the Country about Lyttelton."— Trans. N.Z. Inst., vol. 22, p. 387

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, 1 79

arranging and displaying tliem in the most interesting, instructive, and
attractive manner possible. Ail this required space, and space could
only be obtained by subdividing the collections and placing a large por-
tion of them in another building. What was, in lus opinion, absolutely
necessary if they were to make any further advance, was the érection of
an additional hall in which they could place their ethnological collections
and, especially, their spécimens of Maori workmanship. While speaking
of those Maori collections, lie parenthetically mentioned the magnificent
collection deposited by Captain Gilbert Mair, and took the opportunity
of tendering to that gentleman the thanks of the Institute and of the
community. The Professor then went on to argue that no grand,
ornamental, permanent édifice was required, but one in which attention
was paid to the necessity for elasticity in the accommodation, for facility
of modification, so that additions and re-arrangements could be efFectecl
without restriction. His expérience with the University Collège had
impressed him with the superiority of temporary buildings for young
and growing institutions, because the expenditure of small sums from
time to time had resulted in the graduai adaptation of means to ends.
Of course, it was absolutely necessary that their collections should be
preserved, that the structure should bestrong and fireproof. He found,
on the authority of his friend Mr. Bartley, that a building 103 feet long
and 50 feetwide could be erected on that partieular site for £610. The
cost of fitting it up would be aboul £400, and the re-arrangement of the
exhibits now in the Muséum would take about £200 more. This
would be £1200 in ail, a sum well within their means. They had
recently received by the sale of a block of land on the Coromandel
peninsula a sum of £1000, with an agreement to pay two other
thousands at intervais of a year. This sum they did not actually need
for the maintenance of the Muséum, as last year they had not only paid
ail ordinary fixed expenses, but had spent £50 in providing cases and
otherwise improving the interior of the building. Thus they were well
able to afford the cost of a modest but substantial building, and he
trusted that ère long they would be able to place before the public such
a well-ordered and complète collection of Maori workmanship as befitted
Auckland, as befitted a city the history of which was so intermingled
with that of the natives.

LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sydney, April 29th, 1891.— Professor Haswell, M.A., D.Sc,
Président, in the chair.

New Member.— Mr. C. Hedley, F.L.S.

Papers. — (1) "On the Occurrence of Barite (Barytes) in the
Hawkesbury Sandstone near Sydney," by H. G. Smith, Laboratory
Assistant, Technological Muséum, Sydney. ( ' Communicated by J. H.
Maiden). Few localities are recorded in which this minerai occurs in
sandstone ; and no mention of its having been previously recognised in
the Hawkesbury sandstones has been met with. It is usually found
associated with metallic ores, but is not so in this instance. The purity,
transparency, and brilliancy of the smaller crystals, together with their
location, gives spécial interest to the occurrence of the spécimens herein
noted.

l8o JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

(2) " On tlie Occurrence of a Gum in Echinocarpus (Sloanea)
awtrcMs, Bénin," by J. H. Maiden, F.L.S., F. O.S. The characters and
composition of a gum which lias not been previously recorded from this
species, are described.

(3) " Notes on Australian Economie Botany. No. ii," by J. H.
Maiden, F.L.S., F.C.S. In tins paper brief descriptions are given of
some indigenous foods and food-adjuncts, stock-poisons, essential oils and
timbers, either imperfectly known or not previously described.

(4) "In Confirmation of tlie genus Oioenia, so-called," by C. W.
De Vis, M. A. The récent acquisition of tlie greater part of a fairly
sound mandible enables tlie author botli to cliaracterise a second species
of tlie genus for wliich tlie name Owenia was originally proposed as a
slight but appropriate tribute of appréciation of the labours of the illus-
trions exponent of our extinct marsupials — tliougli tlie author himself
at the lime was aware of its preoccupancy among the invertebrates, —
and to maintain the validity of the genus, a matter which lias been
called in question. Accordingly to prevent further complications the
name Oivenia is withdrawn in favour of Euowenia. The paper con-
éludes with a synopsis of the gênera of the Nototheriidae, in the sensé
in which the author would prefer to use that term (to include Notothe-
rium, Diprotodon, Euowenia, Zygomaturus, and probably Sthenomerus)
in place of Mr. Lydekker's two families Nototheriidae and Diprotontidœ.

(5) " Onyx and Dipdtis : new Nematode gênera ; with a Note on
Dorylaimus" by N. A. Cobb.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. Maiden exhibited a nuinber of vegetable products — fruits,
seeds, gums, essential oils, and timbers — in illustration of his papers.
Also spécimens of a number of interesting indigenous (N.S.W.) plants
including Palmeria scanclens, F. v.M., from Bulli; Callicarpa yzduncu-
lata, B.Br., and Alchornea ilicifolia, F. v.M., from the Richmond River;
Telopea oreades, F. v.M., and Persoonia chamœpeuce, Lh., from the
southern portion of the colony.

Mi-. T. W. Edgeworth David exhibited, on behalf of Mr. J. E.
Carne, F. G. S., Mineralogist to the Department of Mines, Sydney, a
spécimen of precious opal from the White Cliffs about fifty miles
northerly from Wilcannia. Precious opal and conimon opal hâve lately
been discovered in this locality in a formation corresponding to the
Désert Sandstone of Queensland. The opal occurs disseminated as an
iufiltrated cernent throughout the mass of the sandstone in places, and
also replacing the calcareous material of fossils. It also occurs in cracks
in the sandstone and in fossil wood, which is somewhat plentifully
distributed throughout the sandstone, and occasionally replaces part of
the original woody tissues of the silicified trees.

Mr. A. Sidney OlifF stated that he had recently had an opportunity
of examining a collection of Coccinellidœ gathered by Mr. A. M. Lea,
among wliich he had found spécimens of the lady-bird, Vedalia cardi-
nalis, obtained at Mossman's Bay, near Sydney. Tins capture is inte-
resting from the fact that the species lias not previously been observed

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. l8l

by our local collectors. Mr. Olliff also showed, under the microscope,
spécimens of the larvse and females of Phylloxéra vastatrix, the vine
pest ; and he reniarked that, so far, lie had not yet been able to find
either spécimens of the leaf-form of the pest, or reliable records of its
having been observed in New South Wales.

Mr. Whitelegge exhibited a set of herbarium spécimens of British
species of the genus Equisetum. Also, under the microscope, spécimens
of the Peridinium, to the présence of which the récent discolouration of
the waters of the harbour lias been due ; also spécimens of several other
species of allied organisms, including a second species of Peridinium,
Prorocentrum micans, Ehr., Gymnodinium spirale, Bergh, and Gleno-
dinium sp.

Dr. Cobb exhibited an inexpensive dissecting microscope of simple
construction, made by one of the clerks in the Agricultural Department,
Sydney. Also, under the microscope, exampies of the Nematodes
described in his paper. Also, two examples of fungi, one a species of
Phallus from the adjoining garclen, the other the bird's-nest fungus,
Cyathus, from soil near a pumpkin vine ; and coioured drawings of a
number of other Australian fungi which he had recently met with.

Mr. Fletcher exhibited three spécimens of terrestrial Nemertines
(Geonemertes sp.) — one from the Richmond River, N.S.W. (collected by
Mr. R. Helms), the other from Tasmania (collected by Mr. C. Hedley).
The Tasmanian forai seems to differ in colour and pattern from the
Victorian spécimens recorcled by Dr. Dendy and Professor Spencer, Mr.
Hedley describing them while alive as " black at the oral extremity for
about a quarter of an inch, the rest of the body dull white." The New
South Wales spécimen may, perhaps, belong to the same species as those
noted by Dendy, tbe colour being brownish- orange, except for a latéral
band on each side. If G. clialicophora, GrafF, like G. polaensis, Semper,
lias six eyespots, in two groups of three each, then the spécimens exhi-
bited to-night, in which more than six eyespots are présent, are not to
be identified with the former, which is supposed to hâve been brought
with palms from Australia to the palmhouse at Frankfurt Zoological
Gardens.

Also, a maie spécimen of Feripatas leuckarti, Sang., (the only maie
out of a total of five spécimens obtained on the Blue Mountains), which
présents the exceptionally remarkable character of possessing a pair of
papillse — the only pair présent, — on the ventral surface of the ûrst pair
of legs.

Also, fruits of Sechium edule, Swartz, a West Indian member of
the natural order Cucurbitaceœ, which lias been successfully acclimatised
in Queensland for some years past. From a spécimen forwarded from
Queensland to Sir William Macleay a flourishiug plant lias been raised,
which is now bearing freely in Sir William's garden, the spécimen
exhibited being from the plant in question.

Also, a living spécimen of Chiroleptes australis, Gray, forwarded
from Herbertou, Queensland, by Mr. F., Christian. This species of frog
inhabits the northern half of the continent, and has not been recorded
on the east coast from further south than the Clarence Hiver.

lS2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sydney, May 27th, 1891.— Professor" Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., Prési-
dent, in the chair.

Mr. A. Meston of Quecnsland was introduced as a visitor.

New members. — Mr. Fred Turner, F.R.H.S., Department of
Agriculture, Sydney, The Riglit Rev. Dr. Camidge, Bishop of Bathurst,
N.S.W., The Rev. J. G. Buggy, Kempsey, N.S.W., and Mr. C. A.
Chcsney, CE., Randwick.

The Chairman called the attention of the meeting to a circulai-,
copies of which were laid on the table, recently received from the
Department of Agriculture of N.S.W., offering national prizes among
other things for the best Australian Pathological, Entomological, and
Botanical collections submitted to the Department.

Papers. — (1) "A Contribution to the Geology and Petrography of
Bathurst, N.S.W.," by Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S. Tins paper deals
with the geology and lithology of the country immediately around
Bathurst. The formations described are silurian, pliocène, and récent.
The igneous rocks represented are granités and tertiary basalts. No
vestige of the old floor on which the silurian sédiments were laid down
remains. A microscopic examination of the granités and basalts
reveals some interesting structures. The granité is a hornblende
granité, with orthoclase and triclinic felspars. The basait is seen,
under the microscope, to be an olivine basait, with a microporphyritic
granular structure. The basalts show a streaming of the felspars round
the porphyritic augites and olivines. The following were amongst the
conclusions arrived at : That the granités of Bathurst are surrounded
by an auréole of metamorphic rocks. There is no gradation from a
clastic to a holo-crystalline rock. The granité is intrusive as regards
the suiTOunding slates. The slates are the oldest rock in the district,
granités coming next in order of time. The conclusion that the granités
were intrusive was not necessarily opposed to the view that the granités
may hâve been formed, as a whole, by a partial fusion of pre-existing
sédiments.

(2) " Remarks on Post-tertiary Phascolomyidœ" by C. W. De Vis,
M. A., Coït. Mem. In this paper the author adduces weighty évidence,
based on the phascolomine peculiarities of their respective contents, in
favour of the conclusion that the ossiferous deposits of the Darling
Downs and of the Wellington Caves are not upon the same palœon-
tological horizon, the cave wombats, Phascolomys latifrons, P. kreffïii,
and P. curvirostris, not having corne into existence when the Queensland
breccias and Tertiaries — characterised by the présence of P. parvus and
P. angustidens, n. sp. (herein described), — were laid down ; and secondly
that no living species of wombat has corne down to us from the Age
of the Condamine beds.

(3) " Description of a new Marine Shell," by C. Hedley, F.L.S.,
and 0. T. Musson, F.L.S. The new species, described as Eulimdla
mojiiliforme, flourishes in the brackish water of the lagoon at Manly,
near Sydney.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS.

Mr. Hedley read a short note descriptive of the ova of a common
Sydney land molluse, Helicarion robustus, Gould, which are somewhat

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 183

différent from those of other pulmonate molluscs occurring in the
neighbourhood, being spirally ribbed.

Mr. A. Sidney Olliff exbibited (1) two species of a small n'y
(Diplosis spp.^), recently bred afc tbe Department of Agriculture by
Dr. Cobb and himself from larvœ found feeding on rust ( Puccinia) on
peaches and sunflowers ; (2) a drawing of a larva of one of tbese Aies,
illustrating tlie anatomy of the animal, and exbibiting the embryo and
larva of an internai parasite, apparently belonging to the Hymenoptera ;
and (3) spécimens of a dipteron (Tachina sp.^, a parasite of the plague
locust, Pachytylus australis, Br., which is allied to the recently-
discovered Musicera paGhytyli, Sk.

Mr. Maiden exbibited ripe fruits of Monstera deliciosa grown at
North Sydney by Mr. J. Malbon Thompson, who believes that this is
the first time that thèse fruits bave fully ripened in Sydney. They
were fifteen months in ripening after the fruit h ad set.

Also, spécimens of the " vegetable sponge," Luffa aegyptiaca,
grown by Mr. James Hurst at Summer Hill ; and an abnormal
growth of maize cobs, from Bathurst.

Mr. P. N. Trebeck showed some insects collected at|North Sydney.

Mr. Henry Deane exhibited a fine spécimen of Ophideres scdminia,
Ci\, from Casino, à moth which enlarges, by means of its auger-like
proboscis, the holes made by fruit-flies, &c, in the rincl of oranges and
bananas.

Mr. Deane also stated that last month, while travelling by night
througb the Big Scrub in the Richmond River District, his interest
was aroused by the remarkable effect produced by luminous insects
which abounded by the roadside. Spécimens were secured and sent off
in the hope that they would arrive in time to be exhibited at last
month's meeting, but they came a day too late, and iu the meanwhile
hâve clied. From their gênerai resemblance to the larvse of Ceroplatus
mastersi, Sk., which are also phosphorescent, Mr. Fletcher, who h ad
seen the spécimens forwarded, was of the opinion that thèse were very
probably also dipterous larvse.

Mr. David made some remarks on certain luminous organisms
which he had observed in old coal mine workings in Illawarra. the
identification of which it was hopecl would not long be postponed.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

ANNUAL MEETING.

Sydney, 6th May, 1891. — Dr. Leibius, Président, in the chair.

Treasurer's Statement. — The financial statement for the year
ending Mardi 31, 1891, was submitted and adopted. The total receipts
were put down at £1265 Ils. 7d., and the total disbursements at £1268
Ils., the balance in hand on Mardi 31 being £41 12s. The building
and investment fund shewed a fixed deposit in the Union Bank of
£566 17s. ld., and the Clarke mémorial luncl a similar cleposit of £300
ls. 8d. The total income for the year showed an increase of £45 on
that of the previous 12 months, and the expenditure an increase of £88.

184 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

New Menibers — Dr. W. H. Coutie, Petersham ; Dr. A. Jarvie
HoolI, Sydney ; Rev. W. Jordan, Cooma ; Mr. D. C. Selman, Sydney ;
and Mr. J. M. Smail, Sydney.

The New Council. — The following menibers were elected to fill
positions on tlie new council: — Président: Mr. H. C. Russell, B.A.,
C.M.G., F.R.S. Vice-Présidents : Professor Liversidge, M.A., F.R.S.,
Mr. W. A. Dixon, F.C.S., F.I.C, Dr. A. Leibius, Ph. D., M.A., F.C.S.,
and Mr. H. G. A. Wright, M.R.CS.E. Hon. Treasurer : Mr. R. Hunt,
CM. G., F.G.S. Hon. Secretaries : Messrs. F. B. Kyngdon, and Prof.
Warren, M. Inst. C.E. Members of Council: Messrs. Robt. Etheridge,
junr., C. Moore, F.L.S., F.Z.S., Professor Anderson Stuart, M.D., C. S.
Wilkinson, F.G.S., F.L.S., W. M. Hainlet, F.C.S., F.I.C., T. W. Edge-
worth David, B.A., F.G.S., J. A. McDonald, M. Inst. CE., &c, J. H.
Maiden, F.L.S., F.C.S., Alexander McCormick, M.D., and C W.
Darley, M. Inst. CE.

Sectional Committees.— The Président annonnced the élection of
the sectional committees for the session 1891. They were appointed
for the three following sections : Microscopical, Médical, and Civil
Engineering.

Correspondence. — A letter was received from Professor F. W.
Hutton, F.G.S., of Canterbury Collège, Christchurch, New Zealand,
acknowledging the award of the Clarke Mémorial.

Anniversary Address. — The Président, Dr. Leibius, then delivered
the annual address, from which we make the following extracts : —

" Antarctio Exploration — As you are aware Professor Liversidge
referred somewhat largely to this subject in his Presidential Address
last year, from which it appears that a Committee of the British
Association was formed in 1885, which presented three reports, while
Baron von Miiller of Melbourne, as early as 1886 strongly advocated
an Antarctic Expédition. Nothing however, came of it ; the request
of the Agent General of Victoria made in 1887 to the Impérial
Government for a subsidy of £5,000 towards the 'cost of such an
Antarctic Expédition under the condition of Victoria giving a similar
sum having been declined on two grounds, viz., that as regards the
two objects then put forward in support of such an expédition, i.e.,
promotion of trade and scientific enquiry, the first did not justify
impérial contribution, and as to the second, that the proposed outlay of
£10,000 on such an expédition could do but very little in the way of
scientific investigation. At a meeting of the Australian Antarctic
Exploration Committee helcl at Melbourne on the 4fcli of March, 1890,
the munificent offer of Baron Oscar Dickson of Gothenburg, Sweden, to
fit out and start a Swedish-Australian Expédition under the leadership
of the celebrated Baron Nordenskjold, to explore the Antarctic régions,
proyided Australia contributed half the estimated cost, viz., £5,000,
while Baron Dickson offered to pay the other half, was brought before
the members by the Consul for Sweden at Melbourne, Mr. Gundersen.
Tins offer was enthusiastically received by the meeting, and the
Victorian Brandi of the Royal" Geographical Society of Australasia
in conjunction with the Royal Society of Victoria, at once set to work
to enlist the hearty co-operation of the différent branches of the Royal

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 185

Geographical Society of Australasia and other scientific societies in the
Anstralian Colonies, with a view of getting the stipulated £5,000.

" Notwithstancling however, that considérable efforts hâve been
made to secnre this comparatively small su m, the amount subscribed np
to date is less than £1,000, and it is more than probable that the
Sweclish-Australian Antarctic Expédition, which it was proposed to
départ from Europe in a steamer specially fitted up for snch purpose in
July next, so as to start from Melbourne in the following September,
and from Macquarie Island, the nearest dépôt to polar land, in October
— will for this season at least hâve to be given up, since only the four
months of an Antarctic summer, viz., October-February, could be made
use of for Antarctic Exploration.

" The subject of Antarctic Exploration was '"also discussed by the
Geographical Section at the Christchurch meeting of the Association for
the Advancement of Science in January last, when a paper by Mr. G.
S. Griffiths, F.R.G.S., Président of the Section, on Australian and
Antarctic Exploration was read and discussed. Baron Ferd. von
Millier, as Président of the Antarctic Exploration Committee of
Victoria pointed ont the impossibility ot obtaining at the présent
time any large grant from either the Impérial or Colonial Governments
and therefore advocated an expédition on lines of less magnitude and
extending in the first place to only three or four months.

" Admirai Ommanney in a letter to the Times strongly deprecates
any idea of landing a party to pass the winter in the Antaictic régions
The exploration of thèse régions is acknowledged to be of the highest
scientific interest and of considérable commercial value, especially to
Australasia. The principal objects of such an expédition would be : —

1. Further extension of geological knowledge in South-polar régions.

2. Scientific research including enquiry into the problems of physical
geography, natural histoiy, and meteorology. 3. Investigation of the
fishery industry — chiefly whale and seal.

" With regard to Baron Dickson' s offer I append hère an extract
reprinted from an article in the London Times of February 13 th. last: —
* Baron Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, Sweden, who is in Lcndon at
présent, naturally expresses some surprise at the conduct of the Austra-
lasian Geographical Society, which originally approached him with
référence to the undertaking. The only condition which he requirecl
was that Australia should contribute £5,000, and he would do ail else
that was necessary. He estimâtes that for a suitable expédition, even
on a comparatively small scale, something like £15,000 would be
wanted. Two of the powerful Norwegian sealing vessels, specially
constructed for ice navigation could be purchased for £7,000. A com-
plète equipment of scientific instruments would probably cost £1,000 ;
but Baron Dickson believes that such an equipment would be willingly
supplied by the Swedish Government. Àt least one of the ships would
hâve to be furnished with provisions and other supplies for two years,
in case of accident : while the equipment of the second ship, the pay-
ment of crews, and other expenses would not leave a large balance eut
of the remaining £8,000. Baron Dickson would contribute £5,000,
and would take upon himself the responsibility of obtaining the
remainder. The bulk of it, lie believes, he could obtain in Sweden and

l86 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Norway, thougli lie might give the Royal Geograpliical Society an
opportunity of contributîng, if it cared to do so. At ail events if the
Austral iana nyïII find the moderato sum of £5,000, Baron Dickson is
willing to lie responsible for the balance. Although Baron Norden-
skjold had made np his mind to go on no moreadventurous expéditions,
yet his objections hâve been ovcrcome, and lie is willing to undertake
the leadership of this expédition and iake with him his son, who has
proved hirnself of the right métal in a récent journey to Spitzbergen.
With Baron Nordenskjold as leader, success might almost be said to be
secured. The plan was to send one ship as far sonth as possible, say to
the neighbourhood of Mount Erebus. There the expédition would
spend a whole \ear making regular observations, and carrying out
explorations as far as praeticable. The second ship would take up its
station at the island of South Georgia, there to be ready for any
emergency. Baron Dickson has thus made every arrangement possible,
so far as lie is concernée!, but there is no sign of the promised £5,000
from Australia.'

"I sincerely hope that the Governments of the différent Colonies as
well as private citizens may see fit to liberally contribute towards the
cost of such a désirable undertaking as an Antarctic Exploration. .

" Biological Station. — Ten years ago the late Professor Smith in
his Presidential Acldress to this Society, made an energetic appeal for
contributions towards the cost of establishing a Biological Laboratory at
Watson's Bay, where the Government had given an eligiblc site, and
also had promised to double the private snbscriptions up to .£300.
The well known Russian naturalist, the late Baron Maclay, had for
two or three years previously been endeavouring to establish a Zoo-
logical Station, and in a paper read by him before the Linnean Society
of N.S.W. in 1878, he warmly advocated such a step.

u The practical interest of the Royal Societies of Victoria and New
South "Wales, together with several other Scientific societies and private
individuals, having been secured, a neat cottage was erected and fitted
np for the purpose required. The contribution from this Society
entitlecl us to nominate a worker, who would be received into the
Laboratory with the right to use ail its appliances free of charge, but
no one applied for this privilège, and Baron Maclay remained its only
occupant. In 1886 the Government resumed the site on which the
station was erected for military purposes, giving £500 as compensation.

" Professor Liversidge, who is a warm supporter of a Biological
Station near Sydney and had been largely instrumental in procuring
the late modest building in Watson's Bay, referred to this matter in his
Presidential Addresses delivered to this Society in 1886 and last year.
Since tlien the Government hâve granted the use of an excellent and
convenient site at little Sirius Point, near Mossman's Bay, and it is
proposed to erect a suitable building thereon as soon as sufncient funds
are in hand. At présent about «£600 are available, but much more is
required. Professor Haswell, Sc.D., issued in December last a circulai'
letter, appealing for support and contributions. As this letter and
some of the replies received by him fully explain the work in view, and
also show the great interest taken therein by some of the most eminent

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 187

naturalists of Europe, I republish the sa me hère, with an earnest appeal
to the members of tins Society and ail interested in the progress of
scientific research in the départaient of N'attirai History, for which this
Colony and Sydney especially, offers such a rich harvest. I may add
that the Royal Society of London lias lately granted £50 towards this
object : —

"Biology Department, University of Sydney,

"12th December, 1890.

" Dear Sir, — It is intended to re-establish the Sydney Biological
Station on new lines and in a more convenient position. The site of
the former Station at Watson's Bay was resumed for military purposes
in 1886 — the Government giving the sum of £500 as compensation for
the loss of the building. This sum, with interest that lias accrued, is
ail that the Trustées hâve at présent at their disposai ; and, in order to
establish and equip the Station in a suitable manner, ave or six times
this amount will be required. The Government hâve intimated their
willingness to assist by granting the use of a site suitable for the purpose.
It is intended to construct one large Laboratory, with Aquaria and
other necessary appliances, two or three smaller Laboratories, store-
room and workshop, accommodation for a fisherman to act as boatman
and caretaker, and, if possible, accommodation for a naturalist. With
regard to this last, it is thought eminently désirable for the success of
the undertaking that there should be attached to-the Institution a rési-
dent naturalist continually engaged in researches on the fauna of the
coast. The rest of the work done at the station would be carried ont at
their own expense by biologists froin this or the other colonies, or visit-
ing us froin Europe. The results would be for the most part published
in the local scientific societies' publications. The following gentlemen,
the Trustées appointed - by the Government, will be glad to receive
contributions towards this national undertaking : — Hon. E. S. Combes,
Dr. J. C. Cox, Prof. W. A. Haswell, Prof. Arch. Liversidge, Hon. Jas.
Norton, Dr. É. P. Ramsay.

Trusting to hâve your support and co-operation in this important
undertaking, I am yours very truly,

"William A. Haswell,

"Professor of Biology, University of Sydney,
"Hon Secretary and Treasurer.

u The F or est Department of N.S.W. — The Department of Forests
which formerly was a branch of the Mining Department, lias during
last year been re-formed as a separate Department under the
Colonial Secretary, the services of Mr. J. Ednie Brown, F.L.S., as
Director-General of Forests, (who successfully filled a similar position in
South Australia) having been secured. The importance to the colony
of a well managed Forest Department will at once be apparent by the
following few facts, with which I hâve been kindly supplied, and which,
I am sure, will be highly satisfactory reading to every well-wisher of
this colony :-— The number of Forest Reserves is 944, and the area of
reserves already proclaimed amounts to 5,579,000 acres, of which there
are about four million acres covered with more or less sood timber

[88 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

brees. Soine 23,000 rcd cedar trees hâve already been planted. Great
efforts are being made to encourage tlie natural régénération of the red
cedar forests, and already good results bave been attained in tins
direction. Over 10,000 natural grown red cedar plants of various âges
and sizes hâve been properly cleared round and otherwise attended to.

" The red cedar forests are situated principally on the northern
îivers, such as the Olarence, Richmond, Tweed, Bellenger and Maclay.
At the Gosford Nursery there is a stock tins year of over 700,000
young plants, of which the principal are red cedars, Pinus insignis,
Pmus halepensis, English oaks, poplars, olives, the most important of
the Eucalypts of ail the colonies, and the American Catalpa.

"Somefifty m en are now employed by the DejDartment in thin-
ning the natural red gum forests upon the Murray Flats. It is
intended to plant expérimental plantations this winter at Broken Hill
and Wilcannia with the tree known as the Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus
corynocalyxj. The growing of timber for the mines is a matter of great
importance. The sugar gum h as been successfully established in several
parts of South Australia in similar soil and situations to those mentioned.
Strong efforts are being made to induce not only oui* cabinet makers,
but those in Europe as well, to try our scrub timbers for the making of
furniture. Amongst the timbers recommended are the following : red
cedar, tulip-wood, rose-wood, bean, onion-wood, beech, ash, she-oak,
black-wood, marble-wood, satin-wood, cork-wood, mit tree, rongli fig,
myall, beef-wood, myrtle, and yellow-wood.

" For buildings and gênerai construction work the following
indigenous timbers are also being brought before the market : —
iron-bark, mountain ash, red gum, blood-wood, stringy-bark, black-butt,
tallow-wood, spotted gum, box of various kinds, and mahogany.

" A Forest Bill is now in course of being drafted, under which the
necessary powers will be given to the Department, whereby increased
and more satisfactory results will accrue. The Department is now
bringing ont an illustrated book upon • The Forest Flora of New South
Wales.' The work of lithographing the plates is being done by the
Government Printer, and it is expected that the first part will be
published about the end of June next. ......

" Mining and Metallurgy. — Shortly we shall be in possession cf
the annual report of the Department ol Mines for 1890 which will, like
its predecessors, treat exhaustively of the progress and production of our
mining industry. By the courtesy of the Honourable the Secretary for
Mines and Agriculture I am enabled to give the following comparative
statement of -the chief minerai productions of this colony in 1889 and
1890. They are as under:—

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES,

189

1

Quantity produced in

Estima ted Value m

Description of Minerai. , :_1

1889,

1890.

1889.

1890.

Ozs.

Ozs.

£

£

Gold ...

119,759

127,760

434,070

460,284

Silver Bullion

416,895
Tons.

496,552
Tons.

72,001

95,410

Silver Lead and Silver Lead Ore . . .

81,545

131,038

1,899,197

2,667,144

Antimony and Antimony Ore

221

1,026

3,344

20,240

Copper and Copper Regulus

4,182

3,745

206,641

173,311

Tiu and Tin Ore

4,650

3,668

415,171

329,841

Coal ...

3,655,632

3,060,876

1,632,848

1,279,088

Coke ...

...

31,097

41,147 ;

Shale ...

40,561

56,010

77,666

104,103

Limestone Flux ... ...

...

41,436

41,989

Alum ...

...

220

3,000

Manganèse

...

100
lbs.

.325

Opals ...

...

195

15,600 1

" The value of the above enumerated metals and minerais, produced
in New South Wales in 1890, amounts to 110 less than £5,231,482, an
increase of nearly half a million sterling over 1889. A comparison of
the returns for 1890 with the previous year, shows an increase of 8,000
ounces in Gold; while the produce of Silver Bullion, Silver Lead
Bullion and Silver Lead Ore amounted together to 110 less than
£2,762,554, being nearly £800,000 more than the output of 1889, and
nearly 2J times as much as that of 1888. The increase lias been most
remarkable, and shows the wonderful development of tins industiy
during the last few years, fully confirming the anticipation of Mr. C. S.
Wilkinson, Government Geolologist, as foreshadowed in his report to
the Minister for Mines in 1884. As is well known, the Broken Hill
Proprietary Company is the chief producer. From May, 1886, to 30th
November, 1890, this Company lias produced ont of 483,078 tons of
ore treated, 84,127 tons of Silver Lead Bullion, containing 20,594,272
ounces of fine Silver and 83,413 tons of Lead. The production of Anti-
mony and Antimony Ore lias also increased during last year by about
£17,000 in value.

" A spécial feature in last year's production is to be noticed in the
last item of the above list, viz. — 1951bs. Opals, valued at £15,600; they
are found at Whitecliffs, Momba Station, about 57 miles from Wil-
oannia. The principal réductions in last year's output are 1,000 tons
less of Tin and Tin Ore to the value of about £85,000, and of Coal a
diminished production of no less than about 600,000 tons of a value
of £353,000. Deducting therefrom £41,147 as the value of Coke
produced in 1890, we hâve a nett deiieiency in the value of Coal
produced in 1890, as compared with 1889, of about £312,000 — the
direct resuit of last year's lamentable strike.

<l The amount of New South Wales Gold received at the Mint in
1890 was 119,564 ounces, against an average of 110,650 ounces during
the previous ten years. The Gold from this colony, however, is only
i486 per cent, of thè total amount received by the Mint in 1890
(804,123 ounces), while Queensland contributed 619,367 ounces, or, a
little over 77 per cent., of which Mount Morgan furnished 227,053
ounces, Charters Towers and other Queensland Goldfields 392,314
ounces.

190 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

" No Iron was produced during last year from Colouial Ores. A
great impetus to tlie Colonial Iron Industry will, no donbt, be given by
the tact fchat the Government hâve invited tenders (to be received up to
24th June next) for the supply of 175,000 tons of steel rails, to be
entirely manufacturée] in tins colony out of colonial ores ; fluxes, fuel
and other materials required for their production to be also raised in
this colony. From a report of Mr. C. S. Wilkinson, F.G.S., the
Government Geologist, to the Minister of Mines, dated 30th January
last, it would appear that the quantity of Iron Ore available in tins
colony, so far as can at présent be ascertained, amounts to 12,944,000
tons, estimated to contain 5,853,180 tons of metallic Iron. This
quantity, calculatcd upon the présent imports of Iron and Iron manu-
factures, would be sufhcient to supply the demands of this colony for a
period of 35 years."

Sydney, 3rd June, 1891.— Prof essor W. A. Dixon, F.C.S., Vice-
Président, in the chair.

New members. — Messrs. E. A. Amphlett, E. M. De Burgh, R. D.
Fitzgerald, T. Haughton, K. E. Jones, and T. Poole.

Paper (1) "Notes on the large Death-rate among Australian
Sheep in Counties infected with Cumberland Disease," by Mons. A.
Loir. The author said that the death-rate in New South Wales
through Cumberland disease had been placed at 200,000 sheep a year,
but this number was very much under the reality. The death-rate in
infected animais ranged from 25 to 40 per cent. In France the death-
rate through the same disease was, prior to the introduction of the
anthrax vaccination, only 10 or 12 percent., and now it was considerably
less. This différence could be accounted for as follows : — By compara-
tive experiments it was easy to prove that the microbe had the same
virulence in Australia as in Europe. It was, therefore, necessary to
look for some other cause for the higher percentage in Australia. Not
only wxas the dangerous season much longer hère than in Europe, but
the conditions under which sheep were kept in Australia were very
favourable to exhaustion, and it was known by experiments recently
made in Paris, as well as in Australia, that exhaustion favoured the
development of the infection by anthrax as it did for many other
diseases. A third cause which could easily be avoided by pastoralists,
if the importance of it were well understood, was the following : — In
Australia, when an animal died7 its carcase remained on the same spot,
and was torn to pièces by birds of prey, which spread the disease. This
gross carelessness had been continued for many years past, so that the
soil was literally saturated with microbes of infection. If stockowners
properly understood how dangerous it was to leave undestroyed the
bodies of the dead animais, they would, doubtless, devise some simple
expédient for burning the remains without incurring the risk of bush
fires. It was regarded as certain that as soon as vaccination became
generally adopted the number of cases of " Cumberland disease " would
diminish year by year, as was the case in those countries in which this
valuable means of prévention was the custom. If the process of burning
the bodies were adopted, the actual causes of contagion for men and

MEETINGS OF SOCIET1ES. ICI

animais would be diminished, and this remark applied not only to
" Cumberland disease," but generally to ail contagious diseases of stock.
In view of the great impetus recently given to the méat export trade, it
was most désirable that eveiy possible précaution should be adopted in
order to prevent European bactériologiste from finding in méat imported
from Australia microbes or remains of microbes in large quantities.
Stockowners would do well to bear in mind the fact that the import of
hogflesh from America had been interdicted by many countries in
Europe for several years past.

Mr. Charles Moore expressed his sensé of the value of the paper.
He was quite sure that Mons. Loir was right in bis conclusions. It
was no use burying the dead animais ; they must be burned to prevent
infection.

Professor Anderson Stuart considérée! that the thanks of the
pastoralists were due to the author of the paper, and thought that the
suggestion of Mons. Loir, that the pastoralists should take précautions
to prevent the export of any infected carcases, was an excellent one.
If any of the microbes were found in Europe in méat received from
Australia the fact would be sure to be made the most of by interested
parties, and it would prove to be the death-knell to the trade.

Dr. MacLaurin pointed out that the law already provided for the
dealing with persons who sol cl diseased méat. He fancied that exporters
would see that it would be not only wicked but foolish to send such
méat to maiket. If they exported it they did so in contravention of
the law.

2. Professor Anderson Stuart exhibited an apparatus for the démon-
stration of sound waves or waves of condensation and reflection. The
instrument, to which he had not yet given a name, showed the movements
of pellets of ivory, which represented particles of air as they oscillated
to and fro. The first idea which led him to construct the apparatus
was obtained from the oscillation of the legs of the centipede, which
moved in a double wave — as seen from above, in waves of condensation
and raréfaction ; as seen from the side, in vertical waves. The instru-
ment was described as accurately representing the to-and-fro movement
of the particles of air. The sound wave, as it were, could therefore be
seen progressing from one end of the instrument to the other.

3. Professor Dixon demonstrated to members the working of Love-
bond's tintometer, which is specially useful in examining malt, flour,
sugar, beers, and wines. Its purpose is to " dissect " the colours of the
objects examined, and to détermine what their value is.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

Melbourne, June llth, 1891. — E. J. White, Esq , in the chair.

Mr. E. F. J. Love read the report of the Gravity Survey Committee
appointée! in November last. The committee had, in accordance with

I92 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

instructions, carefully considérée! the proposai to carry ont a gravity
survey of Australasia by means of pendulum observations, and had
decided to recommend that the Society should procced with the observa-
tions. The Committec had ascertained that the Royal Society of
London would lend for the pnrposes of the Society the pendulum
apparatus employed for a similar purpose at the great trigonometrical
survey of India, provided that tlic Royal Society of Victoria undertook
to defray the expenses connected with the packing and despatch of the
apparatus. The Committec looked upon the gênerons offer of the Royal
Society of London as a matter of extrême importance, as its acceptance
would not only render the construction of fresh apparatus unnecessary,
but would makc the observations taken in Australasia directly com-
parai >le with those made by the Tndian survey, also at Greenwich and
Kew, bases of the varions European gravity surveys. The Committee
had further ascertained that Mr. H. W. Russell, Government astro-
nomer for New South Wales, Mr. C. Todd, Government astronomer for
South Australia, and Mr. W. H. Bragg, Professor of Physics at the
Adelaide University, would be willing to co-operate in the work and
serve on the committee appointed to carry it out, and the Committee
was of opinion that the assistance rendered by thèse gentlemen would
be of great value. Material assistance had also been promised by Sir
John Forrest, Premier of Western Australia. The Committee therefore
respectfully asked for re-appointment, with the addition of Messrs.
Russell and Todd, and Professor Bragg, with power to arrange for the
carrying out of the survey at as many stations as might be found
practicable, and further, that a grant of £25 be placed at the disposai
of the Committee for the défrayai of current expenses, including the
cost of the package and transport of the pendulum apparatus.

On the motion of Professor Baldwin Spencer the report wrs
adopted.

Papers. — (1) " On the anatomy of Ceratella fusca, Gray," by
Professor Baldwin Spencer.

(2) " Additional observations on the Victorian Land-Planarians,"
by Dr. Arthur Dendy.

(3) '-'On a new species of fresh-water fish, from Lake Mgothoruk,
Mount Wellington, Victoria, " by A. H. S. Lucas.

(4) " On Land-Planarians from Lord Howe Island, Part L, Des-
cription of New Species," by Professor Baldwin Spencer.

2? UJG. 9ï

WISE, CAFFIN & GO.

ARE PUBLISHERS OF

Petrie's First G'eography ls.

Pctrie's Geograpliy of New Zealand ls.
Goyen's Complète Arithmetic . 9d.

Ansuers to same 9d.

Goyeii's Exercises in the Componnd Unies ls. Gd.

Answers ls. 6d.

Curnow's Primer of Englisli History ls.

Tltomson's \ew Zealand Feins . 6s.

Tlie Story of the Otago Cliurch and ( Clotli 3s. tid.
Settlement. By Bev. C. Stnart Uoss \ Paper 2s.

Education and Edncationists in Otago.

Bv Uev. C. Stnart Uoss . 3s. Od.

^«^ftj^Ç^^^s^^»—

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.

108 PRINCES STREET,
DUNEDIN.

MatthewH, Baxter à Co., Geneml Printers, Dowling Street, Dunedin.

17 OCT. 91

SEPTEMBER, 1891

THE

No. 5, Vol. I. (New Issue.)

NEW ZEALAND

T

DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY

Judicio perpende : et si tibi vera videntur

Dede manus : aut si falsum est, adcingere contra.

CONTENTS :

On the Occurrence of Moa and Other Remains at Albury. W. W. Smith

Notes on the Kea or Mountain Parrot. F. F. C. Huddlestone

An Excursion to the Trelissic Basin. F. R. Ciiapman

The Geysers Action of Rotorua, Camille Malfro y, CE.

The Prospects of finding Workable Coal on the Waitemata. Jas. Pakk, F. G. S.

Star Charting and some Resulting Discoveries. H. C Rcssell, F.R.S.

Review— "Transactions and Proceeding^ of the N.Z. Institute — Vol. XXIII."...

Ice-Marks and their Counterfeits. Pko:k. F. W. Hutton, F. G. S. ...

General Notes —

An Interesting Point in Polyncsian Ethnology— Notes on Eels— University
Extension in New Zeàland— The Polyncsian Society.

Meetings of Societies

Wellington Philosopkical Society — Auckland Institute— Otago Institute—
Pnilosophical Institute of Canterbury— Linncan Society of New South
Wales— Field Naturalists' Club of Victoria— Royal Society of New
South Walcs.

PAGE

193

198

202

203

208

211

217

219"

223

227

PRIOE, 2s. ; ANNTJAL SUBSCR1PTION, 10s. 6d.
Posted — Australia, America, and Britain, 12s. 6d.

gmttïrm, ItJÛ

MATTÏÏEWS, BAXTER à CO., PUBLISHERS, DOWLTNG STREET.
WTSE, CAFFIN «fc CO., 108 PRINCES STREET.

SPECIAL NOTICE

Contributors of articles to the New Zealand Journal of Science
can hâve copies of same — if desired by them— at the foliowing rates,
viz. : —

s. cl.
In Pamphlet form, 12 copies, por page ... ... 2 6

Do. do. 25 do. do. ... ... 3 0

Do. do. 50 do. do. ... ... '36

Orders for the foregoing to be sent to the Publishers,

MATTHEWS, BAXTER & CO.,

Dowling Street. Dunedin.

Vol. L, No. 5, N.Z. JOURNAL OP SCIENCE (New Issne) SEPT., 1891.

ON THE OCCUREENCE OF MOA AND OTHER
REMAINS AT ALBURY.

In Vol. IL, page 293 of this Journal, I recorded the finding of
numerous Moa and other remains in the caves and swallow-holes of the
limestone rocks at Albury. Since I left the district in 1883 consi-
dérable changes hâve been wrought, changes which, from a naturalisas
point of view, are not always welcome. The extensive swamps hâve
been drained, the magnificent limestone range has been ploughed,
and during the progress of the work many facts which may serve
to enlighten us a little on the théories of the ancient or modem
extinction of the Moas hâve corne to light. As the opinions of
scientists are still about equally divided on this question, the following
observations made while digging up and collecting the bones of Moas
and other extinct bircls in the district, will, I think, show the great
antiquity of the birds, as well as tend to prove that they existed theve
even in comparatively récent times.

By direction of Sir Walter Buller, F. H. S., I lately proceeded to
Albury to explore the caves and swallow-holes in the locality, and to
collect ail bones, &c, as above-mentioned. After engaging a man to
assist in the work, we began on a swallow-hole that I had not previously
examined. The " holes " I may observe are deep circular pits varying
in size from a few feet to eighty or ninety leet in diameter at the top,
and about the same in depth ; most of them hâve steep, sloping sides
narrowing down to the bottom. In wet weather the rain falling on
their sides, and the small streams entering them from the higher points
of the range, enter subterranean channels having their outlet in the
low gullies, or on the edges of the swamps at the base of the lower
downs. The occurrence of great quantities of mixed bones in the
bottoms of the swallow-holes, and in the channels or fissures leading
from them, suggests that the birds probably fell into them accidentally,
and being unable to extricate themselves died in the holes. The bones,
owing to the subséquent accumulation of broken rock and clay on the
bottoms, are embedded at various depths, while others were carried by
the water down the underground channels beyond recovery. The first
hole we examined had a perpendicular opening of seven feet, and led
into a horizontal cave thirty yards long. In the centre of it, and ex-
tending its whole length is a broad fissure of great depth, with jagged
almost perpendicular walls. After tying knots on the rope about four
feet apart and fixing it to a crowbar driven into the ground on the top
of the hole, we put down the tools and lowered ourselves. Having dug
through about eighteen inches of earthy clay containing pigs' bones we
had to dig three feet deeper before finding any bones of the moa. In
order to avoid injuring them with the tools we carefully probed the
clay with a fine iron rod to ascertain where they lay. By this means
we were able to proceed more expeditiously and with safety. The
colour of the clay is yellow and intensely adhesive, it is somewhat difiicult
to work tools in it, and and although the work is not ail rose pink and

194 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

lavender, the liope of good reward in the form of bones keeps the spirits
buoyant. lu working down the fissures they become narrower, and
frequeutly the larger bones are found tightly jammed into their narrow
bottoms. In ail the fissures we worked we found a water channel
formed along the bottom through which a considérable stream of water
must occasionally flow, and owing to the long continuance of dry
weather very little water was in any of the channels. One remarkable
feature about them is the occurrence in parts of their bottoms of
thousands of small bones mixed together in wet mud and sand (partially
dissolved limestone). In some places we found them from six inches to
a foot deep, and they appear to me to be composed chiefly of the bones of
chicks of several species of Moa and Aptornis. Amongst them we found
two skulls of Stringops habroptilus (Owl Parrot). Along with thèse are
some that will in ail probability prove to belong to the ancient dog, the
companion of the moa hunters. We also found chips of moa egg shells,
gizzard-stones, and portions of moa skin, with remains of other species
of birds still living in some localities, but extinct in the A lbury district.
For obvious reasons, I must, however, avoid dealing with their spécifie
characters. The first fissure unfortunately becoming too narrow to
admit of working it thoroughly, we had reluctantly to leave it, although
we were fully aware that numerous valuable bones lay buried for ever
beneath our feet.

Our next essay was in the deep hole mentioned in my paper in
Vol. IL, page 293, and from which came the Aptornis skull described
by Sir Richard Owen, and supposed by the accomplished naturalist to
belong to a new species.* From the same hole were taken along with
the Aptornis skull some of the largest and best preserved bones of
Dirnornis elephantopus and crassus yet obtained. The bones buried in
the damp fissures are cleaner and whiter than bones dug out of swamps,
the latter being generally charged with the black or other colouring
matter of the clay or mud in which they occur. In entering the hole I
observed that slight changes had occurred since I last examined it seven
years ago. On each side a broad fissure filled with clay and broken
limestone exists. In thèse fissures the bones are embedded at various
depths in intensely tenacious clay. Since I last visited it a considérable
quantity of the clay had fallen out of the fissures on to the bottom and
left several bones projecting out of the almost upright section of clay
and small stones. After turning over and collecting ail bones contained
in the fallen débris, we built as much of it as possible into one corner,
and then dug down close to the wall of rock in line with the fissure
until we reached the water channel on its bottom. But the extremely
narrow space in which we were placed made it impossible for us to
examine the fu.ll depth of clay in the hole; it could only be done
perfectly by constructing a staging across the top of it, and using a
windlass to draw the whole of the clay to the surface. On reaching
the water channel we again met with a vast number of small, mixed
bones lying in the wet, sandy mud. We followed the channel away
from the hole for several yards and obtained some excellent bones, but
were stopped in our progress by the fissure again becoming too narrow
to work in. We threw back the clay into the closed fissures and tried

Introduction to Sir Walter Buller's " History of the Birds of New Zealand," p. xxiii.

MOA REMAINS AT ALBURY. 195

in the opposite direction. But we were soon compelled to abandon the
work in this hole owing to the impossibility of disposing of the removed
clay. Having several times previously dug out many valuable bones
from this hole, I am the more convinced that a great wealth of osseous
relies lies buried at various depths in the accumulated mass of clay and
stones partly filling it, — a véritable charnel-house of inoa and other
remains, awaiting the enterprise of some future explorer.

While removing our tools to another swallow-hole heavy rain
commenced to fall and continued for two days, which prevented us in
the meantime continuing the work. We however resorted to the dry
caves and painted rock shelters to examine their floors and sketch the
numerous grotesque figures adorning the walls. On the Brothers
Range between the Tengawai and Opihi rivers and in the valley of the
Opihi there are a number of painted rocks and caves which hâve not
been examined or recorded. As soon as I can spare the time I intend
to visit the district to examine and report on them, which I h ope to be
be able to figure and describe in a paper to be read before the New
Zealand Institute. Archseologically they are of great interest and
value, and everywhere that they exisfc they are rapidly disappearing.
The careful digging of ail the floors yielded very poor results, for
excepting numerous fragments of burned egg-shells and charred pièces
of moa bones, we obtained nothing of value. A number of Pipi
(Mesodesma Novœ-Zealandiœ) and Pawa shells (Haliotis iris) were dug
out of the layer of ashes that partly covered the floors. Parts of the
rock shelters hâve a smoked and blackened appearance with a thick
layer of ashes lying immediately beneath, thus showing that fires were
kindled under the rocks and in the caves, probably on frosty nights or
during wet weather. When the rain ceased we examined a number of
old Maori ovens and the ash heaps around them that had been newly
exposed only a few days before by the first ploughing of the lancï.
They are situated on the low flat near the gorge of the Tengawai river,
and near the painted rocks. A thorough examinatipn of the ovens and
ash heaps yielded even less than the floors of the caves or rock shelters.
But there were évidences of the ash heaps having been formecl at
intervais of several years ; at least we judged so by examining them in
section. The greatest depth of the ash (which is composed chiefly of
comminuted bone,) was fourteen inches. The section in one instance
showed two layers of fine earth 2 J inches in thickness interlayered with
black ash 3 or 3J inches respectively, due, of course, to the action of
earthworms. We expected to be rewarded for the day's work by
finding some rude or polished stone implements, but none were obtained.
The weather continuing fine we devoted a day to traversing the whole
of the newly ploughed clowns and collecting the upturned bones lying
in the furrows ; wherever we found them we dug the ground careful ly
around for several yards and obtained some goocl bones and in one
instance some gizzard-stones. But at no time did we obtain a perfect
skeleton. Next morning we searched the bed and banks of the creek
draining the eastern side of the limestone range, — where in former
years I occasionally obtained good bones after floods. In passing along
we discovered a native oven brimful of musse! s. The plough had lately
skinned off the five inches of soil covering the oven and left the shells
exposed. After being placecl in the oven they were apparently ne ver

196 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

cooked, as each valve was closed and the shells full of extremely fine
earth. Before raid-day we resumed work at the swallow-holes and
oontinued at them for several days with varying success. But I need
not recount oui* work for the time, as the account given of the first two
holes we worked will sufiice to give a good idea of the others we
eximined.

The two main théories propounded to account for the extinction of
the Dinomithidœ, the one holding forth that the moas were exter-
minated by an autocthonic race anterior to the advent of the Maori,
the other that their extermination was solely the work of the latter race,
may be briefly discussed hère. The évidence given while exploring the
swallow-holes, caves, and Maori ovens in the Albury district, seems to
me to be more consistent with the views of scientists who hold that
their extermination was accomplished, or at least accelerated by the
hand of man, within the last three or four générations, certainly in late
years. Several minor and extremely ingenious théories hâve been
offered to explain the annihilation of the moas; some are purely
fanciful, others appear to me to be nearer to the truth, yet wide of the
truc cause. Of course I admit that the examination of a certain district
may favour one theory and in another it may oppose it, yet the facts I
am able to adduce will go to show that the moas — although they were
birds of great antiquity, lived in the Albury district within very récent
times. It is generally maintained that the larger and more clumsy
species of the race were the first to succumb, and in many districts such
probably was the case. At Albury, however, the larger bones are as
commonly ploughed up on the downs, as those belonging to smaller or
intermediate-sized birds. They are buried no deeper, as the ploughs are
set to turn over only a certain depth of furrows. I hâve seen other
great bones of D. elephantopus that were ploughed up on the tops of the
limestone Downs near the cave village in a perfect state of préservation.
The greater size and maturity of the bones would préserve them from
decaying in the soil for a longer period than the bones of young or
immature birds. When digging up the bones in the newly-ploughed
furrows we observed that in every instance we only obtained parts of
the skeleton ; this would appear to indicate that the birds were slain
where they lay, and that parts of the carcase had been removed. If the
birds had died a natural death where their remains were found, some
allowance may be made for hawks, seagulls, and wekas attacking the
flesh, and scattering the finer bones. But I know of no carnivorous
bird or animal (excepting perhaps the Harpagornis) having strength
to remove the heavy fémurs or tarsi of a large bird. Supposing the
extinct eagle to be endowed with the power, I think it is probable that
owing to the great numbers of living prey it would not be a carrion
feeder. But the fact of portions only of the skeletons being found in
the open country, not only at Albury but elsewhere, seems to favour
the idea that they were slain on the spot and eut up, and parts of them
removed by their destroyers. The day we searched the newly-ploughed
land, one of the ploughmen informed me that a few weeks before, while
ploughing a small gully, the plough had suddenly turned over a " heap
of différent kinds of bones," and that he had collected them in a sack,
and carried them into the homestead. Before leaving the district I had
the pleasure of examining them and found they were composed of leg

MOA REMAINS AT ALBURY. IÇ7

bones only, including several toe bones and claws, belonging to birds of
various sizes. Possibly a thorough search of tlie spot where tliey lay
would hâve résultée! in finding ail the bones belonging to each leg. The
case, however, seems to afford support to the theory that when the birds
were slain parts of them only were occasionally removed. It certainly
is difficult to conceive how the leg bones of several-sized birds could be
placed there by other than human agency. The great accumulation of
burnt eggshells found in the kitchen middens of the moa hunters points
to another potent cause, in fact, the chief one; opéra ting steadily and
annually as the destroyer of the moas. The fiercest and swiftest species
could be exterminated in a few years by annually robbing their nests,
and certainly the cunning of the Maori would be equal to the occasion
in ail cases. The fragments of eggshells we found in the ash heaps
varied considerably in thickness, and in the granular markings on their
surface, and the freshest chips occurred in the top layer of ashes.

Now, in drawing conclusions from the évidence afforded by exami-
ning the ash mounds, their layered condition suggests that towards the
close of the moa âge, the tribes by whom they were formed were
nomadic in habits, and wandered from the district for periods of several
years ; other évidence which seems to me to support thèse remarks is
the fact of many of the rocks having been painted over and over again,
while the fresher figures are truer and were given a higher finish. This
may be considérée! to hâve no bearing 011 the question, yet I think. that
the nomadic tribes who were probably compelled to live and subsist on
the sea coast during part of the year would acquire a taste for sketching
them on the rocks when they returned to gather the eggs or hunt the
moas; certainly the best exécutée! figures on the rocks at Albury are
those representing several species of fish. The occurrence also of marine
shells in the floors of the rock-shelters and ash heaps near the oie! ovens,
offers further proof of the moa hunters having occasionally visitée!, or
liveel temporarily, on the seashore.

The great âge of the bones occurring in the deep, elamp fissures at
Albury, furnishes an important proof of the remote antiquity of the
moas. The peculiar conditions under which they are found hâve been
exceptionally favourable to their long and perfect préservation, while
the occurrence of their remains in the tertiary and more récent deposits,
and in the surface mould on the downs, illustrâtes the graduai
extinction of the birds for rnany âges from some not very clearly known
cause. The extremely hard and solid structure of the matured bones
would naturally resist the solvents of the soil for a longer period than
the bones of other animais, but it is difficult to reconcile the fact of
the more elelicate bones being fonncl sounel and perfect in superficial
mould with the theory that the birds h ad perished where they lay four
thousand years ago. The subject, however, has been so exhaustively
dealt with by Sir Walter Bnller, ancl the whole of the évidence and
views of both sides compiled and brought down to date in perfect order,
(loc. cit. page xviii.), that I refrain from discussing it hère. When I
hâve examined the caves, rock shelters, etc., in the Opihi cave districts,
I will be able to deal with the subject more fully ancl to give détails of
the work.

So far I hâve not touched on the origin of the bones in the eleep

I98 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

fissures, nor am I aware that the subject lias hitherto been dealt with,
yet it is worthy of a passing notice. The fissures or earthquake rents
in the limestone were formed at some remote period when nuraerous
species of moas flourished in the district. Many of the fissures in
which the bones are found are several yards broad at their tops, and
are now filled up and are not distinguishable except in such parts where
tlicv can be seen in section. For âges after their formation, the stupid,
clumsy birds, browsing or wandering near them, appear to hâve
accidentally fallen in and perished. This mode of destruction lasted for
a considérable time, or at least until the fissures filled up sufiiciently to
enable the birds falling to walk along the bottom and escape at some
sloping outlet. Thèse remarks are based on observations made in the
fissures ten years ago, and in others lately, as the invariable resuit on
both occasions, was the finding of the bones, etc., in the lowest ten feet
of the clay filling the fissures. The latter extend in ail directions on
the range, and doubtless may continue to increase slowly in depth,
caused by the water channels flowing along their bottoms and the rain
water dissolving the rock.

When the future historian of the moa âge in New Zealand is
dealing with the oldest preserved relies, or the remains of that giant
race of birds, he may safely commence his work on the latter with the
remnants found in thèse ancient fissures. When ail other districts
hâve been carefully explored we may then be able to discover some
cause to account for the extermination of the moas. Until such work is
accomplished we must remain content with data we possess. Certainly
no zoological subject can surpass in interest the history of thèse
marvellous ornithic relies of bygone âges.

W. W. Smith.

NOTES ON THE KEA OR MOUNTAIN PARROT
(NESTOR NOTABILIS).

Thèse few notes on the habits and peculiarities of the Kea are
made up from information which I hâve gathered during a period of
twenty years spent in localities where the birds were in great numbers
— chiefly at the head of Lake Wanaka, at Lake Wakatipu, and at
Mount Cook. I bave shot and trapped thousands of them, watched
them by day and night, and taken advantage of every opportunity of
learning anything new pertaining to them. My chief object in
wiïting thèse notes is to réfute what I considor to be a totally
erroneous idea which seems to hâve gained credence, and which, for
brevity's sake, I will call the " kidney theory." Furthor than this, a
few facts hâve corne under my observation, which I hâve never seen
mentioned as relating to thèse birds.

The theory above mentioned was started by Mr. Henry Campbell
of Lake Wanaka station. Not having the leisure to go fully into this
matter, I will refer my readers to what Mr. Potts has written on the
subject (Buller's History of New Zealand Birds, page 54, first

NOTES ON THE KEA. IÇ9

édition, and also included in the second édition). I will confine
myself simply to correcting and straightening up false impressions
that hâve got abroad, notably one in a book which is now lying
before me called " Darwinism," by Alfred Russel Wallace, and which
has constantly been referred to in papers hère and abroad.

I first went to the Makarora Valley, at the head of Lake Wanaka,
in December, 1869, and there met Mr. Henry Campbell, who had a
station adjoining ours. I was very anxious to get a Kea, as it was
then a new bird to me, and I had never, up to that time, either seen
or heard one. I learnt from an old Maori the art of calling and
trapping them, and to Mr. Campbell I am indebted for a great deal
of information concerning their habits. On visiting Lake Wanaka a
year later, this gentleman informed me that thèse birds had taken to
killing and eating his sheep, their plan of opération consisting of
picking a hole in the sheep's back over the kidneys. Acting on this
information, I decided to spend ail the time I could spare in endea-
vouring to find out the reason of their taking up thèse carnivorous
habits.

The following statement by Wallace is generally believed to be a
correct description of the bird, viz. : — " It belongs to the family of
" brush-tongued parrots, and naturally feeds on the honey offlowers and
" the insects which fréquent them, together with such fruits or bernes
" as are found in the région. Till quite recently this com])osed its whole
" diet, but since the country it inhabits has been occupied by Euro-
" peans, it has developed a taste for a carnivorous diet with alarming
" results. It began by picking the sheepskins hung out to dry, or
"the méat in the process of being cured. About 1868 (? 1870) it was
" first observed to attack living sheep, which had frequently been
" found with raw and bleeding wounds on their backs. Since then it
" is stated that the bird actually burrows into the living sheep, eating
" its way down to the kidneys, which form its spécial delicacj'."

A correct description of the Kea will be found in " New Zealand
Birds." The young bird, the first year, is very yellow at the base of
the mandibles. The beak of the Kea is longer and not so curved as
that of the Kaka {Nestor mer idionalis). The Kaka feeds chiefly on the
honey of flowers, and, in win ter- time, on the grubs in rotten wood ; I
hâve never seen the Kea take to either of thèse diets. Its beak is
more suitable for grubbing after the larvae of the différent insects that
are found in the ground, — such as the grub of the Weta of the Natives
(Deinacrida) and of the Cicada, of which there are large numbers in
the high country of Canterbury and Otago, although they disappear
as the country is burnt by the runholder, who not only kills the
insects by so doing, but also destroys ail the berry-bearing scrub.
This process of course improves greatly the sheep-carrying capacity
of the soil, but, at the same time, it deprives the Kea of ail its natural
food, thereby causing the bird to take to a carnivorous diet. They do
no harm to the sheep running in the vicinity of Mount Cook, but
further down, where the country is denuded of its scrub, they hâve
proved very destructive. They seem to learn the pernicious habit
from their neighbours, as I noticed at the Wanaka that, for a time,
they left one run strie tly alone, while on the adjoining run in six
months they killed 100 hoggets out of 1,500.

200 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

1 hâve watched the bird at work. To get at the grubs, it will
cock its hcad on one side, look hard at the ground, and then make a
dab at it, bringing bits of earth away each time with the hook of its
beak, until it gets a short way in. It does not keep its head under
ground for any length of time, although it will make a burrow eight
or nine inches deep ; but, ail the time it is at work, it keeps bringing
its hecd out sharply to take a look around.

Bcsides grubs, they feed on the berries of various alpine shrubs
and trees, such as the snow berry (Gaultheria), Coprosma, Panax,
the little black seed in a white skin of the Phyllocladus alpinus, the
Pittosporum with its hard seed in a glutinous mass like bird-lime, and
the red berry of the Podocarpus; also, in winter, on roots of the
various herbaceous alpine plants — Aciphylla squarrosa and colensoi,
Ranunadus lyallii, Celmisias, etc.

The Kea has the power of moving its upper inaudible to a
greater extent than I hâve noticed in any other of the Nestor family.

The reason, I believe, that the bird has been charged with eating
the kidney of the sheep it attacks, is that the loin or rump of the
sheep is the broadest part whereon it can get an easy grip. As soon
as the sheep feels its assailant, it runs away with the bird holding
on and naturally havmg its beak just over the kidneys where it
iminediately sets to work. It will eat any part of the sheep when
the animal is either dead or alive, but it prefers the pulp which
it strips from the sinews, in the same way that the kakapo strips the
pulp from grass. I hâve found large numbers of sheep with only a
very small hole on the back, about the size of a crown, which on
being examinée!, showed a cavity beneath as large as a man's hand,
in which the backbone and ribs were perfectly bare. Others I hâve
found with holes in the side through which the intestines had been
drawn, the sheep being still alive ; and, in some instances, the wound
had healed and apparently formed a false anus.

They become very tame if not disturbecl, and their an tics are
very amusing to watch. At Mount Cook my old collie dog was
frequently the victim of their pleasantries. In the evening — their
usual time to congregate — they would find the dog lying in front of
the house ; they would then walk around him, first one would go up
and pull his tail and run away, another would follow suit, and so on
until the victim would get up growling and retire into the verandah.

They would then form a circle, and one would step into the
centre and make a variety of sounds as if he were addressing the
others, ^Yho would keep perfectly still until he finished up with a cry
like "bow-wow," when they would ail hop round him. They seem to
be a very unselfish lot of fellows, as they will keep this performance
up for a considérable time, allowing each member to address the
assembly.

They are very playful and inquisitive, and will wrestle and roll
one another about like kittens. In fact they carry their playfulness
to such an extrême as to become a nuisance to surveyors, whose flags
th<y pull down as soon as the surveyors put them up. Another
instance of their playfulness came under my notice, during the last

NOTES ON THE KEA. 201

<

season, at the but erected by the Government on the Bail Glacier.
The birds would percb on the top of the roof, and, two or three at a
time, would slide on their tails down the corrugated iron until they
reached the lower edge, when they would fly ofF and continue the
game for an hour or more.

I am unable to give a correct estimate of the number killed in
the Mount Cook — Lake Wakatipu districts. The slaughter of them
at times bas been very great; at Lake Wanaka, in four years, I
myself killed over three thousand ; and I know of several up-country
stations where 100 to 200 were killed yearly. To reduce their
numbers, the County Councils used to give from one to two shillings
per beak, and the Government then gave the Councils a subsidy of £
for M- This lias now been discontinued, which has resulted in the
birds not being as much sought after, and so given a chance of
increase — a chance of which they will not be loth to take advantage.
About Mount Cook they breed very early in the year, as I hâve fouad
their nests in August, when snow was on the ground.

The first time that I saw the nests at that time of the year was
when I was shooting, at an altitude of 3,000 feet. I shot a bird that
was sitting on a rock ; after it fell, another appeared on the rock, and
from the same place I shot twenty-two. I went to pick up the dead
birds, and I then found that they had, in the first place, ail corne
out of a hole under the rock. On looking into the hole I saw
something moving, which eventually turned out to be young birds.

They were out of reach, but after some trouble I managed to
noose one, and I found that it was in its nesting plumage of slate-
coloured down, with very yellow beak and legs. There were others
in différent stages of growth, also eggs. I hâve since found other
nests, and hâve noticed that, after a time, the old birds leave the half-
grown ones to hatch out the late eggs, ail the community doing their
share of feeding the young. The same habit I hâve noticed in the
case of the native parroquet. The Kea's egg is white and about the
size of a pigeon's, but rounder and with a rough shell. The young
do not corne out of the nest until fully ïledged and able to fly. The
old birds are very courageous, and in defence of their young I hâve
seen the parent birds tackle a hawk, and neariy pluck him before lie
could get away. The young birds are so tame that if a person cornes
across a flock of them and keeps perfectly still, they will walk up to
him and pull at his clothes. They will learn to talk but are rather
noisy.

It is very pleasing to watch thèse birds as they congregate after
the sun sets, and if a person can " call " them they will answer with
their usual response of " Ke-â ! Ke-â ! Bow-wow ! Bow-wow ! "

Like maoy of our native birds, the Kea will gradually retreat
loeîore the march of civilisation, and they will live only in such works
as Buller's " History of New Zealand Birds," and others of the same
nature.

F. F. C. HUDDLESTON.

202 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

AN EXCURSION TO THE TRELISSIC BASIN.

Wliile the wholesome taste for mountain touring which has arisen
in the colony in the last few years impels oui* town folk to visit Mount
Cook, Lake Wakatipu, and other centres, our travelling public has not
yet learnetl to value the bye paths which add so much interest to such
travelling. Some time before the Hermitage was built I camped with
a party including Mr. Huddlestone at the foot of a spur in the Ben
Oh ou range where now Glen tanner station stands. Having a spare
day I ascen.led to the summit of the mountain at the back of the
station, and probably got better results than could be obtained nearer
Mount Ccok at the altitude which I reached, viz., 8,600 feet. I cannot
too strongly recommend this coraparatively easy day 's work — 10 hours
suffice — to anyone who wishes to study the whole System of Mount
Cook and the peaks to right and left and the three great glaciers. Yet
tins mountain is entirely neglected. I hâve never yet managed to
induce anybody to go and visit a view equal to that from the Gorner
Grat. Experimenting in a similar way I found another lying much
nearer to hand though perhaps not equal to that. In January last
after the visit of the Australasian Association was over, I accepted
the hospitality of Mr. J. D. Enya, of Oastle Hill, for a few days. My
wife accompanied me, and vve found there Mr. Kirk on a botanising
excursion. Oastle hill is on the West Coast road, 20 miles from
Springfield. It is not on the line of the Midland Railway, but it is the
best pièce of land in the valley of the Upper Waimakariri. Mr. Enys'
house, now owned by Mr. Stronach, is 2,500 feet above the sea, and is
beautifully situated in a clump of Mountain Beech (Fagus cliffortioides)
which ex tends over some thousands of acres along the face of the range.
It commands a full view of Mount Torlesse, a famous collecting ground
for botanists. The district is an enclosed basin with no outlet under
3.000 feet in height, save the gorge of the Wamakariri. The floor of
the basin is composée! of limestone, I am not geologist enough to tell
its history, but it looks as if it had been a kind of land-locked bay, with
a narrow entrance from an ancient coast sea. Marvellous collections of
fossil teeth hâve been made there, and Mr. Enys showed me a
remarkable little bone which we were convinced was the top of a bird's
bone, — this, too, out of the limestone. Our first excursion was through
the beautiful beech forest in which we noted from time to time the
gorgeous crimson mistletoe, and up the stony creek bed to a height of
4, 1 00 feet to the first of the Edelweiss. This for a lady is a good climb.
Next day I went with Mr. Rogers, a nephew of my host, to the height
of 6,900 feet. The way up this height is simple ; it is to follow the
spur opposite the door of the Castle Hill Hôtel until the summit is
reached. It was a broiling day and I shall not easily forget our struggles
over the broken slates to reach a small patch of snow near the top.
But the view from the top is really magnificent. Mount Cook, about
90 miles off, stood out splendidly with its chief neighbours in bold relief.
This is one of the points from which it is seldom seen and it gives a
new view of the extension northward of the range. Two bold moun-
tains much nearer flanked the view ; I suppose Mount Arrowsmith and

AN EXCURSION TO THE TRELISSIC BASIN. 203

Mount Sinclair. The whole Une of the great backbone of New Zealand
for 150 miles was visible at once, while by merely turning round one
could see the coast from Cheviot to Timaru say 120 miles in a sweep.
The summit of Torlesse made a patch over Christchurch, but Sumner
was plainly visible. Lake Coleridge lay like an emerald below us and
two or three small lakes were visible. On the distant Canterbury
plains, farms, roads and plantations could be distinguished. Returning,
wg descended over the vast slides of shingle by planting one foot in it
and taking giant strides covering 2,000 feet in a few minutes.
Attempting to quench an intolérable thirst we found nearly ail the
streams so bitter with alum as to be nauseous. We found a large
number of interesting plants. On the vast stretches of shingle we
noticed the singular gênera which seem to enjoy life inthat inhospitable
région, while on the lower slopes an immense profusion of Celmisias
and other alpine composites prevailed. Celmisia viscosa predominated,
while G. sinclairii, C. haastii, C. laricifolia, G bellidioides, C. lyallii, and
a small forai of the species or variety now called C. jervoisii were
identified. At 4,500 feet C. bellidioides is a singularly beautiful plant
when in flower, but it dégénérâtes at lower levels. Senecio lyallii,
usually yellow as a buttercup, was found to be cream-coloured above a
certain height. Ascending a stream in a rocky bed I presently found
it white, — a few yards higher I found a very similar plant with pure
white flowers but with rough hairy instead of glabrous leaves. This
was the variety or species called Senecio scorzonerioides.

A very interesting Raoulia or vegetable sheep was very plentiful
on steep rocky places, but I believe a finer species is found on Mount
Torlesse. I am growing one of thèse in a pot where it seems to do
well. Several which I plantée! on a rockery hâve been torn to pièces
for insects. It is said that the Keas tear them up with their powerful
beaks and that thèse birds learnt to eat mutton th rough mistaking dead
sheep for masses of Raoulia.

F. R, Chapman.

THE GEYSERS ACTION OF ROTORUA.

BY CAMILLE MALFROY, CE., J.P., CHEVALIER DE LA LEGION
D'HONNEUR.

(Paper read before the Auckland Instituts, 22nd June, 1891.)

Being appointed engineer in charge of the Government Thermal
Sprlng District at Rotorua, immecliately after the éruption of Tarawera
in 1886, it became part of m y duty to observe and report on any
changes which might take place in the hot spriugs, geysers, &c. The
éruption seemed to hâve had great influence over them. Many which
Lad been quiescent and soine which had been considered as dead (having
in the course of time become filled with rubbish and overgrown with
weeds and brushwood) suddenly burst into renewed activity, and almost
•daily during the first six weeks after the éruption I could observe some
changes in thermal action — something new hère and there.

204 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The geysers inimediately attracted my attention. Waikite geyser,
at Whakarewarewa, which had been quiescent for about ten years, again
burst into full activity, with éruptions about every quarter of an hour.
Poli utu, Wairoa, and the other geysers were also playing occasionally,
but were very irregulâr in their action. Sometimes weeks would elapse
without one or tlie otlier of them showing any signs of activity, whilst
at other times they would be active for several days in succession.

Not having had a long acquaintance with the district, I made
inquiries of old résidents (European and Maori) for any theory to
account for the inequality in the thermal action of thèse springs and
geysers. The generally received opinion was that thèse geysers were
iniluenced by the wind — with southerly winds they were quiescent, and
with northerly they were active. As I could not well understand how
the wind could affect geysers or springs situated in sheltered positions,
I began a System of personal observation, and soon found that southerly
wind meant high barometer and northerly a low one; and if I could
not understand the wind theory, I could understand the hydrostatic
effect and the influence of atmospheric pressure, which was simply
équivalent to a réduction in the column of water. Every spring and
geyser being naturally hydrostatically balanced, the réduction by any
means of the weight of the column of water should bring a corres-
ponding increase in the activity of the spring. Acting upon this theory,
I deterinined to experiment privately upon Te Puia, a thermal spring in
a secluded spot near an old pa, on the right hand side, and well down. in
the bed of the Puarenga Pviver, therefore less influenced by winds. It
was at that time boiling, but not very actively. By means of a drain
which I eut in the sand formation by the level of the river, I removed
about two feet of the water of the pool which formed around the spring.
This removal of two feet of dead water had an immédiate effect on the
spring ; it began to boil furiously, and a few minutes afterwards burst
into a geyser, throwing water from 30 to 40 feet high, discharging at
the same time the whole of the dead water of the pool. I watched this
éruption of what I thought a new geyser, for there was vegetable
growth of several years' standing around it, with wouder and with a
certain amount of anxiety, as I begnn to fear that I had started some-
thing which I could not control. However, after a few minutes, taking
advantage of a decrease in the eruptive force, I ran to the drain I had
made, and refilled it as quickly as possible, causing part of the water
thrown up by the geyser to be again caught in the pool or basin. It
soon accumulated, and after a while the geyser action ceased, and the
water of the pool ran down the geyser's tube, together with a consi-
dérable quantity of water from the river, which had flowed back
through the partially closed drain. In about ten minutes the tube was
filled with cold water to the surface.

I watched it for a while, and saw the water getting hotter and
hotter. Eventually it began to boil, but without any geyser action.
After a time I again opened the drain, and almost inimediately there
was another splendid éruption similar to the former. I determined to
to allow this to play and see what it would do, as I began to bave some
confidence in my ability to control it by the same process as before, if it
was found necessary. It played for about twenty minutes, the geyser

THE GEYSERS AT ROTORUA. 205

action getting weaker and weaker, and tlie cooled water in the pool
getting stronger ail the time. The water eventually got the best of it,
and flowed down the geyser tube to repeat the sanie action as before.
Having made the geyser play and cease playing several times, I re-closed
the drain thoroughly and went away. I did not see it play again that
day, and the following day about noon, when I went near, I found by
the marks I had left that it had not been in éruption since I left it the
night before. The water of the pool would boil up violently at times,
but there was no éruption. I then again tried what the opening of the
drain would do. The resuit was the same as on the previous day — a
splendid éruption of the geyser. I again watched the action for three
successive times, and eventually went away leaving the drain open, and
from the volume of steam which went up periodically from that spot I
could see that intermittent geyser action was taking place.

I repeated and watched thèse experiments on many occasions
during the months of August and September, 1886. Once, the river
being rather high, I turned the cold water from it on the geyser when
in full éruption. This almost instantly stopped its action, but at the
same time it causecl a great noise, probably owing to the sudden
condensation of steam within the geyser tube. After a while, however,
the noise ceased, the pool filled up, and ail was quiet ; and as long as I
allowed the cold water to flow across over the mouth of the geyser tube
there was no éruption or even any perceptible action of the springs.

Having thus acquired some little practical knowledge of the
working of this particular geyser, I began to compare it with that
of others to see if any of them could be made to play at will. I then
watched and studied the action of Pohutu, which is situated on the
principal geyser fissure of Whakarewarewa. This fissure supplies no
less than seven active geysers and blowholes, besides quite a number of
old geyser tubes, which hâve been inactive for many years, though they
still émit steam and make a rumbling noise, as of boiling water some
considérable depth below the surface. They do not seem to affect or to
be affected by the working or non- working of the active geysers.

Having noticed the great irregularity of action of the différent
geysers, I thought that it must to a great extent be attributed to
outside or surface influence. I noticed that when Pohutu was in
éruption Waikoroihi would stop, and vice versa. This showed that they
were hydrostatically connectée!, and as long as Waikoroihi played. the
water ejected, finding its way into the blue pool of Pohutu at a
considerably reduced température (about 160° Fahr.), would so afîect
the cool water in the blue pool that it would not boil up whilst this
lasted. As it did not cause the water to rise in that pool, I concîuded
that it might find its way back into Waikoroihi, aud thus be thrown up
again and again. I tested this by discolouring the water in the blue
pool with loam, and found that, though the discolouration disappeared,
the small bits of grass, moss, etc., were re-ejneted by Waikoroihi.

Taking the opportunity of a visit of the Hon. Mr. Mitchelson, the
late Minister of Public Works, to our district, I explained my views on
thèse matters to him, with an iniaginary sketch of the geyser tubes ;
Mr. Mitchelson took considérable interest in it, and allowed me to
expend a few pounds experimenting thereupon. At the beginning of

206 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

September, 1888, I built a teinporary wall directing the Waikoroihi
water away from the u blue pool." This soon had the effect of raising
the température of the blue pool from 200° to 210° Fahr. The water
rose a few feet and began to boil furiously, then the pipe, which I
call the " Indieator," became active, and as soon as this took place the
water in the " blue pool " would cease boiling and go down again to the
low water -Une. I watched this same action for several hours, but
unless the water of the blue pool rose to the level of the overflow drain
there was no éruption of Pohutu. Seeing that this small indieator
tube acted as a kind of safety valve I tried to close it up with bags,
stones, etc., but failed, the steam and water finding its way through
small fissures in the rocks. It then occurred to me to build a kind of
dam around the " indieator " so as to collect the water ejected by it,
and also lead some of the water from Waikoroihi into this dam, thus
causing this cooled water to flow back down the indieator tube. This
had the desired effect. The indieator stopped playing altogether as
long as I could keep a small stream of cooled water running down it.

On the following day Waikoroihi stopped playing. The water of
the blue pool rose to the level of the overflow drain, became more and
more active, and on the 9th of September, two days after the works
were finished, Pohutu gave a grand éruption, lasting nearly two hours,
throwing large volumes of water from 60 to 80 feet high. This
éruption was repeated in the evening, and from that date till December,
1889, it played regularly about twice in 24 hours. During this time,
while I was acting as commissioner at the Paris Exhibition, there was
no one on the spot to look after thèse spécial works. The conséquence
was that Pohutu again stopped playing regularly. On my return, in
February, 1890, I was informée! that Pohutu had not played or been
in active éruption for the last nine weeks. I at once went over to see
it, and finding that the works I had made had been tampered with, I
had them put into temporary repair, with the resuit that Pohutu played
up again a few hours after the work was finished, and its action has
continuée! ever since, though not so regularly as before, but this is no
doubt only due to the defective repairs of former walls, etc.

As a further illustration of what may be done in regulating the
action of geysers, or even in creating or starting new ones, I may state
that in the sanatorium grounds there are two hot springs with concrète
basins around them, which were never known to hâve geyser action,
though the formation of the surrouneling rocks shows that they had
been geysers at some remote period. Thèse springs supply the hot
swimming bath, but during the year 1889, they had gone so low, and
were so much influencée! by the atmospheric pressure, that sometimes
they would remain for several days two or three inches below the level
of the outflow pipe, thus discharging no water. This became a matter
of great importance, as the bath which cost £1,000 threatened to
become useless, owing to not being able to keep it at a proper and
regular température.

It occurred to me that by contracting the springs proper into pipes,
it would prevent the hot water from becoming cold, by admixture with
the water in the basin, for I had noticed that when the springs were
active, the température of the water in the basins woulcl rise from

THE GEYSERS AT ROTORUA. 207

140deg. minimum to 180deg. maximum. I thought that this increased
activity of the springs, when the water was hot, was owing to the
différence in the spécifie gravity between hot and cold water which the
spring tube or fissure might contain in its column, and that this diffé-
rence might be sufncient to cause the water to rise a foot or two above
présent levei according to the depth at which this influence (in the
température of the water) would take place. I had some temporary
works carried out to prove the correetness of this theory, and to my
delight found that it was quite true, and that instead of a small rise of
two feet, which would hâve been quite sufncient for oui* purpose, there
was force enough in the springs under thèse altered circumstances to
' form geysers. Having further acquired the knowledge that the whole
of the springs in the Oruawhata and Chameleon basins were hydrosta-
tically connected, I arranged a System of pipes over the three principal
springs, Connecting each of them by secondary pipes to three valves by
means of which either of the springs can be made to play as a geyser at
will. To keep the springs quiet, low, and cool during the time the
works were being carried out, cold water from the town main was
injected into one of the three spring tubes, pumping it with an ejector
out of another, whilst the work of cementing the geyser tube was going
on in the third ; and by shifting the injector and ejector pipe from one
spring tube to the other I had the three geyser tubes firmly secured.
Thèse works were [finished early in May, 1890; and the springs were
thus kept quiescent for three weeks to allow the concrète to set
properly, and eventually four days longer, so as to start them into
action for the first time on the Queen's Birthday, at two p.m. A con-
sidérable number of people gathered to see this novel experiment. The
new fountains were christened the " Malfroy's Group of Geysers," their
distinctive names being the "Victoria," the " Nelly," and the "May."
[The geyser action in différent springs was then described, and it was
shown how it could be induced.] From the expérience thus gained I
support the theory that the geyser tubes are connected with subter-
ranean caverns or chambers, and that heat or superheated steam pene-
trating through fissures supplies the natural or motive force, and I
conclude that the différence between the spécifie gravity of hot and cold
water within the geyser tube will thus produce every phenomenon of
geyser action to be observed at Rotor ua, and I ara led to believe that,
by studying the action of geysers and springs in this district, they could
in most cases and to a certain extent be regulated and controlled.

Geyser action may be briefly explained according to the foregoing.
Supposing that an even-sized tube full of water become so hot that
steam generated at the bottom, under heavy pressure, rises through it
without being condensed, there cornes a time when several globules of
this steam will be in the tube at the same time, and as they rise to the
surface they will expand in proportion to the release of pressure exerted
upon them, and when coming near the surface they, as it were, explode,
throwing the small quantity of water contained in the tube above them
into the air, forming irregular intermittent explosions. Eruptions of
longer duration can be explained thus : The actual weight of water in
the geyser tube, acting as valve on the force, may by means of thèse
globule explosions, find itself suddenly released by, say, half the pressure
of the column of water. The equilibrium being thus destroyed, the

208 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

pent-up steam rushes up the (geyser) tube with a force proportionate to
the depths at which the réservoir containing this force may be situated,
and acting on the principle of a Giffard ejector, the pent-up steam
rushes up the tube, taking up with it a certain quantity of the water
which may find its way into the tube, and ejecting it into the air in the
form of high, low, or intermittent geysers, in proportion to the différent
size, position, force and volume of the spring, and other circumstances
of the case.

I hâve also observed that the chemical composition of the water is
sensibly altered by the différent actions of the geysers. Thus, if the
geyser is made to play very actively the water becomes softer to the
touch, it being more silicious and oily than when the geyser action is
subdued and allowed to boil up quietty.

This will account for the comparative rapidity observed in the
formation of terraces and mounds around the most active geysers, and
the very small amount of silica deposited by springs of less pressure and
activity.

THE PROSPECTS OF FINDING WORKABLE
COAL ON THE BANKS OF THE WAITEMATA.

BY JAMES PARK, F. G. S.

(Read at the Meeting of the Auckland Institute on 22nd June, 1891.)

The recently reported discovery of a thin, irregular seam of coal in
the cliffs near Northcote has again directed attention to the probable
existence of workable coal in the vicinity of the city of Auckland. The
great économie importance of this question has long engaged the
attention of the Director of the New Zealand Geological Surveys, and
during the past ten years a number of surveys hâve been undertaken by
the officers of his department with the view of collecting sufficient data
to definitely détermine the relation existing between the Waitemata
beds and the New Zealand coal-beaiïng séries.

In the years 1879, 1880, and 1881 Mr. Cox, late New Zealand
Assistant Geologist, examined the country extending northwards from
the Auckland isthmus to Whangarei on the east coast and the Upper
Kaipara on the west. He arrived at the conclusion that the Wai-
tematas, as typically developed at Orakei Bay and Fort Britomart,
were unconformable to and had no connection with the brown coal
measures of Drury and the Lower Waikato Basin. In 1885 and 1886
I re-examined the same country, and also made a close and detailed
survey of the shores of the Hauraki Gulf from Auckland to the
Maraetai Bange. The resuit of my observations tended to show that
no uncorformity existed from the top of the Waitematas to the base of
the Papakura séries; and subséquent surveys by Mr. McKay, F.G.S.,
the présent assistant geologist, hâve shown that the Papakura beds rest
quitê conformably on the brown coal measures of the Waikato and

thp: finding of wokkable coal. 209

Drury areas. The fact has, therefore, been established by actual survey
and observation tliat tlie Waitemata beds are conformable and belong to
the New Zealand coal séries — an opinion wliicli has always been
maintained by Sir James Hector.

It may be as well before pursuing this subject further to shortly
inquire into the physical conditions considered necessary for the for-
mation of coal. By the geologists of the early part of this century
it was believed that workable true coal could only be found among a
certain class of shales and sandstones of the palseozoic or primary period,
to which the âge and name of carboniferous had been affixed ; and it
may be as well to note hère that this conclusion was fully sustained by
their expérience of the coal measures of Great Britain, Continental
Europe, and North America, ail of which were found to belong to this
period. But the many brilliant discoveries of the past forty years hâve
led to a remarkable évolution of thought and theory in every branch of
knowledge, and in none is this seen more conspicuously than in the
science of geology. True coals of superior quality hâve been found in
the jurassic and triassic rocks of India and New South Wales, and in
New Zealand in rocks that belong to the base of the tertiary peiiod,
but which possess in some places a secondary faciès, and hence hâve
been called cretaceo-tertiary in âge.

Thus it is seen that there is interposed between the carboniferous
coals of Britain and the cretaceo-tertiary coals of New Zealand the
whole of the secondary and a part of the primary periods, representing
an immensity of time of such infinité duration as to defy the compré-
hension of our finite minds. This wide lapse of time renders it easy to
explain the great geological différences which exist between our own
and the Old World coals. Perhaps the most marked distinction lies in
the character of the végétation of which each is composed ; for, vvhile
the European coals are mainly composed of the remains of a flora
belonging to the cryptogamic kingdom, truly characteristic of the
palœozoic period, the New Zealand coals are composed of the remains
of a variée! forest végétation which every where marks the advent of the
tertiary period and the luxuriant flora of the présent time. In the
forests of our coal period there flourished two species of the kauri,
which at that time grew ail over New Zealand ; three species of the
beech, so commonly and erroneously known throughout the colony by
the settler's name of birch ; also the oak, laurel, myrtle, heatlis, palrns,
ferns, grasses, etc.

It is now recognised by geologists that coal could form at any
period of the earth's history if the necessary conditions existed, and it is
probable that thèse conditions hâve continued the same through ail
geological time. They were : (1) a humicl, tetnperate climate, favouring
the growth of a dense végétation ; (2) flat or gently sloping, low-lying
areas, favourable for the accumulation of thick deposits of vegetable
humus and peaty matter ; and (3) a stationary, or nearly stationary
state of the land to permit a long-continued and uninterrupted growth
of végétation.

In New Zealand our coal areas are mostly littoral, of small extent,
and patchy, characteristics resulting principally from the insular and
mountainous nature of the country in older tertiary times. Where the

2IO JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

sidcs of the valleys were steep and the liills met the sea, it was
impossible for the remains of végétation to accumulate to any extent,
and tliis explains the soniewhat anomaious fact that the coal measures
do not ahvays contain coal. The steepness of the land during the coal
period is also accountable for the noticeable fact that our coals often
thin ont towards the dip, and, where lying near the old rocky floor, are
usually found to conform with the contours of its surface.

But whether the forests which formed the coal grew on soils lying
directly on the old basement rock, as we find is the case with those of
the Auckland provincial district, or on the upper surface of the areas
reclaimed from the sea. as is the case of the forests which formed the
Shag Point and West Coast coals of the Middle Tsland, it happened that
after a long period of rest, permitting the accumulation of thick deposits
of végétation, the land began to sink slowly, aud in course of time the
végétation became covered by fluviatile clays and sands, generally con-
taining fragments of leaves and other plant remains derived from the
végétation which continued to flourish on the higher portions of the dry
lands which had not become submerged.

As the land continued to sink, the fluviatile or estuarine beds
became covered by blue clays and greenislvcoloured sands containing
the embedded remains of the numerous mollusca, crustaceans, corals,
whales, sharks, and other life which teemed in the seas of those times.
In a few instances in the north of Auckland coalfields, true marine beds
containing a varied molluscous life appear close to the roof or upper
surface of the coal. It is difïicult to look back into thèse old eocene
times, and judge the conditions which prevailed in every isolated nook
during the formation of the coal ; but examining the geological records
(the fossil life preserved in the rocks) we arrive at the conclusion that,
in thèse exceptional cases, the matter which afterwards formed the coal
accumulated in narrow, sheltered valleys adjacent to the sea, in places
where, after its graduai submersion, it was not subject to the action of
streams or rivers laden with sand or mud or other détritus.

A gain pursuing the order of e vents which folio wed the déposition
of the coal, we find that the blue clays and green sands were folio wed
by shelly and coralline sands, which now form the well-known Whanga-
reij Waipa, Raglan, Mokau, and Oamaru limestones. Thèse are simply
local names for the same limestone, which is, perhaps, one of the most
marked, constant, and characteristic geological horizons in New Zealand,
and seems to form the natural close of the coal formation. Now, this
limestone is followed throughout New Zealand quite conformably by a
great séries or succession of sands and clays, which in the classification
of the New Zealand Geological Survey possesses the generic naine
"grey maris," or " Waitemata Séries." Thèse sands and clays are
typically developed on the shores of the Waitemata, which lias given its
name to the rocks of this period throughout New Zealand. The Waite-
matas, as seen at Fort Britomart or the Calliope Dock, consist of
rapidly alternating layers of clays and soft sandstones. The présence in
thèse of numerous broken plant remains, and sometimes thin, irregular
streaks of coaly matter, together with the almost entire absence of true
marine beds, clearly points to the prevalence of fluviatile conditions
during their déposition.

THE FINDING OE WORKABLE COAL. 211

The séquence of events which we hâve traced in order to show the
relation of the coal measures and the Waitemata beds raay be more
graphically shown as folio ws; — Cretaceo-tertiary formation : 1. Waite-
mata sands and clays. 2. Whangarei or Oamaru limestone. 3. Marly
clays and green sands of marine origin. 4. Fireclays and coal, with
grits and conglomérâtes. 5. Basement rock.

The Waitemata beds occur at the top of the cretaceo-tertiary
formation, while the coal occurs at the base, the two being separated
by two great geological horizons. This in itself might be taken as
strong évidence that no coal of a workable nature would be foimd in
the Waitematas ; but we hâve seen that the coal could form at any
geological period if the necessary conditions existed. We, however,
receive little encouragement from this source, as the rapidly alternating
character of the Waitemata deposits would tend to show that clynamic
forces were at work during this period, causing fréquent oscillations of
the land, thus preventing the accumulation of sufhcient vegetable
matter at any period to form workable coal seams.

Workable seams of coal exist on the flanks of the Hunua Range,
and dip in the direction of the Waitemata, but it is doubtful if they
reach as far as Auckland ; and, if they do, they wculd certainly be
found at a great depth — probably not much under 800 or 1,000 feet — ■
judging from the thickness of strata which is known to exist between
the Waitematas and the coal at other places.

Auckland stands in the centre of a great syncline or trough, and
the depth to be penetrated there would be greater than at any other
point. Towards Howick on the one side and Riverhead on the other
the depth of strata to be passed through gradually clecreases, until on
the flanks of the Hunua and Maraetai Ranges the coal crops out on the
surface. In the case of the upper reaches of the Waitemata, wherever
the old floor or basement rock is found at or near the surface, and
whether it is composed of hydraulic limestone or slaty shales, a careful
search should be made for indications of coal, for it was on su eh old
floors that the coal vegetatien grew and flourished in older tertiary
times.

If, therefore, there is a probability of coal on the shores of the
Waitemata, it will be found in the upper reaches, in the direction of
Riverhead, where the edges of the lower members of cretaceo-tertiary
formation are upturned against the basement rock.

STAR CHARTING AND SOME RESULTING
DISCOVERIES.

BY H. C. RUSSELL, GOVERNMENT ASTRONOMER.

(Read at the Meeting of the Royal Society of New South Wales on July lst, 1891.)

Last year I exhibited various photographs of stars and nebulœ
taken with a portrait caméra with a focus of 32 in., and I am now
able to show you some of the same objects photographed with the
new star caméra of 135 in. focus. One could hardly realise the

2 12 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

extraordinary différence between the two without seeing it ; and I
am further able to show you tlie resuît of taking a star cluster with
an enlarging lens which makes the équivalent focus 564 in. or 47 ft.
The success of tins new departure is very gratifying, because it shows
how nmch may be added to our knowledge of star clusters by this
method of direct enlargement. When possible it is much better to
en large in the caméra at once than to enlarge the photograph after
it is taken, because there are always blemishes in the surface used
l'or the photograph which get enlarged with the picture. The first
photograph of Kappa Crucis did not cover a space of one-tenth of an
inch square, the star caméra makes it 18 times larger and the
enlarging lens 324 times larger. Where extrême accuracy for
measurement is required, as in thèse cases, the gain is even greater
than thèse numbers indicate, and under the microscope the magnifiée!
image may be again magnified 50 times. The smaller one will
bear no greater power because it is the imperfections in the surface
and image that limit the magnifying power that can be used, the
faults of the photo, surface being relatively so much less important in
the enlarged picture than in the small one, and this photo., with the
enlarging lens, speaks volumes for the stability and accurate motion of
the télescope which on such a large scale gives perfectly sharp star
dises. The clearness of thèse star dises affords also a good test of the
effect of colour, and there are many coloured stars in it to indicate
what I mean ; it will suffice to indicate two stars — a red and a blue ;
the red star is fully a magnitude brighter than the blue. Herschel
called it 9th magnitude, and the blue one lOth magnitude; the red
one in the photograph appears of the llth magnitude, or two
magnitudes less, and the blue one appears of 9th, or one magnitude
greater, or, in other words, the différence in colour, as estimated by
the eye and the photograph, makes a différence of 3 magnitudes.
I think the members are aware that the photographs T exhibited hère
last year were made with a 6 in. Dalmeyer portrait lens, and my
object now is to bring before you the state of preparedness of the star
caméra for the work of charting the heavens, and some examples of
the actual work, at least plates taken of the dimensions and conditions
of the actual plates, and only differing from them in that the réseau
or grating of lines, though ruled and made by the same machine as
thos;e that are to be used, has not been tested in Europe, as ail must
be before they are acceptée!. The one I hâve was courteously sent to
me by Admirai Mouchez, the Director of the Paris Observatory,
untested, as a sample : the process of testing those to be used being a
tedious one, and it will therefore be still some time before the
approved ones are available, but for our présent purpose it answers
admirably. It consists of a pièce of plate glass with a thick coating
of silver from solution on one side. On this silver two sets of lines at
right angles hâve been ruled with a sharp point which has eut the
silver through ; thèse lines are about T2y of an inch apart, equal to 5
minutes of an arc. Kach line is numbered. This réseau is used in
this way : it is placed face upward in a box the exact counterpart of
the plate-holder in the télescope, upon this is then placed a sensitive
plate and the box is then closed and put in front of the object glass
of the caméra. A small electric lamp of 2J candies is then placed in

STAK CIIARTING. 213

the focus of the star caméra and the rays from it pass out from the
object-glass parallel, and falling on the silvered réseau are stopped in
ail places except where it is eut through by lines and figures and
there it passes on to the sensitive plate and marks it. A number of
plates are so treated one after the other and stored ready for use in
dark boxes. They are ail carefully numbered on the glass and taken
out in order and exposed in the star caméra on fine nights. The
plates are 6J by 6J inches, and the part actually exposed 6 by 6
inches; of this space 4-7 by 4-7 inches is the part which is finally
used, that is 2- by 2\ The margin, rather more than \ in., is to be
for overlap on the plates, and the stars on this can be compared for
vérification in each adjoining pair of plates. When the plate is
developed after exposure the lines (or grating), as well as the stars,
appear. So far everything is simple and mechanical ; but the
resolutions of the conférence require that one set of plates shall hâve
on them ail stars to the llth magnitude, and the other set ail stars
to the 14th magnitude, and the difïiculty is in an ever-changïng
atmosphère, and with plates variable in sensitivenesss to gïve the
exposure necessary to secure thèse results. The Astron orner Royal
for England, as chairman of the committee appointed to deal with
thèse and other kindred questions, lias been making experiments on
a fairly good night in London, and has corne to the conclusion that
two minutes will be enough in such weather for stars of llth
magnitude, and 30 minutes enough for stars of 14th magnitude, and
that thèse times must be modiûed by the weather — that is, increased
if the weather is bad. I am able to show you three plates exposed
30 seconds, two minutes, and 30 minutes respectively on the well-
known star cluster Kappa Crucis. You will see that 30 seconds is
enough to get images of stars to the ninth magnitude, and that two
minutes gives images of stars to the llth magnitude, and takes in a
number of 12 th and one of 13th magnitudes ; but the plate exposed
for 30 minutes is not so satisfactory. It should, according to the
rule, show with defined dises stars of the 14th magnitude of
Argelander's scale ; in Herschel's monograph of this cluster he has
11 stars of the 14th magnitude, and four of the 15th ; of thèse, eight
are invisible, six are visible, but not measureable, and only one is as
it ought to, "measureable"; and there are some stars of 12th and
13th magnitude that are not measureable. The plates were exposed
one after the other on a night that seemed to be uniform, and when
the two-minutes' plate was a success, the 30 minutes' ought also to
hâve been. I give the resuit of this experiment to show the difficulty.
At first sight this looks like a failure of the method ; but I find on
further investigation that thèse faint stars in Herschel's list are
either much fainter than he took them for, or they are coloured
stars. The matter was tested by taking a photograph of the same
object and giving three hours exposure ; even then most of the stars
referred to above are far too faint to measure, although they can be
be seen plainly enough in nearly every instance, and the photograph,
hurriedly examined to see if the faint stars were on it, is found to
contain at least 20 more faint stars which Herschel did not see.
This example will serve to show you better than any statement the
difficulty to be met, according to the adopted rule, viz., if two

2 14 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

minutes" cxposure records stars of the llth magnitude, then 30 to 35
illimités should record tliose of 14th; but hère in the case of a well
known cluster, with every star recorded by a careful observer, it is
fouiul that the rule fails, and the question arises, Did he over-estimate
thèse stars or did the rule f ail ? Over nearly the whole surface of the
sky we hâve no record of stars below the 9th magnitude, and therefore
no meaus of finding whether the photographs do really record what
is desired, that is, stars of 14th magnitude, and it is obvious that
more expérimente mil hâve to be made upon well-known clusters, and
thus détermine the time necessary for the purpose of making certain
of 14th magnitude stars; when that is doue, however, we shall hâve
in the photographs a vast number of stars of the 14th magnitude
which the eye cannot see through the télescope, just as 1 found in
Kappa crucis. The extended exposure inorder to secure visible 14th
magnitude stars ended in recording a large number of stars photo-
graphie ally as bright as them, but wholly invisible through the
télescope. At the récent meeting of the committee it was decided,
on the évidence given by Dr. Scheiner, to extend the time of exposure
to 40 minutes, and it is reasonable to expect that, since ail are
interested and working at this point, it will soon be decided, and
times of exposure agreed upon for différent states of the atmosphère
which will ensure uniformity. At présent there seeme to be no
possibility of dealing with the colour difficulty, which is a serious one,
as I hâve already pointed out. Great différences are found also in
the sensitive plates. We hâve tried Swan's, Wrotton and Wain-
wright's, Field Dodgson's star plates, M. A. seed plate (American),
and Ilford plates ; and the Ilford plates are certainly the best for our
purpose. The American plates are, perhaps, less liable to fog, and
work very cleanly and regularly ; but they are not so sensitive, and
the gélatine is not so firm. Again, in my photos of the great
Magellan cloud, taken with the portrait caméra which I exhibited at
the November meeting, the stars, owing to their countless numbers,
are condensed into a blurred mass, and the great and remarkable
nebula 30 Doradus is only a white spot. With the star caméra the
lecture is ail enlarged ten times, and the stars are separated and
brought out sharply defined, while the nebula 30 Doradus is revealed
in ail its wonderful complexity, and shown to be much more extensive
than Herschel made it with his great reflector, and quite a new light
is brought out regarding the structure of this object. There is one
thing about this nebula that is very suggestive. Some of its loops
are quite round, and ail its features seem to be laid out as if in a
plane at right angles to the line of sight. There is no sign of
elliptical forms, which so commonly appear in nebulse, owing to their
circular forms being oblique to the line of sight, and therefore pro-
jected into ellipses. If we look at the main features of Nubecula
major the same remark is applicable : the curves are nearly circles,
both tliose in the main body of it and in the several star clusters and
nebula} ; they ail, in fact, seem to lie at right angles, or nearly so,
to the line of sight. Now, just as the sun with his attendant plane ts,
and the planets with their moons, and especially Saturn, with his
rings, show us that there has been a tendency, as theory would also
lead us to expect, to arrange the matter that is revolving about them

>STAR CHARTING. 215

in a plane common to ail ; and, as it is also evidently the case with
spiral nebula?, the matter is arranged in a plane, of which the
diameter is enormously greater than the thickness, so I think we
may safely assume that the Nubecula major is a great spiral struc-
ture, of which we see the greatest diameter, and that its thickness,
measured through in the line of vision, is comparatively small. Now,
in addition to the main central spiral, there are two nebulœ, and at
least three clusters of stars arranged as spirals, having the same
characters as the main one, that is nearly circulai', and thèse are ail
arranged in space so that they appear to us in the same or parallel
planes and near together ; and it may, I think, be safely assumed that
ail are parts of the grandest spiral structure that we know, and ail in
one plane, because if they are not in the same plane, then, beiug
optically close together and in parallel planes, they must be arranged
one after the other in a long vista which happens to be in our line of
sight, that is, a séries of great spirals one behind the other at
différent distances towards infinity, and ail revolving as if on a
common or parallel axis, a conclusion which is highly improbable,
and impossible to receive when the simple and more rational alter-
native of their being ail in the same plane is available. Now,
acceptieg the condition of their ail being in the same plane, imagine
what we should see if transported to some star near the centre. Ail
round us would be an infinity of stars, which, on closer inspection,
would seem more crowded together in a great plane, and in the same
plane we should see two nebulœ like straight lines, because looking at
them from the plane in which they revolved, in some directions the
stars would be relatively thinner than in others, because in thoss the
extensions of them are not so great, and there would also be apparent
rifts owing to the dark spaces in the great spiral, where we would
seem to see into the infinity beyond to other Systems, with their
nebulas and star clusters at ail angles. If you look at the photograph,
and assume, as I hâve done above, that the whole universe of stars is
spread out in the plane of the photograph, you will see that there
would be no difficulty in finding positions from which the observer
would see through some of the comparatively dark places, as well as
in other directions in which countless multitudes of stars of ail magni-
tudes would meet the gaze. In fact, his vision would be much the
same as ours — in one plane, that of the whole universe. There would
be an inconceivable wealth of stars, with hère and there dark spaces,
coal sacks, due to the dark rifts above referred to ; and looking out of
that plane the number of stars would decrease, although they would
still be abundant. Now, although amongst the infinitude of heaven
we cannot find two star clusters or two nebulœ alike, we can still find
classes of différent kinds which hâve many points in common, and I
think we hâve hère reasonable ground for supposing that we hâve
presented to us in the Nubecula Major a universe similar to that in
which we are, and that insteacl of seeing it from within, where it is
impossible to make out its form, we are hère, with the aid of téles-
copes and the still more powerful star caméra, able to see just such a
universe, to trace out a rational explanation of the many puzzling
features of the stars and milky way around us, and to see how such a
universe may be arranged. In référence to another well-known

2l6 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

southern object, " the ncbula about E ta Argus," it will be reniem-
bered tbat last session I exhibited a photograpb of it with three
hours' exposure, stating that it bad not been exposed long enough.
On April 9, 1891, I obtained a clear night and an exposure of eight
hours ; again, with the short caméra, which brings out a host of stars
and shows the milky way with a brilliance it bas never been seen to
bave before, at the saine time the nebula is more distinctly shown and
larger ; and in référence to this object — also after a séries of trials —
1 bave succeeded in getting several fine photos with the star caméra,
which make it 18 times larger than the one I used last year. I hâve
been unable to get a continuous exposure of eight hours with this
caméra; still, in plate 77, taken March 18, 1891, with 5 hours 43
minutes exposure on a fine clear night, and in others taken about the
samc time, we hare a marvellous révélation of the striking détails of
light and shade in this object, which bave never been seen before in
any photograpb or by any télescope. I fear to attempt a description
of what can be seen only in the photograph ; the gênerai form is the
same as in drawings and in the photos exhibited last session, but
there arc certain main features which may be indicated. In the first
place, there is évidence hère that the nebula is much more extended,
and the indications of spiral structure are more decided, and are seen
to extend even to the détails of the familiar branches. The nebula
covers a much larger area than that of Orion, and in passing I may
mention that it proves conclusively that a conspicuous part of the
nebula, which Herschel drew and dcscribed in 1838, bas entirely
disappeared, as I pointed out in 1872 ; but as I then used a télescope
infcrior in power to Herschel's, its invisibility to me was not proof
that it was gone. Now the star caméra is vastly more powerful than
Herschel's télescope, therefore how much may be judged from the
fact that in one small space, where he could see only one star, the
caméra showrs 10 ; and in another place examined by Herschel with
equal care, and said to contain four stars, the caméra shows 20.
There can then, F think, be no doubt that in this case a bright nebu-
lous mass bas entirely disappeared in 34 years, and it is significant
that the part of the nebula where it was is now replaced by a dark
round spot ; the decided folds of the nebula visible hère in 1838 bave
entirely disappeared. I bave photographed the object many times
with both caméras, and the dark spot is always there. Can it be that
in the 34 years, 1838 to 1872, one of the supposed dark clouds of
space bas drifted in between us and the nebula? It cannot be a solid
body because the stars are there ; but a slight misty body would hide
the nebula and not affect the stars very much. It would be tedious
to attempt to describe the détails which the photograph shows,
espccially to the central part of the nebula ; but I may say that while
the eye, aided by the best télescopes, sees the nebula of fairly uniform
brightness intcrrupted by certain well-known darker spaces, and
especially by that which Herschel calls the Lemniscate, much the
same, in fact, as the great nebula in Orion, and just as the photos of
that nebula reveal a sort of texture in the nebulous mass — as if it
were made up of a séries of curved bands of nebulous light — so this
photo of the nebula about Eta Argus shows a most complex structure
of the same character, and with a greater variety of light and shade ;

STAR CHARTING. 21 7

and just as in the case of the nebula in Orion, the nebula witli its vast
folds is shown to extend farther from the centre with each increase in
the time of exposure, so I find with that about Eta Argus, only the
southern nebula is very much more difficult to photograph ; and 1
think it must hâve some tinge of colour in it, probably yellow, while
that in Orion is green, for a photo of Orion with one hour's exposure
is more dense than one of Eta Argus with six hour's exposure.
Taken as a whole the nebula about Eta Major covers a much larger
space than that about Orion, even in thèse photographs, which
indicate that although the southern nebula was longer exposed it is
comparatively under exposed ; for the central parts of Orion are much
over exposed. I hâve also brought to show you two photos of the
moon, taken on 19th and 28th of May last. As you are ail aware it is
extremely rare to get a night in which there is absolutely no motion
or what is called twinkle in the stars, or in other words, when the
earth's atmosphère is not disturbed by currents of unequal tempe-
rature. Now until we get such a night and a suitable moon it will
be impossible to get a perfect photograph of the moon, for any motion
in the air such as that referred to has the effect of enlarging every
point of light. For instance, a star image may be made two or three
times its normal size, and if the stars are close together they are run
into one blotch. So on the moon, ail the little détails are enlarged
and mixed up, so that they cannot be seen. But thèse photos are
very good, and show some features of the moon's surface which I hâve
never seen in any other photograph — for instance, the undulations on
the surface of the lunar plains — the équivalent to what we should call
hills and valleys, as opposed to mountains.

REVIEW.

The twenty-second volume of the Transactions and Proceedings
of the New Zealand Tnstitute, although bearing the usual imprint
"Issued May, 1891," has only recently been distributed to the
members, and consequently an opportunity has not offered of noticing
the contents in this magazine until the présent issue.

A considérable proportion of the papers are on zoologie al
subjects and the matters noted form a considérable addition to bur
knowledge of the interesting fauna of New Zealand. Mr. Maskell
not only adds considerably to the already long list of native coccids,
but describes and figures species from Australia and Fiji. I notice
that Mr. Maskell states that the fire at the Government Printing
Office destroyed nearly ail the remaining copies of his book on the
Scale Insects of New Zealand, issued in 1887. Those who hâve the
good fortune to possess a copy, should take care of it.

Another paper on a pest too well known to fruit growers — the
Codlin moth — by Mr. G. V. Hudson, points out the lines on which
observations are required to grapple thoroughly with this serions
nuisance. Mr. Hudson has also worked up the longaieglected New
Zealand glowworm and the Cicadœ. Mr. Jas. Hudson records two
observations on Coccids in the Nelson district.

2 I 8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

As a country of pre-eminent ornithologie interest, New Zealand
still keeps up its réputation. Although but a short time lias passed
since the issue of the magnificent second édition of Sir Walter
Buller's Birds of New Zealand, we find several new species described
and recognized by Sir Waltor, and Mr. Cheesenian lias placed on our
list the birds of the Kerraadec Group recently included in our
political area. Other observera hâve contributed just the kind of
short notes from personal observation, which are so frequently
thonght " not worth writing about," but which in the aggregate
greatly increase the sum of our knowledge. Quite a tempest, not to
say a storm in a teacup, seems raging between two members in re
" Kakapo rcrsux Tukahe." Mr. Suter continues his patient labours on
the interesting, though small, land shells of New Zealand, and, what
is much to the point, adds to his descriptions excellent drawings of
the species, which however do not reçoive justice at the hands of the
printer.

In a concise and yet useful form Professor Hutton prints a
revised list of the New Zealand Bryozoa up to date, work which lias
been rendered possible by the invalaable Synonymie List of the
described species of Bryozoa, lately published in England by Miss E.
C. Jelly, a lady who lias laboured for many years in tins branch of
Natural Science, and has greatly simplifiée! the labours of future
students. A large number of the tertiary species from New Zealand
are now described in various publications. When shall we ever get
a systematic description of the thousands of fossil mollusca, &c,
which hâve been accumulated by the Geological Survey officiais at
Wellington? Only Echo answers, When!

From a biological point of view the short paper on the Origin of
the Sternum, by Professor Parker is of great interest, and Mr.
Beattie's observations on the extraordinary variation in the fin
formula of the Red Cod furnish much material for spéculation.

Spiders, though they be but a feeble folk, take a great deal of
describing. Sixty-one closely printed pages to describe thirty-four
spiders! Some years ago spiders abouncled in the district in which I
lived, a hundred kinds at least, probably ail undescribed ; hère is
work for the industrious !

One of the great sea monsters has paid us a visit during the year
and enabled the Curator of the Auckland Muséum to " put him on
the list ;" he was comparatively a small spécimen, only 34 feet long,
so "lie never will be missed." I am afraid to put down in black and
white the reputed measurements of individuals of this species (the
Basking Shark) ; they are much too great to be swallowed. Within
the past few weeks a strange sea monster has been reported off
the East Coast of the North Island, let us hope that it may fall to
the lot of our zealous Curator to add this, as yet somewhat mythical
monster to the Otago Muséum, even if the Council hâve to erect an
extra lengtli of tin shed to exhibit it in.

Two members of our local Society contribute papers on the
Crustacean fauna of New Zealand ; in the one instance clearing some
points in the History of Squilla and JVerocila, and in the other adding
to the list of Fish Parasites.

REVIEW. 2 1 9

In the forefront of the Geological section is placed a translation
of the monograph by Baron von Ettingshausen on the Fossil Flora of
New Zealand. This furnishes the student with a full translation of
the original memoir in German— the plates hâve also been redrawn
and reduced. It seems somewhat startling to find a flora in the Shag
Valley containing a palm and two species of kauri, an oak, an elm
and an aider.

On the local stratigraphie al geology of the Tertiary séries in
Hawkes Bay, Mr. Hill splinters lances with the Geological Survey.

The question of the Moa seems reviving again, and we hâve two
short notes on the subject by the Curator of the Canterbury Muséum.
The papers in this section number eleven and are ail interesting.

In Botany, Messrs. T. Kirk, W. Colenso, Cheeseman, and Pétrie
contribute papers and make considérable additions to the flora ; the
paper on the endémie group of Olearias with solitary or racemose
flower heads, will, no doubt, appeal strongly to horticulturalists, as
ail the species are handsome and easily cultivated.

The fourth and concluding section is very appropriately headed,
Miscellaneous. There are, however, two articles of sterling interest,
one on the Story of John Rutherford, and the other on the Outlying
Islands of New Zealand ; most of the others serve -to produce a
volume of unusual bulk.

The great disappointment in the volume is the small number of
new names in the list of contributors of papers, the same names
running through the volumes year after year. AU honour to those
who keep their shoulder to the wheel and work in their harness,
but where are their imitators ? There is still an almost virgin field of
research of every kind, but the rising génération seems in earnest in
nothing but close and willing study of the motions of a particularly
prolate spheroid, in a field containing as essentials, objects called
goals. Certainly the pursuit of this study strengthens the body and
is commendable, in modération, but there are times and places for ail
things.

A. H.

ICE-MARKS AND THEIR COUNTERFEITS.

BY PROF. F. W. HUTTON, F. G. S.

(Read at the Meeting of the Australasian Association for tli3 Advancement of Science,

in Christchurch.)

Introduction.

Ice as a geological agent may be divided into land-ice and
floating-ice ; each of which may be again subdivided — the first into
glacier-ice and ice-sheet, the second into ice-berg and ice-floe, or
shore-ice.

Glaciers occur only in valleys among mountains. They may
exist in any latitude provided the mountains are high enough. At
the présent time the glaciers of Antisana and Illinissp, in Ecuador,

2 20 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

and of Kilimanjaro in Africa, are almost on the equator ; but there is
no well authenticated account of glaciers having oxisted in the tropics
during tho pleistoccne period.

Ice-sheets are at présent confined to polar régions, extending to
63° N. in Greenland and to 66° S. on the Antarctic continent.
During the pleistocene period an ice-sheet extended in North America
as far south as the junction of the Ohio with the Mississippi — in
37° 30' N., and in Europe to 50° N.

Shore-ice is found in high latitudes only. Coast-ice is broken up
into rafts or floes in summer, and thèse floes are often driven on
shore and piled up in gales of wind.

Ice-bergs penetrate to about 40° N. and 40° S., but they are
isolated. Pack-ice, formed of united ice-bergs, occurs only in high
latitudes. It is often called Floe-berg.

ICE-MARKS.

Roches moutonnées are characteristic of land-ice, and generally
shew a différence between the strike side and the lee side. They are
counterfeited by the weathering of homogeneous eruptive rocks —
such as granité — sspecially where a concentric structure has been
developed.

Ice-scratches and grooves on bed rock — formed by land-ice or by
iloating-ice. Those formed by fioating-ice are rarely straight, and
may be much curved. Those formed by land-ice are straight or
slightly curved ; they occur on surfaces which may be horizontal,
inclined, vertical, or • even overhanging ; and also on curved or
mamillated surfaces. The counterfeits are slickensides ; rain grooves
in calcareous rocks ; and sand drift grooves.

Ice-scratched stones. Thèse are common in boulder clay, which
is supposed to be the ground moraine of an ice-sheet, but are rare in
the remains of glaciers. Often the scratched stones are rounded by
water-wear, and scratched ail over, but sometimes they are facetted
on the scratched side. Shore-ice causes irregular shallow scratchings
only. They are counterfeited by stones in fault rock, by stones in
landslips or even those that hâve undergone soil cap action only.
But thèse stones are never facetted and the scratchings are usually
irregular and shallow. In some casés of basic eruptive rocks,
irregular décomposition produces apparent scratches and grooves.
Facetting is produced by sand drift, but the facets are generally
curved.

Kettle-holes are small basin shaped dépressions in gravel or in
morainic matter, caused by the melting of detached blocks of ice
which hâve been covered up by détritus.

Giant Ketiles, or Pot-holes, are cylindrical holes worn out in solid
ro -k by the friction of stones under waterfalls or glaciers.

Moraines are always présent in recently glaciated districts; and
are among the most permanent of ice-marks. Nearly ail glaciers
leave behind them a terminal moraine across the valley; and in
North America a large moraine marks the front of the old ice-sheet.
Counterfeits are landslips, but thèse can generally be distinguished

ICE MARKS. 22 1

from terminal moraines by their position. Latéral moraines are more
likely to be imitated by landslips.

Till Deposits. — There are three types of till, but they are of ten
mixed. (1) Sub-glacial till, or Boulder clay. A compact, tough cla}'
with unassorted sand, gravel, and numerous boulders : the fragments
not much weathered but rounded, often scratclied and sometimes
facetted. The fragments are mostly derived irom the immédiate
neighbourhood, but j>artly from a distance, sometimes up to several
hundreds of miles, This is a ground moraine, and the subjacent rock
is always planed, polished, and striated or grooved. (2) Surface till,
or moraine till. This lies on the first and is more sandy and looser
but unassorted. The rock fragments are larger, more angular, rarely
scratched, and more decomposed than those of the Boulder clay.
This till is probably surface moraine of the ice-sheet winch has been
left when the ice melted. (3) Floe till, or berg till. This is composée!
of more or less assorted sand, and clay indistinctly laminated and
containing erratics often scratched. Ifc is either marine or else has
been formed in lakes round the end of the ice. Large boulders are
sometimes rare. Counterfeits of till are not common. Nevertheless
in régions of severe and sudden storms boulders four feet or more in
diameter are known to hâve been transported by the rush of water
and left in the midst of mud and fine sand. During the flood in the
Waimakariri on the 18th March, 1888, at Kaiapoi, several 30-ton
blocks of concrète were carried for nearly a quarter of a mile and
buried in sand.

Kames. Thèse are narrow ridges, 20 to 50 feet high, formed of
rounded grayel and sand discordantly stratified, the stratification
often conforming to the surface, thus proving that they are not due
to denudation. They commonly contain large boulders. Sometimes
two run together and form a valley without an outlet. Generally
they pass into terraces. They are found at the mouths of valleys and
are more or less transverse to it. They are also always associated
with moraines. They are, no doubt, due to violent currents of water
operating near the front of a glacier and are probably the fans of
glacier rivers.

Otars, or Serpent Kames are longitudinal to the valley, and the
materials composing them hâve corne from greater distances than
those of the neighbouring till. No doubt they hâve been formed by
glacial, perhaps sub-glacial streams.

Drumlins are elliptical hills with steep sides and rounded tops
formed of morainic matter, the long axis always in the direction of
movement of the former glacier. Probably due to ice riding over old
moraines.

Perched Blocks, often in precarious positions on the tops or sides
of hills or mounds, are very characteristic of ice action. They may
occasionally, but not often, be counterfeited by blocks brought down
by landslips.

Erratics. May be merely blocks, larger than water could move,
brought down a valley. Or they may be blocks which hâve been
lifted up above their place of origin. Or they may be blocks which

22 2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

hâve passed ont of one drainage System into another. The first is
characteristic of land-ice, the second of shore-ice, and the third of ice-
bergs. Counterfeits : Sruall erratics may be borne on floating trees
or seaweed, consequently their value as évidence of ice dépends much
on their size. Ships' ballast may also sometimes counterfeit erratics.
Ships hâve been unloaded and careened in many a bay, and hâve
again left with part of their ballast on shore.

Cirques. The origin of cirques by ice-action is doubted by many;
but true cirques appear to be confined to glaciated régions. Very
close imitations may, however, be brought about by stream érosion,
and occasionally they might be imitated by latéral craters.

Rock-basins are generally found on a surface which has been
formerly glaciated. The terminal moraine of a glacier marks a point
in the valley where no érosion is taking place. Below this point the
river gradually deepens its channel, while above it the glacier slowly
decreases the slope of the valley ; and, however slow a process glacier
érosion may be, a rock-basin will, in time, be hollowed out behind the
moraine. Rock-basins can also be formed in an arid country by the
atmospheric décomposition of level surfaces of rock, the products of
décomposition being blown away by the wind. If the climate changes
thèse rock-basins might become lakes ; but, evidently lakes with this
origin must be of rare occurrence. Other rock-basins are due to
unequal movements of the land.

Evidence of former Ice-action.

Evidence of the former présence of glaciers consists of terminal
and latéral moraines — especially the former. Roches moutonnées and
striations occur in the valleys only. A former ice-sheet is marked by
a ground moraine of boulder clay and till with scratched stones, as
well as by groovings and striations on plains and the tops of hills.
Evidence of ice-bergs consists in large erratics, widely scattered and
brought from long distances towards the equator. Former ice-ftoe is
known by partially stratified till with marine shells.

Evidence of the former présence of glaciers in a country where
they no longer exist is not sufficient évidence to prove a former glacial
epoch ; for the glaciers may hâve been due to greater élévation and
précipitation of snow. There must also be évidence of a former ice-
sheet or floe-ice, widely spread over a large extent of country. A
réduction of température sufficient to cause a glacial epoch, would
necessarily be accompanied by a change in the fauna and flora, and
we must expect to find évidence of this also. On the other hand if
there is évidence that no extinction of a former flora or fauna and the
introduction of newer ones has taken place, then we hâve a very good
reason for concluding that no glacial epoch has occurred. In tertiary,
and more particularly post-tertiary times, évidence of a glacial epoch
should be abundant and gênerai. In older periods it is more dimcult
to get évidence, but under any circum stances it is unsafe to rely on a
f'ew isolated cases of supposée! évidence, which may be deceptive.

GENERAI. NOTES. 223

GENERAL NOTES.

An Interesting Point in Polynesian Ethnology. — In Dr. A.
Lesson's interesting account of the Mangareva or Gambier Archipelago
published at Rochefort in 1843, we find a brief description of the flora
and fanna of those isles, with the native names added. This is
information which is not always supplied by naturalists, though the
interest is much increased thereby, especiallv to those whose studies
lead them more towards ethnology than biology.

Among the birds described by Dr. Lesson as living in this little
group — which is situated at the south east end of the Dangerous, Low,
or Paumotu Archipelago, — is one which he names a Philedon, the
native name of which is Komako. Now the interest to the ethnologist
in this case consists in this ; that we hâve a Philedon in New Zealand
(Anthornis melanura,) the native name of which is — amongst others —
Komako, better known to the settlers as the Bell Bird, and whose
sweet morning notes were at one time heard in every bush in the
colony, although now, alas ! it is ne ver heard in the North Island.
The species may be- -indeed probablyis — not the same in both countries,
but the fact remains that the two birds are sufficiently alike to hâve
given rise to a common native name as applied by peoples separated by
so great a stretch of océan as New Zealand and the Gambier Islands, a
distance of about 3,500 miles. The question arises, how did thèse two
peoples corne to give the same name to the bird % Both of them are
branches of the great Polynesian race, both speaking a language which
in many respects is nearer, the one to the other, than that of people
who are their nearer neighbours. It lias never been suggested that they
ever had direct communication with one another since inhabiting their
présent homes ; we must therefore conclude that both people knew the
bird, or a somewhat similar one, in some place where their ancestors
lived together. In Tahiti, we find from R. P. Lesson's "Voyage
autour du Monde " in the French exploring vessel " Coquille " that
there is a bird there called Omàomào, a word at first sight not much like
Komako, but if we remember that the Tahitians hâve in process of time
lost the power of pronouncing the "k," we find that by replacing
it, that Omàomào becomes Komakomako, identical with one of the
commonest names the Maori lias for the Bell Bird. The Tahitian bird
however, is not a Philedon, but the Muscicarpa pomarea, a species of
flycatcher. The same name is given by Finsch and Hautleb to the
Tatare longirostris, a thrush-like bird, also a native of Tahiti. In
Samoa we find the Septorius samoensis bearing nearly the same name,
viz. : Màomào, which again, if we supply the ** k," raissing from the
Sarnoan dialect, becomes Makomako one of the most common of the
Maori names for the Bell Bird. The Septorius is a honey eater, like
our Anthornis. Ail this tends to conhrm what lias been deduced from
so many other lines of reasoning, viz. : that the Polynesians spread from
Samoa eastward to Tahiti and the Society Islands, and from thence
again in many directions, including both that of the Gambier Group
and New Zealand. The e\ddence from the geographical point of vicw
of the Tahitian, or rather Kaiatean origin of the Maori will be found in

2 24 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

a paper by the writer m the forthcoming volume of *• Transactions of
tlio Auxlrulasian Association for tho Advancement of Science." A wide
field opens up to anyone who will stiuly the native naines of the fauna
and Hora of the Polynesian islands, and it will surprise those who hâve
not paicl any attention to the niatter, to find many of oui* common
Maori naines of plants, birds, iish, insects, etc., known ail over the
Pacific, and applied to tho saine, or nearly the same species. — S. Percy
Smith.

Notes ox Eels. — The folio wing notes of occurrences which I
witnessed myself will perhaps throw some light on the question as to
whether eels go to sea to breed, and as to the possibility of their
overcoming difticulties which might soem at first sight beyond their
powers. There is a fine stream at the Bay of Islands nanied Waitangi,
the waters of which contain eels in abundance from its source to its
mouth. .It joins the sea at Waitangi (near where the celebrated Treaty
was signed), and there it falls about 30 feet ovor an old lava flow, the
face of which is quite perpendicular and even overhanging. The
channel is about 50 yards wide on the top of the falls, but ordinarily
the water does not occupy the wThole bed. Places are therefore left
dry, or over which a very thin coating of water serves to keep the rough
surface of the basai tic rock quite wet with little running streams hère
and there. In 1874, I observée! the surface of the rock where the
water was trickling over it, to be covered with hundreds of tiny eels
averaging from two inches to six inches in length. w7riggling their
way up the perpendicular face of the rock, and making headway
against the the thin rill of falling wrater from above. The water in
the basin below the fall is sait, or nearly so, as the tide ilows up to
the foot of the fall. The rock in this instance is quite rough, as ail
basaltic rocks are, and it is no doubt due to this roughness that
the eels are able to ascend. The Maoris told me they were well
acquainted with the fact, and that they often scrape the little eels
into baskets for food. I would not hâve believed it possible that eels
could hâve ascended this perpendicular face had I not wdtnessed it.

A considérable portion of the main Chatham Island is occupied
by a lagoon named Te Whanga, the water of which is brackish, but
which lias no permanent connection with the sea, except perhaps by
infiltration in two places, where its margins nearly approach the
océan. At one of thèse places named Te Awa-patiki, there is a wide,
dry channel Connecting the lagooa with the sea beach, and hère at
rare intervais and dur in g heavy north-east gales the sea makes a
breach into the lagoon. This channel is about ten chains w7ide, and
ordinarily is occupied by dry, soft sand. In 1868, when riding past
there I found that the sea had risen over the ordinary level and had
been running into the lagoon, but as it was low water the channel
was again quite dry. In one part, a small arm of the lagoon extended
towards the sea, but ceased at a hundred yards from high water
mark. This arm was about 20 feet wide and 2 feet deep. To my
great surprise I found it to be full of a wriggling, seething mass of
live eels, some of very large size, as much indeed as three or four feet
long, whilst the dry sands on either side and towards the sea were
coveted thickly by dead or dying eels. The eels were so thick in the

GENERAL NOTES. 225

arm or creek that our horses refused to enter the water. Evidently
the breaking in of the sea had attracted tlie eels from the neigh-
bouring parts of the lagoon, and hère they had congregated in vast
numbers with the intention of going out to sea. Their number was a
most astonishing thing to behold : there were several acres of dry
sand covered with dead or dying eels, say one to the square yard,
more or less thickly. A rare opportunity was hère offered to the
sea-gulls, which — as we rode through them — rose in such clouds that
they cast a perceptible shade over the sands. Along the margïns of
the lagoon grows a rank sea grass, which extends out to a depth of
three or four feet of water. In the thicker patches of tins grass, the
eels fincl food and shelter. So numerous are they that the Morioris
beat the grass with clubs, quite in a random manner, and never fail
to secure a plentiful supply in a short time. They are coarse and
tough to the taste however.

The congrégation of the eels at this spot shows a remarkable
instinct, by which they must hâve been drawn from considérable
distances so soon as the sea began to break into the lagoon. As the
height of the water in the lagoon was apparently the same as it had
been a few days before, not much additional sait water could hâve
nown in. How then did tjie fact of the inilow become communicated
to the eels % — S. Percy Smith.

University Extension in New Zealand. — The population of this
colony is far too sparse to allow of the introduction of the methocls
of University extension as carried on throughout England by the
Cambridge University authorities. But a praiseworthy attempt lias
been macle in two quarters to provide for young teachers and others in
localities at some distance from the collèges already established, such
a measure of university éducation as will enable them to pass the
examinations prescribed for degrees by the University of New Zealand.
The Southland Collegiate Classes Association owes its existence, we
believe, to the efforts of Mr. Robt. McNab, B.A., of Invercargill. It
was started during last year with the object of promoting " sound
learning within the District of Southland by encouraging a systematic
course of lectures during the winter months on such subjects and within
such limits as are laid clown in the Synopsis of Classes published
annually under the authority of the Council." The Association consists
of the teaching staff and eight elected members, four to be elected by
the teachers and four by the enrolled students ; and the management is
entrustecl to a Council of seven office bearers elected annually by the
members. The annual fées charged are ten shillings and sixpence for
each class to pupil teachers, but to others an enrolment fee of five
shillings for the first class and two shillings and sixpence for each
subséquent class, together with class fées varying from ten shillings and
sixpence to a guinea and a half. During last session, which extencled
from May to October inclusive, ninety-six students enrolled themselves.
Lectures were delivered on the following subjects : — English, Mathe-
matics, Latin, French, Mental Science, Physics, and Chemistry. The
very best men available in Southland appear to hâve been selected as
teachers. The Association claims already to hâve aided many persons

226 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

in the prosecution of their scliolastic studies, and if well supported there
is little doubt that it will prove a valuable adjunct to the cause of
University work in the colony.

Following the wake of the Invercargill Association, a similar
movement lias been started in Oamaru under the title of the North
Otago Collegiate Classes Association. The conditions hère are not so
favourable. as the district is much nearer Dunedin and the population is
smaller than that of Invercargill. The promoters hâve laid themselves
out to cover an extensive field of work including Latin, English,
German, French, Mathematics, Jurisprudence, and Political Economy.
The only question seems to be whether a sufficient number of students
will ofter themselves to enable the classes to be continued. At the
start the encouragement has not been great. Towns like Napier and
Nelson offer better facilities for this kind of work than such a town as
Oamaru, and even Wellington might hasten the day when it will hâve
a properly equipped collège of its own, were its educational enthusiasts
to band themselves into an organisation somewhat on the Unes already
adoptecl by the Southern associations. What can be done in the way of
accomplishing good educational work by private (as opposée! to State-
aidecl effort) is shown by the success attending the work of the Technical
Classes Association in Dunedin, which in this third year of its existence
has over three hundred young men and women attending its classes.

The Polynesian Society. — An effort is being made in Wellington
to establish a Polynesian Society, the objects of which as set forth
in a preliminary circulai' are "to afford a means of communication,
co- opération and mutual criticism between those interested in, or
studying Polynesian anthropology, ethnology, philology, history, man-
ners and customs of the Oceanic races, and the préservation of ail that
relates to such subjects in a permanent form." For the présent it is
proposée! to afford the means of communication by the publication of a
periodical journal, to be called the '• Journal of the Polynesian Society,"
and it is believed that 250 members each subscribing 20s. a year, will
suffice to start the Society and carry on the publication. While
thoroughly sympathising with the feelings of the promoters and ready
to give what support lies in out power to their project, we cannot say
that we are sanguine of success to the venture. Our own expérience is
that any enterprise of this kind is certain to be so poorly supported
that it will end in financial failure. We would recommend as a much
more feasible plan, and one mutually bénéficiai to ail concerned, that
the Association be formed with half the proposed annual subscription
and that this Journal be the accredited Journal of the Society, until
the population of thèse southern seas justifies the spécialisation now
proposed. In the case of this Journal we asked for a minimum of 200
subscribers ; référence to a slip inserted in this number will show how
far the appeal has been met. — Edit.

MEETINGS OF SOCEETIES 22 7

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Wellington, 17th June, 1891.— Edward Tregear, Esq., F.R.G.S.,
Président, in the chair.

New Member. — H. Earquhar.

A copy of Yolftme XXIIT. of the Transactions of the New Zealand
Institnte was laid on the table ; also proof sheets and spécimen plates of
Mr. Hudson's vvork on the Entomology of New Zealand. The plates
were considered very beautiful.

The Président then delivered an address, of which the folio wing is
an abstract. — Mr. Tregear commenced by congratulating Sir James
Hector on receiving the founcler's medal of the "Royal Geographical
Society. He then referred to the lecent discovery of the bones cf the
Dinornis in Queensland and remarked that soundings recently taken
showed solid land once to hâve existed from New Zealand to Australia
and through the Malay Archipelago to Asia; whether the moa had been
evolved from the emu by graduai transformation or the emu from the
the moa would be for the geologists and naturalists to discuss. The
addiess then referred to the théories as to man's origin, whether from
a single pair or from many sources ; described the primitive state of the
human race, with the progress upward from the cave-dwellers to the
pastoral peoples, then to cultivators of the soil, then to dwellers in
cities. Keferring to the question of marriage, the paper described the
émergence of the communal for m into the slave period and thus to the
belief in the wife being private property of the husband. The speaker
called attention to the agreement between anthropology and the other
sciences as to the great lapse of time necessary for mankind to hâve
existed, and to hâve passed through the palseolitbic and neolithic periods
to the building of great cities, which we now know to hâve been in
existence 6,000 years ago. Great portions of Asia and Africa, fertile
and abounding in ail descriptions of animal and vegetable life were still
unsettled. Many extracts from the reports of travellers just returned
from the wilds were read, showing the adaptability of those places to
the uses of the emigrant. But the speaker did not believe that the
colonization of Africa and other places in the possession of native races
was as practicable as was generally believed. The enormous fecundity
of the dark races, if relieved of the checks caused by bloodshed and war,
would inevitably squeeze out the incomers and prevent men of high
organisation existing in force sufficient to control the lower and more
persistent racial types. Mr. Tregear concluded by expressing his
opinion that the future of the world was not so entirely in the hands
of intellectual nations as he had once thought, but that if the advance
of mankind was threatenecl by the overflow of barbarie peoples, he
trusted that the time of submersion would be short, and the world soon
résume its path of progress refreshed and invigorated with new and
stronger life.

2 28 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Sir James Hector in proposing a vote of thanks to the Président
for his most interesting address, reminded members that within the last
few months they had been indebted to Mr. Tregear for a most nseful
addition to our local scientific literature in his Comparative Dictionary
of the Polynesian Longnages. His address showed that ontside mère
Philology Mr. Tregear was able to take a wide grasp of the great
problems of anthropology. With the President's permission lie took this
opportunity of introdncing Professor Pond, who had just arrived from
Cambridge to take the Classical Chair in the New Zealand University
at Auckland.

Prof. Pond considered it a high honour that lie should, on his first
landing, hâve the opportunity of attending the meeting of such a
Society. He complimented Mr. Tregear on the admirable arrangement
of his new dictionary, — the method was excellent. He was told at
Cambridge before leaving, that he ought to consider it a high privilège
his being selected for his appointment in the New Zealand University
as the Examiners in England thought most highly of the work done by
the New Zealand stndents.

Mr. Travers in seconding the vote of thanks spoke in flattering
terms of the address.

2. Sir James Hector exhibited a young salmon which had been
caught in the Aparima Pi ver and forwarded to him by the Marine
Department. He said that there conld not possibly be any mistake
with regard to the spécimen being a true salmon. The fact that salmon,
after years of fruitless experimenting, had now been acclimatised, was
highly satisfactory, thongh he feared that the formation of our coast
line was such as forbade the return of salmon to their own rivera.
Should however the salmon prove its attachment to the streams in
which they were hatched, the colony would hâve gained a most valuable
asset and one which it would be well to protect with the greatest
care.

3. Sir James Hector exhibited samples of the difterent coals and
rocks from the coal fields lately visited. With référence to the Black
Bull mine a tunnel of 1,230 feet had been driven to reach the coal and
two seams had been eut of first-class quality coal, making a total of
20 feet thick of coal. Samples of the rocks from the tunnel were also
described. Samples of the coal from the New Cardiff and Mohikinui
Company 's lease were exhibited, and also samples from the Kaitangata
mine, Otago, and a number of fossils found in the new shaft at Castle
Hill (Kaitangata), were also on the table and described. Samples of
coal from Orepuki were shown, together with a séries of fossils from
the Middle Waipara in the northern district of Canterbury. Thèse
latter were described as being geologically of the very greatest impor-
tance on account of the présence of Belemnites australis in association
with Dicotyledonous leaves, and in the same boulders remains of
Leiodon haumuriensis, this being the first time that thèse secondary
fossils hâve been found in the Canterbury District.

Wellington, 8th July, 1891.— Edward Tregear, Esq., F.R.G.S.,
Président, in the chair.

New Member. — William Percival Evans, M.A., Ph.D.

MEETINGS OF SOCIET1ES. 2 29

Papers. — (1) "Mill on démonstration and Necessary Trutb," by
W. W. Carlile, M. A. (Abstract) In regard to the questions what
constitute necessary truths, English opinion was much divicled. Hume
consistently put ail the trutbs of pure mathematics in one class, truths
of matters-of-fact in another, and tbus avoided the hair-splitting and
contradiction of the modem Humist school. Mill took ail the axioms
ont of the class of necessary truths and put them into the class of
truths of expérience. Bain called " things that are equal to the same
thing are equal to one another " a truth of expérience, but not, like
Mill " two straight lines cannot enclose a space." Mansell, a Kantian
philosopher, precisely reversée! this. Bain affirmée! that the axiom
"things that are equal to the same thing are equal to one another" was
a généralisation from expérience. In support of this he said that
equality was properly defined as "immédiate coincidence." If so,
" coincidence " could be used convertibly with " equality," but it was
plain that it could not. Equal lines are not lines that coincide, but
lines that would, if superimposed, coincide, a very différent matter.
Coincidence was learnt by sensé, equality only by thought. Probabljr
incompréhensible to the Damaraman or Bushman. The key to the
possibility of geometrical démonstration lay in this, in the power we
possessed of contemplating a line, for instance, as remaining the same
though in an altered position and environment. The want of a true
theory of identity in the opinion of Bosanquet was the great want of
philosophy of the English school. Spinoza asked what is the efficient
cause of a circle, answered it was the space described by a line
one point of which was fixed, the other moveable. We need only to
contemplate this line, the radius, as being the same in ail its positions
to deduce ail the properties of the circle. In the IY. proposition ,
Euclid plainly postulated for the mathematical figures with which he
dealt the capacity of being lifted and moved about and put on top of
one another, or of themselves moved as others. This was the great
postulate of Euclid and should be prominently set forth as such,
instead of being merely taken for granted. If it were, it would be
seen, at a glance, that the construction in the Y., the famous Pons
Asinorum was mère surplusage. If the big triangles formecl by the
produced sides could be lifted up and put on top of one another, why
could not the isosceles triangle itself be lifted up, reversed, and put en
top of itself. If it were, we should hâve two triangles superimposed on
one another fulfilling ail the requirements of the IV. proposition. It
was plain indeed, that a matter so simple as the equality of the angles at
the base did not really rest on anything so far fetched as the conventional
proof in Euclid. Mr. Mill seems always to contemplate the lines and
figures of geometry as if they were spécimens picked up in our rambles
instead of being those which we supposed ourselves to hâve just con-
structed. To sum up, with regard to necessary truths. (1) They were
always concerned with abstractions. (2) The opposite of them was in
the strict sensé inconceivable, not merely unbelievable. (3) This was so
because if we put their opposite in words, the last half of the proposition
" sublated " the first. (4) They were truths which could be seen to be
truths by merely thinking of them. (5) They were truths of séquence
only, not of tact. That brought them face to face with a difficulty that
might seem formidable, as of course geometrical propositions were used

23O JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

in tho world of fact. The dithculty however, was not peculiar to the
mathcmatical reasoning. They had seen that even what were called
identical propositions rested on assnmptions. Geometry only became of
real interêst and vainc when it was ascertained that propositions whicli
were litcrally and necessarily trne of the lines and circles that we
supposed onrselves to construct were approximately trne of the Unes
and circles of nature.

Sir James Hector thanked the anthor for his most interesting
paper ; it was a subject difficnlt to criticise until the paper had been
carefully read.

Mr. Maskell agreed with Sir J. Hector that the best thanks of the
Society were due to Mr. Carlile for his excellent paper which invested
a dry and difficalt subject with much more interest than probably any-
body cxpected. For himself lie found several veiy suggestive points in
the paper, not so much as to the particular question treated as on
gênerai grounds. In the first place it reminded him of what seemed to
be the gênerai fault of ail English writers on philosophy and logic, that
they never seemed to refer to any but English, Scotch, or a few German
authors. Now if they would study French, Spanish, or Italian works
also they might enlarge their views and possibly gain insight into quite
new and correctly suggestive trains of thought. Then again Mr.
Carlile, lie thought, had attached far too much importance to the
notions of Professor Huxley, a man who to the speakers mind, was
as bad a spécimen of blatant assumption and of illogical absurdity
(except of course when dealing with actual facts of natural history) as
the modem era lias to show. There was one point, only incidentally
referred to in the paper, which would perhaps require correction. Mr.
Carlile parenthetically remarked that the axiom that two things which
are equal to a third are equal to each other would be incompréhensible
to a Bushman or a Damaraman. Taken as referring to any particular
or existing savage, this would be probably true : taken as a gênerai
statement, with the inference that any necessary différence exists
between the brain and intellect of a savage and the brain and intellect
of a cultivated Englishman it would certainly not be correct, in spite of
the prevailing theory of the présent day which usually affirms it, if not
in ternis, at least by implication.

The Président said : Greatly as he admired the work of Professor
Huxley in the domain of natural science, he shared with others the
regret that the learned Professor should ever step outside the limits of
his own domain and enter the helds of politics and theology, where his
logic was by no means unassailable. He (the président) had been struck
with astonishment when reading Huxley many years ago to find that
he had stated that ail dream images were vague and undefined. This
is contrary to the facts of expérience with most observers. Undefined
images might occupy the mind of one who was discussing a subject like
" Mari " from a racial point of view, but in the case of "triangle" there
was no mental conception possible of a triangle generally ; it was
absolu tely necessary to conceive the idea of a triangle as either
equilateral, scalene, isosceles, etc. As to necessary truths, it was almost
certainly held that the axioms of Euclid were necessary truths, but he
had read a clever psychological article in a récent Magazine in which it

MEETINGS OF SOCIËTIE& 23 1

was asked how it was possible to possess one of thèse " self-e vident "
truths except by inheritance without breaking tlie chain of cause and
effect. Such a statement as that " Things whicb are equal to the saine
thing are equal to eacli other " was not a " self-evident " truth ; it
required reasoning from expérience before the minci coulcl place faith in
it. The purely mental conception of a line as having " length without
breadth" coulcl not be callecl useless (althongh it coulcl not be practically
represented) because arithmetical figures usecl in trigonometry provecl
that bounclaries of geometrical figures really had position but not
magnitude (of breadth). So that this is almost a necessary truth, and
although abstract truths were little more than hypothèses, still if they
were " working hyj-totheses " they were of enormous value. He might
instance the value of the 47th problem of the lst book of Euclicl ; the
cliscoverer of the principle in this problem offered up a lietacomb of
oxen to the gods for so great a truth being found, and it had proved of
inestimable value to the world in astronomy, navigation, engineering,
&c. He coulcl understand the schoolboys' delight if allowecl to prove
the truth of the fifth problem of the first book of Euclicl by turning the
triangle on its back, but he hardly thought such a simplification would
be allowed, although many of the propositions in Euclid might be swept
away as being évident at sight, ancl not made clearer by the attempted
proof. As to Mr. Maskell's assertion that the Bosjeman or any savage
had as much intellectual power as the civilisecl European, there would
be difiiculty in measuring the amount of latent power in any individual,
but it was certain that the expression of that power was immensely
unequal. It would be almost impossible to assert with gravity that the
minci of an African who, with great difiiculty, coulcl be taught the use
of numbers beyond 2 or 3, was equal to any one of the mincis of Bacon,
Newton, or Herschel, although a potentiality of minci equal to great
intellectual effort misrht lie uiirecognised in the brain of the savane.

Mr. Carlile, in reply, expressed his gratification at the appréciative
criticism his paper hacl received. The Président hacl already explainecl
some of the matter to which exception had been taken. He hacl not
meant to suggest that the simplification of the proof of the V.
proposition which he suggested in any way cletracted from its validity
and importance. There were several of the propositions at the
beginning of the first book which were rather obscured than illustrated
by the proof furnished of them. The XITL, for instance. If we
regardée! a point in a straight line as an angle of 180°, it was certain
that drawing any number of lines through this point could hâve no
tendency to alter the size of this angle, yet this was what was
elaborately proved. He thought a desideratum among the définitions
was a définition of what was meant by the size of an angle. We
proceeded to speak of the size of angles without furnishing any
criterion for their measurement. If this were furnished, it would
necessarily carry wilh it the proof of the IV., V., and VIII., and a
host of other propositions. The size of an angle and the length of the
subtending side in any triangle were, it seemed to him, two names for
the same thing. There was no need of propositions to prove the fact of
their concomitant variations.

(2) " On the shifting of the Sand Dunes," by H. C. Field. The
paper gave results of forty years' observations on the coast from Paika-

2^2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

kariki to Patea, and pointe! ont how tho country generally in this part
of New Zealand liad undergone altérations by the shifting of the sand
through the action of the wind. The anthor gave data for fixing the
rate of such movements. The paper also contained mnch interesting
information regarding the relies of the native race.

Sir James Hector, speaking on the paper, said lie thought it a most
important one. In a new conntry they should be very careful as to
how they interfered with the natnral changes of the coast line. He
was of opinion that Mr. Field had done good service in bringing this
matter before the Society. They in New Zealand wonld hâve to gnard
against selling lands situated in clangerous positions on the coasts.
They should also prevent mischievous people from interfering with
raoutlis of rivera and thus prevent natural changes. Mr. Field's paper
had opened up a subject of extrême practical importance to the Colony.

Mr. J. Beetham thought this a valuable paper. He would
encourage those who had the opportunity to note carefully such changes
as had been spoken of. There is no doubt great altérations had taken
place on our coasts and in our rivera owing to the reasons given by Mr.
Field.

AUCKLAND INSTITUTE.

Auckland, June 22nd, 1891. — Professor Brown, Président, in the
chair.

New members. — Messrs. E. Craig, C. Malfroy, and P. Sylow.

Papers. — (1) "On the Prospects of finding Workable Coal on the
Shores of the Waitemata." by James Park, E.G.S. (See p. 208.)

(2) " On the Geyser Action of Rotorua, by C. Malfroy, CE. (See
p. 203.)

OTAGO INSTITUTE.

Dunedin, August llth, 1891. — Professor Gibbons, Président, in
the chair.

Papers. — (1) "On the Anatomy of Boltenia," by J. Watt, M.A.,
(communicated by Professor Parker). The paper, which was originally
prepared as a thesis for honours, was illustrated by very numerous
sections prepared by freezing. Among other points brought out was
the remarkable variation existing between différent individuals in the
relative lengths of the body and the peduncle, and in the arrangement
of the external ridges of the body.

(2) u On tlie extinction of Native Birds on the West Coast," by
Jas. Richardson. The autlior cited the expérience of Mr. Mueller
(chief surveyor of Westland) and of Mr. Wilmot (district surveyor)
regarding the scarcity of the kiwi and kakapo in the région between the
Haast river and the head waters of the Dart river, where thèse birds
were formerly numerous ; and related how he had himself noted their
disappearance from the région of Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri, the
fact being atttibuted to the déprédations of ferrets, weasels, and stoats.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 233

Mr. Richardson also alludecl, on the authority of Mr. Wilmot, to the
déprédations of the ferrets in the extensive forest lying between Port
Molyneux and Waikawa. He claimed to hâve placecl before the Institute
évidence of the présence of the ferre t at différent points from the
Haast river in Westland to Catlin's river, and of the rapid destruction
of the kakapo, kiwi, and other ground birds in the western forests.
Apart from the regret which must be felt by the naturalisa the
wholesale massacre of thèse interesting fauna. must, be said, seriously
interfère with the progress of exploration and prospecting. In the past
a party could venture into the untrodden wilds lying at the back of the
Sounds, carrying in the way of provisions nothing beyond sait and
oatmeal, tea and sugar, re lying upon always securing an ample supply
of animal food, but in future the last-named essential would also hâve to
be transported. The increased danger to life would also tend to deter
prospectors from continuing investigation of a portion of the province
which had already furnished indications of rich minerai deposits.
There could be no doubt that very shortly it would be dangerous to
camp out in many parts of Otago, especially in those which offered the
greatest attractions to tourists and prospectors. He quoted the
suggestion of Mr. T. O. Potts that areas of land should " be set
aside and held under tapu as to dog and gun. There was, for instance,
Resolution Island, amongst the Sounds. It might be proclaimed a
public domain, where animais should not be molested under any
pretence whatever. Some of the islets of the north-east coast of the
North Island might be similarly dealt with." To the localities indicated
by Mr. Potts, the speaker thought there might be added the larger
islands of Te Anau, Manapouri, and Wakatipu. Mr. M'Kinnon had
already successfully transferred the kakapo to Centre Island, Te Anau.
By promptly adopting the proposai of Mr. Potts, we might h ope to
préserve small colonies of those rarer orders of New Zealand bircl life
whose regrettable disappearance had formed the subject of the paper.

Mr. F. R. Chapman said he had had an opportunity of observing
similar facts to those noted by Mr. Kichardson. When he first knew
the back country one had only to kneel down and tap a gun stock, and
20 or 30 wekas would appear in places where probably not one would
be seen now. He was told when he was at Orepuki three or four years
ago that in the large forest from the Waiau to Jacob's river the weka
had now disappeared, or almost so. Why it had disappeared there he
did not know. What they had now to see to was whether any
practicable suggestion could be offered for preserving the birds. He was
not quite sure that they would wholly disappear from the ranges, but in
a country like that of Stewart's Island he thought that it would be
possible to préserve them, for, as there would be no rabbits, there
seemed to be no particular reason for taking ferrets there. What he
would suggest was that, following out Mr. Richardson's suggestion,
homes should be made for the native birds where there would be a
chance of saving them. Oodfish Island, IStewart's Island, and other
islands on the east and west coast, Bench Island, even the Snares and
the Auckland Islands occurred to him as expérimental places, and
Captain Fairchild, he had 110 doubt, would, if applied to, be glad to
take the birds from point to point and land them. At the Solanders
also the birds would be tolerably safe. If the birds were to be destroyed

234 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

on thc main island, ho thought that tlie steps lie had suggested would
l)o thc most effectuai for tlieir préservation.

Mr. Richardson remarked, with regard to the disappearance of tlie
weka froni tlie forest between Jacob's river and tlie Waiau, tliat tliere
were no rabbits there, but tlie ferrets had evidently gone tliere in
advance of them.

Mr. G. M. Thomson stated that in 1882 lie had crossed the Waiau
at Glifton and walked to Lake Hauroto, on the shores of wilich he
camped. He skirted ail round the lake, and there were rabbits in
abundance within 20 miles of the head of Préservation Inlet. He
worked into the Princess Mountains, 12 miles froni the liead of
Préservation, and at that time there were numerous birds to be seen.
The tout was surrounded by kiwis and kakapos, and in the busli there
were any number of crows ; but thèse had now disappeared. In
January last, at the meeting of the Australasian Association at Christ-
church, the biological section passed a resolution asking that Resolution
Island should be declared a réserve for Native birds. A great deal of
blanic had been thrown upon the Acclimatisation Societies for tlieir
indiscriminate and, he might say, ignorant work in introducing animais,
and plants also ; but, so far as the Otago Acclimatisation Society was
concernée!, he wished to say that from the very first it had every year
passed a résolution protesting against the introduction of any animal of
the weasel tribe, but there were men of suffleiont interest with the
Government to get them to introduco thèse animais in spite of the
protest. One natural enemy of the rabbit was the weka, and the
wekas had increased very much ; but one effect of the introduction of
the ferre t was that for the last few years one could hardly corne across a
weka. He was sure that the rabbits had not been put down one bit by
thc ferrets, and a few months ago he was on the hills to the seaward of
the Taieri plain when lie saw rabbits playing about in numbers, while
lie knew that ferrets were also in abundance. He was afraid that the
matter of the préservation of native birds had got beyond bounds on
the mainland of New Zealand.

Mr. Richardson understood that during the Union Steam Ship
Company 's animal excursions to Milford Sound shooting was considérée!
to be part of the entertainment, and lie was told that last year one
man, a moneyed tourist from Home, shot 160 ducks in one day during
the breeding season. He thought that was a thing which should be
distinctly put a stop to. A party of High School boys also had during
the suminer time at Manapouri left absolutely nothing till tlieir supply
of cartridges gave ont,

Mr. E. Melland remarked that any islands which were set apart
for preserving birds would hâve to be a good distance from the shore,
for ferrets smelt a long way off, and also swam very well. He would
suggest the Kermadecs as a place where kiwis might do very well.
The rapidity with which the ferrets cleared away the wekas lie regarded
as remarkable. Years ago the wekas on a run at Lake Te Anau were
Bufficient to keep down the rabbits, which they killed apparently foi-
sport ; but two years after the ferrets had been turned out the wekas
had completely disappeared from tlie run he spoke of, and since then
rabbîting had to be resorted to every year. Speaking from expérience,

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 235

he never knew the ferrets to keep clown tlie rabbits in England. He
had himself protestecl against ferrets being turnecl out on the fai* aide of
Lake Manaponri, but after one shipment had by a timely accident been
drowned, another shipment was sent.

Sir Walter Buller deplored very much the insane conduct of the
Government in introducing stoats and weasels ; but there was, he
thought, a danger of exaggerating the mischief done by thèse animais.
They were apt to put everything down to the stoats and weasels, but he
thought there were other causes in opération, for many New Zealand
species had commenced to disappear long before the introduction of
stoats and weasels. He instanced the kakapo and other birds in the
North Tsland, for which a refuge was found on the Great Barrier and
Little Barrier Islands. The introduction of weasels and stoats had
tended to accelerate the destruction of the birds, but the kiwi and
kakapo were very scarce long before. Fifteen years ago thèse birds
were exported by hundreds, and that tended to considerably thin their
numbers. His argument was that there were other causes in opération
beyond that suggested. He had thought the thing out very carefully,
and the conclusion he had corne to was that the introduced rat was the
cause of the mischief. They ail knew how prolific the rat was — some
parts of the colony were overrun with it — and it was significant that
birds that deposited their eggs on the ground, and were an easy prey to
rats, were the first to disappear. Tins cause, he pointed out, had been
in opération ever since the colonisation of thèse islands. Take the
quail, for example, they could not blâme the stoats and weasels for the
destruction of that bird, for it was extinct before the introduction of
those animais, and there was not one to be found now — the last quail
that was sold in Italy brought £75. He referred also to the early
clisappearance of the swamphen, woodhen, and thrush. The remedy was
the establishment of préserves, and it was necessary to hâve insulated
areas for thèse. Expérience showed that expiring species always lasted
longest on islands, and we ought to draw a lesson from expérience and
place the native birds on islands. He thought the iclea to utilise
Stewart's Island an excellent one, but they must get it proclaimed and
hâve heavy penalties imposed for trespass and spoliation. Sir George
Grey was the first to take any steps towards the préservation of native
birds, and when lie purchased the Island of Kawau he proceeded to
stock it with kiwis, kakapos, and other birds, ail of which had lived —
indeed the weka became a positive nuisance. The speaker thought
they ought to insist upon an absolutely close préserve for the use of the
future génération. Lord Onslow was thoroughly alive to the impor-
tance of the matter, and if the societies co-operated ho believe 1 they
might confidently appea] to his Excellency, and sometliing might be
•done. Unless something was done to arrest the loss of thèse species
before this génération had passed away not ou<* of the native birds
would be left, and it would be a reproach to them that it should be so.

PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTE OF CANTERBURY.

Christchurch, August 6th, 1891. -Prof. F. \V. Hutton, F.G.S.
Président, in the chair.

236 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Paper. — (F " On the ancient relations between New Zealand and
South America," by Dr. H. von Jhering, (of Rio Grande do Sul), com-
municated by Prof. Hutton. Abstract : — The anthor points out that
Mr. Wallace in lus geographical distribution of animais has not made
sufficient distinction between those groups of animais — such as birds
and mammals — whose living gênera appear only in the tertiary era,
and the fishes, reptiles, &c, whicli are represented in the cretaceous, and
the land and fresh-water mol] uses man y of which were living during the
secondary or even the palseozoic era. He thinks that the fresh-water
fauna in gênerai gives us the most reliable guide to tlie knowledge of
the geography of our globe during pakeozoic and mesozoic times. He
then discusses the relations of the fresh-water fauna of South America,
as well as its geology, and arrives at the following conclusions: —

A Pacitic continent existed during the whole of the mesozoic era,
from which first a number of Polynesian Islands, then New Zealand,
and finally Australia and New Guinea became separated.

South America was separated form North America from the creta-
ceous to the end of the pliocène period. A South American continent
has existed only since the oligocène period. At that time it consisted of
two parts united by the narrow isthmus of the Andes, which were
completely separated from one another before the oligocène.

Thèse two parts form Archiplata (the area occupied at présent by
Chili, Argentina, Uruguay and South Brazil), and Archiguyana (com-
prising the liigli plateau of Venezuela and Guyana).

Each of thèse territories had its own fauna and flora wdiich differed
from each cither as much as those of Africa and North America do at
the présent day.

Archiguyana was united by land to Africa, a remuant of which
remains in St. Helena, whilst Archiplata extended to the south in a
South-Pacific-Antarctic continent which during the whole of mesozoic
times kept this area in communication with the Pacific continent.

The theory of Wallace is to be rejected not only for South America
but also for Australia and Polynesia, foi- neither lizards nor land and
fresh-water shells can be transported across the sea. But we must not
forget that it was he who gave to zoogeography its modem solid basis,
its new methods of procédure by which progress may be made, as well
as its aims and its problems.

LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sydney, June 24th, 1891. — Professor Haswell, M.A., D.Sc,
P résilient, in the chair.

Papers.- (1) " Angophora Kino," by J. H. Maiden, F.C.S., F.L.S.
Kinos of this genus hâve not previously been described, although their
occurrence has long been known. The author lias described those'of
A. intermedia and A. lanceolata, and given an account of their
composition. He also gives notes of those of other species.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 237

(2) "On the Incisors of Sceparnodon," by C. W. De Vis, M. A.,
Corr. Mem. The author describes a large perfect adult upper incisor
with portion of the premaxilla still encasing it : also a smaller not fully
grown tooth with a greater extent of working surface, which is regarded
as a lower incisor. From the characters of thèse the author accordingly
concludes that Sceparnodon is not a synoDym of Phascolonus. The
spécimens described are in the collection of the Queensland Muséum.

(3) " Contributions to a more exact knowledge of the Geographical
Distribution of Australian Batrachia, No. II. ; with description of a new
Cystignathoid Frog," by J. J. Fletcher, M. A., B.Sc. Some additions
are made to the lists previously given, several collections are recorded
from new inland localities, with observations on the habits and colours
of the living animais of several species ; and a new species of Crinia
from Victoria, for which the name G. Froggatti is proposed, is described
as new.

(4) "Description of a new Cône from the Mauritius," by J. Brazier,
F.L.S. The new species described as Conus Worcesteri, lias a smooth
shell, white beneath a dirty yellowish epidermis, variegated with four
purple or pinkish-brown bands flowing down hère and there in flexuous
streaks.

Sydney, July 29tb, 1891.— Professor Haswell, M. A., D.Sc., Prési-
dent, in the chair.

Papers. — (1) "Notes on Aboriginal Stone Weapons and Imple-
ments (continued)," by R. Etheridge, Junr. Descriptions are given of
a large number of tomahawks and axes from the Collections of Sir W.
Macleay, Dr. J. C. Cox, the Queensland Muséum, and others, including
some modernised axes of the Queensland Aborigines from the last-
named collection, made from old scrap-iron. The author also suggests a
tentative classification for muséum exhibition purposes of the stone
weapons described.

(2) "Synonomy of Hélix (Hadra)gulosa, Gld," by J. Brazier, F.L.S.

(3) " The Silurian Trilobites of New South Wales, with Références
to those of other parts of Australia. Part i.," by P. Etheridge, Junr.,
and John Mitchell. The authors give an epitome of our previous
knowledge of the Proetidœ in Australia ; discuss the gênerai question of
the genus ; and describe three species, two of which were previously
known, viz., Proetus bowningensis, Mitchell, P. Rattei, E. & M., and P.
australis, E. & M. The characters of the three species are given at
length, their relations one to the other, and finally with those of other
countries.

(4) " Observations on the Chloraemidae, with spécial référence to
some Australian forms," by Professor W. A. Haswell, M. A., D.Sc.
Tins paper has référence chiefly to a remarkable member of the family
which occurs on the Queensland coasfc ; but the opportunity has also
been taken to give some account of two other undescribed Chloraemids
obtained by the author in Port Jackson.

FIELD NATURALIST3' CLUB OF VICTORIA.

ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE.

Melbourne, May 23rd, 1891.— Baron F. von Mueller, K.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., in the chair.

238 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The annual address was delivered by the retiring président, Mr.
A. C. Topp, M. A., LL.B., F.L.S., who expressed his regret that during
the past y car lie h ad been obliged to absent himself f roni so many meet-
ings of the club, but his public duties had prevented him from taking
the active part in the affairs of the club which he should hâve liked.
The inost important field work accomplished by the club during the
year had been in connection witli the excursions to the Kent group of
islands and to the Upper Yarra, and it was a matter for congratulation
that thèse somewhat prolonged excursions seemed now to be fîrmly
established as a necessary part of the annual doings of the club. Apart
from the actual results in the shape of new fauna and flora discovered,
and new knowledge acquired of geographical distribution, such trips
promoted one of the objects of the club in giving young naturalists a
training and expérience which would be of value to those of them who
in later life might take up on a larger scale the study of natural history
in unexplored or at least unsettled localities. Mention ought also to be
made of the visit of Messrs. Howitt, Dendy, and Lucas, members of the
club, to the Mount Wellington district in Gippsland, a report of which
was read at the February meeting. In addition to the results derived
from thèse excursions, it was encouraging to notice that during the 12
months the diligent collecting and trained observations of members
had resulted in the addition of several new species of animais
and plants to the Victorian fauna and flora, and many papers of interest
had been read at the periodical meetings. It was a matter for regret,
however, that geology still continued in the background. The annual
wild-flower show in October was, perhaps, a compléter exhibition of
spring flowers from ail parts of the colony than had previously been
shown. Allusion was made in the report to several other matters and
publications of interest to members as connected with Australian natural
history, and satisfaction was expressed at the fact that arrangements
had been made by the Mining department for a continuance of a syste-
matic geological survey of the colony. The circumstance that so excel-
lent a geologist as Mr. A. W. Howitt was now the head of the depart-
ment was a guarantee that this work would be thoroughly and exactly
carried out. Congratulatory référence was also made to two explora-
tions which, it might be hoped, would before long give results of great
scientitic interest, namely the expédition despatched by Sir Thomas
Elder to the interior of Australia, and the Swedish- Australian expédition
to the South Pôle now being organised by Baron Nordenskjold, and
promoted by the Victorian Antarctic committee.

Baron von Mueller aclded a few words respecting the work of the
club and the expédition to the Antarctic régions, which, he now felt
assurée!, would soon be an accomplished fact. He moved a hearty vote
of thanks to Mr. Topp for his work as président of the club, and for the
excellent address which he had just delivered.

An exhibition of lantern slides illustra tive of the club's excursions
was given, and a numerous list of exhibits was shown.

Melbourne, July 13th, 1891. — Professor W. B. Spencer, in the chair.

New Members. — Mrs. C. French, and Messrs. E. Boiter, H. C.
Crofts, P. battari, C. Draper, S. Plowman, F.R.C.S., C. A. E. Price,
J. V. Smith, C. Troedel, and T. J. Watts.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 239

Paper.-— (1) " Introduction to the Study of Sponges," by Dr. A.
Dendy, F.L.S. The writer grouped his remarks under the two great
divisions of calcareous and non-calcareous sponges, and described in
détail the anatomy and canal System of various types. The lecture was
illustrated by cliagrams and many beautiful spécimens, so that the
subject could be followed quite easily by the uninitiated.

(2) Messrs Luehmann and French reacl a note and exhibited the
skin of a tree-climbing kangaroo from Northern Queensland, to which
they gave the name Dendrolagus Muelleri. This remarkable marsupial
has a body about 2 ft. in length, with a tail somewhat exceeding 2 ft.
The disproportion between the forelegs and the hind legs is not nearly
so great as that of the ordinary kangaroo and wallaby ; the toes are
strong and curved, to enable it to climb tall and straight trees, on the
leaves of which it exists. This species is more nearly allied to the one
which was discovered a few years ago in Queenslancl than to the two
species from New Guinea. The spécimen shown was got trom a straight
tree, about 90 ft. above the ground.

Other natural history notes were communicatecl by Messrs. J.
Shephard, F. G. A. Barnard, T. Steel, and E. H. Hennell.

Spécimens were exhibited by Dr. A. Dendy, Mr. C. French, Jun.,
Rev. W. Fielder, Messrs. L. O. Grundt, R. Hall, J. G. Luehmann, W.
Macgillivray, Baron von Mueller, and Mr. J. Shephard.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sydney, July lst, 1891. — H. C. Russell, Esq., Vice- Président, in
the chair.

New members. — Messrs. A. Bowman, J. H. CampbelJ, J. K.
Chisholm, G. Clarke, CE., B. Demstan, J. Gill, F. B. Guthrie, Hon.
W. Halliday, M.L.C., C. Hedley, F.L.S., R. Hickson, M. Inst. C.E.,
C. W. King, T. W. Seaver, A. W. Stillwell, T. Ward, S. C. Watkins,
M.R.C.S., F. Wells, M. Inst. CE., R. A. Wilson, M.D., P. M. Wood,
M.R.C.S.

ABORIGINAL CAVES.

Mr. W. G. Cox, of Windgidgeon via Gilganclra, wrote stating that
he knew where there was another aboriginal cave similar to one recently
described in a Sydney paper. It was situated close to the Munghorn
Gap in the Main Dividing Range, on the road from Mudgee to Woollan.
The cave is situated in an isolated freestone rock of mammoth size.
Thèse caves, he said, were generally known as the " Red-hand Caves,"
as ail the figures represented therein were in a red colour, supposed to
hâve been so coloured with the gum taken from the apple tree. There
were also several other caves in Dunn's Mountain, in the dividing
range, to the south-east of Rylstone.

ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.

Baron von Mueller, who is taking a very active interest in the
question of antarctic exploration, wrote pointing out the need for
intending contributors to the exploration fund forwarding their con-
tributions at once. He stated that an endeavour would be made that
the exploration party should start from Sweden in March next year.

24O JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

The Chairman Bfcated that the secretary would be glad to receive
any contributions tlie îiienibors bad to give.

Papers. — (1) "Nos. 13 and 14 Compressed-air Flying Machines,"
by Lawrence Hargrave.

(2) " Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa, translated by tlie
Rey. G. Pratt," by Dr. J. Fraser. The paper was in continuation of a
séries commcnced in Novombcr last, and dealt with four myths now for
the first time translated. Dr. Fraser said that of the four the most
interesting was one about Mafuie, the Samoan Vulcan, and his sister
Ululepapa. Mafuie had his home down below, but, unlike his classical
compeer, lie did not work in metals ; lie only cultivated taro, yams,
etc., and had a linge ironwood tree, ever burning, with which to lighten
his abode and help liim and his men to cook their food. On the earth
above there was no fire and no cooked food ; everything was eaten raw.
But a courageous youth named Tiitii changed ail this. Like Ali Baba,
ho discovered a password — "Rock, rock, split open " — by means of
which lie dcscended to the régions below, picked a quarrel with Mafuie,
and, wrestling with him, broke his leg and his arm, compelled him to
submit, and brought away fire, touchwood, and taro. Ever since the
Samoans hâve had cooked food. Another myth bore a striking
resemblance to the Biblical account of the Fall ; and yet an old native
of Upolu certifies it as a genuine Samoan taie.

(3) " Préparations now being made in the Sydney Observatory for
the Photographie Chart of the Heavens," by H. C. Russell. (See p.
211.)

(4) "On Cyclonic Storms," by H. C. Russell.

Sydney, August 6th, 1891. — H. C. Russell, Esq.? in the chair.

New members.— Messrs. C. O. Burge, CE., T. R. Firth, S.
Jamieson, B.A., M.B., G. W. Sutherland, M.B., CM.

The Chair ni an announced that the society's bronze medal and prize
of i'25 had been awarded to the Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., for his
paper on "The Microscopic Structure of Australian Rocks."

The Rev. J. Milne Curran read extracts from his paper. In the
introduction lie referred to the work of previous observers in the same
field, and also the particular methods resorted to in pétrographie
research. He explained how micro-chemical and microscopical obser-
vation as well as micro-photography were made available in the study of
Australian rocks. The great development of acidic intrusive rocks in
New South Wales was dwelt on, though thèse rocks were for the most
part in the pre-Tertiary âge. The présence of granité and its micro-
scopic structure was recorded for the first time from the Lower
Macquarie. Hère in the heart of the great Tertiary plains, granités
were found forming the tops of buried mountains. Many interesting
rocks not hitherto studied were described, such as the gabbros of Carcoar,
the leucite rocks of Harden, the diabases of Blayney and Wellington,
and the basai ts of Orange, Mendoran, Bathurst, and other localities in
the New England districts. The Tertiary effusive rocks were treated of
in great détail, revealing some very remarkable structures.

17 0CT.91

Sr

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.

ARE PUBLISHERS OF

Petrie's First Geography ls.

Petrie's Geography of New Zealand ls.
Goyen's Complète Arithmetic ... M.

Answers to same 9d.

Goyen's Exercises in the Compound Rules ls. Gd.

Answers ls. Gd.

Curnow's Primer of Englisli History ls.

Thomson's New Zealand Feins . Os,

The Story of the ©tago Chnrch and f Clotli 3s. Gd,
Settlement. By Rev. C. Stuart Ross } Paper 2s.

Education and Educationists in Otago.

By Rev. C. Stuart Ross . 3s. Gd.

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.,

108 PRINCES STREET,
' DUNEDIN.

Matthew8. Baxter & Oo., Gei\eral Printers, Do wling Street, Dunedin;

NOVEMBER, 1891.

No. 6, Vol. I. (New Issue.)

THE

NEW ZEALAND

on

DEVOTED TO THE FURTHERANCE OF
PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE THROUGHOUT THE COLONY,

Judicio perpende : et si tïbi vera videntur

Dede manus : aut si falsam est, adcingere contra.

CONTENTS :

PAGE

Eartliquakes in New Zealand— "What and how to observe. George Hogbex,

M.A., Timaru ... ... ... ... ... 241

On the Classification of the Moa. Captain F. W. Hutton, F.G.S.... ... 247

Notes on the Geographical Relations of our Land and Fresh-water Mollusca.

H. Suter, Christchurch ... ... ... ... ... 250

Review— " Introductory Class-book of Botany." ... ... ... 254

General Notes— ... ... ... ... ... 255

On Moa Bones— Migration of Eels—New Otago Plants— On Disappearancc
of Spcar-grass— Note on Lcucopogon Fraseri, A. Cunn.— History of
the Moas.

Review— " Illustrations of British Fungi." ... ... ... ... 264

The New Australian Mole-like Marsupial— Notoryctes Typhlops ... ... 265

Meetings of Societies ... ... • •• • •• ... • ■• 267

Otago Institnte— Wellington Philosophical Society— Wellington Fiol<l
Naturalists' Club— Linnean Society of New South Wales— Field
Naturalists' Club of Victoria— Royal Society of Victoria— Royal
Society of Tasmania.

PRIOE, 2s. ; ANNUAL SUBSORIPTION, 10s. 6d.

Posted — Australia, America, and Britain, 12s. 6d.

MATTHEWS, BAXTER & CO., PUBLISHERS, DOWLING STREET
WISE, CAFFIN & CO., 108 PRINCES STREET.

"Vol. !.. No. 6, N.Z. JOURNAL OF SCIENCE (New Issue) NOV., 1891,

EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND— WHAT

AND HOW rFO OBSERVE.

BY GEORGE HOGBEN, M.A.; TIMARU.

It may be necessary to answèr a preliminary question, l Why
should we observe earthquakes at ail 1 ' ; for there are some people
wlio consider that by calling attention to the subject we shall be in
danger of gaining for New Zealand an un enviable notoriety. As a
matter of fact, however, a very limited examination of the earthquake-
history of the colony shows that, if indeed the objection be seiïously
urged, no fear need be entertained on that ground. Out of nearly
800 earthquakes recorded in New Zealand only two or three can be
called severe* — namely, those of October, 1848, January, 1855, and
perhaps one other, (about which little definite information can be
obtained, but which seems to hâve had marked effecfcs in the district
between Mts. Tarawera and Edgcunibe in the year 1836). A few
more corne undcr the head of sliarp, ard ail the rest — the vast
majority — are certainly not entitled to a moie serious adjective than
slight. No earthquake in New Zealand, at least in historié times, lias
been at ail comparable with the terre motos or destructive earthquakts
of South America. The minds of the timid may therefore be re-
assured by the thought that the expérience of the past does not lead
us to expect greater danger from earthquakes in New Zealand than
in England.

Besides removing tins objection we may, perhaps, be expected to
give some positive reason why earthquakes should be observed. The
object is niainly a scientific one, though, as in many other inquiries
purely scientific at the outset, practical conclusions and résulta may
follow. Seismology is merely one branch of a larger subject, the
Physics of the earth's crust, a complète study of which involves
questions connectée! with the figure of the earth, the nature of its
interior — whether liquid or solid, or partly liquid and partly solid, or
solid by reason of the pressure though liquid in potentiality ; its
température, and rate and mode of cooling — by conduction if solid or
viscid, by convection if liquid ; the nature of the internai movements,
if any ; the conséquent nature and causes of the compressions and
movements that take place near the surface. The most important
évidence towards forming probable théories about thèse matters is
yielded by the phenomena connected with volcanic éruptions, and
with the various earth-movements — earthquakes, earth -tic m ors, earth-
tides or pulsations, and those larger and slower movements revealed
in the élévation or dépression of the land. Other effects of the forces

* It would take too long to attempt a définition of the ternis severe, sharp, sliyht.
Their use is not free from vagueness, but they give a convenient classification of
shocks, based upon such easily observed phenomena as the stopping of clocks, the
falling of bottles from shelves, injury to chimneys and walls of buildings, and so on
the appropriateness of the particular adjective depending also upon the more or less
.gênerai occurrence of thèse eventg in any given district.

2.J2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

at work on the earth's crust are showii in faults, fissures, foldings,
cleavages, and in other ways known to geologists. The vast questions
h ère suggested are very far froni being solved, and if ever they
are solved at ail, it can only be by théories based on the widest
possible collection of data. It is, in short, as part of a world-system
of observations that oui* observations in New Zealand will become
useful.

How is tins coiiirjction between New Zealand and the rest of the
world to be made .; The Australasian Association of Science lias, by
by appointing a Seismological Committee decided to do what it can.
VYhat, then, can be done ?

Whatever is done in New Zealand should also be done for each
of the other Australasian Colonies, and, if iiossible, for the islands of
the Pacific, so that the gênerai collation and comparison already
referred to may be made.

The first step is for some one in each Colony to compile a list of
ail recorded earthquakes up to the présent time, including in that
list ail the important détails, as far as they are gïven in the records.
For tins purpose it is necessary to search officiai tables, scientific
journals, personal narratives and the newspapers. Sir James Hector
lias drawn up such a record for New Zealand, which I hope soon to
see published, and in a paper read by myself before Section A of the
Australasian Association, 1891, a similar list was included. In
gathering together the materials for the latter I asked for the
folio wing particulars : — 1. Place, '2. Time, 3. Nature of Shock, 4.
Apparent Direction, 5. Apparent Duration, 6. Effects — other remarks,
7. Time-checks, 8. Authority. I asked for the omission of ail
inferences and of unimportant détails, and the replies were forwarded
to me, tabulated, on foolscap sheets. Nothing was to be omitted,
were it only the fact that a shock was felt on a certain date at a
certain place.

When made, tins list serves many useful purposes; its principal
one is to indicate the directions in which the subséquent earthquake-
hunting is likely to be successful. It may show roughly the distri-
bution and comparative frequency of earthquake-shocks in différent
districts, suggest positions of centres or lines of disturbance, and may
point to shocks in one colony synchronous or identical with shocks in
another more or less distant.

The next step, which of course need not be delayed until the
first is completed, is to establish a uniform System of recording earth-
quakes as they occur. Thèse records should be such as can be used
for determining earthquake origine, and as far as possible also the
velocity of propagation, the depth of the origin and the velocity of the
shock, that is the velocity of the several particles that vibrate. Good
t hue-observations are sufficient for the first two of thèse, and in
favourable instances for the third also, but for the fourth elaborate
instruments would be necessary — indeed, even with the best instru-
ments sutisfactory results are rarely attainable, and doubt may still
lie thrown upon the best observations. For the observation of the

EARTHQUAKES IX NEW ZEALAND. 243

time of the sliock, and therefore for ascertaining the position and
depth of the origin and the velocity of transit or propagation, much
simpler instruments would be sufficient. They should be seismocopes,
ail of the same type, capable of showing the time of the earthquake
and the particular phase of the earthquake to which the time recorded
belongs. They should be corrected electrically with a clock regulated
by some standard time. There should be as large a number of thèse
instruments as possible, and the advantage obtained by their use
would be that almost any earthquake felt at five or six places should
afford sufficient data for the détermination of the epicentrum (or
portion of the earth's surface vertically above the real origin or
centrum), and of the velocity of propagation; — and any earthquake
felt, say at ten places, should give us the depth of centrum as well.
Theoretically, five good times from places favourably situated should
give us ail thèse, but in practice it is better to hâve ten at least.

Instruments, however, cost money, and at présent there seems
small hope of obtaining them either from the Government or private
individuals. Without crying "sour grapes," we can nevertheless
console ourselves with the fact that, though instruments would yield
the required data with greater certainty, yet much may be donc
without instruments. In fact, an observation by a careful observer,
who takes the necessary précautions to check lus notes of the time
and the various facts of the movement, is worth at least as much as
the observation of a moderately good instrument, and far more than
an observation recorded by an instrument not kept in scrupulously
good order.

The Charleston earthquake of August 31st, 1886, was probably
one of the best, if not the very best-recorded earthquake hitherto,
and yet Major Dutton tells us : " At the time of the earthquake there
was not within the United States a single seismocope or other suitable
instrument of précision on guard and so connected with a clock as to
give an accurate record of the time at which the impulses arrived.
Nevertheless there were several circumstances which gave hope that

a fairly satisfactory resuit might be reached The

fact which gave the highest encouragement was the existence and
successful working of the standard time System, whereby once each
day a signal is telegraphed from an astronomical clock to every
telegraph station in the country at an appointed hour, minute, and
second." And he goes on to show that the habit formed by large
numbers of intelligent men of daily using thèse facilities led to the
amazingly large and accurate set of returns on which his calculations
were based. (See Charleston Earthquake Report, U. S. Geological
Survey, 1890.) In short, the history of the Charleston earthquake
lias taught us two things — the great value of time -observations, and
the possibility of obtaining fairly good time observations in any
eountry where comparison can be made with a standard time. Tins
•can be done in New Zealand, as any telegraph office gets, or can get
New Zealand Mean Time from the Head Office at Wellington ; and I
suppose it would be equally possible in the other colonies.

:.|4 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

By the eourtcsy of Dr. Lemon, Superin tendent of Posts and
Telegraphs. q Bystem bas been in working for ncarly two years in
New Zealand, by which the telegraph officers at any stations at
which an earthquake is felt forwnrd înemoranda of the fact to Dr.
Lemon, who sends them on tome. Thèse memoranda are mode on
forme supplied to them. (See below.) A few private persons hâve
kindly given me assistance by filling up and forvvarding memoranda,
and I shall be happy to send blank forms to any willing to help by
recording the earthquakes that corne within their own observation.

Last year I received in tins way 79 memoranda with notes of 47
shocks, and was able to détermine with tolerable exactness the origin
of one earthquake, and approximately" those of several others. This
year I hâve received 75 so far, but the results are not yet worked out.
I quote thèse facts to show that something may be done without the
aie! of instruments ; but, even if the instruments were obtained and
set up at chosen places, it would be désirable to continue the présent
System for the purpose ot* checking and corroborating the conclusions
arrived at by their means.

I shall conclude by a few brief remarks on one or two of the
headings of the form supplied to the officers of the telegraph
départaient.

1. Time of beginniny of shock. If possible, N.Z. M eau Time.

What we really want to get is the time at each place of the same
phase of the earthquake, and it is generally agreed that the best time
to observe is the beginning of the first maximum. Now that is
generally the moment at which most people begin to notice the
motion, and therefore any one answering the question precisely would
in ail probability give what is wanted. It is important that the time
should be checked by communication with Wellington as soon after
the shock as convenient ; if any considérable time lias elapsed the rate
of the watch or clock by which the time was observée! should be
founcl, and alîowed for.

4. Apparent Direction. People are very often deceived, some-
times unavoidably, as to the direction from which a shock proceeds.
The best indicator generally available would be any object hanging
freely and swinging to and fro (eg. a chandelier or lamp). The
direction of the swing may be seen by fixing the eye upon some point
on the ceiling or wall. Other means of noting direction of shock are
by the overiiow of milk or other liquids in open vessels, by the
rattling of pictures against or along the wall, or by the falling of
crockery, etc., from shelves. By far the best of ail thèse ways is that
given by the swinging of suspended objects, and the beginning of the
swinging should be noted, if possible. The direction taken by falling
objects dépends very much on the nature of the previous support.
Two directions, — one belongïng to the normal, the other to the
transverse vibrations, commonly but not always at right angles, are
often observed, — both should be noted.

The other particulars asked for serve to check and confina the
conclusions formed from the notes of time and direction, and may now

EARTHQUAKES IN NEW ZEALAND.

45

and then give means of guessing at the intensity of the earthquake
as shown by the velocity of the earth-particles, Le. the velocity of
shock. So far, I believe, no estimate lias been formed of what this
velocity may hâve been in any New Zealand earthquake. From
■calculations made, I believe the velocity of shock of the earthquake of
September lsfc, 1888, to hâve been between 12 and 19 feet per
second. Though we cannot realry détermine this clément without
good instruments, we may be able to find limits within which it must
lie.

I trust I hâve succeeded in showing that there is something
worth observing in regard to New Zealand earthquakes, and that to
observe it does not require any spécial training but only ordinary care
and intelligence ; as in everything else a high degree of accuracy
only cornes with practice, which as far as earthquakes are concerned,
most of us would willingly dispense with. Perhaps at a future time
the Editor may hâve space for some account of the results of the work
already done by various individuals in the department of New Zealand
Seismology.

EARTHQUAKE AT

N.Z.

Date

180

[Please answer prccisehj any or ail of thefollowing Questions.

1. Time of beginning of shock.
If possible, N.Z. AI eau Time.

2. Whether clock was verified
by N.Z Mean Time.

3. Nature of shock — slight,
sharp, or scvere.

4. Apparent direction — [e.q. —
S.E.toN.W.jthenN.E.toS.W.l

5. Apparent duration.

G. Effects, \e.fj. — docks stopped;
bells rung ; crockery hroken ;
chimneys thrown doicn.]

7. Remarks, [e.g. previous tre-
mors or rumbling ; spilling of
liquids, with direction of overjioiï ;
landslip in neiyhbourhood ; spécial
instruments nsed in obsercation.

Signature of Observer

Address

Date

246 JOUBNAL OF SCIENCE.

For tlie purpose of accurate observation of earthquakes the
immense advantages of a System of standard time and tlie habit
of referring to that time are sufficiently shown by a comparison of
of tlie respective reports of the Cliarleston Earthqnake of 1886 and of
tlie East Anglian Earthqnake of 1884. Thèse advantages are still
further emphasisei by a référence to a paper in the " Geological
Magazine "of the présent year (On the British Earthquakes of 1889,
by Charles Davison, M. A.) It is true that the areas over winch the
earthquakes investigated wëre felt were so small that very accurate
time-observatiODS woukl hâve been required to détermine the epi-
centrum ; but the nature of the timc-noU'S taken shows generally that
the opportnnities for good time-observations are fewer in Great Britain
than in New Zealand.

ïhe interesting point for us is the careful way in which tlie
epicentrum is determined by the intensity of the shock at various
places — namely, by drawiDg isoseismals (or lines on the map so as to
pass as nearly as possible through places where the intensity was the
saine). As the chief mode of finding the origin of a shock tins is more
likely to be successful in thickly-settled countries ; nevertheless, it
might be useful in thèse colonies to supplément and correct inferences
derived from time-observations.

It is necessary, of course, that the same way of describing degrees
of intensity should be employed by ail observers. Nothing better,
probably, can be suggested than the Itossi-Forel scale used by Mr.
Davison. He gives a translation of it (reprintecl below), and remarks
tliereon : " This scale is very generally aclopted by Italian and Swiss
seismologists, and, though rough and undoubtedly variable to a slight
extent, is well suited to the nature of the évidence at our disposai, the
range of variability of any degree of the scale being probably less than
the limits of firror of ordinary observations."

Kossi-Forel Scale of Intensity.

I Recorded by a single seismograph, or by some seismographs of
the same mode], but not by several seismographs of différent kinds ; the
shock felt by an experienced observer.

II. Recorded by seismographs of différent kinds ; felt by ;i small
number of pensons at rest.

III. Felt by several persons at rest ; strong enough for the
du ration or the direction to be appréciable.

IV. Felt by persons in motion ; disturbance of moveable objects,
doors, Windows, cracking of ceilings.

V. Felt generally by everyone ; disturbance of furniture and beds,
ringing of some bells.

VI. Generally awakening of those asleep ; gênerai ringing of bells,
oscillation of chandeliers, stopping of clocks ; visible disturbance of trees
and shrubs. Some startled persons leave their dwellings.

VII. Overthrow of moveable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of
church bells, gênerai panic, without damage to buildings.

VIIT. Fall of chimneys, cracks in the walls of buildings.
[X. Partial or total destruction of some buildings.
X. Great disasters, ruins, disturbance of strata, tissures in the
earth's crust, rock-falls from mountains.

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE MOAS. 247

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THF MOAS.

BY CAPTAIN F. W. HUTTON, F.G.S., &c.

(Abstract of a paper read to the Canterbury Philosophical Institute, on
lst October, 1891.)

In ail but three of the species of Moa described by Sir R. Owen
the bones of the leg had to be put together conjecturally from
collections sent him at différent times between 1843 and 1872. In
conséquence, the bones hâve, in many instances, been misplaced, and
the skulls hâve also often been attached to the wrong species. Thèse
mistakes were, at the time, unavoidable, but the collections in the
colony are now sufnciently large to enable us to detect most of the
errors ; and this paper is an attempt to reduce the confusion to order,
to clear up the characters of the différent species, and to provide a
basis for further investigation.

The Moas are ail included in one Family — the Dinornithidte —
but are divided into seven gênera and twenty six species. The gênera
are founded chiefly on the skulls, but also hâve characters derived
from the sternum, the pelvis, and the robustness of the leg-bones.
The species are distinguished almost entirely by size, but sometimes
characters derived from the skull can be given. In many cases the
species run one into the other and the lines between them are drawn
so as to give about an equal range in variation to each species. In
Owen's species the metatarsus is taken as the type, except in D.
ingens, where the tibia forms the type.

Genus Dinornis.

Skull depressed, the lambdoidal ridge nattened and the parietals
hardly rising above it ; the breadth at the squamosals greater than
the length from the supra-occipital to the nasals. Beak rather longer
than the head, depressed and obtuse at the tip ; the lower jaw much
curved. A scapulo coracoid without any glenoid cavity.

Sub-genus Dinornis.

Top of the head nattened. Extinct Birds of N.Z., Plate 64.

D. altus, Owen — South Island. Larger and more slender than
D. maximus.

D. maximus, Owen — South Island.

D. excelsus, sp. nov.— North Island. Same size as D. maximus
but more slender.

D. validus, sp. nov. — South Island. Larger and more robust
than D. giganteus.

D. giganteus, Owen — North Island.

D. robustus, Owen — South Island.

D.firmus, sp. nov.— North Island. Same frize as D. robustus but
more slender.

248 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

D. ingens, Owen — North Island.

D. potens, sp. nov. — South Island. Same size as !). ingens but
more robust.

Sub-genus Tylopteryx. ^
Top of tbe head elevated. Extinct Birds of N.Z , Plate 82.
I). pracilis, Owen — North Island.

A torosus, sp. nov. — South Island. Intermediate in size between
/). yracilis and 1). struthioides.

D. strnthioid.es, Owen — Both Islands.

Genus Palapteryx.

Skull depressed ; the breadth of the squamosals less than the
length from the supra-occipital to the nasals. Beak about as long as
the head, more compressed than in Dinornis ; the lower jaw nearly
straight. Extinct Birds of N.Z., pi. 45. A scapulo-eoracoid with a
glenoid cavity and probably a wing.

P. dromioides, Owen— North Island.

1\ plenus, sp. nov. — South Island. Rather larger and stouter
than P. dromioides.

Genus Anomaloptéryx.

Skull very convex, the maxillo-jugals curved. Beak short, slightly
compressed and rounded at the top ; the lower jawT strong and nearly
straight. Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. ii., pi. 52. A small scapulo coracoid.

A. didiformis, Owen. = D. parvus, Owen— Both Islands.

A. antiquus, sp. nov. — Timaru, in older pliocène rocks. Smaller
than .1. didiformis.

Genus Cela.

Skull convex. Beak short, slightly compressed and rounded at
the tip ; the lower jaw nearly straight and rather slighter than in
Anonwlopteryx. Trans. Zool. Soc, vol. xii., pi. 31. No scapulo-
eoracoid.

G. geranoides, Owen — North Island.

G. curtus, Owen. = I). Oweni, Haast— North Island.

Genus Mesopteryx. ^

Skull convex, angled behind. Beak shorter than the head,

moderately curved, much compressed and pointed at the tip; the

lower jaw slender. No scapulo-eoracoid. Extinct Birds of N.Z.,

pi. 78.

M. didinuè, Owen, I). Uuttonii, Owen — Both Islands. A more
roh;;st species than A. didiformis, with wilich it lias bcen coufused.

Genus Svou.Ms.

Skull convex, rounded behind. Beak shorter than the head,
i derately curved, much compressed and pointed at the tip ; lower
jaw strong. Extinct Birds of X.X.. pis. 7G and 73. No scapulo-
eoracoid.

NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

249

S. rheides, Owen — South Island.

S. crassus, Owen — South Island.

S. casuarinus, Owen — Both Islands.

Genus Euryapteryx.

Skull moderately convex. Beak very short and stout, slightly
compressed and rounded at the tip ; the lower jaw moderately curved.
No scapulo-coracoid. Extinct Birds of N.Z., pis. 77 and 72.

E. elephantopus, Owen — South Island.

E. ponderosus, sp. nov. — -South Island. Intermediate in sizj
between E. elephantopus and E. gravis.

E. gravis, Owen — South Island.

E. pygniœus, sp. nov. — South Island. Saialler than E. gravis.

TABLE

Of THE AVERAGE MEASUREMEXT OF THE SPECJES.

In the leg bones the gïrth is taken at the middle of the shaft.
In the pelvis the length is that of the pre-acetabular portion only, the
breadth is taken at the anti-trochanters. The breadth of the sternum
is taken across the body, just below the costal région. In the skull
the length is from the supra-occipital to the nasals, the breadth is
taken at the squamosals, and the height is the vertical from the
basi-temporal.

Meta-
tarsus

Tibia

Fémur

Pel

vis

Ster
num

Skull

60

Xi
60

rfi

rfi

rfi

rfi

rfi

60

rfi

-*3
rfi
.'00

fi

^3

fi

.£«

C

• £n

a

rt

ci

C

S?

03

3

O

03

0

0

Si

P3

2

0
r-J

O)

u

M

M

D. altus

21-5

0-3

D. maximus

20-0

G '5

39-0

8-5

18-5

9'4

D excelsus

20'0

6-0

37-5

D. validus

18-5

6-4

35-0

7 0

16-5

8-0

3-8

47

2 2

D. giganteus

18-0

6-0

35-0

7-0

16-0

7'3

D. robustus

10-0

6-0

31-0

6*5

15-0

? G

10-0

10-0

8-3

3*7

4-2

2-1

D. firmus

16-2

5-2

32-0

6-0

14-8

6-7

8'2

D. ingens

15-0

4-5

28-5

5-2

13-5

G '3

D. potens

14-5

5 3

28-0

o-o

13'5

7-4

8-5

9-5

7-5

3-5

4T

2-1

D. gracilis

13-5

4-5

26-0

5-0

12-4

6'2

3-2

37

1-8

D. torosus

12-5

4-4

247

5-2

12-0

6-0

8-0

8-3

7-1

3-2

3-7

1-8

D. struthioides

11-5

4-0

227

4-6

11 D

5'2

7*7

67

2-9

3-1

1-7

P. dromioides

10-0

3-6

197

4-0

9 -G

3'9

27

2-4

1-3

P. plenus

10-4

3-8

21-0

4-2

9-5

3-G

7*5

G-0

5-2

A. didiformis

6-5

3-0

14-0

3-5

8-0

3-6

57

5-4

3-7

2 '8

2-6

1-7

C. geranoides

5-7

3-0

12-4 2-9

7'3

3-5

5-2

5-2

2-4

1-8

C. curtus

4-8

2'6

10 T 2-6

G-0

3-0

4-0

3-5

2-7

2-4

1-4

M. didinus

6-8

3-0

14-9 3-8

9-1

4'4

G *4

7-6

4'2

27

2-4

1-6

S. rheides

9-3

5-2

21-2 5-3

12-0

G" 3

9-0

11-0

S. crassus

8-5

5-0

19-0 4-8

11-0

5'8

8T

10-1

6-5

3-8

3-4

2-0

S. casuarinus

7 "6

4-3

17T 4-0

9-8

5-0

7-0

9-0

5-2

3-7

3-2

2-0

E. elephantopus

9'5

(>-5

22-4 (5-2

12-3

7-3

7-0

11-7

8-4

2-9

2*8

1-8

E. ponderosus

8-5

o-o

195 5-5

10-5

G-0

G-0

io-o

7 2

2-7

2-7

1-8

E. gravis

7 4

5-0

107 4-2

9-2

5-0

4-5

7-0

G -5

2 4

2-6

1:7

E.pygmreus

o-o

4-0

13-5

5-0

7 '5

4-:,

25O JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS

OF OUR LAND AND FRESH-WATER

MOLLUSCA.

BY H. SUTER, CHRISTCHURCH.

In No. 4 of this Journal, page 151, an article by Dr. Von Jhering
appeared, dealing with the geographical distribution of the fresh-water
mussels. He says that Dr. Giinther imites the fresh-water fishes of
Chile and New Zealand, and that the stndy of the Najadœ confirais
tins fact, as Unio mutabilis, Lea., from New Zealand and Australia
lias ils nearest ally in Unio auratus of Chile. The mère resemblance
of certain mussels from Australasia and Chile could hardly be taken as
a conclusive proof of the former existence of a large continent extending
between Australasia and South America, but hère Dr. von Jhering helps
us out of the difficulty by his most important and interesting discovery
of the mode of hatching the embryos. The South American Najadœ
hatcli their embryos in the internai branchias, while those of Europe and
North America perform it in the external branchire. The embryos of
both are very différent also.

In his last letter to me Dr. von Jhering expressed his opinion that
the Najadœ of Australasia wculd very likely show the same peculiarity
in the mode of hatching the embryos as those of South America, and
asked me to work together with him in this direction, as well as to
ascertain by a large number of measurements of Unio from many parts
of New Zealand, whether we hâve only one or very few species of
Unio with many local varieties, or really 6 to 8 distinct species.

I made a start with the work at the end of July, when Mr.
W. W. Smith, of Ashburton, very kindly sent me several hundred
spécimens of Unio from Albuiy Creek, and a few from Ashburton
Hiver. It was rather late in the season, as Professor Hutton says that
oui* Unio breeds in June, but I was fortunate enough to find a good
number containing embryos, ail of those mussels being of médium size.
On opening the mussels carefully I found the srnall, white and globular
embryos lying, without exception, before the internai branclme, thus
proving that thèse Unios show the same peculiarity in hatching their
embryos, as those of South America. It may be objected that I did
not find the embryos in the internai branchiaî, but only accumulated
before the m. To this I may repty that the mussels had been lying
alive in a box several days before they reached me, and according to an
observation made by Prof. A. Forel, of Morges, Switzerland, the
Najadœ expel their embryos when in want of oxygen. This was
certainly hère the case. Moreover the embryos are widely différent
from thos'; of the Najadœ of the Northern Hémisphère. Anyone who
knowa the latter ones would not think it possible, in looking at the
embryos of oui* Unio under the microscope, that they really were
embryos of Najadœ. It is well known that the embryos of the Najadœ
of tbe Northern Hémisphère attich themselves to the slimy skin of

NOTES ON GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 25 1

fishes for further developnient, and fresh-waters containing no fish are
also devoid of Najadœ. Dr. von Jhering never found embryos of
Najadœ on the skin of South American fishes, and it will be the same
with those of New Zealand. The embryos of the South American and
New Zealand Najadœ possess neither the sharp and angulated rudi-
mentary shell, nor a byssus to fix themselves on the skin of fishes, and
very probably begin their existence in the sand or mud of the water,
after having been expelled from the mother mussel.

Now this is evidently conclusive proof of a former land communi-
cation between New Zealand and South America, as the Najadœ
cannot lire in brackish or sait water, and I think it very likely that
the Najadœ of Australia and Tasmania will show no différence in the
mode of hatching the embryos and the structure of the latter.

Besides the JJnio we hâve some more mollusca very nearly allied
to those of South America, especially of Chile. Carthœa Kiwi, Gray,
belongs to the family of the Orthalicidœ, found in South Amerioa,
which are mostly living on trees. Our shell lias retained this mode of
living, as the leaf-sheaths of the Nikau palm are a favourite hiding
place for it. Amphidoxa, of which 10 species are known in our colony,
and of the Patulidœ the group Stephanoda may be common to Chile
and New Zealand, though the dentition of the American species is not
known. Tornatellina and Realia also are found in both countries.
There is another of our land shells which will perhaps prove to be
closely allied to South American forms, namely, our Dandebardia
neozelanica, Pf., of the Waikato district. I think Pfeiffer vvas quite
wrong in placing this mollusc in the genus Dandebardia, which is
known only from some parts of Europe, Western Asia, and Algeria. I
hâve but litle doubt of its belonging to a South American genus, but
the question can only be decided on examining the animal. I hâve not
been able to obtain it either alive or preserved in spirits, but should be
greatly obliged to anybody who coulcl procure it for me.

Yery little is yet known of the anatomy of the land and fresli-
water shells of most parts of the Southern Hémisphère, though New
Zealand in this regard no doubt takes first rank. But of the land and
and fresh-water mollusca of Tasmania, of a great part of Australia,
Polynesia, and western South America, we know very little beyond the
descriptions of the shells. Judging from the forai of the shells only it
is very hazardous to say which forms are nearly allied, and 011e might
very often be mistaken. I will only mention hère that Mr. Ch. Hedley
of Sydney, on examining the animais of shells from Lord Howe Islancl,
which he and Mr. Brazier considered to belong to the genus Ehytida,
found them to be Patula. I hâve had similar expériences hère in New
Zealand. Hyalina corneo-fidva, Pf., I found to belong to the genus
Amphidoxa, and what I considered to be a Diplomplialus h as proved to
form a peculiar group of Patida.

I hâve satistied myself that the land and fresh-water fauna of the
Southern Hémisphère, with the exception of a few cosmopolitan gênera,
is entirely différent from that of the Northern Hémisphère, much more
so than the conchologists of the latter admit.

252 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

I quite agrée witîi Dr. von Jhering that the study of the fresh-
water fauna will help us to gain a proper knowledge of tlie geographical
distribution of the organisais during the Secondary epoch as well as for
the distribution of land and water during that time.

Let us now sce what relations our land and fresh-water mollusca
show to those of Tasmania. The only Unio from Tasmania, U.
Legrbndi, Pett, seems to be closely allied to our U. aucklandica, Gray,
but nothing is yet known of the mode of hatching the embryos in the
Tasmanian species. The occurrence of Unio in the rivera of the
northern part of Tasmania only, as asserted by Messrs. Pettevd and
Beddome, is very interesting, especially from the geological standpoint.
Of the very greatest importance in the occurrence of fresh-water shells
is the genus Potamopyrgus, which is found in New Zealand and
Tasmania only, though Tryon mentions it from Cuba. P. Fischer in
his "Manuel de Conchologie," gives only New Zealand as the habitat of
Potamopyrgus, and it is also not mentioned in the list of shells from
Cuba, If Tryon's notation is correct it coincides with the gênera
Gundlachia from Tasmania and Microphysa from New Zealand, which
both are also found on the Antilles. This would lead to the supposition
of a former land communication between Tasmania, New Zealand, and
the Antilles !

Potamopyrgus is not found in Australia, and there are only two
possibilités to account for this fact, viz. : either there was once a direct
land communication between New Zealand and Tasmania, or it was by
way of Southern Australia ; in the latter case we must admit that the
genus Potamopyrgus became extinct in Australia, perhaps by being
existent in those parts only which are now submergea1. I am inclined
to stand to the first theory. The présent considérable depth of the
Tasman sea is no obstacle to it, and it is a fact, pointed out by several
conchologists and observed by myself, that our molluscan fauna is most
nearly allied to that of Tasmania. In two papers which appeared in
the " Transactions of the New Zealand Institute," vols. 22 and 23, I
referred to the close relation between Patida subanticdba and P.
mutabUis of New Zealand, and P. anilalba and P. Eastbournensis of
Tasmania. The gênera Rhytida, Patida, Pupa, Bidimus, Planorbis,
Amphipejrtea, Limnœa, Amphibola* etc , are common to both in many
similar forms, and Gundlachia of Tasmania lias no doubt its nearest ally
in Latia of New Zealand. We know very little at présent of the
anatomy of the Tasmanian land and fresh-water shells, except Pota-
mopyrgus, but I a m convinced that when it is known, a much closer
alliance between the molluscan fauna of both countries will be shown
to exist. A further support for my standpoint is shown in the small
number of forms common to southern Australia and New Zealand,
if we ignore the cosmopolitan gênera, which no doubt would be much
larger had our former land communication with Tasmania only been by
way of Australia.

The relationship of our molluscan fauna to that of Australia is, as
just mentioned, not very great. Besides the cosmopolitan gênera there
arc only Rhytida, Paryphanta, Janella, and Amphibola especially to be
mentioned. Of Paryphanta there is only one species (P. atramentaria )

NOTE* ON GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. 253

known inhabiting Victoria, whilst New Zealand has five species. This
genus is limited to New Zealand and Victoria. Hélix Taranahi, IL
reinga, and H. ophelia are North Australian species, said to hâve been
found also in New Zealand, but the first two are not in any of oui*
collections, and the third one has not been compared from both
localities. Judging from the hypothesis of a former land communication
between New Zealand and Australia it is quite possible that the three
species are common to both countries. It would be of the highest
interest and importance to explore the high north of New Zealand for
land and fresh-water shells. The fresh-water shells Bulimus, Planorbis,
Amphipeplea, and Limnœa are found in nearly allied forms in New
Zealand and Australia, and Unio mutabilis, Lea., is also -said to inhabit
both. I hâve not seen any description or figure of this Unio.

A good number of our shells point to a former land communication
with the islands of Lord Howe, Norfolk, Kermadec, New Caledonia,
Polynesia, and Phillipine Islands, but there remains much to be done
before we are able to make décisive conclusions. Mr. Charles Hedley,
of the Australian Muséum, Sydney, has lately published a very good
and interesting paper on the land and fresh-water shells of Lord Howe
Island, in which he points out that the occurrence of the genus
Placostylus speaks eloquently of a récent land communication extending
on one side to New Caledonia and on the other to New Zealand. Our
gênera of Biplommatina and Realia are also mention ed from this island,
and they are also found on Norfolk Island. With the Kermadec
Islands we hâve one species common, Vitrina (Hélicarion ?) ultima,
Houss., which formerly lias been found near Auckland. New Caledonia
has the gênera Ehytida, Placostylus, Janella, Amphïbola, Melanopsis,
Biplommatina, etc., common with New Zealand. Our gênera Vitri-
noidea and Leptopoma (probably Lagochilus), show that land formerly
extended so far north as to the Phillipine Islands and very likely up to
A sia.

A large number of the New Zealand gênera are also distributed
over Polynesia, of which I would only mention Ehytida, Pitys, Torna-
tellina, Bidimus, Amphibola, Biplommatina, Cyclophoriis, Realia, and
Hydrocena as the most important ones.

Of many of our shells we do not know how far they are related to
similar forms of Polynesia, as the anatomy of the latter is unknown at
présent. I am willing to undertake the work as far as time permits, if
only I could get the shells with their animais, either alive or preserved
in diluted methylated spirits, or our " national drinks," — whisky, brandy,
gin, could be used for the same purpose. I shoukl be very thankful to
anybody who would kindly procure me land and fresh-water shells with
the animais from any part of Polynesia, Chile, Australia, Tasinania, and
New Zealand, and I am always ready to give the necessary instructions
for collecting, etc.

This paper is by no means intended to be exhaustive on the
subject, I nierely wish to point out how far the présent knowledge of
our land and fresh-water shells may help "us in geological spéculations
with regard to former extensions of land and water on the Southern
Hémisphère, and to show how much work remains to be done.

254 .JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

P. S — Since 1 wi'Ote my short notes on the geographical relations
of our mollusca, I collected a number of Unio in the River Avon, and
amongst them I fourni six to be in a spawning condition. About one-
third, tlie central part, of the Internai branchise was entirely filled up
with the small white embryos, just in the same way as is the case with
the Xajathf of the Northern Hémisphère. The embryos showed the
same, aspect as those of the Unio from Albury Creek. The external
branchise contained a few scattered embryos ouly.

T said that our Carthcea Kiwi belonged to the family of the
Orthalicidœ. Tn saving so I followed Mr. T. F. Cheeseman, who placed
our shell in tliis family (Trans. N.Z. Inst., XTX., p. 170). Tins is no
doubt a mistake. The other day I studied the dentition of C. Kiwi,
described and figured by Prof. F. W. Hutton in vol. XVI. of the
Transactions, and I hâve corne to the conclusion that it belongs to the
genus fiidimalus, Leach, sub-genus Orthotomium, C. & F., section
Rhabdotus, Albers, of which about five représentatives are found in
Chile. — H. Suter.

REVIEW.

Introductory Class-Book of Botany, for use in New Zealand Schools.
By George M. Thomson, F.L.S., Science Master in the Dunedin High
Schools. (Wellington, Didsbury, 1891.)

Mr. Thomson has produced a book which ought to be of great
use to science teachers. The ordinary text books of Botany are
concernée! in great measure with the plants of the Northern Hémi-
sphère, and without access to large and costly original works it is
often extremely difficult to get any information about the common
native plants. On the other hand so many Northern forms are now
thoroughly acclimatised that a book dealing only with natives would
be of limitée! application. Mr. Thomson has wisely selected his types
partly from the native, partly from the introduced flora of the Colony,
and his book is therefore one which should be useful both in districts
like Dunedin, where native plants are still abundant, and in those
like Christchurch, in which only introduced forms are to be had.

The descriptions are clear and accurate, and are illustrated by
three plates and by no fewer than 227 woodeuts interspersed in the
text. The only fault one can find in them is one for which the
author is not responsible — they are often very badly printed ; the
drawing, however, is excellent, and the numerous sections of fiowers
and of pistils, figures of anthers, floral diagrams, etc , are just such as
are recruired to aid the student who uses the book as it ought to
be used -—with the plants before him and with pocket-knife and
magnifying glass ready to hand.

A great deal of useful and suggestive information is given
incidentally about such branches of the subjeot as insect-fertilisation,

RETIEW. 255

the " sleep " of plants, modes of climbing, etc., etc. This department
might hâve been extended with advantage, and one would hâve been
glad to see something about the gênerai physiology of plants — the
nature of their food and the method by winch it is taken in and
distributed. It is always worth taking some trouble to impress upon
students the fact that the plant is a living, feeding, breathing,
organism, and not a mère lifeless " spécimen."

If I may venture to criticise the methods of so experienced a
teacher I should like to say that Mr. Thomson appears to me to err
on the side of undue elaborateness of terminology, and espocially in
introducing technical ternis before the necessity for them is apparent
to the pupil. For instance, a beginner who has only examined the
buttercup cannot be expected to see the necessit}^ for applying the
term aposejxdou* to the calyx, but by the time he has got to the Sweet
Pea the need for distinctive terms forces itself upon him. Some of
the terms of the systematic botanist are quite unsuitable and even
mischievous to beginners. What, for instance, can be mère absurd
than to say that the cohésion of the sepals of buttercup is aposepalous,
or in plain English that they do not cohere at ail.

But it would be manifestly unfair to blâme Mr. Thomson for not
having reformed the terminology of botanical science in a school text
book ; he has produced a book which will sustain his réputation and
which ought to hâve the effect of diffusing the study of botany — the
best of science-subjects for the purposes of the average school.

T. J. P.

GENERAL NOTES.

"On Moa Bones." — In the number of the "Journal of Science,"
just received, there are two matters mentioned, on which a few words
may be of use to you and others interested in scientific matters.

Mr. W. W. Smith speaks of the "ancient dog which was the
companion of the moa-hunters " in the Middle Islancl. The fact of
dogs' bones being found in company with those of the moa is, to me,
proof positive that the birds were killed by Maoris, as the Maoris seem
ail to agrée in stating that the dog was brought hère by their ancestors
froin Hawaiki, which I feel certain was Central America, and not
Polynesia, though possibly some of the eastermost Polynesian islands
may hâve formed a stage on the journey, as they are ail evidently
peopled from the same source, and ail agrée in describing it as to the
eastward. The native names of places in America are ail Polynesian,
and hâve meanings in Maori and its kindred dialects, with only such
changes of spelling or sound as actually occur in one or other of those
dialects ; while some of the names actually occur in New Zealand.
Some old neighbours of mine, who had lived many years in Australia,
often spoke of it as a curions fact, that the Negritos there had never
domesticated the dog ; for though thèse animais were found there in a

256 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

wild state, thcy were thc only placental mammals, except tlic ubiquitous
rat and mouse, and had unquestionably been introduced by the
Papuans, wlio visited the northern portion of tlie countiy. There is
therefore no reason to suppose that the Negritos, wliom the Maoris
found in New Zealand, and who hâve left such strong racial traces
hère, knew anything about the dog, far less possessed and tamed them.
As regards the extinction of the moa, I do not feel sure that they are
extinct, even now, in remote localities, as the Maoris believe in their
existence, and it seems perfectlv certain that tlie last of them hereabouts
were killed witb firearnis, about the time of the introduction of
Christianity, as the natives assert. I hâve myself found moa-bones
which had unquestionably been eut in two, and had the flesh chopped
off them with keen steel weapons. and during my early résidence in the
colony, I met many Maoris who seemed to hâve perfect knowledge of
the bird, and said they had often eaten its flesh. Probably it held its
ground far longer in this wooded région than in the open country on
the eastern sides of both islands : and this lias led to the differing views
re*>pecting it, entertained by enquirers in the two localities. — H. C. Field.

M ig ration of Eels. — Mr. S. Percy Smith contributes some
notes as to the migrations of eels, which I can corroborate. Thèse fish
corne up from the sea in large slioals, about the months of October and
November, when about two inches long and as thick as a straw, and
work their way up the tributary streams to very high levels, large
numlers living in swamps. They surmount the waterfalls by wriggling
upwards among the wet moss beside the falls ; and the Maoris assert
that each fish takes hold of the tail of the one in front of him with his
mouth, so that they ail hel|> each other to ascend. This much is
certain. If the head of the column is dislodged, the whole fall down ;
and tlie Maoris take advantage of this to catch large quantities of thèse
" tuna-riki " (little eels), by holding flax baskets below a column and
then detaching it. They then dry them for wiuter food, just as they do
the whitebait, and the little eyeless fish of the volcanic springs at
the head of the Poto-aire lake. I know streams, tributaires of the
Mangawhero and Wangaehu rivera, which swarm with eels that hâve
surmounted falls 200 feet to 300 feet high. Again on the west side of
the Wauganui river, near the heads, there was formerly a large swamp,
the surplus water of which trickled into the river over a flat of sand
several chains in width. In the autumn of 185G or thereabouts, a
gentleman who had been to the pi lot station, and was returning late in
the evening, found a great number of large eels wriggling their way
across the sand from the swamp to the river, and brought a string of
them, as beavy as lie could carry, back to town with him. For some
nights afterwards, several of us visited the spot, and secured a large
number. 'lia; migration lasted for about a week. The Maoris are
perfectly well aware that the large eels migrate to the sea with the tiret
autumn raina, and catch great numbers of them with traps at that
season. The rain, no doubt, causes the water of the streams and lakes
to rise, and so incivases the pressure as to wara the fish to migrate.
It was probably in this way that the eels of the Chatham Island lagoon,

GENERAL NOTKS. 257

mentioned by Mr. Smith, knew th;it their way to the sea was open,
The doubt as to the migration of eels, raised by Mr. Dingan in 1875,
was founded on an entire mistake. He spoke of the Virginia lake hère
as having no communication with the sea, and yet as being one of the
best fishing grounds hereabouts for eels. The actual facts are as
follows. There are several lakes near hère in which there are no eels ;
and any Maori would, at once, tell you tins was because those lakes do
not communicate with the sea. The Virginia lake was one of thèse.
Up to 1855 or 1856, there were no eels there. Just then, however,
the main road northward from Wanganui was constrticted ; aud to
enable it to be carried along the southern margin of the lake, a trench
was dug through the lowest adjacent ground, and the water was lowerecl
3 feet or so. In the following spring eels ascended to the lake in
considérable numbers, though they had to surmount a fall of about
20 feet in height. Several years later this trench was deepened, in
order to enable a supply of water for a flourmill in town to be clrawn
from the lake in dry weather. After this, more eels found their way
up to the lake, and this continued till the lake was utilised as a source
of water supply for the town about the year 1873, when the outlet was
closed. Mr. Dingan was a new-comer hère at that time ; and it was no
doubt through his having no knowledge of the facts which I hâve just
stated, that lie, in October, 1875, arrivée! at the erroneous conclusion
respecting the eels in the lake. It was soon found that the lake could
not be relied on as a source of water supply, as it drains no appréciable
area of land ; and therefore pipes were laid to bring into it water from
another larger lake two miles distant. This last lake is connected with
the sea and contains eels ; and every autumn, some of the large ones,
endeavouring to migrate seawards, corne through the pipes into the
Virginia lake. We know this for certain, because some of them stick
fast in the pipes and cause a stoppage. This happened twice last
autumn to my own knowledge. The présence of eels in the Virginia
lake is no mystery ; but they certainly are not bred there, as there are
no small ones. Only a few people residing close by take the trouble to
fish there, and they do not get above two or three in an evening (two is
the most I hâve ever kuown taken by one person in an evening), but
they are ail of such a size as to be worth catching. I hâve fished in
the lake repeatedly during the last two seasons, and occasionally before
that, but hâve never known an eei under 21b weight to be caught there
since the Westmere water was introduced, and the average size gets
larger year by year. Early in this year I saw Mr. Dingan hook one,
which he judged to be 7R> or 81b in weight, and which broke his tackle.

There is another circumstance connected with this lake which may
be worth mentioning. Fifteen or twenty years ago, English perch were
put into several of our lakes by our Acclimatisation Society. In some
of thèse lakes they hâve bred so rapidly that it is not unusual for an
angler to take from fifty to sixty in a few hours, but lie seldom gets a
fish of o ver ffi weight. There is one such lake about two miles from
the Virginia, and sirnilarly situated in every way except that it is far
shallower. The largest perch that I hâve ever caught there weighed
only 1-Jïb, and the largest that I hâve heard of as taken from it was

258 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

only about '2|ft). In othcr lakes none at ail hâve yefc been caught,
though possibly more experienced anglers raight succeed in getting
some. In the Virginia lake there seem to be but few, but they are
very large. From two to five are the niost that any one catches in an
afternoon ; but out of several dozen which I took there last season, the
smallest weighed lit) 7oz., and the lar^cst more than 3Jîb. One
gentleman told me that he saw a number of young fry last summer,
which lie thought were perch from their being in Company with large
ones and from the redness of their fins, but no one else has noticed any.
Several ycars ago the neighbouring lake which I hâve mentioned, got
so low during a dry summer, that the fisli in it were dying ; and the
secietary of oui* Acclimatisation Society netted ail that he could and
took them to Virginia lake ; and latterly several of us hâve made a
pi*actice of transferring oui* smaller fish from the one lake to the other ;
yet still the rule holds good that the perch increase ràpidly in the one
lake, and apparently not at ail in the other. Possibly the eels in the
Virginia lake may hâve something to do with it ; but they do not stop
the increase in other lakes. Some blâme the shags, but thèse are far
more numerous in other lakes where the fish increase notwithstanding.
The only thing in which the Virginia lake di fiers from the others is
that, many years ago, two Murray river cod weré jmt into it, and one
of thes3 was certainly still alive last summer, as it was seen, and had
grown to an immense size. It is hard to suppose however, that
one or two fish could keep down the increase in a lake more than
twenty acres in extent. Trout and carp were also put into the lake
about the same time as the perch. Some of the latter are seen
occasionally, and also what appear to be the former rise in considérable
numbers of an evening ; but no one has caught any of either, though
we hâve tried to do so repeatedly. There are numbers of small fish in
the lake which hâve ail the appearance of smelt, but which I believe to
be small trout ; as on one occasion I caught a trout in a pond in
Hampshire, which had lost its red spots and become quite silvery. —
H. C. FlELD.

New Otago Plants. — In the Reports of the Dunedin Nataralists'
Field Club, for the years 1879 to 1881, there were printed very
complète lists of the native phanerogams and ferns growing in the
neighbourhood of Dunedin. The lists contain some errors, which do
not call for spécial notice hère, my object being simply to record the
names and localities of a number of additional species found near
Dunedin. Several of them hâve been described for the first time since
thèse reports were made up. Other plants no doubt remain to be
diseovered in the district, but it is unlikely that any future list of
discoveries in the district will reach such length as the présent one.

The niost interesting novely to the Dunedin district is Trichomanes
'■ >ler)8oi, Hook. f. This délicate fern grows in the valley of Morrison's
Creek, one of the western feeders of the Water of Leith. It has been
very plentiful at one time in the spots where it still grows. but the
clearing ofl* of the bnsh has made the habitat too dry and open for it to

GENERAL NOTES. 259

thrive under the altered conditions. Probably, however, it occurs in
other localities in Dunedin, and some of thèse may well be more
favourable to its survival in the district.

Ranunculus tenuicaulis, Cheesenian- -Flagstaff Hill.

Coprosma nibra, Pétrie — -Town Bel t.

Cbprosma areolata, Cheeseman — Town Belt.

Coprosma rigida, Cheeseman — Saddle Hill ; Opoho.

Olearia fragrantissima, Pétrie — Vauxhall ; Saddle Hill.

Cehnisia linearis, Armstrong — Maungatua (2900 ft).

Gnaplmlium Traversii, Hôok. f - Town Bclt; Flagstafï; Signal IfilL

Helichrysum Purdiei, Pétrie — Vauxhall and Kothesay.

Forstera tenella, Hook. f. — Flagstaff and Maungatua.

Phyllachne Haastii, Berggren — Maungatua. I am indebted to T.
Kirk, Esq., F.L S., for detecting tïiis species.

Dracophyllum prostratum, Kirk — Maungatua

Gratiola nana, Bentham — The Fiat ; Strath Taieri road.

Glossostigma submersum, Pétrie — Lake Waihola.

Plantago uniflora, Hook. f. var. — Tomahawk Lagoon.

Atripïex Buchanani, Kirk — Gathered near Dunedin by the ReV.
Mr. North, as I hear from T. Kirk, Esq., F.L. S.

Corysanthes rotundifolia, Hook. f. — Waitati Valley.

Pterostylis mutica, Br. — Ou tram and Lee Stream.

Thelymitra pidcliella, Hook. f. — Signal Hill (rare).

Potamogœton pectinatus, L. — Lake Waihola.

Zannichellia palustris, L. — Waikouaiti Lagoon.

Lepilœna biloculata, Kirk — Taieii Plain (ditches)

Zostera nana, Roth — Otago Harbour

Astélia grandis, Hook. f. — Town Bclt.

Juncus lamprocarpus, Ehr — Sawyer's Bay.

Gaimardia setacea, Hook. f. — Maungatua.

Centrolepis pallida, Bentham — Maungatua.

Schœnus concinnus, Hook f. — Waikouaiti Beach.

Cladium glomeratum, Br. — Signal Hill.

Oreobolus strictus, Berggren — •Flagstaff Hill.

Uncinia cœspitosa, Boott — Pine Hill (Bush).

Uncinia rupestris, Raoul — Town Belt.

Uncinia rubra, Pétrie — Signal Hill.

Uncinia rigida, Pétrie — Waitati Valley.

Uncinia riparia. Br. — Town Belt.

Carex colensoi, Boott — Maungatua.

Carex testacea, Solander — Environs of Dunedin.

Carex Buchanani, Berggren — Lake Waihola.

Deyeuxia Billardieri, Kunth — Lawyer's Head.

Danthonia pilosa, Br. — Signal Hill.

Deschampsia tenella, Pétrie — Morrison's Creek.

Poa pusiUa, Berggren — Signal Hill.

Poa Kirkii, Buchanan — Maungatua.

Frstuta scoparia, Hook. f. — Brighton.

Triodia australis, Pétrie — Maungatua.

Trichonianes colensoi, Hook. f. — Morrison's Creek.

— D. Pétri f.

2ÔO JOURNAL OF SCIKNCF.

The Disappearance of Spear-Grass* — It is well known that the
large species of Spear-grass (Aciphylla) are rapidly disappearing in ail
parts of Otago, and it is very probable that this once coniraon and
characteristic élément in the native végétation of the district will soon
become as rare as it was fonnerly abundant. The causes of this change
in the prevailing végétation of lai <j;e trafts of country seem to rnerit
some considération. It might l>e thought that plants naturally so
admirably defended against the attacks of herbivorous animais would
be practically exempt from their ravages Ail kinds of stock eat the
foliage readily enough. but the larger animais are for the most part
prevented from indulging any liking for it, by the habit of growth of
the plants and the dense array of sharp points that meet their lips and
tongue. Rabbits however are not so easily repelled, for owing to the
small size of their heads they can attack single leanets while keeping
clear of those standing near them. Accordingly spear-grass plants are
eaten by them more or less at ail seasons, but especially du ring the
winter and in elevated situations where snow lies on the grouncl for
considérable periods. Tn such stations the plants suffer very seriously
from their attacks, and in many extensive districts hâve been already
ail but exterminated. As a rule the îeaves are eaten right back to the
ground and the plants die off at once. In lower situations the rabbits
are not so troublesome, but even there the disappearance of the plants,
though less rapid and complète, is going on sleadily and surely. 1 do
not know to what âge the life of a spear-grass plant may extend, but it
can hardly exceed tifteen or twenty years. In that time we may
suppose that ail the well-established plants will die off from old âge.
Seeds are produced as a rule in great abundance, but in spite of this
the number of young plants that may be observed growing up is very
limited, and in ground that is well stocked and closely cropped hardly
any are to be seen. On the other hand if a patch of land is securely
fenced against cattle and sheep great numbers of plants of ail âges are
to be found. This may be very well seen in the somewhat extensive
railway enclosures in the valley of Manuka Creek on the Lawrence
branch railway line. Within this enclosure plants of Aciphylla
squarrosa of ail âges abound, and easily h old their own against ail
competitors in the struggle for existence. Ontside the railway fences
on the other hand plants of any âge are extremely rare, even on land
that lias never been touche 1 by cultivation, and seedlings are hardly to
be met with anywhere. Rabbits are not very plentiful in this district,
and the disappearance of the spear-grass cannot in any way be attributed
to their interférence. Everything goes to shew that as the old plants
dio off, the young ones are not suffered to grow up to take their place.
This is most likely due to the fact that cattle and sheep readily eat up
the tender and less pungent, rigid, an 1 compact Ieaves of the young
plants. Thero cannot, I think, be any doubt that stock readily eat the
foliage when thev can attack it without danger from the prickles, and
this they can easily do when the plants are in the seedling state. The
rapid disappearance of spear-grass therefore, seems due in the lowlands
to cattle and sheep eating up the tender seedlings, and in the higher
;iii«l bleaker situations to the attacks of rabbits, more especially in the
winter season. In rabbit infested country of considérable élévation, the

GENERAL NOTES. 2ÔI

larger Aciphyllas at any rate are doomed to speedy extermination. In
the closely stocked lowlands their extinction though less rapid seems
equally certain. And it is chieny in stations intermediate in élévation
between thèse and where the country is not very closely stocked, that
thèse interesting and curious plants are likely to survive as a permanent
but scarce élément in the native végétation. — D. Pétrie.

Note on Leucopogon Fraseri, A. Cunn. — In May of the présent
year, I gathered in the neighbourhood of Kelso, a number of spécimens
of Leucopogon Fraseri, in which the inflorescence présents a peculiarity
vhich I hâve not seen noticed in any account of the plant. The flowers
instead of being solitary occur in pairs that are sessile on the ends of
the short peduncles. In thèse spécimens a solitary flower on each
peduncle is quite exceptional. Each flower of the pair is sometimes of
the same size as the other, but more commonly one is larger and botter
developed than the other, which is however by no means rudimentary.

I do not know whether it is generally known that the flowers of
this species are well formée! in the autumn, and the buds undergo but
slight further growth before opening in spring. The stamens and pistil
are wrapped up in a very dense coating of long hairs that grow
outwards and downwards from the upper half of the corolla. It is
évident that one of the chief functions of tins outgrowth of the corolla
is to shelter the reproductive organs contained in the bud, which are
exposed to ail the frosts of the sharp winter of this district. It has
been supposed that the sole use of the hairy coating of the corolla was
to minister to cross fertilisation by the agency of insects, but it is more
likely that its primary use is to serve for the safe nursing of the bud
during the winter. This view is in no way inconsistent with its
further use in promoting cross fertilisation ; the double use, indeed,
affords only another illustration of the fact that an organ originally
fitted to serve one purpose, is often turned to account for another of
secondary, but still of important utility to the organism.

In Pentachondra pumila, Br., a similar coating of hairs invests the
interior of the corolla, and it would be interesting to know, if in this
case also, it was primarily designed to form a protection for the bud
during the winter season. I hâve not as yet had opportunity to
examine the winter state of this plant, but I hope soon to be able to
throw some light on the question.

In the " Handbcok of the New Zealand Flora," the spécifie name
of the présent species of Leucopogon is printed Frazerl, but in
Cunningham's " Prœcursor " the name is printed Fraseri. I do not
know on what grounds the spelling Frazeri, was adopted by Sir Joseph
Hooker. — D. Pétrie.

History of the Moas. — From a popular article under the above
title, written by Professor Hutton. for the "YVeekly Press," we ex tract
the following concluding portion : —

2Ô2 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Tliroughout the pliocène period the Moas flourished greatly; but
in the pleistocene they must, in the South Tsland, hâve died in large
numbers, for how else could such immense quantities of bones hâve got
together in the peat-beds at Glenmark and at Hamilton in Central
Otago. It lias often been suggested that flocks of birds, attempting to
escape from lires, rushed into the swamps and perished. But wheu we
remember that thèse Moas died thousands of years ago, long before
there were any human inhabitants to light tires, it will be seen that
tins su nuise is quite out of the question. Only two hypothèses appear
to be possible to account for the facts. Either the birds walked into the
swamp and were drowned or else their dead boclies were washed in.
The tirst hypothesis is probably the explanation of the deposit at Te
Aute near Napier, because many of the leg bones were found upright in
fcheir natural position. But at Glenmark and at Hamilton the bones
were lying in ail directions, as often upside down as in any other
position, and the peat-beds were only a few feet thick, and filled with
bones up to the very top. We cannot, therefore, suppose that thèse
Moas were swamped, and there is évidence in both of thèse cases to
shew that the dead bodies of birds were washed in by fioods. We find
corrobora tive évidence of this in the alluvial plains of Central Otago,
for thèse always contain numerous bones wherever a stream enters
them from the hills.

But how are we to account for the number of dead birds washed
down from the hills? There are two remarkable facts connected with
thèse bone deposits at Hamilton and Glenmark. One is the very large
proportion of bones of young birds from one-half to three-quarters grown ;
and the other is the absence of moa egg shell. Thèse two facts seem to
show that the birds perished in the autumn or the winter, when the
birds of the year were not full grown, and when the females did not
contain any hardened eggs. Also, it is évident that dead moas could
not be washed into swamps under the présent climatic conditions, and
the explanation of the puzzle must lie in the fact that in pleistocene
times, when thèse bone deposits were formed, the climate was very
différent from what it is now. At that time the eccentricity of the
earth's orbit was very great, and when winter in the Southern Hémi-
sphère happened in aphelion, long cold winters were followed by short
and very hot summers. It seems probable, therefore, that the early
winter snows killed large numbers of moas and other birds on the hills,
that their bodies were floated down by summer fioods and avalanches
caused by the melting snow, and that they were deposited in hollows at
the foot of the hills. As the pleistocene period passed way the climate
got more equable and the surviving moas once more increased and
multiplied, nntil they were ultimately exterminated by the hand of
mai).

AU are now agreed that the moas were exterminated by the
ancestors of the Maoris, and the only question upon wliich opinion is
still divided is How Ion*; was this ar'O? The case seems to me to stand
llins. In the North Island there are s^veral names of places in which
the word moa is incorporated, but in the great number of Maori taies
;iikI | ocius wliich hâve been collected by Europeans the allusions to the

GENERAL NOTES. 263

bird are very slight and obscure, generally, indeed, fabulous. There is
also one very ancient poeni called " The Lament of Ikaherengatu," in
whicli the phrase " Ka ngaro i te ngaro a te moa " (Lost as the moa is
lost) occurs, which certainly shows that the bird was not in existence
when the poera was composed. The so called traditions of its habits
appear to be, in large part at least, late déductions from thèse words
and phrases, and we must conclude that, in the North Island, the moa
was exterminated by the Maoris soon after their arrivai in New
Zealand ; that is not less than 400 or 500 years ago.

In the South Island there are no names of places containing the
word moa ; but hère remains hâve been found — either skeletons lying
on the surface or bones with skin and ligaments still attached— which
give the impression that the birds were living hère not more than ten
or twelve years ago. Now the bones which are said to hâve strewn the
surface so abundantly when the first settlers came, had ail disappeared
in fifteen years ; so that it is plain either some change in the sirrrounding
conditions caused the bones to decay, or that none of the bones which
were so abundant in 1861, were more than fifteen years old. But as
we cannot believe that moas were abundant in Otago in 1846, we must
fall back on the opinion that the tires lighted by the early settlers
to clear the scrub so altered the conditions uncler which the bones had
been preserved that they soon decayed, in which case we cannot say how
long the bones may hâve been lying there. It is something the sa me
with those bones which still hâve clried skin and ligaments attached.
They are so fresh that, unless the birds lived a few years ago, they must
hâve been preserved under specially favourable circumstances ; and
there are reasons for thinking that the small district of Central Otago,
in which alone thèse remains hâve been found, is one specially favourable
for preserving animal remains. If this be so we cannot say for how
many years they may hâve been preserved, perhaps for centuries, and
as we hâve every reason to believe, upon the authority of the Rev. J.
W. Stack, that the ancestors of the Ngai Tahu, who hâve inhabited the
South Island for the last 200 or 250 years, never had any personal
knowledge of the birds, we must allow that the moa has been extinct
for at least that time. On the other hand, it is quite certain that the
moa was exterminated by the Maoris, and the Maoris are nol supposée!
to hâve inhabited the South Island for more than 500 years, so that the
time of extinction must fall between thèse dates. It seems improbable
that the Ngatimamoe, the last remnant of whom inhabited the West
Coast sounds a few years ago, were moa-himters. The moa-hunters of
the South Island were not cannibals, and as Te-rapuwai and Waitaha,
the tribes who precedsd the Ngatimamoe, are saicl to hâve been peaceful
and to hâve u covered the land like ants," it lends support to the Maori
tradition that it was they who exterminated the moa and rnade the
shell heaps on the beach. If this be so the moas were exterminated in
the South Island about 300 or 400 years ago ; that is, about a hundred
years later than in the North Tsland.

2 64 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

REVIEW.

Illustrations of British Fungi, by M. C. Cooke, M.A., LL.D., 8
volumes, Williams and Norgate, London. The Handbook of British
Fungi, Second Edition, Parts i., ii., and iii., by M. C. Cooke, M.A.,
LL.D., Williams and Norgate.

Tins fine work, "Illustrations of British Fungi," has occupied
f ully ten years in publication, and forms the first part of an Atlas to
Dr. Cooke's revised édition of the " Handbook of British Fungi." It
was originally intended to include représentatives of ail the Hymen-
omycetous Fungi found in the British Isles, but the issue is for the
présent arrested with the completion of the Agaricini, owing to the
death of many subscribers, and the indisposition of others to continue
their support to the end.

The work contains 1,200 coloured plates, representing 1,400
species and numerous varieties, many of which are figured for the
first time; it is unquestionably the finest séries of drawings of
Agaricini that has been published in any part of the world. The
plates are beau tif ully drawn and not over-coloured, the original
drawings having in nearly every instance been made and coloured for
the printer by the author, while the printing, of the later portion of
the -work more particularly, is nearly ail that could be desired by the
most exacting.

Sowerby's coloured figures of British Fungis, commenced in
1797, contained only 165 species of Agaricini, while the larger and
more récent work of Krombholz only gives 230 : the présent work,
which is restricted to the species found in the British Isles, comprises
fully one-fourth of ail known species : it is therefore not surprising to
fincl that the work has received a large measure of support in British
colonies and foreign countries.

When the putrescible nature of most of the Agaricini is con-
sidérée!, and the paucity of opportunities for close observation of
man}T species is taken into account, it will appear to be no cause for
wonder that différences of opinion exist as to the spécifie validity of
many forms, and the right identification of others. The author lias,
however, succeeded in reducing errors of this kind to a minimum,
and the wonder is, not that a few errors hâve crept into the work,
but that they are net vastly more numerous.

rIhc descriptive portion of the work forms parts 1, 2, and 3, of
second édition of the " Handbook of British Fungi; " the descriptions
although brief are remarkably lucid and easily understood. In some
instances, however, it is matter for regret that synonyme are not
more freely given.

While the completion of the Agaricini affords good ground for
congratulation, it is certainly cause for regret that the whole of the
gill-bearing fungi of the British Isles are not represented : Boletus,
r<>li/j,oriix, Uydnum% AwricuUiria, Clavaria, Tremella, are not nearly as

REVIEW. 265

well known as those included in the " Illustrations," altliough in
some respects they are more interesting ; it is hoped tbat the four
additional volumes required to illustrate thèse gênera may be issued
at some future date.

The Agaricini of New Zealand hâve received but little attention;
about 30 species are described in the " Handbook of N.Z. Flora," and
although this number lias been trebled of late years, it can scarcely
amount to more than a small fraction of the tjtal, even if we admit
that this group is less developed with us than in the British Isîands.
The reason for this doubtless lies in their putrescible nature, the
difficulty of preserving them, and the difficulty attending identification
in the almost total absence of works of référence. For this reason it
is hoped that a çopy of this grand work may speedily be found on the
shelves of the libraries of the various societies affiliated with the New
Zealand Tnstitute. No worthier application of their funds could
possibly be made.

T. K.

THE NEW AUSTRALIEN MARSUPIAL-LTKE
MOLE— NOTORYCTES TYPHLOPS.

On February 3rd, Professor E. C. Stirling, of Adelaide University,
read a paper on this remarkable animal before the Royal Society of
South Australia, The following particulars taken from this paper
are extracted from a notice hy Mr. P. L. Sclater, which appeared in
Nature of September lOtli : —

" It appears that the first spécimen was captured by Mr. Wm.
Ooulthard, manager of the Frew Priver Station and other northern
runs belonging to the Willowie Pastoral Company. Attracted by
some peculiar tracks, on reaching his camp one evening on the Finke
River, while traversing the Idracoura Station with cattle, lie followed
them up, and found the animal lying under a tussock of spinifex or
jiorcupine grass (Triodia irritans). Though lie is an old bush hand,
with ail the watchful alertness and powers of observation usually
acquired by those who live lives of difficulty and danger, this was the
first and only spécimen of the animal lie ever saw. As previously
stated, this found its way to the Muséum through the agency of
Messrs. Benham and Molineux. The three received subsequently
shortly afterwards, as well as the last lot recently secured by Mr.
Bishop during our journey through the country, were also found on
the Idracoura Station. This is a large cattle-run comprising several
Lundred square miles of country in the southern part of the Northern
Territory of South Australia, which lies immediately to the west of
the telegraph line between the Charlotte Waters and Alice Springs
Stations. The great dry water-course of the Finke River, which nuis
from uorth-west to south-east, bounds the run for some eighty miles
on the north and north-east. Its distance from Adelaide is, roughly

266 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Bpeoking, a thousaud miles. Flats and sandhills of red sand, more or
less well covered with spinifex and acacias constitute a large portion
of the country, and tbe rainfall is inconsiderable. Curiously enough,
ail the spécimens of Notoryctes hitkerto received by me hâve been
fourni witliin a circumscribed area, four miles from the Idracoura
llead Station, winch is situated on the Finke watercourse itself, and
almost invaiïably amongst the sandhills. I hâve it, however, on very
fair authority, that the animal has been scen on the Undoolya Station,
which lies immediately south of the McDonnell Ranges, and that one
also was found drowned after heavy rain at Tempe Downs, a station
situated about 120 miles west-south-west of Alice Springs. Thèse
points will sufficiently define its range, so far as is known at présent.
They do not appear to be very numerous. Very few of the white
men in the district hâve seen it, even though constantly travelling ;
and not many of the natives whom I came across recognised the well-
exccuted drawing T carried with me. It must be remembered,
however, that I clid not pass through the exact spot which so far
appears to be its focus of distribution. Nor did a very considérable
rcward, which I offered, cause any spécimens to be forthcoming
between the first lot received, over two years ago, and that recently
secured during my trans-continental trip. With a few exceptions,
the animais hâve been captured by the aborigïnals, who, with their
phénoménal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are
caught. For tins reason they can onl}r be found with certainty after
rain, which sets the surface of the sand, and enables it to retain
tracks that would immediately be obliterated when it is dry and
loose. Nor are they found except during warm weather, so that the
short period of semi-tropical summer rains appears to be the f avourable
périod fer their capture. For this suitable combination of wet and
AYfii'intb, Mr. Bishop had to wait three months before lie was able to
get them, and in ail cases they were found during the da}r-time.
Perpétuai burrowing seems to be the characteristic feature of its life.
Both Mr. Bishop and Mr. Benham, who hâve seen the animal in its
native state, report that, emerging from the sand, it travels on the
surface for a few feet at a slowish pace, with a peculiar sinuous
motion, the belly much flattened against the grouncl, while it rests on
the outsides of its fore-paws, which are thus doublée! under it. It
leaves behind it a peculiar sinuous triple track, the outer impressions,
more or less interrupted, being causecl by the feet, and the central
continuons line by the tail, which seems to be pressed down in the
rear. Constantly on the look-out for its tracks, I was often deceived
by those of numerous lizards, which are somewhat wniilar in thèse
respects.

" It enters the sand obliquely, and travels under ground either
for a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of
more than two or three inches, for whilst underground its progress
can often be detected by a slight cracking or moving of the surface
over its position. In penetrating the soil, free nse as a borer is made
of tlie conical snout with its horny protecting shiehl, and the powerful
Bcoop-like claws (fore) are also early brought into play. As it
disappears from sigkt, the hind-limbs, as well, are used to throw the

THE NEW AUSTRALTAN MAUSUPIAL-LIKE MOLE. 267

sand backwards, which falls iu again behind it as it goes, so tbat 110
permanent tunnel is left to mark its course. Again emergiug, at
some distance, it travels for a few feet upon the surface, and then
descends as before. T could hear nothing of its making, or occupying
at any time, permanent burrows. Doth my informants laid great
stress on the phénoménal rapidity with which it can burrow, as
observed in both a state of nature and captivity."

To thèse notes of Prof. Stirling I may add the remark that tins
is certainly one of the most extraordinary discoveries in zoology made
of late years. Notoryctes typhlops, as shown by Prof. Stirling's full
and elaborate description and figures, is unquestionably a new and
perfectly isolated form of Marsupial life, and musfc he referred to a
new section of the order Marsupialia. W'e must ail congratulate
Prof. Stirling on his success in bringing before the world such an
important novelty.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES.

OTAGO 1NSTITUTE.

Dunedin, 13th October, 1891. — Professor Gibbons, Président, in
the chair.

New members. — Messrs. R. IT. Waleoi and I). Harris Hàstings.

CORRESPONDENCE.

A letter was read from the Lands départaient intimating that the
necessary steps had been taken to set apart Resolution Island as a place
for preserving native fauna and flora ; but tbat no such steps could now
be taken regarding Little Barrier Island, as it was not Crown land.

Mr. A. Morton, secretary of the Australasian Association of
Science, wrote stating that it is absolutely necessary that the titles
of ail papers to be read at the meeting at Hobart should be sent in by
the beginning of next month, as the programme is to be printed early
in December.

Paper. — (1) "The History of the Greenstone," by F. R. Chapman.
In his introductory remarks, Mr. Chapman said that ail présent were
no doubt familiar with greenstone, which was the material of many of
the implements and favourite ornaments of the Maori race, and which
was now worked up by lapidaries, and was to be seen in every jeweller's
shop in the colony. Tins stone was specially interesting in thaï it was
found only in two or three places in the world. A similar minerai was
found somewhere in Central Asia ; in the great range between China
and Tartary, and it was used in China for ornaments, and to some
extent for implements, and had found its way at very remote times into
EurDpe. What he had to describe was the greenstone of the Maoris.
There had been some corivspondence on this subject between Professor
Ulrich and a leading specialist on the subject iu Germany, and he (Mv.

2 6S JOURNAL OF SCIKNVK.

Chapman) had been asked by Profest-or Ulrich to assist, and had
entered into correspondence with Maoris in botli islands, and had
eollected a considérable amount of information, which had been to soine
extent published in Germany. The paper he now presented set forth
the information he had gathered on the subject du ring the last 18 or 10
y cars. True greenstone was found at only onc place in the colony.
The Teremakau and Arahura ri vers on the west coast of this island,
and the beach between them coraprised the whole extent of country
where the true greenstone was found in this colony. There was
another place at Milford Sound where there was a kind of greenstone
largely used by the Maoris, but it was sait! to be a chemically différent
stone from the true greenstone. However, supposing this was really
greenstone, the localities where this minerai could be obtained were
very restricted. ftecently it was said it had been found somewhere in
America, and that some kind was found in New Caledonia, or on one
of the Pacific islands, but practically, Tartary and New Zealand were
the only spots where it was known. Mr. Chapman then, with the aid
of a map and numerous spécimens of greenstone in différent stages of
manufacture, gave a very large amount of information respecting this
rare and beautiful stone. The old Maori roads from the east to the
west coast, along the Waitaki and Clutha ri vers, and over the Haast
Pass to the greenstone country were indicated, and the methods of
manufacture by cutting the stone with sandstone or other stone, and
sand and water, were explained, and so, ;dso, was the drilling process,
which must hâve demanded positively mai vellous patience. Many of
the spécimens were the property of Mr. J. White, of Anderson's Bay,
otliers belonged to Mr. Chapman, the Maori drill was lent from Dr.
Hocken's collection of Maori curios, and a beautiful " mère," which was
given by Titokowaru to the Native Minister as an emblem of sub-
mission, was lent by Sir H. Stout. As showing the quantity of
greenstone that musc hâve been brought from the West Coast, he
said that it was no exaggeration to say that not less than 1,000
greenstone articles, had, to his knowledge, been found within 20 miles
of Dunedin. Mr. Chapman also made référence to the Maori wars,
some of them wars of extermination, such as Te Rauparaha's, which had
been urged for the possession of the highly-valued greenstone.

Dr. Hocken said it was most satisfactoiy to know that at last they
had the history of the greenstone written, as he was sure it deserved to
I;*', because it was not only of interest to people hère but to scientists in
Europe. Mr. Chapman had given enormous labour and research to the
subject, and had pretty well exhausted it. He was, however, inclined
to think that thefavourite gieenstones amongst the Maoris were not the
beautiful spécimens, but the very dark ones, because they were the
hardest and the most suitable for drill points and implements.

ANNUAL MEETING.

Dunedin, November lOtb, 1801.— Prof. V. B. de M. Gibbons,
Président, in the chair.

New member. — Mr. J. Dove Dunn.

MEETINGS OF SOCÏETIES. 269

Papers. — (1) " Note on the nest and habits oî Arbanitis lluttom"
by P. Goyen, F.L.S. The tube which this spider inhabits is branched.
The entrance to the main tube is quite uncovered, but the brandi
which makes a more or less acute angle with the main tube extends
to the surface of the ground, and is there covered by a rude sort of
hinged lid, which so closely resembles the surrounding surface as to
be indistinguishable from it. The spider is too heavy and sluggish to
escape from its enemies or catch its prey in the open. It therefore
lies in the branch of its tube, whence it can attack its prey in flank or
rear ; or, if an enemy too powerful for it should enter its tube, it can
make its escape to the surface. The author exhibited spécimens of
the tubes.

(2) "Description of a new species of Marjriusa, with notes on its
habits," by P. Goyen, F.L.S. This spider is found along the coast of
Otago on cliffs and rock, just above, at, or just below high-water
mark. Thèse rocks are frequented by two or three species of Aies
which the spider resembles in colour and mode of progression. " So
striking is this resemblance that I for some time mistook it for a ny.
The resemblance extends to the habit of running forward quickty,
stopping, and rubbing its pulpi, just as a fly rubs its fore-legs, until
it is within striking distance of its prey, when it jumps upon it with
unerring aim." The author considers the case exceedingly interesting
as affording in a class of animais in which it lias not been before
observed a striking example of aggressive mimicry.

(3) " On the genus Aptornis with more especial référence to
Aptornis defossor, Owen," by A. Hamilton. The author gave a
historical account of the various finds of bones of Aptorni*, from those
sent home by the Rev. W. Williams to Dr. Buckland in 1842, to the
présent time. The last and most important find of thèse bones was
made in 1889, in some limestone caves in Southland by Mr. VV. S.
Mitchell of Lake Manapouri Station. Six or seven individual birds
are represented, and in four cases the skeletons can be reconstructed
without much doubt as to the bones having belonged to individual
birds. Most important of ail, the bones are not mixed with those of
any other species. Descriptions of the most important bones are
given in the paper, and the author exhibited an almost complète
skeleton of this species.

(4) "On Moa gïzzard-stones," by A. Hamilton. This paper
describes the occurrence of numbers of heaps of gizzard-stones, in
some cases along with small quantities of fine sand, on the peat-
mosses of Swampy Hill, near Dunedin, at an élévation of over 2,000
feet. In two cases the heaps were found in a completely isolated
position among the peat, the stones being held more or less together
by interlaced masses of comminuted vegetable matter of a pale
yellow colour, quite distinct from the hue of the enclosing peat.
Along with much matter which could not be distinguishecl, tins
vegetable material was found to contain great numbers of seeds of
Pentachondra ar.d Coprosma. The weights of stones in the two
masses were respectively 4J and 61b ; the largest separate pebble
being a little over ljoz. The nearest locality from which quartz

2/0 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

pebbles of the kind found, can be obtained, is at the outcrop of the
schist formation, a distance of about 4 miles The samples of
peat were found to hâve a distinctly acid reaction, and to this cause is
attributed the almost complète absence of moa bones, the only portion
found being the decalcified proximal end of a metatarsal bone. A
similar deposit of gizzard-stones, with absence of bones, occurs near
Mt. Excelsior, on the Mararoa station. Mr. F. R. Chapman has
found similar collections of gizzard-stones and sand at Maungatua, a
mountain range about 3,000 feet high, some 20 miles to the South-
west of Dunedin.

(•">) " On some Maori bone peudants from Otago," by A. Hamilton.

(6) "On the cleistogamic flowers of Mdicope simplex" by Geo.
M. Thomson, F.L S. In the ordinary form of this spacies the flowers
open when ready for fertilisation, the 4 petals spreading laterally,
and exhibiting 8 stamens in two whorls, of which those opposite the
petals are longer, or rather stand at a higher élévation than do the
sepaline stamens. In the 4 carpels which are normally produced, the
styles are united by their whole length. When botanising on Pigeon
Island, Lake Wanaka, two years ago, the author observed that in the
numerous plants of Mdicope simplex growing there, the fruit seemed
to bc developed directly from the flower buds. On examination and
comparison of spirit-specimens, it was found that thèse flowers were
fcruly cleistogamic. The petals did not open in any case; the sepaline
stamens were présent but with greatly reduced filaments, while those
of the petaline whorl were represented by rudiments only. The
carpels were ail free and their styles greatly shortened so as
to remain inside the unopened flowers. No cause was assigned for
the prevalence of this cleistogamic form.

(7) "Notes on sea-fishes," by Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S. A
number of years ago, the late Mr. W. Arthur entered into communi-
cation with various fishermen, harbour masters, and others, with the
object of inducing them to keep records of the fish taken by them.
On his death his papers were handed over to the author, who
extended their range by getting the Marine Department of the
Government to issue forms to the various lighthouse keepers round
the coast. Duplicates of thèse forms which had now been accumu-
lating for some years were furnished to the author, and the présent
paper représente a summary of thèse observations. While manv
returns had been kept in a very perfunctory manner, others had been
carefully filled up. The présent paper contained a few points of value
in regard to the range of our common sea fish, their food, time of
spawning, etc., etc.

(8) " Notes on some New Zealand Amphipoda and Isopoda," by
Charles Chilton, M. A.

(9) " On the metallurgy of silver," by D. Wilkinson, F.R.S.M.

(10) Prof essor Parker exhibited and made remarks upon a
species of tiranchellion, a leech with extern al gills belonging to the
family Khyncobdellidîe, and occurring as an external parasite on the
common skate (Raja na#u>ta). A single spécimen had been found

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES, 27 1

some years previously ; but on the présent occasion a skate, dissected
in the biological laboratory, présentée! a colony of thirty or forty of
the parasites on an area of three or four inches in circumference.
They varied in length from about \ in. to 1| in., and were ail so
firmly attached by the posterior sucker that on their rem o val the
fish's skin presented a number of smooth circulai* convex areas. The
smaller spécimens, treated with Flemming's chrom osm. acetic
solution, flattened under a compressor, and mounted entire, make
very beautiful microscopic objects. The only species of this in-
teresting genus mentioned in the ordinary works of référence is 11.
torpedinis of Europe, a parasite on the torpédo. If the présent form
turns out to be new it might be called B. rajœ. Prof essor Parker
also mentioned that lie had found at Port Chalmers a single spécimen
of the polychœtous worm (Dujardinia), interesting from the length of
its cirri.

(11) Prof essor Parker called attention to a very beautiful and
accurate model in plaster of paris of the neighbourhood of Dunedin,
made to scale for the Otago Muséum by Mr. A Hamilton, Registrar
of the University, and expressed the opinion that the teaching of
geography in the primary schools of the colony would be vastly
improved if similar models could be obtained and employed, instead
of compelling the children, as was too frequently the case, to learn
lists of names of natural features, regarding which they could form
no accurate opinion.

The annual report was then read and adopted. The following is
a brief ex tract : —

Six meetings were held during the session. At thèse 1 7 papers
were read, and one lecture on the Early History of New Zealand was
delivered. Six new members hâve been added to the roll. The
library has received a number of additions. The ordinary revenue
was «£204 Ils. 0d., (including a balance of £97 9s. 0d.), while the
expenditure was £91 17s. 5d., leaving a balance in hand of £1 12 13s.
7d. There is also on fixed deposit a sum of £286 13s. 5d.

The following were elected office-bearers for the next }rear: — ■
Président: C. W. Adams, Esq., CE.; Vice-Présidents: Prof. Gibbons,
M. A., and Dr. Hocken ; Hon. Sec. : A. Hamilton, Esq.; Hon. Treas. :
E. Melland, Esq.; Auditor: D. Brent, M.A.; Council : Prof. Parker,
F.R.S., Prof. Scott, M.D., Pvev. H. Belcher, M.A., LL.D., Messrs. F.
R. Chapman, Alexr. Purdie, M.A.; Geo. M. Thomson, F.L.S., and D.
Wilkinson, F.R.S.M.

The retiring président then delivered an address on " The rise
and development of the science of Political Economy."

WELLINGTON PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Wellington, 29th July, 1891.— E. Tregear, Esq, Président, in the
chair.

Papers. — (1) "On the Necessity for the Establishment of an
Expert Agricultural Department in New Zealand," by W. M. Maskell,

272 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

F.R.M.S. (Abstract). Mr. Maskell said that, because there was a
gentleman in the Cabinet with the title of Minister of Agriculture, and
limier him a De[>artmcnt of Lands and a Department of Stock, most
j)eoj)le in the colouy were under the impression that there is in New
Zealand a Department of Agriculture properly established. This
however was not the case, the titles mentioned being practically (except
perhaps for Stock) misnomers. In point of fact there is not at présent
in the country any officiai and responsible machinery for investigating
the various enemies to cultivation and for informing and advising
cultivators thereon. Agriculture, lie might say in passing, was not
necessarily farming : there are large numbers of persons engaged in,
or interested in, gardening, tree-growing, fruit-growing, floriculture,
cultivation of ail sorts, who are not farmers, and this should be borne
in minci, as will be mentioned presently. Now, on the appearance of a
new enemy to the cultivator, of a new pest amongst crops or trees or
gardens, or even of a new friend or a new method of procédure, what
lias to be done by the existing machinery? There is nobody in the
colony placed in an officiai and responsible position, and the so-called
Minister for Agriculture lias to go outside his department and obtain
amateur advice. Take, for instance, the " Tauranga sheep disease " as
it is called : professons of différent collèges are sent for to investigate it,
and that is not a collège professor's duty. Take the Hessian fly : an
officiai in the Post Office who happens to be an excellent entomologist,
is sent up to attend toit. Take the so-called " blights " : recourse is
had to an officer of the university ; and when a friendly beetle cornes to
help men to fight thèse "blights," again the university officer is appealed
to. Tn such cases as the appearance of the horse bot-fly in Canterbury
and Auckland, or the fear of some fungus-pest injurious to apple
growers, there is 110 officiai responsible person to whom the colonists
can go for advice or help. It is not a question of ability or of désire to
be useful. Ail the persons just named hâve no doubt always been
glad to assist and would always be ready to give the Government and
the country their very best services : and undoubtedly the advice
tendered to them has been thoroughly honest and well-considered. But
it is essentially and necessarily amateur and irresponsible, and what is
wanted is the stamp of an expert officiai who can comraand rather than
deserve public confidence. It is no disparagement of the gentlemen
who hâve been hitherto called in as advisers to say that an expert
department would be far more satisfactory and produce better results.

In other countries people hâve realised this fact, and hâve established
expert Agricultural Departments. In the United States there is the
Central Office at Washington, and besides that nearly every state of the
Union has its own. In England there is the "Board of Agriculture with
a ])iofessional staff. In Australia, the three colonies of New South
Wales, Victoria and South Australia hâve expert Departments : so
has India. The speaker exhibited to the meeting spécimens of the
periodical publications of some of thèse: the "Insect Life" of the
Washington Office, the " Agricultural Gazette " of the Sydney Board,
the "Indian Muséum Notes" of Calcutta, the Reports of the State
Boards of New York, California, Nebraska, Iowa, and others. One
thifig was spccially noticeable about ail thèse (which were issued at

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 273

short intervais, sorue monthly) : and that was that they were specially
adapted to the circumstances of the country they appeared in. Now in
New Zealand \ve hâve nothing, or almost nothing of the kind. The
Government issued lately a little pamphlet about the Phylloxéra and
other vine-diseases : it is good enough as far as it goes, but it is nothing
more than a compilation from facts known in other countries and does
not specially apply to New Zealand.

Two things ought to be very earnestly borne in mind in considering
this question. One (noticed in an earlier part of the speech) is that the
department required must deal not only with farinera but with ail sorts
of persons interested in ail sorts of cultivation : it results from this that
a mère " practical f armer " would be entiivly insufficient to direct it.
Independently of the gênerai disinclination of the " practical fariner "
to look an inch beyond his nose, a much wider and deeper knowledge is
necessary than he is at ail likely to possess. Secondly the Department
must deal with every kind of friend or foe to cultivation : animal foes
such as insects are not always more destructive than vegetable foes such
as the various fungi or noxious weeds : consequently the Department, if
not the officer in charge of it, must be two-sided. In New South
Wales, and in Victoria-, and in the United States, the various Boards
include separate staffs of entomologists and botanists. It is of course
difficult for any Minister in New Zealand to pluck up courage enough
to tell Parliament that two salaried officers are wanted. But he might
at least start with one, and the speaker in a letter sent lately to the
Minister of Lands strongly urged that in England an officer could be
obtained compétent to at least make a good start with a Department,
and sufficiently expert in économie entomology and in économie botany.
The suggestion made in the letter was that, say, the Royal Agricultm-al
Collège at Cirencester should be applied to, or Professor Wallace of
the Edinburgh University, to recommend such an officer.

Complaints are sometimes made that the subjects treated of at
meetings of this Society are not sufficiently practical. Well, hère at
least is a practical question demanding a practical solution. Whether
the solution would be given by the Government and the parliament
might nor might not be likely : at ail events it was good to put on
record the opinions just expressed, and the speaker trusted, that if his
views were considered to be correct, the Society would endorse the 111 by
passing the resolution which he proposed to move presently.

The Hon. Mr. H. Pharazyn saicl that he quite agreed with Mr.
Maskell that it was of the greatest importance that such an expert
department should be established, and he would be glad to do ail in his
power to support such a movement. It had been found that a depart-
ment of this kind had worked well in other countries and had proved
of the greatest benetit to those engaged in agricultural pursuits.

Mr. Geo. Beetham also agreed with the author's views on this
subject ; he believed that if properly represented, the Government and
the parliament would favourably consider such a proposition. He com-
plimented Mr. Maskell on the valuable work he had done in this
b ranch of science, and said that the thanks of the Society were due to
liim for having brought this important matter forward.

274 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Mr. Carlile thouglit th.it tho formera would highly approve of the
establishment of such a useful department, and he thought the various
incorporated societies would assist in urging its formation.

ïhe Président agreed with ail that had been said. He now called
on Mr. Maskell to read his résolution.

Résolution — "That in the opinion of tins Society the establishment
of a well equipped expert Agricultural Department is of urgent necessity
in New Zealand."

Mr. Harding, in seeonding the résolution, said that if only in the
interests of economy, Mr. Maskell's proposition deserved ail support.

Tho resolution was cariied, and a copy of i< was ordered to be sent
to the Hon. Minister of Lands.

(2) "On Animal Intelligence," by VV \V. Carlile, M. A. (Abstract.)
The importance of the study had corne to be recognised only of late
years In the one fact of its having drawn attention to the great
principle of heredity, especially of the heredity of acquired faculty, it
had revolutionised the current mode of thought not only in psychology
but also in ethics, polities and history. Dr. Kuno Fischer in his work
on Francis Bacon of Verulam had contrasted the " Anglo-Gallic En-
lightenment " with the German, pointing ont to what an extent the
prévalent mode of thought in the formel- from Bacon to Voltaire and
Iîousseau, and from thèse to Mill and Macaulay, was anti-historical.
Of tins the incurable breach with history in the French Révolution was
the practical outeome. If he had traced the course of English
empiiical philosophy farther down, to the period subséquent to the
discovery of natural sélection, then he would hâve found that it had
learnt to think historically, that it had converged with the stream of
German thought fiowing in upon us through the channel of Carlyle's
writings. If Hegel or Carlyle affirmed that the whole past was with
us still in the depths of our présent, the medern evelutionist said the
same and gave the scientific grounds of his beliet. He cited some
passages in point from Mr. Bagshot's "Physics and Politics." Principle
of heredity might in any case hâve been recognised, but Animal
Intelligence was for it the " Prauogativa instans," in regard to which it
could not be overlooked. Pibot mentioned case of small dog couvulsed
with terror at scent of old pièce of wolf's skin. The terrifying associa-
tions were drawn not from the animal's own consciousness but from
that of dead and buried ancestors. We were becoming familial" with
the notion of hereditary memory. Science might soon hâve to grasp
the idea of hereditary identity, and would then recognise that in a sensé
Plato was right about the pre-existenee of the soûl.

So much as to the importance of the study : as to its fascinations
we had ail felt it, but on that very account had reckoned it trivial.
Only of late the attempt had been made from tlie scientific point of
view to collect authentic information abc ut the display of incipient
reason in animais. Such an attempt was embodied in Professor
Komaues' book on Animal Intelligente.

MEETINGS OF SGCIETIES. 2^5

Any of us who lived in the country would occasionally hâve
instances analogous to those cited by Professor Romanes brouglit under
notice, possibly supplementary or correcting them. A few had corne
under Lis own. He cited instances of hunted kangaroos making for
water as it was then able to drown the dogs ; of horses on property at
Wanstead in Hawkes Bay, du ring the drought felling cabbage trees ; of
wild dogs feeding their pups by gorging theraselves with flesh, then
vomiting it out on arrivai at home ; and of dog slipping his collar, with
his modus operandi described.

He alluded to Bain's vievv of the '; link of feeling and action," set
forth in the " Emotions and the.Will." It was that a young child or
animal escaped a painful sensation or attained a pleasurable one in the
first instance purely by chance. Its spontaneous activity prompted it
to innumerable movements in ail directions. Some such movements
were attended with relief from pain or augmented pleasures, and only
after many répétitions perhaps came under the control of sélective
volition. It was a case of " firing innumerable shots to hit one bird."
Had we not in thèse early manifestations of reason in ourselves an
analogy to the opération of reason in the living universe 1 Nature tries
innumerable variations before the one useful variation is hit on and
survives. We ourselves had ail done the sa me. Might we not then
catch a glimpse, behind the apparently fortuitous processes of nature, of
the opérations of a mind analogous to our own.

Sir James Hector said the author had succeeded in making a very
abstract and difficult point in philosophy quite interesting. He agreed
with the side he took in the much discussed question of whether animal
intelligence differed from our own in kind or only in degree, and
whether the production of the highest intellect was the resuit of
progressive and accumulated development. The story of the horses
gnawing clown the cabbage trees to obtain moisture is parallel with the
well known habit of the mules in Mexico kicking the great cactus trees
for the same purpose.

Mr. Hulke remarked that the reasoning of animais differed from
that of man only in degree ; he mentioned several facts relating to
insects and animais to il lustra te what he meant.

Mr. Hudson gave an account of experiments made by Sir J.
Lubbock with ants, which appeared to indicate that insects when placed
out of their ordinary sphère of action exhibited very limited reasoning
powers.

Mr. R. C. Hardi ng said that the vulgar discrimination between
instinct and reason might not be so unscientific as some of the speakers
had assumed. It appeared to him to be based on a différence which
was not one of degree. Instinct be regard ed as the intuitive perception
of interior qualities as distinguished from the merely exterior properties
made known to us by the tive sensés. The instincts might therefore be
taken as supplementary sensés, on a différent plane from the five
ordinarily recognised. Between the perception by means of a sensé and
the intellectual resuit of rational effort there was an évident distinction,
-and a parallel distinction could bè traced between instinct and reason.

276 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE,

The terror of a horse at the odor of an unknown wikl beast iuight be
accounted for by inherited memory ; but it seemed more reasonable to
attribute it to the immédiate j>erception of a maleficent quality.
Protective instincts like thia were found throughout nature, but were
so rudimentary in raan, that physicallv, as compared with beasts and
insects, lie was the inferior animal. The nearer man approximated to
the lower animais in his mode of Life and intellectual development, the
more powerful thèse instincts seemed to be ; but as his rational capacity
increased, they were ignored and seemed gradually to disappear. Yet
they were by no means to be despised, as where they existed, they
enabled him to arrive by a short eut at a point which could otherwise
only be attained by great and laborions mental effort. Sometimés a
child was found to possess almost in infancy faculties which showed liow
great the undeveloped possibilités of mankind were in tins direction.
There were well-attested cases of children knowing neither letters nor
figures, — one a negro boy — who had a natural perception of qualities
and relations of numbers, and a skili in dealing with them, exceeding
that of trained mathematicians. The mental quality that could at once
recognise a piime of almost any number of tigures at sight, and the
power of analysis which could résolve any divisible number into its
factors, were not to be attained by the severest training ; but this
gift was actually possessed by a calculating child. Young Mozart,
in early infancy, possessed a similar gras]) of the qualities of sound — a
p:actical as well as a theoretical perception, for he was able to play any
instrument at sighfc. Hereditary memory would scarcely account for
phenomena like thèse, which were interesting as showing how im-
measurably human instinct, in its higher forms, transcends that of the
animal création. Regarding Sir John Lubbock's celebrated experiments
with ants, careful and systematic as they were, and completely as they
failed to show anything like intelligent or concerted action, he did not
think their résulta warranted us in rejecting the accumulated testimony
of past âges on the subject.

The Président said that Mr. Carlile's illustration of heredity
îecalled to his mind that m any years before when riding a very quiet
liorse the animal suddenly leapt ;»side and began trembling in great fear
on seeing a pièce of rata, vine coiled up and lying in the road exactly as
a snake would be coiled. This horse was two générations from an
Australian progenitor. It had been said that instinct is "inherited
memory" — and although that might seem to explain such facts as the
orderly movements and almost automatically-regulated actions of ants
and bées, it by no means explained any unusual cleverness or excep-
tional genius. For instance, the musical genius of Mozart could hardly
be expected to be produced ont of thin air, and yet it could certainly
not be called "inherited." Reason had little to explain to us whv
Mozart as a child was a finished musician, and analogies drawn from
one order of beings should be nsed with great caution if applièd to
explain difficulties in regard to otlier kinds of créatures. Experiments
had recently been made which show that when insects are subjected to
the différent banda cf light thrown down by the spectroscope they dîsplay
différent modes of action, lying dormant nnder one colour, growing
intensely excited under another, and so on. It is possible that they

MEETINGS OF SOC1ETIES. 2/7

live in quite another world thah ours, so far as impression produced by
the sensés is concernée! ; that pheiibmeria whicli appear beautiful or
terrifying to us make no impression upon thein, and that knowledgo
which to us is a sealed book may be to them as an open scroll. The
sensé of touch in human beings is absolutely nuli and void compared
with that sensé in the ant which almosfe certainly communicates iutelli-
gibly with its fellows by means of contacting antennœ, while the sensé
of smell in civilized man is almost as feeble as it is useless. It is quite
conceivable that other créatures hâve other sensés the effects of which
are no more to be appreciated by us than the tinta of a landscape or a
flower would be by a blind man.

Mr. Carlile, in reply, said lie found lie had not been wrong in his
anticipation that his instances of animal intelligence would be capped
by others drawn from the recollections of other gentlemen présent. He
coulcl not see how Mr. Harding's view that what appeared to be results
of hereditary memory could square with the facts. The qualities of a
thing were simply the impressions it made on the sensés, its colour,
smell, and so on, and to say that the horror which a New Zealand
bred horse felt for what looked like a snake was possibly not owing to
hereditary memory to the horse's perceptions of some — to us occult
quality — conveyed no meaning to his mind. The theory of an inverse
ratio between instinct and reason, started, he thought, by Sir W.
Hamilton, accorded with some of the facts of natural history, but was
far from being true universally. He cited from Wallace's " Malav
Archipelago," what seemed an instance in point of its truth. A baby
orang-outang which they captured, belonging as it did to the anthro-
pomorphous apes, showed ail the characteristics of the human baby as
regarded its utter helplessness, the resuit being that its captors nursed
and tended it "and became greatly attached to it. The young of
monkeys lower down in the intellectual scale were mucli more capable
of taking care of themselves at an eirly âge.

Wellington, 9th September, 1891— W. L. Travers Esq., F.L.S., (in
absence of the Président) in the chair.

New Member.— Mr. E. T. Turnbull.

Papers. — (1) " Fnstances of Instinct in Insects," by G. V. Hu-ison,
F.E.S. (Abstract.) Tins paper was an account of a few recently
observed instincts in insects, chiefly borrowed from the " Entomologists'
Monthly Magazine." The author attributed the remarkable faculties
«xhibited to the action of natural sélection and inheri tance, and
■endeavoured to explain how bénéficiai variations in structure and
instinct might be eventually perfected by thèse two forces. In the
concluding portion of the paper the différences between reason and
instinct were tiras dealt with.

During the discussion which followed the reading of Mr. Carlile's
paper, Mr. Harding contrasted instinct and reason, and showed how, in
many respects, the former attribute was superior to the latter. If it is
admitted that instinct is the inherited expérience of the race whilst
reason is that of the individual only, then the explanation of the

2/8 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

superiority of instinct is obvious — instinct is the result of continued
sélections from the expériences of countless générations, whilst reason is
only the expérience acquired during the brief lifetime of a single
intlividual. It is not surprising then that instinct so vastly transcends
the intellectual power of the animal that exhibits it. I think that we
inay look for the development of human instinct when most of our
individual expérience or knowledge lias beconie hereditary. At présent
only the capacity for acquiring knowledge is inherited araong human
beings, but, judging from the facts above considered, knowledge itself
must in time be inherited also. So far from supposing then that we
hâve lost our instincts through civilisation, I do not think that they
hâve yet been evolved. Now nearly ail our results hâve to be attained
b}r long training and laborious mental calculations, but in the future
we mav hope to arrive at far greater results by almost unconscious
instinctive processes.

Mr. Phillips said lie disagreed with the author as regards the
hereditary instinct of animais ; lie believed that animais and man
derived their intelligence in constructive ability in a similar manner
from a " Common Vital Force," a subject on which lie had written a
paper before the Society a short time ago. He did not agrée to place
everything to évolution. A spider's web is superior to anything that
man can construct, — there is a force in nature given to man or insccts
which is equal and not necessarily hereditary.

Mr. Maskell said he was obliged to dissont from the conclusions of
the paper. Whatever the reality might be of the three or four facts
given by Mr. Hudson, they seenied entirely insufflaient to form a basis
for a theory of instinct such as was proposed. For example, in the
case of the falling insect mentioned. Mr. Hudson adduced tins as an
instance clearly pointing to acquired faculties, the resuit of long séries
of minute variations and progress. But the case was of extrême
weakness unless Mr. Hudson was prepared to assert, of his own
knowledge, that the remote aneestor of this moth, the very first of the
race, did not do precisely the saine thing. Assuming (what did not
seem to be proved) that the moth which fell on this occasion did so
from fright : assuming that a moth could see far enough to detcct an
approaching enemy (also not proved), how could anyone say that the
very first created moth of the species did not do the same thing under
similar conditions ? And if it did, where would the progressive
inherited variation leading to the instinct of the moth now referred to
corne in ] The foundation of théories tending to sap and destroy the
first principles of human belief, on such vague and unproved assertions
as those of the paper, is mischievous in the extrême, and the speaker
regretted that so many young students of the présent day were apt to
give way to tlie temptation of indulging in them.

Sir Wrtlter Bu] 1er said he was somewhat disappointed with Mr.
Hudson's paper, because its ambitions title had led him to expect much
more than it gave in the way of original research. He could not
<( nceive of a more fruitful subject than the one seleeted by this author ;
but instead of the large array of facts from his own expérience one

MEETINGS OF SOCTET1ES. 279

inight hâve expccted, Mr. Hudson had recorded only two instances of
remarkable instinct in New Zealand insects, the rest being qnoted froui
English authors. The paper appeaved to him a little crude, but he felt
sure that Mr. Hudson was on the right track. It seemed to him
impossible to reject this theory of hereditary instinct with such évidences
before us. Take, for example, the hexagonal cell of the corn mon honey
bee. What the first bee may hâve done it was impossible of course to
know, but within the memory of man this bee had constructed its cell
on exactly the same model, as the resuit of hereditary instinct.

Sir James Hector said that the paper was evidently an attempt to
meet statements, attacking the theory of évolution, that were raade at
previous meetings. He lield there was nothing about first causes in
that theory, and that it was a powerful aid to the working naturalist in
unravelling and unfolding the various steps in the scheme of création.
He recommended members to read some interestins; anecdotes bearing
on the question of modification of instincts into individual reasoning
powers, which are related in " Good Words " by Dr. Gunther. He
referred especially to the nesting habits, in confinement, of the magpie
and house sparrow, which showed that inherited memory or instinct,
though very potent, could be overruled by individual effort.

Mr. Harding called attention to what he had said at the last
meeting, on Mr. Carliie's paper. He did not think we could hâve both
reason and instinct. He related how a beaver in captivity showed
instinct but very little reason. There was a communal instinct which
enabled savages to construct bridges and such things without the aid of
architects or surveyors. Mr. Hudson's paper, as a clue to the mystery
of nature, was worthless ; but it was a good working theory for a
naturalist. It was a mistake to put forward such statements as Mr.
Hudson had done as if they were actual facts.

Mr. Travers described how the gull carried the shell-fish to a
height and then dropped it, when it broke and disclosed the fish inside
which it fed upon. This was probably the resuit of an accident in the
first instance, followed by reason in repeating the action. The bird
could not acquire this from any created habit. Mr. Wall ace seemed
inclined to abandon the idea of instinct. Dr. Gunther's example of the
magpie is remarkable. He did not think Mr. Hudson intended, as Mr.
Maskell inferred, to dogmatise. The paper is valuable and contains
most interesting facts. We must enquire into ail facts of this kind if
we wish to add to our knowledge in natural history.

Sir Walter Buller said he wished to supplément Mr. Travers's
account of this instinct displayed by Larus domirdcanus in breaking
shell-fish. During his travels, he had, thousands of times, watched the
opérations described by Mr. Travers, the bird ascending obliquely to a
certain height in the air, then dropping the shell, and coming down to
feast on the contents. But what had spécial ly struck him was this :
the sagacious bird never dropped the shell on soft sand or ooze, but
always selected the hard portion of the beach where the impact of the
falling shell would produce thedesired resuit. Tint fact alone exhibited

280 JOURNAL <>F SC1KNCE.

a certain amount ef intelligence on the pirt of lli s bird. But there
was tins curions fact also. Tlie young seagull never resorted to tins
mode of break in g shells. It took from two to three years for tlie bird
to attain its full liverv of black and white plumage; it was easy,
therefore, to distinguish tlie young bird in its spotted grey dress, and lie
could not remember having once scen it lise in tlie manner described.
Tliis would seem to tell ngainst tlie theory of liereditary instinct,
because the habit was evidently an acquired one, and tlie resuit of
imitations.

Mr. Hudson sa:d, in reply, that lie was verv much gratitied at the
interest the Society had taken in his paper. Ile was sorry however
that the title had been misleading. He merely oftered it as a supplément
to Mr. Carlile's paper, and did not prétend that it was in any way
exhaustive. With référence to Mr. Phillips's remarks on the so-
called "vital force," he was not awaro that the existence of any such
power liad been demonstrated. In connection with Mr. Maskell's
remarks lie wished to direct attention to tlie extensive modifications
which niiin had produced in many domestic productions by exercising
sélections in certain directions. Natural sélection having such a much
wider scope and so much more time to act in must hâve prodfcced far
greater résulta than man's sélection. With regard to the term "natural
sélection," he was aware that there were certain objections to its use,
bot it was shorter than the more accurate one "-surviv.il of the tittest."
In stating that the instincts of insects were inherited in the same
manner as their structure and colouring lie was only following the
almost universal opinion of entomologiste. In fact it appeared to him
impossible to explain the phenomena of the insect world in any other
way. How, for example, would it benetit an insect to inherit a
resemblance to some inanimate object unless it also inherited the
instinct to assume the peculiar position necessary to complète the
déception 1 He could not understand Mr. Harding's statement as to
the superioiïty of the savage over the civilised man in works of
engineering skill. In conclusion lie was surprised at objections being
raised to the idea that knowledge would gradually become an inherited
attribute in the human race. How much better, for example, it would
be if we could inherit ail our elementary learning and thus hâve so
much more time for more advanced studies? There were many
instances wnere insects inherited the faculty of performing most
complex actions without being taught, and he did not see why tlie
same law should not apply to man when a sufficiently long iuterval of
time had elapsed io render his activities liereditary.

(2) Mr, Maskell brought to the notice of the meeting a spécimen of
tlie lîot or horse lly, which lias appeared in New Zealand duiïng the
l.ist year; it affected hoises in a most serions manner, driving them
mad. He thought it right to make known the appearance of tliis pest.

Mr Travers greatly fcared that the direct steamers would be the
means of introduciug many such obnoxious insects.

(3) " Notes and Observations on certain Specics of New Zealand
Ijinl.s — - with spécimens to illustrate the paper," by Sir Walter Uuller,
K.C.M.O., F.15.S. (Abstract.) Among the species treated of were

MEETINGS OF SOCIETTKS. 28 1

notably the following: — (1) Platycercus unicolor, a green parrakeet from
Antipodes Island, rediscovered by Captain Fairchild half a century
after the type spécimen had been placed on the shelves of fche British
Muséum. Platycercus erythrotis, another parrakeet from Antipodes
Island, intermediate in character between P. unicolor and the New
Zealand bird (P. novœ-zealandiœ ), which was also referred to. The
author stated his views as to the mariner in which the spécifie characters
of Platycercus unicolor had, by isolation for countless génération?,
become developed, under the natural opération of the laws of évolution.
He accounted for the présence of an intermediate form subsisting sidj
by side with Platycercus unicolor by the theory of an irruption or
colonisation by Platycercus novœ-zealandiœ at a later period of time,
but sufficiently remote to hâve produced a certain amount of divergence.
He described the différences that presented themselves, remark ing that
thèse were first such changes and modifications as would naturally
mark the graduai transition from P. novœ-zealandiœ to P. unicolor.
(2) Ocydromus earli, a live example of which had been brought by
Captain Fairchild from Macquarie Island, thus supplying a very
interesting fact in geographical distribution, seeing that the range of
this particular species of Woodhen, so far as hitherto known, was
restricted in New Zealand to a portion of the West Coast of the South
Island. (3) Ocydromus greyi, of which species a very singular albino
was described. (4) Diomedea canta, (the Shy Albatross), of which a
very interesting account was given, the resuit of personal observation.
(5) Diomedea regia, (the Royal Albatross), which had been described
and named by the author at a previous meeting of the Society, and in
relation to which some further particulars were given. The author
stated that the distribution of the varions species of Albatross on their
breeding grounds is very curions. Although Mollymauks are plentiful
on the Snares and on the Bounty Islands, neither Diomedea regia nor

D. exulans are to be found there. On Campbell Island where D. regia
reigns suprême, D. exulans is never seen. On the Auckland Islands,
with the exception of the small colony of D. regia mentioned in a
former paper, ail the breeding birds belong to D. exulans. At the
Antipodes Island, again, there are no Diomedea ?-egia, whilst the
breeding birds of the other species are for the most part in the dark
plumage of immaturity. (6) Adamastor cinereus, of which rare species
several spécimens had lately been captured by Captain Fairchild half
way between Wellington and the Chatham Islands. (7) Tacltyptes
aquila, (the Créât Frigate Bird), of which an example — only the second
known in New Zealand waters, and exhibited at the meeting — struck
itself again st the lantern at the Cape Farewell lighthouse on the loth
April last, and was picked up in an injured state, and (8) the following
seven species of Penguin, respecting each of which most interesting
information was given as to habits and distribution, namely : — Apteno-
dytes longirostris, Eudyptes chrysolophus, E. rachorhynchus, E. sclateri,

E. chrysocome, E. antipodicm, and Eudyptula undina. In treating of
this group the author stated that he had satisfied himself as to Eudyptes
chrysolophus being only the young of E. schlegeli; but that the former
name, being of older date, would hâve to take precedence according
to the accepted rules of zoological nomenclature.

282 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

WELLINGTON FIELD NATURALISTE CLUB.

Tlie first excursion took place on Saturday, lOth October, when
the subject selected was geology. Mr. A. McKay, F.G.S., was leader,
and explaincd the several rocks and formations met with on the way to
Karori. The new gold mine, near the Devil's Bridge, was also visited,
and an examination made of the more récent formations on the Karori
Flats. An extremely pleasant afternoon was spent, the weather being
very tine. On Thnrsday, October 15th, the nsual meeting was held at
the Muséum, the président, Mr. C. Hulke, F.C.S., in the chair. Mr.
McKay read introdnctory notes on geology, and also exhibited by means
of the optical lantern, a number of slides illustra ting the various terms
used by geologists in describing the différent formations of rock, which
were explained to the members by the président. The photographs of
many extinct animais were also shown in the same manner. They
included illustrations of a very perfect spécimen of Pterodactyl, or
winged lizard, recently discovered in America; the curious " fish
îizard" or Ichthyosaurus ; a remarkable bird (Archœopteryx), having a
long tail composed of several vertébrée ; as well as photographs of the
Deinotherium, Irish Elk, and several other extinct mammalia. The
most récent forms of life were illustrated by a picture of the members of
the club who took part in the last expédition, and portraits of the
leader, Mr. McKay, and the président, Mr. Hulke, which created great
iaterest The meeting was in every way a most enjoyable and
snccessful one.

LINNEAN SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sydney, August 26th, 1891. — Professor Haswell, M.A., D.Sc, in
the chair.

The Chairman announced to the meeting with deep regret the
death, only that morning, of the Government Geologist, Mr. Charles
Smith Wilkinson, F.G.S., F.L.S. Mr. Wilkinson was an original
meinber of the Society, for several years was a member of the Council,
in the years 1883 and 1884 was Président, and since 1885 had been
one of the Vice-Présidents. His enthusiasm in the cause of Geological
Science, his extensive knowledge of the geological features of Eastern
Austral», his many personal qualities, and his decease at the compara-
tively early âge of 47, combine to render his loss one which will be
severely felt.

On the motion of Mr. Henry Deane it was resolved that a letter of
svinpathy from the meeting be sent to Mrs. Wilkinson.

Tlie reading of papers and other business was deferred, and the
meeting then adjourned to September 30th.

ROYAL SOCIETV OF NEW SOUTH WALES.

Sydney, 3rd September, 1891. — H. C. lîussell, Esq., (Government
A Ktionomer), in the chair.

MEETINGS OF SOCIETIES. 283

Papers. — (1) " On a Wave-propelled Vessel," by Lawrence
Hargrave.

(2) " Notes on a Disease among Rabbits," by Adrien Loir. M.
Loir bas been for some time conducting experiments with bacteria at
Rodd Island. During April last, the Chief Inspecter of Stock (Mr.
Bruce) sent him 30 rabbits to the island. After a few days one died,
and within the six days following seven more. He placed the remaining
animais in separate cages, and two days later the ninth succumbed.
This, however, was the last death, and since then the disease has
completely disappeared. Two months ago, however, M. Loir received
an additional consignment of 30 animais, which were placed in the cages
occupied by the first lot. Up to the présent no deaths had occurred,
nor had the disease yet shown itself. Post mortem examinations were
made of the dead animais, from which the lecturer learnt that the
disease was inoculable from one rabbit to another, and to any animal of
another species, though the former seemed the more susceptible. The
blood of a rabbit having died of the disease when inoculated in ordinary
veal broth produced a cultivation of a microbe (streptococcus). A drop
of the cultivation inoculated to another rabbit gave death with the same
disease. Judging from the appearance of the microbe, and from the
physiological reaction which it produced in animais, M. Loir believed
that he had a microbe which was the cause of a spontaneous disease in
rabbits not hitherio described.

(3) " Notes on some récent Celestial Photographs taken at the
Sydney Observatory," by H. 0. Russell, Government Astronomer. The
author stated that in order to complète the photographie apparat us at
the Observatory, it was necessary to obtain such an attachment to the
star caméra as would serve to record highly magnified images of double
stars, the moon and other objects. This had recently been added, so
that now he could record double stars photographically on a scale which
gave ample dimensions for accurate measurement. After describing the
principal characteristics of a large number of photographs, which were
laid before the meeting for inspection, he said that photography had
altered their view of what nebula3 in détail were like. The sensitive
film seemed to grasp détails which the eye could not see, and he was
disposed to think that this was not owing to the faintness of the light,
but to some inhérent différence which the caméra could and the eye
conld not see.

(4) "Some Folk-songs and Myths from Samoa," by Dr. John
Fraser, translated by Rev. G. Pratt.

CIVIL ENGINEERING SECTION.

Sydney, lOth September, 1891. — C. W. Darley, Esq., in the chair.

The discussion upon the paper read by Mr. J. I. Haycroft, on
"Methods of Determining the Stresses in Braced Structures," was
resumed by Mr. H. W. Parkinson and Mr. Grimshaw.

2S4 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

Professor Warrèn in the course of an interesting paper on the
subject, dealt in an exhaustive manner with tîie latter portion of Mr.
Haycroft'ts paper, in which the Cowra bridge, now under construction
by the Roads and Bridges Department, was referred to. He said both
the department and Mr. Haycroft had calculated the stresses by graphie
and analytical methods, which agreed with cach other ; but the results
arrived at by Mr. Haycroft differed from tliose arrived at by the
department. Dealing with American bridges, he said he tliought every
English bridge engineer freely admitted the skill and ability displayed
by the Americans in the construction of bridges. Although we hâve
the Fortli Bridge, lie said, we cannot claim that our ordinary bridges
are superior to tliose constructed in America. We certainly could not
claim that we disposed our materials in a more scientific manner, for
we hâve the facts clearly pointed out by Sir B. Baker on this subject.
American engineers had adopted for their ordinary iron and steel
bridges a form of truss or girder very similar in appearance to their
timber bridge, and which resembled the form adopted by the Roads and
Bridges Department for timber bridges. It would be found on examining
a variety of the best designs, such as those of the Union Bridge
Company, that in iron and steel bridges where the stresses were
delinite, they adopted the form known as the American truss bridge,
and for timber bridges a truss which was almost identical with the
Roads and Bridges truss, with the identical bars which, according to
Mr. Haycroft, were untrussed. Before condemning the Cowra bridge,
he thought it désirable to show that a better composite bridge could be
constructed. He submitted that neither Mr. Haycroft's paper nor the
discussion had shown that the Cowra bridge was unsafe or liable to
become so. He had seen a great many timber bridges in Austral ia and
New Zealaud, but he considered the Cowra bridge, in spite of the
ambiguity in the détermination of the stresses developed in it, to be
superior to any other.

FIELD NATURALISTE CLUB OF VICTORIA.

Melbourne, August lOth 1891. — Professor W. Baldwin Spencer in

the chair.

New members. — Messrs. J. H. Ciaig, jun., B. Eugène, F. Gladish
H. A. Lamble, F. Marsh, J. Mitchell, and N. T. Wilsmore, B.Sc.

Paper. — (1) " Mode of Reproduction of l'eripahis Leuckartii" by
Dr. A. Dendy, F.L.S. Last May, Dr. Dendy obtained three spécimens
from Macedon, and kept them, in company with one from another
district, in a small vivarium, and at the end of July some 12 or 15 eggs
were laid. Thèse eggs were easily seen, being fairly large, oval in
shape, and covered with a tough, thick, elastic membrane. Microscopic
examiuation of one of them showed that the membrane enclosed a thick,
inilky finit!, full of yolk granules, the enclosing case being exquisitely
sculptured in a régulai* design. This discovery is of importance, as in
ail other s;)e2ie* whose life liistory is known, the viviparous habit

MEETING8 OF SOCLETIES. 285

wbere the young are born alive — is one of the uiost remarkable
characters of tbe genus. Dr. Dandy is carefully watching thèse eggs,
with a view to their further development.

The usual exhibition of spécimens took place afterwards.

Melbourne, September, 14th, 1891. — D. Best, Esq., in the chair.

New members. — Messrs. L. J. Balfour, A. D. Denny, J. P.
Fiddian, B.A.. A. E. Hill, F. A. Officer, and J. J. Porter.

Papeis. — (1) "The Supposed Human Footprints on ^Eolian Rocks
at Warrnambool," by C. G. W. Officer. In introducing the subject,
Mr. Officer described in détail the formation and nature of the sand
dunes and their connection with the underlying strata, as shovvn by the
similarity of the stone now being quarried there. Overlying the dunes
in many places are sheets and veins of limestone, varying from a few
inches to several feet in thickness. Last December a slab was dis-
covered in one of the quarries bearing impressions which suggested that
they were made by human beings. This slab was securecl by Mr.
Archibald, and placed in the Warrnambool Muséum. The détermination
of the âge of the rocks is of importance, and Mr. Officer, followmg the
lead of Professor Ta te, allège d them to be pleistocene, and suggested
that the impressions were made by two individuals sitting close
together, and somewhat obliquely to each other. In the discussion
which followed, Mr. D. M'Alpine, F.C.S., spoke in complimentaiy
terms of tbe paper, and referred to the action of carbonate of lime in
the préservation of such marks, whilst Mr. F. R. Godfrey, who h ad
seen the slab, bore testimony to the remarkable similarity of the
impressions to human footprints. Mr. J. Dennant, F.G.S., however,
disputed Mr. Officer's déductions, basing his objections not only on the
fact that thèse dunes were generally formed in a comparatively short
time, but also on their position relative to the newer basait and a
fossiliferous bed, both of which are of récent formation. Mr. G. Sweet
supported Mr. Dennant, and Messrs. F. G. A. Bainard, C. M. Bridger,
and F. Wisewould also joined in the discussion.

(2) "Maori preserved heads of New Zealand," by T. Steel, F.C.S.
Beference was made to the custom of the Maoris in the révérence they
pay to their deceased ancestors, and corresponding customs amongst the
natives of Africa, New Guinea, New Hébrides, Egypt, ami Australia.
The writer then described the method adoptée! by the Maoris in
preserving the heads of distinguished persons, and exhibited a very
good spécimen in illustration, the âge of which could be traced back for
ai least 50 years. He concluded by stating the fact that before the
head came into his possession it hacl been neglected, and most of the
hair had been destroyed by moths After having kept it some time, he
noticed that a thin growth of very fine hair in scattered patches had
taken place. In order to gain definite information of future growth the
hair has been closely shaved from a marked patch.

The meeting terminated by the usual exhibition of spécimens.

286 JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.

.Melbourne, October, 12th, 1891. — C. Frost, Esq., in the chair.

New members. — Mrs. C. E. Andrews, Miss Burkett, Miss G.
Sweet, Miss F. Thompson, and Messrs. E. T. Carter, J. L. Bowen, D.
E. Martin, O. J. Page, W. Strickland, and .T. B. Walker.

Paper. — (1) " Some peculiar changes in the colour of the flower of
Swainêonia procumbens" by J. P. Eckert. When the flower opens the
corolla is lilac, and the first change is noticed in the longitudinal venules
of the largest petals. which soon after assume a deep crimson. Then, at
two différent points of the petals a dark blue is noticed, which gradually
extends over the whole surface, the peripheral portion being a little
paler in colour. In the central portion the colour varies through ail
the shades of blue till finally it assumes a rosy tint. Frequently the
petals will assume their original colour for some days, and afterwards
go through ail the gradations of colour once more. Mr. Eckert assigns
as the cause a meteorological one, that arch scourge — the north wind —
being very effective towards its accoraplishment. Experiments with
the electric current gave almost conclusive testimony in favour of the
hypothesis. In speaking upon the subject, Mr. T. Steel, F.C.S., gave
some interesting :letails as to the application of the spectroscope to this
particular b ranch of study.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF VICTORIA.

Melbourne, August 13th, 1891. — Professor Kernot, Président, in
the chair.

Papers. — (1) "On the mode of reproduction of Peripatas leuckartii"
by Arthur Dendy, D.Sc.

(2) " Short Descriptions of New Land Planarians," by Arthur
Dendy, D.Sc.

(3) Professor Spencer exhibited and remarked upon Xotoryctes
tjj/j/dops, the new Australian maramal recently described by Dr. E. C.
Stirling of Adelaide.

(4) " Notes on the récent Flood on the Yarra," by Professor W.
C. Kernot.

Melbourne, September lOth, 1891. — Professor Kernot, Président,
in the chair.

Papers. — (1) Adjourned discussion on the paper read by Professor
Kernot, on " Notes on the récent Flood on the Yarrow."

| _' ) " On a new species of Graptolitidre — Tehinograptus maynijicus"
by J. H. Pritchard; read by Dr. Dendy. This new fossil was discovered
in Silurian strata near Lancefield.

(3) " On the présence of Ciliated Pits in Australian Land Pla-
nai ians," by A. Dendy, D.Sc. The author stated that thèse structures
bave the forrn of little pits on the head \ they probably jicted as
olfactory organs, and were supplied with spécial nrrves from the brain.

MEETINGS OF SOC1EÏIES. 287

Melbourne, October 8th, 1891. — E. J. White, Esq., in the chair.

Papers. — (1) "Notes on the Distribution of Victorian Frogs,
with Description of two new species," by A. H. S. Lucas, M. A., B.Sc.
Thèse species were found at Narrée Warren, Gippsland, and at Gisborne
and Macedon respectively.

(2) E. F. J. Love, M.A., communicated a letter from Sir George
Stokes, Président of the Royal Society of London, concerning the
Gravity Survey of Australia, written in reply to one from himself.
The letter contained a number of suggestions, the most important being
a new method, based on the principle of dynamical similarity, for the
détermination of the errors introduced into results of observations by
variations of température and atmospheric pressure.

(3) "Notes on the Magnetic Shoal near Bezout Island, North-
West Australia," by R. L. J. Ellery, F.R.S., C.M.G. This paper gave
détails of the results of observations made by Captain Moore, the
commander of the " Penguin," uncler instructions from the Admiralty.
According to thèse there was a magnetic shoal near the islands. It was
about four miles long by two miles broad, and was at a depth of eight or
nine fathoms. In a wooden ship, or composite vessel like the " Penguin,"
the compassés would act as usual after leaving the shoal. Whether or
not induction would take place in an iron vessel was a matter yet to be
ascertained. At présent there was no évidence of danger to navigation,
except that a vessel steering by compass across the shoal would be set
out of her course, more or less, according as to whether she eut the
shoal at the narrowest part of it or obliquely. The locus of the shoal
was 20 deg. 32 min. 35 sec. S., 117 deg. 13 min. 2 sec. E. From it
Bedout Island summit was distant 2*17 miles, and bore S. 78 deg. 49
min. W.

ROYAL SOCIETY OF TASMANIA.

Hobart, September 8th, 1891.— His Excellency Sir R. G. C.
Hamilton, K.C.B., Président, in the chair.

His Excellency referred to the paper read on behalf of Mr. A. J.
Ogilvy at last meeting on the best means of collecting scientific
information, and suggested that the matter should be brought under the
notice of the approaching meeting of the Australasian Association for
the Advancement of Science. He considérée! that valuable information
would be obtained if, as suggested, there was a représentative of the
Society in every district to keep his eyes and ears open, and let them
know of anything of scientific interest.

Mr. A. J. Ogilvy said he regarded it as very important that in
every district the Society should hâve some one to represent it, and
pointed out that if at any time it wanted any spécial local knowledge
there would be somebody to whom application could be made. He
thought that the Fellows should consider as to the best means of
carrying out the suggestion made, and deal with the subject at a future
meeting.

Paper. — (1) "Electric Traction," by Montague Jones, C.E.

288 .TOURNAI, OF SCIENCE.

It is with considérable regret that I hâve to announce to the
subscribers of the The New Zealand Journal of Science that
the second attempt to keep a periodical of the kind going in this
colony has proved unsuccessful. With the présent number this
issue cornes to a close. There can be no doubt of one fact in
regard to such a periodical, namely, that if it were sufficiently
supported by ail the scientific societies of Australasia even as a
record of their proceedings, it would prove most valuable. Speaking
for myself, — and my want must be that of numbers of others
interested in, and attempting to carry on scientific work,— I hâve
often wanted to know what was being done in other colonies and
in other parts of this colony in certain Unes of research. A
journal in which ail the societies could record their doings would
therefore be most useful, and this the présent publication has
attempted to do. Unfortunately secretaries of societies are not
always alive to the importance of keeping their members in touch
with other and similar organisations, and any imperfections in this
direction are attributable to this cause. So convinced am I of the
good which would resuit from a joint publication of their proceedings
by the various scientific societies in Australasia, that I would urge
upon those members who meet in conférence at Hobart next
January, to try to corne to some arrangement in this direction.

rlhe history of private enterprise in connection with scientific
periodicals in Australia and New Zealand has been one of failure.
Most of the societies in existence receive just so much Government
aid as enables them to publish their papers, and in this way to
kill private effort.

The previous and présent issues of this Journal, the Southern
Science Record, and, within the last twelve months, the issue of
the Spectrum in Sydney, ail testify to the fact. At the same
time many of the scientific societies, and notably the N.Z. Institute
are so long in the publication of their papors, that an author may
wait twelve months after reading a paper before lie sees it in
print. This certainly wants remedying. Meanwhile the publication
of an abstract in a widely-spread periodical would obviate many of
the objections.

In conclusion I would express the hope that the suggestion
thrown out hère may be acted upon, and that a mild form of
fédération in the department of scientific work may précède that
political fédération of Australasia of which wre hâve heard so much
of late years.

GEO. M. THOMSON.

Dunedin, NoYember 14th 1891.

WISE. CAFFIN & CO.

ARE PUBMSHER8 OF

Pétries First Geography ...

ls.

Pétries Geograpky of New Zcaland

1s.

doyens < omplete Aritlimetic

0(1.

Answers to saine .

(lichens Exercises in the < ompoitnd Utiles

ls.

6d.

Answers

ls.

6d.

Curiiow's Primer of English 1 liston

ls.

Tlioinson's \e\v Zealand Feras

«s.

The Storj of tlte Ota<ço (lunch and f Clotli ïts. «d.
Seulement By Rev. €. Stnart Ross 1 Paper 3s.

Education and Ediicatioiiists in Otago.
Bv Rev. ( . Stnart Ross :ts. «d.

±£j&Çï4f^^X^

WISE, CAFFIN & CO.

108 PRINCES STREET,
DUNEDIN.

il Piiutcis. Dowliii.