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VA Bante Sy ; Ora e ; 4 a ) ; f Soran ae at A} \ Sm PP oe ag Y 4 eh _ { ‘ * f f , HONS SNC CURR v1 ar HEN i ARGS } ie { a enn yy CUD Ras td mt daly ce al ‘ RODENS SRR ATW HOUTA LE SP HNC a OAS a ntvay A id 4 Ge a Can LTMASE dad ty th at ano pen Tice aye! tat) a pa } Me Lay nave ee aa eae ibe Re eh pees Mi AN a Sane oe rae Raed a cn OG fe Baia aH < Sens ee Saree Cure ag abbey eat f v a rts As ee ar ea RMF ren ye ea Y aes 2 iu % Cea var Seana as Ll s Bala Ge be Prien ee erate ante Bots ae seve re port in ‘4 } ay ( 4 A Por pee Oat oo fn A Reciraa « a iar CH San Pee ad bar HUIS Fog § ele! FARA Raia preteen Fits tet aes ne tpt i : ; CJ ‘i KARA if nit eae uO Re ee oda ay Cg Apes i ren be myvet Ge ay ch oe he f eee Bo copia Su wee bean i ye oe a i tA eutuas 4 Mie A. a ‘y Pw \ i it ee —11 OF Weve WAST a " 35 of UNITED STATES ds GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON 1928 . C i C ™ 4 wy ) is WO U vz ) J J£.0 ADVERTISEMENT The scientific publications of the National Museum include two series, known, resvectively, as Proceedings and Bulletin. | The Proceedings, begun in 1878, is intended primarily as a medium for the publication of original papers, based on the collections of the National Museum, that set forth newly acquired facts in biology, | anthropology, and geology, with descriptions of new forms and revisions of limited groups. Copies of each paper, in pamphlet | form, are distributed as published to libraries and scientific organi-_ zations and to specialists and others interested in the different sub- jects. The dates at which these separate papers are published are recorded in the table of contents of each of the volumes. | The Bulletins, the first of which was issued in 1875, consist of | a series of separate publications comprising monographs of large zoological groups and other general systematic treatises (occasion- ally in several volumes), faunal works, reports of expeditions, cata-_ logues of type-specimens, special collections, and other material of | similar nature. The majority of the volumes are octavo in size, but a quarto size has been adopted in a few instances in which large | plates were regarded as indispensable. In the Bulletin series appear’ volumes under the heading Contributions from the United States |, National Herbarium, in octavo form, published by the National | Museum since 1902, which contain papers relating to the botanical collections of the Museum. The present work forms No, 141 of the Bulletin series. ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Wasuinerton, D. C., November 30, 1927. 0 i} Ms TABLE OF CONTENTS Page aT TP OCU GLOMS ote oe se ae ee ee ee Pe 1 Morch and candle... 8 a ee 3 UBS p RECN aos a a ce te ea ene 3 “AMOS E} ANE CO LG (25 i NERY 1 a es ee 9 Rea R rh ee ce tig eee ee ee 14 Taper holders____--.--------------------------------------------- 15 Sa CSB 27s FR RP RP li sie Es 15 PET ACEC oR TV GR ES GGT Cl See ace aa SN ca ere tee 20 BUNT ex en Gh CTUA (GEL FL CLI CS Es Ce Hie tec a cn a a pe 21 Candlesticks of earthenware and stone_______-___-_---------------- 21 Glazed pottery and glass candlesticks___--------------------------- 22 Silver and plate candlesticks_____-____----------------------------- 22, Ma eaN LESS ELIS STUCOE SENS WIN pa rena gee 23 AO TN Stl CIRM OTA ee re ret ee ee ee 24 Gandlashicks oL namimMenred: WlOmes == oa. ee ee ee 25 WanGlEStiCKALOL Cast bho Masse ee eed Oe ee eee 26 MU Sa eA T SCL USSENG Spt Coy TENN CaS sea eet Le a a ae a 26 avitllpstickSo with, Wind Classes. 20008 ee PL MU arTaR LL episitiaTigtee ee ey aA a ae Ce Se ee Me ER A ca 27 (LSS (EME OIL Ra aa TEE BN A AAI 28 SSYEYE TEV EY SSE DME AT OR SI aT ERE SN RE 29 MOTUATER CU Se cg eae Os 8 USAIN CEES AIRE Des aE Do Se See 29 TeSys ESN i a SE RUE CA OR RV 30 AN GeehWCANGIOSTICKS 2 ee cos eh Sk dae ee Ce ee ee 39 mich? lent candies and holders: =... 12-25-27 -ee=n2-—---as-= 40 BPRAETE CS ESE EN CLL pete a ne ek A eS 40 Snuffers, snuffer trays, and extinguishers___.___._______-_----------- 41 Modern improvements on the candlestick_--__---_--_-+_------------ 42 SMMUNESSRN RESO SEES NCS 0200008 2 i ay a 43 PANTRCGN EST Gal SHEVA RS elie enone LS Ee ok Cs a pe eee eet 47 ATAU E oe a fog) 8 FE psp oe ike ee 1 Se 51 RAMI CA PNPRENRIRL he ica ptiee oy oh Nae ae | Tat ee ae 53 POM Tce kerr Fist FIT SU DEVIN Se aes SiR ae ne cee Oe a Dagon ee 54 Seeing SERNA RR iy Mg LL ea a ge Mine rt ee 61 WV RRR nS ae eee ic aa. Walle Tf0ns on ee ee eee eee ee eRe ee ae rhe See ee ne ee 108 | Tea Kettles 22.2 2 SE ee Se Se ee eee 109 eae Tate eee RA RY REPS ce ee Pa cee ee 109 Onde 10. al, 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. a7. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. LIST OF PLATES TORCH AND CANDLH . Development of the torch and candle. . a and b. Development of the lamp. . Torches of resin, Figures 1-8; examples of torches and candles, Figures 9-14, a. Primitive adaptation of animals for illumination. b. Bundle torches, resin torch, and nut-meat torches. c. Resin torches from Africa, Siam, and the Philippines. a. Torch holders, Hast Indies and Finland. b. Ancient Egyptian torch holder of bronze and wooden specimen from Finland. a. Etruscan bronze splint holder, Italy, and adjustable holder, Finland. b. Iron and wood splint and candle holders. a. Basket torches for whaling, Figures 1 and 3. Finnish boat torch holder. b. North Eastern Algonquian canoe with birch bark torch. a. Torches with wick for processions and other uses. Figure 4 is a whaler’s flare torch. b. Wax coiled tapers and taper holders. . a. Candle making, China. b. Tapers used for religious purposes, Italy, Philippines, and Burma. Sheet-iron candle molds. Colonial United States and later. a. Candle holders used in various occupations. 6. Lumberjack and bayonet candlesticks, Pricket candlesticks, Europe and China. Two Japanese pricket candlesticks. Wall pricket candlestick or rush holder, England. Candlesticks of stone, wood, pottery, and glass. Moorish glazed roundel candlestick; “ King Alfred” time candle. Brass, copper, and pewter candlesticks. Silver plate and silver candlesticks, European. Pewter candlesticks, China and England. Candle dishes; and brass and iron candlesticks; cast iron candlesticks. Hammered-iron candlesticks, Europe and United States; candle arms and brackets. Sconces, and candlesticks with wind glasses. Candelabra, Europe. Rush chandelier of iron, England, and brass 5-light wall chandelier, Germany. Chandelier of bronze with lusters; Chinese feathered chandelier. Rococo brass chandelier and camphine chandelier. Turkish float lamp chandelier. Horn lanterns and Danish ship lantern; dark lanterns. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 43. . Hanging float lamps and cup float lamp; 1, 2, Near Hast; 3, Philippines. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. . Crusies of various types, Europe and United States. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 2&8 LIST OF PLATES Perforated lanterns, Europe; United States; small lanterns for special uses; arm lanterns, Moorish lantern, and ship’s globular lantern. Dark lanterns: 1, Philippines; 2, Korea; 3, entry lantern, United States. Japanese standing house and hand lanterns. New England lanterns connected with fisheries. Rigging lantern, Gloucester, Mass. Pierced copper lantern, Germany. Cinnabar lacquer table lantern, China. Carved wood Chinese lantern, and globular silk covered lantern, China. Japanese bronze lantern; Japanese porcelain garden lantern. Japanese, Egyptian, and Persian paper and cloth collapsing lanterns. Collapsing lanterns with mica windows. Church candlesticks, Europe and Near East. Night light candles and holders. Snuffer trays, snuffers, and extinguishers. Spring candlesticks and other devices. LAMPS Firefly lighting devices: 1, 2, Firefly dark lantern and insect case, Java; 3, tree gourd perforated lantern, St. Vincent, West Indies. Simple lamps and firefly lantern: 1, Shell lamp, Brittany; 2, shell lamp, Orkney Islands; 3, shell lamp, Ainos, Japan; 4, Chinese saucer lamp and stand; 5, Aleut beach stone lamp; 6, Hskimo pottery saucer lamp, Alaska; 7, firefly lantern, West Indies. Simple and makeshift lamps from various localities; development of the Roman lamp from the saucer type, and a multiple wick terra cotta lamp. . Quasi-development of features of ancient classical lamp and the gutter lamp. Ancient hanging lamps and stands. Hanging float lamp and altar lamp; 1, Spain; 2, Damascus, Syria. Moorish float lamps (7, 8) and wick channel lamps of other localities. Turkish float installation, Persian float lamp, mica lantern. Boxes of float wicks from Spain, France, and Germany. Simple saucer lamps in various installations, Japan and China. Tibetan butter lamp and Chinese pocket lamp candlestick; Tibetan temple lamps with simple saucer. Hawaiian stone lamps. Wick channel lamps: Near East, Europe, and North Africa. Wick channel lamps: India and North Africa. Wick channel lamps: India, Java, Europe, North Africa, and America. Wick channel lamps, simple and two shell crusies. Spout lamps: Italian lucerna. European and Philippine forms. Spout lamps: Europe and Ceylon. Wick tube lamps, European. Single and double wick tube lamps, Europe and America. Two wick tube installations, Europe and America. Glass two tube lamps for burning whale oil; time indicating lamps, Europe and America. . Camphine-burning lamps, . Camphine-burning devices. . Inventive period lamps with flat wicks; candle lamps and American torch burner. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. LIST OF PLATES VII Astral, Argand, and Sinumbra lamps; oil pressure lamp, Carcel lamp and mechanism, and gas lamp. One of Argand mantel set and pair of lamp candlesticks, spring pressure Diacon lamp, Oleostatic lamp, and adapted Astral lamp. Table lamp, 1876, with tubular wick. Modified Astral and lighthouse lamps. STOVES AND COOKING DEVICES a. Braziers: 1, pottery brazier, Durango, Mexico; 2, Philippines; 3, Spain (model) ; 4, table hand warmer, Germany; 5, Flemish hot iron warmer. b. Hot-water appliances: 1, glazed pottery foot warmer, United States; 2, pottery foot form bottle for drying shoes, England; 3, pottery vessel for warming the abdomen, England; 4, foot-warming stool, England. a. Slow-burning personal warming devices: 1, Japanese pocket stove; 2, cartridge for stove; 8, Japanese cast-iron closed stove. b. Bed warmer and colonial foot warmers: 1, bed warmer, New England; 2-4, foot warmers, America and England. . Hand and foot warmers: 1, 2, 3, 5, China; 4, Kashmir; 6, 7, 8, 12, Italy; 9, 10, Holland; 11, 18, France. . a. Japanese hibachis. 06. Chinese bronze fire bowl and Japanese warming hibachi: 1, Chinese student’s fire bowl; 2, 3, Japanese pottery hibachi. . Homemade and elaborate andirons: 1, Colonial, Virginia; 2, England. . @ Simple draftless stoves: 1, 2, Philippines; 3, French Indo-China; 4, Haussa, Niger River, Africa. b. Simple stoves with pot rests from the Philippines. ce. Stoves with rudimentary draft: 1, pottery stove and cooking pot, Philip- pines; 2, underdraft stove, Philippines; 3, three-hole stove with rude underdraft, Philippines; 4, model of Siamese stove; 5, 6, simple draft stoves, Philippines; 7, pottery stove with bosses, Sumatra. . a. Stoves with rudimentary draft: 1, Morocco; 2-4, San Blas Indians, Panama; 5, 6, Colima, Mexico. b. Simple stoves in form of range: 1, Philippines; 2, stove with well- developed draft, Tibet; 3, Jogo Kebu, Africa; 4, Japanese range with utensils, Ancient Etruscan simple stoves, Sovana, Italy. Stove with rudimentary draft and cooking pots: 1, cooking pot, Andaman Islands; 2, pottery stove, Durango, Mexico; 8, cooking pot, Zuni Indians, New Mexico. b. Simple stove range, Philippines. & 9 . Stoves with designed draft; 1, model two-hole stove, Mexico; 2, Tufa stove, Morocco; 3, 5, 8, models, Mexico; 4, Java; 6, Spain; 7, Porto Rico; 9, Venezuela. . a. Stoves with air box and grate: 1, 3, Tetuan, Morocco; 2, Santa Lucia, West Indies; 4, Portugal. b. Stoves of the inventive period: 1, cast-iron pot stove; 2, cast-iron fire- place; 3, whaler’s pot stove; 4, whaler’s range and oven. All from United States. ce. Advanced heating in the inventive period: 1, 5, 6, alcohol heaters; 2, heating attachment for lamp; 3, electric heaters; 4, gas heater. . Stoves of the inventive period: 1, 3, mess kit and stove combined, Spanish; 2, model of Norwegian tile stove. . Self-contained heater devices: 1, pewter teapot, China; 2, teapot with center furnace, China; 3, cooking vessel, China; 4, Korean frying vessel; 5, Korean cooking vessel; 6, Korean soapstone pot; 7, Chinese hot-water cooker; 8, hot iron water biggin, England. VIII LIST OF PLATES 81. 82. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. ~ a. Stoves in combination with vessels: 1, hot-water biggin, United States; 2, coffee biggin, United States; 3, hot-water biggin, England. db. Various hot water devices: 1, shaving-water heater, United States; 2, wine heater by steam, China; 38, copper colonial teakettle; 4, hot- water vessel for warming food, Holland. Preserving warmth and cooling devices: 1, 2, Calcutta water cooler, India; 3, Canton tea “ cosey,” China. . a. Fire fans: 1, Panama; 2, 4, Trinidad, West Indies; 3, Mexico; 5, 6, Brit- ish Guiana; 12, Paraguay; 10, 11, Yucatan; 9, Morocco; 8, Spain ; 7, Ecuador. b. Fire blowers and bellows: 1, 2, Japan and China; 3, India; 4, Spain; 5, England; 6, France; 7, United States. . Navaho double valve bellows, Arizona. Primitive tongs: 1, California; 2, Apache, Arizona; 3, Havasupai, Arizona; 4, 5, Kiowa, Oklahoma; 6, Alaska. Tongs of metal: 1, 2, Pivot tongs of iron, Spain; 3, antique fire-bearing tongs, Denmark; 4, 5, rod tongs, Japan; 6, spring tongs, United States; 7, hinged iron tongs, Pennsylvania. Spits and grid, Virginia Indians (model). Gridiron and adjustable trivet roaster: 1, tall roaster, Yorkshire, England ; 2, wrought-iron gridiron, Virginia. Gridirons, toasters, and roasters: 1, wrought gridiron, Belgium; 2, toaster, Virginia; 3, trivet roaster, England; 4, revolving gridiron, Belgium; 5, bent-rod gridiron, Virginia; 6, groove-bar gridiron, Virginia; 7, George Washington’s field gridiron, Virginia. Trivets: 1, perforated trivet, Pennsylvania ; 2, trivet, Morocco; 3, trivet for heated iron, Flemish; 4, folding trivet, Huropean. Pothooks and hangers: 1, Adjustable pothook; 2 ,5, suspending chains; 3, 4, 6, pothooks. All from Virginia. Ratchet pot hangers: 7, Fin- land; 8, Belgium. Branding iron, iron rests, and curfew: 1, Branding iron, Virginia; 2-4, east brass rests for iron, England and United States; 5, curfew, Hol- land. Waffle irons: 6, short iron, Charmian, Pa.; 7, long iron, Morgan- town, W. Va. Sadirons: 1, Pennsylvania; 2, Pennsylvania; 3, England. . Tripod paunch vessel for cooking, Teton Sioux, Dakota. Cooking stones, griddles, and collapsible oven: 1, Baking stone, Hupa Indians, California; 2, ancient cooking slab, California; 3, cooking stones, Mexico; 4, pottery griddle, Mexico; 5, circular stone griddle, Morocco; 6, camp baker, United States; 9 camp oven, closed; 7, 8, iron tortilla griddles, Mexico. Pueblo Indians cooking bread, Arizona. Simple ovens: 1, Heap oven, Plains and other Indians; 2, slab cooking oven, Zuni Indians, New Mexico; 3, field oven, Hopi, Arizona; 4, mush- cooking oven, Hopi, Arizona; 5, dome-shaped mud oven, Mexicans ang Pueblos; 6, earth stove of the Tibetans. Spiders, Dutch oven, pottery oven, and steamers: 1, Spider of brass, Eng- land; 2, cast-iron spider, Alabama; 8, Dutch oven, Pennsylvania; 4, pottery griddle oven, Mexico; 5, rice steamer, Sumatra; 6, rice steamer, Simalur Island, East Indies. Fuel: 1, Hay twists, South Dakota; 2, compressed peat; 3, 5, tubular com- pressed peat; 4, lightly pressed peat; 6, Buffalo chip, South Dakota; 7, prepared slab of Buffalo dung, South Dakota. COLLECTION OF HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM By Watrer Houcn Head Curator of Anthropology, United States National Museum INTRODUCTION The collection of heating and illuminating appliances in the United States National Museum was begun about 40 years ago by bringing together specimens from the ethnological series and from other mate- rial acquired by the Museum. The collection grew slowly, but about 1890 an effort was made to increase its scope. At present the collec- tion numbers about 1,000 specimens. It is far from the required standard, yet it contains all the types needed to elucidate the history and ethnography of heating and illumination. Of the collection a series suggesting the development of lighting inventions was placed on permanent display in the museum. The specimens illustrating the earlier history of the development of these subjects were allocated to ethnology, while the series beginning with the age of progress were assigned to mechanical technology, which exhibits electric lamps and modern heating inventions. For illustration, however, some of the later forms are included. The collection is regarded as technological and no attempt was made to gather objects of art. The specimens are classified and described according to the way by which lighting and heating were effected. As a logical starting point we may conceive that at some period of the past man took up the use of fire in response evidently to a human need. What need fire served in that early stage is surmise, but from observations of the use of fire among less advanced peoples it is deduced that what fire supplied was light, warmth, companion- ship, and perhaps protection from wild beasts. It will be seen that the quality of light giving is one of the most valuable adjuncts of fire. Doubtless in the earlier periods light was chiefly serviceable for the needs of what is conceived to have been quite a low state of culture. Adaptations of fire heat to the warming of the body or for cooking comes much later than light usages. For this reason the 1 2 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM subject of illumination and the development of light inventions beginning with the early camp fire is taken up first. There is presented a synoptic series showing the steps in the development of illumination, which forms the basis of the classifica- tion so far as it concerns the evolution of lighting devices. The series mentioned is shown in plates 1 and 2 of this work: * TORCH AND CANDLE No. 1. Folded palm leaf used as a torch. East Indies. No. 2. Stormy petrel, burned in the Orkney Islands for light-_--__--_ 178160 No. 3. Candle fish in a split stick, burned for light. Alaska_----_-~_ 178161 Ne. 4 Torch made of birch bark. Iroquois Indians___----_-----____ 178162 No. 5. Torch made of split fat-pine knots. Virginia________-_------_- 129997 No. 6. Torch made of a bundle of slivers of fat pine. Southern Indians. 178163 No. 7. Torch made of dammar gum wrapped in palm leaves. Malays_._._ 76727 No. 8. Torch or “link” made by soaking rope in resin. Europe in the Middle (Ages 2 2s ste fee oe 2 a ee oe ee ee 178164 No. 9. Torch composed of cords soaked in fat or wax. Hurope, six- teenth * century 22 hPa ae ee 178165 Nos. 10 and 11. Cord soaked in fat or wax, coiled, for lighting. HEngland_ 178166 No. 12. Rush soaked in grease, forming a primitive candle. England__ 178167 No. 13. Stick smeared with grease for lighting. Mongolia______-___-_~_~_ 178168 No. 14. Mass of fat formed upon a stick, around which is wound a wick Of fibers “Kashmir \ nga 22 oa 22 ee ee ae ee 175141 No. 15. Tallow dip with rush wick, later cotton. Northern Europe. No. 16. Candles formed of wax; wick of fiber. Japan and North YAY TOR aa ok Oh ee eR ev a ee 128246, 178169 No. 17. Molded candles. Patent candles of stearine, paraffine, and wax, and decorated candles. Nineteenth century___-_-_-_-------__ 178171 LAMP No. 1. Firefly lamp. Perforated tree gourd in which fireflies are con- fined for light. West Indies. No. 2; Lamp made ‘from the’ skull) ofa sleeps] 221 eee 178186 No. 3. Lamp. Pecten shell with oil and wick of rush pith mounted on a. forked; branch. :Ainos, Japanelos-nics boi be ie 178187 No. 4. Lamp. Unworked beach stone, with concavity, supplied with fiber | wick,and. oil, . Aleuts; “Alaskao= 2220) 2 223 eet paneer 138017 No. 5. Lamp. Hollowed beach stone with moss wick arranged along | oné ‘edge,’ Wiskimos, Alaska’ 7!) 30) Cth BOO) Se eee 16900 | No. 6. Lamp. Fusus shell suspended. Orkney Islands______-__---__~- 178188 | No. 7. Saucer lamp with shallow grooves for wick. India. No.8. Lamp., Terra cotta saucer, Tmdig on. tee he 164920 © No. 9. Saucer lamp with pinched-up spout for wick. India. No. 10. Stone lamp with pointed spout. Kashmir, India. No. 11. Lamp of terra cotta. Reservoir almost closed over; spout for | Wick.) Romaii_ i225 euca Pe ee Bee 74561 No. 12. Lamp of terra cotta. Reservoir closed over; spout for wick. ROTI oi ie desc ee el eee 175583 No. 13 (1). Lamp. Designed to furnish oil to the wick under pressure. Oape, Cod, Mass.) Colonial perlodes.- seen ae 151483 1Extracted from Synoptic Series of Objects in the United States National Museum | Illustrating the History of Inventions, by Waiter Hough. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus., vol. 60, No. 2404, 1922, pp. 5, 6. HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 3 No. 14 (2). Lamp of brass. Reservoir mounted on rod and stand; BOCP IR MOTE |) MERE he 129400 No. 15 (3). Lamp of glass having two tubes, for burning lard or whale oil. United States. Highteenth and early nineteenth COTA G UT LGS eee Ue EG EN tN i ae ee a ied 130610 No. 16 (4). Lamp, with chimney, draft around the wick, and oil under pressure. Argand’s invention. United States__._____-_- 130667 No. 17 (5). Lamp. “Fluid” or camphene, burned by means of wick and tubes and without chimney. United States_________-_- 178189 No. 18 (6). Lamp, with chimney and Argand burner, oil under forced pressune’ ofa Springs) Mranee il! tesla 130669 No. 19 (7). Lamp, with chimney; burner ventilated; tubular wick, rais- ing refined petroleum by capillarity. United States, 1876_ 73829 Wome0 nS). Gasuburners. United Statess.u 6525 42 eek i ee 178190 _No. 21. Electric are lamp. (No cut.) The familiar arc lamp would appear here, No. 22 (9). Incandescent hood for gas burner. Welsbach’s invention_. 178192 No. 28 (10). Incandescent electric lamp__._-___-__--_-_--_------------ 178191 TORCH AND CANDLE This series epitomizes the development of the candle, beginning with the use of fireflies and the burning of the fat bodies of fishes or birds, and of faggots of resinous wood. Continuing, the series shows torches, consisting of rudely aggregated slivers of wood or sheets of bark, torches of more careful manufacture, torches made of wax or resin inclosed in palm leaf forming an exterior wick, torches of rope or cords soaked in wax or resin, the crude beginning of the candle, and follows through formed candles, dipped candles, and molded candles, terminating with the elegant art candles of the present day. While the line of development has proceeded from the rude torch to the candle, the steps marked by the specimens in the series are sug- gestive, embracing devices employed by many different peoples and at divers times. Following the torch in the line of development comes the lamp, which separates from the stem of the torch at a period when oils and fats came to be used. This may have occurred after the domestication of animals whose fat was available; at the time of the discovery of mineral oils, or of the utilization of vegetable oils, such as that of the olive and coconut. TORCH The torches in the Museum collection come from peoples who have made little progress in the arts of civilization or have survived in use among civilized peoples not in contact with progress. Naturally the smoky torch was suitable only for out-of-door illumination, but smaller splints of resinous wood could be used without discomfort indoors. The torch may be considered as the most primitive device for artificial illumination. It can be as simple as a brand taken from the 4 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM camp fire or as elaborate as those prepared for a Roman funeral or the artistic flambeaux of the Middle Ages. For a long period the torch was the only form of illuminant known to humanity. It is also the most ancient beginning in illumination. It will be seen that the series has at the beginning several usages of materials for light, which are included as steps in development. These are the use of fireflies, and the burning of the fat bodies of fish and birds or of fat faggots of wood or bunched palm leaf. Strictly speaking, these may stand at the beginning of either the torch or lamp. Before the making of torches for a definite use for light there is little to more than suggest the earliest stages. It is necessary to exercise caution in explaining the devices which . Inight be classed on account of their simplicity as belonging to the stage when the first steps were made in the use of artificial hight. A device may be a temporary expedient assuming a primitive character though not representing a period or tribal usage; it may represent a beginning acculturation, or a decayed survival. In the earlier stages habitual use is not likely to be well established and we have uses as events and not in a regular sequence. As the development of the arts of life gradually went on at dif- ferent rates in especially favored and unfavored regions the torch took part in this growth or remained simple, according to circum- stances. As the demand increased for lighting within the house other devices were necessary, and these led toward the candle. In civilized countries torch makers found that rope imbued with wax, resin, or tar formed a rigid though crude torch, which the English called link. These links entered into the picturesque night life of European cities, and with the links came “link boys,” extinguishers, and link rests, the two latter perhaps remaining on the walls near the entrances of great old buildings. As an example of a somewhat remarkable survival, one of these links was found in use on a rail- road in Spain in 1892. It is a section of coarse fiber rope dipped in resin. (Plate 3, fig. 10, Cat. No. 178164; Walter Hough. 27.6 inches (70 cm.) long.) Torches made by the aggregation of rodlike materials, as cane, seem to have preceded the flambeaux formed of a bundle of cords © dipped in inflammable materials. It appears that such cords pre- ceded the candle and it is probable that their use dates rather far | back into classical times. Individual cords of greater or lesser length | became the taper. The taper was coiled in plain or fanciful ways, or | laid in vessels, some of them resembling the reservoir of a lamp on a stand. The taper required constant attention in drawing up sec- tions for free burning. In Virginia the taper light was called “ pull up,” an apt descriptive term. An excellent specimen is shown in HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 5 plate 3, figure 9 (Cat. No. 204264), Fauquier County, Va.; Dr. Thomas L. Settle; 15 inches (38 cm.) high. While the use of the taper was general in Europe, the only introduction to America was in the English colonies and particularly in Virginia. In plate 3 are grouped specimens showing some of the important steps in the development from the torch to the candle which may be described in detail. At the lower right (fig. 14) is a piece of bark of the Mexican candle tree, Jacquinia pungens, which is naturally so waxy that a small piece will give a good temporary light. This torch material has been much prized in Mexico, probably from an- cient times. The most valued torchwood in the earlier stages of culture and persisting to modern times is derived from coniferous trees. There are many references to pine torches in classical litera- ture and these often ascribe a sacred character to the wood and mention its use in rites. A similar observation is true for Mexico. In general the nations within the distribution of the pine knew the value of its fat wood for hight. The specimen pictured (fig. 13) was collected near Richmond, Va., about 1890. Known in Virginia as “lightwood,” fat or heart pine was formerly burned in a pan stuck into the side of the fireplace in the kitchen of the better class of families and is even now used for light in the cabins of the poor white people and, negroes. (Cat. No. 129907; gift of Rev. R. Ry- land.) In olden times in Louisiana a familiar sight was negroes carrying on the head bundles of lightwood for sale in New Orleans. Plate 3 also contains in figure 11 a mass of resin attached to a rod used by the natives of Africa (Cat. No. 169176); J. H. Camp; 16 inches (40.5 cm.) long. In comparison note the candle, Figure 12, the Chinese form of which is called lobstock. This candle is made by winding a cord wick around the end of a piece of the stalk of some plant and forming over it a mass of tallow. It was collected in Kashmir by Dr. W. L. Abbott. (Cat. No. 175141; 10 inches (25 cm.) long.) The practice of using natural sources, either animal or vegetal, as light producers has doubtless many examples which have escaped observation. Fortunately, a few of these have come within the horizon of modern scientific observers. Especially interesting is the use within the memory of man of the fat body of the stormy petrel as a complete torch or lamp by the Shetland and Blanket Islanders. This bird is small but excessively fat. It is recorded that when caught the petrel ejects oil from its digestive tract. The custom in the Shetlands was to thrust a wick down the dead bird’s throat, apply a light, and thus produce a feeble illumination in the somewhat cheerless huts of the islanders. (Pl. 4a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 153887, Shetland Island; Edward Lovett.) The bodies of 6 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM the great auk, Pinguinis impennis, an extinct bird of the North © Atlantic, were sometimes used for fuel and incidentally for light. | So far as may be ascertained the petrel and auk are the only birds which were employed within recent times for illumination. Joly in | his work, Man before Metals, states that the Danes of the Mitchen- middens employed a wick of moss, one end of which was buried in © the stomach of a great penguin (Pinguinis impennis) which is laden with fat (p. 197). Fish have been so used, the most striking in. stance being the candle fish, 7haleicthys pacifieus, called eulachon, a salmonoid surf fish of the northwest coast of America. Quite gen- erally the Indians along this coast used the candle fish for light. The candle fish is excessively fat. The custom was to place a dried eulachon in the cleft of a split stick and apply a light. It is doubtful whether a wick was necessary. One observer mentions © the use of a bark wick, thus bringing the device nearer to a primi- | tive candle. (Pl. 4a, fig. 2; Cat. No. 178161; Walter Hough.) Dr. C. A. Q. Norton informed the writer that the Penobscot Indians of Maine pursued the same method with suckers taken from the river. The use of fish as fuel is more common and was no doubt a customary source of light. The tail of the dogfish was cut into strips and burned for light off the banks of Newfoundland by fishermen. The mutton fish, which was captured off the coast of New Zealand, was used as a torch. The informant, I. B. Millner, has observed this use. Dr. Franz Boas informs me that the Kwa- kiutl Indians of Fort Rupert, British Columbia, threw fish oil from a kelp-weed bag onto the fire to produce a temporary bright light. One of these bags of the tubular sea weed, in flattened condition, from the Makah Indians, Neah Bay, Wash., is in the museum. (Cat. No. 73753; James G. Swan.) The torch proper is taken up at the stage when materials were aggregated into a definite form for the particular use—in other words, a manufactured product. This may result quite simply as a palm leaf crushed into a bundle and dried. (Pl. 1, fig. 1, Cat. No. 209351, Philippines; Gen. J. M. Bell.) This device has, however, a suggested primitive phase of industrial beginnings. In the area of distribution of the large grasses it is quite natural that bundles of canes should be tied together and used as a torch in many places. The Peabody Museum, at Cambridge, Mass., has such a contrivance from a prehistoric cave deposit in Kentucky. (Cat. No. 150845.) In the Truk Group, Caroline Islands, a bundle of natural canes — tied with strips of vegetal material served as a torch. (PI. 40, fig. 1, | Cat. No. 206274; F. H. Moore; 24.8 inches (63 cm.) long.) In the East Indies split bamboo torches were used by fishermen and others. One of these, from Mindanao, southern Philippines, is shown in HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM Z Plate 40, Figure 1. (Cat. No. 325617, Philippine Commission, 39.4 inches (1 m.) long.) In this class is a torch of strips of apparently palm spathe tied in a cylindrical bundle used by the Javanese and called abor mantjoung in native dialect. (Cat. No. 128017, Java; Bureau of Arts, Paris, 29 inches (73.6 cm.) long.) Another specimen is made of long splints of fat pine bundled together to form an especially effective torch for outdoor use in the wind. This torch was collected from the Choctaw Indians of Louisiana. (Cat. No. 178163; Walter Hough.) In the birch tree area bundles of dry bark are rolled up to form a torch for the woods or for fishing. (Cat. No. 178162, Iroquois Indians; Walter Hough.) On the information of W. W. Rockhill, the Chinese make torches by crushing bamboo and twisting it into a rope, the crushing of the fiber rendering it more inflammable. No resin or other aids to combustion are added as in the European link. Another class of torches has a wide distribution in southeastern Asia and in western and central Africa. They consist of cylindricai masses of resin bound up usually in palm leaf, pandanus leaf, and palm spathe. Apparently the first notice of them was given by Sir Alfred Russell Wallace, who records seeing them for sale at Ternate. This torch is common in Malaysia. It would appear that this type is coincident with the distribution of the dammar tree, which pro- duces the resin used in the torch. Specimens were received from Singapore about 50 years ago by the United States National Museum. They are encased in pandanus leaves and tied with rattan. The handle is a continuation of the leaf below the resin bound into small compass. (PI. 40, fig. 2, Cat. No. 76727, Singapore; U. S. Depart- ‘ment of State, 16.5 inches (24 cm.) long.) Plate 3 depicts a group of resin torches, except Figure 1, described later. Figure 2 is a simple packet of dammar wrapped in palm leaf, from the Karens of Burma. (Cat. No. 175194; Mrs. U. B. White; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) long.) (See pl. 7 for Siamese form.) The third specimen is spindle- form, wrapped in palm leaf and tightly bound with many turns of split rattan. It is evidently the work of a professional Siamese torch maker and reflects the meticulousness of Siamese art. (Cat. No. 175979, ‘Trong, Lower Siam; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 34.5 inches (84.5 cm.) long.) Figure 4 is a large resin torch from the Philippines. It is encased in palm leaf and spirally wound with rattan. It is lighted at the lower end shown in the plate, the twisted loops at the upper end being for temporary suspension. (Cat. No. 232826, Moros of Saranaya, Rio Grande, Mindanao; Maj. EK. A. Mearns, U. S. Army; 40 inches (102 cm.) long.) In one locality in the New World the resin torch is found. The type was collected at Arima, Porto Rico. It consists of a roll of resin 54261—28——_2 8 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM about the size of a candle and is incased in palm spathe. It appears to be the successor of torches made by the Caribs from the “gum of a sandal,” described by De Rochfort before 1665. (Fig. 5, Cat. No. 219403; Dr. J. Walter Fewkes; 11.8 inches (80 em.) long). Figure 6 is a resin torch from the Gaboon River, Africa. It is wrapped in palm leaf and tied with a pliable strip of some plant. (Cat. No. 164872; A. C. Good; 37 inches (94 cm.) long). For a large resin torch from the Congo see Plate 4c. Figure 7 is a resin torch of palm spathe inclosing a mass of fiber saturated with resin. The spathe casing is fastened at intervals with wooden pins. In several parts of Siam resin-soaked fiber is used as torch filling. In Burma rattan wood soaked in rock oil was used as a filler. (Cat. No. 175977, ‘Trong, Lower Siam; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 22.4 inches (57 em.) long). Figure 8 is a dammar torch wrapped in pandanus leaf. (See pl. 4b.) (Cat. No. 76727, Singapore; 16.5 inches (42 cm.) long.) The largest resin torch which has come to notice is from Loango, French Congo. It is a cylinder of compact resin wrapped first in palm leaf and incased in basketry consisting of strips of cane interwoven with a continuous spiral of rattan. This torch was used in fishing, traveling, and in fetish rites. (Pl. 4c, fig. 1, Cat. No. 152631; Carl Steckelmann; 52 inches (132 cm.) long.) A cylindrical mass of resin folded in pandanus leaf and resembling the Burmese specimen, shown on Plate 3, Figure 2,is from Siam. The resin is of reddish color, not homogeneous, and burns with a bright yellow light quite smoky and with a pleasant odor. (Pl. 4e, fig. 5, Cat. No. 178243, Siam, C. E. Eckels; 1334 inches (35 cm.) long). Another Siamese torch, short and thick, is shown in Figure 4. It is covered with thick rugose leaf and filled with resin-coated fiber. It is held | in shape by loops of rattan. (Cat. No. 235901, Siam; Government ° of Siam, 1907; 161% inches (41 cm.) long.) Figure 2 is a smaller resin torch from the Philippines. It is filled with granules of resin. The wrapping is pandanus leaf in several thicknesses to facilitate combustion. The binding is a spiral of rattan simply fastened off at the ends. (Cat. No. 232826, Moros of Mindanao, P. I.; Maj. E. A. Mearns, U. S. Army; 28 inches (71 cm.) long.) Plate 4c, Figure 3, is a resin fetish torch from the Gaboon River, Africa, collected also by A. C. Good. A widespread form of illumination which is classed as a torch is the candlenut device. Meats of the candlenut are strung on a strip of bamboo and the top meat being lighted burns down to the next below, and so on. On account of its universality among the Polynesians the torch has been assigned as a characteristic culture appanage of this race. It has, however, a wider distribution than the Aleurites triloba, the tree furnishing the nut. This is seen in a HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 9 similar use of palm nuts among the Tule Indians of San Blas, Panama.? The presence of this device in the New World seems anomalous and could be explained by acculturation, the oriental contact with Panama having been long continued. So far as known no other torch of this type has been observed in America. (PI. 40, fig. 8, Cat. No. 327508; Richard O. Marsh; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) long.) TORCH HOLDERS Torch-holding devices have an interesting history, not so familiar as the multitudinous candleholders, nevertheless covering a period about which much is yet to be learned. A torch is usually conceived of as an object to be held in the hand and requiring the attention of one man. ‘Traveling or hunting parties must delegate some mem- ber or servant as bearer and caretaker of the torch. About the camp or living place the temporary torch offers no difficulty when ingenu- ity was sufficient to provide for it. Where torches are used to supply light in ceremonies held on moonless nights and without the great fire which illuminated primitive rites, some need would be apparent to make the torch stationary. This would imply a marked advance over early culture. Such devices are observed among uncivilized peoples and as survivals. These devices are crude and appear as extemporaneous as the various makeshifts to mount the candle, men- tioned later. The problem of setting up the torch is in line with the problem of installing the candle in a later stage of progress. It is noteworthy that the installation of the resin torch in the Simalur Islands, East Indies, shows a considerable advance, paralleling that of the candle and simple lamp in an advanced social stage. The first form consists of a rattan bent into a bow, the ends fastened to parallel strips of wood. The strips are sprung out and a resin torch inserted. The frame resembles a bamboo lamp of Chinese deriva- tion seen in the Philippines. The other specimen is carved from light wood. It consists of an upright set up at one end of a flat long-oval base. The upright has a mortise cut through it about the middle, and through the hole are slipped two thin strips of wood, acting as a clamp for the resin torch. It will be seen that the prin- ciple of the clamp is applied in both specimens. A more primitive clamp is found in the split stick for the insertion of a torch used in the Philippines. (Pl. 5a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 216338, Sigoeli, Simalur Island; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 22 inches wide, 23 inches high (56 cm., 58.5 cm.). Pl. 5a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 216339, Sibabo Bay, Simalur Island; Dr. W. L. Abbott; 2814 inches high, 10 inches by 18 inches base (72.5 cm., 25.5 cm. by 45.75 cm.).) 2H. W. Krieger. Material Culture of the Tribes of Southeastern Panama. Buli. 134, U. S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1926. 10 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM There is now encountered a great and unnoticed change in the materials used in lighting. Splints of resinous wood supplement torches and the holders of these splints form a subject of particular interest. Splint torches or candles, as they have been indiscrimi- nately termed, indicate that social progress demanded the prolifera- tion of lights for special places and uses, and that the camp fire, house fire, and torch had grown inadequate for social needs. In effect, special lighting is being taken into the house. The date when this. gradual development became noticeable is not certain. Traces of the usage are found in the later bronze age, and bronze torch holders with two clasping arms were found in the tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen. In the collection of the late Henry J. Heinz, of Pittsburgh, is a trifid bronze stand allocated to Egypt, which appears to be a torch or splint holder. (PI. 50, fig. 1, No. 992, Heinz collection.) The Museum possesses a specimen of Etruscan origin found in Italy and dating from the middle of the first millennium B. C. It consists of a tripod and shaft, on the apex of which is a four branch portion, each arm terminating a cleft leaf in which splints were put for burning. It has been suggested that the central spine held the shal- low dish used in the wine throwing game of Cottobus, but there is no trace of a junction. (Pl. 6a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 147695, Italy; Dr. Thomas Wilson; 28 inches (71 cm.) high.) It is surmised that the large series of splint holders about to be described represent survivals from the iron age. As would be antici- pated from the metallurgy of northern Europe, most of the speci- mens are from that region. They are in the simplest form, strips of iron bent into flat loops and provided with spike ends for attaching to the wall or other support. In the clefts were placed splints of pine. (Pl. 5a, figs. 6, 7, Cat. No. 167866-867, Finland; Hon J. M. Craw- ford; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) wide.) These simple forms of iron bent into clefts have their prototypes in the iron age. There has been found in a site of the Hallstadt period, early iron age, in Court St. Etienne, Belgium,’ a much bent bar of strap iron which is identified by its discoverer as a sort of grate. This specimen may be related to the splint holders described. With this in mind, the status of the family of rude iron splint holders appears clear, and their variety to be the result of simple folk invention. A rod of iron with a double cleft at one end and a spike at the other shows a device for fixing to an overhead beam, forming a primitive splint chandelier. (PI.. 5a, fig. 8, Cat. No. 167865, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 15- inches (88 cm.) long.) Another is for socketing on the end of a staff. It has two divergent horizontal clefts and a basket made by four upright spikes, probably to hold a billet of split wood or * Records of the Past, vol. 11, 1912, p. 123. HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 11 possibly a candle, as seen in later forms. (PI. 5a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 937687, Salaberg, Lower Austria; P. J. Schock; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) high.) A wooden stand splint holder gives a suggestion of devices which may be effected in the absence of iron. It consists of two strips of wood mortised together at the top of a cylindrical staff with square cross shape joined base. The clefts are charred from ignition of the burned down splints, showing that the wooden holder required frequent attention. (Pl. 5a, fig. 5, Finland; Hon. John M. Craw- ford; 15.8 inches (36 cm.) high.) An iron splint holder set in the top of a cylindrical wood upright arising from a square, heavy wooden base provides a light to be set on a table or other raised flat place. (Pl. 50, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167861, Raisala, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) high.) Another form for standing on the floor is ingenious and shows a considerable advance in wood working. It consists of a block base with two uprights having grooves cut on the opposing faces. The tops of the uprights are held by a mortised piece through which slides the upright bearing the iron holder. The upright is notched and the lower end is mortised in a crutch which slides in the grooves. A latch fastened to one of the bars forming the frame engages the notches on the sliding upright and thus the light may be raised or lowered. (PI. 6a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167859, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 39.4 inches (1 m.) high.) The entry of the candle is shown by an iron having a splint cleft in combination with a candle socket. This is an interesting example of history written in things. The candle, made of valuable food fat, is subsidiary at first to the cheap splint, and was probably burnt on special occasions. (Pl. 60, fig. 5, Cat. No. 167865, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 4.6 inches (12 cm.) wide.) There appears to have been in Finland a fortu- nately undisturbed conservatism which preserved precious relics and customs of past times. Much of the folk material in the Crawford collection might serve as illustrations of early Aryan arts and industries. Splint holders of pincer form with one arm weighted to produce pressure on the splint constitute another type. This type shows an advance on the simple bent iron cleft which gives uncertain adjust- ment of the splint. The pincer type gives a grip on the splint similar to the grasp of the fingers. So far as may be ascertained, the join- ing of two pieces of metal in apposition on the pivot hinge principle was not practiced in the Bronze Age or in the prehistoric Iron Age. The hinged splint holder must then be assigned to the historic period. ‘This device is seen in a floor splint light which has a cross- shape base and an upright of wood perforated at intervals for the reception of an iron spike, part of the iron splint pincers, by means 12 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM of which the light could be raised or lowered. (PI. 60, fig. 1, Cat. No. | 150884, Surrey, England; Edward Lovett; 35 in. (89 cm.) high.) | Another specimen dating in the seventeenth century consists of an oak pole rising from a block of the same material. The splint holder has a rather large ball counterpoise at the end of one arm. | (Pl. 60, fig. 8, Cat. No. 150410, Surrey, England; Edward Lovett; 33.7 inches (86 cm.) high.) An example from Scotland, where it is called “Peer man,” is of cast iron. It has a heavy counterpoise. The specimen, being of cast iron, is not as old as the other examples. (Pl. 60, fig. 6. Edward Lovett.) As candles in the British Isles were preceded by fir splints and fatted rushes, some of the lighter holders were used with the latter illuminant. When tallow candles with rush wicks came into use the “clip,” as the holder is called, was fitted with a candle socket at the end of the counterpoise. History here repeats itself as in the Finnish splint holders described, | but at a later period apparently. Specimens are shown on Plate 6b, | Figure 4 (Cat. No. 150382, from Surrey, England, collected by Edward Lovett, and Figure 8 (Cat. No. 178799 from Antrim, Ire- land), by the same collector (8 inches (20.3 cm.) high and 9.7 inches (24.5 cm.) high). An excellent specimen of splint and candle clip with adjustable rack comes from North Germany. It is of wrought iron. The lower end of the notched iron bears the socket and clip. The support is a rod of iron with a loop at the upper end and a stirrup for engaging the ratchet at the lower end. (Pl. 6b, fig. 2, Cat. No. 289195, Germany; Mrs. Rose Gouvernor Hoes; 24.2 inches (61.5 cm.) long.) A specimen which might be regarded as a curiosity of the Patent Office was a pine knot burner, devised and patented by J. Price, December 18, 1839. The time honored candle dish is seen as a basis of this invention, the columnar burner represents the candle and the slide was a device of long ago. The holder for pine knot wood is perforated with heart design. The specimen is of normal size and made of brass and tin. (Pl. 64, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251738, United States; U. S. Patent Office; 12.2 inches (31 cm.) high.) Loosely called torch, a number of open-air lighting devices are in the Museum collection. Among these are basket torches which have ancient use and which survived in the whaling industry as late as 1880. These baskets were of strap iron strongly riveted. One old specimen is square and shows signs of much use. It was probably suspended overboard by a bail from the rigging and fed with the cracklings left after rendering the whale oil. It thus gave light to the Homeric slaughterings of the mighty whales. (Pl. 7a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 75358.) Other basket torches had long handles and could be placed to advantage for illuminating the work on an old-time HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 13 whaler. In the fisheries collection is an iron basket at the end of a long iron rod socketed in the extremity of a wooden pole. This appliance was called “Torch Dragon” and was used in mackerel fishing to attract the fish to the seine. (PI. 7a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 57,829, Gloucester, Mass.; U. S. Fish Commission.) Fishing torches for _ placing in the bow of a canoe are of various materials and variously installed. Broadly, they are torches used by peoples unacquainted with metals and those having metals. In the first case the torches are bundles of bark, canes, or slivered wood. In the second case a basket of iron, or lantern, or a so-called torch with wick may be used. Tn the first class the birch bark torch of the northern Indians may be cited as an example (pl. 7)). The model canoe was made by north- ern Algonquians and the group composed in the Museum laboratory. The other, almost as primitive, but made of iron, is a fishing torch holder from Finland. This apparatus consists of a block of wood fitting in a thole in the bow of the boat and bearing a bent piece of iron having three U-shaped loops riveted to it. In these loops was laid the torch or lightwood. (Pl. 7a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 167864, Antrea, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 23.2 inches long, 6 inches wide (59 em., 15cm.) A torch displaying considerable ingenuity was used on the whalers about half a century ago. It consists of a can with handle and match case combined, the lid of the can having a long handle, a shield, and an iron rod with a burner of perforated and plain iron plates attached to the end. In use, the can was charged with the illuminant, apparently rape-seed oil, the burner always bathed in the oil, withdrawn, lighted with a match, and replaced in the can, and smothered out when the exigency was over. ‘To obviate any gas pressure, an air vent was led in a tube from the bottom of the can. The specimen was presented in 1882 by C. A. Williams and Co. (PI. 8a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 75370, New London, Conn., col- lected by J. Templeton Brown; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.) On account of a survival of usage in the open air the name torch is applied to vessels having a large wick burning oil. In reality these belong in the single-wick type of lamps and mostly are mod- ern. Of these, torches carried in political processions are familiar examples. One of these, rudely made of tin and fitted with a gas- pipe wick tube, is said to have been carried in a torchlight proces- sion during the Lincoln campaign. (PI. 8a, fig. 5, Cat. No. 289457; Anton Heitmuller; 4.6 inches (12 cm.) dia., 7.8 inches (20 cm.) high.) Another, more elaborate, is a flare torch of tin painted red with long tubular handle. Air is blown through the flame by means of a tube, the mouth of which projects from the handle. (PI. 8a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 251476; U. S. Patent Office; 24.4 inches (62 cm.) long. Patented August 1, 1876, by I. W. Shaler.) A hand torch 14 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM of sheet iron with brazed joints and cast handle riveted on is from | British Columbia, where it is said to have been used by miners and | other frontiersmen and sold by the Hudson Bay Company. (PI. 8a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 326755, British Columbia; Walter Hough; 9.8 inches (25 em.) high.) An interesting torch of tin with brass wick tube | was used on mackerel fishing boats at Gloucester, Mass., in 1882. It has a tube below for fitting on a staff. (Pl. 8a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 54384; U. S. Fish Commission; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter, 8.6 inches (22 cm.) high.) A heavy cast-iron torch used formerly by engineers and others on railroads was recently received. It has cast on one side “P. R. R. Bayton Malleable Iron Co. X1028.” (Cat. No. 825618; Walter Hough; 9.3 inches (23.5 cm.) high.) CANDLE The crude torch and the flambeau passed out among civilized peoples in the course of progress, but one of the elements of the flambeau survived as the taper. This waxed or fatted cord was burned in vessels like lamps or wound in a coil or on a support presenting many forms due to expediency or taste. The taper was | very useful, and indeed still may be found on sale where fashion and conservatism demand the use of sealing wax. In European countries the taper still has a cult use. The role of the taper in the development of the candle may have been important. There is probability that the southern European candle had the taper as ancestor. The conditions were complete for such a development. In northern Europe, however, the candle is clearly a development from the fatted rush. The far eastern Asiatic candle has still another origin, also using pith of the rush as a wick. There are thus seen three avenues of approach to the invention of the candle traceable at the present. It is not to be concluded that these are all. The candle is a device which depends on conditions, prin- cipally on the stage of human advance in culture, and, therefore, given flocks and herds for the production of abundant suitable fats, the candle may have arisen, but it must arise out of earlier uses of substances for light. This combination of circumstances could have assembled in the early Bronze Age among peoples favorably situated. Some of the commercial tapers purchased about 35 years ago are shown in Plate 8b. Figure 8 is a slender white taper wound in an ingenious way to uncoil through an aperture in the holder. (Cat. No. 167065, Seville, Spain; Walter Hough; 2.4 inches (6 cm.) diameter.) Figure 7 is a bundle of thicker taper of unbleached bees- wax from north Spain, purchased at an almacen, or store, selling ecclesiastical objects. (Cat. No. 167062, Burgos, Spain; Walter Hough; 1.6 inches (4 cm.) diameter, 3.1 inches (8 cm.) high.) Fig- HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 15 ure 5 is a bleached wax taper coiled on a wooden support sold by stationers and known as “ Pomeroy’s coiled taper.” (Cat. No. 150431, Washington, D. C.; Walter Hough; 2.7 inches (7 cm.) high.) Figure 6 is a wax taper coiled to fit’a holder, through the opening of which it can be easily drawn up as needed. (Cat. No. 167062, Burgos, Spain; Walter Hough; 1.5 inches (4 cm.) diameter.) The taper is found still in use in the float lights or night lights, in wax matches, and in the long cords used in the almost obsolete gas lighter. Small candles called tapers will be discussed under candles. TAPER HOLDERS Such appliances as have survived depend on the use of the taper for special purposes such as sealing letters or for a temporary small light. In one specimen the familiar clip with spring is seen. (PI. 8d, fig. 2, Cat. No. 289449; France; Anton Heitmuller; 5.1 inches (13 cm.) high.) In this specimen to install the taper coil the screw top and clip were taken off, the taper slid over the upright, and the clip replaced. The extinguisher attached to the clip by a chain is missing. A very old Italian taper holder of fine ironwork has a clip with spring. The clip is mounted on an upright rod arising from a square table with ornately cut edge and four curved legs with ball feet. Around the rod the taper is wound and brought up to the clip. This taper holder appears to date late seventeenth cen- tury. (Pl. 8d, fig. 1, Cat. No. 168311, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.) Another form has a receptacle for the taper, which is drawn up through a bell-shaped orifice. The extinguisher has an arm fitting into a small tube somewhat as the candle extin- guisher to be described. (PI. 80, fig. 8, Cat. No. 8324719, Washington, D. C.; E. D. Tabler; 3.1 inches (8 cm.) diameter, 2.7 inches (7 cm.) high.) Another is of openwork brass of elaborate decoration. It has an extinguisher on a chain. (PI. 88, fig. 4, Cat. No. 167662, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 2.3 inches (6 cm.) diameter, 3.5 inches (9 cm.) high.) CANDLE MAKING In the remarks on the development of illumination the growth of the candle was considered from the standpoint of invention. There follow notes on the materials and processes of the industry. The materials for candles are not many. In nature vegetal sub- stances preponderate over those available from animal sources, yet only in a few places have vegetal fats and waxes been used for candles, and most of these sporadic attempts belong to the modern period. In China and Japan, however, is seen a replica of the western candle industry based mainly on valuable illuminating sub- stances derived from the tallow tree, Stillingia sebifera, of eastern China, and the Rhus succedanea, of Japan. In both cases the wax 16 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM or “tallow” occurs on the seeds as in the Vyrica cerifera, from which myrtle wax candles are made occasionally in eastern North America. The process of extraction is similar, freeing the wax from the seeds by means of heat and pressure. The Chinese tree tallow has a rather low melting point, below summer temperature, and it is found neces- sary to put on such candles a substantial coating of beeswax or insect wax. In southern China candles of animal fats are so covered. The Cocus pela, or Chinese wax insect is found on the Ligustrum japonicum, L. obtusifolium, L. tibola, and Rhus succedaneum. The eggs are gathered from nests on the above trees in the fall and kept wrapped in reed leaves. At the beginning of May the eggs are placed | upon the proper trees, usually Praxinus chinensis, where they hatch | about the 1st of June and begin wax making. In September the wax is scraped from the twigs where it has been deposited, melted with boiling water, and cast into cakes. It is a white crystalline substance resembling the best spermaceti. It melts at 152° F. and is thus suitable for summer candles. The Cocus pela is a relative of the lac insect, which produces a valuable product known as shellac. This is an interesting example of man’s skill in adapting the habits of insects to his needs. So far as the candle is concerned, the in- dustry is aided by the products from two insects, the Cocus and the bee. | It appears that the beeswax candle has a fairly ancient history © in the West among the historic nations. While there is evidence that the ancient Aryans practiced apiculture, using dome-shape hives of coiled straw, there is no basis for the belief that candles were used. Candle making in China applies notable skill in the industry. The first requirement are slender rods finished from — bamboo and tapered from base to point. (PI. 9a, fig. 1, Cat. No. | 325619; Chinese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia, 1876.) The next in order is a spill or tube of paper wound spirally, with rush pith forming the wick (fig. 5). This is slipped on the bamboo rod. The Chinese thus solved the problem of the high-capillarity wick. (Pl. 9a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325619; Chinese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia, 1876.) The combination is then dipped in the melted wax or fat and cooled alternately until a candle of the caliber re- quired is secured, forming the finished candle shown in Plate 9a, Figure 3 (15.7 inches (40 cm.) long). The pink candles of graded size (figs. 6-10) are made by the same method as are the large candles. In the latter a vegetable stem is used instead of a bamboo rod upon which the rush pith wick is wound. (PI. 9a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 98478, Ningpo, China; Royal Gardens, Kew, England; 8 inches (20.5 cm.) long.) This specimen is wax incased, green, and orna- mented with characters, as is the other specimen. (PI. 9a, fig. 11, HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 17 Cat. No. 93479, Tung Cheng, China; same donor; 11 inches (28 cm.) long.) The latter is softer and apparently is of tree tallow. Japanese candles follow generally the methods of Chinese manu- facture. It is more than probable that the art of making candles was introduced from the older country. The candles made by the Japanese are more accurately and neatly finished than the Chinese. They are frequently beautifully decorated. The industry also was most carefully organized in every detail. An ingenious method of molding candles in paper tubes was worked out by the Japanese. In the Western Hemisphere a number of local or domestic indus- tries connected with wax yielding trees and plants may be noted. The bayberry, Myrica cerifera, of the eastern coast of the United States produces a waxy substance which in the earlier days of the country was made into candles by economical housewives of New England. It is said to have been discovered by a New England surgeon who made it into candles and introduced it into medicine. The Indians made no use of the wax, as stated by Pere Lafiteau in his work of 1724. In Middlesex, west side of the Connecticut River, near Haddam, is Candleberry Hill. There is tradition of the use of the wax from berries here to make candles during the Revolution. The method of extracting the wax was to fill a kettle half full of water, put in bayberries and boil them. The heated mass was then put in a bag over a kettle of water and strained. As the water cooled a film of wax consolidated on the surface. This was the desired wax. The wax was not only used in making candles but wax mixed with tallow to harden the candles made for summer use. The wax was also sold in drug stores. The cylinders employed in the early graphophones were made of this wax. Candles were made in Brazil from wax from the Ceroxylon, or wax palm. In northern Brazil the Klopstockia cerifera (cornauba), pro- duced a useful wax, as does a Myrica in Peru. The Virola sebifera (dari), a large tree growing in Demarara, bears seeds from which candles equal to wax was made. Specimens of bayberry candles from New England are Cat. No. 229926; Alice Morse Earle. Rude candles of myrtle wax, made by natives of Puerto Plata, Santo Domingo, are Cat. No. 29923. (Charles A. Frazer; 12.2-15 inches (31-88 cm.) long.) An account of bayberry wax is found in Scientific American Supplement.+ Rush candles in the British Isles preceded the candle with textile fiber wick, and followed the fatted rush which was used in the clips described. Rushes were gathered, the cortex peeled off, exposing the pith except a small strip of the outer covering which was allowed to remain to sustain the fragile pith. These were dipped in hot fat #Sept. 1, 1883, p. 6385. 18 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM and put away to season. (Cat. No. 150410, Surrey, England; Edward Lovett; 14 inches (35.5 cm.) long.) They were later “dipped ” by the usual domestic process for tallow candles. Rush wicks, even with part of the cortex left on, were not strong enough to pull in molds, hence such candles were dipped, a method preceding the use of molds. Tinned iron candle molds are comparatively common, and many are seen in collections where they point out that formerly candle making was an important domestic industry. In reality the molds represent a method of economy among our ancestors in that small amounts of fat could be worked up into candles with the molds when required. Generally on the plantations, where a great many candles were necessary, sufficient were made for the whole year by dipping, which was far more expeditious than by molds. Candle dipping was usually coincident with the butchering of the winter stores of meat, at which time much fat was accumulated. The molds shown range from 3 tubes to 24 tubes. The 3-tube specimen has lost the stand. (PI. 10, fig. 1, Cat. No. 127281, Lynch- burg, Va.; Mrs. Ed. Hunter; 9.7 inches (24.5 cm.) high. Fig. 2 has 6 tubes. Cat. No. 298359, Virginia, Dr. P. B. Johnson; 10.8 inches (27.5 cm.) high.) The 8-tube specimen retains the stand. The tubes are less tapered than in the examples described. (Fig. 3, Cat. No. 126825, Virginia; Mrs. G. Brown Goode; 11 inches (28 cm.) high.) The 24-tube mold has handles on two sides and the tubes are only slightly tapered. (Fig. 4, Cat. No. 175464; Morgantown, W. Va.; Walter Hough; 11 inches (28 cm.) high.) Slender candles called tapers have still a general currency for religious use. As suggested, these are survivals of the flambeaux tapers cut into lengths for a definite use. They are intended to be carried in the hand and rarely or never are sticks designed for them. Plate 96 figures a number of these tapers. Figure 1 is a bundle of mocoluteori used in the Roman carnival. They are very slender and of white wax. (Cat. No. 154308, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 9 inches (23 cm.) long.) Figures 2, 3, and 4 are bundles of tapers sold in the churches and used by the devout in processions and other ceremonials. The tapers in Figure 2 are rather large and of natural yellow wax. Those of Figure 3 are long and slender natural wax. Figure 4 are red tapers. (Cat. No. 238067, 238070, 238068, Manila, P. I.; Philippine Commission; 12.6 inches (32 em.) long, 13.4 inches (34 cm.) long, 10.2 inches (26 em.) long.) Figure 5 is of a bundle of white, red, orange, yellow, pink, and green tapers bought at Madrid, Spain, and used in Christmas festivities in 1892. (Cat. No. 166996; Walter Hough; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) long.) Figure 6 are small candles of red, white, and green wax and called tapers. They were “ bought | HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 19 (and freely burned) in the Great Golden Pagoda at Rangoon, Burma, December 30, 1885,” writes the donor. (Cat. No. 129532, Rangoon, Burma; Rev. C. H. A. Dall; 3.8 inches (9.5 cm.) long.) There are a number of candleholders connected with special occu- pations and of much human interest. ‘These show invention off the beaten track and are examples of the adaptiveness of the plain people. About the domestic textile industry there are needs for special lighting and a number have been used. The weaver, for instance, plying her loom in the twilight hours or on dark days had a thin S-shape iron candlestick with a hook to hang it con- veniently before the work. (PI. 60, fig, 7, Cat. No. 178798, Antrim, Treland; Edward Lovett; 18 inches (46 cm.) long.) ‘The brewer had a candleholder cut from a block of wood with hand grasp, socket in the middle and an awl point at the other end for thrusting into casks. (PI. 11a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 178361, Washington, D. C.; George Woltz; 7.9 inches (20 cm.) long.) Another form of iron with a vertical and horizontal spike leg was useful in many places from the holds of New England ships to the barns of New Jersey. (PI. 11a, fig. 3, Cat. No. 25937, Gloucester, Mass.; A. McCurdy Crittenden; 4.5 inches (11.5 cm.) long.) Western hard rock miners used a candlestick having a spring socket, a hook, a loop handle, and a long spike which on emergency could be or was reported to be useful as a dagger. (Pl. lla, fig. 2, Cat. No. 129836, Colorado; Edward Wyman; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) long.) The miner’s candle- stick seems to have attracted American inventive spirit, for several improvements on the older form are in the collection. One specimen of excellently finished ironwork has a hinged spike with pivoted stop, which when folded down allows the candle to be hung to the hat by means of the hooks. The patent was granted September 4, 1877. (Pl. 11a, fig. 5, Cat. No. 251460; U. S. Patent Office; 7.7 inches (18.5 cm.) long.) Another is a miner’s folding candlestick with a knife blade incorporated. (Pl. ila, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251466; U. S. Patent Office; dated April 3, 1883. 8.2 inches (21 cm.) long.) Dur- ing the Civil War in the United States the bayonet sometimes had a more peaceful employment than its designed purpose as a candle- stick. Fortunately, the caliber of the bayonet and that of the candles used at the period agreed, but any adjustment necessary could be made with a bit of paper. (PI. 110, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325620; Walter Hough; 20.5 inches (52 cm.) long.) The Northern lumber- jacks had a device suggesting the bayonet candlestick. The candle was held in the cleft of a sharpened stick by a strip of birch bark. Model from a drawing by David I. Bushnell, jr. (Pl. 110, fig. 1, Cat. No. 325621, 23.4 inches (59.5 cm.) long.) The famed Gloucester fisherman in the eighties used a tin candle dish furnished with a 20 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM long, sharp iron spike for sticking in a convenient wooden wall. A pair of these is in the fisheries collection of the National Museum. (Pl. 11a, fig. 6, 7, Cat. No. 54416, Gloucester, Mass.; J. W. Collins; 10.2 inches (26 cm.) long.) They were used in the hold in storing fish. PRICKET CANDLESTICKS It has seemed necessary to use the name pricket candlestick for the candlestick having a spine on which the candle is stuck and socket candlestick for the common type used to-day. In practice it suffices to understand that candlestick means the socket type. The pricket type is found in eastern Asia and Europe. The surviving European examples are almost entirely ecclesiastical and large, for placing on altars. The pricket would suffice for holding the candle on stationary candlesticks, but for ambulant candlesticks the socket would seem better. The Museum has an excellent specimen in the form of a seven-branch wrought-iron processional candelabrum with prickets. The stem is expanded into a disk, and below is a socket for a staff by which the lights were carried. The specimen is of the fourteenth century. (Pl. 12, fig. 3, Cat. No. 176329, France; S. B. Dean; 32.5 inches (57 cm.) high, 13.3 inches (34 em.) wide.) Two pricket church candlesticks of European provenance are figured in Plate 12. Figure 1 is of heavy bronze with large base and a drip catcher above, in the center of which is the spike. (Cat. No. 289421, Hildesheim, Germany; Anton Heitmuller; 20 inches (51 cm.) high.) This specimen may be taken as type of the massive roundel church candlesticks of the north. Figure 2 is a Spanish example of carved wood skillfully plated over with sheet iron, painted and gilt. Altar candlesticks of this sort are sometimes very large and are frequently observed in Spain. (Cat. No. 289421, Spain; Anton Heitmuller; 19.3 inches (49 cm.) high.) A spike stick two-arm iron wall light of the fourteenth or fifteenth century is represented as driven be- tween the stones of a wall. This rare specimen is of handwork in soft iron, is very strong, and of graceful outline. (PI. 18, fig. 3, Cat. No. 169094, England; S. B. Dean; 11 inches (28 cm.) wide.) Asiatic pricket candlesticks are practically confined to China and Japan, and are usually representations of mythological beings. The candlesticks accompanying the ceremonial set used in ancestor wor- ship at present may be excepted. The bronze figure holding a ve~e with flower candlestick appears to be one of a pair employed a long time ago in such worship. It is from the Henry J. Heinz collection, Pittsburgh, Pa. (PI. 12, fig. 4, Cat. No. (1748 Heinz), China.) The pricket is observed on a finely made folding candlestick from Japan and a stork standing on the back of a turtle and bearing a branch HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 21 ‘in its bill. (PI. 18, fig. 1, Cat. No. 248625, Japan; Eleanor Wallace; 15.3 inches (39 cm.) high, and fig. 2, Cat. No. 315086, Japan; Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff; 11.5 inches (29 cm.) high.) WOODEN CANDLESTICKS Specimens of wood are not common, perhaps on account of the thought of risk of burning. Most of those in the Museum collection are from parts of Finland, secured at a time when a most interesting primitiveness was observed in the life of the folk. Plate 14, figure 7, is a joined candlestick of wood with an iron socket. This candle- stick was whittled from wood in a way to suggest turning. (Cat. No. 167862; Hon. John M. Crawford; 10.1 inches (26 cm.) high.) Fig- ure 9 is made from a multiforked branch, with the socket cut out of the stem. (Cat. No. 167863, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 5.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) Figure 10 appears to be a very old speci- men cut from wood. (Cat. No. 167941, Finland; Hon. John M. Crawford; 5.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) Figure 8 is a candlestick turned from walnut and used in the church of the Seventh Day Adventists at Ephrata, Lancaster County, Pa., many years ago. (Cat. No. 4,812; Miss Concordia W. Myers; 7.8 inches (20 cm.) high.) CANDLESTICKS OF EARTHENWARE AND STONE Ruder forms of unglazed pottery and examples cut from soft stone are presented here. They are folk craft not depending in most cases on a customary form such as appear at the time of the trades. An interesting specimen is a cylindrical block of chalk with central candle socket. This was used by the Brandon, England, gun-flint makers for measuring time while at work. Chips of flint were stuck in the candle at one-hour spaces previously determined. (PI. 14, fig. 1, Cat. No. 211911, Brandon, England; Edward Lovett; 2.7 inches (7 cm.) diameter.) Figure 3 is cut from sandstone and rudely ornamented with parallel scores representing rain. Rude stone candlesticks have been collected from several of the eastern Pueblos. They are of course post-Conquest and appear to have been used in the Mission churches. (Pl. 14, fig. 3, Cat. No. 234749, Jemez, Pueblo, New Mexico; Mrs. Matilda C. Stevenson; 5 inches (12.7 cm.) diameter.) Figure 2 is an earthenware candlestick slightly glazed, with drip catcher and hole for ejecting the stub end. (Cat. No. 115797, Indian potters of San Pedro, Mexico; Ed- ward Palmer; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) diameter.) Figure 5 is an earthen- ‘ware dish candlestick which is quite effective for its lowly use. (Cat. No. 73893, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico; Louis H. Aymé; 4.4 inches (11 cm.) diameter.) Figure 6 is a candlestick pinched out of clay and baked. It was used by the Indians of Santa Cruz, Mexico. (Cat. No. 175565; Edward Palmer; 3.3 inches (8.5 cm.) diameter.) i 22 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM | Figure 4 is an earthenware figure of a reclining Bacchus supporting | a floriated candle socket. This is a modern conception, (Cat. No. 129408, Italy; Mrs. E. S. Brinton, 4.1 inches (10.5 cm.) long.) GLAZED POTTERY AND GLASS CANDLESTICKS The candlestick on its material side reflects to some extent periods | of culture and phases of art. A North African candlestick of | earthenware glazed and decorated with ornamentation in deep blue is a worthy exhibit of native handiwork and art. (Pl. 15, fig. 1, collected at Tetuan, Morocco, by Dr. and Mrs. Talcott Williams; | 16.3 inches (41 cm.) high.) As a rule, earthenware candlesticks offer great difficulties in manufacture and are, therefore, not so common as those made of finer materials by modern processes of manufacture. Among the almost infinite kinds and conditions of | modern candlesticks it is possible to touch but few and those of the | average within the means of the average people. One example of a | highly glazed stoneware is shown in Plate 14, Figure 14. It dates about 1870 and was made in Hungary. (Cat. No. 325622, Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, 6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) Porcelain was | a favorite medium for candlesticks. The pair shown in Plate 14, | Figures 11 and 12, are of Liverpool china and date about 1820. (Cat. No. 317638, England; Mrs. N. L. White; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) | high.) The pair marked Figure 15 on the plate are German, prob- ably (Royal Saxon) Meissen, and date near 1800. (Cat. No. 289428, | Germany, Anton Heitmuller; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) Figure | 13 is of dark green cut glass of Bohemian manufacture, about 1840. | (Cat. No. 800321, Czechoslovakia; Mrs. C. E. Danforth; 10.6 inches | (27 cm.) high.) SILVER AND PLATE CANDLESTICKS The technic of the brass worker is radically different from that of the silversmith. The brass worker descends in the line of the | bronze and cast-iron workers of antiquity, while the silver worker’ emerges with the pattern maker (perhaps of lamps) of old Rome. | The difference is between casting and beating or pressure. It is) understood, of course, that brass was often beaten in the method of silver and copper, but neither of the latter was cast as a practical | method of working. The candlestick figured on Plate 16, Figure 3, | is a case in point. It is an old Sheffield Baroque candlestick made | of sheet copper silvered by rolling that metal with copper by the well-known Sheffield process. The socket roundels, swell of the stem, | are formed by spinning, beating, or other processes and joined to | form the candlestick. (Cat. No. 311537, England, Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.7 inches (30 cm.) high.) The base of this candlestick: is loaded and covered with coarse green baize. Two pairs of desk candlesticks of silver are good examples of the silversmith’s art and a oa © peed yee ~ eeeO. geld Qed ne ee re Ne a a ee eee ee ee en ge a HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 23 skill in design. The pair to the left had the Victorian hallmark of 1886 and the initials of the maker, J. K. B. These are no doubt a.copy of earlier Georgian silversmith’s work. The base is loaded with cutler’s cement of resin covered with an iron plate. (Pl. 17, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311534, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 5.2 inches (13 cm.) high.) The second pair are the antithesis in design of the first pair, showing a circular base and a stem of soft curves. The base is loaded with a cast-iron plate. (PI. 17, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311535, (no mark) ; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) high.) More ornate candlesticks are Sheffield with mark, probably 1800, and appear to follow the French style of Louis the Fourteenth. (Pl. 17, fig, 4, Cat. No. 311531, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.) The middle pair are plate, Rococo in style, and follow the art of Louis Sixteenth, the stem showing the return to classical art. (Pl. 17, fig. 5, Cat. No. 311532, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 12.6 inches (382 cm.) high.) The third pair of Sheffield plate are called Chip- pendale; that is, following the conception of that master designer. The sockets are oblong rectangular. The bases are weighted and the bottoms covered with green baize. The date of these candle- sticks is believed to be near 1770. (PI. 17, fig. 6, Cat. No. 311530, England; Elizabeth 8. Stevens; 10.4 inches (27 cm.) high.) At one period many candlesticks were made in France from designs fur- nished by sculptors, sometimes by eminent artists who may have been in need. The period perhaps coincided with that of pottery figures and groups, which must always be regarded as an unwar- ranted departure from the true field of ceramics. To some extent the same may be said of the candlestick miniature groups in silver and brass which served mainly to increase the supply of scarcely useful bric-a-brac. A pair of these is shown in Plate 17, Figure 1, representing a camel bearing a fanciful candle socket. This pair is marked Reed and Barton and simulates silver. (Cat. No. 311651, United States; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.) CANDLESTICKS OF PRWTER Not so many pewter candlesticks have come down from the period of their use. Pewter, on account of its liability to distortion and the care required to keep it presentable, and also the economic demand for old pewter for other uses, had a tendency to become scarce. One of the best specimens of pewter candlestick is that which belonged to Col. Joseph Warner, of the Massachusetts Colony, exhibited in the collection of the Society of Colonial Dames in the historical collec- tion of the U. S. National Museum. (Cat. No. 486, Massachusetts; Mrs. Marcus Benjamin; 8.5 inches (21 cm.) high. PI. 16, fig. 1). Two old German pewter candlesticks from Hildesheim are in the collection. They are enameled, except on the rings in red and 54261—28-——_3 24 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM yellow, respectively. No marks are observed on these specimens. (Pl. 19, fig. 19, Cat. No. 289427; Anton Heitmuller; 7.7 inches | (19.5 cm.) high.) The Chinese used pewter candlesticks on the altar | of ancestor worship, some elaborate and some plain. These are | pricket candlesticks. (See p. 20.) (Pl. 18, fig. 1, Cat. No. 75344; Chinese Centennial Commission, Philadelphia, 1876; 13.3 inches | (33.5 cm.) high.) A pair of handsome candlesticks in metal resem- bling pewter, shown on Plate 18, Figure 2, are of English manufac- ture and appear to be Georgian, or after a Georgian model which was probably in silver. (Cat. No. 311678, Elizabeth S. Stevens; 7.8 inches (22.5 cm.) high.) CANDLESTICKS OF BRASS It is really a short time comparatively since the socket candlestick took its place as an important feature of house furnishings. The Romans left candlesticks in the débris of the ancient Roman station of Saalberg, Germany, but it was many centuries before they became usual in Europe. Brass, the useful alloy which was known in India in the third century B. C., became widely disseminated. More lamps, candlesticks, and religious objects were made of brass than of any other metal. It would seem not beside the mark to term the period following the Bronze Age and before the wide distribution of iron the Age of Brass. There is no doubt that brass candlesticks are the oldest form of this lighting device in metal. It is difficult, however, to date the common brass candlestick except special patterns which have arisen generally at a late period in various cultured countries. The roundel sticks seem to go back very far and are molded from wood turned patterns, which accounts for their resemblance to prod- ucts of the lathe worker’s art. Candlesticks of the roundel type, which may be assigned to the American colonial period and subse- quently, have an oblong rectangular or square base with truncated or rounded corners, cut separately and joined to the stem. Plate 19, Figure 16, is a colonial mantel or table candlestick of brass. (Cat. No. 216269, Pennsylvania; Anton Heitmuller; 8 inches (20.5 cm.) high.) There appears to be no data as to when the manufacture of candlesticks of this type was discontinued. It may be hazarded that it was about 1860, near the period when coal oil struck a dis- astrous blow to the candlestick industry. Replicas, however, have been occasionally made to supply a certain demand. The specimen (pl. 16, fig. 2) appears to be in this class. (Cat. No. 311538, United States; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) high.) Figure 4 is a solid brass cast of the turned wood model more slender and grace- ful than those described and tastefully ornamented. (Cat. No. 311,- 539, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.7 inches (27 cm.) high.) HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 25 This specimen is not old, but is probably a replica of an older candle- stick. Another ornate pair shows how far variation may be carried on the old turned wood model. (PI. 19, fig. 17, Cat. No. 325911, England; M. L. Turner; 10.8 inches (27.5 em.) high.) There are many solid cast brass candlesticks with slender roundel stem and oblong rectangular base with claw or ball feet, of which the date is not ascertained. Some of the specimens in the collection are much worn and damaged, more so than the English baluster type, and appear old. (Pl. 19, fig. 18, Cat. No. 290442, France; Mrs. C. E. Bates; 10 inches (25.5 cm.) high.) Brass candlesticks in general are provided with a simple device for pushing up the candle ends in the socket for economical burning. Thisis a rod passing upward through the stem and terminating in the socket with a disk. When this device began to be utilized is not ascertained; also there is no information as to whether it was patented. If not, it was applied to candlesticks before the establishment of patent offices. CANDLESTICKS OF HAMMERED IRON A familiar iron candlestick of early times in America was a widely accepted type because it was indestructible and serviceable to the limit of early ideas of economy. It had a cupped base, a straight tube with a slide, and a rim around the top provided with a hook for hanging up or for carrying. On occasion this candle- stick in virtue of the cupped base was used to scrape hogs at the butchering and also could be used to cut out cookies. (PI. 19, fig. 15, Cat. No, 75359, Bainbridge, Pa.; George Bean; 6.1 inches (15.5 em.) high.) A candlestick prized by collectors is variously assigned to Switzerland, Germany, and the Tyrol. It is really a remarkable piece of seventeenth century ironwork, showing the art of the painstaking craftsman unmindful of time. The specimen is dated 1709. It shows ancient survivals from the splint clip in its spring arm and the hook for hanging. (PI. 20, fig. 2, Cat. No. 180655, Switzer- land; Goldsborough and Co.; 11.4 inches (29 cm.) high.) Another type familiar in collections and frequently copied is of hammered iron. It consists of a lobed base, a short column from which rises a spiral surmounted by a ring with a hook. In the spiral works a candle socket with a guiding hook allowing the candle to be moved up and down, a feature in advance of candle slides and not bettered before the advent of the spring candlestick. (Pl. 20, fig. 1, Cat. No. 168318, Germany; S. B. Dean; 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.) The specimen dates about 1700 and shows some relationship to Figure 2. This type of candlestick was called “ Martin Luther.” Rude wrought-iron candlesticks are somewhat common. These, like the betty lamps, were exhibits of the skill of the local smith, who not 26 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM infrequently wished to show what he could do. One of these has | a ring base to which three prongs at the lower end of the stem are © welded. The drip catcher is large and has a hook extending down from one side, answering as a handle and hanger. (Pl. 20, fig. 3, Cat. No. 289432, United States; Anton Heitmuller; 5.6 inches (14.5 cm.) diameter, 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.) | CANDLESTICKS OF CAST IRON About 1870 cast iron was the medium for many art works. It | had, however, only a temporary vogue, although the material, espe- cially in the hands of the Russian artist-artizans, was capable of producing fine results. Among the works in cast iron were candle- | sticks generally showing the worst phases of Rococo art. These | are regarded with disfavor by collectors and not many find a way — into their hands. The specimens shown are German and consist © of two candlesticks and two candle dishes, one of cast iron and | another of cast brass showing the same class of work and of the same period. (Pl. 19, fig. 13, is a candlestick, Cat. No. 300383, Germany ; Mrs. C. E. Danforth; 7.1 inches (18 em.) high.) Fig-— ure 12 is a similar specimen aa dripeatcher. (Cat. No. 300384, same locality and donor; 6.4 inches (16 em.) high.) Candle dish | (fig. 14), also from the same donor, is a good example of the art | overloading of the period. (Cat. is 300385, 8.1 inches (20.5 cm.) } long.) Figure 11 is of heavy cast brass, trefoil design. (Cat. No } 301540, Germany; Library of Congress; 6.8 inches (17.5 cm.) long.) } CANDLE DISHES OF METAL The candle dish expresses the need of a less formal furnishing than | the candlestick. It not only insures the means of carrying the candle | about but provides a catch-all for drip as a concession to cleanliness. — Candle dishes were made of sheet iron tinned or otherwise, copper, brass, and silver, or silver plate. Plate 19, Figure 4 is a specimen ] boldly hammered from copper. The handle is pierced for hanging } the dish as a sconce. (Cat. No. 317216, Mexico; Harry S. Bryan; 4.6 inches (11.5 cm.) diameter.) In contrast is a dainty French | candle dish of repoussee silver. (Pl. 19, fig. 5, Cat. No. 317637; | Mrs. N. L. White; 4.3 inches (11 cm.) diameter.) Figure 6 is of hammered and chiseled brass with saucepan handle riveted on. It is dated 1785. (PI1. 19, fig. 6, Cat. No. 168318, England; S. B. Dean; 5.5 inches (14 cm.) diameter.) A neatly made specimen of sheet } iron crimped on the border is from Nantucket, Mass. It has a ring for the finger. (Pl. 19, fig. 7, Cat. No. 129904; F. B. Smith; 6.5) inches (16.5 cm.) diameter.) The next figure is an ornate dish of | Sheffield plate with an aperture in the stem for snuffers (Pl. 37) and ;| i\ i| i| | | HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 27 a socket in the ring for the extinguisher. (Pl. 19, fig. 8, Cat. No. 130666, Baltimore; J. S. Russell; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) diameter.) Figure 9 is a sheet-iron candle dish tinned, from Hanover, York Co., Pa. (PI. 19, Cat. No. 151462; T. W. Sweeney; 6.9 inches (17.5 cm.) diameter.) The last figure is a typical brass candle dish widely familiar to the older generation of Americans. (PI. 19, fig. 10, Cat. No. 289447.) United States; Anton Heitmuller; 6.1 inches (15.5 cm.) diameter.) An unusual candle dish is boat shape of sheet brass, the handle having been applied at one side. (PI. 19, fig. 1, Cat. No. 311867, Holland; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 8.8 inches by 5.5 inches diame- ter (22.5cm.by14cm.).) Another excellent specimen is of sheet brass, oval, and well ornamented with punched work. The handle terminates in a hook. (PI. 19, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311866, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 7.8 inches by 5.4 inches diameter (19.7 cm. by 13.5 cm.) Figure 3 (pl. 19) is a candlieholder which slides into a slot in the candle dish. CANDLESTICKS WITH WIND GLASSES Glass protectors for candlesticks were in use for a long period in America. They resemble in shape the lamp chimney formerly used, but much larger. They were, it is presumed, the largest piece made by the glass blower. Well-to-do families in the States which were the Colonies would possess and carefully treasure these “ hurri- cane glasses,” as they were called. These glasses were imported from England, where they were made, and decorated in floral de- signs with the wheel. It was customary to set these hurricane globes in a drafty hall or on the portico to protect the candle from the breeze. (Pl. 21, fig. 5, Cat. No. 315102 (candlestick, No. 251722); Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) diameter, 22 inches (57 cm.) high.) Candlesticks were often fitted with graceful flaring glass pro- tectors, the bases of which had a brass collar fitting around the candle socket. (Pl. 21, fig. 6, Cat. No. 809022, United States; Mrs. Abby Knight McLane; 18.8 inches (48 cm.) high.) Such candle- sticks are again coming into use for decorative effects. Another obsolete form, but of the modern period, is seen in a candle stand with glass globes. It consists of a pair of spring candleholders of Palmer’s invention about 1845 running on an upright support and adjusted with a screw. It is of white brass. (Pl. 21, fig. 4, Cat. No. 315103, England; Mrs. John Van Rensselaer Hoff; 22 inches (56 cm.) high.) CANDLE ARMS Candle arms are in the form of rigid brackets or brackets hinged on pins or extensible. The form of candle installation reaches back to an uncertain date, certainly before the fifteenth century. Its use 28 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES ‘NATIONAL MUSEUM has survived for special purposes to this day. An interesting speci- men of Spanish i iron candle arm of the fifteenth or sixteenth century } was collected in Seville, Spain, in 1893. It is said to have hung | over the entrance to the convent of the Santa Trinidad at Seville, } the square cross painted partly red and blue being, it is alleged, the | sign of that convent. The monogram is also worked in the scroll. The arm shows traces of paint and gilding. (Pl. 20, fig. 4, Cat. No. 325623; Walter Hough; 13.8 inches by 13 inches (35 cm. by 33 cm.).) | An extension arm of wrought iron of Belgian manufacture is shown in Plate 20, Figure 5. The specimen has five pivoted sections. The | candle socket with drip catcher is set at the end of the arm. (Cat. | No. 168320, Belgium; S. B. Dean; 18.5 inches (47 cm.) long.) A } more elaborate specimen of old ironwork consisting of five pivoted } sections is from Nuremburg, Germany, and is probably early eight-_ eenth century. (Pl. 20, fig. 6, Cat. No. 168321; S. B. Dean; 18.5 } inches (47 cm.) long.) The third specimen is an extensible brass } candle arm cut out and joined by modern methods. Such arms were } used on desks and pianos. (PI. 20, fig. 7, United States; Charles | D. Walcott; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) long.) CANDELABRA Ascending in the scale from the stemmed utilitarian candlestick — is the candelabrum or arm candlestick, connoting luxury and taste } with the basal idea of more light. An interesting brass two-arm — candelabrum in the collection dates from the early eighteenth cen-_ tury. It is Dutch, has an openwork stem of conventional vine and © leaves, and has a punched tracing on the base. (PI. 22, fig. 1, Cat. No. 311528, Holland; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10.6 inches (27 cm.) | high.) A specimen in brass of unusual design has three candle | sockets on floriated brackets moving on a rod stem arising from a> basin. This fine specimen is evidently a floor candelabrum. (PI. 22, fig. 3, Cat. No. 289420, English; Anton Heitmuller; 26.3 inches (67 cm.) high.) One of a pair of French Empire candelabra regarded as rare is shown in Plate 22. The base is square, the column of ormolu brass topped with a half globe on which stands an exqui- | sitely modeled bronze Cupid holding up a combination of bow, quiver, arrows, and two candle sockets. The work is executed with the greatest regard for detail. (PI. 22, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311533, France; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 14.6 inches (37 cm.) high.) Another interesting example of candelabrum of Rococo style is in the col- lection. It is of ormolu brass, with four arms set in the sides of a mirror erected on a marble base. Arising from the apex of the mirror is an openwork cup holding a flower receiver of fine blue glass delicately shaped. (PI. 22, fig. 4, Cat. No. 311541, France; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 24 inches (61 cm.) high.) | HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 29 SCONCES These candleholders have never reached any considerable impor- tance in the field of illuminating devices, but as aids in decoration have played a great part. They are the origin of the side lights used for the double purpose of lighting and beautifying dining rooms of modern houses. One of the early and simple forms of the sconce is shown in Plate 21, Figure 2. It is of sheet iron and has the dignified aspect of good work and design. (Cat. No. 129905, Nantucket, Mass.; F. B. Smith; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) A good example of folk art is shown in the Dutch brass sconce with three candle sockets. The decoration is in repoussé. (PI. 21, fig. 3, Cat. No. 233136, Holland; Walter Hough; 8.5 inches (21.5 cm.) wide, 10.2 inches (26 cm.) high.) A Rococo sconce in silvered copper with mirror has a detachable candle socket on a curved arm. The pair is of German workmanship. (Pl. 21, fig. 1, Cat. No. 311543, Ger- many; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 17.9 inches (45.5 cm.) high, 14 inches (35.5 cm.) wide.) CHANDELIERS Chandeliers have followed the development of illumination and therefore represent every type from the rush light to the electric light. They are described together here for convenience of treat- ment. The earliest chandelier in the collection is a noteworthy example of high-class English ironwork. It is described as a rush chandelier of the thirteenth-fourteenth century. Although this date may not be insisted upon, the specimen is apparently very old and a remarkably pure and consistent design. It is conjectured that bundles of fatted rushes were set in the perforated drip catchers at the end of the arms. (PI. 23, fig. 1, Cat. No. 169098, England; S. _B. Dean; 31 inches (79 cm.) diameter.) The chandelier with lusters shown in Plate 24a is English, early nineteenth century. It is of bronze gilt and consists of a stem with four crowns graded in size, the great crown with arms being supported by ornamental brackets. Three chain festoons with unusual links hang from the head into which the stem is screwed. The chandelier had eight candle arms fitted with cut-glass drip catchers. (Cat. No. 328624, Morgantown, W. Va. (Va.); Walter Hough; 45 inches (114 cm.) long.) A small chandelier of brass, Rococo in art, comes from Germany and dates about the middle of the eighteenth century. (PI. 25, fig. 1, Cat. No. 289430; Anton Heitmuller; 18.1 inches (46 cm.) long.) Several Turkish chandeliers were secured at the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893, and hung in the Arts and Industries Building of the National Museum. They are interesting specimens of ironwork, but es- pecially so in the character of the lighting apparatus. This consists of glass cups with knob base set in arms riveted to the crowns, as 30 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM the circular elements are termed. A tripod of wire bearing the wick | is placed in the cup and water poured in to the required depth and } on the water oil sufficient to allow the wick to emerge. This describes } the customary Mohammedan oil-water lamp. (PI. 26, Cat. No. | 325625; Turkish Commission, World Columbian Exposition, Chicago, } 1893; about 4 feet in diameter, 8 feet high.) From the Centennial | Exhibition at Philadelphia in 1876 there was received through the | courtesy of the Chinese Imperial Commission a magnificent chan- delier in general effect blue owing to the mosaic of kingfisher feathers | with which it is incrusted. The chandelier has arms and large and | small rings for installing the lights. These were porcelain simple | saucer lamps with rush wicks. (Pl. 246 Cat. No. 169334, 72 inches | (183 cm.) long.) About 1830 camphine or “burning fluid” was in- — troduced. This predecessor of gasoline was prepared by distilling | turpentine over lime (see p. 68). The camphine chandelier shown | on Plate 25, Figure 2, is of gilt brass and has a reservoir from which | the fluid was delivered to the burners by gravity. (Cat. No. 127167, | Lynchburg, Va.; William F. Page; 36 inches (92 cm.).) What may — be called a sconce-candelabra is shown in Plate 23, Figure 2. It is of heavy cast brass and of German manufacture, about the seven- teenth century. Gift of Mrs. E. S. Brinton, 12.8 inches (32.5 cm.) long and wide. LANTERNS Under this head will be classed lanterns as devices for protecting and transporting light, and exhibiting types of illumination inven- tions grading from the candle to advanced oil-burning lamps. It is apparent that those who newly possessed the candle must meet the problem of protecting this clear but fragile light from boisterous airs when carrying it about in the open. This was met by inclosing the candle in an apparatus capable of diffusing the light yet afford- ing the flame sufficient protection. When these prime conditions were met yet other conditions, demanded by the uses to which the lantern was to be put, the place it was to be used or installed, as well as the requirements of taste, arose and were fulfilled. As to the origin or origins of the lantern nothing is known. The zone in which paper and sometimes textiles are used to cover the lantern may be centered in China; the zone of this cloth rendered transparent and employed usually on collapsing lanterns is Persia; horn, glass, and punched metal lanterns may be assigned to Europe. This may mean three origins of the lantern. Plates of horn as lantern win- dows were practically more serviceable than glass and transmitted sufficient light for ordinary needs. An English horn “ lanthorn,” a name which shows the connection of horn with this lighting apparatus, is figured on Plate 27a, Figure 1. In common parlance HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 31 such a lantern is called “ Guy Fawkes,” from some legendary asso- ciation with that detested character. It is well and strongly made from sheet iron, has a ring for carrying, three dormer ventilators, and a door with catch. A rush candle is shown in the socket. This quaint specimen is about 150 years old. (Cat. No. 130435, Wiltshire, England; Edward Lovett; 17.3 inches (44 cm.) high.) An old horn candle lantern which had belonged to United States Government ship stores was found at Alexandria, Va. This specimen is some- what vaguely given the date of 1812, but may well be older. It is ventilated through the apex of the conical top and the carrying ring band has a shield against the heat. (Pl. 27a, fig. 2, Cat. No. 325626; Walter Hough; 18.9 inches (48 cm.) high.) At a later date sheets of mica came into use and had advantages over horn. The specimen is a two-wick tube lamp lantern of sheet iron, square in form with pyramidal top perforated for ventilation. It has a large band han- dle which distinguishes the arm lantern. Date about 1830. (Pl. 46, fig. 8, Cat. No. 178444, Alexandria, Va.; Walter Hough; 17 inches (43 cm.) high.) A folding lantern used in the World War has mica plates (P1.34,fig.1). Concerning ventilation of lanterns it may be stated that there are draft orifices below and above the light of all except perforated lanterns. Perforated lanterns have been used in America since colonial times and in Europe date much earlier. A typical example of sheet-iron hand-punched in patterns is shown in Plate 28a, Figure 3. The top is conical, like an extinguisher, and has a circular handle and shield. The lantern has an ordinary candle socket and also a “burn-all” consisting of five pieces of wire set in a circle in a little pan for catching the drip and beneath a wooden plug for fitting in the candle socket. This ingenious device was a con- trivance of the original owner of the lantern, Dr. Charles McLane. The lantern dates somewhat before 1795. (Cat. No. 175597, Morgan- town, W. Va. (Va.); Fred C. Hough; 15 inches (38 cm.) high.) A very old punched copper hand lantern comes from central Italy. The top is conical, the handle missing. The decoration is in perforated designs and repoussee. Around the base of the candle socket were eight small holes for ventilation. The handle is of wrought iron riveted to the side of the lantern. The specimen is probably sixteenth century. (Pl. 28a, fig. 4, Cat. No. 324438, Italy; John W. Butler; 12.4 inches (34 cm.) high, 7.6 inches (19 cm.) diameter.) A rush light shade protector with perforations was used in England about the beginning of the nineteenth century. This protector had a door but no top. A cup containing the tube socket was set in a receptacle on the bottom. (Pl. 28a, fig. 1, Cat. No. 150412, Croydon, England; Edward Lovett; 13 inches (33 cm.) high, 8.6 inches (22 cm.) diameter.) A Moorish candle lantern 32 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM with glass panes shows artistic perforations in the top and base. |) The top is bell-shape and has a circular band handle. The material | of this artistic lantern is tinned iron. (Pl. 28c, fig. 3, Cat. No. | (149), Tetuan, Morocco; Talcott Williams; 17.3 inches (44 cm.) high.) Lanterns with glass globes came into use about 1820, so far as known. They were installed with either candle sockets or wick tube lamps for burning fish oil. The circular handle was for slip- — ping over the arm or for the hand. Most of the specimens are |} japanned. Some of this type are protected with a wire frame or the globe is held between the top and bottom by a locking device or }} sometimes cemented at the top. Of these (pl. 28¢, fig. 5) is a small | globe lantern with wire handle and a hook for hanging on the | dashboard of a vehicle. The globe is blown glass. The lamp is two-tube, with screw cap, and is removed by pressing two springs. }} The specimen was placed about 1812 by the donor. (Cat. No. 175581, — Poland, Me.; W. P. Damon; 10.3 inches (26 cm.) high.) An arm lantern in the collection has an octagonal cast glass globe and is } protected with wires. The bottom with candle socket is slid on — over two pegs and slightly rotated to catch the pegs in a horizontal — slot. The date is about 1820. (Pl. 28c, fig. 1, Cat. No. 180322, _ Morgantown, W. Va.; Ashbel Fairchild; 15.3 inches (39 cm.) high.) | Another of about the same period has the octagonal glass globe © cemented to the top and bottom. The glass two-tube lamp is re- | moved by rotating it until two spurs coincide with two slots in the | circular frame. (Pl. 28c, fig. 4, Cat. No. 175582, Poland, Me.; W. P. Damon; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) high.) A more ornamental | form has four beveled plate-glass sides, a square base and top, and an | arm ring. It is fitted with a flat wick kerosene lamp with a spur | wheel wick ratchet. The bottom is hinged and may be turned down for attending to the lamp. The older lanterns were without this — device. (Pl. 28e, fig. 2, Cat. No. 292696, United States; Isobel Rives; — 12.5 inches (32 cm.) high.) The transition from lanterns described to what became of the ac- cepted form of lantern for many years is evident in different types. The old types persisted until the use of kerosene, when all lighting © devices were profoundly modified. Invention perfected the tubular lantern in the eighties and it was the current form for many years | and still has an immense sale. It is light, strong, reasonably wind proof, and is the last word in effectiveness. A predecessor of the © tubular lantern was used by the United States Fish Commission | in 1870. The lantern was patented December 1, 1868, has a glass tube held in a bow frame, suggesting the modern tubular farm © lantern, and a two-wick tube burner set in a lamp which is inserted | in the base of the lantern and held with spring clamps. The use of | HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 33 the wick tube at this late date is unusual. Another, about the same date, has a two-tube wick burner and the globe is protected by a sturdy wire frame to withstand the strong buffets of sea work. ‘The _ lamp is removed by slightly turning the base, disengaging a spur pin trom a slide. The lantern was patented March 15, 1890, by Howard and Morse, New York. Another lantern in the collection, not figured, has a glass globe protected in a wire frame. Within the glass globe is another of green glass. Pennsylvania “Dutch” at a time when the tinner was beginning to_ supplant the blacksmith. The specimen is large for a crusie. The lid is hinged and the hook of bent wire. (Cat. No. 72586, Muncey, » Pa.; N. J. Le Van; 10.6 inches (27 cm.) high.) Almost the last word in the iron crusie is shown in Figure 4 from the same place and collector. The handle and the cover of the reservoir are brazed | on, the little door slides on a pivot and the hook-spike is a fine piece | of quaint hammer work. The wick tender is also hand made. The crusie is file finished. The specimen was probably not made in America, but may be English or German. (Cat. No. 72588; 8.7 | inches (22 cm.) long.) Among the Pennsylvania “Dutch” of past generations habits of neatness and propriety required stands for — crusies. Formerly the crusie was hung up or stuck up at any con- — venient vantage point, perhaps usually near or in the chimney. The | stands represent the crusie entering into the intimate life of the — family. Also there were developed fillers for the lamp which could be put near the fire to keep the grease fluid to pour into the schmutze lamp, “fat lamp.” A tin stand with pan and handle is shown in Figure 5. This comes from Bucks County, Pa. (Cat. No. 207815; Henry D. Paxson; 12.6 inches (32 cm.) high.) Stands of turned wood painted were also used. (PI. 55, fig. 7, Cat. No. 207816, Bucks County, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 9.1 inches (23 cm.) high.) The lamp on this stand is from Worms on the Rhine, Germany, presented by T. Rothrock (Cat. No. 201426). Figure 9 is a crusie sliding on a rod fastened in a-weighted stand. (Cat. No. 207814, Bucks Coun- ty, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 18.8 inches (48 em.) high.) Figure 6 is a crusie filler of tin from Madrid, Spain. (Cat. No. 167034; Wal- ter Hough; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) high.) Another is shown in Figure 8, also of tin. (Cat. No. 72352, Bainbridge, Pa.; George Bean; 6.1 inches (15.5 cm.) high.) HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 61 SPOUT LAMPS ’ The farthest development of the lamp whose wick was drawn up at the side is seen in the spout lamp. The development of the spout which may be followed in the classes of lamps previously shown must have taken many centuries, yet was not destined to bring forth the modern central wick lamp. The most attractive of the spout lamps and the ones standing highest in art design are the Italian lucerna. The origin of the lucerna appears to be more immediately in the three-spout pottery lamps (pl. 43) and more distantly in the Roman hanging lamps with two wick orifices on the same plate. ‘The ancient lamp stand may be taken as the support of the lucerna. Lucernas are usually of brass, excellently finished. The survival of this old type of lamp into the modern period in Italy is due to their customary use as lights for the dead. Otherwise they are treasured for their art and curio interest. The usual lucerna has three spouts, as shown in Plate 56, Figure 3, a rather plain specimen, of brass and having the support on which the reservoir and cover slides rising from a roundel section above the base. (Cat. No. 205548, Italy; donor unknown; 22.4 inches (57 em.) high.) The four-spout lucerna is also common, but none apparently occur with more than four. Figure 1 is a well-made speci- men of the 4 spout lucerna having a longer roundel stem than usual. (Cat. No. 167025, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 15.7 inches (40 em.) high). A complete four-spout lucerna is shown in Figure 4. From above the reservoir cover depend by chains the objects which should accompany every lucerna, namely, the extinguisher, the pricker for adjusting the wick, and pincers or snuffers. The specimen is of brass, well executed and designed. Cat. No. 168129, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 24.4 inches (62 cm.) high). Another four-spout lucerna is expecially interesting on account of its design. On the - gracefully bowed handle are perched three Roman eagles, mice clamber over the reservoir as they were accustomed to do in life searching for spilled olive oil, and in the corners of the base swim three geese. The specimen appears to be old, and this is sub- stantiated by the quaint pricker, pincers, and extinguisher. (Pl. 56, fig. 5, Cat. No. 180656, Italy; Goldsborough & Co.; 18.9 inches (48 em.) high). Included among the lucernas is a fine specimen of | baroque style having two spouts and lobed reservoir, half of the upper section turning back for filling. A figure in classic pose surmounts the lucerna. (Fig. 2, Cat. No. 168133, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 16.4 inches (41.5 cm.) high). A pewter-spout lamp of grace- ful form has a hinged lid over the reservoir, a curved squared spout with a drip catcher encircling the end. The stem is slender vase shape with slender curved handle. (Pl. 57, fig. 3, Cat. No. 311710, England; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high). 62 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Spout lamps of practical purpose were once common in Europe | and America, but gave way to less smoky lighting apparatus. One } of these from New England was called kyal lamp by the Cape Cod © folks. It is of sheet iron, has a cylindrical reservoir with conical | lid and upcurving copper spout. The reservoir sets in a bucket-shape © base with projecting drip catcher and an iron bail fastened to the side. — The specimen dates about 1820. Kyal was identified by Dr. E. B. Tylor ® as an old Scandinavian name. The kyal is of European derivation, probably Flemish. (PI. 56, fig. 6, Cat. No. 169103, Middle- | town, Conn.; A. R. Crittenden; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) A two- | spout lamp in the style of the kyal is seen in Plate 56, Figure 8, © made of sheet iron. Such spout lamps were used on the whalers of © an older period. It was also called “mill lamp.” (Cat. No. 75378, | New London, Conn.; C. A. Williams & Co.; 8.6 inches (22 cm.) wide, 7.9 inches (20 cm.) high.) A hanging-spout lamp of brass following in form the crusie and having the iron hanging spike of the crusie is Flemish and is shown in Figure 9.. The lid with button lift is missing. (Cat. No. 130488, Antwerp, Belgium; Edward Lovett; 7.5 inches (19 cm.) long, 6 inches (15 cm.) high.) A similar lamp with stand is found in the Low Countries. It is of brass of fine yellow. At the back of the reservoir is a loop by which the lamp may be hung, also a wick tender hanging by a chain. The base is weighted with sand. (PI. 56, fig. 10, Cat. No. 168316, Belgium; S. B. Dean; 10.3 inches (26 cm.) high.) A bucket two-spout lamp of heavy brass is shown in Figure 7. The bucket has a pivoted strap bail to which it attached the hanging hook. Drip catchers project from the sides. The reservoir fits into the bucket and the spouts come in line with the drip catchers. The specimen is well and strongly made. The lamp is classified Flemish seventeenth century. (Cat. No. 22187, Belgium, C. G. Sloan & Co.; 13 inches (33 cm.) wide, 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) A lamp with square reservoir of chased brass and up- curving spout having a drip catcher at the wick end is believed to be Fren h (compare fig. 4). (PI. 56, fig. 13, Cat. No. 175592, France; M. F. Savage; 7.4 inches. (18.5 cm.) long, 4.4 inches (11 cm.) high.) From the Philippines comes a pottery spout lamp used by fishermen in their gourd lanterns. The form of the lamp gives an indication of Mohammedan influence. (PI. 56, fig. 12, Cat. No. 238386, Pasig, Rizal; C. L. Hall; 7.4 inches (19 em.) long.) A modern form of the spout lamp is observed in the open-fiame miner’s lamp (fig. 11), in which the wick tube is nearly vertical and so designed that when the lamp is hooked on the cap it will incline to about the right slant to give oil pressure on the wick. (Cat. No. 325646, United States; Walter Hough; 2.6 inches (6.2 cm.) high.) A rare and at- 6 Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., vol. 13, 1883-4, p. 353. HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 63 tractive two-spout lamp with reservoir, made to fit into a candlestick, comes from the Stevens collection. The reservoir and cover form a globe from which project the two sharply upcurving spouts. ‘This lamp of silver plate delicately modeled and ornamented, was procured in England, but is of German workmanship. (PI. 57, fig. 1, Cat. No. 311505, Elizabeth S. Stevens; 11.5 inches (29 cm.) high.) A three- spout lamp of massive construction in cast brass is a product of Ceylonese metal work. The roundel reservoir is screwed to the base. In filling, the reservoir is unscrewed, inverted, oil poured in, and the base screwed on. The lamp is then turned upright and the oil is supplied to the wick by gravity pressure. Evidently this shows the adoptien of a western device, notably in the astral lamp. (PI. 57, fig. 5, Cat. No. 234123, Ceylon; Ceylon Commission, St. Louis Ex- position, 1907; 11.8 inches (30 cm.) high.) A rather rudely con- structed brass three-spout lamp comes from China. The spouts are enlarged toward the opening and indicate a thick wick, as in the Ceylon specimen. No data is furnished as to the use to which this lamp is put. (PI. 57, fig. 4, Cat. No. 175878, China; A. E. Hippisley ; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) An elaborate three-spout brass lamp with drip catcher and reflectors was procured in Ceylon. Like the lucernae, the lamp with its accompanying parts is adjusted in height on a stem which was originally tipped with the figure of a cock. The lamp shows much wear and appears old. It is undoubtedly of Eu- ropean suggestion and of European construction. Such a lamp might have come from France in the seventeenth century. (PI. 57, fig. 2, Cat. No. 284124, Ceylon; Ceylon Commission, St. Louis Exposition ; 97.9 inches (71 cm.) high.) WICK-TUBE LAMPS Mention has been made of a half tube fastened at the lower end in the reservoir of crusielike lamps for holding the wick more steadily in place. The next step would be to inclose the wick in a tube. This is borne out by the fact that the earliest wick tubes were slanted like the wick in the crusie and the reservoir became tightly closed. This was an important step in the development of the modern lamp. Before proceeding, attention is called to Plate 58, Figure 7, an open tin sconce lamp having a wick carrier bent into a tube at the upper portion, leaving a gutter the rest of the way. (Cat. No. 167026, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.) Also Figure 8, a pewter lamp having a saucer reservoir with the same installation. (Cat. No. 222188, England; C. G. Sloan & Co.; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) An Italian brass lamp of 1589 with closed reservoir and wick holes at the four corners is an example of an approach to conditions which did not reach fruition till several centuries later, (Pl. 59, fig. 10, Cat. No. 153960, Italy; G. Brown 64 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM Goode; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 9 is a frankly modern application of the wick tube to the clumsy crusie, the remaining unchanged features being the bowed handle with its hook spike. (Cat. No. 167039, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 11.5 inches (29 cm.) high.) Figure 5 is an old brass lamp with two spouts, a lid, and a shank for insertion in a plate on a carriage. The wicks are carried in tubes. (Cat. No. 168126, Italy; G. Brown Goode; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) wide, 4 inches (10 cm.) long.) Figure 6 has four wick tubes slanted and having a slot as described in the remarks on crusies. The slot device for raising the wick was continued for many years into the nineteenth century. (Cat. No. 178445, Alexandria, Va.; Walter Hough; 5 inches (12.75 cm.) diameter, 4.2 inches (10.5 cm.) high.) Next appears the upright central wick tube, a most important, almost epochal event in the history of illumination. The lamps which were for ages unsymmetrical because the ancients had drawn the wick to one side of their rude reservoirs gave way to the balanced, erect lamps with light ascendant, which would be perfected by modern progress. One-tube lamps initiate this advance and a selection of them is on Plate 59. The oldest of these appear to be the Pennsylvania “Dutch” grease lamps (figs. 3 and 10), which do not fulfill the conditions.of a closed. reservoir, but have an upright cen- tral tube for the wick. (Cat. No. 75353, Bainbridge, Pa.; George Bean; 7 inches (18 cm.) high, 5.9 inches (15 cm.) diameter.) Figure 2 is a lamp of heavy brass of plain yet pleasing design. (Cat. No. 168315, England; S. B. Dean; 8.75 inches (22 cm.) high.) Figure 11 is a quite old glass one-tube lamp. The tube is set in a cork and inserted in the lamp as a cork in a bottle. This was the first method with glass reservoir lamps. Metal lamps admitted of the use of threads for screwing on the burner. (Cat. No. 177743, Massachu- setts; Dr. Marcus Benjamin; 4.7 inches (12 cm.) high.) The pewter lamps (figs. 7, 8) are also old. They were used as lights to go to © bed by. The former has a ventilating tube and differs in this respect from other one-tube lamps. (Cat. No. 207817, Bucks County, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 3.2 inches (8 cm.) high.) The other is a graceful little lamp dating before 1800. (Cat. No. 151484, Providence, R. L.; M. F. Savage; 4 inches (10 cm.) high.) Figure 13 is a Chinese opium smoker’s lamp with one tube and a glass globe. The base of the lamp can be screwed over the upper portion. (Cat. No. 77182, New York City; Gen. Fitz John Porter; 2.9 inches (7.25 cm.) diam- eter, 2.8 inches (7 cm.) high.) Nos. 1, 6, and 9 are lamps current in Madrid in 1892. No. 1 is mounted for hanging when required and the others have a hinged extinguisher cap. (Cat. Nos. 167422, 167032, 167023; collected by Walter Hough.) Figure 4 is a tin table. | and sconce lamp, excellently made from this material. (Cat. No. 204681, Guanajuato, Mexico; Walter Hough; 6.7 inches (17 cm.) hep ere ae sitet et Aisi it HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 65 high.) No. 14 is a small glass hand lamp with long tube having a sleeve for extinguishing. (Cat. No. 204889, United States; C. A. Q. Norton; 4.8 inches (12 cm.) high.) Figure 5 shows the upright tube applied to the crusie in recent times. (Cat. No. 167053, Madrid, Spain; Walter Hough; 9.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) Lamp No. 12 is a very old French specimen concerning which little is known. It is supposed to have been used by priests on night visitations and to date about the middle of the fifteenth century. The wick tube has a threaded cap which when not in use is secured on a threaded collar, as shown. In the back is a shutter which, raised, discloses a drawer containing flint and steel for striking a light. (Cat. No. 326315, France; Kendrick Scofield; 6.3 inches (16 cm.) long.) About 1845 the miners of Cerro del Pasco, Peru, wore a crusie in the cap for a work light. The later spout lamp of the gas-free mines of the United States was a short remove from the crusie. Explosive gases'in mines and the accidents caused by naked lights brought out Sir Humphry Davy’s miner’s gauze protected lamp seen in Plate 58, Figure 2. French miners have a characteristic lamp with a napiform cast-iron reservoir hinged to the arms of a yoke and hung by an iron hook. The lamp has one wick tube. (Pl. 58, fig. 3, Cat. No. 168185, France; G. Brown Goode; 23.4 inches (57 cm.) long.) A lamp on the same lines was patented in the United States. This lamp has two wick tubes, a locking cover, and a bent hook spike support. (Pl. 58, fig. 1, Cat. No. 251794, St. Louis, Mo.; U. S. Patent Office; 18 inches (33 cm.) long.) Two-tube lamps were in vogue in the United States up to the close of the Civil War. The origin of the two-tube burner is better known than the origin of most of the inventions before the Patent Office began. That great natural philosopher, Benjamin Franklin, discovered through experiment that two wick tubes, ranged up side by side and at a certain distance apart, gave a greater amount of light than would be furnished by two single-tube lamps. This was a discovery of great practical value, was taken up at once, and con- tinued in vogue for 100 years, more or less. In practical effect, this position of the tubes gave greater heat to the flame, more draft, and increased oxidation of the carbon particles, bringing them to higher incandescence, therefore more light, which is the first principle of illumination. The next question, “Why not three tubes?” was answered in the negative by the failure of the scheme to work. A “ petticoat lamp ” with three tubes is shown in Plate 59, Figure 22. The specimen is unused and probably stood on the shelves unsold long before the 45 years since its collection. (Cat. No. 75364, New Bedford, Mass.; J. T. Brown; 5.5 inches (14 em.) high.) Another lamp of this kind (fig. 20), which has the normal two tubes and 66 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM shows much use, comes from the same locality and collector (4.7 | inches (12 cm.) high). Figure 15 is a heavy cast-brass lamp for the table. (Cat. No. 290443, United States; Mrs. C. E. Bates; 8.3 inches (21 cm.) high.) A similar heavy cast-brass old specimen of hand | and table two-tube lamp (fig. 18) is from the same locality and col- | lector. (Cat. No. 290444, 5.9 inches (15 em.) high.) A hand and table two-tube lamp of pewter is shown in Figure 17. (Cat. No. 30572, United States; Miss H. A. Foster; 5.9 inches (15 cm.) high.) Figure 21 is an old gimbel lamp sconce used on the New London whaling fleet many years ago. The lamp was designed for all con- ditions for carrying in the hand, hung against the partition, and to care for all sorts of sea motions. (Cat. No. 75467, New London, Conn.; J. T. Brown; 5.5 inches (14 em.) high.) In 1842 a patent was granted on a two-tube lard-oil lamp (fig. 16). The reservoir of the lamp was filled with a tube plunger bearing at the top the two-tube burner. In the tube two copper strips reached down to the | oil, transmitting the heat from the burner to heat the oil. (Cat. No. | 207821, Berks County, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 5.9 inches (15 cm.) 4} high.) The original patent models are also in the collection. The latest of the two-wick tube lamps is a small hand lamp of gilt brass (fig. 19) filled partly with cotton to absorb the oil and prevent | its spilling. Apparently coal oil was burned in this lamp. Collected in Washington, D. C., 1888. (Cat. No. 73385, District of Columbia; Otis T. Mason; 2.4 inches (6 cm.) high.) An interesting reading lamp not uncommon in collections is Plate 60, Figure 1. It is for lard or whale oil and has two wick tubes. ‘Two lenses having hoods are set in sockets at the sides of the reservoir. (Cat. No. 178633, England; Ira F. Harris; 8.7 inches (22 cm.) high.) Glass lamps were much valued in the older days and many of them have done service under the several burners demanded by different lamp fuels. The glass-lamp series normally have two tubes for burn- ing whale oil earlier and lard oil later. In many cases the base is of pressed glass and the reservoir blown glass, the two being neatly joined. It appears that in the earlier examples the burner was set in cork and thus put in the opening of the reservoir. Later collars of pewter with threading were set on with cement, a method which has never been superseded. Figure 2, Plate 61a, has a blown-glass reservoir and pressed base. (Cat. No. 300541, United States; William Palmer; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 4 has a cork shod burner, a pressed-glass base, and pear-shape blown reservoir. (Cat. No. 316030, United States; Kendrick Scofield; 11.9 inches (30 cm.) high.) Figure 6 answers to the same description. It has been stated that at times the blown reservoirs were imported from England and the bases added in America, but there is no exact authority for this con- HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 67 clusion. (Cat. No. 204891, United States; C. A. Q. Norton; 8.4 inches (21.5 cm.) high.) Figure 1 is a pressed glass two-tube lamp with pewter collar from the same locality and collector. (Cat. No. 204893 ; 9.5 inches (24 cm.) high.) Figure 3 is an old pressed-glass lamp still containing the thickened whale oil customarily burned in these lamps before 1829. (Cat. No. 130670, Baltimore, Md.; J. T. Durney ; 11 inches (28 cm.) high.) An excellent specimen of pressed-glass lamp with pewter collar is shown in Figure 5. (Cat. No. 204890, United States; C. A. Q. Norton; 6.5 inches (16.5 cm.) high.) A pewter lamp of good form and with an ornamental handle is of English manufacture. The burner is screwed into a threaded brass collar. (PI. 60, fig. 2, Cat. No. 311710; Elizabeth S. Stevens; 10 inches (25 cm.) high.) In the period following the practical disuse of the candle in Janterns the two-tube fish or lard oil burner was adopted, as shown in the mica-window lantern. (PI. 46, fig. 3), dating about 1800, and collected in Alexandria, Va. Lamp and candlesticks as adjuncts figured in the state of illumina- tion at the time when the reservoir lamp was superseding the older devices. Lamp reservoirs intended to be set in a stem or joined to a stem and base had a peg at the bottom which would fit into a candle- stick. Plate 60 shows a wooden stand for a set of these lamps to be used by hotel guests and when carried to the bed chambers to be set in the candlestick which already furnished the room. The specimen on the left has the burner inverted to show the expansion of the tubes toward the base, which construction was customary in the two-tube lamps. The stand and lamps were used in a hotel at Ellsworth, Me., probably in the early thirties. (Cat. No. 326350, Ellsworth, Me.; D. I. Bushnell, jr.; 13.9 inches (35 cm.) long, 7.1 inches (18 cm.) wide.) TIME-INDICATING LAMPS Observations on the gradual wasting away of oil in the reservoir of a lamp suggested to some unknown experimenter a means of marking time, perhaps following up the idea of the sand glass and clepsydra. On this line of thought King Alfred traditionally pre- pared his time candles (p. 40). Prof. S. P. Langley became inter- ested in pr mitive chronometrics years ago and initiated the collec- tion of such devices in the National Museum. Among the specimens which Doctor Langley collected for this exhibit was a time lamp of pewter with ovate glass reservoir mounted as in the Argand lamp, delivering oil by gravity to the wick laid hor.zontally in a spout. The reservoir is encircled vertically with a pewter girdle having on one face the hour and half-hour divisions from 9 to 6 and on the opposite side a handle for convenience in setting the reservoir in 68 BULLETIN 141, UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM place. The lamp was seriously designed as an instrument of pre- cision and may have been adequate at the period (pl. 610, fig. 1). (Cat. No. 208097, Nuremburg, Germany; 14 inches (35.6 em.) high.) The lamp is dated about 1750. Of curious interest are time lamps which were sold in America as late as 30 years ago. One of these, called “the Weaver time lamp,” is of pressed glass, has a round ~ woven wick, and a miniature chimney mounted in brass claws. The © hours are from 8 to 6. (PI. 6le, fig. 2, Cat. No. 316031; United | States; Kendrick Scofield; 8.8 inches (25 cm.) high.) Another, called “ Pride of America,” was patented April, 1891 and 1896. It is of pressed glass, with globular opaque glass chimney, and the hours are also from 8 to 6. (PI. 6le, fig. 3, Cat. No, 176091, Phila- delphia, Pa.; Stewart Culin; 6.7 inches (17 cm.) high.) CAMPHINE LAMPS The search for a good lamp oil which had been earnestly prosecuted in the years following Argand’s epoch-making discovery when in- ventors strove to produce a perfect lamp seemed finished when in the thirties camphine appeared. Properly, camphine is a product secured by the distillation of turpentine over quicklime, namely, pineine, a limpid fluid of agreeable odor, free burning without residue. Spirits of turpentine had previously been used but abandoned on account of its disagreeable odor. Camphine as sold for burning in “fluid lamps” and the Vesta lamp, in which it was originally used, was generally a mixture of turpentine and alcohol. Camphineis very — volatile and explosive and about as safe to use in lamps as gasoline. © On this account, despite many inventions to make its use practicable, — camphine was abandoned about 1850. During the camphine period, which began about 1830, many of the two-tube whale-oil and lard-oil lamps were converted in “fluid” lamps, having two tubes, but longer, and inclined away from each other, as seen on Plate 63. The lamp — mentioned has a marble base, brass column, and pressed-glass reser- voir with threaded collar cemented on. It was necessary in the cam- phine lamps to have a cap for each tube to prevent evaporation from the wick, and which also served as an extinguisher. (Cat. No. 178189, Virginia; Walter Hough; 14 inches (86 cm.) high.) Plate 62 shows a variety of camphine lamps. Figure 1 is a fine cut-glass lamp with pressed base and gracefully fashioned. It is complete with — the two-wick tube caps. (Cat. No. 18665, Baltimore, Md.; James — Russell & Son; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.) Figure 4 is the reservoir of an old whale-oil lamp converted to camphine. The base having © been broken off, the reservoir was firmly set in a block of wood to extend its usefulness. (Cat. No. 325647, Massachusetts; Walter Hough; 10.4 inches (25.5 cm.) high.) Figure 6 is a pewter two-tube © camphine lamp formerly used for whale or lard oil. (Cat. No. HEATING AND LIGHTING UTENSILS IN NATIONAL MUSEUM 69 207820, Philadelphia, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 11.2 inches (28.5 em.) high.) A smaller specimen of pewter, also fitted with two tubes, is Figure 7. (Cat. No. 175591, United States; M. F. Savage; 7.1 inches (18 cm.) high.) Figure 5 is an ornate lamp of brass and marble fitted with five tubes and globe. The column bears a bas-relief of Jefferson (?%) surrounded with wreath and surmounted by a spread eagle. ‘The column is much older than the reservoir and appears to have been fitted with an Argand type, probably the astral. (Cat. No. 168306, District of Columbia; Walter Hough; 19.7 inches (50 em.) high.) A bottle lamp with one tube is shown in Figure 3. (Cat. No. 92866, Haiti; Foreign Exposition, Boston, Mass.; 5.2 inches (13 cm.) high.) A tin lamp from the same source is Figure 9. (Cat. No. 92867; 6.8 inches (15 cm.) high.) A small bedroom lamp of glass with one tube and cap hung by a chain is shown in Figure 10. (Cat. No. 207811, Philadelphia, Pa.; Henry D. Paxson; 4.2 inches (10.5 cm.) high.) A typical camphine table lamp with graceful glass reservoir, brass column, and marble base is a con- verted whale-oil lamp of the later part of the period when that fluid was burned. (PPI. 63, fig. 1, Cat. No. 178189; 13.5 inches (34 em.) high.) Improvemets on the camphine burner in the interest both of light and safety were brought out in America and Europe. One of these with globular gas chamber and perforated disk burner is shown in Plate 62, Figure 2. (Cat. No. 180430, Broadalbin, N. Y.; F. S. Hawley; 14.2 inches (36 cm.) high.) This lamp has been converted to camphine from whale oil. Another old lamp of pewter is supplied with an improved burner (fig. 8). Cat. No. 130671, Baltimore, Md.; I. T. Durney; 13 inches (83 cm.) high.) An improved camphine lamp based on the gravity principle with stop- cock on the line and a fan-shape perforated burner (pl. 63, fig. 2), was brought out in 1860. It is probable that by this plan of separat- ing the fuel to some distance from the flame, as in the faker’s gasoline torches of 1875, the use of camphine would have been rendered safe. Coal oil, however, superseded all other lamp fuels within a few years. (Cat. No. 263465, United States; Mrs. Yates Davis Duke; 21.5 inches (54.5 cm.) high.) A chandelier for camphine with im- proved burners is described on page 30. A wall lamp for camphine (pl. 63, fig. 3) has a horizontal cylindrical tank attached to a sconce. From the bottom of the tank a tube supplies the fluid to an upright secondary reservoir having the burner tube at the top. 14 i5 CANDLESTICKS OF STONE, WooD, POTTERY, AND GLASS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 21 AND 22 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 15 GLAZED ROUNDED CANDLESTICK AND TIME CANDLE FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 22, AND 40 16 PL. BULLETIN 141 S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. €Z ONY ZZ SANVd 3AS ALW1d AO NOILdIyoSaqG YOY SHOILSSTIGNVD YSa1LM3d GNV “YaddOD ‘SsSvVYg U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 17 SILVER PLATE AND SILVER CANDLESTICKS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 23 10 54261—28 18 PL. BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM $@ 3DVd 338 Jivid JO NOMdINOsaa YOY SHOILLSSIGNVD YALMAd U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 CANDLE DISHES; BRASS AND IRON CANDLESTICKS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 24 AND 26 PL. 19 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 20 HAMMERED-!IRON CANDLESTICKS; CANDLE ARMS AND BRACKETS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 26 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 21 | | | CANDLESTICKS WITH WIND GLASSES, AND SCONCES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 27 AND 29 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM CANDELABRA FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 28 BULLETIN 141 PL. 22 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 23 2 CHANDELIERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 29 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 24 BRONZE CHANDELIER AND CHINESE FEATHERED CHANDELIER U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 25 Rococo BRASS CHANDELIER AND CAMPHINE CHANDELIER FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 30 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 26 TURKISH FLOAT LAMP CHANDELIER FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 29 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BUEEERINGT41) (PED 27, VARIETIES OF HORN AND DARK LANTERNS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 30 AND 31) ras ary ?- 34 PL. 28 BULLETIN 141 S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. q aes, races ane PL. 29 BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss. U. 88 GNV 6Z SAD9Vd 33S Alwid 4O NOIid!Ivy9SaSq YO 4 SNYSLNV7] GNVH GNV ‘3SNOH DNIGNVLS :SNYSLNV] 4YVq 30 PL. BULLETIN 141 S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. Ps ARPS BA 96 GNV QE SADVd 33S 3lVid JO NOlidiIHoSsaq HOY NYSLNV] YaddOD GS0eSId GNV NYSZLNV7] SONIDDIY oo U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 31 CHINESE LANTERNS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 36 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 (PE. 32 Hk | i \;\ UM \ f B\ |) | IY | AiG || fi ee AN Oo JAPANESE LANTERNS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 37 AND 38 U. S§* NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 33 sy En (ct ee Ege a — ee a at PAPER AND CLOTH COLLAPSING LANTERNS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 38 94261—28——_11 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM SULLETIN 141 PL. 34 COLLAPSING LANTERNS wITH MICA WINDOWS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 39 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 35 ea cee Ni De SR I ce CHURCH CANDLESTICKS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 39 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 36 NIGHT LIGHT CANDLES AND HOLDERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 40 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 37 SNUFFER TRAYS, SNUFFERS, AND EXTINGUISHERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 41 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 38 SPRING CANDLESTICKS AND OTHER DEVICES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 43 39 PL. BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. Gb ONY tbh SA9Vd SSADIAAG 33S 31vid JO NOlldivoS3a0 ONILHSIFT AlsayIS yoO4 U. Ss NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 40 SIMPLE LAMPS AND FIREFLY LANTERN FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 44, 45, AND 46 PL. 41 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM Lb GNV ‘9b 'Qp SADVd AAS 3ivid 4O NOIldINOS3q YO4 SdWV] LSIHSSYVIA) GNV ATdWIS U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 b QUASI-DEVELOPMENT OF FEATURES OF ANCIENT LAMPS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 48 AND 49 PL. 42 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 43 I i | a ANCIENT HANGING LAMPS AND STANDS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 49 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 44 HANGING FLOAT LAMPS AND CUP FLOAT LAMPS U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 45 = Os ee me 7 cg emcuaaittinet se ee ae FLOAT LAMPS AND WICK CHANNEL LAMPS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 51 AND 57 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 46 FLOAT LAmPs FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 61 AND 62 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 47 BOXES OF FLOAT WICKS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 52 AND 53 PL. 48 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM SIMPLE SAUCER LAMPS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 53 49 PL. BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss. U. sett $9 3DWd 33S 31V1d JO NOIMdIvOs83Sa HOY SdWV] SSANIHO ONV NVL3ESIL ae Te OF NER 54261—28——_12 50 PL. BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss U HAWAIIAN STONE LAMPS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 54 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 51 Wick CHANNEL LAMPS FROM NEAR EAST, EUROPE, ETC. FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 55 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 52 WickK CHANNEL LAMPS FROM INDIAN AND NORTH AFRICA FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 56 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 53 WICK CHANNEL LAMPS FROM INDIA, JAVA, EUROPE, ETC. FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 57 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 54 Wick CHANNEL LAMPS AND CRUSIES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 59 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 55 CRUSIES OF VARIOUS TYPES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 60 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 56 SPOUT LAMPS FROM EUROPE AND PHILIPPINES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 61 AND 62 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 57 SPoUT LAMPS FROMLEUROPE AND CEYLON FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 63 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 58 WICK TUBE LAMPS FROM EUROPE FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 63 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 59 SINGLE AND DouBLE WICK TUBE LAMPS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 64 AND 65 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 60 TWO-WICK TUBE INSTALLATIONS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 67 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 61 GLASS TWO-TUBE LAMPS; OIL AND TIME-INDICATING LAMP FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 66 AND 67 PL. 62 41 1 BULLETIN U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 89 39Vd 3358 31v1d-4O NOIidINOSSqG YO4 SdWV7] SONINYNG-ANIHdNVD U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 * PL. 63 3S CAMPHINE-BURNING DEVICES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 69 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 64 LAMPS WITH FLAT WICKS; CANDLE LAMPS AND TORCH BURNER FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 70 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 65 ASTRAL, ARGAND, AND SINUMBRA LAMPS,.ETC., AND GAS LAMP FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 72 54261— 28 13 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 66 b AN ARGAND MANTEL SET AND LAMP CANDLESTICKS, ETC. FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 73 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 67 TABLE LAMP, 1876. WITH TUBULAR Wick FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 75 PL. 68 BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss. U. 92 30Vd 33S 31lvid JO NOlidivds3S0 YO4 Tvulsy GaIsIGO|| GNV SdNV] SSNOHLHDI7T €9 PL. BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. 08 GNV 61 SA0Vd 33S 3lvid 4O NOtidivyoSaq yO4 SSONVIIddWY YSLVM-LOH GONV SYsIZVYG —————S “ weet Z8 ONY ‘18 ‘08 S3DVd 33S 3lv1d JO NOlLdivyoSaq YOY SS0IASQ ONINYVAA PL. 70 BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 HAND AND FOOT WARMERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 81 Rien PL. 72 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONALEMUSEUM kN kA ORS Ee AAR ACN NA st €8 30Vd 33S ALVid dO NOlidinyo0s3q HO SIMO AYIA ASANIHOD ONV SIHOVEIH SSANVdVvf PL. 73 BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss. U. $8 S39vVd 3SS 3LV1id JO NOIldIyoSaG YOY SNOYIGNY SLVY¥YOEV1IS GNV SGVWAWOH 74 PL. BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. $8 3DVd 33S 3LVid JO NOlildiv¥9S3q0 4O4 14VYqQ AYVLINSWIGNY HLIM SSAOLS GNV SSAOLS SSaTLAVEC a 1dWIS PLE. 75 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL- MUSEUM 18 GNY ‘98 ‘G8 SS0WVd 33S 31V1d 40 NOlid!sosaa yO4 14VYQ AYVINAWIGNY HLIM SSAOLS Q U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 76 b STOVE WITH DRAFT AND COOKING PoTs; SIMPLE RANGE FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 85 AND 88 Bean BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 18 39vd 33S 3ivid JO NOIldIN9S83Sq0 4HO4 LavY¥q GANDISAG HLIM SSAOLS PES as BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM Ss. U. 06 GNVY 68 88 S3DVd 33S 3Lvid JO NOlldINOS3aG YO4 GOIY¥ad SAILNSAN| SHL 4O SSHAOLS ‘ALVYH AGNV XOg YIV HLIM SSAOLS U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141. PL. 79 STOVES OF THE INVENTIVE PERIOD FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 90 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 80 SELF-CONTAINED HEATER DEVICES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 92 AND 93 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 54261—28——_14 BULLETIN 141, PL. 81 VARIOUS HOT-WATER DEVICES STOVES IN COMBINATION WITH VESSELS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 93, 94, AND 109 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 82 PRESERVING WARMTH AND COOLING DEVICES FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 95 PL. 83 BULLETIN 141 NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S. 96 GNW 96 SA9Vd 34S AlVid 4O NOlldINOS3G HOY SMO114q GNV ‘SHSMO1gG ‘SNV4 SYI4 84 PL. BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM en ee 86 30Vd 33S 31lV1d 4O NOlidIy9SSG HOH SMO114q SATIVA 318nN0d OHVAVN SRO RE ER ET U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 85 PRIMITIVE TONGS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 98 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 86 TONGS OF METAL FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 99 — 87 PL. BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 66 30Vd 33S 3LV1d JO NOlidIy9s3q YO4 SNVIGN| VINIDYIA ‘diy GNV SLIidS PL. 88 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM OO 39Vd 33S 3lvid JO NOlidivyoSaq 4HO4 Y3aLSVOY LAAIYL AIsVisnray GNV NOUYICIes) U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 89 7 GRIDIRONS, TOASTERS, AND ROASTERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 100 —— U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 90 TRIVETS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 101 PL. 91 BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM ZOL 39Vd 33S 3lV1ld 4O NOlidIy9SaG HOY SYSONVH ONV SHOOHLOd U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 92 BRANDING IRON, IRON RESTS, CURFEW, AND WAFFLE IRONS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 102, 103, AND 108 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 93 SADIRONS — FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 103 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 94 TRIPOD PAUNCH VESSEL FOR COOKING FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 104 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 95 4 COOKING STONES, GRIDDLES, AND COLLAPSIBLE OVEN FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 104, 105, AND 107 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETINI141 PL. 96 FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGE 105 PUEBLO INDIANS COOKING BREAD U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 97 SIMPLE OVENS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 105 AND 106 54261—28 15 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM BULLETIN 141 PL. 98 ek | eh il . F y) fa SPIDERS, DUTCH OVEN, POTTERY OVEN, AND STEAMERS FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 107 AND 108 99 PL, BULLETIN 141 U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM FUEL FOR DESCRIPTION OF PLATE SEE PAGES 109 AND 110 Bini PND nex Page Aino) sell: lamp) of. ———= === 22 =—=— = 45 Alcohol heater for shaving water___ 94 MSGuaSs fuel === ee ees 91 Aleurites triloba nut for torch____-_ 9 American Electric Heating Co___-_~ 92 ANIGiInony Lone. plecev@le—————— 84 OniginyOf 2 Se ne 84 Andrews Hliphaleteh === == 36 Arcand..inventor=—=p=--— = =~ =. ol: PACS Gate oe UNE ee Ee 15 Auction by candle, England__----_~ 41 Aukseoreat use for, fueloo===—- 2 = 6 ESC Cleg Ul Gyan eles ee eee eee ees 101 SON COM he eet! See 75, 101 BAKING eS SlOnes=ses a= a ee ee 104 Bamboo torch, East Indies_________ 6 Basket torch, in whaling__________ 12 Bayberry wax, New England__-__-_~- 17 Bayton Malleable Iron Co_----_-~~ 14 Bed warming pane ——— = eats 83 Beeswax, history. of 22=- =" 22-2 16 IBGllOWS S59 as oe ee 95, 97 ancients y pls = ee 97 MeCH AMC Hse eee ee 97 ISLES Gretna seas 2 Leh ee 97 Beloter sia ttt to Seen Te %2, 100 Benjamin, Worse Mareus=—-==2s 555-2 23 EST mew EN OSS Nae pe a ea 93 Binnacles lam pee Se A 70 BinreherbarkesconGnee = = a ees 7 Biastebyastesm. slndia»== 52s es = a 98 Blowines tubes esa 96 BOASs SD Tew ran a= nes Se ee 6 Boing Sao ae = ee eS 107, 108 Bottles hot-water=-__=_ = 2-2 —- 80 BrandinGesinon 228 a ee ee 104 Brass work and silver work com- DARE Oe ee Sea ee ee 22 Gazer ea sare at ee ee eS 78 Breasted. Or wames) Has 2 ete 44 Brewers. candlestick= =" 22 —— == 22 = 19 Bronze. lantern, - Japan=—) =——=—- = 37 BrOwiteweehempletonss === 8-2 13 Buffalo chips, use as fuel___-______ 110 Camphine;, period: “of2—2_=— = 68 preparation of__--_-__~- 68 TOLGhese—— = Se SS 70 @andelabrasseese ee a. tS Sa ee 28 Ganrdiletanmis =.= Se tS 27 dishesymetals === 26 enesburners==— = 43 SET GS ay a eae a ee he DS 6 holders, improvised———-—==-— 19 MOLUSwUSeWOL= === sa 18 Candlenut torch, Polynesia_—---~--- 8 @andle tree; eMexican = S22) ee 5 Candles2=s2oe = oes eee congitionsTOl Use=——=—.———=—— MUA KIN OY Of ae es probable date ones === Gandlesticks,;: bayonet=—=—— = = === DEISs2 === eee DRewersh 22 ee ee cast-iron] == eee earthenware and stone_ hammered iron—-——--_~— TMpTO Vie de a “© Martin Luther ’’_-_-_— pewter ==5:22252=- === PLOCESSiOn a) eae TOCOCOL 22a) = as eee roundel. Sheficld===— === === Spring 222-2 225 Cane torch, Kentucky caves__—-_--~— Garecel Janp==2_== Se Carriage lanterns, candle_—__-__-_-_ Garter) Howald==—= ee Gasanowie;Dr Me G@ashvand Se arron2] =. ee Central wick tube, important inven- Ghandeliers'\=— 22 ee camphine! 222s ae Fee Heren Od Ca ee Charcoal, discussion of__—-~~---_—_ Japanese preparation of__ retarding effect on draft__ Goes iin eee Colonial Dames, Society of--___--—- Cookers, water heaters_-—_—--—-—_— Cooking devices, aboriginal___-~~-~~ genesis of2> === Cornelius! 21¢d.C oO Couch andi hay @rusie) HuLrOpes= === === fllerwtoTe === === es OLiSine OL eee sfandet0bs ee @uilie wen ee aed aise ee ees Dall, Dr. Dammar gum torches_—-_-——--_____ Dark Davy, Sir Humphry—------------—- Davy lamp, used by miners—-----—-~ Densmore, Miss Frances-—--------~ De: onochtort= =.=. eee Detective. lanterns===———==—==—==——= Digcony Lampe == Dipped candles_———--------~--____ Page 14 14 15 14 19 24 19 26 21 25 42 De 938 = Ur | Co Hm OD Ww ok © wo bok No oO Oo vu ww ow oD 109 110 85 39 93 23 92 104 17 73 71 58 60 59 60 102 OF 46 34 65 65 95 33 74 18 i INDEX Page Dogfish; use for Might. ee ee 6) Euniboldt==> ea Se eee Doultonsand watts] ee ee 80 | Hurricane glasses, for candle pro- Dratt prudimentary= == esse eee 85 TeChOn ss 28 Se 2 ee ee eee Drip catcher, use on lamp__________ 58 | Illumination, development of_______ Dunklee WH. Wis ae. Se ee ee 90:3) ironirestsii es Oe ie eee Dutch: jovien= == ease aN see eee LOT >| Jeterson: !Dhomas: ee eee Hlectric Seating = 2" == eee 92) JOlyn a 2 a ee Bae ee Hewkes; Dr. J. Walter. —- 2 =e 96 Juyenal? == 2.3. ee eee Held "Oven. Hopi => ees se ces 105 Kangri, Kashmerian warming vessel_ Finland, wooden candlestick from___ Zao) Skin & SA Tired sales eee MITC PACKS = 5.< = 2. ee CS ON 89 King Roberticsree = as a ee Hire blower, Spaine= esse ee Of...) Ranneay) “Dee se Se 2 eee hein Soak eee ee ares 95 Kriezer, “A. “Wiles. tae ek eke ee iy, used torunieht=-= = as 44° | Kya: spout lamps=— > ===) eee pots) “cast-Iton.2 = 2s ee 89 | Lamp stands; ancient2-—" == USCh OL 222 = See eee 1) | amps: san cliente. eee ee Fishing torch holder, Finland______ 13 persistence of form__ Biambeau,, ‘constructions == 14 camphine: == 2 = ee LG Abe am pS: Ss eee kee Lae 51 chimney-22. 22 ee eee Foot warmers, Colonial American __ 82 complex inyention=—=0 === Huropean |= 82 Eskimo, Asiatic origin______ Hrankdine Benyamine ee 65 exteMmporancous 222s a= Braryeand) Clank =. 55s oka 91 Pas 2.5 2s ee eee ee Hiryinesi pan. (Korean s= = a e 108 individual, 2-22 sae eee Hue eee ee ee eee 109, 110 inventive, Period === == BIO WN DUG eee ee ee ee 80 latd: oil = eee Grae Fe ees Mire 2a St ue a SN eee TD multiple -wick2- == 23 eee Gallleyestovesue to = ce ee err ee ee 89, 90 origin’ suggested. 32 ee Caltr& SB i OM eau) OC eee eee 70 DLMIti Ve == ss eee Gacimlamps= ata eee en ee TD Simple 222 20s eee GisiiolieOdowardo 222 sss eee 87 sinumbra 224 eee Gimbel lamp 22 = sas a eee 71 ten tubeless eee Glazed pottery and glass candle- lime indicating — = SULC KS eee TE EO ee eee 3D whale oll eee (OUSGHers = a aewe et Aes oe eee 89 Wick: tubét= “2252. coeees Gate REM ree Uren git et Pe ee) 87> angleys (6) sees se eee Cri dles ee EN ae Nae dee PRL 104 Lanterns, cloth and paper__________ Gridirons, aborigingla= se se 99 collapsible ==) 3 e— - aee George Washington’s____ 100 discussion ol== a === aa OLizinvoLe ee ae 99 firefly 2. >) i eee OVO ly 2) ee 100 folding. = = (COTES es oe ee, eda POY Son a ee 104 > Guy: “Wa wkes 7222 2s ees Grillo, Amaro Domincos___________ 88 perforated == Hand and foot warmers___________ 81 Ship 22222 72 eee DEM EU TUTE yy LST Yo fe ate 57 tubular =2 22>) See eee Hay use) age tuel-e= e 110) \aaund ry arose ee ee Heated irons and hot water vessels_ 79) |) Wawrence, Walliagmes === ee Heaters, stone and irona_/) 8) 79 Lehnen—_ =: SSeS So See ea Heating by | steamas 2 = a= see 94 | Library of Congress, torches from__ devices, general discussion_ 7G. |) Laghthouse lamps =) sea Heat preservation, vessels for______ 95 | Light wood, Southern States_______ Heinz, hlenty diene 10520490 | lank 22022542 ee Elenry.< JOSEP hess er wees ea erat 75 | Lobstock, Chinese candle.- ~~ —--—_— bach; dap anese= pe ee 83 Lord; J.) (Gi, and’ We eee Hildesheim, Germany, candlestick ucerna, Utalian 222 See ENG Ti = Pe eS ee eat a Pile eae 20 McLane: Charles=2_- 22-2) ae Hinge, unknown in bronze or early Maeriders collection ==. == === TT OW 2 ers eee a nit Marsh-Darien expedition___________ Blinks /85' Sonst = Sse a ee (ie) Mercer eieniny; (Cepstee ans 5 aes aes Hitchcock lamp, fan-draft__________ (4. Mica. usedtin lanterns2 2-2 eee Etorn) lantern, inelish==— soe SOP ME Tame SOU wisy eae Hot-water appliances______________ 80 Miller Gerrit: S2) 222 oe ee platters: Sees 22 Seen tee 94 Millner. Ws Bia. Se a eae Hiouchin’< 22-22: sO eae 91 Miners" candlestick === Howard andeMorsen 12 ee as eee 33 amen st Re oe ae ee INDEX 113 Page Page JN Aaa ae SS I ENS a S SpDOUG AMPs! + Se Se eee 61 Modern lamp, problems of ___~~-_-- 72 SCG amin par es = ae ee ee 108 Myrtle wax, for candles___________ 16 Stejneger, Leonhard_______-_______ 53, 90 INJEhG Monts) 22 WS oak aS ee 52 StonewiVMirs: endian ee lee 101 eandles and holders____ 40 Stoneridge lantern =. ee 39 INOMLO MC nA GQ) os Se ee 6 Stoves, air box and grate__________ 87 Olecostaticnamp so —= eee 74 alcohol s= 62222. =) eee 91 (Giing) 22 ae ee ee ee eee 105 ANCL SE ECUSC Hee eee 87 MuitChias. +See Se 107 development in fireplace____ 89, 90 Thue aye ee a ee eee 107 electric 2 6 2 Se eee 92 TVPG CANE se es 106 Pas we Ce ee ee Ee ee 91 MEH GC tlh ye cee ee eas eS DS 106 INVACOMp iT atl ones 92 ealmen ee aerate ee ee 42, 43, 72 inventive’ period === a= 89 venti incest a == Soe ee ee 12 Ma eos ee ee eee 90 Reatausecas fuel =] = 2H oat SS 110 rudimentary draft__.___-___ 85 BED FS TsTS Cs Tomo) ASE Ts ea a ee ee 5 Russian and Chinese_______ 81 Petroleum, effect on illumination__~ 70 Sil ples 22 ee 84, 85 ideal Vampmtwelz== == 70 ibetans sess. = te ee 88 Pierced lantern, European__-—---~~ 26m | OURVLValSs cis GUSSTONmr Obese me 4 Pine-knot burner, United States pat- Mallow tree; Ching ===— 22 ee 15 GoTo ye ga gee eee 1D Naper hold ersi === 2 ee eee 15 Te aR T eee eee a nee hs SAE ee ee On| LLepers, =. Ceremonigl== === === ae 18 Pocket stove, Japan =-—) === 80 Colledi== 24 ae a pee 4,14 iomeroy’s.colled) taper. — = = = 15 TNeakettle=- =< 5-5-5. 2 Se eee 109 IEntehanctersesee en ne ee 102 Meanot, Stove, Ching === ae 3 NGS 2 Se ee ee ee 102 Memporaryuehty Sheol 6 Powers, Mrs. Frances Roome___--__— SO me lerstovem Germs = == = eee ee 90 PP sT3 CG src ee eee me eee te are ie eelimercandles= a= sae eae ee een 40 Pricket.candlesticks==— = — = = = 20 Indicahin gs amp Se ee 67 Anti Cae. ss 2 20 MONS wands tLe ei OO LS eee ee 98 Primitive amps 2s Si a 3 for carrying) fire: (coale==——— 99 Rant wkitchen.. Japamias= = = 86 Woreheand candle===2—- === 3 Resin torch, West Indies__________~ 8 Morehesen Campy alone ee 13 Rice steamer, Malay—222— === = 108 engineers on railroads_—_~ 14 Roasters and, coastersa..-—-— 2 = se 100 for fishing, varieties______ 3 OCH eSbers) lait peers eee es 74 Nolders7s== Se eee 9 ERO Ceti lll eon Wig aN eeae se teres ee = 7,97 development of ____ 9 Rushveandlessumakine of 2 = A. Tortilla: griddle: Mexico==2= =" 2225 105 chandelier, English__________ 29ui > Drip p pede ALS eS ee 36 clipfakmeland@] 2222. = eee = POE Nee RVets oss tore Seek Le SES ee 100, 101 Samovar, stove in combination______ 92 SDSL OTe ae Leh ep er eee 62 BAUCerMlaMips eee a a ee ee 53 | Valve in bellows, invention of__-__~ 98 Scaldino, Italian, for warming_—-_~~ 81 | Vegetable wax industry in China___ 16 GOING ES eet ae see ou Ry Be OOM la Wialllewin on se. sea = ota a 108 ScovillesandsJohnson]— = Ses 106 Wallace, Sir Alfred Russell_--_-_~~ "6 Shaler ae eye ree ee es 3 Warners Joseph! =s 2 se=2 23 Sheltss 1s lamp origina) = es Am) Washington, Georcesse=- =e 72,100 Ships lantern sso = = ee eee sh le warern cooler.” Caleutida === sr 95 Signal lantern, first example_____-_ 33 Wax, vegetal and animal____---___ 15) Silver and plate candlesticks_______ DOE NEaAViel Sis iCANGILES tC = eee 19 Binplees stoves s2—— GASP Welspachen aM ps—— a= = ee ee 76 Sinumbra lamp; date of-=—-—~—==—— = te iWetsel) WewiS se ee 84 Slow-burning fuel devices___-____~~ Sai white. Jonnie == s Se ae 104 Snuffers, snuffer trays, and _ extin- Wick channel, development of______ 55 MINS RS Se Se ee ee ee 41 lampe=2=—== SoS eee 54 NOU OMiN he oe eo 54 tongue, invention of-——--—_-_ 59 Salata ers mil see = ea SS 14 tonehes) moderna s——.2— === 12} Splint and candle combination in tubeamps==.2- 2-2 == ee 63 Lina a (ei Se ee ee ee alal Wicks. .use..of, flat. type===— === 70 Splint holders, Iron Age derivation_ LON |F Walliams;C. Al and Co=25=— ee = 13 pincer, forme 11 Palecott=22-- 24525. == 22, 51, 104 Within eC Kye a 12 | Wind glasses, candlestick_____----_ 27 Splint torch aggregates_________--_ 10 ! Wooden candlesticks____-_——_--_=_ 21 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS U.S.GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C, AT 70 CENTS PER COPY Vv A A a Oe ae ) win ai " ae, ee ‘4c Pe a ya i } : TOAy Lal . ' ; i Le ae Ag uy Dia es RT | Ad oe Dh 4 ( Caan, mr ty hor 7 [ i Ey ay —_ Ma RCE i a oa an. | WR RR Fn by hae i : 4 ; Bin heads is 4 aa | | ae i) aa : " kale 47) Ty ms, Bi q rae 4 i brite wu el bd ea, (i Large I - “by | \ ih cil { ah pil 5 | i li “ni Mi ll iy mY, “Ag eth MT 0 fate, 2957 Gea\ ze) og aa me cOa.. a, sy Yer , ZROLON, oe Mig oh LAL. * Ronda 4 fees ext | ra Ri ot fac Tons cewselies WU ist oF ata isa aceite cae Perry aire aed 6 CR a alt + EM Ha hanerh PM pae Be ee Mal rats cepa circ ats on teh Psy pais Sy OG verre Werth ee COR ig Pt Naa ried cn * a Lee MITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES vi . naa A ck Sabet aan Ot sine wy * “HAIN 3 90 .e V7 Ly * Ars eT ah Feet Os uray array of | j ae PEAT Hea" ‘ Oe a Soe ore) f Vy Pens See oer ee ; Present . Roh ea rie) ey ee S 4 4 i] Ore b i? Ce Tame oe ed Parner rae Ree VEN ied al at oe LEG Ma aah? iat ray ae ea "3 AAT) neato abet pe ie 36 Ne if it Pe Cant Boer taro es SMM Sta eh E Bh parry DO as To) GARE « D Pacey yay geen ATR Coo A Meld yaa aes hapeld tA avant ey Ue) bua