UMASS/AMHERST III 3120bt.DD53DD3DD m W^ mt f T 1 ''F ■ I )\ r III UCTl J I J, 1 ON R. A. VAN METER, iiiiiuiiiiiiiiiiiiiiinniBuuniiiiiiiiiiii u/ 2 7. Crate of Raspberries and a Convenient Field Carrier 32 8 and 9. Single Cane of Black Raspberry Before and After Pruning .... 33 10 AND 11. Purple Cane Plant Before and After Pruning 48 12. A Box OF Blackberries 49 13. A Standard Crate of Blackberries ... 49 14 and 15. a Blackberry 'Tatch" Before and After Pruning 80 16. Evergreen Blackberries in the Pacific Northwest 81 17. Currants Between Grapes in the Hudson Valley 81 18 AND 19. A Currant Bush Before and Af- ter Pruning 96 20. A Young Blueberry Bush Covered With Netting as a Protection From Birds 97 21. A Three-Year-Old Cultivated Bluberry Plant in a New England Garden . . 97 Bush Fruit Production THE GARDENER AND HIS GARDEN The plant is the open book of the true horticulturist. Plant characteristics dictate cultural requirements and plant reactions gov- ern the details of practice. The gardener or farmer who would become a skilled grower of plants must learn to pass beyond the printed word to the plant itself for the final settlement of cultural problems. He must learn to read the answers to his questions in leaf and spur and branch and flower, and he must develop a sense of fine discrimination which will enable him to adjust cultivation and fertilization, pruning and spraying, more and more closely to the needs of the individual plant. Books are useful and necessary. They con- tain the summarized experiences of thousands of plant manipulators who have gone before, but the rules and formulae which they set forth 11 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION are; at best, but rough approximations. They may be true on the average but they seldom fit exactly the particular conditions with which the farmer and gardener must deal. Language cannot convey a true understand- ing. That can come only from experience and observation and comparison, until gradually there develops a sense of relative values, a comprehension of the meaning of subtle changes ^hich follow our attempts to bend the plant to our purposes. Study the plant! Learn to know it at its best, then learn to recognize the signs of trouble, especially those delicate but apparent growth and color changes which indicate a low or poorly balanced food supply, for malnutri- tion is the worst foe of cultivated plants. Understanding can never be complete. Human senses are too limited and plant re- actions too intimate and subtle for that, but the degree of mastery marks the difference between the "plant wizard" and the man who has no "luck" at all with plants. Growth and Fruitfulness A clean strong growth is the first essential of heavy cropping. More growers of plants fail at this point than at any other, and two 12 THE GARDENER AND HIS GARDEN misconceptions have contributed a great deal to this failure: the notion that vigorous plants winterkill easily; and the idea that growth is opposed to fruit production. Each has some foundation in experience but both are decid- edly overridden by the fact that the most pro- ductive plants and those most resistant, both to climatic extremes and to pests, are plants in normal vigor. It is a matter of common observation that plants in a half starved state, neglected, crowded, and choked by weeds, are beset by all the ills to which the plantation is exposed. It is equally true, on the other hand, that plants which are overfed, which make a ram- pant growth and are soft and ill conditioned when a trying winter comes, grow more leaves than fruit and are likely to be seriously dam- aged by low temperatures. These extremes are to be avoided, of course, but growth and fruitfulness are both entirely in accord with nature. Within limits at all reasonable, increased growth is followed by larger crops of better fruit and by a greater resistance to troubles of all kinds. There is a middle ground, easily attained, in which growth contributes to fruitfulness and to the well-being of the plant. The greatest success depends upon the maintenance of this opti- 13 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION mum growth. It requires something which cannot be written in books but which is born of experience and intimate contact with plants, a skill which soon comes to the gardener who observes and thinks and tries to understand. Bush Fruit Soils Most of the bush fruits are quite cosmo- politan in their soil requirements. With the possible exception of blueberries, each may be grown successfully on a fairly wide range of soil types. Where several bush fruits are grown together, medium sandy or clay loams of considerable depth are best, for they com- bine in a measure the easy working qualities of sandy soils with the moisture retaining and plant food holding characters of the heavier t5^es. Wet, heavy soils are difficult to work and growth cannot be controlled. They usually are soggy late in spring and in autumn they encourage plants to grow until freezes kill the leaves. Then the plants, not properly hard- ened, are likely to suffer more or less winter injury. When part of a bush fruit plantation extends into an area where the soil is wet and heavy, winterkilling is almost invariably worst in that spot. 14 Fig. 2 (above). Red raspberries before pruning:. The row is filled Avith weak canes and short suckers which crowd the best canes and are of little or no value for crop production. Fig. 3 Cbelov) . The row pruned. "Weak growth has been re- moved, the rows thinned and narrowed down to the width desired, and the winter-killed tips of the remaining canes cut off. When the canes are alive to the ends, only enough of the tops are cut off to enable the caues to stand erect under the crop. '^^ ~rw Fig. 4 (above). Red raspberries laid down for the winter. About one-third of each cane is covered with earth, and snow is depended upon to afford some protection to the rest. In severe climates the Avhole cane is buried. Fig. 5 (helotc). Red raspberries supported on wires. On either side of the row a single Avire, fastened to posts, holds the canes erect. When the rows are narrow a single line of jjosts, in the middle of the row, Avill carry both wires. THE GARDENER AND HIS GARDEN Berries ripen at a time of year when long periods without rain are to be expected. Since the size and quality of berries depend largely upon adequate moisture at ripening time, light drouthy soils are to be avoided. They also leach plant food rapidly, and vigorous plant growth is not easy to maintain. Improving Soil Conditions Much may be done to correct the physical condition of soils too light or too heavy for best results. Especially on small plots is the soil under a certain amount of control. It is even possible and worth while in special cases to transport enough light soil to mix with and ameliorate a heavier one, but chief reliance must be placed upon the addition of humus in one form or another. In this day of cheap synthetic chemical fer- tilizers too little attention is given by many gardeners to the humus content of the soil. It makes heavy soils more loose and friable, and it adds to the fertility and increases the moisture holding capacity of soils too sandy for best results. Well-rotted stable manure has no rival as a humus-forming material. Unfortunately it is becoming scarcer every year, and some other 15 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION material must be substituted in many gardens. The farmer inserts into his crop rotation a green crop to be plowed under. Such soiling crops might be grown often on garden plots in late summer but they aren't because it is too much trouble and it may interfere with the harvesting of late crops. Both of these objec- tions are more imaginary than real, but doubt- less they will continue to be effective. A compost pile affords a more practical sub- stitute for a supply of manure. Leaves, grass clippings from the lawn, tomato vines, corn- stalks and other garden refuse, and much of the other vegetable waste which usually finds its way to the bonfire may be composted to good advantage. There is enough material of this kind around the average premises to maintain at a high level the humus content of any ordinary garden plot. Humus corrects many soil deficiencies, and is of special value in making soils drouth re- sistant. In the growing of bush fruits it is important that the soil should contain plenty of organic matter when the plants are set, for they need a supply upon which they can draw for several years and it is not easy to incor- porate it with the soil after planting, or at least it is easier not to do it. 16 II RASPBERRY CULTURE Types and Varieties The raspberries which are commonly grown in the United States fall naturally into three groups: red, black, and purple, according to the color of the berries. Each has certain ad- vantages over the others and each is a favor- ite in those sections where it is adapted best to the requirements of the growers. Black Raspberries — Black caps usually yield more heavily than red varieties, but the berries are not so much in demand and con- sequently sell at lower prices. They are grown most extensively near New York City and in the Middle West. Black raspberries are highly prized for the making of jams and jellies and their preeminence in this field should, in itself, make a place for them in the home garden. In addition, their dessert qual- ity is such as to insure their continued popu- larity. 17 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Cumberland is the most widely grown black raspberry. It ripens its fruit in ntidseason and the well-flavored berries are large and handle well. The canes are vigorous, produc- tive, and fairly hardy. Plum Farmer is one of the hardiest black caps. The berries are large and firm. The season is early and so short that the crop may be harvested in two or three pickings. Kansas is an early variety with large, firm berries. The tendency of the canes to winter- kill has reduced its popularity. Red Raspberries — Varieties of this type are favored for dessert purposes by most con- sumers, and their bright, attractive color in- sures a ready market. Their culture extends across the northern states with few interrup- tions from New England to the Pacific coast. Their excellence in manufactured products in addition to their dessert qualities insures their place in the home garden. There are many varieties and preferences vary, but the follow- ing are most commonly grown: Cuthbert is the standard of quality among red raspberries and it is the leading variety in most sections. It is only moderately hardy, however, and its susceptibility to diseases of the mosaic type is tending to limit its culture. 18 RASPBERRY CULTURE It is still one of the very best varieties for the home garden. Its season is late. Latham lacks the high quality of Cuthbert, but it is a good berry. It is a relatively new variety but its hardiness, vigor, and produc- tivity are bringing it into high favor with growers. In many sections Latham is chal- lenging Cuthbert for first place. The fruit ripens late. Latham is sometimes sold under the name Redpath. Herbert is a hardy variety of Canadian origin, and it is the most satisfactory rasp- berry in some of the colder parts of the coun- try. It is a midseason variety, vigorous and productive, with large, bright red fruit. June is an early variety with large, firm, bright red fruit. It is very vigorous and pro- ductive, especially on the heavier soils. King is one of the best early varieties in the Central West. The canes are hardy and vigor- ous and the bright red, firm, medium-sized ber- ries ripen over a long season. There are many other varieties of red rasp- berries which are worth consideration in the sections to which they are adapted but which cannot be considered here in detail. Otah and Sunbeam can be grown in the northern Great Plains area where common varieties fail be- cause of the severe winters. Surprise is the 19 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION leading variety in central and southern Cali- fornia. Marlboro is extensively grown in Colorado and is to be found here and there in the northeastern states. The everbearers are treated separately (see page SO). Purple Raspberries — The "purple canes" are hybrids between red and black raspberries, and have certain characteristics of each parent. They are tremendous yielders, sur- passing all other raspberries in this respect. The quality is good although the fruit is dull in color. Purple raspberries are somewhat easier to handle in the garden than red or black varieties, because they do not spread from the hills in which they are planted, and they are a popular home garden fruit in many states. They are splendidly adapted to can- ning and to the making of raspberry products. Columbian is the leading variety of purple canes. The berries are very large and ripen late, but are too soft to ship well. The canes are moderately hardy, very vigorous, and very productive. Columbian is one of the best varieties of raspberries for canning and for manufactured products. Royal (Royal Purple) is said to be hardier in some sections than Columbian. The berries are large and firm, and the season is long. 20 RASPBERRY CULTURE Royal is a very late berry, ripening ten days or more after Cuthbert. Other Raspberries — Van Fleet is a hybrid of recent introduction which may be grown farther south than most other raspberries. The bush is vigorous and moderately produc- tive. It propagates by tip layering. The fruit is a dull, light red and ripens very late. It is probable that this new raspberry will find favor chiefly in the southern part of its range. Yellow varieties appear occasionally among both red and black raspberries. Most of those now in cultivation, if not all of them, are red raspberries except in color. Golden Queen is almost a yellow Cuthbert and it is the best of the yellow raspberries. The quality of the fruit is high, but the plant is more tender than Cuthbert and needs better care. Golden Queen is worth planting in the home garden but has little or no commercial value. Soils and Their Preparation Raspberries are adapted to a wide range of soil types but extremes should be avoided. The fruit has a high water content and ripens at a time of year when rains are likely to be infrequent. A shortage of moisture near ripen- 21 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION ing time may cause many of the berries to dry up before maturing and harvested berries are usually small and seedy. The soil should, therefore, be retentive of moisture. Raspberries are sensitive also to an excess of moisture in the soil and the location of the plantation should be one in which the soil is not wet for a long period in spring. Good drainage in spring is just as essential as an adequate moisture supply in midsummer. Ordinary garden soils which are well filled with humus are satisfactory for raspberries if the plane of fertility is not too high. On ex- tremely fertile soils the canes tend to grow late and make a soft unripened growth which is likely to winterkill. On poor soils the canes are small and spindling and the crops light. Within these wide limits, raspberries will thrive on almost any soil. The ideal is a sandy or light clay loam well filled with or- ganic matter which not only furnishes plant food but acts also as a reservoir for moisture. Varieties differ somewhat in their soil adapta- tions. June usually does best on clay loams, while Cuthbert and Latham are very cosmo- politan in their soil requirements. The plowing under of manure or green crops tends to improve the texture of both very heavy and very light soils, and it should 22 RASPBERRY CULTURE be a part of the preparation of such soils for raspberry growing. Weeds and grass increase the difficulties of keeping the plantation clean and vigorous and an effort should be made to eradicate most of them before planting, for it is easier then than when the plants are in place. Before the plants are set it is best to plow the land and pulverize it until a good seed bed is prepared. Thorough preparation saves cultivation later on, makes planting easier, and insures the plants a fair start. Raspber- ries occupy the land for several years and a little care in preparing the soil is an excellent investment. Cultivation The duration of the raspberry plantation will depend a great deal upon the degree to which the land is kept free from grass and weeds. If grass gets a good start it may soon be easier to establish a new raspberry patch than to clean up the old one. Weeds and grass rob the plants of moisture and plant food and their increase marks the decline of the crop. Part of the root system of raspberry plants is near the surface and after the plantation is established cultivation next to the rows should be shallow. A one-horse cultivator with teeth 23 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION shortened on the side next to the rows is used in large-scale operations. In the garden there is nothing better than a good iron rake if cultivation is not neglected until the ground gets hard and compact, and weeds are large. The amount of cultivation needed will de- pend upon the nature and condition of the soil. Once each week up to the time of har- vest is not too often and some good growers cultivate more frequently. As picking time approaches the surface soil should be kept fine and loose. The size and quality of the berries ;will depend very largely upon the amount of moisture available at ripening time. During the harvesting season the pickers tread down and compact the soil at a time when the moisture supply is particularly im- portant. It is a good plan to cultivate after each picking unless the berries hang so low as to become dusty. After the harvest season cultivation should be continued to keep weeds from getting a start, but if they have been conquered during the early summer they will seldom be trouble- some later. Frequent cultivation in the fall encourages late growth and may leave the plants in poor condition to withstand the win- ter. If there is no late cultivation, however, weeds may sprout and be ready for an early 24 RASPBERRY CULTURE Start in spring before the land can be culti- vated. Mulching — In the garden a mulching sys- tem is often more satisfactory than cultiva- tion, and it is employed very successfully by some commercial growers as well. If sufficient straw, old hay, or other similar materials are used to prevent the growth of weeds, the moisture supply is maintained in an efficient way. On sandy or gravelly soils raspberries may thrive better under a good mulch system than under cultivation. 25 Ill THE RED RASPBERRIES Propagation Red raspberries propagate by means of suckers. Root-like underground stems bearing fibrous roots radiate from the crown of the parent plant. These creeping underground stems are nearly horizontal and from them suckers appear during the growing season at some distance from the crown. These suckers are readily transplanted. Suckers are pro- duced by common varieties in such abundance that propagation is not a problem at all. They are the worst weeds in the plantation and large numbers must be removed each year to keep the rows within bounds and to prevent crowd- ing of plants in the rows. Occasionally it becomes desirable to in- crease the production of new plants, as with a new variety or a valuable supply of disease- free stock. The growth of suckers may be stimulated by cutting the underground stems or otherwise disturbing them. They are not 26 THE RED RASPBERRIES far below the surface and deep cultivation close to the rows in early spring will usually start a forest of suckers. In the garden the same effect may be obtained by thrusting down a spade several times in a circle a few inches from the base of the parent plant. Cut- ting back the tips of the new canes in early summer is also effective. Conversely, to minimize suckering, which usually is highly desirable, an undue disturb- ance of the root system should be avoided and the tops should not be cut back during the growing season. Root cuttings such as those described on page 73 may also be used to propagate red raspberries when a maximum number of plants is desired. Buying Nursery Stock Some nurserymen take great pains to keep their stock free from serious diseases. Others buy most of the stock which they sell from local growers who may have no interest what- ever in selecting healthy plants. There is an obvious advantage in buying stock from local plantations known to be free from diseases. When it is necessary to send to a distant nurseryman it is safest to buy 27 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION stock officially certified to be disease-free, or practically so. Most of the leading raspberry- growing states now have an organized inspec- tion service and plants which have been examined by authorized agents of the state are available to those :who take the trouble to locate them. Lists of nurserymen who have disease-free plants are compiled each year and may be secured from the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, or from state experiment stations which work with small fruits, like those of Minnesota, Illinois, Ohio, Michigan, and New York. Taking up Dormant Suckers Only the most vigorous and healthy suckers should be transplanted. Many of the younger plants far out between the rows will live and grow but it is easy to lose a year in getting a new plantation started and weak plants are an unnecessary handicap. Care should be taken to secure a piece of the parent root with each plant. The sucker usually has developed a few fibrous roots of its own but not enough to give it the right start. When the sucker is pulled up it almost 28 THE RED RASPBERRIES always is broken loose from the parent plant. If a spade is thrust down between the sucker and the row to cut the underground stem there is least danger of breaking off the sucker. Then the new plant may be lifted on the spade and the earth shaken off. The tops of new plants are usually cut back to leave not more than a foot of cane which serves as a convenient handle in resetting. The plants are then tied in bundles to facili- tate handling. Transplanting Green Plants Under favorable conditions it is possible to transplant young suckers in spring when they are about five or six inches high. It is then easier to select healthy plants than during the dormant season. Since virus diseases of the mosaic type have become so widespread this method of starting new plantations has gained steadily in favor. To be most successful, green shoots should be transplanted in spring when the soil is moist and rains are frequent. When planted in a dry soil or when transplanting is followed by a drouth too many of the plants wither and die. Special care should be exercised to get a root-bearing piece of the parent plant, for v29 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION the young plant is likely to have few or no roots of its own. This method is more likely to be successful on soils which are naturally moist than on sandy soils, but when intelli- gently done it is probably the most satisfac- tory way to start a new raspberry patch from an old one on the premises. Selecting Disease-Free Stock Avoiding diseases has become the most im- portant problem in raspberry growing. Since the raspberry is attacked by several incurable troubles it is important that the stock for planting should be disease-free. Suckers should be selected from plants which are known to be free of mosaic, leaf curl, and crown gall (see pages 45 and 46). Mosaic and leaf curl are not easily detected unless the plants are in full leaf. In planta- tions where such diseases are known to have obtained a foothold, and that includes almost every plantation, sections which show no evi- dences of these troubles should be staked off or otherwise marked during the latter part of the growing season. This makes it possible to select disease-free stock when the time ar- rives for transplanting dormant suckers. 30 the red raspberries Systems of Training Two general systems of culture are used for red raspberries: solid rows, and the hill sys- tem. Solid rows are most often employed and vary in width from a single irregular row of plants to a hedge three or four feet wide at the bottom. Hedge Rows — In establishing solid rows, plants are set about thirty inches to three feet apart in the rows and allowed to produce suckers freely until the rows are filled with plants and have reached the desired width. The cultivator is then used to keep the rows from spreading farther. The distance between rows at planting time varies with the soil and with the width of row to be expected later on. On strong soils plants grow larger and should be given more room than on soils where growth will be less vigor- ous. In any case there should be room for the cultivator between the rows when the plantation has reached maturity. It should be remembered, too, that canes bend outward as the fruit develops and that a row one foot wide at the bottom may be three or four feet wide at the height of a man's waist. Six feet between rows is a common planting 31 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION distance for the narrow hedge system. Under good growing conditions seven feet is undoubt- edly much better. Growers often complain of insufficient room in which to work about the plants, but seldom that they have too much. In gardens especially rows are often set but four or five feet apart. That seems to be plenty of room at the start, but before long the rows begin to crowd. When the space be- tween rows becomes too narrow for frequent and easy cultivation, the temptation is strong to neglect that most important operation. Too close planting ruins many raspberry patches and should be carefully guarded against. The most desirable width of row is open to question. It varies somewhat with the fer- tility of the soil and the vigor of the variety, but in general narrow rows produce the best berries and they are much more easily pruned and harvested. When the row becomes so wide that the middle is not easily reached, many berries on the middle canes are over- looked and the rest are found with consider- able difficulty. The same difficulty of reach- ing through the brambles to the middle of the row is experienced at pruning time. While it is probable that higher total yields may be secured from wider rows, ease in handling makes it advisable to keep the rows narrow. 32 Fig. 6 (above). A black raspbei*i-y plant properly pruned. The canes are cut back and each lateral shortened to leave a few buds only. Fig. 7 (helow). Red Raspberries. A crate and a field carrier filled with pint boxes. A convenient carrier may be made from a greenhouse "flat" and a piece of barrel hoop. J Fig. 8 (above). A single black raspberry cane before pruning. Without pruning, such canes produce small and seedy berries well out on the lateral branches, where they swing near the ground and often get dusty. Fig. 9 (heJow) . The same cane pruned. There is little or no reduction in yield from such pruning, and the berries are much larger and finer than those from canes pruned more lightly. Try it. THE RED RASPBERRIES Supports for the Hedge Row — Rasp- berry growers are more and more inclined to furnish some support to keep raspberry canes from bending over too far into the space be- tween the rows. Some of the finest berries are borne on these bending canes, but they are difficult to harvest and often get dusty from cultivation or spattered with mud during a driving rain. Usually a wire is run on either side of the row, as in figure 5, and supported on posts. For narrow rows a single line of posts may be set in the row with a wire fastened to either side. It is often convenient to fasten the wires to the posts in such a way that they may be removed and laid on the ground to facilitate pruning and harvesting. This is accomplished easiest by driving heavy nails into the top of the post on either side and merely laying the wires between them. For very narrow rows a single high wire is sufficient if the canes are tied to it with twine. The Linear System — ^This is essentially a hedge row narrowed down to as near a single line of plants as can be maintained. It is em- ployed by a few growers of fancy berries but is not in general use. The rows may be placed somewhat closer together but even then the yields are less than with wider rows. Hand 33 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION work, however, is reduced to a minimum and such operations as pruning and harvesting are made a great deal easier. The linear system has certain advantages for the home garden, where high yields may be subordinated to the quality of the fruit and to greater ease in growing it. Red raspberries grown on the linear system usually are given some support. A single wire is sometimes used, or two wires, one above the other, to which the canes are tied. The Hill System — Red raspberries grown on the hill system usually are set about five feet apart each way. Five to seven canes are allowed to grow in each hill and all others are removed. This system is not widely used but its adherents claim that, while the yields per acre are rather low, the quality is high and the number of quarts grown per man is higher than with other systems because of the small amount of hand work required and the ease >vith which the canes are pruned and the crop harvested. For support, the canes are tied to a stake driven in beside the hill and standing about five feet above ground. The hill system is not well adapted to the culture of such varieties as Cuthbert, which sucker freely, but has been used extensively with less vigorous varieties like Perfection, 34 THE RED RASPBERRIES especially in the Hudson Valley section of New York. Time of Planting Plants are usually set in early spring, except on the Pacific coast, where they are set at any time during the rainy season. Fall planting is coming to be preferred by many growers, however, even in sections like New England where winters are severe, if a covering of snow; can be depended upon for protection. Plants set as early in the fall as dormant stock for transplanting can be obtained, are off to a flying start in spring and usually make a stronger growth the first year than spring-set plants. That is the great advantage of fall planting. Plants set in spring should be given the ear- liest possible start. If they become well established before the drier weather of sum- mer arrives they continue to grow vigorously and often will produce a sizeable crop the second year; but when they are planted late very few new canes will be produced the first season, especially if the summer is a dry one. At whatever time the planting is done the stock should be as near dormant as possible when set. Shoots that have formed or even 35 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION buds that have swollen are likely to be broken off, and their starting, in itself, seriously weakens the plants. The first shoots to start on new-set plants and the strongest canes to appear the first year are from leader buds near the base of the transplanted sucker. If they are broken off it takes much longer for the new plant to establish itself. Keeping Plants Dormant When plants arrive from the nursery before planting time they should be unpacked and kept cool and fairly moist until set. It is pos- sible to open the boxes, set them in a cool cellar, and supply moisture as needed, but that requires attention and is likely not to be fol- lowed up closely enough. If the plants be- come dry the damage may be serious. An ice house is a splendid place for nursery stock, where the bundles may be buried in cold, moist sawdust. The next best place is the ground itself. In "heeling in" plants a shallow trench is dug, preferably in a cool, shady spot, the bundles are broken apart and the plants placed in the trench with earth tramped solidly about their roots. At least plants will not dry out when treated in this way and if they are 36 THE RED RASPBERRIES out of direct sunlight they usually remain dor- mant until they can be set. Setting Plants Care must be taken to keep the roots from drying out while they are being set. Paiis or tubs in which the roots may be kept in water are often placed at convenient points in the patch, or the bundles of plants are wrapped in wet burlap. Raspberry plants are usually set in furrows or with a spade. Setting in furrows has the advantage of speed, and if care is taken to run the furrows straight, and to set the plants be- fore the furrows dry, there are no serious objections to it. In following this method the furrows are opened but a short distance ahead of the planters to guard against drying out of the soil. Each plant is dropped into place and earth is pushed over it with the foot in suf- ficient quantity to hold it in place, and tramped solidly. As soon as the row is set the cultivator is run on either side of the row to finish filling the furrow, and the job is com- pleted. Setting with a spade is a more useful method in the garden where it may not be convenient to furrow out the land. The spade 37 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION is thrust into the soil and pushed forward to make an opening into which the root is placed. The spade is then removed and the soil tramped firmly about the plant. For large- scale operations, three men make an efficient crew, setting two rows at a time. Two men with spades make the openings for the plants while the third, walking between the rows, places the plants. If the soil is dry particular care should be taken to press the soil firmly about the roots, for there is a tendency to leave a hollow space at the bottom of the open- ing. A three-man crew can set about three thousand plants in a day, if the land has been well prepared. Pruning at Planting Time As soon as planting is finished the pieces of cane projecting above ground should be cut back to leave only enough to mark the rows for convenience in cultivation. Otherwise many of the topmost buds will produce fruit- ing shoots. The first task of the new planta- tion is to grow plants enough to fill in the rows and make a real crop possible. Any fruit borne the first year is distinctly at the expense of growth and later crops. In so far as possible growth the first year should be 38 THE RED RASPBERRIES forced to come from below ground — from the leader buds on the canes near the roots and from the underground stems which are soon sent out in all directions if the top is kept from growing. Pruning Red Raspberries Raspberry canes grow in one year, branch and produce a crop in the next growing season, then die. While one set of canes is fruiting another set is growing to produce their crop in turn in the year following. Cut Back — The first pruning which a red raspberry cane receives is in the spring of the fruiting year, when it is cut back at the tip. Any bud on the cane is capable of producing a fruiting branch under favorable conditons, as is shown by the action of buds low on the cane following severe winterkilling. Growth tends to come from the highest buds, however, and they usually produce the crop. Some have argued that the topmost buds, formed late in the preceding autumn, are weak and by cut- ting back the growth is turned into lower and stronger buds, which are better fitted to pro- duce a crop. Experimental evidence is lacking on the amount of cutting back which is best, and 39 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION practice varies from no cutting back at all to severe pruning, which enables the canes to stand erect without support under the weight of a full crop. Most growers cut the canes back to a height of three to five feet, depend- ing on their vigor. Very severe cutting back reduces the yield and delays ripening. Gardeners sometimes take advantage of this method of delaying the harvest, and provide a supply of raspberries well past the normal season by pruning a part of the row severely. Thin Out the Row — It usually is neces- sary at the time of the spring pruning to thin the canes, also. Each cane must be given room to branch and bear fruit. It should have several inches clear in each direction. Suckers which have appeared outside the rows and have escaped the cultivator should be re- moved. See illustrations Nos. 2 and 3. Remove Old Canes — ^As soon as the canes have borne their crop, they may be removed or they may be left until pruning time in the following spring. Immediately following the harvest season the canes are more easily cut off, insects and diseases borne by them are re- moved, and the new canes are given more room to develop. In regions where heavy snows sometimes break the canes the old tops 40 THE RED RASPBERRIES may be left over winter to lend their support to the weaker ones. More often they are left in through carelessness or because it is more convenient to do all the pruning in spring in one operation. Fertilization The most important item in handling the soil on which raspberries are grown is to secure the maximum of drouth resistance and to avoid soils which are unduly wet in spring. This makes a good supply of organic matter the first consideration. If the soil is well filled with humus, little additional fertilization will be required. A normal, healthy growth leads to maxi- mum crop production. Overstimulation must be avoided for it may decrease the yield and expose the canes to winterkilling, but the most common fault, especially in small plantations, is insufficient growth. The first step in remedying this condition should be to free the rows of grass and weeds. Then reduce the width of the rows to twelve or fifteen inches at the bottom and thin out the canes to eliminate undue crowding as de- tailed under "pruning." If growth still is in- adequate, fertilization is in order. 41 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Well-rotted manure or compost must be given first place as a fertilizer for red rasp- berries (see page 15). When neither of these is available a good commercial fertilizer of 4-8-4 or 5-8-5 grade, or better, will be found best for general use. It should be applied to the rows in spring after pruning and worked into the soil with a narrow hoe. Fertilization late in the season is sometimes worth while on weak plants, but it must be undertaken with caution and should not be attempted by the inexperienced. Winterkilling The terminal growth of raspberries con- tinues until brought to an end by cold weather. The new wood at the tips of the canes does not harden or "ripen" and is not resistant to cold. Back from the tips the older wood be- comes progressively more resistant to the try- ing conditions met in winter. Drying out of the canes in winter seems to play a part as important as low temperatures in injuring plant tissues. The tips winterkill regularly and sometimes the injury extends back to the snowline or to ground level, the amount depending upon the severity of the weather and the condition of 42 THE RED RASPBERRIES the canes. Sometimes the strongest canes, which probably grew most in the fall, are dam- aged worst. Plants which are weakened by disease or starvation often are unable to with- stand winters of no more than ordinary sever- ity, while healthy vigorous canes will some- times come through very cold winters in perfect condition. At times canes which apparently have come through a severe winter in good condition are badly damaged in March after killing temperatures presumably are past. Winterkilling of plants is complicated by many factors which are so little understood as yet that the causes cannot be clarified. Ex- perience however points to several things which tend to prevent it. A strong healthy growth is first to be desired. Over fertiliza- tion, wet land and other things that tend to promote a rapid growth as the time for killing frost approaches are to be avoided. Beyond that, little can be done at present in the way of cultural treatment. Winter Protection In some sections raspberry canes winterkill so severely that they are covered with earth for protection. This is not a difficult opera- 43 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION tion and it will insure the crop against partial destruction by winter even in sections where severe killing is not the rule. In laying down the canes and covering them with earth, care must be taken not to break or split them. Usually they are pushed over and held down with a fork while sufficient earth is thrown on the tips to hold the canes in place (see Figure 4). In sections where heavy snows are to be expected it is necessary to use enough earth to hold the canes down only. Otherwise they should be entirely cov- ered to a depth of three or four inches. If the canes are to be covered with earth it is best to lay them as flat to the ground as possible without too great breakage. This is facilitated by removing a spadeful of soil from beside the plant and pressing against the bases of the canes with the foot when they are being laid down. After all danger of heavy frost is past in spring the canes are uncovered and lifted into position. Usually they are given some sup- port. Caution must be used in uncovering the canes, for they are very tender after their winter in the ground and are more easily dam- aged by frost than canes that have not been given protection. They should not be un- covered too early. On the other hand, if the 44 THE RED RASPBERRIES buds start growth before the plants are lifted, they may be damaged upon exposure to a hot sun. When raspberry canes are to be covered during the winter the rows should be kept nar- row, and old fruiting canes should be removed soon after harvest. Pests of the Red Raspberry Among the many insects and diseases which find their way into raspberry plantations are several which are widespread and destructive. Their successful control depends upon the recognition of such an invader when it appears and the prompt adoption of control measures. When an unknown and evidently destructive pest is found it is advisable to send a specimen for identification to the state agricultural col- lege. Once its identity is determined proper control measures may be undertaken. "Yellows" or Mosaic and Leaf Curl — These two obscure diseases are the worst pests of the red raspberry. They are almost certain to appear in every plantation. They infect every part of the plant, which they dwarf and destroy, and new shoots from infected plants develop "yellows" without fail. Once a plant is attacked, no cure is known. 45 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Mosaic is the most common form. It ap- pears as a yellowish mottling of the leaves, with darker green blisters between the veins. Plants infected with leaf curl, on the other hand, have dark green leaves which are tightly curled, the edges rolling inward toward the under surfaces. Both mosaic and leaf curl belong to that mysterious group of mosaic diseases which is arousing the concern of plant pathologists everywhere. The organisms which cause them seem to be incredibly minute — at least they never have been seen. They are spread from plant to plant by certain aphids or plant lice. The only practical control measure which has been suggested is the removal of infected plants as they appear. The roots, too, should be removed in so far as possible and new shoots from remaining roots should be de- stroyed until the last root is dead. The disease dies with the plant and when the old plant is gone, a new; one may safely be set in its place. Crown Gall is another incurable disease which sometimes appears. This disease oc- curs on many plants and appears as wartlike growths on the roots. Infected plants are weakened and rendered more susceptible to drouth and winter injury. Crown gall spreads 46 THE RED RASPBERRIES through the soil from plant to plant and is able to live in the soil for some time after a (diseased plant is removed. Crown gall nearly always comes into the plantation on nursery stock. Plants with galls on their roots should be discarded and a deter- mined effort should be made to keep the plan- tation healthy. Cane Blight is still another common trouble which usually comes in on nursery stock. Infected canes may apparently endure the winter in fine condition but fail to start into growth in spring. The diseased canes are light in color with patches of fine dark stip- pling where the spore-bearing organs appear. Blight may be spread by cultivation, on pruning tools, or by pickers. Affected canes should be cut and burned. Fortunately, good cultural methods, including the removal of old canes after the harvest season, will usually hold cane blight in check. Cane Borers are found in many planta- tions. The adult insect is about three-quarters of an inch long with black body and yellow neck or prothorax. In summer the female de- posits eggs in the canes about six inches from the growing tips. She then girdles each cane above and again below the egg. The tip wilts and finally breaks off, the wilted tip betraying 47 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION the presence of the borer. The egg soon hatches and the young borer works down the cane. It spends two seasons in the cane and usually keeps the berries from maturing. The wilted tips may be gathered and burned to destroy the borers before they have a chance to do much damage. When old canes are removed as soon as they have borne their crop, the older borers are destroyed and the pest is held in check. Raspberry Byturus — Small brownish in- sects about one-seventh of an inch long some- times appear in the raspberry patch, where they eat holes in the buds and devour the flower parts within before the blossoms open. These are the adults of the raspberry byturus. The larva is the raspberry worm, a small, soft, tarnished white larva that feeds in the fleshy base or receptacle upon which the berry is borne. These worms sometimes adhere to the berries when they are picked. A single cultivation in late fall when these insects are pupating will destroy many of them. When they become really troublesome it is advisable to spray with arsenate of lead, using about one and one-half ounces of the powdered form in one gallon of water. Apply it as soon as the adults appear and repeat in a few days, if necessary. If poultry can be 48 Fig. 10 (above). A purple raspberry plant before pruning. Un- pruned, such plants produce an abundance of small seedy berries Avhich are difficult to harvest and poor in quality! Fig. 11 {hploiv) . The same bush pruned. Only the productive canes are left, and these are pruned back to concentrate the crop on the best bearing Avood. I'n.. 12 {'(Luce). Blackberries. When fully ripened on the canes, blackberries must be classed aiiioiii? our nios^t delicious fruits. Fig. 13 (below). A crate of blackberries. THE RED RASPBERRIES run in the plantation in the fall they will pre- vent a carry-over of the infestation to the year following. Harvesting and Marketing A yield of a quart to the yard of row is fair, although two or three times that amount is not unusual. Naturally the yield per linear foot of row varies tremendously, not only with the condition of the plants but jvith the width of the row as well. Red raspberries are highly perishable; they must be picked often and handled carefully. When the weather is hot and favorable to ripening it is best to go over the patch every day to remove the fully ripened berries. For immediate home consumption the berries should be allowed to ripen fully before har- vesting them. The full rich flavor of cane- ripened fruit has little in common with the insipid flatness of berries picked early and shipped from a distance. The moisture supply is so important at harvest time that it is ad- visable to follow each picking with the cul- tivator to loosen up the soil tramped down by the pickers, unless it is so dry that many ber- ries would be covered with dust and rendered unfit for use. 49 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Small containers should be used in harvest- ing and handling red raspberries. Pint splint boxes are used ordinarily, for in quart boxes the weight of the fruit soon tends to crush the berries on the bottom. If the berries are set in a cool place soon after harvesting, they will keep much longer than if allowed to stand in the sun or in a warm place. Almost every hamlet in the country offers a good market for surplus berries. The market in many sections never is adequately supplied and unquestionably the consumption of rasp- berries could be extended manyfold if only a larger supply were available. A small town >vill often absorb the output of a commercial plantation of some size. Even where a supply of shipped-in berries is maintained, berries deteriorate so rapidly that the local man can easily gain a reputation for a high quality product. Fall Bearing or "Everbearing" Raspberries The fall bearing raspberries commonly grown are red varieties, although some black caps also have this habit. The fall crop is borne on the tips of the current season's growth, and in the following year these same 50 THE RED RASPBERRIES canes branch and produce a summer crop in the usual way. Fall bearing raspberries are grown exten- sively in New Jersey and in surrounding states, and to a lesser extent in many other sections. The leading variety is Ranere (St. Regis). Apparently it is not injured by the mosaic diseases and for this and other reasons Ranere is gaining in favor with many rasp- berry growers. The summer crop ripens early and the bright red fruit is attractive. The berries are rather small, however, and the quality is not high. Other fall bearing var- ieties, which are not so satisfactory in most sections, are Erskine (Erskine Park) and La France. Most of the fall crop ripens in August and September, when rains may be infrequent. If the moisture supply is short the crop is cur- tailed and the berries harvested are likely to be small, with prominent seeds. A moisture- retaining soil is therefore even more essential to success with everbearers than with other raspberries. Irrigation is of particular value in improving the fall crop, but when it is not to be had, good cultivation or mulching is a great help. 51 IV THE BLACK RASPBERRIES Black cap raspberries are a popular gar- den fruit in many of the northern states. The dessert qualities of this fruit are appreciated by many and it lends itself admirably to the making of jams and other manufactured prod- ucts. Soils and Fertilizers Black caps thrive on most garden soils. They winterkill on low, heavy, wet soils, and on drouthy land the berries are small and seedy, if indeed they do not dry up entirely before ripening. Plenty of organic matter is the most im- portant attribute of a good raspberry soil, and stable manure ranks high as a fertilizer. Com- plete fertilizers of a high grade are excellent for supplementary fertilization after the plan- tation is established (see page 41). 52 the black raspberries Propagation The black raspberry usually is propagated by tip layering. As the new canes grow they bend over and in late summer the ends reach the ground. Some tips root well of their own accord but when many strong plants are de- sired it is best to open the ground with a spade or hoe and insert the tips to a distance of two or three inches to insure good roots. This may be done at any time in late summer, but it is best to wait until the ends of the canes of spreading varieties like Plum Farmer have reached the ground of their own accord, and produced long slender tips. New plants are severed from the parent plants in the following spring and are taken up carefully on a spade to preserve as much of the root system as possible. Experienced growers of black caps take plants for transplanting from young and vigor- ous parent plants, if at all possible. Black varieties are very susceptible to diseases of the mosaic type and plants from older bushes are likely to carry some infection. Plants from one- or two-year-old plantations are more vigorous than those from plants that are on the decline. Great care should be taken to get new plants which are healthy and vigorous. S3 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Many of the more experienced commercial growers of black raspberries hold a plantation for three or four years only, replanting so fre- quently to maintain the vigor of their planta- tions. This system could be followed to ad- vantage in gardens in which black raspberries tend to "run out" in a few years. This decline in vigor may be due to poor cultural condi- tions, but is more likely to be due to one of the diseases of the mosaic type (see page 59). Planting Black raspberries are usually grown in rows rather than hills. They are planted three or four feet apart in rows which should be at least six feet apart. Seven usually is better in locations favorable to this fruit. It is a common fault to plant the rows so close to- gether that after the plants are mature it is almost impossible to work between the rows. The planting distance, however, should be ad- justed to the varieties, strength of the soil, and the system of culture to be employed. After the first experience these things may be taken into consideration. Planting should be done as early in spring as the ground can be worked. The rooted tips send up new canes in spring and these new 54 THE BLACK RASPBERRIES shoots get an early start. They are very ten- der and are easily broken off, a decided injury to the new plant. The plants may be set either in furrows or with a spade, as described for the red raspberry (see page 37). Pruning AT Planting Time After planting, the old canes should be cut back to within three or four inches of ground level. If they are left long, much of the growth of the first year may go into the pro- duction of branches on the old cane rather than into the growth of new canes. These branches may bear fruit, still further weaken- ing the new plant. No fruit should be allowed on new plants the first year, and every effort should be made to secure a good growth of new canes from the root. If the old cane is spotted with anthracnose it is best to remove it entirely and plant the root only. The row may be marked with stakes for convenience in cultivating before the new shoots appear. It is a poor policy to start a new plantation with an infection of anthracnose, and by exercising care a healthy plantation may be started from an old one that is infested. With mosaic or streak, how- 55 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION ever, this plan is of no value, for diseases of that type infect the root as well as the top. Pruning Black Raspberries Because of their distinctive method of growth, black caps are pruned quite differently than red varieties. Black raspberries do not send up suckers at a distance from the parent plants and it is easier to keep the rows within bounds. Propagation in clean land is inter- fered with by the winds, which keep the tips blowing around and tend to prevent their root- ing, so it is not difficult to keep new plants in check. Tipping in Summer — As with all raspber- ries, the canes grow during their first season, produce fruit the next, then die. Black rasp- berry canes branch freely in their first year when they arch over toward the ground. This increases the bearing area of the canes, but many of the branches produced naturally are too far out on the cane to be kept off the ground easily. To encourage earlier and stronger branch- ing and to secure more stocky canes it is cus- tomary for black raspberry growers to pinch off the growing tips of the new canes when 56 THE BLACK RASPBERRIES they reach a height of eighteen to thirty inches, depending on their vigor. Removing Old Canes — ^When the harvest season is over the bearing canes have fulfilled their mission, and soon decline and die. In climates where heavy snows sometimes break raspberry canes in winter they are often al- lowed to stand until pruning time in the fol- lowing spring. Otherwise it is best to cut them out and burn them soon after harvest. They are then removed from interference with the new growth, and many insect and disease pests are destroyed which otherwise would be transferred to the new canes. Spring Pruning — In spring, while the plants are still dormant, weak canes should be removed and laterals on the others should be shortened. Half a dozen buds on each lateral probably are better than more. Every bud is a potential fruit bud, but if they are not reduced in number many will contribute noth- ing to the crop and so many berries may be set on the others that the size and quality of the fruit may be impaired. See illustrations Nos. 6, 10, and 11. Soil Treatment Black raspberries respond promptly and abundantly to good care, and soon lose their 57 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION vigor and productivity without it. When weeds and grass are allowed to come in, black caps propagate much more freely, for the tips root more readily than on cleanly cultivated ground, and the raspberry patch soon becomes an impenetrable jungle. When cultivation is followed, it should be started in early spring before the weeds get a start and before the ground is packed hard by spring rains. A good dust mulch should be maintained until after harvest. In the garden it is often more convenient to use a mulch system than to attempt cultiva- tion. When used at all, a good mulch should be established early and maintained carefully. The mulch must be heavy enough to prevent the growth of weeds and the thickness re- quired will vary with the condition of the land. Almost any vegetable waste will serve as a mulching material, but it should not contain ripened seeds which might make trouble. Mice under mulches are sometimes trouble- some. In winter they may girdle the canes by devouring the bark when hard pressed for food. The mulch should be examined in the fall and if the runways of mice are numerous, the mice should be poisoned or otherwise de- stroyed. 58 the black raspberries Pests of the Black Raspberry Anthracnose — This fungous disease ap- pears as light, oval spots on the canes. They interfere with the transfer of food materials in the plant and as they enlarge and coalesce they may prevent the ripening of the crop. In a wet spring young shoots may be killed. The removal of fruiting canes soon after harvest probably aids in checking this disease. When it is serious, however, the plants should be thoroughly sprayed with lime sulphur solu- tion, as follows: ( 1 ) In spring when plants are still dormant use liquid lime sulphur about J4 pint to each gallon of water. (2) About June first, use liquid lime sul- phur about Yz pint to each three gal- lons of water. (3) Just before blossoming, use same material as in (2). Mosaic — (See page 45). On the black raspberry this disease checks growth, kills the growing tips and finally results in the death of the plant. Clean nursery stock to start with and later rogueing out of infested plants is the only remedy known. 59 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION For other insects and diseases see pages 45 to 48. Harvesting Yields vary tremendously with the condi- tion of the plants and with the season. A quart to the yard of row is a dependable yield in the garden, and two or three times that amount may be harvested. In general, black caps outyield red varieties, being intermediate in that respect between red and purple sorts. To attain their full flavor, black caps should be allowed to ripen well before being picked. The berries should be kept in a cool place after removal from the canes, and the less handling they receive the better. They should be picked into small receptacles to prevent the crushing of berries on the bottom. Pint bas- kets are better than quarts for this purpose. 60 y THE PURPLE RASPBERRIES Starting the Plantation The purple raspberries are propagated readily by tip layering, but do not propagate themselves freely. In habit of growth the common varieties are intermediate between the parent species, the upright red raspberries and the black raspberries which bend in late summer until the tips of the canes are brought into a favorable position to root and produce new plants. The common purple canes do not produce sucker plants and are too upright in habit of growth to bring the tips of the canes in contact with the ground. When covered with earth in late summer, however, the tips root readily (see page 53). This is for the most part a decided advan- tage. With other raspberries new plants are the worst weeds in the plantation. Unless they are rigorously kept within bounds they soon 61 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION form an impenetrable thicket, but the purple canes stay in the original hills while affording an easy means of propagation to the grower who wishes new plants. Training Purple raspberries are usually planted about four feet apart in rows seven or eight feet apart, the distance varying with the fer- tility of the soil and the type of culture to be employed. For horse cultivation wider spaces are needed between rows than for hand culti- vation or mulching. The canes are upright and strong, and when pruned properly usually need no support. Sometimes, however, they are supported by wires after the fashion of red raspberries (see page 33), or the canes may be tied like black caps to stakes driven in beside the hills. Planting The new plants usually are transplanted in early spring. They should be set before the new shoots begin to grow for they are easily broken. Care should be taken in digging up plants to preserve as many as possible of the fibrous roots. After transplanting, the top 62 THE PURPLE RASPBERRIES should be cut back until only enough is left to mark the row (see page 55). Pruning Purple raspberries are pruned much like black caps. The tips are pinched from the new canes in summer when they have reached the desired height. With the purple canes this height is about thirty to forty inches. This forces the production of strong branches low on the canes. Before growth starts in the spring following, these laterals are shortened to bring the crop nearer to the main cane and, by reducing the number of buds, to improve the size and quality of the fruit. Weak canes also should be removed at this time. See il- lustrations Nos. 10 and 11. In summer after these canes have borne their crop they are cut out and burned as an aid in controlling pests, or they may be left until the following spring to furnish a measure of protection to the young canes from break- age by snow. Each plan has its adherents, and both are successful. Culture and Fertilization Purple canes are heavy producers when well grown and a strong healthy growth is highly 63 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION aesirable. The soil should be well filled with organic matter before the plants are set by plowing down manure or vegetable waste materials. The same thorough preparation of the soil should be given as for a garden crop. In established plantations which are tilled, cultivation should begin in early spring and a dust mulch maintained until after the harvest season. After that, tillage should be such as to keep weeds and grass from gaining a foot- hold. In clean land one or two thorough cul- tivations after harvest should be enough. When plants in established plantations fail to make a clean vigorous growth plant food in some form should be supplied. Well-rotted stable manure is best (see page 15). When it is not to be had, a high-grade commercial fertilizer should be used. Fertilizers should be applied early in the season only, and care should be taken not to add too much nitrogen. It may continue vigorous growth too late in the fall and lead to serious winter injury. The purple canes are less hardy than some of the other raspberries and special care should be taken to guard against a strong growth late in the season. It is equally important that a healthy growth should be secured, for weak canes, too, lack hardiness. 64 THE PURPLE RASPBERRIES Pests The pests of purple raspberries are those of red and black varieties (see page 45). Mosaic is the most serious trouble, and Colum- bian has been ranked with the Cuthbert red raspberry in susceptibility to this disease. Care should be taken to secure disease-free stock for planting, and any diseased plants ap- pearing in the plantation should be promptly dug out and destroyed. Harvesting Purple canes usually outyield other types of raspberries, and they ripen late. The ber- ries are soft and perishable, and should be handled with care. Small receptacles should be used in harvesting to prevent crushing of the bottom berries and they should be placed in a cool, well-ventilated place as soon as possible. 6S VI THE BLACKBERRIES The blackberry is one of the newest and certainly the wildest of the native fruits of North America that have become established in cultivation. Heavily armed with vicious thorns and aggressively extending its holdings by sending up a forest of new plants on all sides, it vigorously advertises the fact that it has not yet become adjusted to its new sur- roundings. Blackberries are abundant in the waste lands of most parts of the north temperate zone, and for uncounted centuries the fruit has been esteemed, but it is only in North America that their culture has become well established. This delectable fruit is almost a stranger to European gardens, aside from the surrounding hedge rows in which it flourishes. In this country blackberry culture had ad- vanced but little at the time of the Civil War. The first varieties to be grown successfully 66 THE BLACKBERRIES were the Lawton, found in New York, and the Dorchester, from the vicinity of Boston. Soon after the close of the Civil War the Wilson was introduced from New Jersey and the high quality of its fruit did much to popularize the new berry. Kittatinny, also found in New Jersey, was introduced at about the same time and its hardiness extended the culture of blackberries far into the Northern States. Other varieties soon followed, among them Snyder. Hardy, productive, and disease resis- tant, Snyder soon established itself from coast to coast as the leading blackberry of the Northern States. It is now giving way to newer varieties which are higher in quality and more desirable, but it promises to remain a standard sort for some time yet in the colder parts of its range. Soils and Their Preparation The best soils for blackberry growing are largely determined by two requirements: drouth resistance and a high degree of immun- ity from winter injury. Blackberries ripen their fruits in late summer during the driest part of the year. Water constitutes the great- est part of the fruit and a shortage in soil moisture invariably reduces the size of the 67 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION berries. Such berries lack flavor and are un- duly seedy, having their full complement of seeds and lacking only the fully developed pulp around them. Drouthy soils must there- fore be avoided. Wet, undrained soils on the other hand in- duce winter injury. Growth on such soils is beyond control and to plant blackberries in such land is to court disaster. The blackberry plant is tenacious of life and will continue to live in most unfavorable situations, but for the purposes of the fruit grower extreme soil types must be avoided. A strong, deep loam, moist but well drained, is to be desired. As suggested before, plenty of organic matter in the soil will go a long way toward correcting faults in the original texture of the soil, and it deserves special at- tention (see page 15). It is difficult to build up a soil after the plants are set. It is therefore well to incorpor- ate plenty of organic material with the soil before planting. It also saves much labor and disappointment later if the land is freed of per- nicious grasses and weeds. It is almost, if not quite, impossible to rid a plantation of such aggressive pests as quack grass, and usually it is easiest and best to start a new; 68 THE BLACKBERRIES plantation when such weeds become firmly established in the old one. The soil should be deeply pulverized and worked into fine condition before planting. A good start the first year usually means a good crop by the third year and often saves a year in establishing the plantation. Varieties Many varieties of blackberries are now in cultivation. Some, like Snyder, are grown over large areas, while others are local in their adaptations. Unfortunately the most hardy varieties are not always the highest in quality or the most resistant to diseases, and the selec- tion of the best variety for a given location is attended by some difficulties. Sufficient hardiness to withstand at least most of the local winters is an absolute re- quirement. When this and other sectional adaptations have been met, quality of fruit may be considered. For such extreme sections as the region surrounding the Dakotas no varieties are available that can be depended upon to thrive without winter protection. Among the hardiest varieties are Ancient Briton and Snyder. Somewhat less resistant but grown over most of the northern range of 69 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION the blackberry are Blowers, Eldorado, Erie, and Mersereau. On the Pacific Coast several very vigorous varieties are found which are of little value east of the Rockies. Among them are Crandall, Oregon Evergreen and re- lated varieties, Himalaya, and Mammoth. Dallas, Haupt, and McDonald are said to be better adapted than other varieties to the dry Southwest. The following notes are concerned with leading varieties only. Ancient Briton — ^Will stand cold winters better than most other varieties. A vigorous grower and productive. The berries are me- dium in size but the quality is good. The fruit ripens in midseason. Blowers — A vigorous, free growing variety but not always productive. The season is long. The fruit is good in quality but variable in size and shape. Early Harvest — ^Widely grown in the South ; not hardy in the North. Susceptible to orange rust. Fruit ripens very early and the quality is good. Eldorado — One of the best varieties for the northern states. The plant is vigorous, pro- ductive, hardy, and rust resistant. The fruit is large and exceptionally high in quality. The season is early and long. Erie — A vigorous plant that is usually 70 THE BLACKBERRIES hardy and productive. Fruits large but very acid until well ripened. Matures in mid- season. Mersereau — ^A dependable variety widely grown in the northern states. The plant is vigorous, productive, and hardy, but suscep- tible to rust. The fruit ripens in late mid- season and is high in quality. Snyder — ^This has been a standard variety for a long time. The bush is very hardy and productive, and is little troubled by disease. The fruit, however, is not so high in quality as that of some other blackberries and Snyder might well be replaced by better varieties in many sections. Unusual Forms White Blackberries — These albino black- berries occur frequently in nature and a num- ber of named varieties have found their v/ay into the trade. Iceberg is at present the most widely known "white" variety. The color of the fruit is amber rather than white. The quality of the fruit is good but the canes are not very hardy. Such varieties have no com- mercial importance but the gardener who is looking for something unusual might well add the white blackberry to his collection. 71 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION Oregon Evergreen — This rampant black- berry now grows wild in the Pacific Northwest but it originally came from Europe, where it has been grown for more than a century. It flourishes in Oregon and Washington, where it is grown extensively. East of the Rocky Mountains the variety has little value. It winterkills easily and the fruit is almost worth- less. Other names under which the berry is sold are Evergreen, Everbearing, Star, Cut Leaved, Atlantic Dewberry and Wonder. Black Diamond, grown somewhat in New Jer- sey, is said to be a seedling much like the parent. Himalaya — This is one of the Burbank berries that have been sold rather widely. It is a standard sort in California, but east of the Rockies it has found Httle favor. Like the Oregon Evergreen it is semi-trailing and a very vigorous grower, the canes running like vines for ten or fifteen feet. It is difficult to handle, tender to cold, not highly productive, and the fruit is inferior in size and quality. Propagation and Planting Common varieties of blackberries propagate freely from suckers which grow from the roots, often at some distance from the older canes. 72 THE BLACKBERRIES New plantations usually are started by trans- planting well-rooted suckers. Ordinarily suckers are produced in such great abundance that they are the worst weeds in the plantation and vigorous measures are necessary to sup- press them. Any disturbance of the root system tends to increase the production of suckers and in the rare cases when more new plants are wanted than appear naturally they may be encouraged by deep cultivation, which breaks the roots, or by cutting the roots with a spade a short distance from the older canes. Root cuttings two or three inches long are often used by nurserymen in propagating blackberries, and the method is equally satis- factory for the gardener and fruit grower, especially in emergencies when a large number of new plants from a few old ones are desired. It is best to dig the roots in fall and cut them up. The pieces should be layered in moist sand and stored until spring in a cool place. Then they are planted two or three inches deep in good garden soil, where they are grown for one or two years before transplant- ing to the field. If suckers are used, only vigorous, healthy plants should be selected for transplanting. Usually there are plenty of them. They should 73 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION be lifted out of the ground with a spade, pre- serving as much as possible of the root system. The sooner they are reset the better, although plants which are fully dormant may be shipped or stored for a long time if they are kept from drying out and kept dormant until planted. Time of Planting Suckers may be transplanted either in the fall or in spring in most sections. In Middle Western regions where dry, cold winters are common, however, spring planting is to be pre- ferred. In other sections fall-set plants usually winter well and get an early start in the fol- lowing spring, which may save a year in estab- lishing the plantation. Plants should not be dug in the fall until dormant. After planting in regions where severe winters are to be expected, a light mulch or mounding with earth will give added protection. Most planting in the northern states is done in spring, and much of it is done too late to be most effective. Late-set plants often are unable to become well established before the drier weather of midsummer comes on. They may, in consequence, be unable to make much growth until the autumn rains give them a 74 THE BLACKBERRIES start, and it will take a year longer to grow canes enough for the first real crop. When planting is done as soon as the soil can be worked in spring the plants become established early and have a long growing season the first year. The first consideration is the development of full rows of fruiting canes. The blackberry plantation will fruit in the second summer, but if the first year's growth was poor and the rows have many gaps, it is sometimes best to cut off the fruiting canes in spring and allow all the strength of the root system to go to the production of new plants rather than a crop too small to be worth much. If some of the nursery plants failed to grow, sucker plants from vigorous growers may be trans- planted into the blank spaces at the beginning of the second year. Setting the Plants Plants may be set and set well in a number of ways, and nearly every gardener or fruit grower has a favorite method of his own. Earth should be brought into close contact with the roots and thorough preparation of the soil will do much to make planting easy and rapid. Where only a few plants are to be 75 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION set the rows may be marked off and the plants set with a spade. If the spade is thrust into the soil at an angle and pushed forward, an opening is made behind it for the plant. After the spade is withdrawn the soil should be tramped solid over the roots. This is the most important part of transplanting and it should be done thoroughly. There is no danger of injuring the root system but there is danger of leaving air spaces next to the roots, especi- ally with this system of planting. It usually is easier and quicker to furrow the land at the proper distance and set the plants in the furrow. Place each plant and draw a little earth over the roots with the foot, tramping it solid. The covering may be finished by running a plow along the row, and the land may be smoothed then with a cultivator. Planting Systems and Distances Blackberries are usually grown in solid rows' — the so-called hedge row system of planting. With plants so thorny and difficult to work among, the rows should never be allowed to become wide, for pickers will not work their way in very far to harvest the berries in the middle of the row. The more narrow the rows 76 THE BLACKBERRIES the less hand labor is required and the easier the work is done. It requires a great deal of determination and some active work with the cultivator or hoe to keep the rows from grow- ing wider every year, but the effort is worth while. The rows should be planted at least eight feet apart if horses are to be employed in cultivation. When the rows are established this will leave six or seven feet between rows at the bottom, but the canes bend outward above and the space is little enough in which the horse can walk without coming into con- tact with the thorny canes. The plants are usually set about three feet apart in the rows, although the distance varies from two to four feet or more with the prefer- ences of the grower. In general, the closer planting distances enable the plants to fill in the rows more quickly and if growth condi- tions are not favorable, as with plants set late in spring, close planting is to be preferred. Ordinarily, however, three feet is about right. A few commercial growers prefer the hill system, which permits cultivation in both directions and reduces hand labor to a mini- mum. The yields probably average somewhat below the hedge row system, but the berries 77 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION are larger and finer. The hills are usually spaced seven or eight feet apart each way. Pruning Careful pruning is a great aid in growing good blackberries easily. Without pruning, the patch soon becomes a wild tangle of thorny canes which is utterly unmanageable. Black- berry canes grow in one season, produce fruit- ing branches in the second season, then die and are ready for removal. The root system lives for many years but the canes are short-lived. Summer Pruning — The first pruning which the cane receives is in its first or grow- ing season, when the tip is pinched off at a height of two to three feet, varying with the vigor of the plants and the notions of the grower. This checks the elongation of the cane, forces the production of side shoots, and brings about the development of a fruiting area near the ground. This pinching of the green and growing tips may be done with the hand. It should be done as the young cane reaches the proper height, to give the side shoots a long time to grow and mature and form fruit buds. If the young cane is allowed to grow to a height of four or five feet, then cut back to two or three 78 THE BLACKBERRIES feet, the branches which form as a result of the pruning usually are slender and weak. Too often they die in the spring of the fruit- ing year, if indeed they live through the win- ter. Since some canes reach the proper height before others it is not practicable to "tip^' the >vhole plantation at one time. Some growers prefer to let the canes grow as long as they will without tipping and to cut them back more or less severely in the spring of the fruiting year. Many good berries are produced in this way, but it is likely that the crop is reduced somewhat. Spring Pruning — The next pruning which the cane should receive is in the following spring — the spring of the fruiting year. This pruning should be done after severe weather is past but before growth starts. Long canes should be headed in and laterals on branched canes should be shortened. The severity of this pruning varies with the fruiting habits of the variety and most effective pruning de- mands some observation of the parts of the cane which produce most of the fruit. Some varieties, like Ward and Lawton, pro- duce their fruit low on the cane or well in toward the bases of the laterals and may be headed in without reducing the crop. A few others, like Early King, Taylor and Wauchu- 79 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION sett, fruit heaviest at the tips and should be pruned lightly or the crop will be cut off. On the more common varieties, like Eldo- rado, Snyder, Mersereau, and Ancient Briton, however, it seems that most of the buds are potential fruit buds. The most satisfactory crops on these varieties have been secured when the laterals were reduced one half in length, and when long unbranched canes were pruned with equal severity. Another important operation which should be performed in the spring is the removal of surplus canes. The rows in established plan- tations soon begin to crowd badly and the canes should be thinned until each has room to branch and produce its crop without serious crowding. Restrict the Spread of the Rows — ^The rows, too, must be rigorously kept within nar- row limits, and all new canes appearing out- side the rows should be summarily dealt with. When a row is allowed to spread it soon be- comes unmanagable. Removing Old Canes — After the crop is harvested the work of the fruiting canes is done. They will never bear again and may either be removed immediately or left until pruning time in the spring following. The old canes are easier to cut soon after the harvest 80 W-' "wm 0 ■\ Fig. 14 (above). A blackberry "patch" Ihim.' ]>iuiiiim. AVitli- out severe pruning a plantation of this kind is Verv difficult to harvest and the berries lack size and quality. Good' blackberries are grown easiest in cultivated rows. Pig. 15 (heloiv). After pruning. The canes have been severely thinned oiit and those remaining have been cut back to allow the fruit to be ijicked with a minimum of discomfort. Fig. 16 (above). Evergreen blackberries in Puyallup, Washing- ton. These strong-growing forms are planted far apart and trained on trellises for convenience in handling. Fig. 17 (below). Currants between grapes in the Hudson Valley. They are also planted under grape vines in the rows, and may be grown more successfully than most other crops between fruit trees, where the shade is not too dense. THE BLACKBERRIES season, before they become dry and hard, and their removal at that time may help to elimin- ate some pests, but many growers leave them until spring. See illustrations Nos. 14 and 15. Cultivation The cultivator should be started ahead of the weeds in spring, and the soil should be kept loose and free of weeds through the sum- mer. Cultivation usually is stopped a month or more before the ground freezes to discour- age late growth and in a measure favor the hardening of new growth. Blackberries ripen at a time of year when the soil is likely to be dry. A shortage of moisture reduces the crop and the berries har- vested are small and seedy. Cultivation should be pursued with special care as harvest time approaches, and during the harvest season the cultivator should follow the pickers to loosen the tramped soil and conserve as much as pos- sible of the soil moisture. Blackberry roots are near the surface and deep cultivation may disturb them. Next to the rows, in particular, cultivation should be shallow. When roots are cut suckers are pro- duced, for each severed piece of root acts as a root cutting to produce a new plant. Plenty 81 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION of suckers are produced without this encour- agement. Mulching Blackberries may be grown successfully un- der a mulch and mulching is particularly ap- plicable to small plots. Straw, waste hay, leaves, and similar materials may be used, but it is well to avoid mulching material carrying ripened seeds. A good mulch conserves moisture, keeps Sown weeds, and decays on the under side to furnish a steady supply of plant food. It must be maintained, however, by annual applica- tions, or weeds and sucker plants will soon come through it and put an end to the planta- tion. The mulch between the rows should be heavier than that next to the canes. The best way to remove sucker plants is to pull them while they are still green. Often cutting them out only encourages more suckers. Fertilizers Stable manure is still the main reliance of the blackberry grower. The canes are strong growers and appreciate plenty of plant food. Manure is usually applied before the plants are set and later applications may be made if 82 THE BLACKBERRIES necessary and worked into the soil or used as a mulch. Manure also builds up the organic matter in the soil and makes it more retentive of moisture. Where manure is not available a balanced commercial fertilizer of 4-8-4 grade or better is effective. If the land is known to be deficient in nitrogen or phosphoric acid or potash, the material needed may be applied separately, but otherwise it is safest to use a complete fertilizer. Garden soils which have been heavily ma- nured for years are sometimes too fertile for best results. Too much nitrogen in particular is to be avoided, for it tends to encourage cane growth at the expense of the crop. Heavy applications of poultry manure are dangerous. More plants suffer from starvation than from overfeeding, however, and aside from highly fertile garden soils a growth too rank for good results is not common. Pests The blackberry is remarkably free from in- sect pests. A leaf miner occasionally attacks the leaves in the estern states and in Canada, but usually does little damage. Tree crickets sometimes lay eggs in the smaller canes, weak- ening them somewhat, but this damage usually 83 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION is negligible. Cane borers of several kinds may be found on blackberries but seldom in destructive numbers. As a rule insects occa- sion little worry to the blackberry grower. That is not true, however, of diseases, for the blackberry has a number of serious troubles of this class. Some of them are in- curable. Only those most likely to be trouble- some are mentioned here. Crown gall, which attacks so many kinds of plants, is frequently found on the black- berry. It appears as wartlike growths where the cane meets the root, and sometimes it is found on the cane at some distance from the ground. It weakens the plants and apparently renders them more susceptible to winterkill- ing. This disease is incurable and infected plants should be removed to check its spread. Some- times diseased plants will live and bear fruit for several years, but such plants are not de- pendable and it is best to keep crown gall from spreading through the patch if it is noticed before many plants have contracted the dis- ease. The bacteria responsible for crown gall may live for a time in the soil and land known to be infected should be planted to herbaceous plants for awhile. Orange rust is a common and serious dis- 84 THE BLACKBERRIES ease in many sections. It attacks the leaves and colors them a bright orange on the lower surfaces. The leaves curl and the plant is stunted in growth. Infected plants usually have the trouble year after year and are ren- dered worthless. No practicable cure is known, and diseased plants should be removed and burned to prevent a spread of the infection. Modern varieties are less likely to be troubled than those of a few years back. The disease often attacks seedlings or rogues which have crept in with the nursery stock, while such varieties as Snyder and Eldorado are un- harmed. Harvesting When blackberry rows are kept narrow and pruning is attended to, the berries are not dif- ficult to pick. If the rows are allowed to spread, however, until the centers are not easily reached, it becomes a somewhat trying job. The most common mistake in harvesting blackberries is to pick them too soon. The blackberry has an unfortunate habit of turn- ing black before it is fully ripened, and if picked immediately the acidity is most pro- nounced. Fruit growers who ship blackberries some distance to market must harvest the fruit 85 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION while it is still firm enough to handle well, anid the blackberry bought on the average market is not calculated to arouse the enthusiasm of anyone. Let it ripen fully, however, and the blackberry must be given a high rank among our finest cultivated fruits. The gardener need not be so precipitate in harvesting the blackberry crop. The finest flavor which this delicious fruit can attain is reserved for him if he will only wait. Wild blackberries are famous for their de- licious flavor, and it is often said that the blackberry has degenerated under cultivation. But wild blackberries are not examined every day and picked as soon as they turn black. They have a chance to ripen. After harvesting the berries should be kept in the shade. The sun fades the color to a dull unattractive red and the flavor may be seriously impaired. The blackberry is one of the easiest of all fruits to grow, but there are a few things which must be done with care if results are to be fully satisfactory. S6 VII THE DEWBERRIES Dewberries are a little more than merely trailing or prostrate blackberries, although the two forms grade into each other and are some- times distinguished with some difficulty by the layman. Dewberries, however, strike their roots more deeply into the soil than black- berries, they propagate in nature by tip layer- ing, and the center blossom of the cluster opens first, while the blossom cluster of the blackberry is larger and blossoms from the margin toward the center. Serious attempts to cultivate the dewberry date back scarcely half a century. Lucretia, the first variety to be introduced, is still the most popular sort, and it is plain that the amelioration of this new fruit has not gone far. Even so, the dewberry has much to offer to the lover of fruits, It is productive and within its range it is not difficult to grow, while the well-ripened berries must be ranked with our most delicious and refreshing fruits. 87 bush fruit production Soils and Fertilizers for Dewberries Almost any ordinary garden soil will grow dewberries. Excessively fertile soils may lead to an over-vegetative condition and render the plants more than ordinarily susceptible to win- ter injury. The deep root system makes it possible for the dewberry to tap the lower re- serves of soil moisture and it may be grown on sandy land with a moisture retaining sub- soil if the plants are fertilized generously. Good growth is essential to heavy produc- tion and soils which are not fertile require cor- respondingly heavy fertilization for best re- sults. There is nothing which will quite re- place stable manure on such soils, but when it is not available a good complete fertilizer may be used to advantage. The amount will vary with the natural fertility of the soil and should be increased until a clean vigorous growth is secured. On very poor soils it is customary to make two applications of fertilizer in the course of the season. The first is applied in early spring and the second immediately after harvest to encourage a strong growth of new canes for the next crop. In some of the southern dew- berry sections the whole plant is cut off near the ground as soon as the harvest season is SB THE DEWBERRIES over and the root system is forced to produce a vigorous new set of canes for the next crop. Over-fertilization is possible, but it is not often met with in practice. The average plan- tation is more likely to produce far below its capacity because of a shortage in plant food. When the plants become over-vegetative, how- ever, and winter injury is excessive, the fer- tilization program should be considered care- fully as a contributing factor, and curtailment is in order if it seems likely that the main trouble is an excess of plant food rather than abnormal weather conditions. Cultivation Dewberries respond well to good culture. A normally vigorous growth of canes is much to be desired and careful cultivation is an im- portant operation. The size and quality of the berries will vary with the moisture supply, and cultivation is particularly important as harvest time approaches. When new canes are pushing out rapidly it is convenient to cultivate in one way only. The prostrate canes are then swung into the rows and left there. They are not dragged back and forth. 89 bush fruit production Propagation Dewberries are propagated easily by tip layering, and that method usually is used. To insure abundant and vigorous roots it is best to cover the tips of young canes with soil in August or September, or to open the ground with a spade and insert the tip for a distance of two or three inches. The tips root promptly and the new plants may be transplanted before frost or in the spring following. Root cuttings are also used. The larger roots are cut into three-inch pieces in the fall and stored in moist sand over winter. They are planted close together in spring and grown for a year before transplanting to a permanent place. Planting Dewberries usually are planted in early spring, although in the South they may be set in winter. When the plants are taken up, five or six inches of the old cane is left on the root for convenience in handling. This section of old cane is of no particular value to the new plant, and if it shows signs of disease it may be cut off entirely when the root is planted. Otherwise it serves to mark the row until the new shoots appear. 90 THE DEWBERRIES Early planting is much to be desired, espec- ially on light land. If the plant fails to be- come well established before the drier part of the summer, the first year's growth will be small and it may take an extra year to secure the first full crop. When planted early and pushed right along a fair crop may be secured the year after planting. Otherwise it often is best to cut off the bearing canes early in the second year and throw the whole energy of the plant into shoot and root growth. Planting distances vary with the system of culture. In large fields where horse cultiva- tion in both directions is desired, five by five feet is a common distance. In the garden, where cultivation is possible in one direction only, solid rows are more economical of space and three feet between plants and five or six feet between rows are about right. Supports for Dewberries Dewberries usually are trained to a support of some kind. This takes many forms, only two of which can be mentioned here. Staking is perhaps the most widely adapt- able practice. When trained to stakes the plants usually are set three to five feet apart in rows which are five feet apart. A stake 91 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION is driven solidly into the ground beside each plant, extending about five feet above ground, and the canes are gathered together and wound around the stake. The canes are tied at the top and once or twice lower down. Cultivation is simplified when this system is used and the berries are exposed and easy to pick. A form of wire trellis that often is con- venient is made by stretching a wire on posts. It should be about three to four feet above the ground, with posts every thirty or forty feet. The canes are then tied to this wire. They may be allowed to run along the wire or they may be cut off above it. Pruning Dewberries Details of pruning will vary somewhat with the climate and the training of the plants, but the principles are fundamentally the same. The dewberry cane, like the canes of other brambles, grows in one season, branches and bears fruit in the second summer, then dies and is cut out. When it is tied up in the spring of the fruiting year it usually is shortened to fit the support. Old canes may be taken out in the fall or may be left until the spring pruning season. 92 THE DEWBERRIES In the South, where the growing season is long, it is customary to cut off all canes, young and old, close to the crowns, immediately after harvest. There still is time for the produc- tion before winter of strong new canes to bear the next crop. Protection Over Winter Where snow can be depended upon to cover the canes throughout the winter, no protective measures are necessary. But in many of the northern and midwestern states the ground is too often bare when the weather is severe. In such situations some form of winter covering is worth while to prevent excessive killing of canes. A common form of protection is to cover the canes with two or three inches of earth. This may be done with a plow or, in smaller plantations, with a shovel. Canes should be covered just before the first hard freezes. In spring it is well not to remove the earth too early, for canes so protected over winter are rather more tender than others when exposed to the sharp winds of early spring. 93 bush fruit production Harvesting Dewberries are never at their best unless they are allowed to ripen fully on the canes. When dead ripe they must rank with our most delicious fruits. Ordinarily they are picked every other day, but in hot weather daily picking may be necessary to save the fruit. For shipment the berries must be picked while still firm and before they are fully ripe. Varieties Lucretia is the most widely grown dew- berry. It is the leading variety in almost every part of the country, and usually it is the only variety grown. Mayes and Gardenia, however, are listed as leaders in Texas and California, respectively, while Premo is said to be grown to some extent in North Carolina. 94 VIII THE CURRANTS Most of our cultivated fruits are assigned by botanists to the rose family, but currants and gooseberries belong to another group, the saxifrage family. Since good cultural methods are mainly concerned with providing optimum growing conditions for the plant, its charac- teristics and peculiarities dictate the best cul- tural treatment. It is to be expected, then, that these fruits, not closely related to others, might require cultural adaptations somewhat different from those needed by the brambles, or strawberries, or apples. This is true, although the careful and observant gardener will have little dif- ficulty in adapting his knowledge and skill to these fruits. Soils and Locations for Currants Currants, like gooseberries, are distinctly northern fruits, and they thrive best in cool, 95 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION moist places. Usually currants are not fully productive on warm soils and exposures, al- though the plants may appear normally vigor- ous. The currant grows southward to Virginia and it extends to the north far beyond the range of most fruits. Clay loams and northern slopes are to be preferred, although fertile sandy loams which are not drouthy are satisfactory for the pur- poses of the gardener. Where lighter soils must be used they may be improved by filling them with organic matter. When grown on a small scale, protection from the sun may be secured by planting cur- rants on the north side of a fence or building. This means of sheltering the plants from the sun is of more importance southward than in the cooler climates. Likewise, lighter soils and warmer locations may be used in the north. Even in the northern states, however, currants are often grown in partial shade between fruit trees. They should not be planted too close to trees, for competition for food and moisture may then become acute, but on good loams some varieties of currants thrive when inter- planted in orchards. Two other factors in connection with the site should be noted: currants love moisture in summer but cannot withstand wet soils. Good 96 Fig. 18 (above). Currant bu.sh before pruning. The older wood declines rapidly in productivity and as tlie hush grows dense it checks the growth of new shoots. Fig. 19 (below). The bush pruned. The oldest canes are removed along Avith new shoots which are weak, and branches near the ground are cut away. Fig. 20 (ahoce). A three-year-old cultivated blueberry busli in a garden. The large, finely flavored fruit and its universal popu- larity make the blueberry a Avelconie addition to the list of garden, fruits. Fig. 21 (helnu'). A blueberry bush covered -with netting to keep birds away as harvest time approaches. Note the heavy mulch of pine shavings. THE CURRANTS drainage in spring is essential. Furthermore the currant is one of the first fruits to bloom in spring, and in low places the blossoms are likely to be damaged by late frosts. Frost pockets must be avoided. Propagation The easiest way to propagate currants is by layering and it is quite satisfactory when only a few new plants are desired. Bend a young shoot to the ground at any time during the early part of the growing season and cover a portion of it with earth, having the end ex- posed. If the shoot was quite upright, it may be necessary to add a stone to keep it down. Such shoots root quickly and are ready to transplant in the fall or early spring. If the layering is not delayed until late summer a strong root system usually is developed and the plants get an excellent start. If the branch is covered for a length of a foot or more, the buried portion may send up several shoots, each of which may be severed, along with a piece of root, and transplanted. When many plants are desired, hardwood cuttings are employed. The cuttings may be made in the fall as soon as the leaves have dropped, and they are taken from current 97 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION season's growth. It probably is best to wait until the leaves fall, insuring the maturity of the wood, but the work is sometimes hastened by removing the last leaves a week or ten days before taking the cuttings. The cuttings should be six inches to a foot in length. Currant cuttings root readily and sometimes they are planted immediately. Under these conditions, however, mortality is likely to run high and many which live get a slow start. It usually is better to tie the cuttings in bun- dles with the butts even and bury them in a well-drained spot, upside down, with an inch or two of soil over the butts. A callus then forms on the cut ends from which roots strike readily. As soon as the ground can be v/orked in spring the cuttings should be planted in a nursery row, five or six inches apart, with the soil packed tightly about them and with but one or two buds exposed. There are many other successful methods of handling cuttings. They may be made during the winter and stored in a cool place in moist sand, or they may be rooted, as spring ap- proaches, in a greenhouse, with bottom heat. In any case they are ready to grow earlier in spring than most fruit-bearing plants and should be set in the ground as soon as possible. 98 the currants Planting Currants Except in the colder parts of the Great Plains area, currants may be planted either in the fall or spring. Where winters are ex- tremely trying to plants, spring planting is best, but in other sections fall planting has some advantages. Currants begin to grow so early in spring that fall-set plants get an early start and may become well established in a shorter time. The currant becomes dormant earlier in autumn than most fruit plants and fall plant- ing may be done earlier and easier than with most others. Dormant plants may be secured in the North in September. If transplanted at that time they become established before the ground freezes and can withstand any but the most trjdng winters. The size of currant plants at maturity varies a great deal with the variety, soil, and climate, and planting distances should be adjusted ac- cordingly. The currant is a gross feeder and crowding is not advisable. Distances between rows vary from six to eight feet and the dis- tance between plants in the row should be four to six feet. Black currants and strong-grow- ing varieties of red currants like Wilder re- quire more room than red currants like Per- 99 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION fection and Red Cross, which by nature form smaller bushes. Cultivation and Mulching The currant has a shallow root system and deep tillage is likely to do considerable dam- age. Plowing next to the plants is to be avoided, but frequent shallow cultivation is highly desirable. In small garden plots a good rake makes an excellent tool for rapid, thor- ough work, but it has little value if weeds are allowed to get a good start before cultivation is started. Mulching has many advantages, especially in gardens where currants often are planted in corners and in out-of-the-way places where they cannot be cultivated easily. A good mulch conserves moisture, prevents the growth of weeds, decays on the under side to furnish a supply of plant food, and keeps the ground cool, a desirable condition with currants. Al- most any vegetable rubbish about the premises may be used for the mulch. Such materials as straw, old hay, dried lawn clippings and leaves are excellent. The mulch should be replenished often to maintain a thickness of several inches. One danger in mulching should be noted. 100 THE CURRANTS A mulch affords an attractive nesting place for mice and in winter they may be driven by hunger to gnaw away the bark of the currant canes, girdling and killing them. As a pre- cautionary measure the mulch should Mot be piled against the plant. It should be placed several inches away and the intervening space should be kept free of weeds and grass, or at least should be cleared as winter approaches. Backward plants may be mulched with stable manure. It improves the growth of the plants and does not attract mice. Some care must be taken, however, not to over-fertilize plants already vigorous. Fertilization Currants are voracious feeders and respond promptly to liberal fertilization. If a heavy application of stable manure can be worked into the soil before the plants are set, that is the best possible foundation for future at- tempts to bring out the best that is in the plants. Stable manure and poultry manure are excellent fertilizers for bearing bushes, but they must be used with discretion. In all rational fertilization it is necessary to watch the growth of the plants and adjust annual applications to the apparent need for 101 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION more plant food. If last year's treatment failed to produce the right response, then in- crease the amount this year; if last season's fertilization brought about an over-vegetative condition, then reduce the amount this year, making due allowance for weather conditions. In the absence of manures, commercial fer- tilizers may be used to advantage where cur- rants need additional plant food. The pecul- iar requirements of currants have never been thoroughly explored by research workers, and in the absence of better information it is best to use a standard, high grade, complete fer- tilizer. The proper amount can be determined only by making a trial application and watch- ing plant growth as suggested in the paragraph above. Pruning Currants are borne on wood that is one year old or older. New canes are vigorous and productive, but gradually decline in value as they grow older. Red and white currants bear most heavily on two-year-old and on three- year-old wood. Pruning should therefore aim to maintain a supply of wood that is not over three years old. Black curarnts bear well on one-year-old wood and may be pruned more closely. 102 THE CURRANTS Last year's growth is smooth, straight, and light gray in color. The amount of this new growth at the ends of older canes is an index of their vigor. Because of the currant borer, all currants should be grown in bush form rather than in the form of a tree with a distinct trunk. If borers destroy one cane in a bush there are others left, but if the single trunk is destroyed the little currant tree is lost. In pruning a currant bush the weak growths should be removed first. Then thin out the canes, removing the older ones and those that made the least growth during the past season. Varieties with an upright habit of growth, like Prince Albert, should be pruned out in the center to open them up, while spreading vari- eties like Fay need to be pruned on the sides to keep them off the ground. Prostrate branches of any variety should be removed, for any fruit which they may bear is likely to be dusty and of little value, while one such cluster, inadvertently picked, tends to spoil the whole basket. Harvesting When currants are to be used for jelly they usually are picked a little green, at least be- 103 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION fore the color has darkened. They may be left on the bushes with very little loss, how- ever, for at least a month after they have reached this stage of ripening, which lengthens the season in which they are available for use. Chief Pests of the Currant Imported Currant Worm — These are the green worms with yellowish ends that appear suddenly in spring and voraciously devour the leaves. A second brood appears in early sum- mer and a third sometimes appears late in the season. Currant worms are easily poisoned. The leaves should be dusted or sprayed with one of the common insect poisons as soon as the worms appear. Arsenate of lead powder at the rate of one ounce in three gallons of water is effective. Around harvest time it is best to use pow- dered hellebore, either as a spray (one ounce to one gallon of water) or as a dust (one ounce to half a pound of flour or air-slaked lime). Hellebore loses its poisonous properties quickly upon exposure to the air and sprayed or dusted fruit may be eaten safely in a short time. Imported Currant Borer — This insect 104 THE CURRANTS burrows in the canes, eating out the pith. The canes are greatly weakened and fruit produc- tion declines. Borers are combatted best by cutting out and burning the weak canes each spring. Currant Aphids — These tiny sucking in- sects cluster on the under sides of the leaves and cause them to curl, producing blister-like areas which often have a reddish tinge and are very conspicuous. They may be controlled by spraying the under sides of the leaves, or by dipping infested branches in a solution of 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, one to eight hundred parts of soapy water. Anthracnose — This disease appears as small brownish spots scattered thickly over the upper surfaces of the leaves. Later the leaves turn yellow and finally drop, some- times before the fruit is harvested. The plants are greatly weakened. Anthracnose is combatted by spraying, in spring before the leaves start, with liquid lime sulphur one to ten, and during the growing season with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture. Spray- ing just before harvest time should be avoided, for Bordeaux will discolor the fruit. White Pine Blister Rust — This disease, so destructive to the five-leaved pines, must spend a part of its life cycle on the currant or 105 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION gooseberry. Pines cannot reinfect pines. That is the weak point in the life cycle of this scourge of the pines, and the only circum- stance that prevents the rapid destruction of all our white pine forests, even as the chestnut was eradicated. This disease gains entrance to the pine tree through the needles and small twigs. It grows in the inner bark and spreads until it reaches the trunk and girdles it. Spores are discharged in spring from the rust-colored blisters on the pines. They are light and may drift with the wind for hundreds of miles to infect currant and gooseberry leaves and produce the next stage of the fungus. During the summer, blister rust spreads locally from currant to currant or gooseberry, but, beginning in midsummer, another kind of spore is produced which may infect pines. These spores have not been known to produce an infection on pine trees at a distance greater than 900 feet from the currant bush which was the source of infection. By removing cur- rants from the vicinity of pine trees, then, this disease may be controlled. Black currants are much more susceptible to this disease than others^ and when infected they produce hundreds of times as many pine- infecting spores as most red or white varieties. 106 THE CURRANTS They should, therefore, be planted in white pine territory with extreme caution, if at all. Varieties of Currants Red Varieties — The red currants are more popular for general use than the white or black varieties. Wilder and Perfection probably are the most extensively grown red currants, and both are good. Perfection seems to outyield Wilder in partial shade, as when interplanted in orchards, but in the open Wilder usually is most productive. Other good red varieties adapted to a wide range of growing conditions are Cherry, Fay, Red Cross, and London Market. White Varieties — The white varieties are mild in flavor and are popular with many home gardeners, although not extensively grown for market. White Imperial is the leading v/hite variety and it is considered the standard of excellence in flavor among all currants. Black Varieties — Black currants differ botanically from the others and are much more susceptible to White Pine Blister Rust. In some regions where the five-needle pines are of great importance, the growing of black cur- rants has been forbidden by law. They have a peculiar, musky flavor and odor and have 107 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION never become very popular in the United States. They are extensively grown in Europe, and find more favor in Canada than here. In general, it is likely that the culture of black currants will decline in America. Boskoop, Crandall, Prince of Wales, Naples, and Cham- pion are standard varieties. 108 IX THE GOOSEBERRIES Gooseberries have never been very popular in the United States. In Europe they are much more generally and favorably known. Ripe gooseberries are prized there for eating out of hand and they are a staple article of commerce; here ripe gooseberries as a dessert fruit are almost unknown. We pick the fruit green and use it almost exclusively in jams and sauces, and even in these manufactured products the fruit is not known to many. It is in home gardens that gooseberries have found greatest favor. They are easily grown and the fruit is most acceptable when once its excellence becomes known. Gooseberries are closely related botanically to currants, and their culture is much the same. Most of the things that have been said about currant growing apply with equal force to the culture of the gooseberry. It ranges a little farther south than the currant but is 109 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION distinctly a cool-climate fruit. It feels most at home in a cool, moist, fertile loam, but can be grown on lighter soils in the North. In low wet land, the gooseberry is often attacked and seriously injured by mildew, a disease which does little damage to the currant. Propagation of Gooseberries Gooseberries may be propagated from hard- wood cuttings, as described for currants, but some vigorous varieties, like Downing, do not root well from cuttings and here layering usually is employed. Like currants, gooseberries root well when branches are bent to the ground and covered with earth. That method is satisfactory when only a few plants are desired. For larger numbers of plants, mound layering is em- ployed. Mature plants are cut back severely in autumn, which induces a vigorous growth of new shoots in the following spring. About the first of July these shoots are mounded with earth to leave only the tips exposed. English varieties are given two seasons in which to root, but American sorts root quickly and may be taken up in the fall, stored over winter, grown in nursery rows the following 110 THE GOOSEBERRIES year, and then transplanted to a permanent place. Pruning Gooseberry canes branch more freely than those of the currant and the bushes tend to become more dense. As with the currant, young wood is most productive. A vigorous thinning out each spring of canes more than two years old is therefore the principal part of pruning gooseberries. (See pruning the cur- rant, page 102). Insects and Diseases The pests of the currant are also the pests of the gooseberry, although the degree of sus- ceptibilty varies. Mildew is the most serious disease infecting gooseberries, especially Euro- pean varieties. It is most troublesome in the South. Mildew appears first as spots having a cob- web-like appearance. They spread and co- alesce to form larger areas and the growth of the plant is seriously interfered with. The most effective means of combatting this dis- ease is by spraying with potassium sulfide, one ounce in two gallons of water. The first ap- plication is made when the buds have broken 111 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION in spring, and this is followed by three or four more similar applications at intervals of ten days or two weeks. Currant worms, currant borers, aphids, and anthracnose are found on gooseberries as well as on currants, and are combatted in the same ways. Gooseberries are less susceptible than currants to White Pine Blister Rust, but do serve as a means of bridging the gap from pine to pine. Varieties European varieties of gooseberries are larger and showier, but American sorts are more productive and higher in quality. Among American varieties, Downing is most widely grown. Houghton, Pearl, and Josselyn (Red Jacket) also are good. Poorman is a new- variety with large berries and few thorns. It promises to replace some of the older varieties. Among the European varieties Industry is probably the leader. Chautauqua, Crown Bob, and May Duke are other valuable vari- eties. 112 X THE BLUEBERRIES Blueberries, Huckleberries and Bilberries These names with many others are used more or less interchangeably for a closely re- lated group of native berries which are blue or black in color, and which range intermit- tently from Labrador to Alaska and south to the Gulf of Mexico. There are a number of species and several are often found growing together, especially in the northeastern states. They were a favorite food with the Indians, who ate them in summer and dried them for winter use. The white settlers soon came to appreciate blueberries and since early days they have been a staple article of commerce in regions where they were most abundant. Several species to which the term "bilberry" may be properly applied are found most com- monly west of the Mississippi, while blueber- 113 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION ries and huckleberries are most plentiful east- ward. There are several species of blueberries and a number of huckleberries. In some re- gions they are all called blueberries, and in others they are collectively known as huckle- berries, but in a few places, like New England, where both groups are common, a proper dis- tinction is made. Huckleberries (genus Gaylussacia) have hard seeds which crackle in the teeth, while the seeds of true blueberries (genus Vaccin- ium) are soft and hardly to be noticed. The bushes themselves may be distinguished in a number of ways. One noticeable difference is the presence on huckleberry leaves of resin- ous dots or patches which look like flecks and spots of varnish. A few people prefer the flavor of huckleberries, but where both blue- berries and huckleberries are plentiful the huckleberries usually are left behind by pickers. The bushes of some species of blueberries grow taller than a man, while others rise but a few inches from the earth. Most of the work directed toward the improvement of the blueberry has been done with the "high bush" species, Vaccinium corymbosum. It is com- mon from the northeastern states west to Min- nesota and it ranges far into the South, especi- 114 THE BLUEBERRIES ally in the mountains. While little cross- breeding and selection has been done with "low bush" blueberries, some attention has been given to them in the wild. In Washing- ton County, Maine, for instance, great areas of blueberry barrens are burned over periodic- ally to the great improvement of the crop, which supports an extensive blueberry canning industry. Domestication of the Blueberry The first attempts to cultivate the blue- berry were confined to transplanting selected wild plants into locations where they could be handled like other crop plants. Many of these attempts failed, largely because the peculiar soil requirements of the fruit were little under- stood. In 1906 the United States Department of Agriculture began a series of experiments look- ing toward the improvement of the berries, by crossing and selecting superior sorts, and toward the development of successful cultural methods. Progress has been remarkable. The average size of the berries has been tremend- ously increased through the development of better varieties, and cultural requirements have been uncovered to such an extent that it 115 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION may be said in truth that the blueberry has now taken a place among the cultivated fruits. This is the high bush blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum. The plantation at Whitesbog, New Jersey, where most of the work was done, has become internationally famous and every gardener has at least heard of it. Blueberry Soils The blueberry requires an acid soil which is well aerated during the growing season yet abundantly supplied with moisture. This is a peculiar soil preference but one which must be met by many soils or the high bush blue- berry would not be so widely distributed in nature. The soil which has been found so satisfac- tory for the culture of blueberries in New Jer- sey has a three-inch topsoil consisting of a mixture of peat and coarse sand. The sub- soil is sand underlain with hardpan, usually within three or four feet of the surface. The natural growth on such land in New Jersey is a mixture of pine, white cedar, and red maple, and it grows blueberries to perfection. Unfortunately most of the cultural directions now available have been developed for this 116 TPIE BLUEBERRIES soil only; they may need considerable modi- fication elsewhere. This same blueberry is very common in portions of New England, where it thrives on moist, well-drained hillsides. Numerous small plantations have been set with improved va- rieties from Whitesbog, to test their possibil- ities in many places. Some of these have come under observation and their promising start gives rise to the feeling that perhaps the cultivated blueberry is not quite so exacting in its requirements as was indicated by the first experiments. The large plantations in New Jersey are tilled during the summer. On some soils it is evident that a mulching system is as success- ful and perhaps more satisfactory. Various mulching materials are being used to good ad- vantage, among them hardwood sawdust, pine planer shavings, and oak leaves. Annual ap- plications of these materials seem to maintain the right soil conditions. Fertilizers The soil in which blueberries are grown must be kept acid. The land therefore should not be limed, and such lime-bearing materials as ashes are likely to prove harmful. After 117 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION some experimental work on fertilizers for blue- berries, the New Jersey Agricultural Experi- ment Station recommended the following mix- ture. The quantities are about right for one acre, and should be applied in June. 125 pounds nitrate of soda 200 pounds tankage 400 pounds rock phosphate 75 pounds sulphate of potash. This is about ^ lb. per plant. Getting Plants Blueberries are now propagated from hard- wood cuttings made in late winter. The cut- tings do not root readily and most gardeners will find it best to buy plants. Some work has been done with green cuttings and this prom- ises to develop an easier and a cheaper method of propagation. A few nurserymen have capitalized the popular interest in blueberry growing by offer- ing for sale plants taken from the woods and hillsides. To guard against disappointment, improved varieties should be insisted upon. 118 the blueberries Planting Blueberries Cultivated blueberries should be set at least four feet apart each way. Where cultivation is to be employed, four by eight or ten feet is about right. Plants should be set in early spring or in late August. If they are to be shipped far, spring planting is preferred. Care must be taken to keep the plants from drying out be- fore they are set. At least two varieties should be planted to- gether for cross pollination. Single varieties when isolated have set light crops. Since there are a number of good varieties it is as well to plant several of them. Pruning Blueberries are borne on terminal growth formed late in the preceding season. It is im- portant therefore to maintain a clean, strong growth, and pruning helps to do it. The finest fruit is borne on young shoots. As these shoots grow older they decline in vigor and the berries fail to attain the size desired. When this condition is reached by blueberry bushes, the New Jersey Experiment Station advises the following treatment: keep 119 BUSH FRUIT PRODUCTION the bush thinned out to favor the production of new shoots, and each year cut back about one-third of those remaining to stumps. This insures a constant supply of new and vigorous wood, and leaves no branches or canes more than three years old. For the production of extra fancy berries some additional thinning of the fruit buds on lateral branches is desirable. The fruit buds are the large plump buds near the ends of the last season's growth, and they should be re- duced to three or four by cutting back the shoot. Strong new shoots do not need such pruning. All pruning should be done during the dormant season. Varieties The improved varieties of blueberries now offered for sale are selections from a large number of the best wild sorts obtainable, or are the best varieties resulting from nearly fifty thousand crosses between selected wild varieties made under the direction of the Un- ited States Department of Agriculture. It is likely that any wild blueberry, when brought into a favorable environment and given good culture, would respond with larger, finer fruit. Undoubtedly, however, these new 120 THE BLUEBERRIES varieties are superior to any ordinary selection of wild plants. Certainly the fruit produced by these varieties under good culture is, in size and quality, beyond comparison j^ith the ordinary wild blueberry. Here are the leading varieties, arranged about in order of ripening: Cabot, Adams, Pioneer, Rub el and Katherine, Dun fee, Grover and Harding. One low bush hybrid, Greenfield, has been propagated. 121 INDEX Bilberries, 113 Blackberries, The, 66 Cultivation, 81 Fertilizers for, 82 Harvesting, 85 Himalaya, 72 Mulching, 82 Oregon Evergreen, 72 Pests, 83 Planting, 72 distances, 76 sj-stems, 76 time of, 74 Propagation, 72 Pruning, 78 Setting plants, 75 Soils, 67 preparation of, 67 Unusual forms, 71 Varieties, 69 White forms, 71 Black Raspberries, The, 52 Blueberries, The, 113 Domestication of, 115 Fertilizers for, 117 Getting plants, 118 Planting, 119 Pruning, 119 Soils, 116 Varieties, 120 Bush fruit soils, 14 Currants, The, 95 and White Pine Blister Rust, 105 Cultivation, 100 Fertilization, 101 Harvesting, 103 Locations, 95 Mulching, 100 Pests, 104 Planting, 99 Propagation, 97 Pruning, 102 Soils, 95 Varieties, 107 Dewberries, The, 87 Cultivation, 89 Harvesting, 94 Planting, 90 Propagation, 90 Protection over winter, 93 Pruning, 92 Soils and fertihzers, 88 Supports for, 91 Varieties, 94 Everbearing Raspberries, 50 Fall-bearing Raspberries, 50 Gardener and his garden, The, 11 Gooseberries, The, 109 Insects and diseases. 111 Propagation, 110 Pruning, 111 Varieties, 112 Growth and fruitfulness, 12 Huckleberries, 113 Humus, its value, 15 Improving soil conditions, 15 122 INDEX Propagation, of blackberries, 72 Black raspberries, 53 Currants, 97 Dewberries, 90 Gooseberries, 110 Purple raspberries, 61 Red raspberries, 26 Pruning blackberries, 78 Black raspberries, 56 Blueberries, 119 Currants, 102 Dewberries, 92 Gooseberries, 111 Purple raspberries, 63 Red raspberries, 39 Purple raspberries, The, 61 Raspberries, black, The, 52 Harvesting, 60 Pests, 59 Planting, 54 Propagation, 53 Pruning, 56 at planting time, 55 Soils and fertilizers, 52 Varieties, 18 Raspberries, Everbearing, 50 Raspberries, purple, The, 61 Culture, 63 Fertilization, 63 Harvesting, 65 Pests, 65 Planting, 62 Propagation, 61 Pruning, 63 Soils, 21 Starting the plantation, 61 Training, 62 Varieties, 20 Raspberries, red. The, 26 Buying nursery stock, 27 Fertilization, 41 Harvesting and marketing, 49 Keeping planting stock dor- mant, 36 Propagation, 26 Planting, 37 time of, 35 Pruning, 39 at planting time, 38 Selecting disease-free stock, 30 Supports for, 32 Systems of training, 31 Transplanting suckers, 28 green plants, 29 Varieties, 18 Winterkilling, 42 Winter protection, 43 Raspberry culture, general, 17 Cultivation, 23 Mulching, 25 Soils, 21 Types and varieties, 17 Varieties of blackberries, 69 Black raspberries, IS Blueberries, 120 Currants, 107 Dewberries, 94 Gooseberries, 112 Purple raspberries, 20 Red raspberries, 18 White Pine Blister Rust, re- lation to currant, 105 Winter protection of dewber- ries, 93 of red raspberries, 43 123 Books that will help you If you want up to date, reliable information on the best methods of raising fruits^ flowers, vegetables, poultry, dairying or any other sub- ject pertaining to the Garden or Farm, write us; we can help you. We publish a long list of reference books which abound in helpful sug- gestions and money-making ideas. We will gladly answer all questions pertaining to books or suggest courses of reading to anyone inter- ested. No matter in what branch of farm or garden work you may be interested, these books will help you. They will show you how to raise bigger and better crops — better your condition — increase your efficiency — add toyour income. Read and make your reading count. r*9ifaln