iiiliiiiB^ '^' THE BUTTERFLIES EASTERN UNITED STATES AND CANADA WITH SPECIAL BEFERENCE TO NEW ENGLAND. Vol. I. jpsy. THE word Initterriy is a popular term for a few of the higher families of scaly-winged insects, or Lepidoptera. Although for many years sys- tematic writers have frequently used the terms Papilionidae, Rhopalocera, Globidicornes or Achalinoptera with similar signification, the group is not a natural one, — that is, as an assemblage of lepidopterous insects, it has no equivalents of equal value and weight. The grouping is simply a con- venience, not the expression of a natural division. The four families of scaly-winged insects which are thus assembled may, however, be usually distinguished in their perfect state from the other families by the thickening of the tips of their antennae, so as to make the latter appear more or less clulibed ; also by the total absence of any lateral appendages to the separate antennal joints ; and by the want of a bristle-like extension of the costal ner- vurc of the hind wings, by which it is caught to the front pair, — all which features obtain in the majority of other Lepidoptera. They differ also, but in a very general way only, in habits, butterflies usually holding their wings erect when not in use, almost invariably flying only by day, and in their transformations seldom spinning any cocoon, the hinder end of the chrysalis being provided with little hooks by which a firm hold is had of a button of silk s[)un beforehand to cling to ; while other Lepidoptera generally fly 2 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. by night, expand their Avings fully or even incline them downwards when at rest, pass their chrysalis state in a cocoon or beneath the ground, and have no hooks at the tip of the chrysalis ; all these features, however, are liable to frequent exceptions. Too-ether with all other lepidopterous insects, the butterfly is well known to undero-o peculiar and, to outward appearance, very sudden transforma- tions durino- its growth ; born as an egg, it emerges from it as a worm-like animal called a cater})illar, which feeds voraciously on the plant upon which the maternal instinct has taught the butterfly to lay her egg, casts its skin several times in its growth, and finally, sloughing its integument ai>'ain, comes out a })upa or chrysalis, in which the creature appears as if in swaddling clothes, all its appendages neatly encased upon its breast, and itself helpless and almost completely motionless, — to ordinary view as different as possible from the aerial creature w^ith variegated tremulous wino's one may see shortly afterward sipping honey from an open flower, or dancing merrily in the sunlight. Changes similar to these are now known to occur throughout no incon- siderable portion of the animal kingdom, but they are most familiar to the popular mind and Avere first known to the ancients in the insect tribes and, 2)ar excellence in the Lcpidoptera. Without entering in full in)on the characteristics of lepidopterous insects in o-eneral, we shall in this introduction first examine the general structure of butterflies both external and internal, in the various stages of existence, as a basis for a knowledge of their proper classification. We shall next outline such a classification by means of a historical survey of former en- deavors ; follow this by a study of the physical features of the territory with whose butterflies and butterfly faunas we have most to do, and close with a special investigation of the earliest beginnings of life within the eggs of butterflies. We shall then be prepared to discuss the different sorts in systematic detail. THE EGG. AH insects, likewise, lirini;- forth worms, except a ''crtMiii ^-ciuis of luitterllies, and tliese hriiiii- forth a liartl sul)st:iii<-e reseinhlin^- a grain of l)astard sart'ron, l)ut wliicli internally is liciuid. AuiSTOTLK," Tnyl'ir^s trandalinn. External characteristics (Plates 64-69). The eggs of butterflies are composed externally of a thin pellicle, separa- ble into the base, walls and micropyle ; the first is usually flat, destitute of special markings, serving simply as a field of attachment ; the walls are variously sculptured and com})ose the rest of the egg, excepting the minute micropyle, which occupies the very summit, and is made up of a rosette of excessively minute cells. Tin: Kdd: KXTERXAL (IIAItACTKKISTICS. 3 These eggs, though al\v;iy,s circular or round!}' polyhedral* in .section, vary greatly in shajR', and are clatised in one of the chapters of this work mto barrel-shaped, globular, tiarate and hemispherical. The first are the most eonnnon, vary nuich in [)roportionate lieight and are usually also ribbed vertically, the ribs varying in our species from eight to thirty or forty in number, the former obtaining in some species of Vanessidi, the latter in Kiu-ema. AMiere the ribs run from base to summit, the si)ace between them is always broken u[) into (piadrate cells, by nuich more fre- (pient and generally more delicate raised transverse lines. But the character of the ribs v aries in ditl'erent species almost as nuicli as the form of the egg itself ; and while some of these eggs are two and a half times higher than broad, the lieight of others exceeds their breadth by very little ; some are thimble-shaped, sugar loaf-, flask- or acorn-shaped, while others are even fusiform ; so the ribs may either be coarse and heavy, or delicate, strongly compressed and greatly elevated ; tliev may be as large at their edges as at their bases, or wedge-shaped ; the cross lines are usually very delicate, but in a few species they vie with the vertical ribs in stoutness and near or upon the sununit of the egg are often nuicli heavier than elsewhere. Barrel- shaped eggs occur in every family excepting the Lycaenidae. Globular eggs occur only in the Satyrinae, Nymphalidi, and Papilion- inae. They are always a little flattened at the base. The surface is either simply rugose, as in the Papilioninae ; or covered with veiy minute and very inconspicuous cells, as in some Satyrinae ; or is l^roken up, as in Xym- phalidi, by very high and thin partition-walls into pretty regidar deep hexagonal cells, from the angles of which thread-like filaments project to a considerable distance. Hemis[)herical eggs are only known in the Pamphilidi, and among them we find great uniformity. The surface, apparently smooth, is broken up by exceedingly delicate lines into minute, usually hexagonal cells, the floor of which is profusely filled with shallow microscopic punctulations. AVith the sole exception of the genus Paruassius among Papilionidae, not found in eastern America, tiarate or echinoid eggs are confined to and include all of the Lycaenidae, but in one genus, Heodes, the base of the egg is broadened to such an extent that it is only by suflferance that it can be classed here ; it is rather demiechinoid ; the surface of tiarate eggs is nearly always broken up into cells of varying size separated by distinct heavy walls, which are sometimes of uniform height throughout, at others produced at the angles into tubercles presenting on close examination a very different effect. The egg shell, without taking into account the increased thickness which is often given to a large part of the svu'face by ridges and ribs, is always *I)oberty snys that in the East Iiulian Ly- probal)lymeansi simply that the cells arc oxcesi- caeuid, Poritia, the egg is hexahedral, which sively large .ind few. 4 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. moderately hea^y and tounli. It seems to be thinnest in the Vanessidi, but the presenee of liigh thin ribs pre\ents one from readily examining through the shell the nature of the contents or the condition of the embryo. In the Pamphilidi, it is unusually thick and at the same time opaque, while in some of the Lycaenidae, the walls of the cells are sometimes excessively heavy, especially on the crown of the egg. The centre of the sunnnit is always occupied by the micropyle (Plates (67-69), a system of delicate microsc(>[)ic canals, usually from four to six in number, which radiate from a minute })it in the very centre, and the mis- sion of which is to convey into the egg spermatic threads for its fertiliza- tion. Around these is a rosette of minute cells, the character of which in the Pamphilidi differs but little from ordinary cell structure exce[)ting in its delicacy. In nearly all butterflies it occupies an inconsiderable portion of the summit of the egg and in some species is either so minute or obscure as with difficulty to be seen at all, excepting under the most favorable light. Usually it is slightly depressed, and in some cases is situated at the bottom of a profound pit, but in others the contour of the shell is not disturbed by its presence. The cells generally increase in size from the centre outward, and, although sometimes comparatively few in nmnber and arranged, especially the central ones, in a definite pattern, are more com- monly crowded rather confusedly together. Internal changes, as seen externally. Having been unable to improve my opportunities of studying the embry- ology of butterflies, and almost nothing being known concerning the changes they undergo within the egg, I am forced to content myself here with bringing forward the following brief statements concerning such phe- nomena as may be witnessed through the usually rather opaque shell. This I the less regret as I have obtained the kind cooperation of Dr. Woodworth, whose special study of the embryological history of Euvanessa antiopa will appear in the closing section of this Introduction. The changes which transpire within the eggs of butterflies, as viewed through the external envelope, may be said to indicate rudely four distinct stages of development ; all of these stages, excepting perhaps the last at its close, are often greatly or entirely obscured from view, either by the opacity of the shell itself, as in some of the Pamphilidi, or by the confusion arising from the rough sculpturing of the outer surface, as in the Lycaeninae, Basilarchia, Pieris and the Argynnidi, and even to some extent in the more delicately marked Vanessidi. In the Jir.st period the contents are homogeneous, just as when they are laid, when only a pure color, shining through the integument, can be seen ; this condition lasts but a short time, — doubtless nmch shorter than appears from the indications which can penetrate the shell ; a certain change makes Till-: VA'Al: INTERNAL C1IANGP:S. 5 its ai)iH"ai-aiice in fVoin two to tour days after deposition, or in from one- third to one-seventli of the total duration of the enil)ryonic life. In Eury- nnis [.hih)dioc aehange was first noticed in forty two liours after deposition, so that the first stage occupied about one third of its hfe. In Cercyonis ah)pe no difference was noted until the third or fourth day or after one seventh of its (nal existence had elapsed. The first chano-e of color proclaims the advent of the srroinf jxriof/, m which a uniform alteration is noticed in every part of the contents ()f the e[)vv l)asc of wliidi it serves to protect. The inimdihles, one on either side, arc composed each of a short, very stout, tumid, horny phite, broadening- from the l)asc apically, its apical edge more dense, and either straight and chisel-like or somewhat serrated, the teeth usually triangular (86:32). liehind the mandibles lies the basal portion ..rtlu'Hiaxillae,— a fleshy mass bearing a large but short and somewhat uKunmiform joint ; this in its turn bears an inner and an outer palpus ; the inner is (mlinarily nuich the less conspicuous, and consists of only one or two joints, which generally resemble, but are smaller than, the penulti- mate or the apical two joints of the outer palpus ; the latter usually consists of three joints, the apical two at least being of a partially horny consistency, each of them cylindrical, equal, and usually much smaller than the pre- ceding, the last being always minute and frequently almost imperceptible. These two palpi are crowded together just at the base of the mandibles. Occupying nearly the whole of the remaining portion of the under surface of the head between the basal portions of the opposing maxillae, is the lal)ium ; its basal portion resembles that of the maxillae ; it bears apically on either side, just Avithin the inner base of the maxillary palpi, a pair of minute, slender, two jointed labial palpi, the basal joint of which is com- ])aratively long, the apical very minute ; between these two the apex of the labium is peculiarly developed, being tumid and bearing on a swollen base a small, conical, Jlender, depending, horny tube, forming the spinneret, through an orifice in which the fluids pass when the insect spins silk. The antennae, lying just outside the base of the mandiljles, are composed of four joints ; the basal joint large, fleshy, mammiform, pressed upon by the base of the widely expanded jaws ; the second much smaller, usually half as long as broad, and having a somewhat horny consistency ; the thnxl slenderer than the second, nuich, sometimes thrice, longer than broad, cy- lindrical, nearly equal, abruptly truncate and bearing at its tip a very long tapering bristle, usually much longer than the rest of the antenna ; beside this bristle, but not in the middle, is situated an exceedingly minute fourth joint, sometimes difficult to distinguish. The ocelli (86:24,25) are situ- ated just behind and a little above the base of the antennae. They gener- ally iiave the appearance of smooth hemispherical warts, some larger than others and occasionally somewhat protuberant, sLx in number in most ma- ture cateri)illars, of which five are generally arranged in a more or less open and regular curve, whose convexity is forward and whose anterior limit is frequently marked by a slightly impressed line ; the sixth lies behind the others though at no great distance ; the genera differ somewhat in the varied relations and exact position and size of the ocelli. The head varies greatly in general contour, especially about the summit, which is occasionally produced into long, pointed horns, or bears elongated thorny tubercles or "stout prickly spines. It is also generally covered to a 10 tup: butterflies of new exgland. greater or less extent by papillae or tubercles bearing short or long hairs, or else hairs are found arising directly from the surface ; for hairs in some form, either sessile or seated on papillae, are always found upon some part of tlie head ; even of the Lycaenidae, where this region is retractile within the first thoracic segment (78-80) . I have licre described the head as it appears, not in its morphological relations. There can be no question that ideally the head is composed of several segments, most of which bear a single pair of inferior organs homo- logous to legs, such as the jaws, maxillae, etc. So, too, I have spoken of an outer and an inner maxillary palpus, and in treating of the imago shall refer to a single pair as the maxillae ; but much confusion has arisen among entomologists in the application of those terms ; ideally, and sometimes actually, the maxillae of insects bear tln-ee palpi, any one of which may become specially developed and receive tlie name of maxilla, while tlie others are termed palpi ; thus the organ called maxilla in one group is not alv\^ays strictly homologous to what bears that name in another group. These, hoAvever, are not subjects for discussion here, and are only mentioned to prevent misapprehension. The body and its appendages. The body is composed, as has been stated, of thirteen segments (Compare Packard, Am. nat.,xix: 308). The integument is only occasionally, and in special areas, of a corneous nature, being usually more or less leathery ; the intimate structure is ex- ceedingly variable, as shown by Minot (Arch. mikr. anat. 1886), and would doubtless furnish excellent points of distinction and affinity if carefully studied. The rings of the body resemble each other essentially, although they may bear very different organs or vary considerably in size ; the first and the last, however, often differ from the others in their general appear- ance more than the rest do among themselves. The first is attached to the head by a continuation of its more or less coriaceous integument, and varies more than any of the others in size ; sometimes, as in Lycaeninae, it is very tumid and permits the head to be entirely withdrawn within its folds ; or the segment partially covers the head, as in the Papilioninae, and bears a pair of extensible scent organs ; at other times it is extremely small, form- ing as in the llesperidae, a sort of neck between the head and the rest of the body ; and then the upper surface is usually covered in part by a horny shield. The armature borne by the first segment generally differs from that upon the other segments, being more diminuti\'e in size or less con- spicuous in nature. Sometimes, however, as in some Argynnidi, a part of it is more conspicuous. The terminal segment differs from the others more by reason of its position than from any other cause : freciuently it is simply rounded behind; at other times it develops, as in Chlorippe and the Saty- rinae, a pair of backward projecting tapering prolongations ; very often it has a slight central tuberculated extension. Usually the hairs are longer THE CATKKlMLLAi:: sTRUCTniE OF THE F.ODY. H upon tliis sciiincul lliaii 111)011 iuiy otlier ; and like tlic first segment it seldom if ever hears a[)[)eiida<;'es of (piite the same eharaeter as the rest of the hody. A^'itll these exceptions, however (and the presence or ahsence of legs and spiracles) the joints of the hody arc very similar to each other. They may he di\ ided into tlioracic and ahdominal according as they helong to these [irospective regions, the former hearing each a pair of legs, the hitter hear- ing prolegs only, and always on the third to the sixth and on the tenth ahdominal segments. The legs (87:1-")) are five-jointed, the hasal two joints usually large and fiesliv, the apical three generally coriaceous or horny, longer than hroad, the last armed with a simple, small, hent or curved, often heeled claw. The prolegs (86 :'27,81 ; 87 :21) consist of two very large, fleshy, short and stout joints, the apical hearing on the inner side of its tip a pair of thickened pads moving laterally, the outer and sometimes the inner of which bears a strongly curving row of minute hooks ; the ventral prolegs are directed downward, the anal pair or that of the tenth segment both down- ward and hack\\'ard ; the latter arc also a little larger, and the pad provided more abundantly with booklets. The long basal portion of the booklets is lightly inil)edded in the skin and the exserted portion is slender, strongly curved and hooked, the hook sometimes })lunt and sometimes ]iointed ; they are sometimes arranged in single, sometimes in double or triple rows, and apparently can be extended somewhat at will ; the tip of the foot between the pads may be so inflated, especially in the Papilioninae and Hesperidae, as to bring the rows of hooks outside and thus the pads can be opened or shut at jileasure, the animal cling with great tenacity to any object upon which it is standing, and also readily disengage itself. The hooks are always numerous, thickly crowded, and increase in number with age ; sometimes as many as one hundred are found on each foot. Breathing pores or spiracles, sometimes called stigmata, occur only on the first thoracic and first to the eighth abdominal segments* ; they are situated a little below the middle of the sides, in the centre or slightly in ad\ance of the centre of the segments, and consist of straight slits trans- ^■crse to the body, surrounded by a thickened lip, the outer margin of which is usually oval and frequently raised ; the spiracles of the first tho- racic and eighth abdominal segments are frequently higher than the rest, especially in the Lycaeninae and Hesperidae, and also often larger. *In some Lepidoptera, as in the young cat- Algernon Coolidge of England, through Rev. erpillar of ranijjhihi inandan.siiiraclesniay be Mr. Hollin.s of Exeter. On drawing Dr. Pack- found on the second and third thoracic seg- ard's notice to the subject he discovered the nieuts; and in many others there arc false spir- chistered tracheal tubes though without ex- acles, having no connection with the air tubes ternal sign of spiracles in the larvae of one of of the interior, whicli ramify in these seg- the Sphingidae and in Platysamia cecropia nients, as will be seen, quite as in others. My (Am. nat., viii : 531). I believe these last may attention was lirst directed to the occasional be found in all Lepidoptera. In the perfect presence of true spiracles on the hinder tho- insect, as we shall see, there is a uiesothoracic racic segments of lepidopterous larvae In- Dr. spiracle. 12 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. Tlie thoracic and abdominal segments also differ frequently in the posi- tion of the armature borne by the segments, and whether these consist of sim[)le or compound spines, tubercles, bristle-bearing papillae, or fleshy filaments, they are usually arranged in several definite longitudinal series ; but such series are frequently broken at the division between the thoracic and abdominal segments, a subdorsal abdominal series, for instance, becominor laterodorsal on the thoracic segments ; sometimes also a series is limited to one or the other region. On this account and in order to give greater precision to descriptions of the parts of caterpillars, I have here adopted a uniform nomenclature to designate the precise height on the body at which the serial appendages occur, as follows : dorsal or mediodorml for a line passing down the middle of the back ; ,sti(jinaf(d for a line pass- ing along the spiracles ; lateral for a line midway between these two ; lat- erodorsal for a line midway between the mediodorsal and the lateral ; subdorsal for a line between the mediodorsal and laterodorsal ; sujrralateral and infralateral for lines just above and below the lateral ; laterostigmatal for a line midway between the lateral and stigmatal ; suprastlgmatal and infrastiyniatal for lines just above and below the stigmatal ; ventral or medloventral for a line passing along the middle of the belly; subventral for a line close to it ; lateroventral for one still further removed from the medloventral ; and ventrostigmatal for any between this and the infrastig- niatal line. The necessity for precision is greatest above the spiracles, for the armature of the caterpillar is found, as would be expected, almost entirely upon the upper surface of the body. All of our butterfly caterpillars are clothed with hairs, although in the Papilioninae and Euploeinae they are so short and delicate as to leave the creature a naked a})pearance, and in addition to this most of them have other tegumentary appendages in difler- ent parts of the body ; their arrangement affords admirable generic char- acteristics which ha^e not hitherto l)een sufliciently appropriated. In this connection it should be stated that in the character of the arma- ture both of the head and body enormous difterences Avill be found between the young and mature larvae of the same species, — difterences which until recently appear to have been entirely overlooked. In fact juvenile cater- pillars in their first stage may be tersely said to dift'er generically from themselves at a mature epoch. In some the change becomes an abrupt one at the first moult ; in others it is brought about by comparatively slight alterations at successive moults. The difterences consist, for exam- ple, in the presence in some juvenile larvae of pa[)illae, emitthig hairs, some- times of excessive length, arranged in definite series, all of which entirely disappear at maturity, the body being then clothed only with short uni- formly distributed hairs seated on papillae ; or, to take another instance, the head of a newly born caterpillar, covered with several large tubercles which entirely destroy the regularity of its contour, gives place to a well- TUK CATKIJPIIJ.AK: STRUCTURE OF THE UODY. 13 roimdcd head whose siiinmit hears a pair of excessively produced conical ap[)endai2;es ; or aii'ain, hairs seated on papillae arranged in definite series in a juvenile caterpillar ni;iy he supplanted hy thorny spines, arranged also in definite rows In the mature larva, but <)ccu[)ying an entirely different position from the series seen in the young. An examination of the descrip- tions in the body of this work will afford many other instances quite as striking as those given ; and from the observations of others on many dif- ferent groups of insects 1 am inclined to believe that this is but a too partial statement of a general law. (Compare plates 70-73 with 74-77; see also plate 86.) besides the clothing or armature of the body ])ro})er, there is another feature which may draw our attention foi- a mcmient. Each segment is divided into sections or sub-segments, as perhaps they may be called, l)y transverse creases which extend around the entire body excepting the ven- tral surface ; it is as if the division lines between adjoining segments were not sufficient for the free motion of the creature. These creases, which have greater or less distinctness and depth, are found in allied insects at the same place, so that even some gronps of considerable size may be char- acterized by the number of the sections into which the princi[)al body seg- ments are divided. ^Vs a general rule these are nearly the same on successive segments of the body, but the thoracic segments often differ from the abdominal to a greater or less extent, and the first and last seg- ments of the body rarely agree with the others. In the following, note is made only of the distinction seen in the abdominal segments. In a few caterpillars these segments do not seem to be divided at all. Such are our native Papilioninac with Avhich also the gerontogeic Thais agrees, although some of the allied genera, Parnassius, Doritis and Ismene, have three or foiu' sub-diNisions. The same simplicity is found in the Chrvsophanidi ; and indeed the same is the case to a nearly complete extent in all the Lycacninae though, excepting in the Chrysophanidi, they are often faintly separable into two subsegments. The only genus of Lemonii- nae which I have been able to examine, the European Xemeobius, also has two subsegments, though the hinder of the two is again subdivided equally. So, too, all the Argynnidi and ]\Ielitaeidi have too subsegments, the anterior, as is nearly the universal case, considerably larger, excepting that in our species of Brenthis the hinder sul)segment is again divided. The Ilelicon- inae agree with the xVrgynnidi, while in the Euploeinae not only is the hinder half subdivided into two subsegments, but the anterior half as well, though somewhat obsciu-ely. The next degree of complication is found in the remaining Xymphalinae which have four subsegments, the antericn- the larger and always bearing the i)rincipal armature, the hinder portion being subdivided into three smaller subsegments. Anaea, however, has the hinder portion subdivided into four subsegments. It is curious to note in 14 THE CATERPILLARS OF NEW ENGLAND. this connection that Libytliea has four subscgnients as in the bulk of tlie XyniphaHnae, altliough in this case the four subsegnients are of nearly c(|ual size. In the remaining Xyniphalidac, that is, in the Satyrinae, we find a decided difference, the front subscgnient only a little larger than the rest or scarcely larger at all, and the whole segment diyided into six sub- segments. A single exception only has been noted in the fifteen species that I haye been able to examine, and that is in the European IIi[)parcliia liyper- anthus, which has only four subsegnients, tlie front one no larger than the others, while janira, placed next it by some European entomologists, has the normal nunilxn". Closely agreeing with them are the Pierinae which usually haye six subsegnients, but in the European A})oria tlie last two are hardly separable. A curious exception howeyer is to be found in the Antlio- charidi, which usually haye seyen subsegnients, including our own gcnutia, though the European belia has but six subsegnients, and the species of Zegris only fiye and the last two of these scarcely separable from each other. In the lowest family Aye find a distinction between the Hesjieridi and the Panii>hilidi in the o-reater numlier of subsetrments belonijinff to the latter group. The Hesperidi usually haye fiye, the first of them the larger. But our Ilesperia montiyagus has only four and the same is the case with two s})ecies of Thanaos, persius and lucilius, while Thanaos juyenalis and another unknown species agree completely Ayitli the bulk of the Hesperidi. The Pain])liilidi on the other hand haye seyen subsegnients, though a reniarkal)le exception ap})ears to occur in the European Ado})aea lineola, in which the subsegnients behind the first appear to be paired, so that there are here but three where ordinarily there are six. Finally a few words may be said regarding the glands haying their external opening upon the surface of the body. These may be diyided, perhaps naturally, into two groups, according as they occur upon the tho- racic and abdominal segments. Thoracic glands are ap])arently found in the caterpillars of all butterfiies though they are liest known, as they are the most striking, in the caterpillars of the Papilioninae. Here they are found on the dorsal surface, bear the name of osmateria, and consist of a fork-shaped sac which, ordinarily drawn entirely within the body, may be almost instantaneously thrust out through a transyerse slit in the first thoracic seo;nient. This or<»aii A\'licn thus extruded is ofenerally of a brio'ht color and exhales a more or less decided odor differing according to the s[)ecies, being scarcely perceptible in Lacrtias and yarying through all degrees of ofFensiveness to a truly sickening stench in Iphiclides. The con- struction of this organ has been described in somewhat different terms by Studer and Klemensiewicz. It is really a deyelopment of the integument and the cells at its base are glandular, their secretion being perhaps dis- charged through ])or('s of the adjoining cuticula. "It may be assumed," says Dimmock, "that the odorous secretion accumulates in the inA'aginated IIIK CATKinMLLAU: CI. .VXDS ()I'i:XIX(; EXTERNALLY. 15 horns and is iVccd l)V tlieir cxsortion.'" ^\'llcn withdrawn, this oi'i-an lies with one of its horns on cither interior side of the body, extended backwaitl to tlie first ah(h)Miinal sei;Muent necordinii; to Kh-niensiewiez, hnt to tlic third aeconUniL!: to Studer, who both studied the same s[)ecies, Papilio niachaon. Botli -A'^vvc that a delieate uuisele is attaehcd to the tip of each horn, whieh lias its insertion, aeeording" to Studer on the dorsal, but according to Kle- niensiewiez on the ventral side of the l)ody. It is by this nuisclc tlmt the osniateria are withdrawn, and this explains why, (hn'inii; withdrawal, one may ni()\(' (piite independently of the other, and that the invagination begins at the tip. The extrusion of the osmateria is presumably brought about by the nuiscular contraction of the Avails of tlie body, whieh forces the fluids of the body into the reversed osmateria. Inasmuch, however, as all the butterflies which do not possess osmateria arc furnished, as far as I have examined, on the venti-al surface of the first thoracic seginent, directly in front of and between the first [)air of legs, with a more or less prominent extensile bladdcr-liUe vesicle (86 :o6 ; 87 :10), which when withdrawn presents a transverse slit very similar to that which is found upon the ujjpi-r surface of the Papilioninae ; and inasmuch as iione of the Papilioninae possess this inferior vesicle, it may be presumed that this organ may ha\e a similar object ; but its precise use has never been clearly made out, though it has been known since the time of Bonnet a century and a half ago. The abdominal glands are of two types, and, as far as is known at present, are found only in the single subfamily Lycaeninae. One of these tv})es (87:19) is very similar to the inferior glands of the first thoracic segment, but is found a little behind the middle of the dorsal surface of the seventh abdominal segment and is indicated by a transAcrse slit at this point, through which there may be occasionally protruded a minute globular vesicle, which seems to secrete a fluid of some sort, inasmuch as it is a point of great attraction to ants. This vesicle probably exists in all the Lycae- nidi as well as in some Theclidi, and though it has not been found in any of our Chrvsophanidi it does occur in the European Thestor ballus. In addition to this form of gland there are fi)und in some species lateral extensile organs or caruncles, wdiich may be seen u[)on the sides of the eighth a])dominal segment (86:14; 87:14,19). These consist of exten- sile organs which when fully exserted are cylindrical, with a rounded sum- mit l)esprink]ed with spiculiferous needles ; excepting in Thestor ballus I have been unable to find them in any group liesides the Lycaenidi and here they are by no means invariably present. These curious appendages were first observed by Petzhold and the attraction to ants of the central o-land found upon the segment in front was first noted by Esper. ^^ hether any odor accompanies the extrusion of these lateral organs of the eighth abdominal segment is uncertain. In the Indian Curetis thetys (figured by Ilorsfield, Cat. Lep. E. I. Co. i, pi. 12, fig. 5 — not 7 as stated in expl. pi.). 10 THE CATERPILLARS OF NEW ENGLAND. as explained to me explicitly by Mr. de Niceville, they form immense non- retractile pillars, doubling the height of the body at this point ; or rather the body is thus elevated and from the summit of the pillars "issue when alarmed two long filaments or tentacles fringed A\it]i yery long hairs . . . wliich it whirls around Ayith altogether astonishing rapidity, doubtless to frighten away icheumnon flies." The caterpillar ]Mr. de Xiceville tells me is not attended by ants, and therefore probably lacks the slit in the preceding sco-ment.* In our species the caruncles are so minute as scarcely to be yisible without a lens, but as pointed out by Dimmock their accompaniment by hairs exposes still more surface to the air, and this giyes a better chance for spreading any odors which they may secrete. lioth this organ and the osmateria are so constructed as to present, says Dimmock, "the greatest economy in the use of an odorous fluid ... by exposing suddenly a large surface moistened wdth the fluid to the surrounding air." It is in e\-ery degree probable that other abdominal glands will be found in caterpillars just from the egg, for the flaring-tipped hairs serially arranged witli which so many juyenile and some adult caterpillars are clothed {e. g. Pieris) may frequently be seen under the microscope to exude at the tip a droplet of fluid, the source of which can only be pre- sumed, as in similar appendages in lower Lepidoi)tera, to lie in a gland at the base of the hair, which is always mounted upon a conical papilla. But this is a subject upon which no writer has yet yentured either experi- mentation or discussion. Other structures in the caterpillars of various Lycaeninae at birth may possibly haye some similar purpose. Internal organization (Plate 62). In considering the external crust of the caterpillar and its appendages, we have been able by its very organization to examine each part separately without confusion ; for, by the division of the body into distinct regions, and of the regions into separate rings, each bearing its special appendages, the mind can readily locate these and recall them when necessary. The same ^^'ill also be found to be true of the future stages of the animal's existence. AMien, however, we come to the internal parts, the case is generally different ; for both now and later the organs run in a longitudinal course through the body and disregard in great measure not only the jointed struc- ture but even the regional distinctions of the body. To systematize our examination, therefore, we nuist treat them differently, and, separating them into natural subdivisions according to their functions, discuss them in that secpience which promises to give us the clearest conception of their use. As the 1)asis of the whole, we have the structural framework of the animal, its outer crust ; and since })o\ver of movement is the primal need *Tbe tir.st segment on the right in Ilors- heing- retracted beneath it, and so altogether field's figure is the first thoracic, the head out of sight. TIIK CATKltlMI.LAi:: IXTKUXAL OIKIAXS. 17 of a li\inLi- creature, we shall first consider the muscular system, through which the framework and its appendages are moved ; next we sliall take up the digestive system, the province of" which is to prepare crude nutriment for the insect ; the further preparation of this nutriment by oxygenation re(|uires that we should follow with the respiratory system ; and the distri:- hution of the nutriment over the body by the circulatory system completes the circuit of the relation of food to the creature ; but whether the natural action of these systems be voluntary, as in the first mentioned, partly voluntary and partly involuntary, as in the second, or Avholly involuntary, as in the last two, they all require to be brought into relation to the will of the animal, or their vital action ceases ; we shall therefore consider next the nervous system, the seat of volition and sensation. We shall follow this with the glandular or secretory system, since its sole independent re[)resen- tative is the organ which serves to secrete silk, by means of which the caterpillar is able to walk where it needs to procure nourishment. These are all the systems \\-hich liaAC to do simply with the life of the individual, but there is still another, the reproductive, which must take the highest place as related to the life of the species ; though in the caterpillar this remains in an embryonic condition, a condition of preparation for future development ; and finally we shall consider briefly the cellular system, whose extreme development is confined to the larval stage and is intimately related to all the other systems. Muscular system. The muscular system of caterpillars consists almost entirely of fiat ribbons of simple muscular fibre. For convenience sake, and also to a limited extent as a natural classification, they may be divided into those occurring in the head and those confined to the body. The head is mostly filled with conical muscular bundles, attached by their bases to the upper and lateral portions of the posterior two-thirds, and to some extent to the upper portion of the anterior third of the vault of the head ; the apices of these conical masses converge toward the middle longitudinal line of each hemisphere, and then pass downward, terminating, in the lower half of the head, in a Avhite, glistening, tendinous cord, lying just behind the optic nerve and reaching down into the mandibles, which they serve to close. The extensors of the mandibles are attached behind and below the ocelli, and pass directly to the outer base of the mandibles, which they enter by means of a tendon attached to the interior wall of the same. The retractors of the labrum arc slight, flat, nuiscular ribljons, attached at one extremity along the whole of its upj)er interior edge and at the other to the facial triangle ; the lal)rum is draA\n inwards by a double muscle, which starts above from its attachment along each side of the median suture above the facial triangle, and passes freely downwards, the muscles of the two sides confluent, diminishing in breadth downward, and terminating; in a sino^le tendon attached to the middle of the labrum. 18 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. A band or ribbon, made up of simple, longitudinal, parallel, muscular fibres, collected into two contiguous strips, the inner the narrower, runs from one end of the body to the other, near the skin, Ijctween the spiracles and the ^•entral side of the body. In Euphoeades, however, the double strips form on each side one broad ribbon made up of from fifteen to twenty-five independent, similar, contiguous cords. Each strip is properly made up of a series of bands, one to each segment, extending across its entire length, and they are permeated by minute tracheal vessels running mainly at rio-ht ano-les to the direction of the fibres. From the anterior end of the inner strip of each segment, a slender nuiscular strap runs obliquely to the middle of the ventral line of the segment. Beneath the insertion of the longitudinal bands sets of nearly parallel but slightly converging l)ands run to the ventral line at the middle of the front of the succeeding, or at the posterior edge of the same, segment. Above the spiracles, on each side, are three slightly oblique muscular ribbons, the lowermost lying nearer the integument than the others, its lower edge touching the base of the tracheae. These three strips are not continuous on succeeding segments, but the innermost broadens posteriorly and becomes two in the succeeding segment, its inner half repeating the same on the next segment and so on. Beneath all these longitudinal bands, as seen from Avithin, ^. e., lying nearer the integument, and at the anterior edge of each segment, a narrow transverse belt encircles the whole l)ody, passing at the stigmatal line OAcr the longitudinal tracheal vessel which unites two contiguous spiracles, and stra})ping it to the integument. The flexor muscles of the true legs originate in the body just beneath tlie origin of the outer of the two longitudinal muscular ribbons of the ventral surface of the body, and extend to the opposite wall of the segment. The muscles of the prolegs consist of flat bands forming a muscular coating to the walls of the legs, passing in a direct line downward, narrowing as they go ; they do not cross each other, nor pass to opposite sides of the legs, but are entirely simple. Passing now to the muscles attached to the internal organs, we find the coating of the stomach, which is a mere film, overlaid by delicate parallel strips of muscular fibres crossing diagonally in opposite directions ; besides these there are longitudinal muscles arranged in sets, each set separated from its neighbors and composed of several slender bands, traversing the entire length of the stomach ; those next the dorsal and ventral lines are more prominent than the others and on the anterior are larger than on the posterior half; sometimes, however, the transverse encircling muscles are more highly developed than the longitudinal ; the sets on the dorsal lines are united into a double band at the anterior extremity and pass to the oesophagus, where they are more widely separated ; the oesophagus is })ro- vided also with other longitudinal muscles, and to a less extent with trans- THE CATEHPJLLAII: IXTEUXAL ORGANS. 19 verse eneireliiiu' hands. The small intestine is covered with hoth transverse and longitudinal hands of thick, white and glistening muscular tissue ; at its anterior end especially, where the alimentary canal is greatly constricted, it is thickly covered with short longitudinal muscles, whose hinder extrem- ities dovetail into other longer sets; hesides these, there arise fron) the middle of the posterior end of the intestine a number of parallel bands of nuiscular fibre, which embrace it diagonally, passing around to the ventral surface of its anterior extremity ; starting just in front of the i)osterior in- sertion of these, and interlacing with them at right angles, is another shorter set of parallel nuiscles, whose other extremities are attached to the body-wall ; still further, a set of four inde[)endent })arallel muscular bands passes beneath and siii)ports the posterior end of the small intestine, reacli- iny; horizontallv from the middle of one side of the eighth abdominal seo- mcnt to the O[)posite. The colon is furnished simply with longitudinal and transverse muscular bands, heavier than those on the stomach-wall. Digestive system. The digestive tract of the cateq)illars of butter- Hies consists of an alimentary canal with anterior appendages (salivary glands) and posterior appendages (biliary vessels). The alimentary canal is a simple, straight, cylincbical tube, varied by expansions and contractions, which divide it into an oesophagus (at the anterior extremity of Avhich the salivary glands are emptied) , a long intestine, or stomach, if it may be so termed, a short intestine (toward the anterior end of which the biliary vessels are attached) and a colon. The oesophagus consists of two parts : anteriorly a simple, straight, equal tube, and posteriorly a larger portion swollen in the middle — a sort of "crop" — w'hich is better provided with muscular bands and extends part way into the cavity of the second thoracic segment. The stomach is much the more conspicuous portion of the alimentary canal and, indeed, the most conspicuous organ in the body ; it is a straight swollen tube, always crowded with food, and only occasionally larger in the anterior portion because the animal has recently gorged itself; it extends from the middle of the second thoracic to the middle of the seventh abdominal segment and vai'ies in size according to the amount of food that has been swallowed ; the walls seem to be the merest film, traversed by muscular fibres, which by lines not deeply impressed divide the surface into narrow, rounded, transverse, parallel lobes, reaching from the middle of the upper or the under surface to the middle of either side and which alone prevent a per- fectly free and direct movement of the fragments within. There is tdso an in\'esting tunic of longitudinal muscles, and the two layers can readily l>e separated from each other. This organ seems to act mainly as the recep- tacle of the recently devoured food, since the fragments at the jxisterior end seem scarcely more digested than those which have just entered the anterior cxtremitv. At the middle of the seventh abdominal segment, or 20 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. in the Lycaeiiidae much earlier, the alimentary canal tapers suddenly, beinii: en\vrap})ed by a strong band of investing muscles, and then enlarges slightly and the intestine begins ; this also consists of a straight cylindrical tube sin-rounded by thick walls of nuiscular tissue, both longitudinal and encircling, the former especially distinct and moulding the interior walls into very prominent longitudinal ridges ; of which there are seven or eight in Hamadryas ; it is of equal size throughout, a little more than half the diameter of the stomach, and generally extends halfway from the end of the stomach to the end of the body. The colon is a simple straight tube capable of considerable expansion, but of the same size as the intestine when not distended by excrement ; usually much shorter than the intestine and nearly globular when distended, it is sometimes (as in Callophrys) nearly as long ; the inner surface is smooth, permitting the ready passage of the excrement from the body. The salivary glands are a pair of long flat ribbons, extending from their attachment at either side of the anterior end of the oesophagus, backward, beside the alimentary canal. In Anosia they are straight, tapering slight- ly and regvdarly to a bluntly rounded tip, and look like flattened braided cords, being compressed along the median line, Avhile each side is deeply excised at regular frequent intervals, into bead-like prominences. In Polygonia they appear as scarcely tapering tortuous threads, and reach the middle of the third thoracic segment, where they appear to be closely con- nected with some of the tracheal tubes at the base of the laterodorsal spines. They are straight, cylindrical, and scarcely tapering in Hamadryas, but form large and broadly tortuous tubes in Callophrys, their extremities at- tached near the middle of the thoracic region to the dorsal vessel. In the lower families they are flattened and ribbon-like : in Eurymus bent abru^jt- ly outward beyond the middle, tapering regularly to a bluntly rounded tip ; in Epargyreus uniform in diameter, crinkled, reaching the front of the stomach, where they arc attached to tissue about the dorsal vessel by a slender suspensory thread. The malpighian or biliary vessels originate as slender organs, one on each side of the middle of the anterior half of the intestine ; as tolerably large sacs in Polygonia, Hamadryas, Callophrys and Eurymus, in slender (Anosia) or very slender thread-like tubes, which either so continue (Epargyreus) or expand into a sac (Euphoeades) ; at a short distance from the origin the vessel sul)divides into three branches (the under branch originating just before, in Epargyreus a short distance before, the other two), which are strongly waved or crenulated cords, and are, throughout, nearly or quite as large as the tube or sac at its very origin ; the under branch passes forward usually in a tortuous but in Eurymus in a straight course alcove the nervous cord, along and in contact with the under outer surface of the stomach, to a distance varying according to the group, from THE rATEUnr.I.AR: INTERNAL ORGANS. 21 about llic trout ot'tlic alxloiiiiiial r('_ii;ion in Ano.sia and Callophrys, to near tlif middle of tlic third alxloniinal sei^nicnt in Epargyreus ; lierc it hends upon itself and rctui'iis in a (similar manner, a little higher up, to tlie point from whicli it started ; the two otlier branches, whicli are a little smaller than the first, extt'ud forward and then haekward in a similar manner and to a somewhat similar distance, sometimes one of the three threads reach- ino' farthest forward, sometimes one of the others, according to the tribe ; one of the in)per branches passes along the u])per outer portion of the stomach, the other along its side; all thi-ee branches i)ass outside the tra- cheal tubes which invest the stomach, and when all have returned to the point from whicli thev started, the extremities of the three are collected with those of the opposite side in a single intricate convoluted mass en- velo[)ing the intestine, and covering also the whole siu'face of the colon with their more delicate terminal threads. When the })Osterior part of the alimentary canal is pressed, Avhitish particles can be seen to move in an irregular manner within the mal[)ighian vessels. In the characteristics of their main portion, the mal[)ighian vessels are much slighter and shorter in Euphoeades and Epargyreus than in the higher butterflies. Respiratory system. — The respiratory organs of caterpillars consist of tracheal vessels, — cylindrical tubes composed of closely compacted, shining, silvery, spiral threads, enveloped, or at least the principal stems, by the thinnest possible investment and ramifying endlessly ; they have their origin at the spiracles, situated on either side of the body on the lower portion of the sides of the first thoracic and first eight abdominal segments — in the last segment a little higher np the sides than in the others, and especially so in the Lycaenidae. The tracheal trunks di\ide at their very origin into a considerable nnmber of eqnal or nearly equal branches, which at once push their way into different portions of the neighboring organs, presenting an appearance resembling the aerial roots of some tropical tree ; most of them reach the stomach and, diminishing abruptly in size, at once branch at Avide angles and ramify all over it, every fold or lobnle being tracked by two or three of the finest of the threads ; the intestine is trav- ersed only by the finer tracheal tubes ; other shorter branches permeate the floating organs, attach themselves to the muscles and the nerves and track along the cord-like appendages. Each set of tracheae is connected at its base with the set in front of and behind it by a tube as large as any of them, which emits several short l)ranches ; thus if any spiracle is closed by accident its neighbors may do service for it. These vessels arc somewhat modified in the anterior portion of the body ; tiie tracheae of the first abdominal segment are larger and branch more extensively than those of any other segment (although the spiracle is no larger than the others) their ramifications extending to the anterior ex- tremity of the stomach ; while those of the third and second and especially 22 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. the second thoracic segment, where there are no spiracles, are small and comparatively inconspicuons, and connected with the bnncli in the first abdominal segment behind by only a small longitudinal canal. The first thoracic segment, which has a spiracle and generally one of larger size than usual, bears, however, an extensile bunch of tracheae. The anterior branch of tliis bunch supplies the head ; it arches upAvard on each side along the hinder edge of the head, until it meets that of the opposite side, when the two join so strongly that consideral)le force is required to part them ; and the only mark of se})aration is a pale line on the dusky surface. As soon as they meet, they bend toward the head, then separate and run side l)y side beneath the muscular mass which occupies most of the head, over the double cephalic ganglion and curve over toward the lab rum. Before unit- ing, these two opposite branches emit from their anterior surface similar branches, which also run beneath the muscular mass toward the anterior and lower [)art of the head ; some curve upward and embrace the muscu- lar mass from below ; half way between the spiracle and the top of the head this first-mentioned arching branch emits from its posterior surface a slender offshoot, which, together with another branch, coming almost direct from the spiracle, pass toward the tracheae of the opposite side, and unite at the median line with a similar set from the opposite trachea. Circulatory system. The circulatory system consists mainly of the "dorsal vessel," — a straight tube, lying along the middle of the back, next the skin ; it seems to be composed externally of an excessively fine whit- ish pellucid film. It is of varying shapes, simple and uniform in Anosia, ending in a well-rounded ti}) at the extremity of the body ; as slender as the nerAOUs cord as far as the middle of the third abdominal segment in Ilamadryas ; but beyond this point, where it is attached to the wall of the Ijody, it suddenly expands to a nuicli larger size, and retains the same as far as the seventh abdominal segment ; here and in the next segment it expands into a fusiform reservoir and then tapers to the end of the body : in Callophrys it is comparatively large and equal as far as the third ab- dominal segment, though it expands slightly at the point of attachment of the salivary glands near the middle of the thoracic region. The dorsal Acssel is very elastic and ficxible, and when one side is pulled even pretty forcibly the other remains in place. It is seen to be slightly enlarged at the division lines of the segments marking the ends of the chambers, where, by the refiection of the tissues, a valve-like structure is formed, hj which the fluids are forced from one chamber into the next, the movement being from Ijchind forward. Nervous system (86:1). The nervous system of butterfly larvae con- sists of a scries of horizontal disks, connected by a straight slender double ribbon, emitting lateral threads, and which runs along the floor of the internal ca\ity from the head, where it extends upward, encircles the 'line ('ATi:itl'II>LArv: IXTEIIXAL ORGANS. 23 iilinientarv canal and (.'xpands Into a pair of li^bcs, to near the ti[) of tlic abdomen. V^iewed fi'oni above, tlic cej)lialic ganglia consist of a pair of nearly glo- bular or 8ul)pyriforni lobes, closely joined by their inner edges, or at least in juxtaposition ; they are situated in the very middle of the head, just above the beginning of the alimentary canal, and on a level, above, with the top of the frontal triangle. From the lower anterior outer angle of each lobe, the optic nerve, large at base, but gradually tapering beyond, ])asses down- ward, forward, and outward, in a straight course toward the ocelli ; as it reaches them it expands into a broad field c()m])rising the ocelli, — l)la(k conical masses, their apices })lunged in the nervous tissue forming the field. Just behind the origin of the optic nerve another inde})endent nerve arises, extending to the ii[)per ])ortion of the tendinous cord which terminates the great muscular mass of the head and moves the mandibles. A little further removed from the optic nerve, and on the lower anterior edge of each lo])e, a little witiiiu the middle, another slender nerve arises, which runs in a straight course to the base of the antennae. From the lower outer edge of each cephalic lobe a nervous cord passes downward and a little backward, the two embracing the oesophagus, and then converges until they unite in the suboesopliageal ganglion, a horizontal lenticular disk, situated at the base of the head just above its hinder edge ; just beneath the oesophagus these embracing cords are united by a cross thread ; this suboesopliageal ganglion throws out lateral nerves, directed forward and outward, and is strapped in its place by transverse muscles, one just in front and another just behind it, which originate together on the floor of the body ; and the hinder of which is strengthened on each side by a secondary muscle, which runs liackward beside the cord for a short dis- tance, divaricating slightly. The ganglia of the body-segments, which are similar in general character to the suboesopliageal ganglion, are situated in or near, generally a little in advance of, the middle of each segment, as far as the seventh abdominal segment, where there is a pair, in close proximity, one behind the other, and Avith these the nervous cord terminates. All the ganglionic disks are connected by a pair of ribbons, generally lying in such close proximity as to appear to be single and straight, but anteriorly they are separated some- what widely. In leaving the suboesophageal ganglion, the nervous ribbons run nearly })arallel, or with only a slight outward curve, to the first Ijody-ganglion. Starting again close together at the middle of the posterior border of the first ganglion they diverge in straight lines, but very gradually, until they are nearly twice as far apart as the width of the first ganglion (which is often twice as far removed from the second as from the suboesopliag(>al ganglion), and then converge more rapidly and enter the second ganglion 24 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. at its outer anterior border. The distance from the second to the tliird ganglion is effected in a siniihir manner. The fourth ganglion is but little removed from the third, being in fact nearer to it than the latter is to the point of greatest divergence of the ribbons in advance of it ; it is sometimes situated in the middle of its segment as in Euphoeades, sometimes at its anterior edge as in Anosia and Eurymus ; sometimes wholly within though at the posterior edge of the last thoracic segment, as in P][)argyreus ; between the third and fourth ganglia the ribbon is straight, sliglitly longer than broad, broader than at any point posteriorly, and its separation into two cords is not readily seen, though in Euphoeades it can be determined here as throughout the whole length of the cord. Behind this the ganglia are nearly equidistant (u}) to those of the seventh abdominal segment) and connected by a straight double ribbon, scarcely broader than either one of the cords between the second and third ganglia, and which is seen to be double only by the slight divergence of the cords in advance of each gan- glion as they enter it. The last ganglion is situated in the seventh abdo- minal segment, just posterior to the preceding, and these two, of which the eleventh is the larger, either appear almost to coalesce at their adjoining edges, or they do completely coalesce, as in Euphoeades and Epargyreus. From the second abdominal segment backward, the nervous cord does not come in direct contact with the alimentary canal, but considerable fatty tissue is interposed between them ; in advance of this, however, the reverse is the case, the fatty tissue appearing as if strapped in its place between the nervous cord and the integument by the branches of the former. Frt>m each side of each abdominal ganglion two lateral nerves are emitted, the anterior at right angles, the posterior in a slighty posterior direction and soon forking, and at their bases the two are connected Ijy a delicate filii:- Besides these a lateral thread springs from each side of the main commissures just in front of the ganglia, and is sometimes almost transferred, as in Euphoeades, to the ganglion itself. In the thoracic seg- ments there is a similar arrangement of nerves, but in the first ganglion only the anterior lateral nerve is present, and it is directed forward ; the third ganglion on the other hand follows the rule of the abdominal ganglia, while in the second, the nerves are confluent at their origin, directed at right angles outward, and almost immediately diverge at right angles to each other, one forward, the other backward. In addition to the lateral nerves, the terminal ganglion is furnished with two pairs of longer and stouter posterior nerves, reaching into the hinder segments, the outer cords trending somewhat outward. Glandular system. The glandular system consists of only a single pair of vessels having an independent outlet at the surface of the body : these are the vessels for the secretion of silk ; their outlet is upon the labium ; and from this point l)ackward they consist, first, of a delicate thread or THE CATP:RriLLAR : INTERNAL ORGANS. 25 duct running hack along the sides of the alimentary canal, in a straight, slightly wavy or tortuous course, to a point varying from the middle of the thoi-acic to the hcginning of the ahdominal segments ; and second, of a larger hut still very slender sometimes flattened tuhe or vessel pro[)er (though scarcely larger in Hamadryas and Aglais), which has at first an irregular course but runs beside the stomach to a point of attachment on the same, generally in the sixth abdominal segment, terminating in a slender thread. It has the greatest and most complicated de>'elo[)ment in the skippers which spin more silk than others. In Epargyreus, for instance, the vessel begins to expand as it enters the abdominal region, and continues of the same diameter, as far as the beginning of the fifth abdo- minal segment ; then it turns abruptly back upon itself, above its former course, as far as the front of the second abdominal segment ; again turns back with equal abruptness, above its previous course, and, diminished to nearly one-half its former diameter, extends nearly to the middle of the third abdominal segment ; it then turns upward at right angles along the walls of the stomach to the middle of the sides of the same, or a little higher, and again resumes its general backward direction ; on this it extends, with a slightly Avavy course, as far as the end of the stomach, when it turns downward and inward again and soon terminates in a blunt tip, its extremity scarcely slenderer than its width when it is freed from the coils on the sides of the stomach. The coiled or reversed portion covers a distance of 5.75 mm. The initial duct is 9.5 mm. long, the stouter part of the vessel 12 mm. long, and the slender terminal portion 11.5 mm. long. The length of the initial duct is rarely so long as here and in Hamadrj^as is only about one-seventh of the whole, while the length of the whole varies from a little over 12 mm. in Eurymus, to as much as 65 mm. in Anosia. In all other species examined the sudden change of direction found in Epargyreus on the thu'd abdominal segment is wanting, the second abrupt reversal of direction being the last. In some, as in Callophrvs and Euphoe- ades, the stouter part of the vessel — always the part before any reversal of direction — lies wholly upon the ventral surface beside its mate, but in others the two lie removed from each other in the lower portion of the sides. There is considerable variation too in the point at which the first and second reversals occur ; in some the first is at the second abdominal segment (Hamadryas, Polygonia, Callophrys), in others at the third (Eurymus, Euphoeades), while in Epargyreus it is at the fifth : the second reversal is always at the first or second abdominal segment ; and beyond this point the narrowing tube has always a more or less tortuous course. Throughout, the alimentary canal is closely hugged. Reproductive system. The organs of generation, as far as they are developed in the mature male larva, consist of a pair of compound organs, 26 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. situated in tlae middle or posterior part of the dorsum of the fifth abdominal segment, and connected by a slender thread to minute bodies in the poste- rior portion of the under surface of the last segment. The compound organs or testes are placed next to the alimentary canal, those of the oppo- site sides in juxtaposition but with no direct communication. They are more or less elongated, ovate or reniform in shape, bright colored, and quadrilobed, containing each four similar chambers in a row from in front backward ; the anterior extremity of each testis ends in a very short and slender thread. Just behind each testis a delicate pellucid thread arises, which passes posteriorly and a little dowuAvard until opposite the spiracle of the sixth abdominal segment ; here it plunges downward toward it, and passing through the mass of tracheae to those of the seventh segment, sweeps around toward the medio ventral line of the body, and, passing- through an independent muscular bundle scarcely larger than itself, which stretches transversely across the body at this point, enters a minute whitish sac, situated just beneath the termination of the intestine. The ovaries of the female are situated in the same place as are the testes in the male, and consist of a pair of long obovate sacs, bluntly rounded at each end, vertically disposed, approximated, but with the lower end curved outward ; they are white, and each consists of a bundle of four similar tubes. The whole structure is completely homologous with the corresponding parts of the male, and as will be seen the future development of the parts in one set is paralleled by that in the other. Cellular system. A caterpillar seems made to gormandize ; the muscles are few and either serve to give action to the alimentary canal, to transport the animal to a feeding spot, or to remove the old integument to admit a larger growth and greater capacity for food ; they will not enable it, by rapid movements, to escape an enemy ; those of the head — and there is little but muscle therein — are almost exclusively attached to the jaws ; other organs serve the same pm-pose ; the general cavity of the body is mostly occupied by the alimentary canal and its appendages ; spinning glands fill some of the space, and they are used only to give the insect a foothold when eating or travelling in search of food ; air vessels supply the means of using the food for nourishment ; the nervous system is very slight and most of its ramifications are addressed to the muscles. Yet a considerable por- tion of the material in the cavity shows that this gormandizing has an imme- diate object ; — namely, the storing up of nourishment for future use during the great changes that are to occur during the subsequent quiescent state ; for, completely enveloping the alimentary canal and its appendages and oc- cupying all possible space between this and the muscles, the fatty bodies are really the most conspicuous portions of the interior organism of a caterpillar ; it is upon this that the parasites feed and in consequence of the loss of it that the animal attacked by them finally perishes. THE CHRYSALIS: EXTP:RXAL FEATURES. 27 THE PUPA OR CHRYSALIS. Tlic foiiil oinlirai-c, tlio toiidoi- kiss AVliicli li)\ (' to its cxprcssidn Ijrings, Are but the husk the ehrysalis Wears on its wings. Alice C\ky.— Latent Life. External features. Chiysalids of butterflies present an outward appearanee essentially dis- tinct from that of either tlie cater[)illai" or the imago. Quiescent in condi- tion, organs of motion are useless, and are tlierefore enveloped in sheaths and folded compactly upon and glued to the l)ody, which on its part is en- tirely corneous for its better protection, and shows little of the primary distinctions into head, thorax and abdomen. The head is seldom distin- guishable from the thorax by anything more than a sutural impression, or is slightly prominent, and although upon the upper surface there is a more or less distinct regional contour clearly dividing the thorax from the abdo- men, it is entirely concealed below by the appendages of both head and thorax, which are those of the imago in a partially developed condition and are extended in an almost common mass over the whole of the thorax and half of the abdomen. In its forming condition all these organs can be se^iarated from the body, but once hardened they are immovably attached to it. It will, however, be both convenient and proper to treat of these diflTerent regions separately, in order to obtain a better notion of the exact structure of the insects in this stage. The head. The head is a more or less rounded compact mass of about equal height and length but broader than either, usually occupying the whole of the anterior extremity of the body, but in Lycaenidae crowded, by the great expansion of the prothorax, entirely upon the under surface. There are no distinguishable sutures dividing the head into regions or sec- tions. The outer anterior portion, covering the eyes of the future imago, is always more or less full, frequently protuberant and conical or pyrami- dal, apparently for no other object than to protect the parts beneath, although these would not seem to be so important in the economy of the future insect as other cephalic organs which are not so carefully guarded ; the position of the eyes, however, is such as to render them more liable to injury, and it is noteworthy that these prominences are more marked in the Nymphalidae which hang by the tail and swing in every breeze, and in the Papilioninae (87 :6) which, although girt around the middle, have the ante- rior part of the body projecting to an unusual degree, and being fastened by a loose girth have some freedom of motion, than they are in the other groups. In the Pierinae, however, the same object is effected by a single anterior projection in the middle of the head, which in a gut chrysalis 28 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. would protect these parts of tlie head as effectually as the double cornution of the Papilioninae. It is evident from the condition of the parts in the Pierinae, as from the nearly or quite equal development of all the parts of the eyes in all butterflies, that these projections are not for the purpose of affording additional space for the material which is to form the parts beneath. At the lateral base of the parts covering the future compound eye is a strongly cur\ed, moderately broad and equal, smooth band, which I have termed the ocellar ribbon (86 :22,23 ;87 :24) because it seems to be cor- related with the curving row of ocelli of the larval head, the anterior curving limits of which are generally marked in the larval head by a distinct impression (86:24). At the upper posterior part of the head the antennae take their rise, at some little distance apart, and at once diverge from each other, passing in exactly opposite directions along the hinder part of the head, between the front border of the prothorax on one side and the upper termination of the ocellar ribbon on the other, cutting off a portion of the latter, crossing to the thorax just below it and then continuing in a nearly straight line posteriorly, between the wings and the legs, over a portion at least of the abdomen. The front of the bulk of the head is limited below by an angular suture, making a projecting angle, from which a piece (the epistoma?) is sometimes cut off (87 :15). Just below it, variously developed in form and size, but usually small, slender, longitudinal and pentagonal, is a piece, probably the labrum, which separates on either side more or less triangular opposing projections, broad at base, their apices joining or nearly joining beneath the labrum ; these represent the mandibles. Behind these (87 :G) is a long double ribbon, broad at base but narrowing for a short distance, and then continuing nearly equal side by side in a straight line posteriorly, beyond the hinder limits of the thorax ; they are the lateral halves of the maxillae, the future spiral tongue; beneath their expanded base, entirely concealed, with no separate sheath of their own, but lying extended posteriorly and parallel to one another in a straight line over the thorax are the labial palpi. The thorax. The thorax is distinctly divided above into its three usual sections, the mesothorax being invariably largest and more or less tumid, often provided with a greatly elevated central prominence and occasionally with lateral ones of lesser size ; the prothorax, however, attains considera- ble dimensions in the Lycaenidae, in which respect their chrysalids resemble the larva rather than the imago ; in all the other groups both the pro- thorax and metathorax are comparatively insignificant, the metathorax re- sembling the first abdominal seg-ment : beneath and on the sides the thorax is entirely hidden by its own appendages and those of the head ; the wings, suboval in form and of course very much smaller than in the imago, are spread over nearly the whole under surface and sides of the thorax and the basal four segments of the abdomen, the hinder part almost entirely con- THE CHRYSALIS: EXTERNAL FEATURES. 29 cealed by the anterior, which are .superimposed upon tlicni but allow of their iippCarance to a greater or less degree along their whole superior and .s(,nietinie.s posterior edge ; the inferior edges of the wings sometimes adjoin near the tip, but usually the tongue and often also the antennae arc inter- posed ; at the very base of the superior and to a lesser extent at that of the inferior wings, the wing is shouldered, luunped or spined and to these parts I have given the names of basal wing tubercles in my descriptions. Sometimes the wings are not raised by the thickness of their thecae al)ove the general contour of the body, but at others they are considerably raised and°even ridged at their edges. The legs are actually all bent at the apex of the femora, the femora directed forward, the tibiae and tarsi backward in a straight line ; all the femora are therefore concealed ; the tibiae and tarsi of the°first two pairs lie side by side tapering and converging slightly toward their tip, the middle pair outermost, the two together filling the space between the antennae and the tongue ; the hind pair, however, is entirely concealed, lying beneath the front edge of the wings ; the appen- dages then lie side by side from the ventral line outwards, in the following vi,Jible (Hxler: (87:6,15) tongue, fore legs, middle legs, antennae, and wings ; the tongue generally reaches as far as the wings but sometimes (Lycaeninae and a few Nymphalidae) falls considerably short of it, and at other times (some Hesperidae) extends far beyond them, the portion beyond being free ; the antennae also usually extend just as far as the wings, but sometimes {e.g., Papilioninae) fall short of them by about one- fourth ; the wings usually reach nearly, sometimes quite, to the tip of the fourth abdominal segment, ^^•hilc the middle legs are never more than about two-thirds as long as the wings and the fore legs are shorter stUl, especially in the Nymphalidae. In the suture between the pro- and meso- thorax, close to its outermost limits, is the aperture of the thoracic spiracle (87 :11), which is a narrow slit, in some groups {e.g., Nymphalidae) con- cealed by a fold of the anterior edge of the mesothorax, and sometimes has its presence marked by a minute oval blister of independent coloring upon the mesothorax (Lycaeninae) ; while in others it is a minute circular orifice bounded by an equal, rather broad, semicircle or semioval of velvety, very close, and short pile, also upon the mesothorax (Hesperidae). Although in the larval stage this thoracic spii-acle belongs to the prothorax its rela- tions in the pupal stage are rather mesothoracic. The abdomen. The abdomen is cylindrical, consisting of ten seg- ments, the third or fourth slightly larger than the basal, beyond them tapering rather rapidly. The basai four segments, as already stated, are concealed on the ventral surface by the appendages of the head and thorax, but they as well as the fifth and sixth are evidently of uniform length throughout; the seventh, eighth and ninth, however, are increasingly contracted upon the under surface in most species, causing this surface of 30 THE BUTTERFI.IKS OF NEW ENGLAND. the abdomen to be nearly straight in a h)ngitudinal dire -^ ion, while the upper surface is strongly curbed ; in the Hesperidae, however, this is not the case. The tenth segment is peculiarly modified to form the cremaster or anal button (87:1), a more or less tetraquetral, tapering, curving, bluntly docked prominence, its convexity upward, homologous with the anal plate of the caterpillar, its apex and sometimes its inferior surface furnished with a very large number of long and slender, cylindrical, cor- neous hooks, strongly crooked and usually thickened at the distal extremity, by means of which the chrysalis is securely fastened to the silk the larva has spun. In the Lycaeninae the extremity of the abdomen is so curved over as to l)ring the cremaster upon the under surface and it simply forms a slightly tumid mass, bearing the booklets on its outer and posterior ed"-es. At the inferior base of the cremaster, upon the ventral surface of the ninth abdominal segment, is the closed anal orifice, its sides broadly but slightly tumid and these again often bounded by curving ridges ending in an anterior tubercle, homologous, as Riley has shown, with the analprolegs of the caterpillar, the whole part being often so greatly developed, espec- ially in the Nymphalidae, as to crowd still further the ventral surfaces of the segments just anterior to it. The s})iracles are transverse slits bounded by semilunar lips and occur on the second to the eighth abdominal segments, those on the second and third being partially concealed by the upper portion of the wings. Occasionally (e. g., Basilarchia) a single segment, or more frequently (e. g., Pieris, Lacrtias, etc.) two or three consecutive segments on the anterior part of the abdomen have median or lateral prominences ; but the most ordinary armature consists of series of tubercles, warts or simi)le s})ines arranged in longitudinal rows, in each of which there is one appendage to each, or nearly every segment, except the last two : occasion- ally there is a lateral continuous or nearly continuous ridge of considera- ble prominence, and there is also frequently a slight median ridge ; trans- verse ridges of any considerable prominence seldom occur and are then usually confined, at least the conspicuous ones, to a single segment, and es})ecially to the fourth abdominal segment. Internal structure (PI. 62, fig. 5). For tbc sake of readier comparison, we will follow here the same order iiursued in our account of the internal organs of the caterpillar ; but so little is known of the variations in the internal structure of chrysalids of l)uttei-flies, that our account nuist be very imperfect. Muscular systen\. The tborax is almost entirely given up to muscular bundh's, tbe [)rincii)le portion of which, for the movement of the future wino's, is di\ isible into two sets. One of these sets is restricted to the lower part of the sides of the thortix, and its fibres are directed from the base of the wings toward tlie middle of the lower surface, those of the oi)]>o- Till-: CIIMYSALIS INTERNAL STRUCTURE. 31 site sides inclining towards each other at a little more than a right angle. In the V-shaped s[)ace between thcni, and including all the upper domed part of the mesothorax, is the other set, running longitudinally in super- imposed layers. In general the muscles of the abdomen seem to be situated nuich as in the larva, but are more compact and almost or alto- gether longitudinal, tlie oblicjue muscles disappearing. Those of the under surface of the abdomen consist, on each side of the body, of a ribbon, composed of two contiguous strips, the outer slightly the broader, running next the integument through the entire length of the abdomen, the inner edge at about its own width from the nervous cord. Digestive system. The oesopliagns is a mere thread-like vessel and runs straight to the stomach ; as it enters the abdomen it is at once directed upward and suddenly expands into a small, bidbous, nuiscular crop, the anterior upper part of which opens into the food-reservoir or paunch, a subfusiform blind sac, broadly rounded at tip, in the nearly adult pupa reaching the extremity of the third or fourth abdominal segment, and lying over the stomach ; in the early stages of the chrysalis it forms with the crop a sim})le minute sac. Directly following this crop, the digestive track widens greatly and forms the stomach, a cylindrical tube, tapering in front, suddenly contracted at its posterior end. It is very large in the young pupa, but gradually contracts, terminating at last near the end of the fifth abdominal segment and only a little beyond the full grown food-reservoir. On each side, at the base, the stomach bears within some rounded lobes, nearly as large as the crop, and besides these, arranged in a row down each side of the median line, it is profusely covered with small pea-like pockets. The intestine in a nearly mature chrysalis is a rather large, cy- lindrical tube, about three times as broad as the oesophagus, slightly tor- tuous, especially anteriorly ; in the mature chrysalis, however, considerable change has been effected, for the intestine has rapidly grown to a much greater length at the expense of its diameter, which is now hardly twice that of the oesophagus ; it is a little larger at the two extremities, but otherwise equal and much more tortuous ; at first it is directed upward, forward, and slightly to one side for a short distance ; then it doubles upon itself, crosses to the opposite side, and moves upward in a tortuous man- ner to the colon, which it enters a little behind and to the left of its anterior extremity. The colon is a small, oval or pyriform sac and gradually passes into the broad straight rectum, which seems only a continuation of it. The salivary vessels are composed of slender threads of a uniform size throughout, without any size distinction of duct and gland ; they first run straight beside the slender oesophagus, until near the middle of the meso- thorax, when they take a double turn, and beyond this are at first straight and reach only as far as the stomach ; but afterwards they become very much longer, and instead of being straight form exceedingly fine, crinkled 32 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. threads, which collect in a longitudinally disposed mass on each side of and touching- the oesophagus, forming by their couAolutions a fusiform mass which extends to the middle of the metathorax. The malpighian vessels arise at the hinder extremity of the stomach, sometimes without the intervention of any basal sac, the three branches arising almost together at a very short distance from the base of their common stem and parting from it at right angles. One of the branches extends along the superior lateral walls of the stomach, as far as the middle of its anterior half (perhaps farther, later in life) and then returns ; the other branch of the outer set passes along the inferior lateral walls of the stomacli ; they are all very delicate, and after their return are strongly con- voluted, enwrapping the intestine but not the colon. Respiratory system. The tracheae seem to be nnich as in the larva, only greatly reduced in size, very delicate and not at all opaque. The tubes in the posterior part of the body are small, but from the third abdomi- nal scijment forward they begin to enlarge ; this is especially noticeable in the longitudinal canals, which are everywhere larger than the other vessels, and largest in the first abdominal segments, but again reduced in size in the thorax, where they are less than half their former diameter. Circulatory system. The dorsal vessel is a slender, equal canal, lying next the integument of the future imago (86:17). Between the fourth and sixth abdominal segments (behind which it is very obscure) it is firmly attached above, and again in the middle of the thorax, but elsewhere is free; on all the abdominal segments, behind the first, it expands laterally at the posterior limits of the segment ; on the first segment it broadens sliiihtlv, and in front of the expansion begins to diminish gradually and sliu'htly in size, so that when it enters the thorax (from the abdomen) it becomes reduced to half its former size. As it enters the thorax from behind it plunges downward to just above the oesophagus in advance of the food-reservoir, then passes rapidly upward again to the upper wall of the body, which it follows to the middle of the mesothorax, din.inished again to half its former size, so as to appear a mere thread ; and then, casting free ao-ain, passes forward as in the larva, reaching the oesophagus again in the prothorax in the young chrysalis ; but as it grows older this part bends more and more, until in the mature chrysalis it has completely doubled on its course, running directly downward and backward until the oesophagus is nearly reached and then turns forward parallel to the latter. Nervous system. The principal changes which take place during pupation are the enlargement of the cephalic lobes, the shortening of the entire cord, and the concentration of the thoracic ganglia. Between the cephalic and thoracic ganglia the nervous cord in Hamadryas, where we have studied it most attentively, is moderately broad, flattened and double ; the thoracic ganglion, which is a compound of the five ganglia succeeding THE CATERPILLAR: INTERNAL ORGANS. 33 in tlie lar\a the suhocsophagal ganglion (except such as are absorbed in sit a) , is situated in the front part of the mesothorax ; it is oval and evidently conn)osed of two unequal, anterior and posterior, elements, for slightlv in front of the middle it is pierced by a vertical passage of considerable size, and the i)()rtion in front of this has a slight, independent tumidity ; from near the middle it emits lateral nerves, double at their origin, which pass toward the wings, and just before the hinder end a rather prominent nerve, which runs backward halfway to the abdomen, parallel to the main cord and nearly as large as it, evidently feeding the legs ; besides these there is another similar [)air, also running backward but divaricating a little, which ori£ri- nates from the widest [)art of the posterior portion. Behind this ganglion the cord is very slender and a little before entering the abdomen emits a pair of slender but very distinct nerves, which are directed backward Init divaricate considerably, passing to the inflated longitudinal tracheal canals ; there is no ganglionic enlargement at their origin, but it perhaps indicates the site of the former sixth body ganglion. Immediately on entering the abdomen the nervous cord appears to thicken and forms a pseudoganglion of an elongate, fusiform shape, terminating just before the first abdominal ganglion ; this appearance, however, is produced by the fact that through- out the abdomen the cord is overlaid by an investment, mainly pellucid, but not pellucid enough to allow the true cord to be seen, excepting from beneath ; this investment does not cover the ganglia to an equal extent, but only as a film ; so that the abdominal development of the nervous system is an exceedingly delicate cord, expanding at four different points into lenticu- lar, disk-like ganglia of a small size, but many times exceeding the cord in diameter, the whole enwrapped in this semi-pellucid investment which makes it appear of nearly uniform diameter, excepting in front of the first true abdominal ganglion, where the investment becomes swollen and less pellucid, resembling a greatly elongated ganglion. The purpose of this investment, the "bauchgefass" of the Germans, is not understood, but that it is an integral part of the nervous system has been proved by Leydig, who pointed out that it was an expansion of the floor of the neurileme uniting above. The abdominal ganglia are equidistant in the mature chrysalis of Hamadryas, but vary with age and species ; the first, which is scarcely broader than the cord, and noticeable mainly by its whitish color, is situated in Hamadryas near the end of the second segment ; the second at the begin- ning of the fourth ; the third at the beginning of the fifth, and the last in the middle of the sixth segment ; the last is larger than the others and emits four delicate })Osterior nerves ; each of the aljdominal ganglia is also provided with lateral nerves, similar to, but more delicate than, those of the lar\a. Between all these ganglia, the cord does not at first pass in a straight line but in tolerably strong lateral sigmoid curves, as if the ganglia were being crowded together faster than the cord could contract. 34 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. In Newport's observations (Phil, trans., 1834) on the changes in the nervons cord of Aglais vu'ticae (86:2-12), he shows a more considerable change between forty-eight and fifty-eight honrs than perhaps between any others of the stages he has drawn and described, which are successively (after the pupal state is assumed) 1, 13, 18, 24, 36, 48, and 58 hours. .Vccording to his account the second and third (original) ganglia at this period "approach and coalesce, and the double ganglion thus formed is only separated from the larger thoracic mass, composed of the fourth and fifth ganglia, and part of the sixth, by very short but much enlarged cords." ^^s the figures given by him do not in themselves show how this amalga- mation of the second and third ganglia is affected, I examined the nervous cord of Hamadryas, 48, 51 and 55 hours after pupation, with the follow- ing results : The pupa of 48 hours age differs from that of Aglais only in the separation of the fourth ganglion from the united fifth and sixth ; very short and broad ribbons connected them, but they were unmistakably sepa- rated by half the width of the fourth ganglion ; while the third and fourth ganglia were separated by about the diameter of the latter ganglion, At 51 hours the condition was more as represented by Newport at 48 hours in Aglais, the fourth, fifth and sixth ganglia being completely amalgamated into a single long ovate mass, while the third, though clearly distinct from the mass behind it, was separated from it by only less than half its own diameter, very short, stout ribbons uniting the two ; it was also of the same size as at 48 hours, and the second ganglion, instead of travelling toward the third, as Newport asserts, retained very nearly or quite its own place, but was reduced in size, being gradually absorbed in place by the cord.* This absorption was entirely effected at 55 hours, as was also the complete amalo'amation of the third ganglion with the mass behind it. The second ganglion then is not amalgamated with the third, but disappears in place — a point quite in keeping with the lessening importance, but continued in- tegrity, of the prothorax. In the chrysalis of the European Mancii)ium brassicae, however, in which these changes, in the wintering pupa, take place far more slowly, Her- old figures the nervous cord as if the second ganglion did not disappear in place but united with the third to form a common mass from which the lateral cords of both the ganglia are represented as derived. Reproductive organs. Tlie only noticeable difference between the male organs of the young pupa and of the caterpillar is in tlie complete union of the glands of the two sides into a spherical body, and in the tortuous path now taken by the threads that unite it to a sac lying beneath the ex- tremity of the alimentary canal. Its furtlier development is entirely in these two latter parts ; the threads merely grow in diameter and somewhat *Brautlt asserts, from observations on this of ganglia takes place only by amalgamation, and other species, that reduction in the number never by absorption (Hor. soc. ent. Ross., xv.) . THE CATERPILLAR: INTERNAL ORGANS. 35 in length and become the efferent ducts ; where they enter the sac there is at the first a shght bulbous enlargement, and it is just here that the most remarkable growth takes place ; the bulbs increase so as to become notice- able ; then a constriction takes place in their connnon union with the sac ; the neck prolongs to what is finally a slender tube, the ductus ejaculatorius, as large as one of the efferent vessels and much longer than the whole body of the insect, leading into the intermittent organ of the male ; while the bulbs grow in a similar way to form a pair of tubular glands or seminal vescicles, into which, shortly before their union to form the duct, the efferent vessels open ; and these various slender organs, — vessels, glands and duct are at maturity enwrapped and intertwined in a most intricate, common and indistinguishable, but loose, convoluted mass which fills the last four seefments of the abdomen. The testis is clas[)cd by fine tracheal vessels which suddenly expand from the larger tube of one of the main stems arising in the fifth abdominal segment. In the mature chrysalis it is crammed with sijermatozoa, which in Aglais are of two sorts, one larger though only about three-quarters of a millimeter long and pretty regularly tapering, the other shaped as clubl)ed filaments less than a quarter as long. The changes in the female organs are exceedingly similar. With the shortening of the body, the first change is in the sinuosity of the thread which unites the ever separate ovaries to the pair of sacs beneath the anal orifice ; concomitantly the base of the four terminal threads of the ova- rian mass begin to separate from each other, and this portion of the ovarian tubes practically remains merely a set of ducts, the parts beyond forming the ovary proper, developing enormously and containing eggs, usually in varying stages of development in each of the four tapering tubes of which it is composed on each side of the body, and which are united again at the tip, and are then fastened to the wall of the fourth ab- dominal segment above. But the important new developments arise, as in the male, just at the hinder extremity of the oviducts, for in a similar way wholly new organs are rapidly developed. The single accessory gland and the copulatory pouch originate on opposite sides, in an entirely similar manner to the paired accessory gland. All are at first mere bulbous ex- crescences of the base of the thread mentioned. But some develop from this beginning in one way, some in another, until in the mature pupa all the appendages of the butterfly are fully developed. Development of the Tvings. Inasmuch as most of the changes in the organs from the larval condition to their perfect development take place in the intermediate quiescent state, we may here say a word about the de^ el- opment of the wings, which first apjiear as external organs in the pujia, although they should more properly have been considered in the preced- ing section, since they arise and develop in the larval period. In the 36 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. mature larva they will readily be Ibuiul on the inner sides of the second and third thoracic segments, appearing as oval pads, permeated by tracheal vessels, situated just above and scarcely in advance of the base of the tracheae in the respective segments, those of opposite sides directed toward each other above. Their connection with the longitudinal tracheal canal, from which arise the threads which penetrate them, is so intimate that they Iiave been described as originating from them ; but in reality the wing- arises at the very outset of larval life by the infolding of the hypoderm in such a way as to resemble the half-inverted finger of a glove, the point of which at the proper time pushes its way outward, and when the chitinous outer coat is cast off appears as an external instead of an internal organ. The legs and antennae, quite new structures, originate and develop in a precisely similar way. In the larval condition all are infolded hypodermal pockets. THE IMAGO OR BUTTERFLY. But O ! what teriii8 expressive may relate The change, the splendour of their new forniM state l' Their texture nor eoniposeil of tilmy skin, Of eumbrous flesh without, or bone witliiii, But something- than corporeal more retineil. And agile as their l)lithe informing mind. In every eye ten thousand brilliants blaze, And living pearls the vast horizon gaze; Gemnrd o'er their heads the mines of India gleam, And heaven's own wardrobe hasarray'd their frame; Each spangled l)ack briglit sprinkling specks adorn, Each plume iml)ibes tlie rosy tinctured morn; Spread on each wing the florid seasons glow, Shaded and verg'd with the celestial bow. Where colours blend an ever varying dye. And wanton in tlieir gay exchanges vie. Henry ^iixooviM.— Universal Beauty. External structure (PI. 62 : fig. 1). The head and appendages (87:25). The head of the imago, like that of the caterpillar, is normally composed of a definite number of appendage- bearing rings, but as these are greatly obscured by the excessive develop- ment of some parts and the abortion of others, we will confine our description simply to the parts as they appear, without reference to their morphological relationships. The head as a whole is, in general terms, transversely obovatc, whether viewed from above or in front, and is almost always much higher than long and more or less flattened behind, next the prothorax. It is compact, the sides occupied by globular masses of which the greater, and always the whole of the front, portion forms the facetted eyes. It may be divided into three principal areas : the front, the occiput and the flanks. The front occupies the whole or most of the front of the head between the eyes with the anterior half of the summit, is usually tumid to a greater or less extent, and devoid of any great irregularities of surface. The occiput, which THE BUTTERFLY: STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 37 occupies an exactly corresponding position behind, is also tumid hut gen- erally enjoys considerable variety of contour within its own boundaries, the upper portion being not infrerpiently ridged, and the sides producing little proniinences. The Hanks have a regular surface, occupy most of the rear of tlie head, are bounded interiorly by the occijjut and anteriorly and ex- teriorly abut upcm the eyes, forming a part of the glol)e w])ich tliey occupy. The other parts in the structure of the head wliicli require consideration arc the eyes, the antennae and the mouth appendages. The position of the eyes has already been stated. Anteriorly they al- ways have a similar boundary, l)ut posteriorly they do not occupy nearly the wliolc, and sometimes scarcely more than half of the swollen mass of which they form a part ; they vary too in the tumidity of the mass, in most si)ecies being quite prominent, while in others and especially in the Lycae- ninae they do not rise above the general contour of the surface of the head ; ordinarily and in the two lower families always they are naked ; but in the Lycaenidae they frequently have a portion at least of the surface sparsely covered with short exceedingly delicate hairs ; and in the Xym- phalidae they are often supplied with a pretty dense mass of rather long hairs, always standing erect and separate, and originating at the angles of the facets. The purpose of this clothing is difficult to understand. The eyes (86:20,21) are composed externally of exceedingly minute hexagonal facets, varying, so far as I have examined them, from about fifteen hun- dred to four thousand in a square millimetre. Xo buttei-flies are provided with ocelli, with the single known exception of the genus Lerema, where some of the species have a single ocellus in the middle of the front in one or both sexes ; while in some of the lower families of Lepidoptera the nt)rmally posterior pair of ocelli alone occurs and is situated behind the antennae. The antennae take their rise in little pits, allowing them full freedom of motion between the eyes, in the line between the occiput and the front. In the Lycaenidae they infringe a little upon the eyes, but in all the other families they are quite free from them. They are usually not for from the length of the abdomen, and are composed of a large and variable number of joints ; there is occasionally a diiference of one or two joints between the sexes, in favor sometimes of one, sometimes of the other. They are composed of three parts : the base, the stalk and the club. The base consists of two joints (the basal always smooth and naked) which are different in character from the remainder, being very large and stout, and capable of a great deal of motion upon one another and within the socket, while the other joints have little motion upon one another. The stalk is of very nearly unifonn size throughout, the joints usually very much shorter near the base than in the part beyond, where they are uniform : 38 THE BUTTERFLIi:S OF NEW EXGLAXD. it is either entirely naked or is clothed throughout or in part with scales ; the portion most frequently left bare is a median stripe along the under surface ; in no case, so far as I have seen, are the antennae clothed with hairs. The club is a peculiarity of butterflies among Lepidoptera, whence the term "Rhopalocera" often applied to them. It consists of a regular thickening of the apical joints and varies greatly in extent and appearance ; in many cases, the joints increase in thickness to so slight a degree and so gradually that, although the thickness of the club may be double that of the stalk, it is difficult to determine where one ends and the other begins \ usually, however, it is not difficult to mark the limits, and the more so as the joints lose in length what they gain in thickness, and so present a second mode of determination. The club, like the stalk, is usually cylin- drical, but is not infrequently depressed, sometimes to a considerable degree, or is even compressed or triquetral. It varies greatly in length but may be said to be usually of al)Out one-sixth the length of the whole antenna. It ordinarily increases in size nearly to the tip and then decreases again with much greater rapidity, the terminal joint occasionally bearing a produced point at the tip ; in the Hesperidae a number of joints are em- ployed to form a long and tapering tip, sometimes nearly as long as the rest of the club ; but in most butterflies the tip is bluntly rounded. The club is usually straight, but occasionally droops or is curved upward, or, as in the Hesperidae where the tip is produced, the tapering apex is turned at a strong angle outward and backward. In the scaled antennae one or two apical joints are usually bare to a greater extent below than above, as is a broad field on the under surface, — an expansion of the median stripe of the stalk. Often one or two slender carinae are to be seen upon the under surface and some little dimple-like depressions (87 :8) arranged in a longitudinal row. The contour of the surface is rarely interrupted at the jointings, but in the arcuate clubs one side presents a serrate appearance from the projection of the apices. The appendages of the mouth are the lab rum, mandibles, maxillae, and labial palpi. The labrum is only a slight rounded projection of the centre of the lower border of the front, transversely corrugated, soldered to the front and thus immovable ; it serves by its position to guard the upper portion of the x)eculiar maxillae. The mandibles, too, though somewhat variously developed, are greatly aborted, immovably soldered to the head, inconspicuous in size, triangular in form, and serve only by their situation to support the sides of the max- illae, Avhich their apices usually touch. The nidxlUae are undoubtedly the most ])eculiar, as they are the most characteristic organ of the Lepidoptera. In butterflies they are always enormously developed, as very long and slender closed tubes, hollowed on THE BUTTERFLY: STRUCTURE OF THE HEAD. 39 their inner margin to form by tlie junction of the two :i canal, open at the tip and conducting at the base to the oral orifice, and which is kept closed by the interlocking of finger-like plates on the edges of the lateral troughs (87:9,23). In the Hesperidae and next to them the Papilioninae this tongue reaches its maximum length, being sometimes twice as long as the body, while in the Satyrinae and some Lycaenidae it is proportionally shortest, in some cases hardly twice as long as the head. It is furnished at the tip for a greater or less distance with papillae specially developed probably as sense organs, which are nuicli more highly organized in the two higher than in the two lower families, and may by their armature serve to rupture the nectar glands of fiowers (61 :2G-3;3, 311-45,51-57). The labium itself is very slightly developed, being simply the frame- work, situated below the oral aperture far removed from the surface, upon which the greatly developed labial palpi are supported ; each side has a cylindrical raised edge, upon which the jointed palpus is seated ; usually this wall is low, but in the groups (such as the Pierinae) bearing a dis- proportionately long basal joint, it is exceedingly produced and itself bears great resemblance to an additional joint. The l(iJ>i(d palpi, on the con- trary, are excessively developed and three-jointed, the second joint being almost invariably the longest and usually much longer than the other two together ; in the Hesperidae it is often very stout. The basal joint is short, excepting in some Pierinae, where it occupies the larger part of the pal- pus ; while the apical joint, usually the shortest as well as the smallest, and sometimes quite minute, is at other times enormously developed, as in t!ie Libytheinae ; in the Hesperidae it is rarely one-fourth as stout as the middle joint, and though always straight, often appears as a mere point projecting beyond the apical hairs of the middle joint. The palpus is heavily clothed with large scales and usually heavily fringed below and sometimes above with a mass of long hairs, ordinarily compacted into a vertical plane, but in the Hesperidae sometimes so arranged, in a thick regular mat of scale-like hairs of unequal length, as to give the palpus a tetrahedral or triquetral appearance. They thus guard the sides of the rolled-up spiral maxillae Avhich they pass in their course ; they are directed upward and sometimes apically forward, clasping the front of the head, the shortest (in the Papilioninae and some Lemoniinae) reaching only as far as the lower edge of the front ; usually they are much longer than the eye and in Hypatus are fully four times its length. The apical joint is usually clothed and fringed to a less extent than the other joints. The thorax and appendages. The thorax of buttei-flies, as seen from above, is composed almost entirely of the meso- and metathorax, the pro- thorax being represented only by a pair of bulbous enlargements which I have termed the prothoracic lobes (61 :37), and which are almost always 40 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. reduced to a mere appressed pellicle in those groups which do not have the fore legs aborted in both sexes, as if in compensation for their atrophy. Cholodkovsky has recently tried to show that these lobes were homologues of the wings on the other thoracic segments, but entirely without success. The meso- and metathorax, which, although perfectly distinct, seem to compose one homogeneous whole, form a com[)act oval mass, the upper surface of which is arched and sides sometimes compressed. The meso- thorax is far the most important and is composed of two unequal parts, a mesoscutum in front and a much smaller, somewhat wedge-shaped piece, the mesoscutellum, the apex of which enters the middle of the mesoscutum. The metathorax, on the other hand, as far as it is readily seen, is composed above of three pieces placed transversely, the central piece being the mc- tascutellum, also more or less wedged between the others, the metascuta. Viewed from the side, the metathorax assumes a much greater importance. All these parts vary in comparative dimensions and relative positions in the different groups. It may be added, in general terms, that as regards the trunk of the imago, the families seem to be distinguished by the contour of the ])rincipal masses, while the subfamilies are dependent upon the sha[)e of the grander parts which compose the masses, and generic characters are to be sought for in the structural details within the diiferent parts. The appendages of the thorax are two pairs of wings and one pair of pat agia above, and three pairs of legs below. The wings, never wanting in butterflies, are attached res[)ectively to the meso- and metathorax ; they are very large in comparison with the body and seldom more than tAvice as long as broad, although always longer than broad. The o-eneral form of the fore wings is a triangle whose trun- cated apex is at the point of attachment to the body ; that of the hind- wings subcircular, with a tendency also to the triangular outline. They are fiat, excepting that sometimes the inner border and its outer angle in the hind wings may be guttered or plaited or bent at an angle. They are each composed of a thin dou1)le film of membrane, covered on both siu"- faces Math imbricated scales and with scattered hairs, the latter particularly U})on the upper surface and upon the hind wings near the base. This double membrane is stretched upon a regular system of tubular rods, termed nervures or veins, which hinge at the base upon the body; they conduct the nerves and air tubes to all parts of the wing. The normal number of veins in the wings of insects (38-42) is six, disposed to a certain extent in pairs ; the middle pair usually branches to a greater extent than the others, and supports most of the membrane of the wing. In butter- flies the foremost vein is always absent (except in the front wings of some male Ilesperidi) ; the hindmost is also very commonly wanting, so that there are usually only five (often only four) principal veins, rather inap- propriately designated costal, subcostal, median, submedian, and, when THE BUTTERFLY: STRUCTURE OF I'lIE ^^•IXGS. 41 present, precostal and internal.* The preeostal, cf).stal, subniedian, and internal veins are invariably simple and terminate at the margin or even disa[)[)ear before reaehing it.f Tlie snbcostal and median veins, on the other hand, arc as invariably branehed, and with their offshoots support nearly the entire wing ; the subcostal vein curves downward and the median upward so as to meet, or nearly meet, al)out the middle of the wing, and to inclose between them a large space called the discoidal cell ; all tJie branches of the median vein are thrown off from its lower side before iniion with the subcostal vein ; the princi])al branches of the subcostal vein, on the other hand, are thrown off from its u})per side, but as the vein curves downward at the extremity of the cell, another set is thrown off, at least in the front wings, from the lower side ; and it is these branches, rather than the subcostal ^•ein proper, which unite with the median vein to close the cell. None of the median nor any of the inferior subcostal branches are ever forked ; but at the apex of the front wing, where the play of neu- ration is usually the greatest, the last superior subcostal branch is occa- sionally forked. The neuration of the wings, then, consists essentially of u})per and lower simple straight veins, and a pair of middle veins which unite with or approach each other near the centre of the wing ; and from the outer edge of the cell or loop thus formed throw off to the border a number of branches. The veins are more closely crowded next the front edge of the front wings to give greater solidity to the parts which meet with the greatest air resistance in flying. No cross-veins proper exist in butter- flies, excepting that one occasionally (especially in Papilioninae) connects the median and submedian veins next the base of the fore wings. All these nervures and their branches, when they do not run into one another, terminate at the border of the wing, and by their extension determine to a great extent its form ; for though the membrane often recedes between the tips of the nervures so as to give a scalloped margin to the wing, this never takes place to an excessive extent ; while the thrusting forward of the subcostal nervures of the front wing necessitates a more or less falci- form outline ; or, the great extension of a single nervure of the hind wing, as particularly of the third median nervule in the Papilioninae, or the first median in the Lycaeninae, permits a tail-like appendage of great beauty. In connection with the wings it will be well to mention the epidermal covering characteristic of the order to which the butterflies belong, since it is upon the wings more than upon any other part of the body that they take the form of scales from which the name Lepidoptera has been derived. The scales are depressed sacs of a more or less rounded, quadrate or trian- gular form, striate upon the upper surface, usiudly rounded, also deeply * Spang-licrg calls them (in the most recent t The intcrn;il. in the front wings, ami es- paper on the sulyect) costal, subcostal, radial. pccially in Hesperidae, sometimes terminates ulnar, anal and axillary. by running into the submedian. 42 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. and finely toothed at the apical margin, and at the l)ase constricted into a pedicel with an extreme bulbous expansion by which they are held in place in pockets in the membrane of the wing. The pockets being regularly distributed, the scales are arranged in rows, very much as the slates upon the roof of a house, those of one row^ alternating with those of its neighl^ors and the base hidden from view and specially guarded. It is through the coloring of these scales that all the wonderful variety of the markings upon the wings of butterflies is produced. Many studies of the scales have been made, and their essential identity with hairs clearly established. Every gradation between the two may be found, and those in different parts of the wings often assume special forms. In the male sex the variety in the form of scales is often far greater than in the female (46-51). For, certain scales of peculiar form, and in some cases at least serving as outlets to scent-glands, may be found either scat- tered irregularly over portions of the wings or clustered into definite areas. In many cases, especially where it is certain that they are the vehicle for the diffusion of odors from glands, they are attenuated and very delicately fringed, and each microscopic filament of the fringe is a tul)ular canal con- necting with ducts in the membrane of the scale itself to the base Avhere the glands are situated. As the various forms which these scales may assume will be specially treated in the body of this work, and their posi- tion in different groups directly specified, it will be unnecessary here to enter into further details, but a further word may be added regarding the structure of scales in general. In general scales may be said to be nothing more than modified hairs. They originate in precisely the same manner and have the same histological structure. As already said, they may be called flattened sacs, being made of two tunics with a hollow interior, forming in fact a closed bag. Origi- nating in a somewhat bladder-like form, the contraction of the upper surface as they become flattened tends to render this surface striate, and the larger striations which are readily seen upon the surface of all scales is confined, as is shown in the cross section at PI. 61 : fig. 38, to the upper surface only. Some scales contain no coloring matter, but they always include some amount of air. As Dimmock has pointed out, the ordinary scales of Pieris rapae and the metallic silvery scales of the spots on the under surface of the fritillaries contain no appreciable coloring matter and both contain air ; and he believes that, as in a common mirror the mercuiy amalgam serves to give a silvery reflection, so the layer of air cavities in the interior of these scales answers the same purpose, the colors being only optical effects pro- duced by reflected light. But in most scales, there is plainly a pigment enclosed between the two layers of which the scale is composed, sealed up as it were for better protection against the action of the air, and which, ac- cording to Burmeister, is principally attached to the upper layer of the THE BUTTERFLY: STRUCTURE OF THE LEGS. 43 scales, rendering it opaque, while the lower layer receiACS less of this deposit and is consequently a little more transparent. Whence it follows that the colors of the scales as a whole are more vivid upon their upper than u])on their under surface. Tlie changeable and irridcscent colors of some butter- flies, on the other liand, which are seen far more rarely in l)utterflie8 of the temperate regions than in those of the tr()[)ics, are not due in any sense to a pigment but solely to the reflection of the light from the fine impressed striae upon the scales. As a general rule the scales peculiar to the male sex haAC little or no color, but there are some exceptions, as in the various species of Argynnis and its allies, where the basal portion of the scales is of a deep black color. While colorless scales, excepting such as occur in the vitreous spots upon the surface of the wing of some buttei-flies, are other- wise of comparatively rare occurrence. The jmtayia are slender, small pieces of membrane, curving around the anterior base of the fore wings and connected with the trunk by a slender attachment just in front of the wings ; the portion in front of the wings is very short, the main part being applied to the upper surface of the base of the wings, and often extending to a considerable distance posteriorly ; thev ser\ e to protect the hinge of the wings from injury and are densely covered with scales or hairs or both ; there are none in front of the hind wings. The legs (52-60), as in all true insects, are six in number, one pair to each division of the thorax. They are invariably very slender and agree in their parts and generally in their proportions, although not minutely. As we ascend the structural scale, however, the front pair becomes more and more atrophied, first in one sex, afterwards in both, as will be hereafter detailed. The leg is comijosed of five distinct portions : coxa, trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsi. The coxae, or haunches, are usually pretty well developed, sometimes, as in the Papilioninae, very prominent, serving in their connate obpyramidal form — connate both as regards the opposing and the neighboring pairs — as excellent bases of attachment for the movable parts of the leg ; they extend obliquely doAvnward and backward and form a strong support to the hinder part of the thorax, which is the centre of gravity of the whole body. The trochanters are inconspicuous small glolni- lar masses at the tips of the coxae, carrying the base of the femora a little outward, and serving for greater freedom of motion in all the succeeding parts. T\\(i femora or thighs are long and slender, straight but somewhat gibbous, compressed, stick-like members, largest near the base, and when in position placed at a very sharp angle Avith the coxae, which they almost always exceed in length ; they are the stronger parts of the movable legs, their gibbous form fjivimj room for a considerable amount of muscular tissue ; they are always unarmed, but generally densely clothed with scales and not infrequently with an inferior heavy fringe of long hairs. The tihiae or shanks are slender, straight, equal, cylindrical or tetraquetral members, 44 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. ordinarily of about the length of the femora hut much slenderer than they, and in their natural position placed at a right angle or more than that with tlie femora ; generally clothed with scales, but never fringed with hairs, they are usually armed also with a large number of short spines, ordinarily arranged in longitudinal rows, and particularly upon the sides of the imder surface. They arc almost always armed at the tip l)eneath with a pair of nuicli longer spines or spurs, which arc themselves sometimes minutely scaled ; occasionally in the lowest family the hinder pair is also provided Avith a second central pair of spurs. In the same family also and in the Papilioninae, the fore tibiae are supplied on the middle of the inner surface with a peculiar leaf-like appendage or epiphysis covered with velvety pile.* The tarsi are composed of five joints, the first usually about as long as the other joints combined, and in the Lycaenidae sometimes swollen in the male sex.f With this exception they are usually slightly slenderer than the tibiae, straight, their combined length usually greater than the tibiae, generally scaled upon at least the upper surface, and in their natural posi- tion placed at more than a right angle with the tibiae. Besides being scaled, they are furnished to a greater or less extent, and especially upon the outer edcjes of the under surface, with a considerable number of short spines, the last joint ordinarily to a less extent than the others ; the a})ical spines, or at least those of the outer row, are prolonged beyond the others to a greater or less degree, and take the nature of spurs. The last joint bears appendages of a special nature at its extremity, — the claws, parony- chia and pulvillus. The clatvs are a pair of horny organs such as the name expresses, usually compressed, curving more or less, and tapering to a point ; they are of variable length and divergence, ordinarily simple but sometimes, as in the Picrinae, deeply cleft and bifid. Encircling their base, excepting above, is a fleshy, papillate, tenuous membrane, which very fre- quently becomes excessively developed at the sides and below the claws, and forms the paro7iychta, a sort of secondary claws, or Avhitlows, not so curved as the true claws and merely membranous imitations of them, as it were ; occasionally, as in the Pierinae, the portions beside rather than that below the claw are highly developed, and form broad membranous expansions nearly concealing the claws on a side view ; often the paronychia are en- tirely absent and no trace of any surrounding meml)rane can be discovered. The jyiilvillus is a sort of foot-pad, which seems to be more or less j^edicel- late, and the pedicel to originate from between and in front of the base of the claws, at the centre of the fleshy membi'ane which serves as the foundation of the paronychia ; sometimes the pulvillus seems to be nearly sessile, at *Haase (Zeitscbr. enl., n. f., x : 3G) regards fDistant, in mentioning thisctliaracterin the this appendage as the relic of an organ for- Indian genus Gerydus, calls it a " phenomenal merly developed to dean the antennae by pass- character in Rhopalocera" ; it is far more com- ing the latter between its inner side and the nion than would appear from that reference, tibia. though in Gerydus it is unusually pvonn'nent. THE BUTTERFLY: STRUCTURE OF THE ARDOMEN. 45 otliersthe pedicel i.s lialf as \o\v^ as tlie claws and the pad a lonrr incnil)ra- nousflap, attached to it by one extremity ; the pad may take on almost any form, hut is usually strongly apprcssed. Besides these terminal api)endages* one or two pairs of hnig curving hairs, originating just above the base of the claws, arch over and extend far beyond them ; this is especially notice- able in the Ilcspcridac. The abdomen and its appendages. The abdomen of butterflies is formed of nine segments, the tenth segment of the caterpillar having been dropjH'd \\ ith the cremaster of the chrysalis. In general these segments are very similar, but the first is always smaller than the succeeding (as in the chrvsalis) and the terminal segments have si)ecial modifications accord- ing to the sex. Excepting these terminal segments they have no appen- dages and differ from the same parts in the earlier stages, in that the ui)per and lower })lates of which each somite is made are corneous and distinctly separated by a more or less membranous pleural interspace, within which are situated the spiracles, on the first to the seventh segments only, the spiracle of the eighth segment of the caterpillar having been dropped on the assumption of the pupal condition. f Tiie al)domen is usually com- pressed to a slight degree, sometimes considerably, and is always as long as, o^enerallv lono-er, sometimes much longer than, the rest of thebodv, and tapers at both ends. The posterior portion of the seventh segment of the female is modified l)cneath to form, in conjunction with the anterior part of the eighth seg- ment, a more or less wide-mouthed vestibule into the upper part of which the vagina opens. The eighth segment in the same sex is much smaller than the preceding, while the ninth is very small and forms merely a com- pressed pair of short lappets serving as an ovipositor, being internally grooved for the oviduct, and having immediately above that the anal open- ing. In the male the seventh segment undergoes no modification, and ordi- narily the eighth segment also assumes no special form, but in certain instances it departs from this general rule. Thus, as Burgess first pointed out, the sternal portion of the segment is enormously produced in Eu- ploeinae to form lamellate lappets, which simulate the lateral appendages characteristic of the succeedino- segment in butterflies, and so are termed by him "false claspers" ; so also, the median part of the notal piece of the same segment in Pierinac, as the same observer noted, is produced poste- * A dirtercnt account of those appeiulayos is iiig. If tlic erucifonii condition of the young given by Burmeisler (Lep. Rep. Arg.,1S-l!)). ))e regarded, as niorpliologists now consider t This is correllated with and undoul)tedly it, as an acquired characteristic, the spiracle conscfiuent upon the needs of this segment in of the eighth alidonunal segment must he the female hutterfly, the segment being here looked on as of late origination, and its fre- ]irofoundIy modified l)oth externally and in- quent lack of alignement with the others and ternally by the necessities of the vaginal open- greater size may be more readily explained. 46 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. riorly to a cur\ ing hook, which in its turn siniuhites the upper appendage of the succeeding segment. The same is true of the Pa})iHoninae, as Buchanan White has shown, only here it is deeply cleft niesially. A still more singular anomaly occurs in Lilntheinae, which in the American Hypatus resembles the Pierinae, while in the Eiu'opean Lil)ythea it takes more the form of the Papilioninae. It is in the ninth segment, however, that the greatest variety of form and structure is seen, the segment bearing hinged api)endages, serving with the other external armature as cl<(.^j)htf/ organs, at the mating season. This apparatus (33-37) may be simply descril)ed in general terms as con- sisting of a median uncate upper organ moving vertically, and paired laminate side pieces or clasjis moving laterally. The upper organ (the sicula of Rambur, tegumen of Buchanan White, scaphium of Gosse) is in general a pointed or forked hook, covering the apical organs above and having an upward and downward movement. In its various developments it may be said to consist of a main body or centrum with a})ical hook or hooks, and curving or bent lateral arms ; these latter may be independ- ently developed and conspicuous, as in Satyrinae and Lycaenidae ; or soldered to the body or connate beneath the apical hook, and supporting a common inferior armature of prickly points, as in Hesperidac ; or developed as mere angular projections, as in Pierinae ; or, as in Papilioninae, where the median process of the eighth segment (uncus of Gosse) nsnrps the protecting function of the upper organ, they may form transverse prickly and corrugated ribbons (the honiologue of the inferior armature of the Hesperidac) lying near the base of the intromittent organ, which are sometimes torn from their attachments in mating and left in the vestibule of the female (61 :48) ; or finally they may be altogether absent, as in the bulk of the Xymphalinae. The clasps (valvae of Rambur) admit of an equal variety of development, but may in general terms be said to be usu- ally composed of a base, with an up])er lobe and a blade hardly separable from it, the former usually developing prickly or pointed upper processes (styles of Rambur) and hind processes, the latter capable of bearing arma- ture at any point at will, and generally furnished with many stiff bristles- near the outer edge. In some of the Lycaeninae, especially the Theclidi, the clasps may be very slightly developed and simple, forming a mere channel for the support of the here enormously developed, apically flaring intromittent organ ; or the upper lobe in other cases, as in the Papilioninae, may form a large concealing flap (valve of Gosse), and the blade be devel- oped as a curving prickly ridge (harpes of Gosse) lying within the valve. The form and sculpture of these appendages varies in every species form- ing excellent means for their distinction, and they thus become, says Dufoiu", " the guarantee, the safeguard, of legitimate pairing." As connected with the outer tcijument rather than with the internal organs, Tin-: JU'TTKUFl.V : INTKKNAI. OIKJANS. 47 niiiy bo mentioned here the ghinds and .similar strnetnres -whieli open ex- ternally in butterflies. Allusion has already been made to those which find their outlet through the scales, and probably there arc others which find a passage through hairs in various parts of the body — such as in the erect row found on the upper surface of the hind wings of the male Argyn- nis, as in some instances has been proved to l)e the case in moths. But in some of the higher butterflies, as in our own Anosia, we have a protrusile pencil of long hairs (61:19,59), which appear to be cylindrical tubes, lying in sheaths on each side of the eighth abdominal segment of the male ; and in an almost precisely equivalent position on the same segment of the female of allied butterflies (Colaenis, Ileliconius, Eueides, Dione, Acraeaj, Fritz Miiller has shown the existence of a pair of protrusile vescicular organs clothed with scales, which are distinctly odoriferous and undoubt- edly connected with sexual functions. The internal organs (PI. 62: tigs. 2 4). Although the internal organs of butterflies are brought to their full per- fection at the close of the pupal condition, and have therefore been already outlined to a certain extent, yet as the account has been coupled with statements of the changes undergone in the larval organization to effect the required result, it may be worth Avhile to give here a succinct account of the completed structures, following the same order as heretofore. The published materials for such a survey, it may be remarked, are exceedingly scanty, and my own dissections have been largely confined to the earlier stages. The only general sketch yet published is that by the indefatigable Leon Dufour (Comptes rendus, 1852), l)at an excellent outline is furnished in his complete anatomy of Anosia plexippus (Anniv. mem. Bost. soc. nat. hist.) by my gifted friend Edward Burgess, whose loss to entomotomy is <^)idy partially conqjcnsated by the gain to scientific naval architecture. Muscular system. The great mass of the muscular tissue is now developed in the thorax and principally to direct the action of the wings ; these muscles form two principal sets : one longitudinal, by far the most numerous, which serve to depress the wings by shortening the thorax ; the other a transversely oblique set, attached below to the floor of the thorax, and above to the bases of the complicated structure of the inner frame work of the wing, acting thus at great disadvantage as a lever ; besides these a third accessory set running from the scutellum between the other two sets to the front base of the wings, serves to draw them forward. All other muscles of the body serving to move external ap})endages are attached to the walls of the body in the immediate vicinity of the organ to be moved or to special ridges or inner outgrowths of the walls ; while the internal organs may have their independent muscles as in the early stages ; some of these will be mentioned in their place. 48 THE BUTTERFLIES OF KEW ENCiLAXD. Digestive system. As a whole, the digestive system is usually some- what longer than the body, though its convolutions are entirely confined to the intestine proper in the hinder part of the abdomen. Its most peculiar feature in butterflies is the complicated a[)paratus by means of which the food enters tlie stonuich, the exact method of operation as well as the organic foundation of the same having been discovered and well elucidated by Burgess (87 :3,5, 9, 23). As we shall describe this somewhat in detail in the body of this work, it is only necessary to say liere that Ijy means of a highly muscular pliaryngeal sac a \acuum is [)roduced within the body, by which the fluids are sucked up the moutli-tube, and are prevented from returning the same way by a simple valve at tlie anterior extremity of tlie sac. The sac 0})ens directly into a long and slender oesophagus and the parts that follow show little variation within the whole tribe of butterflies , 80 far as I have seen, probably due to the great general similarity of their food, — honied vegetable secretions or decomposing vegetation. The oeso- phagus is a jjcrfectly straight and uniform tube extending to the very base of tlie alxlomen. Here, just before it enlarges to form the stomach, it has an independent enlargement of its own, from the upper surface of which the so-called food reservoir (61:46,47,50) takes its rise: this organ, char- acteristic of Lepidoptera and therefore doubtless connected with its peculiar means of obtaining nourishment (though its actual use is still unknown), is a large, bladder-like, elongated vessel lyiug upon the stomach in the anterior half of the abdomen, bluntly rounded behind, tapei'ing in front to a rather slender neck, through which it enters the vestibule of the stonuich. Cuticular processes (61 :o6,45), like moistened and therefore tapering pencils of hairs, line the inner surface. The stomach is likewise a straight, cylindrical or fusiform tube, three or four times the diameter of the intestine but still slender, extending through about half of tlie abdomen, when it contracts to nearly its initial size to form a short, oval, occa- sionally cylindrical passage, a little larger than the succeeding intestine, into whicli the malphigian vessels enter. Burgess describes no such chamber separate from the stomach in Anosia, into the posterior part of which he makes the malphigian vessels enter ; but in Mancipium, as figured by Herold, this chylific ventricule is clearly distinct from the stomach and rather forms a part of the intestine. The intestine is a slender cylindrical tube, according to Dufour (who distinguishes the chylific ventricule), swollen at its origin in A^anessidi and Papilionidi, but uniform in Anosia and jNIan- cipium ; and terminating after its s-shaped curve in a pyriform or cylindri- cal chamber, the colon, which is simple in Anosia, but in others, such as jVIancipium, provided with an anterior coecal sac. The colon passes in- sensibly into a slightly tapering rectum, with the anal opening at the extremity of the body. ^Vt the anterior end of the alimentary tract, just beneath the pharyngeal THE BUTTERFLY: INTERNAL ORGANS. 49 sac Jintl !it the interior base of the uiaxilhiry canal, i.s the opening of tlie sal- ivary duct, which is a capillary flexible tube, running backward for only a short distance before dividing- into two ducts, passing insensibly into glands of a similar form which are at least half as long as the body, but by reason of the many convolutions as they run beside the oesophagus extending only as far as the base of the al)domen. As in the early stages of tlie insect's life, the mal[)higian vessels are com- posed of three filiform crinkled tubes on each side of the body, their con- volutions overlying the stomach, the ends free, uniting just before entering the chylific ventricule, first one pair and then tlie third, to form a voy short {•anal. Respiratory system. .Vccording to Dufour the tracheal vessels of butterflies are purely tubulai', luuing none of the vescicular expansions characteristic of the Sphingidae and some other moths, which partake of nourishment Avhile hoAcring before a flower. The general plan is the same as in the earlier stages, only here the organs are mnch less bulky, being re- dnced to exceedingly slender vessels and branching tubes. "The very short main trunk into which the stigmata open soon divides into branches, which run to the special organ to be aerated and there often branch abruptly into a great numl)er of fine tubes . . . The stigmata of the first pair lie in the sides of the prothorax behind the prothoracic lobes" (Burgess) . Those of the second pair, not mentioned by Burgess, nor indeed, we believe, by any writer besides Burmeister,* lie just in front of the base of the hind wings, concealed in the suture between the mesothorax and metathorax, at the furtliest advance of the latter; they probably belong to the mesothorax, as they and the derivative tracheae adhere to it on forcible rupture of these parts. As Burmeister remarks, the [presence of such a pair is snrprising, because no spiracles are present here in the caterpillar, though, as we have seen, a spreading bunch of tracheae arise from the longitudinal canal where the spiracle should be expected. Succeeding pairs of stigmata are situated in the pleurae of the first seven abdominal somites, the pair in the first seg- ment l)eing rather lianl to find owing to the folds in the integument of its sides. Circulatory system. The haemal or dorsal vessel, somethnes called the heart, "is a small tube lying immediately under the dorsal wall of the abdomen, and hung in this position by triangular muscular sheets (the alary muscles) which are placed in pairs, apices inwards, on either side . . . The walls . . . contain two sets of muscidar fibres running spirally in op])0- site directions. Slight constrictions divide the heart into a number of segments, corresponding to those of the abdomen. Each segment has probably a pair of clefts for the entrance of the blood ... In the basal *Miiiot uiiil Burgoss recogiiizo here in llie moth, Alotia, ••an incons^picnous >tructui< interstitial membrane in tlie cotton worm \vlii<]i is pcrliaiis a spirn<'le." 50 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. segment of the abdomen, the heart narrows slightly, making the beginning of" the aorta. This after entering the thorax runs upwards, passing between the right and left sets of thoracic muscles, and then under the suture l)e- tween the mesoscutum and scutellum, and expands rather suddenly into a large [aortal] chamber, which is hung in })osition by a net-work of fibrous connective tissue. . . . The forward end [of this] bends downwards [some- times abruptly] and again contracts into a [more or less] slender tube [in Hesperians scarcely slenderer than the aortal chamber, but compressed] , which runs backward and downward until it reaches the first j>art of the aorta, and after passing along the anterior face of this for a short distance, it bends suddenly forward and runs along, and just above, the oesophagus, passing with the latter into the head and through the oesophageal nerve collar" (Burgess). The aorta then divides into several branches, which are lost in the integuments of the head. Nervous system. A brain, a compound thoracic ganglion, and four abdominal ganglia, lying along the ventral wall of the body and connected by double, often connate commissures, form the base of the nervous system in butterflies. The brain occupies the centre of the head, immediately over the oesoph- agus, is laterally bilobate and principally made up of two enormous optic nerves. It furnishes also the antcnnal nerves and is connected by short cords on either side to a minute frontal ganglion, which gi\es off poste- riorly a recurrent nerve ; there are also a pair of posterior, lateral, minute eanolia in the head connected ^\■ith this recurrent nerve, which inner\ates the oesophagus and dorsal vessel and v.ith its branches spreads over the stomach. The commissures which extend from the brain backward pass on either side of the oesophagus and immediately before leaving the head unite beneath to form the suboesophageal ganglion ; from this arise the nerves which pass to the mouth parts. The thoracic ganglia are situated in the front part of the mesothorax, and separated by a considerable distance from the ganglia of the head. They are compound, and their compound origin is usually marked to some extent by the form of the mass itself, but they sometimes form a single elongated oval disc. From this arise the crural and alary nerves, or those su[)plying the legs and wings. The abdominal ganglia, small round lenticular discs, are always four in num1)er, the first separated from the thoracic ganglion by a distance of nearly half the length of the entire nervous cord, the last compound ; they are situated in the third to the sixth abdominal segments respectively and are equidistant. As the cord enters the abdomen, and for the rest of its course, it becomes bordered right and left by a white fibro-muscular mem- brane, which fixes it to the -ventral tegument according to Dufour ; and the same writer states that a white ellipsoidal fibrous capsule is embraced rilK BUTTERFLY: INTERNAL ORGANS. 51 by it at its starting- point, at the entrance of the cord into tlie aljdonien, which might easily l)e taken for a ganglion. Glandular system. It is stated hy authors that a j)air of ramose glands is sometimes found in the female hutterfly, situated near the orifice of the vagina, "which secrete, perhaps, an odorous substance that excites the copulatory act." They are noted in Melitaea and Argynnis, and I once de- scribed from the dissection of the nearly mature female pupa of .Vnosia '*a transverse reniform vessel, attached broadly by its base to the inferior wall of the oviduct at its very extremity," its tip terminating in two little threads. But as Burgess made no note of any such organ, the ])oint requires new dissections to establish it. These glands nmst not be confounded with those opening externally in the female of some butterflies, noticed abo\e. Reproductive system. The paired ovaries of the female consist each of four tubular branches which at maturity are longer than the body of the insect, and always so long that they have to run backward and forward, sometimes many times, to accommodate themselves to their narrow quarters, often rolled over and over, but always connected by their united and now solid tips to the u[)})er wall of the abdomen, — in .Vnosia at the fourth scu- ment. From their tips backward the ovarian tul)es increase in size and contain each a hundred ovigerous cells more or less, in which the bases of the future eggs lie outward. As they attain their largest the four ovarian tubes unite on each side to form an oviduct, and the two oviducts shortly afterwards unite to form a common duct, the oviduct proper, Avhich is the common receptacle of all the special accessory organs, and itself is often enlarged in some Lepidoptera to form a point of arrest for the ego's while they are prepared for future needs. The most important of the ort>-ans tributory to the oviduct are those which enter it near the middle by the sperm duct — a slender tube connected directly with a vescicular sac, the s[)ermatheca, which by a similar tube at its opposite extremity is joined to the large, long- oval, bladder-like, but muscular capsule, the copulatory pouch ; this conducts by a larger tube or curved canal, the vagina, into the vestibule on the tmder surface of the seventh and eighth seo-ments. There also enter the oviduct two sets of accessory glands, one single, morphologically the mate of the spermatic vessels and the smaller, the other set paired, and all consisting first of filiform secretory vessels, next of a reservoir and last of a short excretory duct Avhich opens into the o% i- duct ; their function is supposed to be connected with the final prepara- tion of the egg wall and its varnish-like coating. The ovipositor is formed of the lateral lappets of the ninth segment. The male organs consist of a single large globular testis, compound in origin but now simple in structure and homogeneous, often highly colored, rose, green or purple, mesially situated in the fifth abdominal segment (or just about the centre of the abdomen) above the stomach. It is retained 52 TIIK UUTTEUFLIKS OF NE^V ENCILAND. in place and .supported by tlie tracheae of this segment. Close together, a [)air of efferent ducts arise from the posterior walls of the testis, simple tubes which conduct to two long filiform semintd vescicles near the l)ase of the latter ; these last soon unite to form the ejaculatory canal, the single, slender, excessively elongated duct for all this apparatus, which being many times, generally from three to five times, longer than the body of the insect requires for its accommodation to be rolled into the most complicated con- Aoluted mass imaginable. The duct ends in the intromittent organ, a corneous hollow needle, often expanded apically and always furnished with a bulbous base. Special muscles attached to the posterior walls of the last segment arrange for its forcible ejection. II. THE MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTERFLIES, HISTORICALLY CONSIDERED. "Wor.sliip not me, but God!" the angels urge: That is love's grandeur: still, in pettier love The nice eye can distinguish grade and grade. Shall mine degrade the velvet green and puce {)f caterpillar, palmer-worm — or what— Rail in and out of ball, each ball with brush Of A'cnns' eye-fringe round the tur(|uoise egg That nestles" soft. — compare such paragon AVith any scaraba'us of the brood That, l)o"rn to fly, keeps wing in wing-case, walks Persistently a-trundliug dung on earth';' Browning.— i?ef? Cotton Kif/ht-Cap Covntni. That the families of butterflies rank higher than those of other Le[)idop- tera is universally conceded and susceptible of proof. Every part of their organization when considered comparatiA'cly shows a movement from the lowest moths to the higher butterflies. Agassiz pointed out that in the lower families as a general rule (not without its abundant exceptions) the wings in repose are inclined from each other like the sides of a roof, close- ly resembling the position they occupy during the earlier and therefore inferior pupal state ; while in nearly all butterflies and notably in the higher ones, the wings are held erect, back to back, as far removed as possible from their location in the chrysalis. But this view is assuredly fanciful, since the position of the wings during their still earlier larval condition resembles that of the butterflies much more than it does that of the moths ! In reality we are dealing here with families in a suborder and can scarcely expect to find the well-marked signs of relative rank which attach more strongly to the larger divisions into which a class is divided ; among families, rank is subordinated to charactei'istics more peculiarly attaching to the nature of the group ; l)ut hy tracing out the development of certain features of the order, wc find ourselves travelling in a path in Avhich new (;lassification of butterflies. 53 charat'tcrs ap[)ear and aggrandize, while others dinjinish and finally fade ; and thus it is that we can follow out the relative rank of its members with a considerable dejjrec of satisfaction, and discover a series culminatinsr in the families of butterflies ; the considerations which will be brought forward in discussing the relative ])osition of the separate families will continually throw light upon this view and we need not discuss it further in this place, but proceed to an examination of the views of authors concerning the ])rimary divisions of butterflies. From 1758 to 1815. The first eflfort at the classification of butterflies was made by Linne in the tenth edition of the Systema naturae (1758) ; his scheme is as follows : — a. Eiiuites. c. Daiiai. (1. Nyinphalcs. p. PIHjcii. Trojani. camlidi. j;eininati. rurales. Achivi. fofitivi. phalcrati. urlMcolae. 1>. Ilclicouii. f. Bastardi. Here the Papilionidae arc [)laced highest. Their division into two groups is merely a fanciful one, depending on the presence or absence of red spots. The last group comprises only forms whose proper location was a puzzle and from Avhich they could be drawn and distributed properly as they became better known, and may therefore be left out of considera- tion. With this exception the Hesperidae are placed lowest, as they have been by every subsequent author, for their close relationship to the lower families of Lepidoptera leaves no doubt whatever concerning their true position ; but with them Linne placed the great group of Lycaenidae, with which they have but comparatively distant connection. The Heliconii were founded upon a few strange looking, dark-spotted, white butterflies now placed in the genera Doritis and Parnassius. The Danai formed a heterogeneous group, although each of its divisions is in itself mainly natural, the D. candidi belonging properly wdth the previous group and the D. festivi corresponding to Euploeinae and its allies. The group Nymphales would have been a natural one had the Danai festivi been added to it, but its divisions, based on the presence or absence of ocellate spots on the wings, was utterly without value. In his Fauna Suecica (1761), Linne had already made alterations in his plan of divisions, the whole of the Danai candidi being merged with the Heliconii, which would thus have formed a natural group had not some of the Satyridae been also included in it, w'hile others were left as before in the Nymphales ; but in the twelth edition of the Systema naturae (1767), the old system was restored. In 17()2, GeoflTroy, in his Histoire des insectes aux environs de Paris, proposed a new scheme of classification in which his primary groups were founded upon the character of the fore legs, to which I believe Reaumur first drew attention ; but he did not fail to recognize other distinctions also, 54 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. and was the first to perceive the value of characters drawn from all the stages ; the following is his division : — I. With four legs (front legs without claws, having often the aypearanee of a tippet, — "pal- atine"). 1. Caterpillars spiny, wings angular. 2. " '' wings rounded. o. " smooth; fore legs short hut not tippet-like. II. With six legs (all the legs furnished with claws. Chrysalids horizontal, girt around the middle with a thread). The first division comprises the Nymphalidae : its first two subdivisions corresponding to the Vanessidi and Xymphalidi, the third to the Euploeinae and Satyrinae. This Avas more nattu'al than Linne's divisions, and GeoflProy was also the first to recognize the superiority of the Nymphalidae. De Geer (1771) divided butterflies into five families, but he reversed the order of GeoiFroy, placing tlie butterflies with perfect fore legs above those in Avhich they were atro})hied. None of his families were named ; they were as follow s : — I. Six legs. Wings embracing under surface of abdomen. II. Six legs. Wings embracing upper surface of abdomen. III. Six legs. Wings inclined backward. IV. Four legs. Fore legs hanging like a tippet [= Nymphalidae excl. some Satyrinae] . V. Four legs. Fore legs very small and short [= some Satyrinae], In the year 1775 appeared a very remarkable anonymous Avork on tlie Lepidoptera of the vicinity of Vienna (Systematisches verzeichniss der schmetterlinge der Wienergegend) in which the character of the larvae formed the basis of the classification. Instead of recognizing the authors, Messrs. Denis and SchiiFermuller, it is generally known as the Vienna Catalogue. This is the division proposed therein : — A. Larvae tortriciformes [Hesperidae] . I. Larvae acutospinosae [Vanessidi]. B. " bombyciformes [Doritis] . K. " collospinosae [Argynnidi] . (J, *' Aariegatae [Papilionidi]. L. " pseudo.spinosae [Melitaeidi]. D. •' mediostriatae [Pieridi], E. " pallidiventres[Rhodoceridi]. Onisciformes. F. " subfuscae [Satyrinae]. ^i- "' oljlongoscutatae [Chrysophanidi]. G. •' cornutae [Apaturidi]. N. •' gibbososcutatae [Lyeaenidi]. H. " subspinosae [Nymphalidi] . O. " depressoscutatae [Theclidi]. An examination of this scheme (to the members of which modern names are attached in brackets) will show that nearly all the principle groups of butterflies found in Europe are recognized in it and most of them for the first time. With the exception of the position of the onisciform caterpillars the general order is almost faultless. Had subsequent authors paid as much attention as these writers to the characters presented by the earlier stages our knowledge of their natural relations would have made better progress. Scopoli in 1777 divided the species catalogued by Linne in the tenth edition of the Systema naturae into six genera, all them heterogeneous, being founded wholly on superficial characters, in which he certainly had CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTERFLIES. 55 some waiTiint in the practice of" Linne. Owin^- probably to their mixed character, tliese generic names have not been brought into general use. Borkhausen, the writer of the first distinctive work on European butter- flies (1788), was the first to improve upon the classification of Linne by cliaracters drawn from the perfect insect. The following represents his classification : Ist Horde. Nyinpliiio. 4tli Horde. Danid [Pierinae]. Najades [^'allessidi and Nyiii- otli Horde, Pleheii riirales [Lyeaeiiinae]. plialidi]. Papiliones subeaiidati [Thecli- Dryades [Ariiyimidl]. di]. Ilamadryades [Melitaeidi]. Pap. nitili [Clirysophanidi]. Oreades [.Satyriiiae]. Pap. polyophthalini [Lycaeiiidi]. '2d Horde, E(Hiites [Papilioiiidi]. 6th Horde, Pleheii url)ico]ae [Hesperidae] . od Horde. Heliconii [Parnassidl]. Borkhausen was the first author after Geoffroy to recognize the superior- ity of the Nymphalidae, which he divided into groups already separated in the Vienna Catalogue. At the same time he places the "Danai festivi" wliere they belong, with the "Xymphae." Following still further the divi- sions of Denis and SchifFermiiller, he divides the "Plebeii rurales" into three grou]>s, which are wholly natiu-al. Had he simply place'd his fifth horde next to the first, he would have shown a series leaving little room for improvement. In his earlier works from 1775 to 1787 Fabricius followed closely the divisions of his master Linne. Li his Entomologia systematica (1793), he seems to have paid no attention to this classification by Borkhausen, although he alters, but scarcely for the better, the system used l)y himself in his earlier works, as will be seen by the following abstract : Genus Papilio. Daiiaii [former Danai Equites. N ymphales. candidi] . Trojani. Helcouii. Satyri. Achivi. Parnassii [former Heli- Genus Hesperia. Festivi [Danai festivi of eoiiii]. Eurales. previous works]. Urbicolae. Besides the introduction of a new generic name to distinguish the smaller butterflies, he has separated the Oreades of Borkhausen from the group in which they were formerly coml)hied under the new name of Satyri, a name which in various forms has since been used in preference to the earlier one of Borkhausen ; and that, although the actual scientific worth of Fabricius's system is far inferior to that of Borkhausen. He has also introduced the new term Parnassii for the Heliconii of his former works, and given the latter name to the exotic forms usually known since under that title. Besides these vagaries he altered the sequence of the groups much for the worse, as a com[)arison of the two will instantly show. In the same and following years Herbst, in the sixth to the ninth volumes of his general work, proposes still another classification, in which a niun- ber of new names are introduced, most of them in connection with natural 56 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. groups, but arraiigctl in a most irregular manner as appears from the fol- lowing abstract which hardly needs discussion : — Consules [miscellaneous Nymphalidae] ; Nobiles [miscellaneous Nym- phalinae] ; Tribuni [Euploeinae] ; Praefecti [Vanessidi] ; Praetores [some Satyrinae] ; Vestales [Lemoniinae] ; Archontes [Apaturidi, Vanessidi, etc.] ; Dictatores [some Satyrinae] ; Milites [Argynnidi and Melitaeidi] ; Ephori [Theclidi] ; Gives [Lycaenidi] ; liustici [Ilesperidae] . In 1798 Cuvier in his Tableau e'lementaire divided Initterilies into the two Fabrician genera Papilio and Hesperia, and the first of them into tlie following groups : Nymphales, Danai, Parnassii, Heliconii, Equites, Plebeii. These names correspond to their later use by Fabricius but are arranged in a more natural order and with tlie (^mission of several employed in the Ento- mologia systematica . In 1801 we come to the second faiuial work which treats of butterflies, Schrank's Fauna Boica, and in this mc find, as in Borkhausen, a much clearer appreciation of natural relationships. The butterflies of his district were grouped into five genera, which were again subdivided into lettered tribes to Avhich no names are given ; they are as follows : — Erynnis [He.spcridae] . 3I:miula. 0 [Argynnidi]. Pieris. A [S-ityriimc]. D [Melitaeidi]. A ["Heliconii"]. B Apaturidi]. Oupido. B [''Equites"]. Papilio. A [Chryso]jliaiiidi]. C [Pieridi]. A [Xyuiphalidi]. B [Lvoaeindi]. D [Pvhodoceridi] . B [Vanessidi]. C [Theelidi]. It will be seen in the first place that Schrank follows precisely the order of the Vienna Catalogue ; and next that he limits the genus Papilio to tlie Nymphalidae and ignores Fabricius's genus Hesperia , which is equivalent to his own Erynnis and Cupido coml)ined ; these he has strangely separated at the widest extremes ; had his genus Cupido been placed between liis Pieris and Maniola, little objection could be made to his arrangement ; as it is, it remains of about equal value with that of Borkhausen, although more fully freed from the injurious influence of the earlier authors. Latreille in Sonnini's Buff on (1805) first introduced a distinctive family name, Papilionides, for all butterflies. His division into genera is as follows ; Nymphalis. Danaida [Euploeinae]. Nyjiiphales prop. diet. Papilio [Papilionidi]. [Nyniphalidi Vanessidi, etc.], Paniassius [Parnassidi]. Perlati [Argynnidi and Melitaeidi], Pieris [Pierinae]. Satyri [Satyrinae]. Polyoniatus [Lycaeninae]. Heliconius. Hesperia [Hesperidae]. The serial value of this arrangement is an improvement u\)on that of Schrank, although Polyonunatus is placed again in close connection with Hesperia, as was first done by Linne. Generic names are for the first time applied to the principal divisions of Fabricius. CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTEUFLIKS. 57 At the time of his death, Fahrieius had in press a general 8vstcma glossatoruni, but only the unpublished proof-sheets remain , an abstract, however, was given in Jlliger's magazine (1.S07) in which the butterflies were divided into forty-one genera, but no higher divisions were proposed. The sequence of his genera, however, shows that he liad scarcelv altered his former serial arrangement, and such changes as he did introduce were not for the better. Latreille made changes in classification in nearly all his numerous works, so that it is necessary to follow him closely. In his Genera crustaceorum et insectorum (180!)) he divided butterflies into two families, Papilionides and Hespcrides, including in the latter only the Ilesperidae of modern authors, with two genera, one of which has since been separated from the butterflies ; the first family included eleven genera, extensively divided into unnamed sections, to which he attempted to refer the Fabrician i>enera. The series began with the Nymphalidae, of which he first i)laced the "Satyri" at the head and continued with Cethosia, Heliconius and Danaus ; following with Papilio, Parnassius and Colias, it closed with Erycina and Polyonunatus, one representing the Lemoniinae the other the Lycaeninae. The general arrangement, therefore, does not differ from that of his earlier work nor from that of Cuvier's Tableau. In the following year however (Considerations generales) he changed the relative position of these genera of Papilionides materially, but not for the better. Beginning with the genera of Papilionidae he continued with those of Pierinae and then of the Euploeinae ; after this followed those of the Xymphalinae and Satyrinae, and finally, as before, those of the Lycaenidae. Leach was the first English author who attempted a careful classification of butterflies; in the Edinburgh Encyclopaedia (1815) he published the following scheme, for his Section Diurna : — Trihel. F( (pill OH ides. Fam. 2. Lycaenida [Tliecla. Lycaona]. Fain. 1. Papilionida [Papilio, Parnas- Tribe II. Hesperides. sins, Pierifi, Colias, Gouepteryx, Ar- Fain. 1. Urauida. gyiinis, Melitaea, Yanessa, Hipparcbia, " 2. Hesperida. Liinoiiitis. Apatura]. The general sequence of genera given in Latreille's then last jniblished work was followed and the opposition of the skippers to the other butter- flies still maintained, but the butterflies with onisciform larvae were first recognized as a family grou[). Another entirely new and peculiar classification was attempted by Iliibner somewhere between 180(5 and 1810* in his much discussed Tenta- men, in which Phalanx I. Papiliones was divided as follows : — *Hubiior states, in the first century of his and I have so quoted it. where neeessary, in Zutraj,^ (1818), that it was published in 1800, this work. 58 THE BUTTP:RFLIES of NEAV EN(iLAND. Ti-ihus I. Kinnphales. Tribus II. Ge7itUe.s.—Gens. I. NcreiiU'S [Helk-ouinae] . I. Kustici [Lyc-aeninac]— ruraies. II. Limnade.s [Euploeinae] . II. Principes [Papilioninae]— nohiles. III. Lemoniades [Melitaeidi]— reticulati. III. Maueipia [Pierinae]— vulgares. IV. Dryades [Argynnidi]— ornati. IV. Consules [Liliytlieiiiae]— consults. V. Hainadryades [Vanessidi]— undulati. V. UrlKUii [Ilesperidae]— ci\ilcs. VI. Najades [Nyniphalidi]— fasciati. VII. Potamides [Apatiirldi]— plialerati. VIII. Oreade;* [Satyrinae]— geminati. The same general scheme, with only the change of names I have indicated above after the dashes, was used by Hiibner throughout his European Butterflies, published from 180(i until liis death. The influence of Bork- hausen is plainly seen in the nomenclature, but in the separation of the Nymphalidae as a group of equivalent value to the rest of the butterflies this scheme is unique. The Tentamen has, however, been completely over- looked by later writers, though copied in principal by Ochsenheimer, as will be seen shortly. From 1816 to 1836. The year 1816 gave birth to no less than three distinct works of importance upon butterflies. The first in merit was that of Dalman, who published in the Swedish Academy's memoirs an essay upon the classification of the butterflies of Sweden ; in his definitions of the o-roups, both of large and minor extent, he has brought into use the most essential characters, drawn not only from the imago but from the larval and pupal states, treating his subject in a manner more thoroughly sci- entific than had ever been previously done. I subjoin in full at the top of the next page the table which preceded his full characterization of the o;roups, as it presents the divisions of the author in a succinct form, and sliows the progress that had been made at that time by the best naturalists. It will be noticed that while the sequence of the groups is similar to that given in Latreille's earliest essay, the germs of several of the larger divisions of later times are here first brouglit to light. The second work, published in the year 1816, to which we would call attention, is the fourth volume of Ochsenheimer's European butterflies. In his previous volumes, as in his Schmetterlinge Sachsens (1805), the author had placed all the species under the genus Papilio ; now he divides them without further classification into sixteen genera, arranged in the following order : Melitaea, Argynnis, Euploea, Vanessa, Limenitis, Cha- raxes, Apatura, Hipparchia, Lycaena, Papilio, Zerynthia, Doritis, Pontia, Colias, Hecaerge, Hesperia. Notwithstanding his criticism of Hubner in the preface, it will be seen that the sequence here, with the sole exception of the position of i:uploea, is exactly tlie same as Hubner outlined a few years before, and was then employing in his iconographic works. Finally the tliird work of this year was a more elaborate classification, published by Hiibner in his Systematisches verzeichniss, an expansion of CLASSIFICATION OF HUTTEIIFLTES. 59 T.ilml:i :^yiiopti<'ii L.'pi«l'>l't*'i-'""""> 'liuriionini Sveciiu- Familias, Seftioiics et Phalaiif^es .sisteiis. [ Familial. !''(- Tihiae posticae I iiuiticae apice solo si)iiios() I. calcarato. (Lar- va suli(lialis). Sc'ctio I. Tct- rajiodcs. I'cilcsj^ri'ssorii taiitiini 4, aiitici duo alihreviati (k'hik's. Phalanx T. Tctrapodcs. A- hic i^ustcriurcs alidoiiu'ii siilitiis caiiali (■.\<-ii)i('ii- tcs. rtiiiiKi Sllll- vt-rsa, alio taii- tuin isusijciisa. Larva plus iiii- luisvo s|)iiiosa 1. salt<'iii alio hi- miicroiiato. Divisio I. Alac posteriori's are- ola apcrta. (Ncr- voriiiu truiici 2, anterior iiervos 2, ;J, 4; ])ostei'ior ."),(), 7, eiiiitteiis). Larva plus nii- iiiisve spinosa. Divisio IL Alae posteriores are- ola claiisa, ner- vos radiatiin eiiiittente. Lar- va Hilda, alio hi- iiuieronato. (jcnera. . Liinoiiitis. , Aglais. . Argynnis, . Melitaea. 5. Erehia. f Phalanx IL Hexapodes. AliKi posteriores jjro ahdoinine liijero inargiiie interiore exeisae, nervis tantuin 8; primo et octavo e basi alae, reliqnis ex areola elausa orient ihns. Lamd tentaeulo eoJlare l)itido, eariioso, retractili. C. Aniaryssus, Doriti> Seetio II. Hex- apodes. Pedes omnes eoinpleti gresso- [ rii. Phalanx III. f Hexapodes. Alne posteriores al)- 8. Ganoris. domen eanali exeipientes, nervis novem. Puppa antiee uui-um- | Colias eronata, Filo transverso alligata. ] Larva inutica. [ Phalanx IV. Hexapodes. Corpus statura parva gracili. Alae posteriores alido- inen eanali exeipientes ; areola aperta; nervi novem. Oculi mar- line palpebrali distincto, niveo. Larva oniseiformis, subovata, mu- tica. subtus plana; capite parvo, pedibus obsoletioribus. Puppa brevis obtusa, tilo per medium al- _ ligata. Familiall. Hesperides. , . . ■ ^ ■ . ■ ^ Tibiae postieae praeter apicis calcaria spuia gemina et nifera nistrue- tae antiee latere interno apicem versus exi-avato; fossula appendi- eeni spiiiiformem exeipiente. (Ut in Fainiius xMpientibus Lepulop- teroruin (Jrespuseulariorum et Noeturnorum (juibus haee Fainiha viam ■[ parat. !). Zephyrus, Aurotis. Heodes. Cyaniris. 10. Hesperia. I his preceding attempts, in which the Phahmx PapiHones was divided as follows : — Tribus Ntjmphales. Stirps 1. Nereides [Helieoninae] . 2. Limnades [Euploeinae] . 3. Napaeae [Leiuouiinae]. 4. Leinoniades [Melitaeidi and Acraeidi] . 5. Dryades [Argynnidi]. G. Haniadryades [Vanessidi]. 7. Najades [Nymphalidi]. 8. Potamides [Apaturidi]. 9. Oreades [Satyrinae]. In this scheme many of the names of liorkhaiisen, seldom noticed, have been misapplied. It diifers from that of the author's European butterflies Tribus Gentiles. Stirps 1. Agrodiaeti [Lycaeninae] , 2. Arehontes [Papilioninae]. 3. Andropoda [Pierinae]. 4. Hypati [Libytheinae] . a. Telehines [Castniidae]. Astyci [Hesperidae]. 6. 60 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. in the introduction of the first three stirps, exotic groups omitted in the latter ; the Lemoniinae have a strange place assigned them ; it was un- doubtedly the character of the larva, with which he was acquainted, which induced him to place the Libytheinae next the Pierinae. In these schemes Hiibner is the first to place the Nymphalidae (in general) in opposition to all the rest of the butterfiies. The last mentioned work of Hiibner is more remarkable for its minute division of the genera than for anything else ; this division is founded mainly upon appearances and patterns of coloration, — a significant and help- ful but unsafe guide, by which he has been led into a great number of errors ; yet it is safe to say that he had arrived at that early day at a clearer idea of the minuter relationship among butterflies than almost any one since his time ; and as only about seventy genera of butterflies had been es- tal)lished previously to the publication of his w^ork, while he refers them to more than four times as many generic groups (under the designation Verein or Coitus*) , it is plain that a considerable portion of the names now in use must perforce be referred to Hiibner. Yet this is not all, for each one of his fifteen stirps was divided into families, sixty-two in number in all, which in connection with his stirps formed the compound generic designa- tions of his earlier works, designations to which, strange to say, he himself returned six years later in his list of European butterflies. To return to the classification of Latreille as altered in his various works : in the first edition of the liegne animal of Cuvier (1817), all the species were classed again under one genus, Papilio, which Avas divided into several subgenera arranged in much the same order as in his Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, but without any larger groups. In the Encyclope'die me'thodique (1819) the order of the Considerations ge'ne'rales was exactly fi^llowed with the introduction of a few new genera ; the families, however, Avere designated "tribes," and a more minute sub- division made ; among other things, doubtless from the influence of Leach, the Lycaenidae w^ere separated from the other Papilionides as a distinct division, but without name. In his Families naturelles (1825) he retains nearly the same sequence of genera, excepting in placing Libythea nearer its true allies. The tribe of Papilionides is, however, divided into two great groups, Hexapoda and Tetrapoda (although the latter term is not directly employed) and the latter are again divided into two unnamed groups corresponding to Nym- phalidae and Lycaenidae ; within the former of these last two, other large groups are recognized, as will be seen by the following general abstract of his scheme, under the Family Diurna : — ♦Hiibner employed the terra "genera" for terms to all the other categories, or new appli- the species, and gave either new collective cations to old terms. CLASSIFICATION OK I'.UTTKPv FLIES. 61 Tri I )(■ I 'd/i if ion idi'ft. Ilcxiipotla. A. I'lipilio, rnriuissins, Tli:iis. |{. Culias, Piciis. [Tctnipixla]. L A. I):iii;iicla, Iilca, ITclicoiiia, A, Dumeril divided the Globulicornes or Kopaloceres as he called the butterflies into three genera, Papilio, Hesperia and Heteropterus. In 1828, Horsfield, tlioroughly imbued with the somewhat fanciful views of MacLeay upon the classification of animals into quinary groups, proposed to divide the buttei-flies, or the "Tribe Pa[)iliones" into five stirps called respectively : — VtM'uiiforni stirjis [Lycaeninae] . C'hilo.iinatlufonn or Juliform stirp;^ [Papilionidao]. Chilopoiliform or Scolopendriforni stirps [Xymplialidao, excepting next gronjj]. Tliysanuriforni stirps [Satyrinae, Apaturidi]. Anopluriforni stirps [Hesperidae, Lenioniinae] . The construction of a special group equivalent to either of the others for those butterflies whose larvae have a fijrkcd tail is too unreasonable, with our })resent knowledge of butterflies, to admit of a single thought. But some excellent remarks will be found in the work, especially in praise of the A^'iener Verzeichniss. The quinary system of MacLeay also gained a voluble adherent in Swain- son, who in the previous year (Phil, mag.) had asserted that "-where we find the series of any particular group unbroken by sudden or al)ru[)t tran- sitions, it will always be found to contain five others of an inferior descrip- tion, two of Avhich will exhibit a perfection superior to the other three." Accordingly he proposed the following main division of butterflies : ypieal | p.["/uo,^yae^' aberrant ^ Polyoniniatidac. C Hesperidae. :i Polyoniniati ( HeHconidae. As these were not supposed to indicate a serial but only a circular ar- rangement, the Heliconidae being regarded as as near to the Nymphalidae as to the Polyommatidae, it was a clever attempt by one holding mathematical views akin to squaring the circle. In his subsequent essays, however, as 62 THE butti:rflies of nj:w England. ill his Zoological Illustrations, lie alters the names of his groups and em- ploys so many new family names — as Satyridae and Erycinidae — that it would seem as if his vieAvs were not fixed with any mathematical rigidity. Stephens, also, accepting the principal that "natural objects cannot be arranged agreeably to their affinities, otherwise than by a series of circles 'returning . . . into themselves,' "although "sceptical as to the quinary ar- rangement being universal," proposed in his Catalogue of 1829 four fami- lies of butterflies arranged thus : — [1.] Papilionidae. [2.] Nymplialidae. [4.] Hesperiidae. [3.] Lycaeuidae. In his serial list the order is given as I have numbered them. Boisduval is the next author to whom we must turn our attention. In his Index methodicus (1829) he divided the "Diurni" into three tribes, Papilionidi, Nymplialidi, and Hesperidi. No further subdivisions were offered excepting genera. The Lycaeninae were all placed in Polyommatus at the end of the first tribe. In the arrangement of the larger groups, then, this scheme has nothing that is natural excepting its termination with the "Hesperidi," as all authors have done ; it places the very highest and very lowest butterflies in juxtaposition, and is founded, though not expressly, on characters drawn from the pupa only. In his Species general, this same author gives a historical account of classifications proposed up to his time, which is full of the most extraordinary errors, and which ends with still another arrangement, differing from all preceding in the multiplication of groups called by him families, which are classed as above into three groups founded expressly on the mode of suspen- sion in the pupa. Siiccincti (Papillonides, Pierides, Eumeuides, Lycenides, Eryciuldes, Peridromides). Suspensi (Daiialdes, Helicouides, Nymplialides, Brassolides, Morphides, Satyrides, Biblidcs, Libythides). Involuti (Hesperides). This, it will be seen, is but a development of his former views, expressed in the Index and subsequently in his work on American butterflies with LeConte (1829-34), as well as in his Icones (1832-43) in which the groups Succincti and Susi^ensi or Pendulae are first introduced. It is the order adopted by a very large class of entomologists at the present day, and has the demerit of all classifications established on single characters ; fortunately, within a few years, the sounder opinions of previous writers are beginning to gain supporters, and to be established upon still more substan- tial grounds. From 1839-1859. The first step in this direction was taken by West- wood, in his Modern classification of insects (1839), not only with regard to the arrangement of the primary groups, but in opposition to the introduc- CLASSIFICATIOX OF BUTTERFIJES. 63 tlon of so luimy minor divisions, to wliidi an ecjuiviilent nink was accorded, tltat of families. Westwood divided the hiitterflies into six families in the followinii: order : Papilionidae, Ileliconidae, Xymphalidae, P^rycinidac, Lycaenidae, and IIesi)eridae ; the rai)ili(>nidae were further divided into two groii[)s. Excepting in the abnormal position of the Pa[)ilionidae, a legacy from many previous systems, the se(pience of the groups leaves little to be desired. In their Ilistoire naturelle des insectes (1840), Messrs. Blanchard and Brulle adopted most of the groups founded by Boisduval, but considered tJiem as subfamilies or tribes ; they arranged them also into four families whose secpience differs a little from that proposed by Boisduval, thus : Film. PapiUonians; tribes, Papillonites, Pieritcs. Fain. Nymphalu'ns; tribes, Pcriilroinites, Danaites, Heliconites, Arj,'ynnites, Bil)lites, Liby- tlieites, Nyiuplialites, Brassolites, Marphites, Satyrites. Fain. En/cinienn; tribes, Lycaenitcs, Erycinites. Fain. Hesperiens; tribe llesperitcs. Duponchel in his Catalogue mcthodique (1844) divided the "Diurna" into thirteen tril)es with no interAcning groups. They are [)laced in the following order : Danaidae, Argynnidae, Vanessidae, Libythcidae, Xym- phalidae, Satyridae, Papilionidae, Parnassidae, Pieridae, Rhodoceridae, Lycaenidae, Erycinidae, Hesperidae. Here again for the first time, for many years, the nymphalid groups are placed above the others, but the Lycaenidae and Erycinidae are still placed next the Hesperidae. It re- sembles the arrangement by Latreille in Sonnini's BufFon. In 1848 began the publication of the great work of Messrs. Doubleday and Hewitson on the Genera of butterflies, continued by Westwood in the place of Doubleday after the death of the latter. As Westwood fre- quently expresses his dissent from the classification of the larger groups adopted in the latter half of the work, and states that he has endeavored simply to complete the work as entirely as possible in accordance with the views of his predecessor, we must speak of the general classification as throughout that of Doubleday. In this classical work Doubleday divided the butterflies into numerous families without the intervention of larger groups or the use of subfamilies ; his families are as follows : Papilionidae, Pieridae, Ageronidae, Danaidae, Heliconidae, Acraeidae, Xymphalidae, Morphidae, Brassolidae, Satyridae, Libythcidae, Eurytelidae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae, Hesperidae. The Xymphalidae are thus broken up into an unusual number of groups, each of which is considered of fiunily value and equivalent to such large assemblages as the Lycaenidae or Hesperidae. Stephens's arrangement as given in the British Museum Catalogue of English insects (1850) is as follows : — Fam. Papilionidae; subfamilies, Papilionidi, Rhoiloceridi, Pieridi. Fam. Niimphalidae; sul)fainilies, Satyridi, Xymphalidi, Vanessidi, Argynnidi. Fain. Erycinidae. Fam. Lycaenidae. Fam. Hesperidae. 64 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. The only thing to be noticed in this arrangement, when compared with its recent predecessors, is the high rank accorded to the 8atyridi ; no sub- famihes were admitted among the Xyinphalidae in his previous catalogue, nor were the Satyrinae placed at the head of tlie Xymphalidae. Heydenreich in 1851 publislied a catalogue of European Lepido})tera in which there was no higher division of the butterflies than genera and these followed the order of Ochsenheimer. Lederer in his attempt at a serial distrilnition of Euroi)ean butterflies (Vcrhandl. zool.-bot. Ver. Wien, 1852) employed nine famiUes, placing Equites, Pierides, Lycaenoidae and Erycinides under Succincti ; Liby- theoidae, Nymphalides, Danaides and Satyroidae under Pendulae ; and closing with the Hesperioidae. The influence of Boisduyal is marked. In his Scandinavian butterflies (1853), AVallengren has introduced a new arrangement, in which Dalman's principal divisions are recognized. The butterflies are first divided into two families, Papiliones and Hesperi- oidae, and the former sul)divided thus : — Sect. I. Tetrapodes. Tribe IV. Parnusii. Tribe I. Satyroidae. ' V- Equites [Papilioiiitli] . II. Nymplaalides. VI. Lycaenoidae. Sect. II. He.rapodes. Sect. III. Ileteropodes. Tribe III. Helicouides [Pieriiiae]. Tribe VII. Erycinides. It is evident that he has been carried too far in his valuation of the structure of the fore legs when he unites the Lycaenoidae with the other liexapoda in distinction from the Erycinides. Xor is any reason given why the Heteropodcs would not be in their logical position between the other two sections. Lucas in Chenu's Encyclopedic (l85o) publislied an abstract of the o-enera gixcn by Doubleday and AVestwood, altering somewhat the dispo- sition of the groups, as the following table will show : — Earn, rupilionii. Tribe Nympbalidae. Div. Biblitae. '< NympTialii. Div. Argynitae. " Satyritae. Tribe Ageronidae. " Nymphalitae. Fani. Enjcinii. " Danaidae. " Morpbitae. Sect. Lycaenitae. " Ileliconidae. " T.rassolitae. " Erycinitae. " Acreidae. " Liliytbeitae. Eani. Hesperii. In 1854, P)ruant, like Wallengren, proposed to separate the Nymphalidae from the rest of the butterflies on account of the structure of the fore legs ; the following is his classification : — Div. I. Four ambulatory legs. Triljus 4. rolyonunatidae. Tribus 1. Satyridae. " 5- Tieridae. •• 2. Nympbalidae. " «• Parnaj^sidae. " 3. Argyuuides. " T. Papilionidae. Div. II. Six ambulatory legs. " 8. Ilesperidae. Perhaps the most peculiar characteristic of this arrangement is the unequal value of the tril)es, but in the sequence it is a clear improvement upon Wallengreu's scheme. C'LASSIFTCATIOX OF BUTTERFLIES. 65 Heinemann's usetnl and well digested work on the Lepido[)tera of Ger- many and Switzerland (1.S51I) arranged the buttei-flies in eight families in the following order : — Satyridae, Xyni[)halidae, Libythcidae, P^ryeinidae, Polyonimatidae, Kquitidae, Pieridae and Ifesperidac; an excellent scheme which showed that the influence of their earlier students had not forsaken Gcrinany. From 1861 to 1886. The reaction from a classification dividing but- terflies into a great number of groups to which equal value was accorded, seems to have begun with Bates, who, in 1861 (Journ. ent.) proposed the following ai'rangement, in which it will also be noticed that the Papilionidae are placed low in the scale, as by Bruant and Ileinemann. Faiii. Xtjmplirdidae. Fiun. Eri/cinidae. 8ul)f;iin. Acraeiiiae. Suhfani. Lil)ytheinae. " Heliconinac. •' Stalafhtinae. •' Danainac. " Erycininac. " Satyrinae. Fain. Lycaenidae. *' Brassolinac. " Fapilionidae. " Nynipbalinae. Subfam. Pierinao. " Papilioninao. Fam. Hesperidae, In 1864 (Trans. Linn. Soc.) this scheme was so modified as to bring the first two subfamilies of the Nymphalidae between the Brassolinae and Xymphalinae, doubtless on account of the structure of the caterpillar. In the following year Trimen issued his Rhopalocera Africae australis in which the classification of Doubleday and Westwood was expressly fol- lowed ; while the Felders published (Wien. ent. Monatsschr.) a list of butterflies of the Eio Xegro in which these w^re separated into a dozen families in the following order : Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Ery- cinidae, Libytheidae, Danaidae, Acraeidae, Helicon idae, Xymphalidae, Biblidae, Satyridae, Hesperiidae ; this essay is mentioned because the authors adopted the same order in their great work on the Xovara Lepidop- tera in 1864-67, excepting that a fiimily X^eriidae [Stalachtinae Bates] Avas added after Erycinidae, and Eumesiidae after Satyridae. The ideas promidgated by Bates did not at once take root, for in an advanced text-book of the day we find Gerstaecker (Cams, Handb. Zool., ii : 1863) following mainly the order proposed by BoisduAal, but placing the Erycinidae and Lycaenidae under Boisduval's Suspensi ! Gruppp I. Succiiicta (Equltes, Pieriilae). Gruppe II. Suspensa (Danaidae, Heliconidae, Acraeidae, Xymphalidae, ^[orpbidae, Satyridae, Libytheidae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae). Gruppe III. Ilesperiadae. So also in the following year Herrlch-SchaefFer, in his Prodromus, gives a new classification of buttei'flies in which several more minor groups are credited with a family rank and no intermediate divisions used ; the "families" follow each other in the following sequence: Heliconina, Danaina, Brassolina, Biina, Iletaerina, Satyrina, Elymniina, Eagadina, 66 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NP:W ENGLAND. Euiytcliiui, Xymplialina, Libytheina, Erycinina, Lycaenina, Picridina, Eqiiitina, and Hesperidina. Excepting in the intercliange of position of the Picridina and Equitina, the order is that of Heincniann. Kanibur, in a too little known work on the Lepidoptera of Andalnsia (l(i), dropping the Boisduvalian system he had employed in l^ot) in his incompleted work on the same fauna, divided the butterflies into two tribes, Papilioniens and Hesperiens, as he previously had done into Pla- typteres and Micropteres, and the former into eight families arranged in the following order : Nymphalides, .ipaturides, Satyridcs, Libythcidcs, Ery- cinides, Lycenides, Pierides and Papilionides. Whether he was acquainted or not with the reform Bates had suggested does not appear, but if not, the similarity and independence of his scheme show the hand of a master. In lS()i», in Butler's Catalogue of the Fabrician butterflies, published by the British Museum, we find the first attempt to follow throughout the whole group the leading of Bates, it being adopted with but trifling varia- tions : and ever since the English have been foremost in returning to what was practically the early continental method, from A\'hich the French ento- mologists had so lono- led the world astray. In 1871, ai)peared the well known Catalogue of European butterflies by Staudinger, — a AAork which has become a necessity to every student of European Lepidoptera, but has also been a great block to the proper appreciation of the relative affinities of the larger groups ; the obvious advantages of following an otherwise excellent catalogue prevents the acceptance of views, which, if held, require one to follow in his cabinets and writings a diflferent order from that adopted in the catalogue. In this work, followed in the main by ^Nloschler in his arrangement of European butter- flies (Abhandl. naturf. Ges. Gorlitz, 1879) and by Frey in his Lepi- doptera of Switzerland (1880), the butterflies are divided into families with tlie following order : Papilionidae, Pieridae, Lycacnidae, Erycinidae, Liby- theidae, Apaturidae, Nymphalidae, Danaidae, Hesperidae. AVorse confu- sion of proi)er sequences could scarcely have been found, if it were not that there are undoubted tolerably near aflfinities between each of these " fiunilies" and those on either side of it, excepting between the Danaidae and Hesperidae, which have exceedingly little in common not shared by all butterflies ; and the defender of any near relationship would hardly venture to make himself heard. If, with the exception of the Hesperidae, the order were exactly reversed, it would be far nearer the truth. As an oflfset to this, and an excellent one, there appeared in the same year a catalogue of the Lepidoptera of the whole world, the vade mecura of lci)idoptcrists. In this work Kirby follows in the main Bates's divisions but witli a rather more numerous array of subfamilies : — CLASSIFICATION OK BUTTERFLIES. 67 Nijinphalidue ; siilifam., Danaiiiac, Satyriiiao, Elyimiiiiiac, Murpliiiiao, Rntssolinao, A(;raci- nae, Ilolicoiiinao, Nymiilialinac LemoniUlne ; sul)faiii., IJItytliciiiac, Ni'incohiinao, EiiseluHiiiiac, f.omoiiiinap. Lycaenidae. Pdpilionidap. ; siilifani., I'icrinao, I'apiliDiiinac. Hesperidap. In tlie same ve:ir, too, appeared in England a work on Britisli buttei'flics by Xewnian, reniarkal)le more for tlie origination of new names tlian any- thing else, bnt still indicating that the awakening In'oiight about by Bates was bearing fruit in independent thought. The interest attached to the grou})ing is that, like the Wiener Verzeic^hniss, it is founded largely upon characters drawn from the early stages. The buttei^flies are termed "Lejn- doptera pedunculata " in view of the development of the cremaster, and are divided first into Detegentes and Celantes ; the latter comprise the family Hesperidae, while the former are subdivided as follows : — i. Suspensl. a. Spinigori (Argynnidao, Melitaoidap, Vaiiessidao, Noptidao). b. Liinaeifonuos (Apaturidae, Satyridao). ii. Succincti, a. Onisciformes (Erycinidae, Lycaenidae). b. Cylindracei, sen Vermiformos (Rhodoeeridae, Papilioniilae, Pioridae). A curious and indefensible thing about this minor grouping (for which no reasons are given or can be inferred from the context) is placing the swallow-tails between the yellows and the w^hites ; but as a whole, it has some marked merits. A somewhat similar attempt, largely based on larval characters, was made by a French naturalist, better known for his work on the lower fami- lies of Lepidoptera, Mr. Guene'e. In 1875 he prepared a list of the Lepi- doptera of the department of Eure-et-Loir in which he proposed the following somewhat complicated classification, in which the atrophy of the legs was recognized, but not given any special value. Div. BicalcaraU. Phal. Tetrapi. Leg. Onisciformes. Leg. Fusifornies. Trib. Spinosae. Phal. Micropi. Phal. Hexapi. Fam. Argynnidae. Tril>. Sulcati, Trib. Tentaculatae. Fam. Yanessidae. Fam. Tlieelidae. Fam. Papilionidae. Trib. Caruucidatae. Fam. Lycaenidae. Trib. Granulosae. Fam. Nympbalidae. Phal. Ileteropi. Fam. Pieridae. Fam. Apaturidae. Fam. Nemeol)idae. Fam. Rhodoceridae. Trib. Furculae. Div. Qnadricalcaratl. Fam. Satyridae. Fam. Hesperidae. In 1872, I published the first expression of my views on the classifica- tion of butterfiies in a Systematic revision of our New England species, with a few others. Then believing that the law of priority should be ex- tended to all the higher groups as well as to genera and species, and finding a great neglect of the names employed by the founders of the sci- ence, I endeavored to introduce these names anew, — an attempt which probably somewhat obscured my main purpose of introducing a more G8 THE BUTTERFLIES OF XEW ENGLAND. rational classification of the insects themselves. The present adoption of the sensible rules of nomenclature promulgated by the American Ornithol- oo-ists' Union no longer requires adherence to this standard. The scheme adopted, which of course did not comprise such groups as were exclusively tropical, was as follows : — Fuin. Nymph ales Uim. [Nyinphalidae] . Subfam. Epliori Hcrbst [Lycaeuiuae] . Siibfam. Oreades Borkh. [Satyrinao]- Tribe Arniati Iliibii. [Thcclkli]. " TribuniHerbst. [Euploeinae]. " Adolescentcs Hiibu. [Lycaeiiidi] . " Najades Borkli. [Nymphaliuae] . " Villicantes Hubn. [Clirysopbaiiidi] . Tribe Archontes Herbst [Xyinphalidi] . Fain. PapUlrmides Latr. [Papilionidac] . " Phalerati Hubu. [Apaturidi]. Subfam. Danai Linn. [Pierinae]. " Praefecti Herbst [Vane.ssidi] . Tribe Fugacia Hubn. [Rhodoccridi] . " Dryades Borkh. [Argynnidi]. " Voracia Hiilni. [Pieridi]. " Hamadrj^ades Borkh. [Melitaeidi] . " Frugalia Hiibn. [Anthocharidi]. Subfam. HypatiHiibn. [Libytheinae] . Subfam. Equites Linn. [Papilioninae] . Yarn. Burales Fahr. [Lycaenidae] . Fam. TJrhicolue Fabr. [Hesperidae] . Suljfam. Vestales Herbst [Lemoniinac] . As will be seen, this arrangement very closely follows the order of Bates's classification, but differs somewhat in subordinate points. With slight alterations the same classification was followed in my unfinished Syn- onymic list of American butterflies (Buff. Bull. 18 75-7 (i). Burmeister in his Lepidoptera of the Argentine Republic (1878) fol- lows Doubleday, as will be seen by the following order of his families : Papilionidae, Pieridae, Danaidae, Heliconiidae, Nymphalidae, Satyridae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae, Hesperidae and Castniadae. Another European naturalist, resident like Burmeister in South America, Constant Bar, published in the same year a critical essay on the classi- fication of butterflies, in which, evidently availing himself only of such his- torical information as came from French sources, and taking into primary account the suspension of the chrysalis, the attitude of the wings of the butterfly in repose, and the use of the front legs, he divided the "lihopalo- ceres" into five sections and sixteen tribes, of which ten were given to the Suspendues. The plan is as follows : — Suspendiies. Heliconides. Lycaenides. Satyrides. Lanaides. Variables. Brassolides ou Pavonidcs. Mechanitides. Erycinides. Morphides. Leptalides. Enroulees. Apaturides. Succinctes. Hesperides. Nymphalides. • Pi^rides. Endophytes. Acraeides. Papilionides. Castnides. Next come in sequence of time three important English works, which follow substantially or completely the classification of Bates : these are Moore's Lepidoptera of Ceylon, Marshall and de Niceville's Butterflies of India, and Distant's superb volume on Rhopalocera Malay ana ; to which we may add the second edition of Trimen's South African Butterflies, now pu]>lishing. In a brief paper in the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society, CLASSIFICATION OF I5UTTERFLIES. G9 (1883), J. r>. Smith divides the butterflies into five families (folhmino; as he says M\ II. Edwards, though Kdwai-ds lias never defined a single fjimily), Papilionidae, Nymi)halidae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae, and Ilespe- ridae : hut a couple of years later (loc. cit. 1885), he changes the order to Nymphalidae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae, Papilionidae, and Hesperidae. Claus, in Ills text book of zoology (Engl, ed., 1885), recognizes six families whicli, though in no way characterized, are ranged in the following order : — E(piitidae, Tieridac, Nymphalidae, Satyridae, Lycaenidae, Hes- peridae. In the same year Girard published the Lepidoptera of his Traite d'ento- mologic, in which, while he recognized but four principal groups, with the same scope and sequence and (except their Gallic form) the same names as will be found in the present work, the Nymphaliens are separated into tweh-e different and equal divisions ; even in these, had not the Age'ronides and Libytheides been placed at the head, the sequence would have been substantially that employed in the present work. In this year also the late Dr. E. Schatz began his Avork on the structure of butterflies in connection with Staudinger's Exotische schmetterlinge. In this work, while recognizing the importance of Bates's contribution to the classification of butterflies, the author fails to adopt its most characteristic features (the limited number of primary groups, and the low position of the Papilionidae), and subdivides butterflies into no less than fourteen fami- lies, in the following order : Papilioniden, Pieriden, Danaiden, Neotropiden [Danaoid Heliconidae of Bates], Heliconiden, Acraeiden, Nymphaliden (in which twelve gvou\)S are recognized) Morphiden, Brassoliden, Satyriden, Libytheiden, Eryciniden, Lycaeniden and Hesperiden. In this w^ork (un- fortunately not completed before the death of the author) , an attempt is made to define all the groups above species for the whole w^orld, but it is by no means done in a satisfiictory manner. The last general attempt that has been made to give in a brief shape the general classification of butterflies is that by Plotz in his System der schmet- terlinge in 1886. In this compact little essay the butterflies are first divided into Papilionidae and Hesperidae, the latter with the single family Hespe- riina, the former with a still further intermediate grouping (presumably families) into Nynq)halidae, Lemoniidae and Succinctae. The first of these contains eight divisions : Heliconina, Danaina, Acraeina, Xympha- lina, Morphina, Brassolina, Satyrina and Elymniina : the second, three : Libytheina, Eumesiina and Erycinina ; and the third, three others : Lycae- nina, Pieridina and Pxpiitina. The principal objection to this scheme is his placing the Lycaenina in the same division with the Pieridina rather than with the Erycinina, and the much greater distinction between the three subfamilies of Succinctae than between most of the other subfiimilies. 70 THE BUTTERFLIP:S of new ENGLAND. This review shows that there has been very great diversity of view anion o- naturalists, first regarding the number of primary groups into which butterflies should be divided, and, second, with regard to their se- quence. In only a single instance has there been entire unanimity, and that is in the separation of the Hesperidae, as a distinct group of greater or less value, and its low position next the moths ; and, with the exception of one or two instances Avhere the authors have been led away by the striking peculiarities of the caterpillar, no one has ventured to place the Lycaeni- dae at the head. If, as in this work, we consider tlie butterflies to be primarily divisible into four great families, the contention has generally lain between the superiority of the Nymphalidae and of the Papilionidae. Notwithstanding that the first keen investigator of the structure of butter- flies, Reaumur, more than a century and a half ago, showed how widely the structure of the front legs of the Nymphalidae differs from that of those of other butterflies, Linne, the first great systematist, paid not the slightest attention to the value of distinctions, of Avhose character he must have been aware and which at first he used, but based his initiatory groupings of but- terflies largely on mere superficial resemblances drawn from the form and ordinary attitude of the wings ; and although in his earliest works he placed the Nymphalidae at the head, when his Systema naturae reached its climax, he began his system of butterflies with the Papilionidae. In this he was followed implicitly, as might be expected, by his disciple Fabricius, and the influence of these two old systematists upon even the present genera- tion of naturalists is something surprising. For, as we have shown, Greoffi'oy, more than a century ago, made use of the characters pointed out by Reaumur, in which the Nymphalidae differ widely from the Papilionidae and Hesperidae, and placed the Nymphalidae in their proper position at the widest remove from the Hesperidae. Not only this, but he was followed by all the naturalists of that day, — Borkhausen, Herbst, Cuvier and, in his earlier works, Latreille — in this elevation of the Nymphalidae to the high- est rank ; with the sole exception, it should be said, of Denis and ScliiflTer- muller and their follower Schrank, who, relying exclusively on characters drawn from the caterpillars, and noting the distinctive characters of those of the Lycaenidae, placed this latter group the highest. But even these authors, who, as Ave have said, placed their whole reliance on the early stages, brought the Papilionidae in immediate juxtaposition to the Hesperi- dae. In England, where the Linnean traditions held sway longest, the Papilionidae Avere given the highest rank even as late as 1815, in Leach's first work, and these views were reinforced by the influence of the French naturalists even down to Westwood and Doubleday. Oilr review shows that within the last sixty years the principal supporters of high rank for the Papili(jnidae were, besides those already stated, Lederer, Gerstaecker, Staudinger, Claus and Schatz, not to mention Lucas, Trimen (in his earlier CLASSIFICATIOX OF BUTTERFLIES. 71 work), Mo.scliIer, Frcv, and Burmeister, wlio simply followed in the lines of some predecessors, nor A\^illace who has not discussed the general clas- sification of l)utterflics and so is not mentioned above; while anionfj those who ha\H' jdaci'd the \vm[)halidae highest have been Iliihner, Dalman, Ochscnlu'imcr, Ilciaemann, Herrich-SchafFer and Plotz amon<)- the (icr- mans, l)ui)onchel, Bniant, Ivambnr, Girard, and J>ar anionij the French, and among the English J3atcs, Butler, Kirby, Newman, Distant, Trimen (in his later work), Moore and indeed all the recent writers. Among the authors who have placed the Nymphalidac at the head, by no means all have acknowledged the close relationship of the Papilionidae to the llesperidae. But on the other hand, this has been recognized by many who did not give the Nyraphalidae the highest position. Thus it has been clearly pointed out or indicated by GeofFroy, by Denis and 8chitfermiiller, Schrank, Latreille and Cuvier, by Swainson and Stephens among the idealists or cyclists, by Bi'uant, Heineman, Bates, Herrich- SchafFer, Rambur, Girard, Butler, Kirby, Distant, Trimen, jMoore, New- man, Smith and Plotz. The weight of authority, however, is a matter of least importance. The question is rather one of fiict. and while we have no right to expect that anv great difference in relative rank will be found between groups of so low a grade as families within a single order, we nevertheless do find two very strilving facts, which can leave very little doubt in the mind of any unprejudiced student as to the general sequence in which these groups should follow each other. This is the more clearly the case inasmuch as there is no doubt in the mind of any one that one of these families, the Hesperidae, holds the lowest rank and is the most closely related to the moths. It would seem, therefore, as if in the structural departure of the families, as such, from the Hesperidae, we might find a clue to their relative positions ; and this is unquestionably the case. The classification which is presented in this work differs only in minor points from that for- merlv proposed by me, which in its turn followed closely in the line of the reformation by Bates. Any variation in the arrangement of the subordinate groups from that system will be explained in its proper place. It is only desirable here to discuss very briefly the relative position of those fiunilies which by all writers are regarded as higher than the Hesperidae. To do this it will be hardly necessary to go further than to point out two series in the structure and habits of butterflies, to show how marked and distinct is the transition from one groiq) to another, — series which have not only been recognized by diftcrent writers, but have been considered important enough to be placed at the foundation of their schemes of classification. In the first place, let us take those features which were first l)rought forcibly to view by Dalman and afterwards by Boisduval, the latter of whom nevertheless misapplied them in the strangest manner and for no 72 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. obvious reason whatever. It is w^ell known that as a general rule moths undergo their transformations to chrysalis within a cocoon, spun by the caterpillar, or in a cell moulded beneath the surface of the ground. The same is true of the lowest family, Hesperidae, which usually make such a cocoon within a rolled-up leaf or cluster of leaves, and hence had given them by Boisduval the term Involuti. It was not noted l)y him, nor has it been, as far as we are aware, by any author, though figured by many, that within this cocoon they generally, perhaps always, spin a pair of shrouds, into the middle of one of which they plunge their cremaster, while by the other they support the middle of the body (86:26 ; 87:12). Now, remove this outer cocoon and leave the shrouds, and one has, with only such changes as are absolutely required by the lack of the en- circling cocoon, the character of the support of the chrysalis of the Papili- onidae, viz., a button of silk attached to the object from which the chrysalis hangs, and a loose girt around the middle of the body. In the Lycaenidae, we pass simply to a still closer attachment of these fastenings, so that the rounded chrysalis appears almost glued to the surface to which it is attached ; and these two families, the Lycaenidae and the Papilionidae were classed by Boisduval under his Succincti. In the Nymphalidae, by the loss of the median girt the chrysalis hangs suspended by its hinder end, and forms the group termed by Boisduval Suspensi or Penduli, which he and his followers interpose between the Involuti and the Succincti. Yet we have here a regular progression from the cocoon of the moths to the almost total absence of the use of any silk for the quiescent period of life. Even the few exceptions to this rule seem to be entirely explanable as instances of reversion. Thus the only case among the higher butterflies where a cocoon properly speaking is made, is in the subfamilies most closely allied to the Hesperidae, among the group of Parnassidi and Anthocharidi ;* and again in exceedingly feeble instances where the necessities ap})ear to be overwhelmingly great, among some of the higher Nymphalidae, which have lost even the last remnant of the cocoon of moths ; viz., in some of the Satyridae, which lack cremastral hooks and undergo their transformations ordinarily in the rudest form of a cell which they can construct above or at the surface of the ground, by the mere movements of the body and the spin- ning of one or two threads of silk. So, too, there are known to be one or two instances where one of the Nymphalidae is suspended so firmly by its cremastral hooks as to hold the chrysalis in a rigid oblique position very akin to that of the Lycaenidae, but without the aid of the median girt ; and as a forerunner of the "suspended" condition, one or two of the Lemoniinae, species of Stalachtis and Emesis, are stated by Bates to have an entirely similar mode of pupation. Again, anotlier of the Nymphalidae, Ageronia, is said by Lacordaire to be supported in part by a median girt *Bar asserts that the same is true in some South American Lemoniinae. CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTERFLIES. 73 which, if true, might be looked upon as an atavistic relic of its ancestral condition ; but Bar, Burmeister and Miiller say it hangs like other Nym- j)h}ilidac. Moreover, an additional feature appears in the structure of the chrysalis of a large number of the Nymphalidae, whicli would seem to indi- cate that they inherit the mark of the "succinct" condition of their ances- tors, in the straight ventral surface of the entire chrysalis, a feature absolutely without value in its present suspended condition, but full of meanino-, since it is one necessarily common to all tlie close bound members of the higher Succincti, the Lycaenidae. The second series wliich one may follow is that which has been seized upon by writers from the earliest times, — the structure of the front legs. In the Hesperidae, the fore legs, like those of the heterocerous families of Le})idoptera, differ in no respect from the others, excepting that the hind tibiae are usually furnished with a pair of spurs at the middle as well as at tlie tip, and the fore tibiae bear a peculiar epiphysis, the use of which is un- known, but which, morphologically, is unquestionably a spur. In the sub- family Papilioninae, the middle pair of spurs of the hind legs is altogether lost, but the fore-tibial epiphyses remain and the fore leg is otherwise entirely similar in character to the other legs. Next, in the closelv allied subfamily, Pierinae, the tibial epiphyses disappear, but the fore leo;s still remain identically like the other pairs. As soon, however, as we have reached the Lycaenidae, we notice signs of an approaching abortion of the fore-legs, but only in one sex, the male. In the Lycaeninae, while the fore leg of the female does not differ from the other legs, that of the male begins to lose a part of its armature and to become abbreviated : the tarsal spurs are denuded of scales and both the tibial and tarsal spines are diminished in number ; the paronychia and pads are invariably absent ; and the claws are represented by an apical spine or spines differing from the other spines at most in size. In the Lemoniinae the change has already become much greater ; for, with scarcely an excep- tion, the fore leg of the male has become very much smaller than in the female, and while each part is reduced in size, the tarsus is represented by a diminished number of joints, totally devoid, as is also the tibia, of any armature whatever, but clothed abundantly with long scales and hairs. There is here also sometimes a faint indication of change in the female, the spines of the tarsus being less abundant than on the other legs. In the Nymphalidae, the change affects both sexes ; not, liowevcr, in the lowest subfamily, the Libytheinae, which, on this account, many authors who have given special attention to the structure of the legs ha\e classed with the Lemoniinae. But in all other Nymphalidae we have for the first time both sexes represented in the atrophy of the fore legs, and the abor- tion is also carried to a far greater extent. They are also frequently fur- nished, especially in the male sex, with a spreading brush of long hairs. 74 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. which gives them a peculiar lappet-like appearance. They are quite use- less, and in the Satyrinae are reduced to the extremest degree. When we remember that the small size of the prothorax is one of the most striking and massive features by which the Lepidoptera are distin- guished from the lower heterometabolic orders, — the Neuroptera, Orthop- tera, Hemiptera and Coleoptera, — any atrophy of its parts in the higher members of the order is especially significant. It is an excess, so to speak, of this aristocratic distinction, and such rank as could be expected between the members of a single order might surely be indicated by it. Nevertheless, however important or unimportant this may appear, there is the series, which can in no way be disputed, leading from the Hesperidae in a direct and unbroken course through the Papilioninae, Pierinae, Ly- caeninae, Lemoniinae to the Nymphalidae, and culminating in the Satyr- inae, a series which takes an identical course with that of the phenomena of pupation, through Hesperidae, Papilionidae, Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae. Now Avhat have the supporters of the high rank of the Papilionidae to offer as against such series ? No series whatever ; no gradation of charac- ters whatever. No one of them claims it. The only characters for which they maintain the supremacy of the Papilionidae are drawn exclusively from one-half the family, the Papihoninae.* These are 1st, the "appar- ently four-branched median nervule" of the fore wing, 2d, the spur on the anterior tibiae, and 3d, the osmateria of the larva. As to the 1st, it is a character of definition at the most, of a character easily paralleled among other groups of butterflies, having no claim to superiority on any conceivable ground, and a mark indeed, of inferiority, since it is shared by the Hesperidae and by them only, as is also the two-branched subcostal ner- vure of the hind wing, as Spangberg points out. As to the 2d, it is again a mark of low rank, as it too is shared by many of the Hesperidae, and among butterflies only by them, but is well developed in many moths and especially in the Bombycidae and Phalaenidae. And as to the 3d, so seductively put forward by Wallace, it has more than its match in the abdominal caruncles of the Lycaenidae (not to mention those of many moths) which are double in character, and the more prominent ones more complicated in structure and paired. The osmateria are even said by Boisduval to be exactly repeated in the larva of Urania. The features, therefore, by which the naturalist would claim high rank for the Papilionidae are utterly insuflficient. They may indicate their low rank, or at the most form special distinctive features with no token of high character about them. When any characters can be shown in the Papilionidae with any mark of superiority about them, or, characters common to all buttei-flies which lead from the Hesperidae in a regular progression through the other groups to find their culmination in * It is of no consequence that many hold always has to be associated with the Papilion- the Pierinae as a group of family rank ; it iuae as its very next neighbor. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION. 75 the Papilionidae, then it will be in place to discuss further the proper serial or other arrangement of butterflies. Until they can , the numerous characters by which the Papilionidae, and the Papilionidae alone, are related to the Hesperidae must be regarded, with the series shown above, to settle the matter beyond reasonable dispute. The facts, as known at present, admit of l)ut one interpretation. III. THE PHYSICAL FEATURES AND FAUNISTIC DIVISIONS OF NEW ENGLAND. THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF NEW ENGLAND. BY W. M. DAVIS. "Yours for iustauce, you know physics, something of geology, Mathematics are your pastime; souls shall rise in their degree; Butterflies may dread extinction, — you'll not die, it cannot be ! Browning.—^ Toccata of GaluppVs. New England is a rugged country of mountainous structure, worn down to a moderate relief in its old age, depressed so as to submerge part of its margin beneath the sea, and unevenly veneered over with a broken sheet of drift, which covers many of its smaller hills and buries nearly all the valley-bottoms out of sight. It is built in greatest part of crystalline or of old and much disturbed bedded rocks, that have undoubtedly at some former time given it a much stronger relief than it possesses at present ; but it is now so long since its rocks were crowded into upheaval and ex- trusion that little more than the roots of its old mountains remain. Indeed, its rocks are so old, and even the last period of its overturning so remote, that it has probably been at some time in the past denuded to a surface of gentle undulation ; and it is in this surface that the present valleys ha^•e been cut after a later time of general elevation. But even this change is ancient, for little of the old surface can now be seen. It may be re- constructed from such remnants as the plateau-like uplands of central or western Massachusetts, where the relatively deep and narrow ^•alleys of Deerfield and Miller's rivers, that enter the Connecticut from the west and east near Greenfield, show that a good volume of high-level country still remains there to be consumed ; it may be faintly perceived at a greater altitude in the White Mountains, where the broad surfaces between the dark glens, that are now eating their way back into the mountain masses, manifest little topographic sympathy with the complicated structure of the upturned rocks : but in the greater part of New England, the larger streams 76 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. had already in preglacial times sunk their channels well down towards the base-level, the side streams had become very numerous and the valley-slopes had widened out as the intervening hills wasted away ; and a rolling, hilly surface, rising in places to mountains of moderate heights, has thus been produced. It is not desired to affirm in this description that the earlier erosion had produced a perfect plain ; considerable inequalities doubtless remained at the time of general elevation ; nor that all our rivers are new- born ; the larger ones may still follow the course of their ancient predeces- sors ; nor that the elevation was sudden, single or uniform ; it was more probably progressive and uneven : but it can hardly be questioned that the preparation of our topography required some such process as is here sketched. Pennsylvania has had a similar history ; but there the relatively simple and orderly structure of the rocks compels a correspondingly simple and orderly arrangement in the present topography. In New England, the harder and higher parts of the old surface presumably still remain in the mountains and hills of to-day, but the rock structure which determined the arrange- ment of these parts is so complicated that a simple and systematic classifi- cation of the present topography is impossible. Moreover, New England has been heavily glaciated in comparatively recent times, and although ice cannot be held responsible for the production of the greater topographic forms, it has been directly and indirectly most potent in fashioning the details of form which are familiar to us on every side. Before considering these, the larger physical divisions of New England may be briefly de- scribed. There are five divisions easily recognized. The Hudson-Champlain val- leys, which mark the natural or physical boundary of New England on the west ; the Green Mountains and the associated ranges on their western slope ; the great valley of the Connecticut Kiver ; the White Mountains, descending to a plateau with occasional mountains in southern New Hamp- shire, and continued as a dissected plateau in Massachusetts and Connecti- cut, while to the northeast the disconnected mountains of northern Maine may be placed in the same group : and finally the lower coastal slope from Rhode Island north-eastward. The Green Mountains may be conveniently taken first. Their main range consists of gneissoid rocks, trending a little east of north through the western parts of Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont. South of the latter state, they form a dissected plateau, under 2500 feet in height : farther north, the elevation increases, and the range is dominated by well marked summits, four of which rise over 4000 feet : Jay Peak, 4018 ; Mansfield Mountain, 4389 ; Camel's Rump, 4077 ; and Killington Peak, 4221. It is, curiously enough, only in the northern, higher portion of the range that it is traversed by rivers ; the Winooski and the Lamoille, flowing from east to west, open low passes (about 400 and 500 feet) for transverse roads, PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION. 77 while farther soutli it is generally respected by the streams as a divide. North of our l)oundary, the range encloses the upper basin of the St. Francis river, but decreases in height and disappears in the lowlands of the St. Lawrence about the Ciiaudiere river. On the west of the Green Mountains lies the Taconic range, whose dis- connected summits consist of folded schists rising from limestone valleys. The range is best developed in w'estern Massachusetts and southwestern Vermont, where the chief elevations are, beginning on the south, Mt. Everett, 2G24 ; Greylock, 3505 ; Mt. Eolus, 3148 ; Mt. Equinox, 3872. The associated valleys have their highest level at about a thousand feet in Berkshire, Massachusetts. A second subordinate range lies along the eastern shore of Lake Champlain ; it is built of red sand-rock, dipping to the east and presenting bold bluffs to the west ; the highest peaks are Buck and Snake mountains, the latter rising to 1310 feet. These two ranges are traversed by many streams. The Hudson and Champlain valleys trend north with the strike of their bedded rocks, and are doubtless guided also by the great dislocations that pass between the Green Mountains on the east and the Adirondacks and Catskills on the west. The Hudson still maintains an open passage to the sea, holding its way even through the Highlands, where the Green Moun- tains turn south-westward to New Jersey ; but the Champlain valley has been converted into a lake, as will be further noted below, and its side val- leys are flooded into bays Avhile its ridges stand up in promontories and islands. Its waters now stand at an elevation of one hundred feet and the divide south of Whitehall between the waters flowing north and south is under two hundred feet above the sea. To the north, the Champlain val- ley expands into the great plain of the St. Lawrence. The Connecticut valley is a strong depression between the mountains. At the junction of the Passumpsic with the main stream the elevation is a little less than 500 feet. Thence southward, the river course is remarkably straight, following close to a line of ancient slates, between New Hamp- shire and Vermont, and then along the middle of the Triassic sandstones to central Connecticut at Middletown, where the river turns southeast through the crystalline highlands, while the valley goes on to Long Island Sound at New Haven. This oblique outlet is showm to be old by its gently sloping sides ; it serves better than any other single feature to demonstrate that the larger lines of our present drainage were determined before the land stood at its present attitude and altitude. The valley is diversified by mountains of three kinds. In Vermont there are several isolated masses of intrusive granite that rise from the lower ground, of which the conical Ascutney (31G3 feet) maybe taken as the finest example. In Massachusetts and Connecticut, there are ridges of trap and sandstone. The latter seldom attain prominence south of Mt. Toby 78 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. (1275 feet) and Sugar Loaf (709) in Massachusetts above Amherst; the former constitute a characteristic feature of the valley farther south. The trap occurs chiefly in interbedded sheets, dipping to the east, with bold convex outhne to the west, broken by oblique fault-valleys : the highest points on the ridges are Mt. Holyoke (954) and Mt. Tom (1150) near Northampton, Mass., and West Peak (99G) and Higby Mountain near Meriden, Conn. The district of the Hanging Hills, between Meriden and Farmington, is among the most picturesque in southern New England. Mt. Carmel, a little ftirther south, is a dike standing up in a bold ridge. The White Mountains of New Hampshire include several subordinate groups separated by deep valleys. The chief of these is the Presidential range, culminating in Mt. Washington at an altitude of 6293 feet, with Mounts Monroe, Clay, Jefferson, Adams and Madison, all over five thou- sand feet : this group stands pre-eminent among its neighbors, as the White Mountains exceed the other mountains of New England. To the east, the Carter range rises to 4856 feet, beyond which the mountains are scattered and of less elevation, soon falling off to the lowlands of Maine. To the north, there is the Starr King group (3925) and beyond this the Pilot range. To the west is the Franconia range, containing Twin Mountain (4922), Mt. Lafayette (5269), Mt. Lincoln (5098) and Hay- stack (Garfield, 4520) ; and isolated beyond these is Moosilauke (4810) on the eastern border of the Connecticut valley. Southward from the Franconia range lie several groups, including Mt. Carrigain (4701), Tri- pyramid (4189) and Passaconaway (4116^. There is little continuity or uniformity of arrangement in this complicated mountain region. The rocks are crystalline or highly metamorphosed, and are greatly disturbed and eroded : their massive structure and the heavy glaciation that most of them have suffered prevent the development of much topographic detail, and most of the summits are blunt shoulders with rounded spurs ; but at times the gneissoid and schistose rocks give expression to ridges and cliffs, as about Mt. Washington, where the slopes of loose weathered boulders descend Avith the dip of the beds, while the outcrop face is marked by precipitous walls of solid rock. Chocorua (3508) on the southern border of the range is one of the sharpest peaks. The timber line lies, on Mount Washington, between 4000 and 4500 feet above the sea ; at greater heights there is a well marked alpine flora . The open lower valleys are generally cleared, but the intermediate slopes are heavily forested, except where too rocky and precipitous for tree growth, or Avhere bared by recent fires, or by slides, such as those of Tripyramid in 1869 and 1885 ; clearings have not yet desolated the moun- tains, and from many sunnnits, such as Mt. Carrigain, little more than a ruiro:ed tree-covered wilderness is to be seen. Unlike the Green Mountains, the present range is nowhere traversed PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF THE REGION. 79 t'roiii side to side l)y streams. There is continuous divide from Mt. Carr, south of Moosilauke, over the Franconia and Presidential ranges to the Carter group, and again southward from the Franconia range to the Tripyramid groups, and northward from Mt. Wasliington to Starr King and beyond. But on the other hand, the range is throughout its length characterized by deep transverse notches, dividing it into the groups above named ; and as tlie deepest notches have a north and south trend, with flat sunnnit passes and rather smooth slopes, a considerable but undetermined share of their depth may be attributed to glacial action, of which more below. The finest of these notches are : Dixville notch, east of Colebrook, with a summit height of 1831 feet, separating the waters of the Connecticut and Andi'oscoggin ; the Pinkham notch, on the eastern side of the Presi- dential range, with a divide at a height of 2018 feet between streams lead- ing to the Androscoggin and the Saco ; the White Mountain or Crawford notch, west of the same range, reaching 1914 feet at the divide between the headwaters of the Saco and the Ammonoosuc ; the Franconia notch, where the Pemigiwasset flows southward and forms the jVIerrimack, from a divide at a height of 2014 feet, which descends northward to the Ammon- oosuc ; and Kinsman's or Woodstock notch between the Franconia Moun- tains and Moosilauke, dividing branches of the same streams at a height of about 1650 feet. The mountains are further dissected by deep, steep-walled ravines and gulfs, where the most active consumption of the mass is now going on : Tuckerman's and King's ravines and the Great Gulf, all in the Presidential range, are among the most picturesque of these. Southward from the White Mountains, a plateau-like highland extends, with an elevation of about a thousand feet, between the Connecticut and ]\Ierrimack rivers, into Massachusetts, and then rapidly declines in north- ern Connecticut. Several isolated mountains rise upon it, the finest being Kearsarge (2942), Monadnock (3169) and Wachusett (2018). The highland is generally well drained ; no lakes of large size occur upon it, although small lakes or ponds and flat meadows are common. North- eastward from the AVhite Mountains, an unsettled forest country of scattered mountains and large lakes extends through northern Maine. Its elevation is about fifteen hundred feet around the head waters of the An- droscoggin, falling oft' to 1023 feet at Moosehead lake, and about 500 at Madawaska. The height of the mountains in the region are as yet poorly determined, as nearly all explorers here follow the water-ways alone, avoiding the surrounding forests and swamps. Ktaadn, the highest sum- rait, reaches about 5215 feet. The lower lands that fringe the coast are generally less than five hun- dred and often under two hundred feet above sea-level. They include the southern third of Connecticut, all of Rhode Island, southeastern Massa- 80 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. chusetts and the eastern third of the rest of the State, New Hampshire from Lake Winnipiseogee to the coast, and fully a third of Maine. This reo-ion is by no means as level as the coastal plain of New Jersey and the Atlantic border farther south, but is irregularly broken by rocky hills among flat, drift lowlands. Some of the elevations might rank with small mountains, as the Blue Hills (635), a little south of Boston, and in Maine, Agamenticus (673) back of York, and Green Mountain (1527) on Mt. Desert. On the other hand, large areas are wanting in rocky hills, as in southeastern New Hampshire, and all of Massachusetts below Plymouth. Cape Cod and the islands to the south and west are essentially the product of orlacial action, which is next to be considered. It was over a country whose larger divisions have now been described that the quaternary ice-sheets crept down from the north. The ice scoured out the valleys, smoothing off the spurs and ridges on their sides. Crawford's Notch in the AVhite Mountains, through which a heavy stream of ice must have flowed, is probably as good an example as we possess of a valley form thus simplified. The glacial sheet rose and covered all the hills and wore down their peaks and pinnacles : Mt. Monadnock, whose structure is well adapted to develop a ragged crest-line, has lost many of the sharp edges that it must once have had, and over its rounded summits, the marks of ice-dragged stones are plainly visible. The total effect of the glacial invasion was most likely towards diminishing the topographic relief of New England, not only by rubbing down the hills and ridges, but even more by leaving the drift-rubbish chiefly on the lower ground, greatly to the embarrassment of the streams that took possession of the country again as the ice melted away. The ground moraine, the immediate product of the moving ice-sheet on the ground beneath it, known by the Scotch name, till, is generally absent from the higher, steeper hills, but is spread with smoothly rolling surface, somewhat fluted in the direction of ice-motion, over the lowlands and flat uplands. The contrast between the upper zone of glacial erosion and the lower zone of drift accumulation is admirably shown in the smaller side valleys among the Berkshire hills of Western Massachusetts. In central and southern New England, the till often takes the form of oval, rounded hills of evenly arched profile, now known by the Irish name, drumlins ; the largest of these are over half a mile in length and rise more than two hun- dred feet above their base : they are seen about Boston, where they make the harbor islands, and again on the uplands about Brookfield, j\lass., and west of Putnam, Conn., where they control the shape of the country. Heaps of drift, forming hills and enclosing hollows of marked topographic value, known by the Swiss name, moraines, mark the position held by the edge of the ice-sheet during a time of balanced supply and waste : great terminal moraines may be traced over Cape Cod and the islands to the south PHYSICAL (iEOGRAPIIY OF THE REGK)X. 81 and west as far as the narrows of Xew York Bay, which they define : sh)p- ing phiins of sand stretch sovithward from the morainic liills to the sea ; smaller valley moraines, formed by local glaciers, have been discerned in the \Vhite Mountain region towards Littleton and elsewhere. Mounds and ridges of gravel and sand, now conmionly called by the Scotch name, kames, lie in the valleys and lowlands, remaining as conspicuous monu- ment of the combined action of ice and water in the closing stages of the glacial period : these are wonderfully developed in Maine, where, under the name of "horsebacks," their height may exceed a hundred feet, and their length is to be measured in miles, with hardly an interruption. The kames are often associated with sand-plains, probably deposited in lakes temporarily held within the irregular front of the ice during its stag- nant melting away, and now sometimes standing up like little plateaus, higher than the valley ground about them ; such as the sand-plain in which A\^aldcn Pond is contained near Concord, Mass. Sand-plains and deltas also mark the shores of extinct lakes, marginal to the melting ice, where the land inclined towards its retreating front : such occur in large size in the lateral valleys on the eastern slope of the Connecticut valley in north- ern Massachusetts and southwestern New Hampshire. The outlet of lakes of this character was commonly over some low pass among the hills, and the line of discharge is marked by abundant sands and gravels, as along the now fiat-bottomed Greenwich valley, which led Miller's River from Orange towards Palmer, v\dien its fiow direct to the Connecticut was obstructed. The Florence plain, near Northampton, is a sandy delta, built in a lake from which the clay beds of the middle Connecticut valley were deposited after the ice had melted away. In Maine, the plains about Deblois, west of Machias, cover an area of several square miles. Sand- dunes are occasionally formed on these plains, as well as on the more sandy river terraces, and on the sea-coast. More or less directly connected with the retreating ice are the great de- posits of clay, sand and gravel Avith which many valleys were clogged when their streams were overloaded with detritus washed from beneath the glacial sheet and from the country just uncovered by its melting, and when the general southward gradient of the streams was diminished by the northern de])ression of the land that accompanied the closing stages of the glacial period. Tt is in good part by detritus of this kind that the valley-bottoms are so generally buried. The depression of New England here referred to, and the subsequent oscillations of level have been important in determining the character of its shore line. The beginning and the amount of the depression cannot be accu- rately stated ; but it occurred after the period of general valley-making, it was associated with the glacial period, it was greater in the north than in the south, nnd it has left a considerable area that structurally belongs to 82 thp: butterflies of xew exgland. New England beneath the waters of the ocean. In geologically recent times there has been a slight recovery from the depression, enough to lift certain postglacial, marine deposits, that smooth over and simplify the littoral topography, two hundred or more feet above the sea in Maine, and less along the southern coast ; but not nearly enough to reveal all the previously submerged area. A slight submergence of even later date is also inferred. The present shore-line is therefore of complex origin. The great bays and fiords of Maine, Massachusetts and Rhode Island and the fiord-like channel of the lower Hudson River may be considered as old, sub- merged valleys and lowlands, eroded chiefly by the ordinary subaerial forces during the former greater elevation of the land, and finished off by glacial rubbing to an unknown amount : the simpler shore-line of New Hampshire and southern Maine, of southern Massachusetts and Connecticut, results from a j)lentiful supply of drift, with which the depressed and buried low- lands and valleys have there been smoothed over ; many of the smaller indentations on these parts of the coast have been enclosed by bars of sand, brought by the waves chiefly from drift-bluffs near by ; the shallow waters behind the bars have commonly been filled up to high-tide level as salt- marshes. The cliffs and bars that mark the present shore-line are much more distinct than any that remain at a higher level. On a surface thus slowly prepared by many processes, standing in an attitude thus lately gained after many oscillations, the present rivers and streams have, as it were, just begun their new, postglacial tasks. The little headwater streams of the mountainous districts still for the most part follow their steep, preglacial ravines. The larger rivers, like the Connecticut, and those smaller ones that are hedged in by steep-sided val- leys, like the upper Androscoggin or the Westfield, follow closely along their old courses, although somewhat disturbed by the drift-filling in which they have now sunk their channels : and what with northern elevation whereby the river-slopes are steepened and the base-level lowered, and what with the present slower washing away of the plant-covered drift- surface, whereby the ratio of load to water-volume is decreased, the rivers have been empowered to carry away the detritus that they had shortly before deposited ; and thus are formed the terraces that make so charactei- istic an element of our valleys. The terracing process probably advanced rapidly as long as the rivers found only clay and sand to cut away, for even in the brief postglacial period since the work began, that share of it is very generally accomplished. Further terracing will be accomplished much more slowly, for the deepening of the channels is now retarded by rocky ridges and spurs which nearly all the streams have discovered in opening their buried valleys ; it Avoidd have required more foresight to avoid these obstructions and settle down precisely on the lowest line of the old valley than can be expected of rivers. When a rocky ledge is thus PHYSICAL C;EOGRAriIY OF THE KECilOX. 83 encountered, it cftectively checks the deepening of the channel in the loose detritus fin-thor up strciun, hut hclow it, the soft valley-filling is quickly cut away as low as the next down-stream ledge will allow ; at the end of every level stretch thus formed, there is a sudden descent over a harrier to another level stretch below, and thus are produced the alternate flood- plain meadows and low rocky rapids that characterize our rivers. Some- times a river, wandering too far from its old line, unwittingly sinks its channel on a spur high up on the buried valley-slopes ; then a cascade of strong fall is formed, of vast importance to New England in furnishing a\ailal)lc water-power, as at Manchester on the Merrimack, and manv other similar points. If the valley be clogged with till, the stream will cut a gradual descent through it, rushing down impetuously among the bowl- ders that remain in its bed : thus the Contoocook flows below Hillsboro' Bridge, N. H., and even the Connecticut has stretches of rocky and stony channel through the Fifteen-mile Falls above Newbiuy. When rock in place is disclosed beneath or near the till, pot-holes are often worn in it by the bowlders, as at the upper falls of the Ammonoosuc, above Fabyan's, or at Shelburne Falls on the Deerfield. Streams of intermediate size, on the more open, lower country southeast of the mountains, have their courses so greatly influenced by glacial deposits that they cannot be regarded as the successors of any corresponding pre- glacial streams ; they flow irregularly among the rocky hills, drumlins, kames and sand-plains that were disclosed for their settlement as the ice wasted away, here meandering about a flat meadow that conceals some old channel, there crossing over an old rocky spur or divide, or cutting down a stony dam of bowlder-clay, but nowhere presenting that evident relation between stream-volume and valley-size that prevails so manifestly in regions of a simpler history, like West Virginia. Except the terracing in the meadows and the slight gorge-cvitting on the old divides and spurs, the surface drained by these new streams has not been developed under their guidance ; it was presented to them ready made, and they are just making tlieir first mark upon it. Oliverian Brook is a small example of a stream thus thrown over an old divide : it descends southward from Aloosilauke, as if to join a branch of the Pemigewasset, but abruptly turns northwest- ward across an ancient pass, cutting a little gorge in the rock, where everv traxeller in the Montreal railway may see it, and then flowing through meadows to the Connecticut by Haverhill. The gorges of this class are sludlower than their relatives in Xew York Ijccause the rocks here are harder. The "flumes" of the White Mountains are not gorges of this oriijin, but are cut out on vertical dikes that are weaker than the enclosinuiuiiici' time, the prevailing southwest winds hrinj^; warm air from the southern States, and when re-enforced on cyclonic gradients (that is, by differences of pressure directed to the centre of a low-pressure area) as is not infrc(|ucntly the case, they cause an op[)rcssive heat : at such times, as well as on cloudless, anticyclonic — or high-pi-essure — days in «Tune, July and August, maxinuun temperatures of 90° or 95° F. are reached in the inland valleys, exce[)t well to the north ; hut at the same time, the diurnal range of tem[)erature is strong, especially under anticyclones, averaging twenty or thirty degrees, and often exceeding forty degrees, in the valleys of the hilly or mountainous districts ; and the nights arc fairly cool. Im- mediately on the coast, the sea-breeze of day-time moderates the heat and decreases the diurnal range. Cool, fair weather with northwesterly winds, or cloudy, rainy weather with southeasterly winds interrupt the warmtli of sununer : thunder-storms with occasional destructive squalls and hail- falls occur chiefly while cyclonic storm-centers are passing down the valley of the St. Lawrence. Several tornadoes have been recorded in the Con- necticut Valley and elsewhere, but they are rare. In winter, the prevailing winds are west or northwest, from the cold interior of the country, but these are frequently reversed by cyclonic storms that draw in the damp air from the Atlantic ; for few of these storms cross the United States without giving New England some mark of their pas- sage. As they move across Lower Canada, their cloudy southerly wind brings rain and snow ; sometimes it is unseasonably warm, rising to a temperature of 50° or 60° even at midnight in midwinter ; under such conditions, abnormally high, foehn-like temperatures have recently been noted in the White Mountain valleys. When the storm-center passes south of New England, a chilling snow-bearing wind blows in from the northeast. Closely following the Atlantic winds, come the cold, dry west or northwest winds on the rear of the storm. A\'hen the pressure is high in the far northwest, these are intensified into the violent cold wave, under which the temperature may fall thirty or forty degrees in twenty-four hours, in excess of the diurnal range ; indeed, in winter when the regular diurnal range is small, it is almost supplanted by the irregular cyclonic change of temperature, then at its highest value. During a cold A\'a\e the temperature falls to 0° or — 20°, without distinct local variations ; l)ut on the clear anticyclonic nights that follow, the minima in the valleys fall to — 20° or even — 40°, and local variation from valleys to hills is excessive. On ^It. "NA'ashington, the cold wave carries the temperature down to — 40° or — 50°, with the wind blowing sixty or more miles an hour, but during anticyclones, the mountain top may be ten or twenty degrees warmer than the neighboring valley bottoms. The mean annual and the mean winter temperatures are shown by iso- thermal lines on the accompanying map. These lines are drawn according / v/ ■» 88 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. to the data o-iven in Schott's Smithsonian Tables, and in the latest Annual Report of the Chief Signal Officer, supplemented in a few cases by obser- vations reported to the New England Metereological Society ; but they can be regarded only as approximations, especially in the north, for they depend in most cases on series of observations of insufficient duration and of different lengths and dates. The temperatures indicated are actual means, no reduction to sea-level having been applied. There are no records for northern Maine. The mean annual for the rest of New England may be concisely descril^ed as ranging from 40° in the north to 50° on the southern coast : the winter mean varies from 15° in the north to 30° in the south : the summer mean varies from 60° to 70°. On Mount Washington, the annual, winter and summer means are 26°, 7° and 46°. The annual precipitation at low-level stations, as given in the sources above named, varies from thirty-five inches in the northwest, to fifty inches in the south and along the coast, except in southwestern Maine, where it is somewhat less ; but these numbers give an inadequate measure for all New England, as Mount Washington has an annual precipitation of eighty-five inches for thirteen years record ; from which it may be inferred that much of the White and Green Mountain areas have totals at least above sixty inches. The distribution of the precipitation through the year is fairly equable, with a slight maximum in late summer and a minimum in early Avinter, these variations being rather more marked in the west than near the coast ; the irregular variations from year to year are rather strong. The winter snow is heavy in the northern interior, where sleighing is hardly interrupted for three months ; in the south and near the coast, occa- sional mild rains in midwinter may melt the snow to the ground. Frost is occasionally reported even during the summer season in the north. Hail is not common or severe enough to be considered as a climatic factor. BIBLIOGRAPHY. TbemakTiul for the foregoing chapters is derived in part from the following pnhlications. The geological surveys of the several New England States, especially of New Hampshire and Vermont. Appalachia. Many articles on the mountains of New England are to be found here. L. Agassiz. Geological Sketches. Boston, ISOG. J. D. Dana. On southern New England during the melting of the great glacier. Amer. Journ. Sc. X, 187"), 1G8 ; and other papers. B. K. Emerson. A chapter on the geology of Hampshire County, Mass., in the Hampshire County Gazetteer, 1887. H. Gannett. Dictionary of altitudes in the United States. Bull. No. 5, U. S. Geol. Survey, lss4. C. E. Hamlin. Oljscrvations upon the physical geography and geology of Mt. Ktaadin and the adjacent district. Bull. Museum Comp. Zool. vii, 1881, 189-223. L. L. lluhhard. The woods and lakes of Maine. Boston, 1884. F. J. II. Merrill. On the geology of Long Island. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sc. iii, 1885, 3H-;](J4. E.C.Pickering. Accurate mountain heights; and Heights of the White Mountains. Api)a- lachia, iv, 1880, 2ir.-21!i, and 305-322. FAUNAL DISTRICTS OF NEW ENGLAND. 89 N. S. Shalor. Fkiviatilc swamps of New Eughuul. Aiaor. Jouni. So. xxxiii, 1887, "ilO- 221. Sea-coast swamps of the eastern United States. Sixth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geo). Survey, 359-398. G. H. Stone. The Ivames of Maine. Proc. Boston Soc. Xat. Hist., xx, 1881, 430-469. W. Upham. The formation of Cape Cod. Amer. Nat., xiii, 1879, 489-502, 5.52-565. Glacial drift in Boston and its vicinity. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xx, 1879, 220-234. G. F. Wright. The Icames and moraines of New England. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., XX, 1879, 210-220. THE ZOOLOGICAL DIVISIONS OF NEW ENGLAND. There's nothing situate under heaven's eye But hath his bound, in earth, in sea, in sky : The beasts, the fishes and the winged fowls Are their males' subjects and at their controls. Shakespeare. — Comedy of Errors Probably no state in the Union presents so striking a variety in its animal life as New Hampshire. Its northern and southern portions be- long to distinct continental faunas ; above the forest growth of its colder region rise some of the highest elevations east of the Rocky Mountains, and these bleak altitudes support a vegetation and an assemblage of animals intimately resembling those of Labrador and Greenland, while less than two hundred miles distant flourish animals characteristic of subtropical climes. What is true of New Hampshire is true to an even greater extent of New England ; for in the northern hemisphere, rivers flowing south always exert an influence upon the character of the inhabitants upon its banks, and the Connecticut and Hudson, although navigable but short distances, form no exception to the rule. At their southern extremities they reach a warm coast and a latitude where numerous insects occur, whose true me- tropolis is found in theCarolinas and Florida. Many of these, following the course of the rivers, Avith their warm, moist banks, penetrate into the heart of the country ; some are found in central Massachusetts, a few in southern Vermont and New Hampshire, and one or two are found even in the latitude of the White Mountains. So, too, in addition to the meagre fauna found on the high mountain tops of New Hampshire — limited as far as the butterflies are concerned to two species, — the northeastward extension of Maine toward the Gulf of St. Lawrence doubtless brings wdthin the limits of New England not a few forme characteristic of sub- arctic climes. The attempt to divide any part of North America into distinct zoologi- cal areas was first made by Professor Louis Agassiz in 1854, who sketched, in Nott and Gliddon's Types of Mankind, a rude map and briefly character- ized the peculiarities of the principal zoological divisions of the whole world. He introduced the terms Canadian, Alleghanian and Louisianian faunas, for the three distinct congeries of animals found in the northern, middle and southern portions of our Atlantic coast. Five years later Dr. 90 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. J. L. LeConte published in the Smithsonian Contributions a colored map of the entomological provinces of North America, in which the eastern district so-called was divided into "1, a northern province, including Maine, eastern Canada, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, etc., and extending westwardly from Lake Superior to Lake Winnipeg and western Canada, which fades insensibly into the great Arctic district ; 2, a middle province, limited westwardly by the Appalachian chain, and extending to southern Virginia; 3, a western province, including Minnesota and the states of the valley of the Mississippi, as far as the state of that name ; 4, a southern province, including the states south of Virginia and Kentucky ; 5, a sub- tropical province, including the point of the peninsula of Florida ; 6, a subtropical province, including the sea coast of Texas." But the principal work that has been done upon the distinction of faunas in the eastern United States has been by the labors of the ornithologists. In 1863, Professor A. E. Verrill pointed out that the dividing line of the Canadian and Alleghanian faunas cut New England in two, and three years later he defined the limits more exactly as "coincident with a line which shall indicate a mean temperature of 50° F., during the months of April, May and June" ; a coincidence which leads him to believe that the distribution of birds is "chiefly influenced, so far as latitude is concerned, by the temperature of the breeding season." Whether, he adds, "a simi- lar law controls the distribution of mammalia, reptiles, insects, etc., can only be determined by further investigation." In describing the course of this isothermal line which marked the northern boundary of the Allegha- nian fauna he says : "It passes south of Moosehead and Umbagog Lakes, but rises somewhat northward along the Androscoggin valley, thence it passes southward of the White Mountains through the vicinity of Conway, N. H. It bends northward again up the Connecticut valley as far as Shaftsbury, Vt., where the mean temperature is 50° 91'." This was followed up by the more formal attempt of Mr. J. A. Allen, who followed exactly in the line of Professor Verrill's suggestion that the distribution of the birds in their breeding season should guide the zoologi- cal geographer in his conclusions, and adopted also the indications of the isothermal lines as the basis of his divisions. The line of the division be- tween the Alleghanian and Canadian faunas was described in the following terms : "It ... is an extremely irregular line, with abrupt and deep sinu- osities. Beginning on the coast to the eastward of the Penobscot Bay, it sweeps first somewhat to the northeast, nearly or quite reaching Bangor ; thence passing westward and southward, it follows the northern boundary of the lowlands through southern Maine and southern New Hampshire. In the Connecticut valley it rises farther to the northward, and in its southern descent skirts the eastern base of the Green Mountains, passing to the southward and westward of these highlands in Connecticut, and FAUNAL DISTRICTS OF NEW ENGLAND. 91 thence abruptly to the northward. Skirting the eastern border of the Champlain valley, it continues still northward to the valley of the St. Lawrence as far as Quebec ; thence turning again south westward, it passes along the northern border of the lowlands east of the Laurentian hills (in- cluding the valley of the Ottawa), and crosses the southern peninsula of Michigan near the forty-fifth parallel." (Bull. Mus. comp. zool.,ii: 395.) In 1883 Dr. A. S. Packard published two editions of a zoo-geographi- cal map of North America, in which the great body of eastern North America was separated into two divisions, a boreal or Canadian prov- ince, and an Atlantic or eastern province. The dividing line between these two, with the exception of a belt of the Atlantic province skirting both sides of the Bay of Fundy, ran from the vicinity of the mouth of the Penobscot north-eastward into the edge of New Brunswick, quickly turned upon itself to follow a reversed course until it skirted the southern borders of the White Mountains, when it again turned north-eastward toward the Gulf of St. LaAvrence, striking it near the latitude of 70° W. ; then it turned abruptly westward toward Lake Superior, following in all this course, as stated by the author, the isotherm of 40° F. Outlying islands of the Canadian province were indicated as found within the At- lantic province in the Adirondacks region and on the summits of the Alle- ghanies. Insects, it should be observed, are not regularly migratory animals ; and since several generations frequently succeed each other during a single season and winter is passed in very various conditions of existence, we can hardly expect their distribution to follow exactly that of birds. Vari- ous causes may modify unequally the distribution of insects belonging to a certain group ; too intense cold in our arctic winters ; the lack of snow during a less severe season ; too excessive heat or too long a drouth in midsummer ; or, too sudden changes of temperature at critical periods. To come to our butterflies, they may be found at all seasons of the year, even in mid-winter, of one species or another, in every stage of existence, from the egg, through all the larval stages and the chrysalis, to the imago. The distribution of butterflies is therefore much more complicated than that of bii'ds, whose early stages are always passed in comparatively warm weather, under the guardianship of the mother ; and, if more than one brood appears during a season, the second is only the produce of the same pair that raised the first. It is nevertheless true that the distribution of insects over continental areas coincides in a remarkable way with that of birds ; and the general consensus of opinion, drawn not only from the study of birds but from that of other animals as well, as shown by the views of the naturalists already alluded to, and their agreement with the results of our own study 92 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. of butterflies, should be carefully noted. In general the line of separation of the Canadian and Alleghanian faunas is placed further south by Allen than by Verrill and Packard. The accompanying map of faunal areas will show that according to my view it should be carried even still a little further south, and if the line in passing through our district presents o-reater irregularities than in the case of the others, it is due solely to the influence of the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers in carrying northward along their bottom lands many butterflies of the Alleghanian fauna. The line, as I would trace it, starts from the gulf of Maine near the mouth of the Kennebec and runs at first parallel to the coast so as to include Sebago pond, but recedes slightly from the shore near the forty-third parallel, until it strikes the northern border of ^Massachusetts south of Monadnock, curving around which it turns sharply to the north, crossing the Connecti- cut River near Ascutney Mountain, turning again southward and following the course of this stream until near the middle of Massachusetts, when it beo-ins to curve westward until it has swung around the higher elevations of the Berkshire Hills in southern Massachusetts, again passes to the northward along the valley of the Hudson, and turns once more to the westward just before reaching Lake George. But the line as we have here traced it, should by no means be regarded as a fixed one. It is rather the centre of a broad belt whose south- ern margin limits many of the Alleghanian species, while other species find their northernmost extension at various points within the broad belt ; its northern borders mark the ordinary southern limits of the species of the Canadian fauna, which may, however, extend to this middle line or even beyond. The northern limit of the belt would correspond very closely with the dividing line of the Canadian and Alleghanian faunas as marked by Verrill. As will be seen, it starts from the bay of Maine in the immediate vicinity of Mt. Desert, passes to the northward with an easterly inclination up the valley of the Penobscot nearly to the New Brunswick border, then turns to run south-westward parallel to the coast along the margin of the more broken hilly parts of the state, in aline approximately south-west from Mattawamkeag, Me., to North Conway, N. H., inter- rupted, however, as it crosses the Androscoggin, by a deep bay reaching the New Hampshire border ; skirting the White Mountains at their southern limits, it passes barely north of the lake region of New Hampshire, then turns northward again on approaching the valley of the Connecticut so as to strike the vicinity of St. Johnsbury ; here it crosses the river, turns southward and follows the course of the Green Mountains as far as their hisfhest elevations in north-western Massachusetts, turning around which the line returns due north, past the whole length of Lake Champlain, and then with a slight easterly bend crosses the St. Lawrence not far above Quebec ; here it turns quickly to the west again, following the near FAUNAI. DISTRICTS OF NEW ENGLAND. 93 vicinity of the river. J5ut to the west of the region thus enclosed the Ca- nadian fauna inchides the Adirondacks region, west of Lake Champlain. The southern nuirsfin of this broad interfaunal or bifaunal belt starts from some point in Massachusetts Bay not far southeast of Boston, and passes westerly in such a way as to include in the true Alleghanian fauna the entire belt of low lands along the southern coast of New England ; but more than that it includes two considerable prominences thrust up the Connecticut and Hudson Rivers, as far north as Winsor and Poughkecp- sie respectively. While just to the northwest of the latter the extended Canadian fauna embraces the Catskill region. It will thus be seen that this great interfaunal or bifaunal belt sweeps across the whole of Xew England from west to east, and indeed embraces within its limits tlie greater part of its territory. As it passes from the west toward the sea an upper member follows north-eastward the valley of the St. Lawrence, but fails to reach the ocean ; Avhile the main belt, separated from the former by the great Adirondacks region, though narrowly connected with it along the valley of Lake Champlain, sweeps over the mass of New England : so that the study of the New Eng- land fauna becomes one of especial interest. If we study the relations of this interfaunal belt to the physical features of New England and the neighboring regions, we shall see that it is limited upon the north by a line which would run not far from a contour curve indicating; a heisfht of country of about eight hundred to one thousand feet ; but that it is deflected to the southward by the great mountain elevations of the AYhite Mountain area and the Green Mountain chain. In Maine it plainly skirts the line which in general separates the lower undulating country from the more broken, hilly regions of the north and it bears a similar relation to the southern edge of the Adirondack district ; while its south- ern margin, as far as New England is concerned, is marked by the belt of lowlands which border the southern shore of the district, and is deflected northward only along the sea margin at its eastern extremity and up the valleys of southward flowing rivers. In illustration of the diflxjrent divisions referred to in the foregoing, we may point out that the upper margin of this belt marks in a general way the southern limits of such species of the Canadian fauna as Oeneis jutta, Polygonia gracilis and satyrus, Eurymus interior, Pamphila mandan and Erynnis manitoba ; Avhile Polygonia faunus, Aglais milberti, and Cincli- dia harrisii extend further south so as to reach the true separating line of the Canadian and Alleghanian fiiunas ; Cercyonis nephele, Basilarchia arthemis, Eugonia j-album, Cyaniris pseudargiolus lucia, Pieris oleracea and Amblyscirtes samoset extend even further than this, often to the re- stricted limits of the Alleghanian fauna. Basilarchia proserpina (asty- anax-ursula) and the hybrid transitional forms between Cercyonis nephele and C. alope are principally confined to this belt. 94 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. Turning to the more abundant Alleghanian fauna, we may note that no inconsiderable number of species pass northward even to the restricted limits of the Canadian fauna, such as Cissia eurytus, Polygonia interroga- tionis, Anosia plexippus (in its yearly excursions) among Nymphalidae, while Cercyonis alope barely fails of reaching it ; among the Lycaenidae, Incisalia niphon, Uranotes melinus, Thecla liparops and Everes comyntas ; and among the Hesperidae, Thorybes pylades, Thanaos persius, icelus and brizo, Pholisora catullus, Amblyscirtes vialis, and Limochores taumas. On the other hand the natural limits of the bulk of the Alleghanian species will be found to fall rather at the true middle line which we have pointed out. Such species are Basilarchia astyanax, Speyeria idalia and perhaps Hypatus bachmanii of the Nymphalidae ; Incisalia irus, Mitui*a damon, Thecla Ontario, edwardsii and acadica among Lycaenidae ; Eu- phoeades troilus among the Papilionidae ; and among the Hesperidae, Epargyreus tityrus, Thanaos lucilius, martialis, juvenalis and hora- tius, Ancyloxipha numitor, Poanes massasoit, Atrytone logan, Erynnis sassacus, metea and attains, Anthomaster leonardus, Thymelicus aetna, Limochores bimacula and manataaqua, Euphyes metacomet and verna, and Lerema hianna. Here, too, will probably be found the dividing line ( in those polygoneutic species which range far on each side of the line, as in Heodes hypophlaeas) at which the number of broods in the season change, one more brood occurrinof south of the line than north of it. The Alleghanian species which seem to find their northern limits at the southern borders of the broad belt are Junonia coenia and Euptoieta claudia among the Nym- phalidae ; Xanthidia nicippe, Eurema lisa, Anthocharis genutia, Pieris protodice and Laertias philenor among the Papilionidae : and among the Hesperidae, Achalarus lycidas, Thorybes bathyllus, Thanaos terentius, Hylephila phylaeus, Atalopedes huron, Thymelicus brettus, and Lerema accius. But in addition to this list there are other butterflies more prop- erly to be considered members of the Louisianian fauna, which in their northernmost extension, creeping along the Atlantic coast, reach either quite to this line of demarcation or stop barely short of it. These are, among the Nymphalidae, Neonympha phocion and Chlorippe clyton ; among the Papilionidae, Callidryas eubule, Iphiclides ajax, Jasoniades glaucus glau- cus and Heraclides cresphontes in its recent extension ; while among the Hesperidae may be mentioned Eudamusproteus andHesperiamontivagus. Some remarks upon the other insects which find their delimitations in these same districts will be found in my paper on the distribution of the insects of New Hampshire in the "Geology of New Hampshire," Vol. I, where these lines of separation are marked in a somewhat different way from less perfect knowledge. It can hardly fail of notice that the faunal divisions as here laid down, plotted upon the same map with the isotherms projected by Professor Davis, agree in a somewhat striking way THE EMBRYOLOGY OF EUVANESSA ANTIOPA. 95 with the course of these same isotherms. Yet each set of lines, those of the faunal areas and of the isotherms, was worked out independently of the other, and their somewhat remarkable agreement and yet failure to correspond in many points is a very striking fact. Many more observa- tions upon the distribution of insects within this belt and in its vicinity are necessary before we can arrive at any satisfactory results, and construct a map with a proper degree of accuracy : but the present attempt shows very clearly that it is within the limits of New England itself that the greatest progress in our knowledge is to be looked for, and that upon New England naturalists devolves the duty of solving these zoo-geographical problems. IV. STUDIES ON THE EMBRYOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF EUVANESSA ANTIOPA.* BY CHARLES W. WOOD WORTH, M. S. There is a wondrous workshop here, E'eii in this daintj' little pod, Here that mysterious workman, Life, Builds matchless temples to his God. Embryology deals with all the phenomena of growth from the first beginnings of life until its close ; therefore on account of the extent of the subject the present paper is necessarily somewhat fragmentary in its char- acter. In order to make it as compact as possible we will confine our- selves to some of the earlier stages of development where some of the most interesting problems in the whole domain of science present themselves for solution. Embryology may be called the science of development. It treats of life in motion and in this respect differs from Histology which is essentially a "study in still life." It differs from Physiology by confining itself to a single function of living; matter, growth. *The material used in the preparation of carmine and Czocher's cochineal. The latter is this article consists of a small lot of eggs col- especially good; it is prepared as follows: lected by Mr. Scudder and partly prepared by Place Ig. each of cochineal and burnt alum Mr. Houghton, another and larger lot taken in a mortar and reduce to a powder; add hy Dr. Dimmock and a third collected by my- lOOcc. of distilled water and boil until there self near Fabyan's, "White Mountains; also is but 60cc., cool and filter; a few drops of car- some specimens of the imago, part obtained by bolic acid should be added as a preservative, myself and part sent me by Mr. Scudder. The hardness of the egg shell makes the The method of preparation which seems to egg very difficult to section, but if removed have given the best results is to kill by heating it is so delicate as to be almost certain to go in water at 80° C. which fixes the tissues very to pieces during the further manipulations, well. Eggs must now be punctured witli The parafin method of imbedding was em- a sharp needle; this is essentialin order that ployed, and the sections cut on the rocking the reagents used may penetrate. The most microtome made by the Cambridge Instru- satisfactory stains were Grenacher's borax ment Co. 96 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. It is a law in this world that all things have a lowly origin. The evo- lution of all living beings from simple unicellular germs is an established fact of science. The egg is generally looked upon as the simplest condition of the animal. At least in insects, however, there seems to be an earlier and simpler condition than is found in the egg. Here we should make the primitive egg cell in the terminal chamber of the ovariole, or in the primitive ovary before the ovariole is developed, the starting point in the study of embryology. This idea may be objected to on the ground that the egg cell is not complete until after the reception of the male element, and that only after that is accomplished do we have a cell capable of reproducing the species. The force of such an objection is more apparent than real when one recollects that in some insects, notably in the saw-flies and the honey-bee, eggs develop without the help of the male element. The eggs of some insects (viviparous plant-lice) are incapable of leading an independent existence and continue to receive food and grow. The ovary of an insect is at first a simple mass of similar cells, originat- ing as described below and remaining for a more or less extended period of time apparently without change, except that it becomes surrounded by an investment of connective tissue. The cells are now said to fuse so as to form a syncytium, but this I am inclined to doubt ; indeed some studies on which I am engaged on other insects give me every reason to doubt it, though a few of the critical stages are still unknown to me. The evidence is this : the oldest ovary in which the ovarioles are not yet developed still consists of distinct cells, and the youngest ovariole known to me has in the lower end of the end-chamber far more distinct egg cells than enough to account for all the eggs that can be subsequently devel- oped by that ovariole. The upper end of the end-chamber may be a syncytium and in some of the older ovarioles of some insects the whole end-chamber seems to be 'converted into one, but this appears to be a secondary condition. It is a point worthy of attention in studying the ovarioles of insects, that before the largest egg has attained any consider- able size all the cells that produce eggs have been differentiated enough to be certainly recognized as egg cells. The study of the earliest stages of the egg must be carried on in the larval and pupal stages and not in the adult insect. Besides the cells that go to make u\) the syncytium there are three kinds of cells in the ovariole of the group of insects to which Euvanessa belongs, the egg cell proper, the epithelium cells and the nutriti^'e cells. They are all derived from the indifferent cells of the primitive ovary and are homolo- gous structures. When the butterfly emerges from the pupa the ova- rioles are already quite well developed. They consist of long slender filaments made up by the repetition of an oval unit, the egg chamber ; these eo-g- chambers constantlv diminish in size towards the end-chamber THE KMIJKYOLOGY OF EUVANESSA ANTIOPA. 97 till finally they loose their characteristic shape and appearance and look like an unarranged mass of cells. In structure there is also a regular variation. At the lower end of the end-chamber upon careful examination one will notice that there are three kinds of cells present in the mass where at first sight they appeared to be all alike. In some the nucleus is clearer and the nucleolus more distinct ; these are the css cells. Two or three times as abundant and often slightly larger are the nutritive cells. The epithelium cells are quite inconspicuous and often hardly so numerous as the others ; they are somewhat smaller in size and the nucleoli are hardly visible. The egg chambers are formed through the rapid multiplication of the epithelial cells, forming a columar epithelium on the sides of the egg cell (63: 1, ep) and enveloping with a thinner layer the adjacent nutritive cells. In insects having a large number of nutritive cells quite a number of epithelial cells remain in the spaces between the nutritive cells and retain their primitive appearance and size. As the nutritive cells grow they do not increase in numbers, at least in this insect, but attain a very large size. The nucleus increases in size as rapidly as the cell does and becomes irregular in outline and the contents coarsely granular. After the egg chamber has attained nearly the size of the fully formed egg the nutritive cells begin to decrease in size, due to the parasitic action of the egg cell, and finally are reduced to a very small mass of debris. The egg cell increases from the first as rapidly as the nutritive cells but the history of the nucleus is quite different. This body increases greatly in size but the relative proportion between it and the cell is constantly decreasing ; it occupies a [)Osition on one side and near the upper end of the cell ; it is a clear, transparent vesicle with a very distinct nucleolus. When the egg approaches maturity and has absorbed the nutritive cells a change ensues in the nucleus that is very important : first, the nucleolus becomes paler and disappears ; then the outline of the nucleus become indistinct, and finally no trace of nucleus is observable in the egg ; the nuclear matter has diffused itself in the egg and it is a question whether part is not still nucleus, though not recognizable as such. This hypothesis is the most reasonable, though the spontaneous production of a nucleus under proper conditions is by no means impossible, for such a process must have oc- curred back in the dawn of creation when organic matter first developed this structure. The epithelial cells vary a great deal in appearance and shape according to their position. Between the chambers (63: 1, 2) they are disk-shaped, showing a spindle shaped section ; on the sides of the egg cell they form a regular columnar epithelium ; around the nutritive cells they make a sort of epithelium but not regular as around the egg cell : at the plane where the egg and nutritive cells touch, the epithelium begins to infold, forming 98 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. a very thin and delicate septum composed of two layers ; this membrane never entirely separates the egg cell from the nutritive cells, but leaves a small hole through which projects a process of the egg cell for the purpose of obtaining food from the nutritive cells ; it is known as the nutritive pro- cess (63 : 2 np). Over the whole outside of the ovariole there is a very distinct firm membrane, the tunica propria (63:1, 2tp), which is produced by the epithelium as a sort of cuticle. Outside of this the peritoneal membrane may be seen (63 : 1 p) ; it is of mesodermic origin. In the stage repre- sented in fio". 2 the epithelial cells have become flattened laterally and arranged themselves in rows corresponding to the future ribs of the egg shell which is produced by them. Though the butterfly emerges in the autumn, the eggs are not deposited until quite late in the following spring, so it will be seen that the develop- ment is comparatively slow. The large number and the simultaneous development may account for it. I had the good fortune to observe the insect in the act of oviposition. It was about noon of a sultry day, which had become quite cloudy and was threatening rain. Along the side of the road some wnllows had grown up like shrubs, perhaps six feet high ; on one of the upper stems I noticed the butterfly standing on the stem with her wings closed back to back ; she allowed me to approach till my head was within two feet of her. She moved her abdomen from side to side depositing the eggs in a row at the rate of about five or six a minute ; now and then she would move forward in order to accommodate the length of her abdomen to the point where she was depositing. I watched her while she was laying perhaps one-third of the mass ; at first she seemed to pay no attention to me although I was so close, but finally, probably on account of my moving, she seemed to become restless, laid quite a num- ber of eggs on top of the others, and then without warning was ofi". I cut the stem at once and noticed on the mass of eggs a little Hymenop- terous parasite* which seemed to be depositing eggs also. It would run across the egg mass, then pause a moment or two over two or three eggs in succession, and then be off to another part of the egg mass and repeat the performance. The specimen was preserved and some of the eggs allowed to hatch but no trace of parasitism appeared in them. The stem on which this egg mass was laid is almost a quarter of an inch in diameter and the mass covers at least half inch in length, and is the largest mass laid by this species of which I have ever heard. The egg, as already remarked, is apparently without a nucleus and it suggests the question : What is the function of the nucleus ? Is it the motor power that impels the cell to the exercise of its functions ? If such, it would seem that the nucleus had indued the protoplasm with such * This has been determined by Mr. Howard as Telenomus graptae (89 : 9). THE EMBRYOLOGY OF EUVANESSA ANTIOPA. 99 a food-gatlierinp^ mania that it had at last itself fallen victim to its own devices. Is the nucleus merely j)as8ive in this respect? Then it grew with the cell's prosperity till it had reached a point where its organization was not enough to hold it together. The egg, after the disappearance of the nucleus, is no longer a cell in the sense it was before : it has not the organization of a cell ; it is the re- mains of what was a coll. It is a mass of yolk surrounded and imbedded in live protoplasm. But this protoplasm exhibits no harmonious action for the accomplishment of one end ; it lacks the interrelations necessarv to a unit like a cell. Its history shows more fully the truth of this conclusion. The earliest stages of its future development are unknown, but as in other insects a certain nuclear substance makes its appearance and forms a very small nucleus, which, as recently shown by Blochman, gives off the ])olar globules, as occurs with other animals, and forms the female pronucleus. About the time of fertilization this sinks into the yolk ; a small amount of protoplasm gathers around it, partly the original protoplasm and probably partly that which has been produced from the degeneration of the volk spherules by the ordinary process of cell growth. This nucleus and the pro- toplasm around it constitute a distinct and complete cell. Division sets in and a number of cells are produced. Each of these is a complete cell, with plasma and nucleus, and the only relation that the yolk surrounding it has to it is that of food. The subsequent history is only the increase and development of these cells, and the consequent degeneration and ab- sorption of the yolk. In the freshly laid egg there is inside the yolk mem- bi-ane a layer of stainable protoplasm, in which are in bedded considerable numbers of small, spheroidal bodies, quite highly refractile, partly fattv and partly albuminous, but the main mass of the egg is made up of another structure, known as yolk spherules. These are about .001 mm. in diameter, though varying between .0008 mm. and .0012 mm ; their index of refraction is not very far from that of balsam : in color they are somewhat yellowish, and they do not take stains readily. By mutual pressure something of their spherical shape is lost, but they do not have flat sides : for those first formed are round, and the later ones conform to them and so have concave sides. As to the method of formation, Ave first see a very small granule, which grows gradually until the full-sized yoke spherule is formed. Whether this growth is merely accretion is not certainly known, but there is no indication of lamination : on the other hand there is no visible spherule membrane, as one would expect if the growth were due to intusseption. The method of degeneration is very interesting and reminds one of the fatty degeneration of the tissues of the pupa, or hystolysis. At the beginning of cell activity in the egg, certain of the spherules in the immediate neighborhood of the active cells begin to appear slightly granular ; the granules are coarse but 100 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. very indistinct at first ; this appearance does not begin at one point and spread over the spherule, but appears simultaneously over the whole spherule. These granules, which are from the first coarse, become more and more distinct and highly refractile, and finally the outline of the spherule is no longer discernible. The bodies produced are not fat, although they resemble it very much in optical qualities. They may be looked upon as a form of albumen most readily converted into cell food, while the yolk-like fat is a condition of the food material suited for stor- age. Yolk degeneration goes on with great rapidity, until about one- third of the mass of the egg has assumed this granular condition ; this is at the time the newly formed blastoderm cells begin their migration towards the circumference, when a pause ensues. The degenerated yolk occupies the centre of the egg, and the blastoderm cells readily push their way through this material and pass into the part containing the undifferen- tiated spherules beyond. After the blastoderm cells have passed this line the yolk cells follow and carry with them some of the degenerated yolk, and finally produce the yolk masses as described below. The process of defeneration now takes a new start from the nuclei of the yolk cells and spreads gradually outward from each, until the whole mass has undergone this change. One of the most striking stages (63: 5) is when the whole mass has degenerated, except a single row of spherules around each cell. The degeneration of the yolk is not complete till quite late in the develop- ment of the insect. Some recent authors have described bodies in the yolk spherules of insects, which they call bacterioids, attributing to them certain bacteria-like action. Their method of appearance, hoAvever, seems to exclude the possibility of their being anything like organisms growing in the yolk. The earliest stage known in the development of the egg is when there are about twenty cells present. These are about uniform in size and all at quite a distance from each other, for at this stage as soon as a cell divides the resultant cells separate. This is facilitated by the degenerated condition of the yolk spherules in this region ; the cells are ameboid in shape and the nucleus very indistinct, but of considerable size ; after di- vidino- several times the cells arrange themselves in line and commence a migration towards the circumference. In going through the degenerated yolk they sometimes leave trailing out behind them a long process (63 : 3) of protoplasm ; on reaching the edge of this region they pause, gather themselves together, and plunge into the mass of undifferentiated yolk. While in transit, the cells divide so as to keep about the same distance apart ; they do not all reach the edge at the same time, but those on one side take their station long before the others (63 : 4) . On reaching the protoplasmic layer the cells at once appropriate that immediately be- fore them and so increase rapidly in size. Owing to the granular mate- TIIK EMBRYOLOGY OF EUVANESSA ANTIOPA. 101 rial In the absorbed protoplasm the cell plasma becomes darker and the still unaltered nucleus becomes very distinct. On the outside of the pro- toplasmic layer there was a layer of grayish material ; this now forms a cap over each cell and extends down each side for a considerable distance. When all these cells have reached the circumference of the egg the blasto- derm may be supposed to be fully formed, though at no time do all the cells that form it resemble each other ; some commence their further de- velopment before the others reach their proper position ; the blastoderm is complete about twenty -four hours after deposition. Besides the blastoderm cells there are in the centre of the egg a large number of other cells, mostly yolk cells ; they have no definite arrangement but are pretty evenly distributed over the whole egg. The blastoderm cells on one side of the egg continue to divide so that when the blastoderm is complete the cells on one side are much smaller in diameter than on the other ; they have, however, increased in thickness and so make a thicker and more compact layer ; this is the beginning of the ventral plate. The cells which make up this structure are at the bot- tom of the egg and extend halfway up one side (63 : 10) , The transition between this area is quite abrupt. In the further development the ventral plate sinks deeper into the yolk. This is accomplished within three days after deposition. The first indication of the process is a slight infolding of the upper end (63: 10) ; the blastoderm cells begin to grow over the ventral plate from this point and extend down the sides ; the edge of the ventral plate sinks down at the same time. During this process of in- folding the whole ventral plate begins an upward movement and increases somewhat in size ; when the infolding is complete, that is, when the out- folded edges of the blastoderm cells have met and closed over the whole ventral plate, the latter is about as long as the egg but so curved as to reach only about three-fourths Avay to the top (63 : 11) . It Avill be seen that the embryo has now two layers of cells outside of it, one extending all around and the other only across the outside face of the ventral plate ; between these two layers the yolk penetrates freely. Great confusion exists as to the nomenclature of these membranes but I prefer to follow Balfour in this matter and designate the inner as the amnion and the outer as the serous membrane, though the reverse is perhaps the more com- mon practice. From this history of their formation it is evident that both layers and the ventral plate are modified blastoderm cells, and that the membranes can in no sense be called moultings of the ventral plate. We will leave the embryo at this point and conclude by giving an ac- count of a few structures that have already made their appearance, but which have not as yet been noticed by us. One of these is a peculiar con- dition of certain of the blastoderm cells at the upper pole of the egg ; it 102 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. IS quite common if not universal in the eggs of insects, as one can per- ceive by examining the figures of young insect embryos by various authors. No one, as far as I can make out, has expressed any opinion as to their significance or function, nor can I. Very early in the formation of tlie blastoderm, certain of the cells in the upper end fuse together and form a syncytium ; their nuclei are large, and the whole mass is larger than an equal number of blastoderm cells, even of those in the ventral plate in the time of their maximum size ; beneath them the yolk assumes a peculiar condition possessing bubble-like cavities. The yolk cells constitute another of those structures which we may call temporary ; they perform the very necessary function of preparing the food material out of the yolk. It has not been proven that any of them take any part in the formation of the tissues of the insect, and many of them certainly do not ; at first they resemble very much the cells that go to make up the blastoderm, but may be distinguished by their affinity to the yolk, or rather by the fact that they absorb the yolk spherules and granules bodily ; shortly after blastoderm formation they complete their absorption of the yolk and are called yolk masses, but may with strict propriety be still called yolk cells. The method of yolk degeneration that these cells set up has been already described. There are other cells in the mass of the egg which do not take part in the degeneration of the yolk ; they appear as indiiferent cells of the earlier stages, and probably give rise to the endoderm. Others find their way to the ventral plate and lie close against it ; these appear to give rise to the mesoderm, though this is not the view generally received as to the origin of this germ layer. About the time of the completion of the blastoderm the already diflPer- entiated ventral plate infolds at a point on the median line about two-thirds from the upper end and forms a very narrow pocket. The cells composing it look like the rest of the cells of the ventral plate at this time ; they are almost round and have a lining on one side made of the gray matter which originally bordered the whole egg but which became a part of the blasto- derm cells. The pocket remains open but a short time, but there is a long depression at the upper end of the bunch of cells : the mass of cells are soon cut ofll^ from the ventral plate and are free in the body cavity, but remain in contact with the ventral plate at the point where they were pro- duced. Later stages show that these cells produce the generative organs ; the generative organs thus appear to be produced by an infolding of the ectoderm, or possibly of the l)lastoderm before the ectoderm is produced, but from a portion Avhich is later to become ectoderm. The general idea has been that the generative organs in insects are produced from the mesoderm, although Metschnikow as early as 186fi showed for certain insects a difl^erent origin. Tiiis brings us face to face with an unsettled question of fundamental TIIK i:.Ml'.HYOLO(iY OK EUVANESSA AXTIOPA. 103 iinportaiici' in eiiihrvolt^uy. "If there are any structures," says Balfour, "whose identity throughout the Metazoa is not open to doubt, these struc- tures are the ovum and spermatozoon" ; and though embryologists regard tlie germinal layers as presenting homologies almost erpially certain, it is nevertheless the fact that observation indicates that the ovaries in the differ- ent groups arise from different germinal layers. This fact even led Balfour to doubt the fundamental importance of the germinal layers. It is worth while to review what is known of the origin of the primative ova in the va- rious groups of animals. In the Spongiaria certain of the cells of the general parenchyma are said to develoj) into eggs and so they would be considered mesoblastic ; the Cnidaria exhibit considerable apparent varia- tion, but, as the primitive ova cannot be distinguished from the other cells and as they are known to migrate from one layer to another, it is extremely doubtful if anything can be made out with certainty about them ; in the Annelida the ova arise from cells situated in the lining of the body cavity ; in the Nemathelminthes the generative cells have been observed in the gastrula, where they lie in the hypoblastic lining of the archentron, but later they are free in the body cavity ; in the Polyzoa they are apparently mosoblastic and situated in the space between the stomach and the floor of the vestibule ; a single cell in the mesoderm gives rise to the generative organs in the Nematodes ; with Insects the primitive ovaries are a mass of cells situated at the end of the proctodeum and said by some to arise from it, by others to be derived from the mesoderm, while still others trace them back to certain so-called pole cells which originate before the blastoderm is formed ; in the Crustacea the cells orlvins: rise to the o-enerative ^ coo organs arise during segmentation and are first enclosed in the epiblast and still later migrate inwards ; in Vertebrates the germinal cells are first seen in the so-called germinal epithelium from which they seem to have arisen. It is thus seen that a great difference appears in the various groups. The only view that appears to reconcile all these statements is this : The germinal cells do not belong to any layer but are the product of some of the first divisions of the egg cell ; they take part generally in the formation of the blastoderm and them migrate into the mesoderm. Probably in most animals, as in Euvanessa, they are indistinguishable from the other blastoderm cells. In only a few animals have the germinal cells been traced back cell by cell to the egg cell and these cases entirely support the view here advanced. In all cases where they are supposed to come from the mesoderm the later stages, comparatively, are the only ones known. As the life history of any animal constitutes a cycle, so does the embry- ology : while all the other tissues of the adult animal are more or less differentiated for their several functions, certain cells of the ovary retain 104 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. the primitive condition and have the potency within themselves under tiie proper conditions of forming another animal of the same species. As embryology is purely a science of cells, the student should not be satisfied until he can trace cell by cell the cycle of development from ovary cell through the egg cell and back to ovary cell again — the embryo- logical cycle. A three-fold division might quite properly be made of Embryology. Oogenesis, treating of the development of the egg from the ovary cells ; Ovarigenesis, completing the cycle and treating of the forma- tion of the essential elements of the ovary ; and third, the great subject of Oro-anoo-eny, which deals with the main portion of the science. THE FAMILIES OF BUTTERFLIES. . . . Those waved tbeir limber fans For wingfi, and smallest lineaments exact In all the liveries deek'd of siinuiier's pride Witli spots of gold and purijlc, azure and green, MihToy.— Paradise Lost. Butterflies are those scaly-winged insects with a spirally coiled tongue formed of channelled and united maxillae, which usually fly only by day, have sexually uniform antennae terminating in a more or less distinct club, with scarcely an exception lack ocelli and the curved bristle serving in moths to connect the front and hind wings near the base, and usually undergo their transformations in the open air, without spinning an encir- cling cocoon. They form the highest members of the order Lepidoptera and are sepa- rable into four families, which may be distinguished at any stage of life by the folio win o' table. o I. Imago of variable size, usually rather slender, with ample wings. Head in a vertical plane, the tongue being inserted opposite the lower half of the eye. Antennae approximate at the base, the space between them not equalling half the vertical diameter of the eye, the tip of the club rarely curved and never produced to a distinct point. Eyes with no overhanging pencil of bristly hairs, though in rare cases (some Lycaeniuae) a small tuft of hairs occurs at the base of the antennae; cornea of eyes not extending over the posterior fourth of the ocellar globe. Front tibiae rarely (Papilioninae) with any epiphysis, and hind tibiae with only terminal spurs. Inner edge of hind wings rarely (Papilioninae) plaited, but extending beneath and pai'tially em- bracing the abdomen; fore and hind wings in repose resting in the same plane. Egff either distinctly higher than broad and then vertically ribbed ; or sub-globular and then smooth or reticulate ; or broader than high and then usually echinoid or tiarate. Caterpillar at birth. — Head usually l)roader and higher than the body; the latter cither with ranged appendages (of various shapes) generally longer, often much longer, than the segments ; or with fleshy tubercles,^spec- ially on the thoracic segments. First thoracic segment with no distinct corneous dorsal shield, though a feel)lc one exists in some forms, and especially in the Lycaeuidae. Mature caterpillar variable in form, but generally cylindrical, often spinous, never with a strongly contracted and distinct neck, and without distinct thoracic shield. Generally constructing no place of concealment. Chrysalis generally (excl. Lycaeuidae) more or less angulate or with projecting shoulders, very rarely (in our species never) enclosed in a cocoon. A. Imarjo. — Front not only occupying the face, but extending also over half the crown of the head, and separated from the occiput by a distinct (in Anosia slight) transverse furrow l)etween the antennae. Base of the antennae wholly separate from the inner edges of the eye. Prothoracic lobes tolerably large and above tumid. Wings with the outer maruins usually crenulate. dentate, sinuate, or angulate: front pair with two inferior sub- 106 THE BUTTERFLIP:S of new ENGLAND. costal nervules, originating at the extremity of the cell ; inner margin of hind wing always embracing the abdomen, Tetrapod, the fore legs being unused and atrophied, especially in the male, but in both sexes the terminal appendages of the last tarsal joint ab- sent (excepting in Libytheinae, where the claws are present in the female), and both spines and spurs of tibiae obsolete. Egg either reticulate and then ^sul>globular, or else vertically ribbed and generally trellised over at least the upper half of the egg, and then never more than one-half as high again as broad (with the possible exception of the Libytheinae). Caterpillar at birth.— Hcud generally larger, never smaller, than the thoracic segments and generally scabrous; when of the same size, the corneous crown of the head is never encroached upon l)y the integument of the first thoracic segment, and the body is covered either with series of very long hairs (in which e-ise most of them are acicular and not clubbed at the tip) o.- with extre.nely shjrt and distant acicular hairs. Mattire caterpillar generally cylindrical, the head usually held in a vertical position, larger than the segments behind it, free and posteriorly contracted. Body furnished with continuous rows of spines or smooth lenticles, or with discontinuous rows of fleshy tubercles, or with short pile; in the last case either the head is tuberculate or the last abdominal segment is furcate, or both, or the segments have but four transverse and nearly equal divisions. Chrysalis generally angulate, often strongly angulate, or if rounded, with shouldered prominences. It always hangs in a reversed position by its tail alone, except in the rare case of a few Satyrinae, which are rounded, without special prominences, have no cremastral hooks, and undergo their changes in a ci-evice upon or a cell in the ground, the head as high as or higher than the hinder end Fam. I. — Nymphalidae. B. Imar/o.— Front occupying but little more than the face and separated from the occiput by a slight suture between the antennae. Bases of antennae inserted in distinct sockets, which either clearly infringe on the inner edge of the eye, or are open next that edge. Prothoracic lobes minute, generally appressed to a mere lamina. Wings with the outer margin generally entire, especially in the fore wing, but the hind wing often tailed ; fore wings with only one inferior subcostal nervule, arising at the extremity of the cell ; inner margin of hind wings generally but not always embracing the abdomen. Hexapod, the front legs being employed in walking, and not atrophied excepting in some males (Lycaenidae, esp. Lemoniinae), where they are partially atrophied, and sometimes have the tarsi reduced to a single unarmed joint. Egg either smooth, or else reticulate (and then tiarate or hemispherical) , or else vertically ribbed and trellised (and then greatly elongated, nearly or quite twice as high as broad). Caterpillar at birth.— Head always smaller or no larger than the thoracic segments and usually smooth ; when of the same size, either the corneous portion of the crown is partially replaced by the integument of the first thoracic segment (that is, the cranium has no posterior surface), or the body is furnished with very long or very short hairs, almost all of which are clubbed nt the tip. Mature caterpillar cylindrical, or anteriorly enlarged, or onisciform. Head usually held in an oblique position, generally small, contractile and posteriorly incomplete. Body never furnished with spines, but either naked, or furnished with ranged filaments or discontinuous rows of tubercles (in which case the head is always smaller than the succeeding segments), or with short pile (when the head is uniform, the last abdominal segment entire and the segments divided transversely into six or more sections), or with fascicles of longer hairs. Chrysalis angulate or rounded, often with no prominences whatever. It hangs in various positions, Init is always attached not only by its tail, but also by a silken girth around the middle, and in rare cases is also enclosed in a feeble silken cocoon. Some few tropical Lemoniinae are said to lack the transverse girth, but to retain the normal position by the innnobility of the aljdominal segments. KEY TO THE FAMILIf:S. 107 a. Tmrif/o of .small size and delicate stnictiiro. Front of head between the eyes iiuicli narrower than liijrh. Eyes not projecting beyond the general contour of the head, notilic/salis usually short and stout, always bluntly rounded in front, the body rarely furnished with projections, and these invariably rounded. Mediumgirth always close to the l)ody at all points, the ventral surface of the body lying in a nearly uniform plane. Crcmaster not at all or but slightly protuberant, the hooks inferior or apical. (A single exception occurs in Feniseca, but here the cremastcr is broader than long and the hooks wholly inferior.) Fam. II. — Lycaenidae. b. Imagn of medium or large size. Front of head between the eyes as broad as high. Eyes prominent, not infringed upon by the antennal sockets. Antennae straight, or, especially the club, sinuate. Metathorax markedly separate from the mesothorax. Median cell of fore wings closed by a strong vein; median ner- vure of hind wing with three or four branches ; the inner margin sometimes plaited. Fore legs of both sexes as complete as the other pairs, sometimes with an epiphysis on the inner side of the tibiae. Dorsal margin of the eighth alidomiual segment of male notched or produced to a hook. Upper organ of male genitalia with no lateral processes. Egg subglobular and smooth, or very much elevated and vertically ribbed and trellised; (oue known exception occurs in Parnassius, in which it is tiarate, but where, in contradistinction to the Lycaenidae, it appears to be overlaid with raised polygonal plates). Galerpillar at birth, so far as known, furnished with longitudinal series of clubbed or forked hairs or with prickly tubercles. 3Iature caterpillar cylindrical or enlarged anteriorly, covered with very short pile (in some exotic forms with long hairs), mostly arranged in transverse rows, or with rather infrequent and irregularly distributed microscopic hairs, and often also with series of fleshy tubercles or tilaments, or glabrous, scarcely elevated lenticles^ Chriisalia elongate, uuimucronate or blmucronate in front, generally with numerous angular projections. Median girth often free from the body for a consider- able part of its course by the ventral extension of the wing sheaths, the \ entral surface of the body being generalh' bent more or less strongly near the middle. Creniaster strongly protuljcrant and free, the hooks apical Fam III. — Papilionidae. II. Imago of small or medium size, usually robust, with rather small wings. Head in a hori- zontal plane, the tongue being inserted opposite the middle of the eye or even higher. Anten- nae widely separated at the base, the space between them more than equalling half the vertical diameter of the eye, the tip of the club more or less distinctly pointed and recurved. Eyes usually overhung at the outer base of the antennae by a curving pencil of bristly hairs; the cornea extending over almost the entire ocellar globe. Almost invariably the front tibiae have a foliate epiphysis on the inner side, and the hind tibiae a middle pair of spurs iu addition to the 108 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. terminal pair. Inner edge of hind wings plaited, the fore and hind wings in repose often resting in different planes. Egg never noticeably higher than bi-oad, and either hemispherical and smooth, or domed, vertically ribbed and trellised. Caterpillar at birth.— Reml always broader and higher than the body, the latter with ranged fungiform appendages, never, excepting on the seventh and eight abdominal segments, so long as the segments. First thoracic segment with a distinct corneous dorsal shield. Mature caterpillar cylindrical, but slightly flattened beneath and stoutest in the middle, never spinous, generally minutely and coarsely pilose, with a large head, slender neck, and a transverse corneous shield on the upper surface of the first thoracic segment. With rare exceptions (among tropical forms) living in concealment. Chrysalis smooth and uniform, rarely with a mucronate head, always enclosed in some sort of a cocoon Fam. IV.— Hesperidae. I. FAMILY NYMPHALIDAE. BRUSH-FOOTED BUTTERFLIES. Nyniphiiliilao Swains.; Nymphales Linn.; Ileteropodes Hortin. Xyniphae Korkli.; Nyniplialidi Boisil.; Cliilopodiforni or Soolopendriform .stirps Xymphalia-f Festiva (irav. ; Xymphaliens Hlanch.-HruUC; Xyniphalii Lucas. Papilionida (pars) Leach; Fapiiionidcs (pars) Bill),; Papilionidae (pars) Sam. ; Pai)ili- onites (pars) Xewm. Tetrapodes Dalni. ; Tetrapi Guen. Ilorsf. Suspensi Boisd.; Suspensa (pars) Gerst. Pendulae Boisd. Detogcntcs (pars) Xewiu. Fusifornics (pars) Guen. The insect Ie;rade of life is also a characteristic of the passage from a lower to a higher grade of structure. Moreover, as I have already pointed out in discussing the general classification of butterflies, the chrysalids ^^'hich hang by their tails only show, in the straight ventral sur- face of the abdomen of the vast majority of them, that they are descended from butterflies which in their chrysalis stage were also girt about the middle. Although other families contain butterflies which vie with the Xympha- lidac in lustrous beauty, this largest family contains upon the whole by far the greatest number and variety of striking forms, whether we consider the butterfly, the egg, the caterpillar or the chrysalis. Moreover, they are the forms which are most commonly seen and noticed by those who have but a popular interest in natural history, for they are the butterflies par excellence of the temperate zone, of the region where civilization has most flourished and the praises of nature have been most sounded by the poets. It is from the transformation of this group of butterflies that ancient my- thology has drawn its ins[)iration. The very name chrysalis, the "golden thins:" of the Greeks, was drawn from observation of this familv, where alone the pupa often assumes a gilded hue. And it is not strange that they should have so observed them, for of all butterflies these are the most spritely and vivacious, the most audacious, most fond of propinquity to man and his cultivations, and endowed with most varied psychological traits ; thouLrh at the ^ame time the family contains some forms with the 112 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. weakest flight known to butterflies. To this family alone, so far as human oro-ans can perceive them, are confined the few sounds which are emitted by butterflies, consisting mostly of rustling and crackling, and evidently produced in some manner by the wings ; in other groups, to be sure, cer- tain movements of the wings suggest sound, but none apparently is pro- duced, none certainly that can be heard by us. There is also here a greater variety of structure than is found in any of the other families of butterflies. We need only point out the fact that a considerable number of its subdivisions have been raised to primary rank by not a few natural- ists. The coloring of the wings is also more varied than in other families, and more than in any other will one discover a striking difference between the coloring of the upper and under surface of the wings. As one departs farther and farther from the lower Lepidoptera in ascending the families of butterflies, one discovers a larger proportion of those which, when at rest, raise the wings above the back and expose only the under surface, instead of expanding the wings horizontally and so showing the upper surface, as in moths. It is therefore ui)on the under surface of the wings of butterflies that one should look for a greater variety of coloring than upon the upper surface, at le.ast in the highest forms ; and this is exactly what we find. Here, too, occur the greatest number of cases of protective resemblance and of mimicry. Nor is the interest especially attaching to this family confined to structure and coloring alone. In habits and in life-histories the diversity of the type is everywhere displayed. For there is scarcely any variation in the regu- lar cycle of changes which every lepidopterous insect undergoes which is not found within the limits of this family, and many are confined entirely to it. They pass the winter in every possible stage excepting, so far as known, in that of the egg, but including in one or other group every stage of larval life. The caterpillars are more often social than in other groups. There frequently enters also an element of lethargy even in mid-summer. The behavior of caterpillars for their protection against their enemies is exceedingly varied and interesting, and the forms of shelter constructed for their concealment are equally varied. The mode of pupation is, as already stated, different from that of any other group, in that they hang by their tail alone, and in general quite freely, though there are a few in- stances, as Cirrochroa and to a certain extent Chlorippe, in which the pad of silk is 80 tightly woven to the surface upon which it is spun, and the cremastral hooks of the chrysalis are spread over so long a surface that the chrysalis, instead of hanging freely, lies with its ventral surface in close proximity to the surface of rest. The method in which they accomplish their transformations, from the caterpillar clasping the pad of silk with its anal prolegs to the chrysalis whose hinder end, armed with little anchor- like hooks, is withdrawn from the shrivelled skin of the caterpillar and TFIK FA^[ILY \VM IMIA[>II)AE. 113 plimi!:<'(l into tlic same pad, tVom which it shakes off the now useless larval cuticle, is excccdiniily intcrcsliiio-. The division of the family. A word or two should l)e added in rela- tion to the serial order of the ^Toups here employed, as it differs in a slight degree from that g-ivcn in the exeellent sketch which Bates [)refixe(l to his study of the helieonide Lepidoptera of the Amazons Valley. The [)rinci- pal difference consists in reinoxing the Euploeinae * from their exalted position at the sununit of tlie entire rjiopahx-erous series to a comparatively low one near the base of tlie Xym[>halidae, and in closer relation to the Ileliconinae, etc. Our reason for this change lies principally in the character of the clothing of the caterpillar by Avhich it is allied to Liby- theinae. On the other hand the principal objection is the great degree of atropliy found in the front legs of the imago. But as a whole, this atr()])liy is inferior to that of the Satyrinae, and is not much in excess of that found in the otlier members of the family above the Argvnnidi. The absence of a brush of s[)reading hairs still further to conceal their existence should be noted. In a table which should represent the com[)lete affinities of the dif- ferent members of the Nymphalidae, the Euploeinae should not, however, occupy a low position but should be represented rather as in the accom- panying scheme which, as will be seen, is but a comparatively slight modi- fication of that proposed by Bates which we place beside it. Satyrinae I Morphiiiao Danaoid Ilelk'oni.lao Apaturi.li Brass!)linao Daiiainac | | | I Satyrinae Xyinplialidi Acraeinae I I Acraeinae | i Krassoliiiae | Vanessidi | I Ileliconinae | neliconinae' I I Ariivnnidi l Xynipiialinae " | | Eupioeinaet I ^Felitacidi I Liliytliaeinae | | Lihvtliaeinae Bates' arrangement. Arraw/ement proposed. In a serial arrangement, moreover, such as nuist ))e employed in a sys- tematic work, it becomes desirable to place the Eui)loeinae in close vicin- ity to the Libytheinae on account of the essential similarity of the larvae, as shown by their lack of prominent papillae bearing more or less coarse l)ristles or spines. By the scheme as we arrange it, the naked catei-jiillars are placed in immediate proximity to the Libytheinae, Avhich are at most pilose ; the groups in which the segments form one imdi\ided or nearly undivided section, the Argynnidi, Melitaeidi, Heliconinae, etc., are brought together ; the conspicuously spiny caterpillars are all grouped in near * -'Trihu qui a et6 I'ohject dc heanruup Ileliconidae" as a distinct family to whicli he .riiL'sitations.'' (Uar.) lias jriven the name Xeotroi)iden. We should t = Danaiuae + Danaoid Htiii-onidae of rather rejrard tliem as a trihe, Itlioniyidi, of Bates. Schatz has separatejmphalinae, based on the ei/g, Eyg half as high agahi as broad, vertically ribbed. Egg scarcely narrowing at base, the ribs but little prominent Euploeiuae. Egg narrowing distinctly at base, the ribs prominent. Egg narrowing very much more above than below some Argyiinidi. Egg subfusiform, narrowing about equally alcove and below Libytheinae. Egg much less than half as high again as broad, usually but slightly higher than broad, ribbed, or reticulate. When ribbed, the ribs at least twice as elevated above as below, sometimes wanting l>elow; w^hen reticulate, heavily reticulate, the angles of reticulations tilamentous Nymphalinae (excl. Chlorippe). When riljlx>d, the ribs of about ei/ual height above and below; when reticulate, delicately reticulate or almost smooth, never tilamentous Satyrinae, ChJorippe. Table of subfamilies, based on the caterpillar at birth. Cuticular appendages of body few and mostly ranged. Ranged appendages club-shaped or larger at some point before the tip than at a previous point. Head much larger than the thoracic segments Satyrinae. Ranged appendages simple, tapering hairs, sometimes scarcely clubbed at tip. Head not much larger than thoracic segments. Ranged appendages not larger than the segments (in New England species). Some papillae or other prominences of the body much larger than others. Eighth abdominal segment with a pair of special large papillae Euploeinae. All papillae of eighth abdominal segment of usual size NymphaHdi. All papillae of equal or subeipial size Apaturidi. Ranged appendages nuich larger than the segments most Nymphalinae. Cuticular appendages of body numerous, not ranged, forming a short i)ile Libytheinae. THE sunFA^riT.Y satyrtxae. 115 Tabic of anhfarailiea, hasfid on the mnljtrp catprpillnr. Last .segment bifurcate (in all New Enf^Iand species). Head crowneil Ity sinipl<' apijcndaj^es or l)y none Satyrinae. Head crowned by a l)rancbin.i;- aiM'cndaire Chlorlppe. r.,ast sciiincnt ruuiided. entire. Rudy covered witb spines Nyinphalinae (excl. Cbiori]iiH'). Body witliont spines. Body fnrnislied willi a lew lon^- llesliy lllanients Eiiploeinae. Body covered w ii b pile only Libytheinae. Table of subfamilies, based on. Uie chrystdis. Witli (i;enerally numerous) conspicuous prominences Nymphalinae. Wliolly unpi'ovided witli conspicuous i^roniinences. Exceedintcly pkinip and fui'nisbcd witli a series of minute tubercles on a transverse altdo- niinal ridi^e Euploeinae. Of ordinary sienderness and witb no transverse rid.u:es (in Xew Enj;land species). A mediodorsal abdonnnal carina. Front of bead deeply excised between ocellar tubercles Chlorippe. Front of bead scarcely excised between ocellar tubercles Libytheinae. Xo mediodorsal abdonnnal carina Satyrinae. Table of subfamilies, based on the imar/o. Some of the nervures of fore wings swollen at the base. Palpi slender, strongly compressed. heavily fringed with long scale-hairs Satyrinae. None of the nervures swollen. Paljji rather stout, not greatly compressed, the fringe slight, short and delicate. Antennae nalced Euploeinae. Antennae clothed abundantly with scales. Palpi not so long as the thorax; fore-legs of both sexes atrophied and imperfect Nymphalinae. Palpi niuch longer than the thorax ; fore-legs of rf atrophied, of ? normal, except in being sliorter than the others Libytheinae SUBFAMILY SATYPvINAE. SATYRS OR MEADOW BROWNS. Satyrinae Bates; Satyri Fabr. ; Satyridac Oreades Borkh. Swains. ; Satyrides Boisd. ; Satyrites Praetores + Dictatores Ilerbst. Blanch.-Brull6; Satyroidae AVall.; Saty- Thysanuriform stirps (pars) Horsf. ritae Lucas; Satyrina IIerr.-S<'haeff. ; Saty- Hipparchiides Kirb. ridi Staint. Limaciformes (pars) Newm. Papiliones nymphales gemmati Wien. Yerz. Fun'ulae (Juen. Fluttering like some vain, ])ainted butterfly From glade to glade along tlie forest patli. Arxolp.— 7V(e Lif/lit of Asia. ImagOt Bntterflies of medium size. Head of moderate size ; front tumid, protu- berant below; antennae inserted in a common, transverse hollow, separatins: the front from the vertex, very slender, scaled, straight, as lomi as or lonsrer than the abdomen, consistinsi of about ;W-1.> joints, the limits of the club ill-detined. occupyinf; from one-fourth to one-half of the apex in a gradually enlariring area; palpi slender, the 116 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NP:W ENGLAND. clothin.i;' nearly all in a vertical plane, giving it the appearance of considerable com- pression. Thorax moderately slender, compressed, upper surface greatly vaulted, especially in the middle; anterior sides of mesoscutellum slightly hollowed, forming together about a right angle ; posterior curve the sometimes angulated arc of a circle a little Ijeyond the centre of which is the apex of the piece. Metascutellum having nearly as great a superior as a posterior face, and forming a transverse piece, a))out twice as broad as long and as broad as the distance of the posterior angles of the metascuta apart. Metascuta moderate, protuberant in the middle beloAV. Fore wings produced somewhat at the apex to a well rounded angle, generally slightly full at the outer border, which is seldom angulated or even Avavy ; costal nervure greatly sAvollen at the base (in all American genera), terminating a little beyond the middle of the costal border ; first and generally also the second superior branches of the subcostal nervure arising just before the apex of the cell, the other two at some distance beyond; the inferior branches are much as in the Nymphalinae; discoidal cell usually at least half the length of the wing, closed by distinct veins ; median nervure often swollen at the base, the branches equidistant, the first arising at the middle of the cell, the last at its tip, which curves toAvard the subcostal nervules ; submedian nervure sometimes swollen at the base ; internal nervure Avanting. Hind Avings not greatly smaller than the fore Avings, broadly rounded, generally Avitliout tails, angles, or more than slight crenulations ; inner border forming a gutter for the reception of the abdomen ; costal nervure terminating at about the middle of the outer half of the costal border ; subcostal nervure taking its rise ai)parently as a dependent of the costal nerA'ure (not so conspicuously so in Oeneis), its loAver branch curving strongly at base toAward the median; cell closed by a slender vein, connecting the loAver subcostal nervule just Ijeyond its initial curve to the last branch of the median at its curve, directed outAvard from the subcostal toAvard the median nervule ; the branches of the median nervure arise further from the base of the Aving than the corresponding ones of the subcostal nervure, the terminal one curving to receive the vein closing the cell ; sul)median nervure terminating at the anal angle ; internal ner- vure terminating at about the middle of the inner border.* Forelegs very small, variable in division and armature; the male tarsi consist of a single joint, somethnes divided by sutures into from three to five unarmed articula- tions; in the female they are divided into four or five joints, sometimes unarmed, sometimes Avith apical spurs and sometimes Avith scattered spines only. Male abdomi- nil appendages : upper organ provided Avith a hook as long as or longer than the centrum and generally as long as or longer than the clasps ; also, Avith a pair of slender, taper- ing, backAvard directed appendages on the sides ; clasps pretty long and slender, at least four times as long as broad, tapering on the apical half and generally becoming very slender. Egg. Sul)spherical, flattened at the base, and rounded, though usually slightly flat- tened at the summit; the sides full and broadest beloAv the middle, usually in the middle of the loAver half ; covered either Avith very inconspicuous cells or Avith very numerous, delicate, longitudinal ril)s; surface minutely granulose. Micropyle com- posed of minute angular cells, increasing a little in size outwardly and separated by delicate raised lines. Caterpillar at birth. Abdomen tapering very slightly and regularly from in front backAvard, the last segment often shoAving little or no sign of its subsequent bifurcation. Body furnished above, on either side, either Avith tAVO roAvs, or Avith a double roAv, of clubbed appendages, one placed anteriorly and one posteriorly on each segment; the sides Avith another roAv, formed of a single appendage, placed centrally above the spiracles of each segment, and, beneath, another double roAv, its members not quite in a line — all seated on papillae. * A very anomalous dijstrilnitiun of the veins margins, is shown by Wood-Mason to occur of the fore-wing, both at the costal and inner in the Indian genus, Tarantirrhaea. THE SUlil'AMlLY SATYKINAE. 117 Mature caterpillar. Iloacl well rounded, smaller than tlie larj^est part of the abdo- iiH'ii, ultlioiiiiii iKit always of a less size than the first tlioracic se.<;nient, witli no pro- tMbcrances, exce|)tiii.u,- at tlie sununit, ■\vliich sometimes bears on either side a lonj;, strai^^Iit, conieal horn. liody nearly or cpiite cylindrical, lar^jest at or in advance of tlie middle, taperini; more or less tOAvard eitlier end ; tlie terminal sesjment loufii- tudinally forked, each fork extending Ijackward as a conical projection, often of considerable leniith. Legs and pi'olegs short but not very stout. Surface of the body profusely studded Avith papillae, each giving rise to a very short hair; ornamented with longitudinal colored bands, some of which are frequently composed of oblicjue dashes, one to a segment. Tlie segments are cut by transverse incisions, usually into six sections, the front one the largest, the last incision frecjuently obscure. Chrysalis. Head scarcely at all or but little produced in front; the anterior curve of the thorax very high; ocellar prominences often not at all ])ronounced. Abdomen broadly roinuletl, not deeply separated from the thorax, the lower surface of the body nearly straight, slightly and broadly curved; the Avhole body well rounded, Avith feAv or no tubercles excepting the slight projections at base of Avings; edges of the wings very slightly raised above the level of the body and not at all thickened at the border, but generally carinate from the wing tubercle backAvard. Characteristics of the group. The butterflies of this subfamily pre- tjcut among Nymphalidae a very distinctive appearance. Their sombre hues, ahuost always, and In eastern North America invariably, inclining to dark brown ; their markings, mostly confined to round ocellated spots upon the under and to some extent upon the upper surface, near and parallel to the outer border (oftenest occuring in the lower sul)costal and lower median interspaces) ; together with the delicate texture of the membrane of the wings, the suppleness of the nervures, which are usually inflated at the base (a character, however, not foimd in some exotic genera and shared by some genera in neighboring subfamilies) ; and the excessive atrophy of the fore legs in the males — all combine to separate these insects from those of any other large group. There is no doubt that in many cases the sombre markings in this group are instances of protective resemblance, the under surface of the hind winas beinfj marbled or mottled with darker and lighter colors, in such a way as to render the insect very diflficult to see wdien alighted, for instance, upon a gray rock. That this is its purpose is indicated, not only by the invariable habit of insects of this subfamily to alight with closed Avings, showing only their under surface, but their very common trick of imme- diately dropping the front wdngs into concealment between the hinder pair, and also of tipping over to one side and resting in a half reclining posture, the gray Aving against the gray rock. The caterpillars may be readily recognized by the peculiar bifurcation of the terminal segment of the body, shai-ed Avitli us only by the genus Chlorippe ; they are almost invariably — Avith us, ahvays, so far as is kuow^n — clothed only Avith a short but coarse pubescence arising from papillae so numerous a^ to give a shagreened appearance to the skin,* and * 13oi^duval de:>erii)es the hairs on the body of one speeies as bitid. 118 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. lono-itiulinally striped with continuous oi' l)roken bands of color. Distant rio-litly considers this a form of protective coloring, and even looks upon the forked tail as in some measure protective, and on this type of larva as a "very primitive form." He remarks (lihop. Mai., 37) : Dr. Weismann has made the most iirofound and philosophical study of larval char- acters, principally as found in the Sphingidae, a family which strongly exhibits more or less specialized larval markings. He considers tlie oldest Sphinx larvae as being without markings and probal:)ly protected only by adaptive coloration and a large caudal horn, etc. It is at least probable that the bifid tails of the Satyrinae fulfil an analogous in'otective function with this caudal horn in the Sphingidae. . . With the next stage of Sphingid evolution, where the larvae have become longitudinaly striped, we may almost apply Dr. Weismann's very words to the Satj'rinae. — "The caterpillai's thus marked must have been best hidden on those plants in which an arrangement of parallel linear parts predominated ; and we may venture to suppose that at this period most of the larvae of the Sphingidae lived on or among such plants (grasses)." The caterpillars eat slowly and are very long in attaining matur- ity ; and as the egg and chrysalis states are usually longer than conunon, the species of this group are almost without exception single brooded, and, in the genus Oeneis, some species are supposed to tixlvc two years to complete the cycle of growth. So far as known, the larvae feed only on grasses and sedges.* It is probable that the larvae of nearly all the species hibernate ; this is known or presumed to be the case in all our own species. M. Marloy who seems to have been more successful in finding the caterpillars of the European species than any one else, obtained them all in the months of March, April and May.j In this subfamily are found some curious and instructive exceptions to the general rule of pupation among the Nymphalidae, a family, which, as is well known, suspend themselves by the hinder extremity during the chrysalis state. In certain European species, whose transformations were first studied by M. Marloy, the caterpillar goes beneath the ground to pupate and forming a large oval cocoon or cell, composed of grains of earth connected by a little silk, undergoes its transformations therein with- out suspending or attaching itself in any way whatever. In one of our species of Oeneis, as will be seen further on, we have an even more extreme case. In another European species, Melanargia galathea, as Mr. H. W. Bates informs me, Messrs. Hellins and Buckler have found the chrysalis lying on the ground between stems of grass, the shrivelled skin of the larva remaining attached to the hinder extremity of the chrys- alis. Both Boisduval and Duponchel give a similar account of it, but Hiibner represents it as suspended. Mr. Edwards has recently bred the * The only exception known to me is the witz also states (Stett. ent. zeit., xxii) lliat European Coeuonympha tiphon, the cater- all European species, except two, probably or pillar of which is said by Merrin to feed on certainly winter in the larval stage, and these lihytichospora, one of the Cyperaceae. exceptional insects, curiously enough, are al- t Ann. Soc. ent. Fr. vii, 263-7 (1838). Pritt- most the only ones which are double-brooded. THE SL'BFAMILY SATYRIXAE. 119 species in this country from specimens sent over utid had an experience siniihir to tliat of Messrs. Ilellins and Buckler, of whicli he will doubtless S(K)u [)ul)lisli the details. ]5ut besides this insect, we now know of at least eight lMn(»[)ean species, mostly referred to Satyrus but some to K[»iuephele and Pararge as well, the chrysalids of which are not suspended ; and so far as yet appears these all belong to the section of 8atyrinae which have vertically ribbed eggs. Most of the species, however, whose transformations are known, suspend themselves after the manner of other Xymphalidae. The butterrties may be further distinguished by their })eculiar flight, which is of a feeble, wavering, dancing character and not long sustained; neither do the insects rise far above the ground.* Wallace, in writing of the spacies found on the xVmazons, says he does not "remember to have ever seen any species rise four feet from the earth, while the greater number of them do not exceed as many inches" (Trans. Ent. soc. Lond., (2) ii : 2()1)." They are shade-loving insects. "They chiefly affect the glades and lanes of the woods, being not often seen in the clearing : some- times however they come into our gardens of a morning, but then they fly along close to the ground, beneath the shrubs and in the shelter of the fence, as if shade were more congenial than sunshine. Perhaps as there is a correspondence and a harmony in all the divine works, there may be a reference to these retiring habits in the dull tints common to the tribe and the want of those glowing colors so general among butterflies (Gosse, Alab., 55-56). Some genera of the allied Morphinae, found in S. America, are said by Wallace (loc. cit.) to be "truly crepuscular, never flying by day except when disturbed, but appearing to be volunta- rily active only for about half an hour before sunrise and after sunset ; they remain hid during the day in the gloomiest shades of the forest." Thwaites also, speaking of the subtropical Satyrinae, says (Moore, Lep. Ceylon, i :13) that "their movements are more lively in the early morning and evening during their amatory gambols" : and Xiceville remarks (Butt. India, i : 104) that the hundred or more species of Mycalesis "seldom take flight unless disturbed, except toward evening." In certain features the Satyrinae show some curious resemblances to the Hesperidae, a group the farthest possible removed from it among butter- flies. The eggs of the ribbed species closely resemble those of the Hes- peridi in general appearance : the caterpillar at birth has a siinilarly large and striking head, and occasionally the terminal segments of the l)ody are armed with nuich longer cuticular appendages than elsewhere, a common feature among the Pamphilidi ; the mature caterpillar is sluggish * Mr. Trimeu says he has "noticed that sess greater powers of flight and a mure those species which do not possess the basal robust structure general ly.'' Rliop.Afr.Aiistr. inflation of the uervures of the forcwings pos- 185. 120 THE BUTTERFLIP:S of new ENGLAND. in motion, with a somewhat flattened belly and short prologs, giving a limaciform body, which is clothed with pile only ; the chrysalis is unusually rounded and occasionally is not suspended, and the imago often has an oblique patch of raised hairs or scales on the upper surface of the fore- wings concealing the androconia, which remind one strongly of the similar stigma one often finds in the Pamphilidi. That these peculiarities have some phyletic meaning it is impossible to doubt, but they should not be allowed to overshadow or in any way to conceal the great body of charac- teristics by which this group forms a part of the great and varied family Nymphalidae. 7\.llusion has just been made to the androconia or male scales occurring sometimes in this subfamily ; with the exception of the Euploeinae and the Argynnidi this is the only group of Nymphalidae in which they are fre- quently present ; and so fVir as known they possess here the uniform char- acter of exceedingly attenuated scales with a tasselled tip. They by no means occur in all genera, and sometimes show no external sign of their presence ; they are generally found upon the upper surface of the front wings, and often in the form of an oblique stigma. In some Asiatic species, according to Thwaites (Moore, Lep. Ceylon, i: 13) they are present as "a pair of curious pencils of hair which each lie within a fold of the upper Aving, and which are capable of being spread out radiately dur- ing the insect's flight." I am not aware that any odor has been detected in any of them ; I have l^een able to detect none in our two species of Oeneis. About half of our species possess no androconia. Some instructive memoranda are furnished by Mr. Edwards upon the characteristics of the early stages of our Satyrids in the Canadian entom- ologist, XV : (38, based on his extensive knowledge through breeding. The facts there brought forward show that the arrangement of the genera com- monly adopted in Europe is altogether unnatural, as one woidd expect to find it, founded solely upon a few characters drawn from the neuration of the wings ; an excellent opportunity for inaugurating a new and more substantial classification is now open to the general student. Little is known of the enemies of the Satyrinae. The sluggish habits of the caterpillar must subject them to hymenopterous attacks, against which they have only their nocturnal life to guard them, for nearly without excep- tion, they feed exclusively by night. The caterpillars of the genus Oeneis Avith their peculiar habitats are known to be specially subject to such insect foes. The butterflies with their gentle flight, almost always in or near shrubbery, are also specially subject, one would think, to attack by birds. And Gentry tells us that he has often found them in tlic stomachs of such birds as the night hawk (Chordeiles virginianus), the Acadian flycatcher (Empidonax acadicus), the wood pewee (Contopus virens), and the scarlet tanager (Pirangra rubra). THE GEXERA OF SATYUIXAE. 121 Greographical distribution. This sul)f:imily is more widely spread over the globe than any other similar group of" butterflies, being universally present wherever butterflies occur. Though, with the allied Morphinae (which perhaps should not be separated from them e\en with a subfamily valuation), it is rei)rcsented in the tropics of America by some of the lai-gest and most brilliant of its class, its members extend to polar colds and alpine summits, and embrace several genera peculiar to such regions. Yet wherever they occur the Satyrinae can be recognized l)y their peculiar faeies, and have nowhere lost their characteristic flight and habits. Not only in New England, but in the whole of eastern North America they are very poorly represented ; indeed only about half a dozen species are found in the larger region which do not occur in New England, and they form, in either case, but a mere fragment of the l)utterfly fauna ; in western North America they are a little more abundant, but even there bear no such relation to the general fauna as they do in Europe, where they com- pose nearly one-third of the whole fauna and are relatively more than four times as numerous as in New England. It should be further noted that the bulk of the European fauna belongs to the first section of the family as divided in this work ; while in eastern North America the larger number belongs to the second section. Moreover two of the eastern o-enera belono-ino- to the first section, the only two represented in New England by more than a single si)ecics, are either common to New England and Europe on the one side and the Pacific slope of America on the other, or are represented by very closely allied genera; so far as known, the other genera (of the second section) do not occur in the western part of America, but are more nearly allied to subtropical forms ; — with one exception, Satyrodes, which seems somcAvhat unique. Two out of the sixteen recognizable fossil remains of butterflies belong to this subfamily, and both of these come from the same beds in the south of France ; both, too, though belonging to different genera, are much more closely allied to existing Indian forms than to any now living in Europe — a fact which excites more interest from the great abundance and variety of these insects in the Europe of to-day. One of these fossils indeed, Lethites reynesii, is more nearly allied to one of our New England species, Euodia portlandia, than to any of the living European Satyrinae. Table of genera of Satyrinae, based on the eyn. Surface distinctly furnished with vertical ribs. Ribs stout, thickonod at intervals, more or less irregular Oeneis. Kibs delicate, nearly uniform and regular Cercyoiiis. Surface not vertically ribbed. Reticulation inconspicuous; egg distinctly broader than higli. Surface completely smooth Enodia. Surface faintly and very delicately reticulate Satyrodes. Reticulation not inconspicuous; egg almost globular. Cells of reticulation as large on the lower as on the upper half of egg.. . .Neonynipha. Cells of reticulation larger on upper than on lower lialf of q%^^ Cissia 122 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. Table of genera, based on the caterpillar at birth. Summit of licad regularly rounded, without tubercles ; appendages of body strongly bent. Appendages of the body very short, not one-half the length of the segments Oeneis. Appendages of body long, much longer than the segments Cercyonis. Each side of head surmounted by a rounded tubercle ; appendages of body straight. Appendages of anterior halt of body short, not one-third the length of the segments. Appendages of a few terminal segments no longer than the segments — Satyrodes. Appendages of a few terminal segments twice as long as the segments... Neonympha. Appendages of anterior half of the body long, nearly or quite as long as the segments. Head with slight conical coronal tubercles Enodia. Head with prominent globular coronal tubercles Cissia. Table of genera, based on the mature caterpillar. Body stout, not greatly constricted behind the entire head. JBody longitudinally and conspicuously striped with broken bands ; width of head about half the greatest width of the body Oeneis. Body longitudinally and inconspicuously striped with continuous bands ; head nearly as broad as greatest width of body Cercyonis. Body slender, tapering forward to form a distinctly constricted neck; head crowned with sum- mit tubercles. Summit tubercles of head large, conical, tapering, nearly as high as rest of head. Head stout and, including tubercles, half as high again as broad Enodia. Head slender and, including tubercles, twice as high as broad Satyrodes. Summit tubercles of head slight and inconspicuous (in New England species). Larger papillae of head distant and scattered Neonympha. Larger papillae of head closely crowded together Cissia. Table of genera, based on the chrysalis. Thorax regularly rounded ; head not prominent, its anterior and inferior surfaces not forming less than a right angle. Cremaster abreviated, without booklets Oeneis. Cremaster normal Cercyonis. Thorax regularly rounded; head thrust forward, its anterior and inferior surfaces forming less than a right angle. Abdomen destitute of longitudinal carinae. Front of head entire between the ocellar tubercles. Abdomen tapering rapidly, beyond the wing cases much shorter than they. Enodia. Abdomen tapering gradually, beyond the wing cases as long as they ...Satyrodes. Front of head distinctly emarginate between the ocellar tubercles Neonympha. Abdomen with a pair of distinct longitudinal carinae Cissia. Table of genera, based on the imago. Antennae gradually incrassated on the apical third or fourth. Eyes naked Cercyonis. Eyes pilose. Spines of middle tibiae infrequent; antennae composed of more than forty joints Enodia. Spines of middle tibiae very numerous; antennae composed of less than thirty-six joints Satyrodes. Antennae gradually incrassated from just beyond the middle. Costal nervure of fore wings scarcely tumid at the base ; hind wings consideraljly elon- gated Oeneis. Costal nervure of fore wings very tumid at the base; hind wings well rounded. Antennae composed of less than forty joints ; outer border of hind wings more rounded than in fore wings Neonympha. Antennae composed of more than forty joints; outer border of fore and hind wings similarly rounded Cissia. SATYRINAJ: : THE GENUS OENEIS. 123 SECTION I. Erjfj vertically ribbed and cross-lined. Catcrpillnr at hirth\\M\\ bent cnticnlarappen- datres and a head uniformly rounded above. Mature aUcrpUlar comparatively stout, witli a head not much or not at all larjier than the sejjments behind it, and with no summit tul)ercles. Cliri/saUs -with a regularly rounded niesonotum and the head not prominent. InuKja with lower extremity of cell of fore wing strongly extended out- ward ; base of middle median uervule of hind wing scarcely if at all nearer the outer than the inner nervule. Gkxkk.v : Oeneis, Cercyonis. OENEIS HUBNER. Oenei.s Hiibn., Sy.st. verz. belv. schmett., 58 Chionol)as Boi.sd., Icon. hist. L(5p. Eur., 182 (1816). (1832). Type,—PapiUo noma Esper* We arc tougher, l>rother, Than you can put us to't. SiiAKKSi'K.vuK.— Winter^s Tale. In lonely wastes, "WHien next the sunshine makes them beautiful, Gay troops of butterflies shall light to drink At the replenished hollows of the rock. Bkyant.— J. Eain Drearn. Imago (52 : 0). Head small, tufted with longer and shorter, pretty equally distri- buted hairs; front full, curving on every side, protuberant in the middle below, nar- rower than the eye, perhaps broader than high, terminating rather squarely above at the anterior base of the antennae ; lower edge rather abrupt, pretty well rounded ; vertex very short, transverse, somewhat protubei'aut, the posterior edge slightly con- vex, the anterior concave at the sides, convex in the middle; flanks moderately full; upper border of the eye scarcely angulated opposite the anterior edge of the vertex. Eyes of moderate size, pretty full, naked. Antennae inserted slightly in advance of the middle of the head, in a deep, broad pit disconnecting the front and vertex, the interior bases of the antennae meeting each other ; composed of from thirty-seven to thirty-nine joints ; considerably longer than the abdomen, very graduallj^ and constantly increasing in size from about the middle, so as to make it diflicult to mark any portion as the club; the last four joints diminish slightly in size, terminating in an abrupt cone; the apical half is cylindrical, scarcely depressed and minutely carinate along the under surface. Palpi slender, about twice as long as the eye, the apical joint one-fourth as long as the middle joint; profusely clothed beneath with long, above with short hairs, all placed in a vertical plane, excepting a few near the base, which tend in a lateral direction. Protlioracic lobes very small, wedge-shaped, narrowing ilownwards, twice as broad as high, and upon the summit less than half as long as high, of the same height and of the same length throughout, excepting that the lateral ends are well rounded ofl'. Tatagia not very large, but little convex, the posterior scarcely longer than the de- scending lobe ; both broad and pretty broadly rounded. Fore Avings (38 : 5) somewhat produced at tlie apex and abljreviated at the lower outer angle; costal ])or(ler a little convex at l)ase and tip, but lietween them nearly straight; outer border but slightly convex above the middle median nervule; below that receding stronglv ; inner border straight. Costal nervure not very much swollen, diminislung 124 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. very regularly and gradually in fulness, terminating a little beyond the apex of the cell ; subcostal nervure with its second superior branch originating between the base of the first branch and the apex of the cell ; the discoidal cell three-fifths the length of the Aving and rather more than three times as long as broad ; median and submediau nervures not enlarged at the base. Hind wings unusually long, in pai'ticular produced in the subcostal region ; costal border very gently convex next the base, straight beyond until near the tip ; outer border strongly but not regularly convex ; inner border a little and pretty regularly convex. Subcostal nervure following for a short distance the lower margin of the costal nervure ; the veinlet closing the cell striking the median nervure beyond its last divarication and the subcostal nervure as far beyond its last divarication as the greatest width of the cell ; the branches of the median nervure originate scarcely further from the base than the corresponding branches of the sub- costal nervure. The whole under surface of both wings is furnished with hairs as well as scales. Andi'oconia very slender and elongated, broadest at the extreme, rounded base, tapering to beyond the middle and terminating in a thread emitting lateral threadlets, apically expanded and as long as the extreme width of the lamina. Tlie androconia occur only on the upper surface of the front Avings. All the legs very hairy. Fore legs minute, cylindrical, the tibiae about one-fourth the length of the hind tibiae ; tarsi scarcely longer than the ti))iae, consisting in the female of five joints, of which the first occupies the basal half, the second, third and fourth are equal and the fifth a mere minute conical projection ; in the male the second to fourth joints coalesce ; leg wholly unai'med in the male excepting by the long concealing hairs, Avhich do not expand laterally ; but in the female both tibia and tarsi are supplied with a few very minute and very slender spines scattered irregularly over the upper surface, but mostly on the sides and never at the tip of tlie joints. Middle tibiae four- fifths the length of tlie hind tiljiae ; tibiae furnished on either side of the under surface with a row of forward and sliglitly outward directed short spines, terminating at the apex in a longer spur; upper surface with a few very short scattered spines ; first joint of tarsi fully equal to the three succeeding together, which are about equal but decrease in length successively, the fifth as long as the second; all furnished Avith a roAV of short, forward directed spines on either side of the under surface ; between the rows many others, varying in length and irregularly placed; claws Avell curved throughout, pretty slender, rather bluntly pointed ; pulvillus small, longer than broad, of nearly equal breadth ; paronychia forming on each side of the foot a slender, delicately taper- ing and pointed ribbon, shorter than the claAv. Upper organ of the abdominal appendages stout, but slightly curved, rapidly nar- roAving at the base of the hook; the latter sti'ongly and eqiially compressed, a little curved, as long as the centrum, bluntly pointed at the tip ; sides of the centrum bearing, near the base of the hook, a single slender, tapering, compressed, slightly arcuate, backAvard directed appendage, fully half as long as the hook ; clasps rather stout, buUate, of about the length of the upper organ on the basal half, about one-third as broad as the entire length, beyond the middle rapidly narroAving, so that the apical third is only about half as broad as the base, upper edge nearly straight, tip broadly rounded or truncate ; Avhole blade regularly and considerably arcuate, Avlietlier vieAvcd from above or from behind ; terminal third of the upper edge denticulate. Egg. Spherico-ovate, rather higher than broad, broadly rounded beneath, above somcAvhat flattened but also Avell rounded, largest at about the middle of the loAvest three-fifths, narroAver above than beloAv; sides, from very near the base to the micro- pyle, furnished Avith a large number of low and broad, rounded, sometimes apically pinched, irregular ribs, often zigzag in course, not ahvays extending the Avhole length, often combining in dift'erent parts of the egg, and often presenting a more or less beaded appearance from the transverse Avrinkles or slight lines Avhich traverse the egg transversely ; next the base the ribs sometimes fade aAvay into pretty large granular elevations, and upon the summit they become much smaller and more irregular, often having a someAvhat spiral direction as they approach the micropyle. The latter is SATYRINAE: THE GENUS GENETS. 125 c<)iii])os('(l centrally of six or ci,i::ht racUatliiii' cells, to;:;etlicr forming; a circle, and sur- rounded by pretty larjye cells, those next the circle pretty regular, the outer ones lariicr, tlioir shorter axes turned toAvard the centre. Caterpillar at birth. Head considerably broader than the; body,* appressed speroi- (lul and uniformly curved, furnished with two transverse curving roAVS of distant papillae across the upper half of the face and a few below, each bearing a short club- shai)ed hair. Body tapering very regulai'ly from in front l)ackward, the last segment ))eing about half as In'oad as the first and distinctly forked, l)ut in a different manner with each species, furnished throughout with minute, curved, club-shaped hairs seated on distant ranged papilUae, viz. : on the thoracic segments in laterodorsal, lateral and suprastigniatal series, one to a segment centrally placed; and a pair of infrastigmatal papillae; on the abdoniinal segments, a subdorsal series, anteriorly placed; a supra- lateral slightly posterior ; a suprastigmatal sliglitly anterior, all one to a segment ; and a pair of infrastigmatal papillae. The body bears straight longitudinal stripes of varying Avidths. Mature caterpillar. Head small, very regularly rounded on all parts, the upper half slightly ap]>resse(l or not quite so thick as the lower portion, slightly the ])roadest next the upper edge of the occllar field, slightly broader than high, the halves scarcely separated by a perceptible notch above, rather full in the lower outer region ; triangle reaching rather more than half Avay up the head, the base a little concave, twice as high as broad, the sides a little sinuous, i-apidly tapering at the summit, depressed in a groove but little distant from and subparallel to the suture at the sides ; whole head profxisely coA-ered Avith minute rounded papillae, each giAing rise to a A'ery short, not A^ery delicate, hair, and alternating Avith pretty deep rounded punctulations ; first joint of antennae mammiform, second exceedingly short, third tAvice as long as broad, cylindrical, squarely docked; ocelli, Sac in number, four forming an open curve, its convexity forAvard, one being placed midAvay betAveen the uppermost and loAvermost and the remaining one croAvded betAveen the first and third, counting from above; the fifth is placed directly behind the fourth, which is as far from it as from the second; the third larger than the others, which are equal; labrum scarcely twice as broad as long, its angles I'ounded, excised in the middle of the front; mandibles very small but stout, edges smooth; maxillary palpi AA'ith each successive joint smaller than the previous. Body plump, cylindrical, thickest at the first two abdominal segments, narroAving gradually behind, a little more rapidly, although still A-ery gently, in front; terminal segment of equal breadth and length, conical, but truncate, the apex strongly excised at the extremity of a deep medio-dorsal furroAv above, the apices of the tAvo halves having the appearance of pretty large rounded tubercles; body profusely and uni- formly covered Avitli irregularly distributed, minute, low, conical papillae, each giving rise to a vei'y short, equal, not very delicate hair; spiracles oboAate, fully tAvice as high as broad; legs rather stout, short, conical, especially the last joint; claAV rather small and slender, scarcely compressed, somewhat curved ; prolegs short, quite stout. Chrysalis. Short, stout and high, with scarcely any prominences ; anteriorly very high and abrupt, scarcely depressed on the summit of the thorax, the anterior curve forming nearly a right angle Avith the loAver anterior surface ; very slightly holloAved betAveen the thorax and abdomen and Avell rounded at the tip, which is nearly as loAv as the under surface; vieAved from above the anterior curve is broadly rounded, rather abruptly shouldered at the basal Aving tubercle ; beyond that parallel and nearly straight to the middle of the abdomen, Avhen the body tapers Avith a broad curve, the cremaster projecting but slightly beyond it ; the angle betAveen the front and summit of the head rounded ofl', the ocellar prominences very little pronounced ; basal Aving tubercle rather large, A'ery Ioav, irregular and blunt, transversely pinched a little; thoi'ax with a dorsal line, slightly elcA'ated on the pronotum, slightly impressed on the *Sandberg describes the head of the young body, Avhich I think cannot l>e the case with Oeneis bore as small in proportion to the any Ocncis at birtli. 126 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. mesonotum, and raised more distinctly on tlie metanotum ; cremaster very sliort and inconspicuous, without liooklets. Body ratlier delicately corrugated with frequent, tremulous, slightly impressed, transverse lines. This is one of the most interesting genera in the whole butterfly world, ap- pearing only in aljjine and arctic or subarctic regions : inhospitable regions, where snow lies upon the ground by far the greater portion of the year ; or, as Boisduval remarks, — They are born where nature expires ! Yet the genus is richly endowed with species ; until recently they were best known in the highest latitudes, from the northernmost parts of Europe and all but the southernmost parts of Labrador ; one species has been long known as peculiar to the Alps of central Europe, and another to our own White Mountains ; ours is, however, but distantly related to the alpine species, much more closely to another (O. oeno) common to the arctic regions of the old and new worlds. Of late years the number of recorded species has considerably increased, especially from among the Rocky Mountains of our own country ; one species also occurs in the Himalayas and two others are described from the Andes of Chili, but it is asserted, and not improbably with justice, that the latter belong to a distinct genus. Within the reo'ion embraced in this work, two species occur ; one is confined to the A¥hite Mountains of New Hampshire and the Kocky Mountains of Colorado ; the other belongs to subarctic regions of both worlds but occurs in one locality in New England. The Oeneides are sombre lined insects, rather more sparsely scaled but more hairy than their allies, of nearly uniform brownish and ochraceous tints above, sometimes marked with darker ocellate spots in the outer half of the wings, especially upon the under surface ; beneath they are more or less marbled with ashy tints, particularly on the hind wings, which have a not very conspicuous but very broad, darker, irregular band across the middle. The cell of the wings, as well as the wings themselves, are of unusual length ; other structural peculiarities are the very gradual devel- opment of the club of the antennae, which increases almost insensibly in size from about the middle of the antenna, and the hairiness of the legs (to which Westwood calls attention) and of the under surface of the wings, as if for much needed warmth. As far as known the species are at most single brooded, and in several cases it is presumed that two years are necessary for the complete cycle. The earliest stages — egg and caterpillar at birth — are known of half a dozen species, but the later stages of the caterpillar and of the pupa of only one or two. Our own White Mountain species is the best known. That of O. bore has been described by Sandberg, who says that the larva is very indolent, and when handled shrinks and remains long motionless, which is equally true of O. semidca. O. bore hibernates twice as caterpillar and changes to chrysalis in May in the winter quarters of the larva, free, in lUIT'J'lCUFLTES AT TIIK WHITE MOUNTAINS. 127 sand, between roots of grass under the surface of the ground, appearing on the wing in June. The liistory of O. seniidca is probably siinihir ; Init C). jutta requires only one year for its changes, hibernating as a full grown caterpillar. The cj^yi; of Oeneis is provided witli numerous coarse and wavy longitudinal ribs, and this stage lasts from ten to twentv days. The caterpillar at birth has a large head and a regularly and considerably ta})er- ing body with rather brightly colored longitudinal stripes ; sometimes at least it hibernates in this condition. The mature larva feeds on sedjjes and grasses, and perhaps on Juncus, has a smooth, rounded and banded head, the last segment of the body moderately and bluntly forked, and the sides and back regularly ornamented with longitudinal series of short oblique stri})es ; its transformations take place under ground, and no silk or scarcely- more than a thread or two is used in pupation. The chrysalis is stout, smooth, without prominences, and the cremaster destitute of booklets ; in the case of O. bore it lasts from three to six weeks, in O. semidea probably about the same. EXCURSUS I— THE WHITE MOUNTAINS OF NEW HAMP- SHIRE, AS A HOME FOR BUTTERFLIES. On the path, straight out of the rock side, Wherever could thrust Some burnt sprig of Ijold hardy rock-flower Its yellow face up, For the prize were great butterflies lighting, Some five for one cup. Browning.— r/(e Englishman in Italy. There is no spot in New England where an aurelian can obtain such successful results in a brief time as in the high valleys of the White Mountain region. Not only are many butterflies which elsewhere are rare, or abundant only in very restricted localities, to be obtained here, but they occur in the greatest profusion, more than making amends for the less favorable weather Avhich is apt to interfere with collecting in moun- tainous localities. From the latter part of ]\Iay until late in September one is always rewarded for a few days' collecting. Perhaps it is because my visits have mainly been to that spot that I have found the "Glen" the most favorable region. Here, in a valley running north and south, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet, following in one direction the valley of the Peabody, and in the other that of the Ellis, in a densely wooded region with high mountains on either side sloping down to the narrow valley, with considerable clearings in the river bottom, where cultivated patches, pastures, swampy tracts, hillsides overgrown with shrubbery, and damp and sliJided forest roads are to be met with, nearlv all the conditions for abiuidant insect-life are to be found at their 128 THE butterflip:s of np:w exgland. best. More than this, a wagon road, eight miles in lengtli, A\in(Iing half way through the primeval forest, where it forms a broad lane which the butterflies covet, half-way over the rough ledges and sedgy plateaus of the treeless upper region of our highest mountain, where flowers are blooming all through the season to captivate the tired traveller, — this road affords a ready means of learning at what altitude the valley species ascend, and what kinds inhabit the inhos})itable higher levels of the mountains. Let us speak first of those which belong in the valleys, where the vege- tation is so profuse and diversified ; and restrict our remarks principally to those which are commonest here, and met with more rarely elsewhere, — those which have, so far as New England is concerned, their maximum development in this district. It is the region par excellence of that striking butterfly, Basilarchia arthemis. AVhen the stage, with its city freight, winding its way over the hilly roads with the first rush of travel, leaves most of the farms behind it and enters the heart of the forest, flock after flock of these showy butter- flies arise from the damp spots in the road where, sometimes by hundreds, they are assembled to suck the moisture from the earth, and then flutter about the stage in fascinating bewilderment, settling again to the feast in a hesitating way as soon as the disturbance is past. Indeed they some- times become a very nuisance, dozens of them when seeking a shelter entering the open doors and windows of the farm-houses, and fluttering about the windows in a vain and distracting attempt to escape when there is any movement within. In the early season, when the buds are just beginning to burst, the young caterpillar may be found emerging from its hibernaculum deftly fastened near the tips of black-birch sprigs everywhere growing by the roadside ; in July, the bristling globular egg attached to the extreme tip of the pointed leaf of the same, and later the leaves eaten in peculiar fashion, reveal where to look for the grotesque party-colored caterpillar, scarcely to be distinguished from that of its congener, B. archippus. The latter is also common (though less common than in southern New Eng- land) , prefers the willow and the poplar, and may be found feeding even up to the extreme limit of forest vegetation on the mountain side. This, too, is the New England metropolis for that high-spirited butter- fly, Polygonia faunus. Unlike arthemis, it is never found in flocks, but only by threes and fours at most, keeping up a constant warfare with one another ; but it is still so common along the roads, and particularly in the more open spots, or where the roads enter bits of forest or cross a moun- tain brook, that, notwithstanding its wary activity, one may even capture in favorable times a hundred in a day ; once I must have seen five hundred in a single railway ride of six miles in the forest on the western side of Mt, Washinorton between Fabvan's and the base of the mountain. Its cater- buttp:rflies at the white mountains. 129 pillar — also })arty-col()rctl, but hristliiig with spines — may be found both on the black birches and the willows. AMiere both these plants are found in such al)undance, search would seem to be vain, but if it is confined to such sprays of the siuallcr plants as project forward toward the road — such spots indeed as the butterflies select to alight upon — the patient search will be rewarded. Another Polygonia, far rarer, P. gracilis, I had until 1887 taken only here and on the opposite side of Mt. Washington, perhaps a couple of dozen in all in as many years ; and it is almost its only known locality in New England, though it doubtless occurs in many other elevated regions fiivorable for P. faunus. In 1887 it was tolerably common, and was found to occu[)y a distinctly lower zone, below 2,500 feet. P. progne is also common, belongs properly to the same zone, and I have taken its lnYVii here on the wild gooseberry. Eugoniaj. -album is another butterfly common in certain seasons at least, and I should consider this its favorite New England ground, were it not that one night it flew by hundreds into Sankaty lighthouse on Nantucket, where in several summers' residence on the island I ne^'er saw it at any other time. Euvanessa antiopa is also connnon enough at the White Mountains, but not much more so than elsewhere. One may generally see a dozen on a good day in earlv June, — seedy-looking individuals which have survived the winter. Aglais milberti is also common in the lower country, feeding in swarms upon the nettles ; and this concludes the series of Nymphalidi which need be mentioned. Argynnis atlantis occurs here in the utmost profusion, as nowhere else in New England. One may easily take hundreds in a single day, the sandal wood-scented males largely predominating. Brenthis myrina and B. bellona are abundant in the restricted meadow-lands, and in about equal numbers, though B. myrina is far more common in central New England. But the region is one of the best for most of our Melitaeidi. Phyciodes batesii occurs here early in June, and this is its only known New England locality. P. tharos swarms (as it also does elsewhere) and here is the best place to search for those very local species, Cinclidia liarrisii and Eu[)hydryas phaeton. They can best be obtained in the larval state, for they may always be taken in large numbers very early in the spring in such conveniently accessible spots as the immediate borders of the Glen road, liarrisii feeding in large companies on Diplopappus and phaeton scarcely more dispersed on Lonicera. I have never paid special attention to the Theclidi in this region, nor had them force themselves on my notice ; so that I am inclined to think none of them particularly al)undant, or more so than elsewhere. Nor are any of the Lycacnidi exceptionally common, excepting Cyaniris, which is certainly far commoner — especially C. pseudargiolus lucia — than anvAvhere else in New England, abundant as it often is. The roads seem at times blue with them, and they swarm at all moist spots, occurring also to the 130 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. very edge of the forest line, and enchanting the early pedestrian at every step. They are also one of the earliest risers, and are the first to be seen when the clouds break after a rain. Of the Chrysophanidi, Heodes hy- pophlaeas is of course abundant, as everywhere, and Feniseca tarquinius may always be found in its time at the proper places ; there is one isolated copse, with alder (everywhere growing in profusion ), just north of the Glen House, where I never fail to see it fluttering about when in season. Among the Pierinae, Eurymus philodice and Pieris rapae are of course abundant enough. I shall be surprised if E. interior does not some day turn up here, having escaped the net only because no one takes so common an insect as its congener, which it resembles too much on the wing to be readily distinguished from it. The only interesting form of this group found here is Pieris oleracea. Though nowhere nearly so common as thirty years ago, when I first collected at the momitains, when one might see fifty at a time in an open field, it is not yet quite exterminated by the invading P. rapae, and in the very first of the season, when a dozen or so may be taken in a day, is as common as that species ; but with the ad- vanced season it appears quite lost among the swarms of the latter. Proba- bly it will always hold out in this, its New England stronghold. None of the swallow-tails are pre-eminently abundant, with the single exception of Jasoniades glaucus. But this is indeed an exception. Early in June of any year one may take a dozen or twenty with a single sweep of the net at moist places by the roadside, or if cautious enough pick up with the fingers one specimen after another till he wearies of the task. It never fails to be abundant, and its great size and social habits make it appear the commonest butterfly of the region. The males appear to vastly outnumber the females. The skippers may be dismissed with a few words, as most of them may be found equally abundant elsewhere ; but this is certainly the best place I know for obtaining Thanaos icelus, and is probably the best for securing those rarer forms, Pamphila mandan, and Amblyscirtes samoset-, though they are never very abundant, while A. vialis is always to be met with early in June. These are the more interesting of the valley butterflies of the White Mountains, found in much greater abundance than elscAvhere ; but they form a small part of those which abound here, and the real interest centers in noting to what height any of them may be found. For this the open heads of the great ravines which seem to gnaw at the very vitals of the great mountain masses, with the wagon road up Mt. Washington on one side, and the broad railway-cutting at the other, forming as they do high- ways for butterfly as well as man, are the most interesting and instructive spots. Prominent among those which may be found, and Avhich probal)ly or certainly pass their lives in any part of the forest region, however BUTTERFLIES AT THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 131 elevated, \\'liere there ure open spaces, are Basilarchia archippus, already mentioned in tliis way, the Polygonias, Eugonia j.-albuni and Cyaniris pseiidargiolus. Not infrequently, these fly even far ahove these natural limits, and have been taken or seen upon the highest points. Indeed many insects are the veriest Appalachians, seeming to take a delight in explor- ing the sununits. This is truer of some other insects than of buttei-flies, and perhaps they are borne upward by the wind-currents ; for in the first week of June I have found the great snow-patches at the very sunnnit of Mt. Washington fairly peppered with numerous small insects, especially Coleoptera, Diptera, Ilynienopteraand Ilomoptera, prominent among which were thousands upon tliousands of delicate-winged plant-lice. Besides these among the larger insects an Acanthosoma, perhaps A. nebulosa, swarmed on the hotel piazza, and every pool of water by the roadside was the grave of countless Bibio femoratus. Of the butterflies alone which I have found u[)on the very highest summits are (besides two species immediately to be mentioned, characteristic of the mountain top) the following: Basilarchia archippus, B. arthemis, Polygonia interrogationis, P. faunus, P. gracilis, Eugonia j. -album, Euvanessa antiopa, Aglais milberti, Argynnis atlantis, Brenthis myrina, B. bellona, Phyciodes tharos, Incisalia niphon, Cyaniris pseudargiolus, Pieris rapae, Jasoniades glaucus, Thanaos icelus, and Limo- chores taumas, — in all, twenty species. It will require still a good deal of field-work to determine how far up the mountain side these forms habitually breed ; for, as given, the list is merely that of stragglers of an inquisitive turn of mind. It is far more interesting, perhaps the most interesting point in the geographical distribution of New England buttei-flies, to find that there are two buttei*flies living exclusively on these inclement mountain heights. One of them, Oeneis semidea, is known elsewhere only on the summits of the highest peaks of the Rocky jSIountains in Colorado, where it does not appear, apparently, below an elevation of about 12,000 feet, above which, and up to 14,000 feet, it has been taken on Mt. Lincoln, Sierra Blanca, the Argentine Pass, Pike's Peak, and Twin Lakes. It is, however, regarded by some as only a variety of a species found farther north ; but whether variety or species, it has characteristics Avhich separate it from the North Labrador type, while the Colorado and New Hampshire forms are inseparal)le. It is therefore either a distinct species or well on the road to it ; and so far as its interest in this connection goes, it matters little in which light it be viewed. The other species, Brenthis montinus, will, in my judgment, certainly be found beyond the great range of the White Mountains, whence only it is so far known. I should look for it confident- ly above the forest line in the Adirondacks, in the Green Mountains, and on Ktaadn, as well as other elevated and barren heights. It has been re- ported as seen on Black Mountain near Thornton, N.H., which is wooded 132 THE BUTTERFLIES OF XEW ENGLAND. to the siiimnit ; but an actual capture would be necessary to establish such a ftict. It, too, is regarded by some as merely a variety of another species found farther north, and this northern species occurs as near as southern Labrador and Anticosti, and ranges across the country to Great Slave Lake. It is, however, separable from it, and whether to be looked on as a distinct species or merely as a variety is a pure matter of individual idiosyncrasy. The question is similar to the preceding, but at present receives no side-light from the west. One will hardly fail to notice that while the forest line at the White Mountains is tolerably well marked (at a height of about 4,000 or 4,500 feet), it is always succeeded above by a considerable area, where the dwarfed spruce or "scrub," struggling upward with ever diminishing height, conceals the gray rocks in a covering of uniform green, excepting on the unstable surfaces of the steeper slopes, — an area which is strongly contrasted with the barren gray broken rocks above, which lie piled in vast heaps exposed to full view, except where a patch of sedge furnishes a small and barren pasture upon some more favored plateau. The sides of these mountains, where they rise to their highest culmination, are thus divisible into a forest and an alpine region, and the latter into a lower, or scrub, and an upper, or rocky, district ; these two subdivisions of the alpine region correspond fiiirly well with the areas occupied by the two mountain butterflies just mentioned, and I have attempted to represent these areas upon the accompanying map by the two shades of brown, — the darker brown representing the region where Oeneis has its proper home, the lighter where Brenthis most abounds and breeds. There is no doubt that occasional individuals of Oeneis semidea will be found far within the limits of the lower alpine region ; for the fierce blasts of wind wliich sweep around these lofty elevations must sometimes hurl these feeble flut- terers far down toward the wooded valleys, as I have myself seen ; and there is no doubt that they can find their food plant all through the lower alpine region. Nevertheless, the contrast between the occasional and unwilling visitor and the swarms which in their season crowd the upper plateaus is very marked and significant. The localities where I have found them most abundant are the successive sedgy plateaus which flank the upper part of the carriage road on Mt. Washington, and especially the broad area between the sixth and seventh mile-posts, where tlie road takes a side turn, and which I call Semidea Plateau. So, too, one may find an aspiring Brenthis above the limits of the lower alpine region ; but it is very rarely seen there, and the violets on which the caterpillar probably feeds will scarcely ever be found in any abundance within the upper alpine area. It seems fairly deducible from these facts that even the limited area of the barren heights above the White Mountain forests is divisible into two districts, each of which claims a butterfly as its own ; so that in ascending BUTTERFLIES AT THE WHITE MOUNTAINS. 133 Mt. Washington, we pass, as it were, from New Hampshire to northern Labrador ; for on leaving the New Hampshire forests and forest fanna beliind us, we come first upon insects (there are otliers besides B. montinus) recalling those of the northern shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the coast of Labrador opposite Newfoundland ; and when we have attained the summit a butterfly greets us which represents the fauna of Atlantic Labra- dor and Greenland. Interesting as this is, how very meagre such a showing appears by the side of our knowledge of the butterfly-faunas of the Swiss and Colorado alps, where the mountains rise to so much greater heights, and the mountainous area is so vastly more extended ! Li the Swiss mountains, where the alpine area is limited above as well as below, and the melting of the eternal snows kee})s the whole region above the trees one of the choicest pasturages for cattle that the earth affords, the whole aspect of the butterfly world is different. A host of species in infinite numbers crowd about the blossoms, the springs, the very edges of the glaciers. Forms wholly unknown in the valleys below, or allied to but easily distinguished from them, meet one at every step. A species of Oeneis, very many of Erebia, several Brenthis, a number of Melitaeidi, a host of Lycaenidi, with species of Eurymus, Parnassius, and several Hesperidae, show how varied and strik- ing the fauna is. Besides these a great many of the valley forms often accompany them, among which will be found our old friends antiopa, cardui and atalanta, so rarely seen with us above the forest. In the Cordilleras of Colorado, where the snow-fields are far less important, and glaciers are practically unknown, we have a condition of things between the mountains of Switzerland and New Hampshire. The number of distinct forms is considerable, but by no means so large as in Switzerland. A couple of species of Oeneis are found here with several Erebias, and a Brenthis or two ; some Melitaeidi also occur, most of which are also found some distance below the timber line, which is here vastly higher than at the White Mountains, being at about 10,000 feet. The Lycaenidi are abundant, and one finds a characteristic Eurymus, Parnassius (also found at lower levels), and one or two Hesperidae of the same group as occurs on the Swiss Alps. Indeed, the agreement of the typical alpine forms of Colorado and Switzerland is striking, and in strange contrast to the poverty of New Hampshire ; the more so, as a large number of the additional generic types are not those characteristic of high latitudes. What the higher levels of the White Mountains would be as a home for butterflies, if a thousand or two more feet were added to their elevation and snow crowned the higher summits, it might be hard to say, but it would cer- tainly be still very different from the fauna of the Swiss or the Colorado alps. Many of the generic forms which are common to them scarcely occur in eastern America ; so that the difference between the three alpine 134 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGEAND. faunas we liavc mentioned accentuates the distinction which exists between eastern America and Europe, and tlie agreement found between western America and Eiu'ope. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Those wishing details concerning the vertical distrilmtion of Swiss butterflies should consult Speyer's Geographische verbreitung der sclnnetterliuge Deutschlands und der Schweiz (1858) ; or Meyer-Diir's Verzeichniss der schnietterlinge der Sehweiz (1852). Brief notes of my own on Alpine butterflies will be found in the Geology of New Hampshire, i : 343, Bost. journ. uat. hist., vii : 612, and Appalachia, v : 13, where tlie present excursus with sliglit variations was lirst pul)lished, and with the same map. See further. White on the Mountain Lepidoptera of Britain, Scott, nat., v: 97; and also Mead, Psyche, i: 179, where some notes are given on the Alpine fauna of our Pacific slope. Table of specAes of Oeneis, based on the egg. Vertical ribs broken near the base of the egg into bead-like prominences semidea. Vertical ribs continuing to the base of the egg unbroken jiitta. Table of species, based on the caterpillar at birth. Anal prolegs much larger than the others. Terminal segment squirely truncate on either side, each side with two terminal hairs seiuidea. Anal prolegs no larger than the others. Ter.ninal segment regularly tapering on either si le, each with only one terminal hair jutta. Table of species, based on the mature caterpillar. Supralateral stripe broad, discontinuous semidea. Supralateral stripe narrow, continuous jutta. Table of species, based on the chrysalis. Head and most of the wings fuscous, in strong contrast to the yellowisb abdomen... seniide?. Head amber and most of the wings light green, in no great contrast to the yellowish green abdomen jutta. Table of species, based on the imago. Upper surface of wings with no ocellate spots semidea . Upper surface of wings with ocellate spots j utta. OENEIS SEMIDEA.— The White Mountain butterfly. [The mountain butterfly (Harris) ; the White Mountain butterfly (Sen 1 ler) ; brown mountain butterfly (Maynard).] Hipparchia semidea Siy, Anier. cntoni., C/itV)?io&as semirfea Edw., Morr., Syn.Lep. iii, pi. 50 (1828); Enton. N. Amer., ed. Le N. Amer., 351 (18(i2);— Scudd., Bost. journ. Conte, i: 113-114, pi. 50 (1859) ;—narr.. Ins. nat. hist., vii: 621-G2G, pi. U, figs. 2-8 (1803); inj.veg.,31. ed.,304, fig. 120 (1802). Proc. entom. soc. Philad., v: 20-25, fig SATYRTNAE: OENEIS SEMTDEA. 135 (18G5);— Tenii., Man. Zool., 300, Hf,'. 280 (1865); (lsT4);— Grote, Can. ent., vii: lor.-IOT (1875); — Pack., Gukle ins., 203, tigs. 190-101 (1800);— Am. nat., x: 120-131 (1870); III. es.s. Xoct. FriMK'li, Unit, east. U. S. [C'hionohiis], 204- X. A., 81-85(1SS2). 2.%, tig. 72 (1880); — Mayn., Butt. N. E.. i, pi. Cliinnoltas also (pars) Boi.sd., Icon. hist. 1, tigs.l, la(1880);— AVeeks, Ent. anier., iii:12 L(?p., 107 (1832); (pars) Boisd.-LeC, L6p. (1887). Anier. sept., 222-223 (1833). Coenonympha semidea 3Iorr., S\n. Lt-p. Sattima eritiosa, iran-.-tcste Boiscl., Icon. N. Amer.; 80(1802). liist. L^p., i: 107 (1S32) cf . ITarr., Ent. corr, Oeneis semidea Biitl., Catal. Satyr. Brit. 177. Mils. 103-104 (1808);— Sciulil., Ilitchc, GpoI. Figured by Glover. Illustr. N. A. Lep. pi. N. H., i: ;W4-348, pi. A, figs. 2,4,0,0, 11, 13, 14 20, tig. 4; pi. K. fig. 4, ined. Kennst Du den Berg und seinen Wolkcnsteg? . . . Kennst Du ihn wohl? Daliin ! Daliin ! Geht unser Weg. Gov:niK.—JIir/7ion . Or sometimes from your cool bournes, where it hid, A butterfly soars fluttering, breeze-assailed. Gay as those flowery gondolas that slid Through sculptured Venice in old days, and trailed Brocades and velvets where they sailed ! Fa WCETT.— Clover. Imago (1 : 9 ; 11 : 3). Head covered with long bro-\vnisli hairs, -with a few interrain- gled grayish white ones ; a few scattered white scales behind the upper part of the eye among the black scales. Palpi blackish brown, fringed below with blackish hairs, changing above to brownish and intermingled there with a few whitish hairs; fringed al)ove with grayish white or white hairs; within grayish. Antennae yelloAvish luteous, a little fuscous at the incisui'es ; above, on the stalk, flecked slightly with blackish scales ; the inner side flecked with white on the basal half, next the base heavily and broadly, beyond less so ; the club almost Avholly l)right yellowish luteous, some- times tinged a little with orange, on the basal half flecked with a few black scales above, the apical three or four joints a little dusky. Tongue almost uniformly luteous throughout, a little infuscated at the sides. Tliorax covered above with blackish, mingled with whitish scales and long, blackish brown hairs, mingled, especially behind, with others of a grayish and grayish brown color; outer edge of patagia fringed -with pale hairs; beneath covered with blackish hairs, those of the coxae brown-tipped; legs dark reddish bi'own, the tips of the femora, the tibiae and the under side of basal tarsal joint flecked with white scales; spines and spurs pale yellowish red ; claws dark reddish, paler at base; pul villus pal- lid with a blackish transverse line. Forewings (38 :5) not greatly produced at the tip, the lower outer angle quite oblit- erated in the general curve ; second superior branch of subcostal nervure arising at about two-thirds the distance from the origin of the first to that of the third superior branch ; the fourth originating at a short distance from the third. Outer border of the hind wings well curved on the subcostal area, almost protuberant, especially in the female, at its junction with the median area. Forevnngs above unifoi-m dull brownish fuscous, more or less slightly tinged with ochraceous ; the whole costal edge marked with blackish brown and grayish white, generally quite distinctly, very narrowly at the tip ; in the lowest subcostal interspace at a distance of the Avidth of two inter- spaces from the mai'gin, there is occasionally a minute gray-pupilled ocellus, sometimes barely discernible ; the markings of the under surface appear slightly above at the apex of the Aving. On the hind winr/s the markings of the under surface invarial^ly appear upon the upper with considerable distinctness ; the basal half is of about the same uniform tint as the fore wings, or a shade darker; the apical half is more or less distinctly mottled Avith grayish fuscous and ])roAvnish fuscous, sometimes darker next the margin; fringe of both Avings alternately broAvnish Avhite and blackisii broAvn. the latter at the nervule tips ; Avholly blackish liroAvn along the inner edge of the hind Avings. 136 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEAV ENGLAND. Beneath the fore loings are slightly paler tiiaii upon the upper surface ; the costal mariiin is marked with blackish and whitish,— as a general rule, more so away from the base, broadening into a spot at the apex, which, however, does not usually en- croach on the loAver subcostal interspace, except to form a similar border to the outer margin as far as the second median nervule ; when the ocellus of the upper surface is present, it is repeated beneath, just as minutely, but generally distinctly white pupilled; the only other marking which is generally seen upon all specimens is an indis- tinct dusky broad band, bordering the outer limits of the cell ; it is most perceptible at its outer borders, one of which follows the nervule closing the cell, the other lies beyond, not quite parallel to it, but rather more nearly at right angles to the costal border ; this band extends to the third median nervule, or if it exists beyond it, it is either continued as a fuscous blotch to the second median nervule, or the darker streak of its outer margin only is bent toward the base, suljparallel to the outer marghi of the wing, and continues as far as the lirst median nervule; besides these, there is usually a freckling of the Aving with brown, either uniformly distributed or, more frequently, more distinctly on the outer half and especially the upper portion of it; or it is wholly conlined to the outer half, sometimes clustering into short transverse streaks, especially between the extremity of the cell and the outer margin. Basal portion of the hind loinr/s marbled with blackish or blackish brown and grayish white, very seldom uniformly distributed, the latter conspicuous only as a stripe bordering the mesial band and broadest next the costal border, the latter generally obscuring entirely the rest of the basal held and sometimes almost or quite obliterating the gray- ish band; the mesial band is very broad, colored more uniformly and darker in pro- portion to the rest of the wing than is usually the case with the allied species, marbled with l)lackish and grayish fuscous, occasionally tinged slightly Avith ochrace- ous, the black condensing, as it Avere, along the l^orders into narroAv stripes, Avhile the rest of the band is generally almost uniform in tint and does not often deepen in color from the middle ; its interior margin, in passing from the costal border beyond the middle of the basal half, is generally bent outwards before reaching the subcostal nervure so as to form a slight generally angular pit ; and then passing a little Avay beyond the subcostal nervure is bent very deeply into a V-shaped, occasionally U- shaped, depression, extending nearly to the inner border, the bottom of the depres- sion reaching nearly, very seldom quite, to the origin of the lirst median nervule; — but there are not Avanting specimens Avliere the inner l^order of the mesial band crosses the Aving Avith only a slight trace of any depression ; the usual direction of the exterior border of the mesial l)and may ])e said to be that of tAvo nearly or quite straight crenulate lines, bent upon the third median nervule, an interspace's Avidth beyond the extremity of the cell, at an angle of about 85° or 90°, occasionally projecting into a slender tooth at this point ; one end of the band strikes the costal border at such a point that a line draAvn from it at right angles to the margin Avould strike about mid- way betAveen the origin of the second and third subcostal nervules ; the other strikes the inner border at a point as far from the tip of the tirst median nervule as that is from the middle of the subcosto-median interspace at the border ; the angle of the exterior border of the mesial band is, hoAvever, often obscured by a more or less regular curve to tlie Avhole line, Avhicli again is uoav ami then indented, but it almost invariably shoAvs a tendency to return to this angular appearance, and the continuous bascAvard direction of the border as it approaches the costal margin is a peculiar feature in this species ; beyond the mesial band, the Aving is marbled Avith blackish broAvn, grayish ochraceous and grayish Avhite, the latter almost ahvays condensed, and connected so as to form a stripe bordering the mesial band, rarely tinged faintly Avitli bluish ; sometimes the blackish broAvn is collected into marginal spots at the nervule tips ; very seldom indistinct Avhitish dots are present in the interspaces midAvay be- tAveen the mesial l)and and the outer margin; occasionally, though bvU very seldom, the outer half of the Avingis uniformly marl>led throughout, and in some individuals the Avhole Aving is covered Avith nearly uniform marl^ling or is so obscured by l)lackish that the markings here descril^ed are almost Avholly if not quite indistinguishable; tlie ujrvures are not flecked Avith Avhite. SATYRINAE : OENEIS SEMIDEA. 137 Abdomen covered witli dust Ijrowii scales and blaekisli liairs, tlie latter conspicuous above only near the base. Centrum of superior male aijpenda.sres (33 : 4) forming? with the upper surface of the bod3^ and the hook a nearly regular curve, depressed at their junction, the iiinder edge of the hook scarcely arcuate in the same sense as the upper surface, so that the hook tapers regularly toward the tip and is fully four times as long as l)road ; lateral appendages very slender, scarcely moi-e than half as long as the hook; clasps having the apical fourth ecjual, the tip broadly rounded, its upper half, as well as the apical half of the upper edge, furnished with numerous, equal, minute denticulations, directed backward and upward. Measurements in millinietens. MALKS. 1 FEMALES. Lenjjth of tongue, 8. Smallest. Average. Largest. Smallest. Average. Largest. Length of fore wings 21.5 8.5 G.25 2. 2.3 23.75 !).5 9.5 7. 7.25 2.4 2.5 21.5 8.6 6.5 2. 23.5 9A n antennae 9.6 7.6 2.25 10 hind tibiae and tarsi. . fore tibiae and tarsi.. 7.25 2.1 Described from 30 cf 24 ?. Malformations. I have seen one specimen in which two of the joints in the middle of the antennal club are completely connate on the upper inner half so as to show no trace of a suture, while l)eneath the division is as distinct as usual; it is also broader beneath than above, and the termination of the suture is quite abrupt. A male in my possession exhibits a supernumerary uervule crossing the middle of the upper two-thirds of the upper median interspace on one of the f ore-Avings ; it is very distinct and the nervules above and below bend toward it a very little ; it is slightly obscured by blackish scales, although markings are not to be expected at that point. Secondary sexual distinctions. Androconia (46 :1) tapering regularly to the apical thread, which occuj)ies a full third of the whole; apical threadlets scarcely expand- ing. Extreme length of whole, .2C, mm; l^asal breadth .022 mm. Egg (64 : 8). Distinctly higher than broad, the base being full, the ribs pretty regu- larly rounded and destitute of distinct lateral corrugations, traversed transversely bj' scarcely perceptible delicately impressed lines, the granulations of the base resembling broken parts of the ribs ; the latter about 26-30 in number, of Avhich about 15-17 reach the sumuiit ; distant apart on an average . 1 mm. , the transverse lines in the middle of the egg 0.025 mm. ; surface covered with excessively minute punctulations. Color a very pale, almost colorless straw yellow, changing after a time to a steel gray and shortly before hatching to lavender. Micropyle not at all depressed but exceedingly delicate, the outer cells very faintly detined, transverse outwardly, nearly regular toward the centre, averaging about .01»;5 mm. in diameter; micropyle centre .03 mm. in diameter, being a thinner yellow circle divided into several radiating cells. Height of egg 1.1 mm. ; breadth .95 mm. Caterpillar. First star/e. — (70 : 5 ; 74 : 7). Head (78 : 6) pale yellowish broAvn, mi- nutely and not profusely dotted with broAvu (later, dark brown) , the sutures with a ferruginous tinge ; mouth parts of the color of the head, the ocelli blackish. Body pale yellowish fuliginous (too light iu the plate) the stripes brownish fuliginous, the dorsal stripe slenderer and nuich less conspicuous than in O. jutta; some days after birth the body is dark brown with a slight tinge of olive green, the stripes fuscous, the last segment pale broAvn. All hairs and other dermal appendages pellucid on blackish papillae ; skin with a fuscous granulation. Last segment terminating on either side in a truncate plate, the truncation slightly oblique and furnished at either angle with a haired pai)illa. .Vnal prolegs excessively large. Legs and prolegs of the color of the body; spiracles black. Length 2.5mm.; breadth of head .64 mm.; length of club- shaped hairs of body .01 mm. Fourth statje. (74 :1). Head (78 -.1) very pale fuliginous with a faint greenish tinge, the bottom of many of the large punctures black, and these arranged so as to form apparent bands having a broAvnish aspect iu the position of the actual bands of the 138 THE BUTTERFLIES OF 'SEW ENGLAND. next sta<>-e ; labrnin ecliied with blackish castaneoiis. Ocelli black. Antennae beyond basal joint fnlisiinons. Body very pallid bro-\vnish green beneath, sharply detined at the infrastigmatal line from the upper coloring, and carrying Avith it the color of the legs and prolegs. The whole effect of the npper part of the body is more pallid than beneath, but it is made up of a series of bands of which a A'ery broad dorsal one and a laterostigmatal (and especially the latter) are nearly the color of the under surface and have in addition an interrupted black edging (the latter only above), leaving broad stigmatal and lateral bands of a strikingly pallid hue (the interruptions as in full- groAvn larva). Besides there is a narrow, interrupted, black dorsal stripe and the stig- mata are black. The whole body is besprinkled with brownish papillae bearing short, recumbent, club-shaped, testaceous hairs no longer than themselves. Length 12 mm. ; width of head 2 mm. Last stage. (74 : 2, 4, 15) . Head (78 : 8) brownish yellow or dull greenish brown . with seven bands of black or fuscous spots, situated on the prominences, one median, the others disposed in pairs ; the median is l)road and continues half way down the suture of the triangle ; the next is parallel to it, of equal length, slightly narrower, separated by its ownwadth from the median; the succeeding is slender and short, consisting of only ten or twelve black dots placed on the middle of the sides and having a hori- zontal direction ; at right angles to this is the last, arising just in front of the base of the front legs, as short as the previous, still smaller and running at right angles to it; the punctulations are brown ; there is a dark dot just behind and on a line with the anteniuie; sutures of the triangle dark ])rown. First joint of antennae dusky, second black, third reddish brown. Ocelli black, excepting the uppermost, which is reddish brown. Labrura black. Mandibles reddish, black-tipped. Maxillae dusky, the ter- minal joint darkest. Labium dark brown. Body dirty yellowish green, furnished above with : lirst, a rather narrow black medio- dorsal stripe, enclosing, on the apical half of each segment, little, rather pale green, longitudinal spots or dashes, those of the thoracic segments uniting to form a narrow line; the band tapers at either end of the body; second, a narrow, interrupted, inky black, supralateral stripe, composed of oblique dashes situated principally upon the anterior portions of the segments, the anterior extremities directed downward; third, a narroAV, dark green, siiprastigmatal stripe of the same ividth as the supralateral stripe, edged superiorly Avith inky black, which is slightly diffused downward at the base and apex of each segment, especially of the abdominal ones. The space between the stripes is pale yellowish green, tinged with faint reddish brown at the apical half of each segment, and on the sides also considerably tinged with reddish brown ; below the suprastigmatal stripe, the sides are grass green with a flush of roseate, sometimes with an inconspicuous pale inf rastigmatal line ; the under surface is uniform pale grass green ; the papillae with which the body is covered are pale and the hairs they emit dark reddish. Spiracles black. Legs dusky; prolegs of the color of the under surface. Length, 23.5 mm. ; greatest bi'eadth of body, 5.5 mm. ; of head, 2.5 mm. ; of mediodor- sal stripe, .375 mm. ; of space between mediodorsal and supralateral stripe, .875 mm. Chrysalis (83:4,5). Dull yellowish brown, the head, the thorax, excepting a fine dorsal line, and the middle of the wings, obscured by brownish fuscous ; tongue, sum- mit of head and veins of the wings blackish fuscous. Abdomen furnished Avith several roAvs of transversely OA'al or roundish, broAvnish fuscous spots, two on a segment, placed at equal distances from the anterior and posterior borders, and, usually, from each other ; on either side is a laterodorsal roAV, Avhere the spots are placed in a straight line and the roAv is lengthened by a single spot upon the metathorax; a lateral roAv, in Avhich the posterior spot of each segment is placed beloAvthe anterior by nearly or quite its oAvn length and is besides longer than the others; a laterostigmatal roAV, similar to, but usually not so conspicuous as, the lateral roAv; anterior to and a little beloAv the posterior spot on each segment in the laterostigmatal series is a similar, slightly larger spot, most conspicuous on the anterior segments ; an infrastigmatal series of similar spots, placed in a line and frequently confluent, or the anterior absent; beneath these is a medioventral band of fuscous dots and streaks ; and at equal distances between this SATVRIXAE: OENP:rs SEMIDEA, 139 band aiulthc SI) i rack's arc Uvorowsof rouiulisli blackish fuscous spots, one on the mid- dle of each sejjment; or, in tlie upper row, sometimes two spots at equal distances from tlie anterior and posterior border, the anterior spot the larger. Cremaster (86 :18) bor- dered anteriorly by a larire transverse, curvini;, fuscous stripe. Spiracles, with their lips, l)lackisli. Lentith, 1."...") mm. ; sireatest brcadlii, h as I ;Vvrote it fifteen years ago ; but I have since spent two or three times as many hours as my eager friend, often with SATVUIXAK: OENICIS SEMIDKA. 143 the :ii(l of others, and am siii-c that the i)hi<;e« chosen by the hirva for pupa- tion are exactly those cliosen by it for daily concealment, namely, the under side of surface stones, which rest either upon another stone or upon some other thing than the loose, disintegrated, gr:i\elly rock which least retains moisture; a level, damp and cool, protected spot is that most sought for; here the caterpillar rests upon the lower surface with its roof grazing its hack, and pushing away whatever may intcrfci-c with the smoothness of the spot changes to chrysalis without further ado. Unless some moss be at hand there is no semblance even of a cell ; and even where moss is present there is sometimes no mark of a cell ; and when found is due simi)ly to the movements of the caterpillar, with an amount of silk scarcely enough to enable one to remove it and in any way })reser^•e the form ; no threads indeed are visible without a lens ; and I have but once — and that was last spring — found a cell which was anywhere near complete, and this one lacked an upper surface ; when the stone which served that purpose was removed, the luico^ered cell was undisturbed by it, slun\- ing that no threads were attached to the covering stone. The cater- pillar was lying on its back when found, ^Nfay 31, and changed to chrysalis on June 2 in the valley below. Was then carried to the sea level at Cambridge, and the butterfly emerged on the early morning of the 19th. As this is earlier than its normal time on the mountain, its appearance was doubtless hastened by the favorable warmth of the lower level ; four weeks is more probably its natural period. Life history. This is a single-brooded butterfly ; it usually begins to appear on Mt. Washington ^ery early — the first week — in July, becomes exceedingly abundant before the middle of the month and continues until about the second week in August. On Sierra Blanca, in Colorado, I took a single rubbed male as late as August 29 and a tolerably fresh male on ^It. Lincoln on August 13. ]\Ir. Bruce took them early in July. ]\Ir. Sanborn gave July 4 as its earliest appearance in New Hampshire in 18(J9, and only one more specimen was seen before the 9th, although the weather was favorable. Morrison says "the first specimens appeai-ed about July 1 [in 1874] and in a few days it became very abundant." ]\Ir. Dimmock took one the same year on June 2S and several on July 4 and H. These may serve, I think, as average dates, and the butterflies will best be taken in the second and third weeks in July ; they apparently lay most of their eggs during the last week of July ; caterpillars have been found by ^Ir. Whitney, the late ^Messrs. Sanborn and Shurtleflf, and by myself, nearly full-grow-n, between the 20th of July and the 2d of August, and others cer- tainly full-grown on August 19 and in September. These must certainly have been born the previous year, as the eggs do not hatch before the first of ,\ugust ; and as all living chrysalids that have been found have been taken in the earlier part of the season, between June 10 and the early part 144 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. ofrlulv, it would ap})c;ir as if two years must be required for the full cycle of changes, and that the winter is [)assed in two conditions, both larval, one just hatched or in a very early stage, the other full grown, or very nearly full grown, a whole season being required for the development of the larva alone. No one would be sur[)rised at this if he were to ex[)eri- ence the conditions under wliicli these hardy creatures \u\\e to Ii\e. Such a cycle of changes, though unprecedented among our butterflies, so far as their history is known, is supposed by some to be eqiuvlly true of the alpine Oeneis aello, the young caterpillars of which are born at a like [)eriod and hibernate without feeding. If this were its regular habit, we ought to expect that, as is stated by some to be true of aello, the Ijutterfly would fly only in alternate vears in any one spot. But not only is this not true of oiu' species, but no fluctuation in its numbers has ever been noted. It follows that if a period of two years is normally required for its transfor- mations, there must be or have been some irregularity in its development by which a regular annual series of perfect forms should appear. If in the past only, then the Ijutterflies of the even years have no innnediate genetic connection with those of the odd years, and two jtarallel series are li^■ing on tiie same ground, subject to the same vicissitudes or to only such varia- tions in them as alternate seasons may chance [)roduce. If this should pro\e to be true, a very neat problem would be set before the modern evolutionist to determine, first, how such a condition of things came about, and second, what eflect isolation has had toward develo})ing two types of butterflies. A few facts, however, lead me to believe that while a biennial cycle is the rule, there are certain exce[)tions to it every year, by which a perfect com- mingling of blood ensues and Nature protects itself against the danger of extinction that niif>:ht ensue if one stance of larval existence were less able than another to contend with the difficulties of an exce[)tional season. Dr. Harris gives "June and July" as the season of the flight of the imago, the former date on the authority of the botanist, Oakes, who found them abun- dant in June, 1(S2(). The part of the month does not appear from Dr. Harris' notes and 1 ha\e always supposed it referred to the closing- days of the month until LSHH, after an excursion up the mountain in company with Mr. Roland Hayward, on June (i. Between us we saw, on no less than three different occasions in the al[)ine belt, a Le})idopteron which in each instance the observer thought was semidea ; in the last case, the size, the flight, and the color were observed by me for at least fifteen seconds in broad daylight, at the nearest distance of just out of reach of my net ; and were it not for the uuex[)ccte(lness of tlie appai'ition, I sliould not have had the slightest doubt of its being semidea, for I know of no moth then flying therefor u hicli it could have been mistaken. It is possible, therefore, that Oakes also saw them early in Jiuie (when visits to the sununit are exces- SATYRINAE: OENELS SEMIDEA. 145 sively rare) and that a suj)i)leincntarv brood of tlie hutterflv annually appears at this tinje. In further eonfinnation of sueh an irregularity was the discovery of a caterpillar, curled up under a stone as if it had not yet at all left its winter quarters, and still in its penultimate stage, on June 10, 1887 ; indeed it had evidently some time before it in that stage and fed on grass for a fortnight, finally dying before another ecdysis ; it was only 12 mm. long. It is evident that it had much the start of the caterpillars in their first stage, and i)robable that pupation could have been reached before winter set in, giving easy chance for the final change to butterflies the last of May or early in June ; living chrysalids were found the same day and sev- eral chrysalis-shells from which the imago had escaped, which it did not seem probable could have passed the winter and come out in so fair a con- dition ; but no butterflies were then seen, although careful watch was kept for them. It is indeed possible that this caterpillar of the penultimate stage was born from an early egg of the July butterflies of the previous year and would have developed to a late July butterfly, in time to lay eggs the same season, making the cycle in a single year. It is at any rate evident fi-om these exceptional occurrences that we have much yet to learn of the history of semidea. A visit to Mt. Washington on May 31 of the present year when for over an hour the weather was warm, the air still, and the sun seldom obscured, brought no sign of this butterfly. The European Alpine O. aello appears, says Meyer Diir, among the earli- est butterflies of the Alps ; it is seen soon after the snow melts, first on the lower grounds, at the end of May, last on the higher levels (corres- ponding more nearly to those to which our species is restricted ) at about the beginning of July ; and disappears in the same way from the end of June below, to the end of the first week in August above. Habits, flight, etc. One would suppose that insects whose home is almost always swept by the fiercest blasts would be [)rovided with jiowerful wings, fitting them for strong and sustained flight : but the contrary is true ; they can offer no resistance to the winds, and whenever they ascend more than their accustomed two or three feet above the surface of the ground or pass the shelter of some projecting ledge of rocks, they are whirled headlong to immense distances until they can again hug the earth ; their flight is rather sluggish and heavy and has less of the dancing movement than one is accustomed to see in the Satyrids ; they are easily captured, though they fly singly, never congregating, and have their devices to escape pursuit : one is that when alarmed, and indeed at most times, they fly up or down the slopes, rarely along them, rendering pursuit particularly difficult ; another that they will rise in the air to get caught by the wind, which often takes them out of sight in a moment ; one I once followed with my eye whirled a good half-mile away, a thousand feet in the air, with a white cloud for a background. But the neatest device of all is specially exasperating ; one 146 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. will settle on the ground a little distance off by a crevice in the rock-piles, and as you cautiously approach you will see it edge its way afoot in its spasmodic fashion to the brink of the crevice and settle itself ; then if you come nearer it will start as if to fly away, but close its wings instead and fairly drop down the crevice, where you may see but not reach it ; to repeat the process and get still farther down, if again alarmed by the removal of the upper rocks. In this way I have more than once followed one for a couple of feet doAvnward in a pile of small, jagged rocks in one of the rock rivulets. It rests on the ground, or on the leeward side of rocks, as I have often found it when searching on a cloudy day when it had not been on the wing. As soon as one alights it tumbles upon one side with a sudden fall, but not quite to the surface, exposing the under side of the wings with their marbled markings next the gray rock, mottled with brown and yellow lichens, so that an ordinary passer by would look at them without ob- serving their presence ; it is an obvious case of protective resemblance. The surface is generally exposed so as to receive the fullest rays of the sun, or else the creature falls so as to let the wind sweep over it, its base to wind- ward. In either case, unless the wind be very severe, the fore wings are not closely tucked between the hind pair, but advanced so that the costal edge of the hind Avings reaches the lowest, or the next to the low- est, inferior subcostal nervule, according to the degree of quiet assumed ; but if at rest for the night or the wind be sweeping fiercely, the costal edges of all wings are brought together. The antennae lie parallel to the body-axis, or slightly raised, but, owing to the basal curve, in a plane slightly above it, droop at the tip and divaricate about 100°. In walking, it moves by a series of spasmodic starts, trailing the tip of the abdomen on the ground, while the axis of the trunk is raised about 30° above the surface of rest. Dr. Meyer Diir describes the species of the European Alps as generally flying in little companies about rocky places, fluttering in a wavering man- ner around the Saxifragae and Ericaceae, but generally alighting, with wings erect, on blocks of rock and worn stones, where they are not easily caught. Experiments. 01)serA'ing that the butterflies appear to keep aAvay from the immediate vicinity of the great ravines which penetrate dee}) into the mountain mass, as if they feared they would be swept down to lower levels than they liked, I thought I would see what eflfect a forcible and rapid transfer to lower levels would have upon vigorous butterflies. Accord- ingly one fine July day, I took three well-conditioned females (one of them caught just before imprisonment) down the mountain on the railway train, in a muslin cage over a growing sedge, where I could readily watch them. They remained quiet at first with wings tightly closed, but before Ave had made more than half the descent to the limit of trees they were visibly SATYKINAE: OENEIS SEMIDEA. 147 affected, and by tlie time the tree line was reached (about 4500') the wings ot"oj)[)()site sides diverged at an anf(le of 30°, as if they were lips parted and gaspin<>; for air. T^ater they began to walk about, and when they stopped would tightly close their wings (as by habit) for about a minute, and then would slowly part them again, — in one case to as much as ()0°— 70°. At the bottom (2800') I thought them dead, for they lay ^vith parted wings upon their sides, but they gradually revived slightly. Still, when I set them free and tried to startle them only one would move ; she flut- tered two or three times and tried to fly away, but could not leave the spot where she ineffectually tossed up and down ; I caged them again and they walked and fluttered about a little, but gaining n(^ strength at the end of twelve hours they were killed. The difference in temperature at the two extreme levels was not worth consideration. Now there are many other butterflies, denizens of the lower levels, which continually fly to the summit of Mt. Washington, and doubtless descend again. Polygonia faunus is one of these, and accordingly I carried down in company with semidea as many females of this species, together with some males, captured on the summit ; but not caring to observe them close- ly on the way, they were enclosed in pocket boxes and let loose immediately on arri\al at the base ; they flew away w ith all their vehement vigor, not in the slightest incommoded by the sudden change. I queried whether there could be any organ in the body which might have a different construction or amplitude in these two butterflies, which might serve as a better means of adaptation to differing air pressure in the one and the other, as the swimming bladder is known to do in some fishes. The only special organ I could think of was the so-called food reservoir, which, though furnished within, as shown by Burgess, with an arrange- ment of clustered hairs which seems adaptable for use in digestion, is nev- ertheless usually empty on dissection, and might receive air as well as honey through the apparatus at the mouth. But the dissections of the two species made for me by Mr. Emerton (61:47,50) do not lend much help ; the organ is indeed larger in faunus than in semidea, but the dif- ference does not seem to be very significant. Parasites. Notwithstanding the physical difficulties with which this frail butterfly has to contend, it still has its full share of parasitic enemies, and they seem at times so numerous that one wonders how the creature can withstand this added source of evil. There is first a large Ichneumon, I. instabilis Cress., oidy one of which can live on one fat Oeneis, and which emerged from a wintering chrysalis on June 23, Xext there is a Pteromalus, P. chi(mobae How., of which a single caterpillar may harbor a considerable number ; those which I obtained emerged from the chrysalis on August 9 ; but on one occasion, I took twenty-five of their pu[)ae from a sino-le chrvsalis and found that each had been itself attacked bv a 148 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. hyperparasite, Tetrastichus semideae Pack., which comes to the friendly aid of our mountain butterfly. Still another supposed parasite, Encyrtus montinus Pack. (89:4), was obtained by Mr. Sanborn w^ithin the chry- salis of semidea, but whether strictly parasitic upon it was not determined ; all we know is that it was found alive and winged within an old chrysalis case, early in July. Desiderata. The hotel at the summit of Mt. Washington and the easy, if expensive, means of approach now enable one to carry on investiga- tions on this insect far more advantageously than formerly, during the sea- son (July-September) Avhen they are open to use ; and there are still some questions to clear up. We do not yet know anything of the larva between the first and penultimate stages, nor at what season these stages are passed ; the natural length of the chrysalis period is not known, nor whether it ever passes through the winter. A careful and prolonged search under stones by the rock rivulets in the Alpine area in October before snows put an end to search would enable us to know most about the wintering con- dition, but it would have to be carried on under great difficulties, not to say dano-ers, because of the season. The same should be said of the early sprino-, which on the whole is the season when we now need the most help ; a similar search, with a lookout for butterflies, in the latter half of May would be most desirable. The facts gained by such a search would help clear the doubt Avhich now hangs over the life history of the insect. The early stages can perhaps be studied at ordinary levels by procuring the eo-o-s on the mountain and feeding the caterpillar either on sedges or grasses. It would be well for the occasional visitor in the latter half of July to seize any rare sunny and windless day, especially before noon, to watch the female ovipositing, to find out the place and method of laying eggs ; as the insect is very timid, this should be done with caution. Search should be made for this butterfly in July and August on all peaks which rise 2000 to 3000 feet above timber in the Rocky Mountains of Wyoming, Montana and the Northwest Territories of Canada. LIST OF ILLUSTBATIONS.-OENEIS SEMIDEA. General. Laar/o. PL 89, fig. 4. Encyrtus montinus, a parasite. PI. 1, fig. 9. Right band upper surface ?Jffg. male ; left hand lower surface female. PI. G4, fig. 8. Plain. 11 : 3. Both surfaces, plain. Caterpillar. 33:4. Male abdominal appendages. PI. TO, fig. 5. At birth. 38:5. Neuration. 74:1. Fourth stage. 46:1. Androconium. 2, 4, 1"). Full grown. 52 : 6. Side view of head and appen- 7. First stage enlarged. dages enlarged, with details of the strnc- 78 : 6-8. Front view of head, stages i, iv, v. ture of the legs. Chrysalis. 61:50. Side view of the digestive tract PI. 83, figs. 4,5. Side' and dorsal views. in the abdomen. 86 : 18. Cremaster. SA'l'VlilXAK: OKXKIS .HT'lA. 149 OEPIEIS JUrrA. —The arctic satyr. ['I'lic arctic .satyr (Sciiddcr) ; llic l)aircii -ruiiinl liuilcrlly (.Mayn.ml).] J'xptlioiuUa Hiilm,. Samiiil. cur. sclmidt., S'UtjrK.sha/drr I)iiiJ.,l[ist. nut. LC-p. France, i : 25, Hji;s. (il4-(!l.') (lS(Mi-l,sl!)). suppl., 3I0-:!11, pi. 40, H;,'.s. 4-5 (18;}2). Ot'.iu'h JKlld Iliibn., Vciv,. schnu'tt.. 5S (Jhionohns lutlder Boisd., Guer., I5)— Syn. Lep. N. Anier., 71 (1802). Pack. ; Ciiildf ins., 203, fig. 192 (1809) ;— Fern., Eumenis halderl Geyer, Zutr. cxot. seliniett., Butt. Me., 77 (1884) ;— [llulst] , Bull. Brookl. v : 43, figs. 981-982 (1837). ent. soc, vii: 109 (1884) ;— French, Butt. cast. Figured hy Glover 111. N". A. Lep., pi. K. U. S., 248-249 [Chionohus] (1880) ;— 3Iayn., fig. 2, ined. Butt. N. E., 2-3, pi. 3, fig.s. 2, 2a (1880) ; Fyles, Can. ent., xx : 131-1.33 (1888), And I know the Imtterfiies, Sailing through the fragrant air, Mark tlie heaven of your eyes. And must long to enter there! Margaret Delaxd. ... to reside In thrilling region of thick-rihl>ed ice. Shakespeare. — Measure for Measrire. Imago (14:17). Head covered witli long 1)lackish brown hairs and a feAV shorter grayisli "white ones; a few scattered "white scales behind, but not in conjunction Avitli, the eyes. Palpi covered "witliin as witliout Avitli interniiuijled grayisli Avliite and black- isli hairs, fringed witli long black liairs above and beneatli, and above "vvitli sliort gray- ish ones. Antennae dull yellowisli brown, the under outer surface covered with dirty Avhite scales; the basal half flecked "with black on the apical third of each joint; above mainly co veiled with blackish scales, iesK on the club, interrupted rather narrowly Avith grayish white at the base of each joint, the paler color extending, interiorlj', to the middle of the joint; tip of club a little dusky. Thorax covered above with blackish brown and dark dirty yelloAvish brown hairs; beneath with blackish, mixed with a few dark grayish 1)rown hairs ; femora dark yellow broAVU, yellowish brown at tip; rest of legs yellowish broAvn below, dusky brown above; spurs, spines and claws, as in the previous species. Fore wings strongly produced at the tip, the lower outer angle not very indistinct; second superior branch of the subcostal nerAiire arising scarcely more than half way between the base of the first and third branches ; the latter and the fourth superior branch originating in close proximity ; outer border of the hind wings almost truncate on the lower two subcostal interspaces. Above dark brown, the male slightly darker than the female. Parallel to the outer border of the fore v-imjs and nearer to it than to the extremity of the cell is a broad band, dull yelloAv ( $ ) , or more or less ochraceous( $ ) , extending from the costal to the internal uervure, generally interrupted oidy by the ner- vures ( $ ) , or broken up into roundish or ovoitl spots, often widely separated ( (J ) , which encloses rather large, black, round or ovoid spots in the lower subcostal and loMor median interspaces, and one of the same size or smaller, or even reduced to a point in the upper median interspace, absent in the male, the lowermost of these spots slightly nearer the l)order than the others; costal border, especially near base, in- distinctly mottled with gray an<1 black, the costal edge blackish ; fringe pure Avhite. 150 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. iiitL'i-nii)te(l narrowly with Ijlack at tlie nervurc tips. The male is also provided (43 : 2) with two Ijlack streaks of hair-like scales, one next the base beloAv the median nervure restins>: upon and extendina,- to its tirst branch ; the second, separated by this branch from the llrst, rests upon the median nervure both above and below, divided by it and extending to the termination of the cell, having a small patch between the second and third median nervules. Hind xnufjs with a band before the border similar to that of the fore wings, continuous, or nearly so. in !)oth sexes and within it, in every interspace, a more or less distinct pale yellow dot, except in the upper median interspace, where there is a small eyelike spot, indistinctly pupilled with white ; the lower median inter- space occasionally develops a similar but indistinct spot; the separation of the band from the border is less distinct in the female than in the male. Beneath. Fore wings slightly paler than on the upper surface ; the whole costal edge mottled with black and white; ape.x and upper half of outer border either uniform gray from the equal commingling of dark broAvn scales, or, by the clustering of scales of the same color into spots, pretty uniformly marbled with white and dark brown or lilack; outer half of the wing with a yellowish (?) or slight ochraceous (J) tinge, seldom with any mark of the light band of the upper surface, excepting as a halo, distinct and large (?) or faint and narroAV (J) around the spots of the lower sub- costal and lower median interspaces, which reappear on this surface, the upper always, the lower generally, pupilled distinctly Avith Avhite. Hind irini/s marl:)led Avitli narrow, transverse, generally Avavy l)ars of clustered grayish Avhite and broAvn or blackish brown scales, sometimes one, sometimes the other predominating, the lighter colors being fainter or nearly absent on the mesial band, and generally most conspicuous next its outer limit; the mesial band is darker than the ground color, not very prominent l)ut broad ; its outer border, generally only edged narroAvly Avith blackish, is deeply crenate excepting toAvard the inner l)order, Avhere the curves are slight and broad or Avanting; it extends from the costal border at a little more than tAvo-thirds the distance from the base to exactly the extremity of the cell, in three very prominent arches, each of the first tAvo occupying an interspace, the third broad and arching over two interspaces; from the extremity of the cell the border bends backward toAvards the base, with a prominent arch in the next interspace, but in the remaining, by Avhich it reaches the inner border, a little nearer the tip of the sul)median than that of the in- ternal nervure, only slight curves or none at all ; the interior border is much less distinct, starts from the costal margin at a little more than one-third the distance from the base, has an angular depression betAveen the costal and subcostal nervures and a very deep and rounded one in the loAver half of the cell ; it sti'ikes the median nervure at or a little Avithin its first divarication and then, turned iuAvard in a direction at right angles to the internal nervure, is lost in the next interspace. Costal edge mottled Avith black and Avhite, the outer edge narrowly lined Avith black, before Avhicli is generally a narrow faint band Avhei-e the grayish scales predominate over the black. The remainder of the Aving is generally uniformly uiai-bled, but occasionally the narroAv dark line bordering the loAver half of the outside of the middle band continues on in a straight line to the outer angle of the Aving.at the termination of the second subcostal nervule. The ocellus of the upper surface appears again beneath, very prominently pupilled Avitli Avhite, sometimes so much so as to appear almost altogether as a Avhite spot; the spots in the other interspaces are generally larger, more prominent and paler; nervures not flecked Avith Avhite. .\bdomeu blackish broAvn throughout with a fcAV taAvny scales at thetii)of the apical joint. Male appendages (32 :.")) : Upper organ Avitli the centrum scarcely arched longi- tudinally, so that its upi)er surface and the median line of the hook lie in nearly a straight line; hook considerably arched above, the under surface a little arcuate in a contrary sense, or nearly straight but deeply and roundly excised at the base, the tip scarcely uncinate and the Avhole scarcely more than three times as long as broad ; lat- eral arms \ery slender, nearly equal on the apical half, much more than half as long as the liook. Clasps Avith the apical fourth equal, the tip obliquely truncate, its scarcely produced upper angle being provided, like the ai)ical third of the upper sur- SATVKIXAK: OKXEIS JUTTA. 151 face, Avitli livo ov siv sni:ill Imt 7 antennae hind tihaeand tarsi fore tihae and tarsi s. 1 21. Deserilied from 2 cf 2?. Andioconia (46 :2). Taperin"; to the middle, then for a brief distance e((nal and then taperinji' aiiain like a sharpened pencil point to the apical thread, which is not more than one fourth of the whole: apical tlireadlets expandintf. Total leni^th. .4 mm. ; basal breadth, .u;'>2 mm. Egg (64:2). Short and stout, barrel-shaped, the top domed, the l)ase broadly rounded : lariicst in the middle and about one-fifth higher than brf)ad ; sides with al)out eisjjhteeu vertical ridijesand furrows having a very zigzag course, the former pinched at tlie summit and buttressed at every angle by the thickened ends of cross lines, which scarcely extend half way across the interspaces and do not meet those of the next vertical ridge, but interdigitate witli them ; several of the ribs unite or die out as the egg begins to narrow above, or even before that. Color yellowish white when laid (Braun) ; afterwards the interspaces are dull plumbeous yellow, the cross lines, and summits of the vertical ridges silvery white. The micropyle rosette is a tracery of delicately margined irregular polygonal cells, growing slightly smaller toward the cen- tre, the whole covering an area about .2 mm. in diameter, and appearing to overlie a thick, silvery Avhite, chitinous mass (the common meeting ground of the vertical ribs), excepting for a clear central space .05 mm. in diameter, in which about eight kite- shaped minute cells distinctly radiate around a common centre, surrounded by a single roAv of the outer rosette ; the largest of the outer cells of the rosette has a diameter of about 0.025 mm. Height of egg, 1.25 mm. ; width, 1.1 mm. Caterpillar. First stage. (70:2; 74:11). Head (78 :l-4) obscure pale green, coarsely punctate, the punctae slightly infuscated at the bottom, ranged very regulai'ly in obli(|ue rows .03 mm. apart, each Avith an inconspicuous pointed hair, Avhich scarcely rises above the level of the puncture, but is occasionally larger, or about .04 mm. in length ; besides there are a few definitely arranged, stout, blunt, curving, pellucid hairs about .03 in length, arising from brown dots, viz., on either side three in a hori- zontal line midway up the face, of which the two inner are close together next the summit of the frontal triangle, and the outer forms the lowest of a vertical series of three ; between the middle ones of the two series but nearer the upper is another ; and there are others below all. Ocelli black; mouth parts of the color of the head, the mandibles slightly testaceous. Body largest at anterior extremity and tapering back- ward slightly, but on the final segments more rapidly; terminal segment terminating on either side in a 'oluntly conical point bearing a papilla and hair. Color pallid be- neath, plumbeous above, with a lirownish fuscous dorsal stripe, a moderately narrow sui^ralateral line and a broad stigmatal band ; papillae hemispherical ; stigmata black- ish fuscous; legs very pale brownish. Length 2.3 mm. at birth. Second stage (87:17). Head very pale greenish brown with a pair of very faint equidistant vertical stripes on either side; ocelli black; mouth parts, excepting the dai'k testaceous edge of the mandibles, of the color of the head. Body above greenish gray, tinged with bluish green on the thoracic segments, especially in front; a dorsal stripe, dark bluish green in front, changing posteriorly through greenish brown to pale reddish brown, edged thi-onghout finely and faintly with white: a suprastigmatal pale reddish brown threatl ; a broad greenish brown laterostigmatal band, more greenish in front, more reddish behind : an eipially broad, cloudy and faint, dull greenish stigmatal band: the substigmatal fold dull yellowish: a ventrostigmatal jiale brown band, and 152 THE i}UTTErvFLip:s of new England. tilt* under surfaco with the k',ii> and proleiis pale green, the legm a little infuscated. Hairs pellucid, seated on green papillae, slightly darker than the upper surface of the body. Spiracles minute and i)lack. Lengtli, 7.5 mm. ; width of head, 1 mm. Third stage (87 : 18). Head pilose, with three dark stripes on either side, continuous with those of the body. Body light green, with a dark dorsal stripe, a dark latero- stigmatal line and a dark stigmatal baud which runs to the anal horns. Length, 10 mm. (after Holmgren). Last stage. Head green, with six rows of brown punctures. Body pale pea-green with dark brown lines along the sides, and a greenish brown dorsal spot on each seg- ment. Legs concolorous ; spiracles black. Length, 32 mm. (after Fyles). Chrysalis. Head, amljer, with a broAvn dash each side. Wings pea-green, outlined and streaked with l^roAvn. Abdomen pale yellowish green, Avith a darker green dorsal line, luunerous longitudinal rows of brown dots, and the extremity roseate. Length, l(i mm. ; breadtli, (! mm. (after Fyles). Geographical distribution (18:2). This is a circuiiipolai- species inhabiting both worlds and three continents. In Europe it was long sup- posed to be confined to points north of 61° N. Lat., in Norway, Sweden, Lapland and Finland, but has latterly been found in isolated spots some- what south of this, about Stockholm and in the Baltic islands southeast of that city (Thedenius, Holmgren), about St. Petersburg (Moschler) and even as far as the neighborhood of Kiga in Kussia in Lat. 56° 30' (Berg). In Asia it is less known but it apparently occurs throughout the ^vhole breadth of Siberia, as it is found on the northern banks of the Amur in eastern Asia (Bremer, Eversmann), Avhich would mean farther south than its greatest southern extension in Europe, and perhaps to as much as five degrees or more, since the ri^•er in })art of its course reaches Lat. 48°. In Xorth America it has been found in the western half of the continent by Captain Gideon Geddes, who obtained it at Emerald Lake, at a high altitude, in British Columbia, Lat. 52°, Long. 118°, and by Mr. Macoun, who took it in the Kocky Mountains beyond our territory. But just as on the eastern side of the old world it appears to be found much further south than on the western, so in eastern America, its range so far as known is much further soutli than on the other side of the Atlantic. The only authoritv who gi\es a very high northern locality is Rink, wdio says it occurs in Greenland, the southernmost extremity of which lies at about the altitude of Stockholm and St. Petersburg ; but on the continent proper it has not been taken farther north than York Factory on the west shore of Hudson Bay about Lat. 58° (Geffckcn). In the west it has also been taken at Albany Kiver (Brit. Mus.) at Moose Factory, James Bay, in the latitude of the British Columbia locality (Haydon), and at Nepigon above Lake Superior (Fletcher) ; and in the east ahmg the Atlantic coast of Labrador at Xain, Lat. 5(>° 24' (Boisduval), Ilopcdale (MiJschler, Packard), and Square Island Harbor (Packard), the last at about Lat. 52° 'My. Between these points the only places where it has been found are far south of either. One is the neighborhood of Quebec about 46° 50', SATYllIXAi:: OKXKIS JL'TTA. 153 where it oceui-ft ut (iomiu swunn) about three miles from tlie city near Bergerville, and also at a marshy si)ot or movin<^ l)o^ called Lake Savanna (Bowles, Fvles), while another is at Ottawa, where Mr. Fletcher took one si)ecimen in a city garden. Our last locality is somewhat further south still, and hrings it witliin the limits of the United States and of Xew England, \iz., the Orono-Stillwater bog just north of Bano-or, Maine, (Braun), about 44° 45', the point of its occurrence the fsirthest removed from the arctic regions in either hemisphere. Undoubtedly it will be found in similar localities in the region between this and the St. Lawrence. Haunts and larval food plants. AVhcrever it occurs it is confined to morasses, and even to very limited stations within them. Ilolniii'ren calls i)articular attention to this, stating tliat it is found, on the rocky islands near Stockholm, only where sphagnum abounds and that a quarter of a mile therefrom in a marshy area of about fifty acres he has searched in vain for it ; the latter lies higher above the surface of the water than the former, which on its part is also poorer in grasses. Exactlv the same is true near Bangor, and Fyles describes the Quebec locality as a sphagnum marsh in which one sinks to the knee. The Orono-Stillwater boo- is a morass several miles in extent, but jutta's flight is confined, as I learn from Professor Carl Braun, the discoverer of the locality, to a limited section only a few acres in extent. On visiting the place in company with Mr, Braun I found the bog at this point a level morass of sphagnum moss , walking in which with utmost care one always sank more than ankle deep in water ; it was thinly covered with a small growth of spruce and junipei- and sprinkled with little bunches or hummocks of Pirns arbutifolia, Ledum latifolinm and Kalmia glauca ; on these hunmiocks grew also, but sparsely, a little very thin grass and here and there a tuft of Juncus articulatus or a clum[) of Sarracenia. There was besides a slender, sedge-like plant less abundant here than the Juncus. On examination, we discovered that the Juncus grew almost exclusively in the very restricted area of the morass occupied by the butterfly, and hence we conjectured this nuist here be the food [)lant of the caterpillar. In the more open parts of the morass, the Juncus disap[)eared, as did also, to a great extent, the sphagnum, the latter being replaced by another sort of moss, which was accompanied by Andro- meda i)olif()lia, and bv a great abundance of the slender seds^e above mentioned. Holmgren tried the young caterpillars which he hatched upon various plants from the morass, including cloudberry, moss, grasses and lichens, and tliey took readily to the grasses. Berg on the other Iiand asserts that a cater[)illar, which lived with him for twehe days but died before its first moult, fed on a lichen (Bryopogon) which he gave it, deceived by my mistake in su[)posing Oeneis semidea fed on lichen. I can only think he was mistaken in supposing that the caterjiillar of jutta actually fed upon it. 154 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. Fyles has recently raised the insect to maturity on Carex oligosperma. I find it takes readily to lawn grass. Oviposition and larval habits. Holmgren secured eggs from impris- oned females which were laid indiscriminatingly on cloudberry, grass, lichens, and the walls and lid of the enclosure. Braun's similar experi- ment in Bangor resulted in only three or four eggs laid on the netting. Fletcher obtained e^^is on netting; on a female confined over grass. Holm- gren's eggs hatched in 19 days, and Berg's in 16 ; those sent me by Mr. Braun in 14 days, Fyles' in 14, and Fletcher's in from 14 to 18 days. The young larva, according to Holmgren, is very sluggish, after the manner of satyrids, and it is from 7-9 days before the first moult occurs, but Fyles gives only five days for his Canadian specimens ; mine on the contrary, received from Mr. Fletclier, ])assed nearly three weeks in the first stage, and Fletcher had the same experience with his. Fyles says it feeds at first head downwards on the edge of the blade, afterwards bites off the end of a blade, and thereafter feeds head upward from the bitten end, gradually retreating down the shortened blade ; but one of mine, from cggti received from Mr. Fletcher, ate at the start head upward from the tip of a broken blade. It feeds while young both by day and by night. Life history. I am mainly indebted to Mr. Braun for information concerning the seasons of this insect with us, which is single brooded, and, in his experience, first appears near Bangor in the last week of May and files for about a month. The earliest one he has taken was caught May 22 ; the females appear about a week after the advent of the males and fiy a little longer or until June 22, the butterfly living about three weeks. Eggs have been obtained by him June 13 and June 22. About (Quebec they are said to appear from May 31 to June 15 by Fyles, who obtained eggs on June 17. Mr. Fletcher at Ottawa obtained eggs July 3. In Labrador Moschler says they are found in June and July. In Sweden they began to fly one year in considerable numbers, according to Holmgren, on June 12, females were first taken on the 14th and by July 3 only females were to be found and these outflown ; males had disappeared by June 2C), and eggs were obtained June 30 to the number of ninety from four females. Berg, at Riga, obtained an egg laid on June 9. In Europe, according to Holmgren, the caterpillar moults twice before winter, when it goes into hibernation and completes its transformations in the spring ; but in Canada, according to Fyles, the only one who has carried it to maturity, it moults four or five times before hibernation, and scarcely feeds more in the spring, changing to chrysalis A^iril 21 ; hoAv long the chrysalis period lasts he does not state. From observations the present season I find that in changing its skin the first time the little caterpillar is motionless for at least three days. The male while living possesses no odor perceptible to the human senses from the discal streak of androconia on the front wing. SATYRIXAE: OENEIS JLTTA. 155 O. aello of the EiiroiJcan Al[)s is more nearly allied to this species than to any other Em-opcan form or to O. semidea. Indeed the two species discussed in this work belong to distinct sections of the genus. Habits, flight, and posture. I have only once seen jutta in flight, and then only for a second as one flew to my feet and was captured. Mr. Braun tells me that it has rather a quick flight, is hard to catch, rarely rises above the tops of the kalmia iuid other low bushes of the swamp, seldom alights, and is fond of circling around the clumps of juniper which occur here and there. AMien it alights it is generally upon the tree trunks, and in the [)airing season, the female, according to Holmgren, usually rests high up on the tree, and it is in this search after females that the males fly around and up the trees. It is easily startled ; when it walks, it moves by little starts, with each movement advancing less than a fourth of its length, the wings parted from each other either less than 45° or about 100° : and if blown upon when at rest it at once tucks its fore wings between its closed hind pair to reduce the surface affected : but seems hardly to be disturbed when the antennal tips arc tickled with a hair. AVhon at rest for the night, hanging from the muslin roof of the enclosure in which it was placed, I noticed that its legs were sprawled widely apart, the wings hung back to back, the costal edge of the front pair a little below that of the hind pair, and the antennae, arched about equally at the two ends, the main stalk at an angle of about 100° with the costal edge of the fore wings, were raised above the plane of the body by 45°, and divari- cated about 100°. Resting during the day it assumes much the same posi- tion, but the fore wings are then brought forward so that the costal edge is at right angles to the axis of the body and the antennae are parted at rio-ht angles. Enemies. We know nothing as yet of any parasites of this insect ; but Fyles states that he once lost a specimen through a kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus, which "gave chase to the butterfly, and, after much doublinii' and twisting, caught it and disposed of it effectually." Desiderata. Our main need is a better knowledofc of the later stao-es of the caterpillar and of the chrysalis, and the characteristics of its pupation with the habits of the caterpillar in the spring : the existing descriptions are quite insufficient. AA'here in a morass, mostly under water, can the half grown lar\a find a suitable place to hibernate ; and where in the still higher waters of spring can the caterpillar securely pupate ? jNIr. Edwards found that caterpillars hatched from June eggs sent to West Virginia from Montreal would eat nothing, but seemed disposed to hibernate at once. Is this ever the case in their home ? The difference between the observations of Holmgren and Fyles also needs explanation. Do the differing accounts indicate that the insect is sometimes one year and sometimes two years in 156 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. completing its cycle of changes ? It would hardly seem possible that Holm- gren's young caterpillars could feed up in the spring to appear upon the wing at the early date of their normal appearance in Sweden. Oris it another in- stance of the greater intensity of life in America ? The brief and regular time of the butterfly's flight would seem to indicate uniformity in the larval habits, and the unusual temperatures to which the northern insect was subjected may account for that exception in which the caterpillars did not survive. Search for the butterfly should l)e made in the first half of June in all sphagnum morasses in northern New England and Canada to learn more of its distribution ; it is useless to search for it outside of such a spot. North- western subarctic America should also be searched. Does the pupa under- go its transformations in a cell as in O. semidea, or hanging like ordinary Nymphalids? Fyles does not tell us. Has the creature any parasites? LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.— OENEIS JUTTA. Egg. Imago. PI. 64, fig. 2. Colored. P]. 1-t: fig. 17. Feimile, both surfaces. Caterpillar . ^^' ^* ^t'^ile abdominal appendages. PI. TO, fig. 2. Caterpillar at birth. *3: 2. Male upper surface fore wing, to 74:11. Caterpillar at birth, colored. show discal streak. 78: 14. Head of caterpillar, first stage. ^- ^- Androconium from the streak. 87:17. Caterpillar, second stage. General. 18. Caterpillar, third stage. PI. 18, fig. 2. Distribution in N. America. CERCYONIS SPEYER. Cercyonis Speyer, Bull. Butf. soc. nat. sc, Minois Scudd., Syst. rev. Am. butt., h (1872) ii: 241 (1875). (Not Minois Hiibn.) Type.—Fap. alope Fahr. Flusheth the rise with her purple favor, Gloweth the cleft with her golden ring. "Twixt the two brown butterflies waver, Lightlv settle, and sleepily swing. Jean Ixgeloav. — Divided. Look here, upon this picture, and on this. The counterfeit presentment of two brothers. Shakespeare. — Hamlet. Imago (52:4). Head small, pretty iniiformly tufted with rather lona: hairs ; front full, depressed a little above, protuberant in the middle below, scarcely nan-ower than the eyes, broader than high, the middle of the upper posterior border projecting roundly a little between the antennae, lower edge rather abrupt, pretty well rounded; vertex small, depressed, the anterior edge corresponding reversely to the posterior edge of the front; flanks pretty full; upper border of the eye distinctly angulated op- posite the posterior base of the antennae. Eyes of moderate size, pretty full, naked. Antennae inserted in the middle of the head, in a broad, shallow pit separating the front and vertex, their interior bases in close contiguity and the exterior edge striking the flanks; considerably longer than the abdomen, composed of from forty to forty- five joints, increasing very slightly and very gradually in size on the apical third, the last two joints diminishing to a broadly rounded apex; transversely circular, the club a little depressed, minutely carinate along the under surface. Palpi more than twice as long as the eye, slender, compressed, the apical one-third as long as the middle joint; profusely clothed beneath with long, above with short hairs, all compacted in a vertical plane. SATYRINAE: THE GENUS CERCYONIS. 157 Protlioracic lobes very small, apjiresscd at base to a thin pellicle, siuldenly expand- in{? above to a transverse tnniiil mass, com])aratively larjje, s^lobose and well i'oun(l(;d interiorly, exteriorly extendin.ii: to a doAvnAvard enrvins;, digitate, blnntly pointed pro- jection, taperinii l)oth in Iiei.ijlit and len<;tii; interiorly it is as lony; as hii;h and the breadth exceeds tiie lenjith ai)ont fonr times. Patajria moderately convex, tiie posterior lobe pretty t)road at Itase, scarcely twice as lonu; as broad, rapidly and pretty rej^rnhirly tapirinii'. tlie interior I'dire nearly straiifht, the exterior concave, the tip ])luntly pointearrel-shaped, Init diminishing greatly in size on the upper half, the apex, which is broadly truncated and distinctly separated from the sides, a little convex; higher than broad, broadest in the middle of tlie lower tAvo-thirds, the base slightly convex, the sides a little inflated ; sides furnished with a lai-ge number of distinct, but not very prominent, longitudinal ribs and traversed transversely by numer- ous delicate, raised lines ; at the summit the longitudinal ribs are connected by an irregular, wavy rim, between which and the micropyle is a similar circlet; surface minutely granulose. Micropyle formed of minute, roundish, polygonal cells, decreas- ing in size toward tlic centre, l^ounded ]>y flue lines. Caterpillar at birth. Head regularly rounded, of equal height and ])readth, the upper half, as far as a line running from the largest ocellus to a point about one-third way doAvn the frontal triangle, but avoiding the ocellar tield, pretty coarsely and rather abundantly punctured; anterior ocellus twice as large as any of the others. Body depressed above between the laterodorsal rows of appendages ; terminal segment stpiarely truncate, the only indication of the subsequent bifurcation being in the papillae which give rise to long terminal hairs. Body furnished with elevated papillae giving rise to peculiar appendages and placed in horizontal rows, as foUow^s : a tho- racic mediodorsal series, and the following over the whole body; a laterodorsal series, two to a segment (the posterior slightly the lower and its appendage growing contin- ually shorter toward the posterior part of the body), the appendages of both directed forward on the thoracic, backward ontlieal)dominal, segments ; a suprastigmatal series, one to a segment, centrally placed, and its appendage directed forward; and an infra- stigmatal series, two to a segment, the posterior a little higher tlian the anterior, the appendages of both directed backward. The appendages above the spiracles (86 : 39) consist of exceedingly long, scarcely tapering, compressed hairs, bent very strougly a little above the base, so as to be nearly horizontal, the convex surface distantly aud rather sinuously serrulate ; those below the spiracles are somewhat shorter and not so greatly curved. Legs rather long, not very stout, tapering, the claw I'ather short and stout, tapering rather rapidly, pretty strongly and regularly cui'ved ; ventral prolegs armed with live, anal prolegs with seven booklets, arranged in a slight curve, equal, the basal half nearly straight, tlie distal strongly curved, distant from one another by less than their own wddtli. Spiracles circular, a little elevated, on slightly constricted stalks. Mature caterpillar. Head appressed globose, a little flattened above, pretty full iu front, broadest at the upper limit of the ocelli, narrowing but little above, the surface uniformly and rather sparsely studded with small, bluntly conical papillae. Ocelli Ave in nund)er, four in an open curve, of which the flrst, third and fourth are similar in size and equidistant, the second much larger and approximated to the flrst, the rtfth posterior and at the angle of an equal armed right angle uniting tlie second and fourth. Frontal triangle slender, Avitli straight sides, reaching the middle of the upper half of the head, nearly twice as high as broad. Labrum narrow, nearly as long as wide, angu- larly and considerably emarginate. Antennae small, the flrst joint mammiform, the second inconspicuous, hardly half as long as broad, forming a small and tapering ring, the third cylindrical, about two and a half times longer than broad and less than half as broad as the flrst, bearing at tip a not long, tapering bristle, and, laterally, the minute cylindrical fourth joint. Mandibles stout, broad, chisel edged. Body cylindrical, slightly flattened ))eneath, largest at the second aljdominal segment and tapering efpially forward and backward as far as the flf th abdominal segment and then more rapidly; anal horns short, slender, conical, Avidely separated, the segment truncate between them. Abdominal segments divided above by creases into six sec- tions, of which the anterior, as far as the spiracles, is tAvice as large as one of the others which are equal ; the second and third thoracic segments are divided into Ave SATYRINAE: TIIK (JKNIJS CEUCYOXIS. 159 eqiial sot-tions. Siirfaco (•ov('n'<1 abundantly ^vitll minute, conical papillae, each bearing a backward-dircctcil l)liint-tipp('d or minutely fork-tipped liair t^vo or three times as long as the papilla. S|)iracles minute, oval. Icnticnlin-. Lei:s small, conical. Prolegs rather stout, sliort, conical. Chrysalis. ( )n a side view the ventral margin is perfectly straight 1)elow until the ^ving cases are reached, then it is gently, slightly, and broadly sAvoUen, beyond which it is again straight on the tapering abdomen. The anterior margin is straight or slightly full, at scarcely less than a right angle with the vejitral margin, sharply angled next it and in tiie opposite direction melting into the thoracic ridge, which is full, well rounded and moderately liigli, separated from the abdominal arch by a gentle angula- tion. The dorsum of the first four abdominal segments and the metathorax is very gently and l)roadly arched, so that this part of the l)ody is sube(|ual, l)eyond which it falls rapidly aAvay toward the cremaster, but with a tolerably strong arch. The cre- master is inclined at an angle of about 4.")° with the ventral surface of the abdomen, equal as viewed laterally. Viewed from the back the occUar tubercles are connected by a straight line and separated from the basal wing tubercles (each of which is a little farther from the neighboring ocellar tubercles than the latter from each other) by a itniform concavity ; above the basal wing tubercles, which are scarcely pnmiinent, the body is equal nearly to the tips of the wing cases and then tapers, at first slowly after- ward rapidly, to the cremaster, which continues the tapering form to the s(|uarely trun- cate tip. The wings reach the extremity of the scultured portion of the fourth abdominal segment, the tongue slightly surpassing them and the antennae slightly shorter than they. This is an American genus Avith a considerable number of species, mostly occurring in the western half of the continent, but whose limits and relations are not yet clearly determined. The dozen nominal species are all variable and run into one another by intergrades, and indeed probably cross Avith each other wherever their boundaries overlap. In eastern America there are not more than three species, occupying successive belts of latitude, which also overlap. In New England the genus is represented by two species, a northern and a southern, which meet on common ground in the middle portions of the district. It has been generally conceded of late years that these two types of butterflies Avere only dimorphic forms of a single species, and I have myself shared in this view, which has been supposed proven by the breeding experiments and direct comparisons of a large amount of material made by Ixhvards, who, far more than all other observers too;ether, has increased our knowledge of the natural historv of these butterflies. He has instituted comparisons between them at every stage of life, and while he sees differences bet^veen caterpillars and chrysalids born of dif- ferent types, he finds no constant and universal distinctions ; while as to the relation of the early stages to the butterflies, he has proved by breeding that "south of the belt of dimorphism," as he calls that strip of country where C alope and C nephele both occur, "alope produced alope, but inside the belt, alope produced intergrades, and nephele produced alope and also an intergrade . • . That nephele, north of the belt, breeds true is certain, because the intergrades and alope are not found here." This 160 THE BL'TTERFLIES OF NEW EXGLAND. would I)e conclusive if the coiiii)lete [);irentaue in each case were known ; but as only the niotlier wa,s known in any case, another explanation is not only possible, but in view of all the facts probable. The mtergrades found throughout the belt forming" the northern boundary of the typical alo[)e and the southern boundary of the typical nej»hele seem to be far more easily ex[)lanable on the hy[)()thesis of hybridism, since they occur only where such a })]ienomenon is possible, and wherever it is [)ossible. The same argmnent a[)[)lied to the case of l>asilarchia, as has been done by Edwards, Avould logically [»roAe more tlian he would agree to, \'v/,. : the specific identity and trimorphism of all the eastern S[)ecies excepting B. archippus. That the species of Cercyonis here described are certainly distinct I would by no means maintain; only that in view of the facts of distribution, it seems more })robaI)le that they should be looked u[)on as lining reached in their develo[)ment the stage of specific distinction, while they are readily fertile iufer se and produce intergrades where they meet on conunon ground. It would perhaps be possible by introducing a considerable number of nephele into a southern locality far removed from the "belt of dimor[)hism,"()r, as 1 should rather call it, the " bastard belt " ; or bv the introduction of alo[)e into an ecpially remo^•ed northern locality, to [)roduce in free nature intergrades at those points. ]>ut if such an ex[)eriment failed, it might easily be presumed that the conditions of life were not sufficiently favorable to the introduced form, or that the results were overlooked. It is a difficult ([uestion to settle, I)ut the progress of experiment and research will doubtless one day determine the matter. The butterflies of this genus have am[»le wings of a uniform rich dark l)rt)wn above, the outer margin pencilled with two or three darker lines and preceded by a few (on the fore-wings by one, or two; on the hind- wings generally I)y one) darker ocellated spots, usually confined to the lo\\'er subcostal and lower median interspaces ; those of the fore-wings are sometimes enclosed in a broad yellowish band ; beneath, the wings are irrorate with short dark streaks on a lighter brown base, the markings of the up[)er surface are repeated and, on the hind wings, often accompanied by additional occellated s[)ots, not ecpiidistant from the outer border. There is but a single brood each year, the butterflies flying from mid- sunmier onward and the caterpillars hibernating as soon as born, as in the allied Euro[)ean genus ]\Iinois : the chrysalis is attached by its hinder extremity to blades of grass, etc. The eu'irs fire short barrel-shaped, furnished with numerous lonaitu- dinal ribs. The juvenile cater[)illars are stout and furnished with exceed- inglv long. com|)ressed, geniculate a[)pendages, bent l)ackward, excepting those of the doi-sum of the thoracic segment, which turn forward pre- senting a [)eculiar contrast. The mature cater[)illars are simply [)ube8- THK CLOrillXC of CATKPvriLI.AHS. 161 cent, tlic head nmiid and eijual, and both head and l)()dy green and furnished with scveial longitudinal, eontinuous stripes of lighter and darker green ; the last segment is l)rieHy and slenderly forked. The chrysalis is well rounded, has an alar ridge, angulate ocellar prominences, and a rapidly tapering, pointed, non-carinate al)domen. EXCURSUS Il. — THE CLOTHING OF CATERPILLARS. And wiiiit's a luillcrlly-' At Ix'st, He's l)Ut a caterpillar, drest. Joiix (Aw.— The Butterfly and the Snail. 'Vwv. a[)pi'ndages of caterpillars are simply special developments of the cuticle. Almost without exception they are arranged in longitudinal series along the body, Init sometimes, especially where the segments of the body are divided into a large niunber of transverse di\'isions by creases in the skin, they are also arranged in transverse rows across the bodv. As a general rule, however, the latter arrangement is subordinate to the former, although many naturalists, studying their disposition separately on each joint of the body, have described them as if the transverse arrangement were the more important. That this is not so is plain from the fact that in the longitudinal series, where they are on separate pieces, they are clearly aligned, which is very often not the case when on one and the same piece they are viewed transversely. This special development of the cuticle may take form in various ways. The sim[)lest of all and the most universally distributed, even the only cloth- ing of considerable groups, is that of minute papillae, hardly visible except by artificial aid. These pa[)illae are usually of a conical shape, though sometimes more or less hemispherical, and generally support a hair ; or they may take the form of simple, lenticular, blister-like, naked elevations, as in many Papilioninae, where they are often highly colored or gleam with a metallic lustre. Sometimes the papillae are smooth, naked and hemi- si)herical, the base surrounded by a ring of color giving them the appear- ance of ring-like spiracles, scattered over the body in definite series. These are found only, as far as I know, on the caterpillars of the Lycae- nidae, and then only in their earliest stages. But in many other caterpillars the papillae are developed as large, roughened, wart-like prominences, often themselves covered \\ ith sid)ordinate papillae or with bristles, as in some Nymphalidae and the earliest stages of some Papilioninae. Again such a wart or tubercle may be considerably prolonged and bristle with rough projections or paj)illae all along its surface, as in the full grown caterpillars of the Nvmi)hali(li, the most striking instance of which in our fauna is found in Basilarchia eros of tiie southern states. 162 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAXIX For these papilliform bodies, however developed, :irc rarely simple. Thev nearly always terminate at the summit with a single tapering hair, and in this form they very generally cover the body of the caterpillars of all butterflies, however naked they may appear, however hirsute, or however bristling with spines. In the earliest stage, especially in the young of many Nymphalidae and Lycaenidae, the hairs are of excessive length, and microscopically spiculiferous or serrate. Sometimes the hairs are clul)bed at the tip oi- trumpet-shaped, as witli many of those found on the body of Pierinae, as also upon the Hesperidae in their earliest and occasionally in their later stages. The trumpet-shaped or club-shaped hairs appear to be hollow canals through which fluids may be forced, for one may discover the use of the expanded and probably hollowed extremity, in the somewhat rapid appearance of the minutest possible globide of fluid at the tip of a hair Avhere none could be seen shortly before. Not infrequently the hairs are of equal size throughout and truncate at the tip, as in some Pierinae and Lycaenidae, but neither in this case nor the preceding are these special- ized hairs the only ones found upon the bod}-, but they are certain special hairs, often assuming a definite position amid a mass of simple tapering hairs, seated on precisely similar or simply smallei" papillae. In very rare cases the hairs may even be forked ; we have in our fauna only a single striking instance of this, in the caterpillar of Iphiclides ajax at birth, but such instances, none of Avhich I believe have been specially noted before in Lepidoptera, must be excessively rare. Reaumur figures the larva of one of the hymenopterous family Tenthredinidae with similar appendages at maturity. If we follow the caterpillars of the Vanessidi from their first stage, in which we find the simple papilla terminated by a long hair, we shall find that after the first moult this papilla is considerably larger, while the hair is diminished very much in length and importance ; and following it stage by stage we see the papilla at last developed into a horny spine terminated at the tip in a little bristle, and armed all along its sides, often in regular series, with secondary spinules which also terminate in a bristle and bear minute, setigerous papillae. Between these juvenile and mature stages there is every development of this spine, and if we look through the entire series of the Nymjjhalidae we shall find a considerable variety in the form which these spines assume (PI. 86). In some, as in Euvanessa antiopa, the main spine is only furnished in the final stage with minute bristle-bearing papillae in place of the spinule with its armature ; and the main spine in this case is prolonged to an excessive extent, although not to so great a degree of slenderness as in Heliconia. In others, the main spine becomes rather a coriaceous conical tubercle beset with bristle-bearing papillae, as in the Melitaeidi and many jVrgynnidi. Finally there is another form of appendage, which differs from the others SATYKIXAK: CKKCVOXIS ALOIM-:. 163 in its soft flexible nature, ^^'e have an approach to this in all the appen- dages of the INIelitaeidi and Argvnnidi, and especially in the elongated tnhercles of the first thoracic segment of many Argynnidi. lint in all of these cases these tnhercles are covered with bristle-hearing pa[)illae of a consj)icuons kind, while in those with which we close this snmmary, the tentacles, as they nniy perhaps better be called, are to all appearances simply fleshy masses ; bnt on a close examination they also will be seen to be co\ered with minnte downy hairs, each hair arising from a little basal pa[)illa. These fleshy filaments occur in our New England fauna only in two S[)ecies of widely differing groups, viz., the caterpillar of Laertias philenor, where they are arranged in several rows along the body and are often highly colored, and in Anosia plexi})pus, in which as in other Euplocinac there arc l)ut two or three pairs of these filaments of varying length. In both of these instances, the filaments are nuich more fleshy than in the case of the elongated thoracic tubercles of the Argynnidi, as is quickly shown in the attempt to inflate the caterpillar skin in hot ovens, M-hen these |)arts usually contract to the last degree, and so are difficult to jireserve in any natural condition, while this is far less the case in the Argynnidi. It will be seen by this brief review that the clothing of caterpillars is very varied in character, as each of the appendages specified may have an infinite variety of forms and degrees of development. But it will hardly escape notice that if we eliminate from the list all those forms which occur only in caterpillars which still bear the same character which they had in the egg, and which they throw off with their first ecdysis after feedino- the catalofjue would be o-reatly abridiicd. It mav further be noted that there are comparatively few instances in which those forms of dermal appendages which are very general in juvenile caterpillars, and then characterize large groups, appear in any form whatever in later stages of either the same or other groups. The bearing of this point upon the theory of the origin of metamorphosis in insects is evident. Table of species of Cercyonis, based on the imago. Ocelli of fore wiiig?* enclosed in a coininon, perfectly distinct, yellow band alope. Ocelli of fore wings enclosed in a very indistinct common pale l)and or in none at all..iiephele. CERCYONIS ALOPE.— The blue-eyed grayling. [Blue-eyed ringlet (Gosse) : snioDth hipparchy (Emmons) ; alope bnttcrtly (Harris) ; hine-eyed grayling (Scudder) ; brown butterfly (Ross); yellow-spotted wood butterfly (Maynard).] Papilio alope Fabr., Entom. syst., iii: 229 524 (1819) : — Boisd.-LeC, L(5p. Amer. sept., (1793) ;— Jones, Icon., tab. 12, fig. 1;— Abb., 228, pi. .59, figs. 1-1 (1833);— ^lorr., Syn. Lep. Draw. ins. Ga.. Brit, nnis., vi : fol. 24, figs. X. Amer., TG-TT (1802;; — Edw., Proc. Entom. 46-49. soc, Philad., vi : 19.V200 (1866); Can. eut., Satt/n's alope God.. Encycl. m(?tb.. ix :4T1. xii: 24-32 (1880); Butt. X. Anicr., ii, Sat. 2 164 TUE BUTTERFLIES OF XEW ENGLAND. (1882) ;— French, Rep. ins. III., vii : 156 (1ST8) ; Enodia alope Donbl., Catal. Lep. Brit, nius., Butt. east. U. S., 243-248, fig. 71, (1886) ;— i : 136 (1844). Middl.,Rep. ins. 111., x: 92 (1881); — Fei-n., 3/inois a?oj)eScuckl., Sj'st. rev. Amer. butt., Butt. Me., 74-76, figs. 24-25 (1883) .- — Smith, 5(1872). Bull. Brookl. ent. soc., vi : 127-128 Cerc!/owis aZope Scudtl., Bull. Butt", soc. nat. (1884) ; — Mayn., Butt. N. E., 4, p]. 1, fig. 4, 4a sc, ii : 242 (1875) ; Butt., 115, 131-133, 168. figs. (1886). 37, 38, 57, 143 (1881). Satyrus {Enodia) alope, Westw.-Hew., Satyms nephelex&r. i\. alope i^ive.ck.^Ciit^ Gen. diurn. Lep., ii : 392 (1851). Ainer. macrolep., 157-158 (1878). HipparcJiia alope Harr., Inj. inj.veg., 3d ed., Figured in Abb., Draw. Gray Coll. Bost. soc. 305, fig. 127 (1862) ;— Emm., Agric. N. York, nat. hist., 53; also by Glover, 111. N. A. Lep., v: 213, pi. 33, figs. 5-7 (1854). pi. 35, figs. 1,4; pi. A. fig. 23, ined. These are flowers Of middle summer. Shakespeare.— Winter's Tale. Le papillon ! fleur sans tige, Qui voltige, Que I'on cueille enun r6seau: Dans la nature infinie Harmonie Entre la plantc et I'oiseau ! . . . De Nerval. — Les Papillons. Imago (1 : 2, n ; 11 : 8). Head covered with lon,2:, erect, gray-brown hairs with many pale dirty ones mingled with them, and behind the eyes with dirty pale scales. Palpi cov- ered with dirty pale and intermingled dull reddish brown scales, especially along the middle of the outer surface, the long, lower fringe made up of dull, rather dark browu hairs externally, internally flanked by many shorter, paler ones, the upper fringe of mingled pale and brownish hairs and scales. Antennae beneath mostly white, above of the color of the upper surface of the wings, interrupted rather narrowly at the base of each joint with white, the last three or four joints of the club and both sides of the whole of the same bare of scales and brownish luteous. Tongue luteo-fuscous, largely luteous at tiie base; papillae (61 : 26) about four times as long as broad, subequal, with Ave or six longitudinal ribs ending in thorns, and w'ith a slender, central, apical filament not so long as the Avidth of the papilla. Thorax covered above Avith long, mouse brown and pale reddish brown hairs, fre- quently, and especially on the patagia, having a pale olivaceous tinge; below with dark gray brown hairs. Legs covered with hairs and scales of a similar color, but paler externally and along the under side of the middle and hind tibiae and tarsi. Spines black ; spurs pale luteous, scaled Avitli wdiite at base. Paronychia and basal half of claws very pale luteous, apical half of claws reddish brown, deepening toward tip. Wings above dark, sliglitly rufous, brown, with a scarcely perceptible olivaceous tint (^), or of a similar but paler, rather slaty, brown without any rufous tint ( ? ). Outer border of fore Avings almost perfectly rounded ; of hind Avings Avith distinct though slight creuulations. Fore vnngs Avith a very broad, transverse, nearly equal patch of pale dull orange ( J ), or of paler orange, often verging upon straAV-color ( ? ), extending from the subcostal to the submedian nervures, sometimes surpassing the latter a very little ; the exterior margin is generally ill-defined above, better defined and approaching Avithin nearly half an interspace's distance of the outer border ; the in- terior margin is broadly sinuous, passing in a straight or slightly curved line, the con- cavity outAvard, above the median nervure at a short distance beyond tlie apex of the cell ; below the upper branch of the median nervure it passes to the submedian in an- other curve, the convexity iuAvard, the angle between the tAvo curves rounded ofi'at the upper median nerA'ule. In the middle of the upper and loAver halves of this broad patch are larger (?) or smaller ( ^ ) , roimd, black spots faintly and very narroAvly edged Avith umber, each enclosing a pupil of pale blue scales, Avhichis larger in the ? than in the J , and in the former often Avhite at the centre; the uppermost spot is in the loAvest subcostal interspace and in the $ occupies just its breadth; in the $ itahvays surpasses this and often extends over the upper half of the subcosto-median and the loAver third of thepenul- SATVUIXAE: CERCYONTS ALOPE. 165 tiiiiato snt)(.'<)st;il interspace; tlic lower is in tlic lower median interspace, is generally a little, or in the $ often considerably, lars^er than tlie npper spot, scarcely occupies the ■whole -width of the interspace (^), or j^enerally eiicroaciies a little and o(|nally on the nciffliboriiia; interspaces ( $ ) ; at about half an interspace's distance; from, and parallel to, the outer liorder is a rather narrow, faint, dusky line Avhich eda;es the yellow patch on its lower iialf and in some instances is composed of a scries of waves, althouf^h usually straiiiiit: betwei'U it and the upper i)art of the yeUow patcii tlie brown is generally a Ut- ile paler : extreme outer margin edged faintly with l)lackish ; fringe nearly uniform rather pale slaty l)rown. IIiitV EXdLAXD. tlic iiiartihi. Ix'iim fully liall' a\ ay fi-oin the lirst divarication of the sul)costal to tlie marniii; that in the upper median interspace is slightly before the middle of the in- tersi)ace ; that in tlie medio-sutamedian is removed but a interspace's Avidth from tlie mariiin : and that iu tlie lower median is on a line, or nearly on a line, with the two last ; when only a single ocellus is present it is in the loAver median interspace ; outer margin narrowly edged with blackish and folloAvetl by an equally narrow line of pale ))roAvn. followed again by a ground tint darker than usual; fringe slightly darker than that of the front Avings. Abdomen above like the upper surface of the Aviugs : l^eloAv pale gray l)roAvn. Ap- pendages of the male (33 : 1) : upper organ Avith the hook scarcely tapering and in the middle but little higher than broad: tip ])luntly pointed; lateral appendages directed toAvard the tip of the hook and from one-third to one-fourth of its length, rather bluntly pointed at the tip. Clasps more than one-quarter as broad as long, tapering but little on the basal tAvo-thirds, beyond considerably, by the sloping of the inferior margin and bent slightly upAvard, the tip rounded off, but slightly produced above; the upper edge of the clasp gently concave Avith a scarcely perceptible convexity just beyond the middle, beyond Avhich the edge is feeble, armed Avith a fcAV distant, scarcely perceptible, short, needles. Measurements in millimetres. MALES. FEMALES. Length of tongue, lO.o Smallest. Average. Largest. Smallest. 28. 8.5 Average. Largest. Length of tore wings antennae hind tibiae and tarsi., fore tibiae and tarsi.. •2."). 11. ri iS. 2. 20. 8.25 28. 12.25 2.5 28.75 11.75 S.75 2. 29. 12. 8. l.i) Secondary sexual peculiarities. The androconia are exceedingly slender, taper Avith perfect regularity and Avhile of the same basal Avidth as in C. nephele are propor- tionally longer, being about .3125 mm. long and .01 mm. broad at base. See also the description of the wings, under the genus. Egg. Sides furnished Avith tAventy-four or twenty-hve longitudinal ribs, forming blunt ridges, at the Avidest .05:) nmi. ai)art. the space betAveen them concave or Avaved ; these ribs extend from the edge of the summit to a little beloAv the In-oadest part of the egg; they are slightly thickened at frequent and regular intervals, caused iu part by one or two minute beads at each of those points, visil)le only l)y so strong a lens as Avill clearly resolve the granulation of the surface, and indicating the passage across them of the delicate transverse lines Avhich otherwise are but faintly visible, and are about .0127 mm. apart; the rim of the summit is formed of an irregular Avavy ridge nearly as prominent as the ribs and the secondary circlet is of equal height and irregu- larity. Micropyl*" -12 nun. broad. (67 : 1) broken up by fine lines into cells, the outer- most of which are nearly twice as large as the others, the median ones being about .0042 nnn. in diameter. Color of egg honey or Avaxy yelloAV ; afterwards it assumes a pale pinkish hue and subsequently becomes irregularly spotted a\ itli slightly darker or more distinct, minute, pinkish spots. Height. .'.H )nm. : greatest In-eadth, .84 mm.; breadth at rim, .46 nnn. Caterpillar. Ft rat stdcjr' (70 : V>). Head (78:12) very pale livid yelloAvish In-oAvn ; l)un(tulali()ns of the upper portion blackisli fuscous; the punctulated area is furnished also w ith two transverse, slightly curving roAvs of small, roundish Avarts of a reddish l.roAvn color, four in each roAv. each Avart giving rise to a pretty long, forward curving, brown, spinous hair, the upper roAv encircling the croAvn, the lowei' a little less than miilwa> between the former and the ocelli: also along the ilividing line separating the smooth and punctulate portion, tiiei-e ari' from live to seven similar minute ones; ocelli fuscous, some of them pale apically, the anterior one malachite green, all at ))ase annulate Avith black : mouth parts pale yelloAvish, the nnindihles tipped Avith reddish. Body livid l)rowu Avith a slender reddish fuscous dorsal line, the sides Avith three l.tngitudinal. reddish fuscous lines, tlie upper two approximate; surface delicately, ti'ansverselv sliagreened: legs and prolcgs pale yellowisli: spiracle^ luteous. Length, SA'IYKIXAK: (KlU'YOXIS AI.Ol'K. 10? 2.1 iiiiii. ; l)r(':i(ltli oJ" l)()(ly. . 12 mm. : of licad, ..■■»2 mm, ; Icimtli of lateral lialrs. . is mm.; hi-cadtli of same, .Oi;J mm. ; length of terminal hairs, .28 mm. Last st(it broii^lit t(i my notice liy Ueiicis aellu of the Swiss Alps; and Mr. Mr. Spraguc, who found one laid by the insect Fletcher showed nie an Oencis jiitta which had nponher own middle tarsus; I have seen a managed, in continement, to lay one upon her similar instance in our Siieyeria idalia and in own antenna near the base! sATVitiXAK: cKHcvoxis ai.oim:. 169 IMiss Soiilc sonic on Ani>-nst 11 at Stovvc, V't. Tlierc is then hut a single hrood each year ; that this hukls true for the south as well as the north is probable, for specimens sent nic from Texas by Mr. lielfrage, were all collected in September, and according to him the females did not begin to lay their eggs imtil the first of October, or at a period correspond- ingly near the colder season. Yet there may easily be some erroi- in this, for they have been bred in AVcst Virginia as early as June 1) by Mr. Edwards. The eggs hatch in from twenty to twenty-seven days (tvventv-three to twentv-fi\e beino- the most usual; this is the lono-est period for hatcliing known to me among those butterflies which do not hibernate in the egg state) — in the south sometimes in as short a time as fourteen days, so that the caterpillars cannot appear in the northern states until September or the very end of August, too close upon the winter season to enable them to attain any considerable growth in the autumn : and indeed, like the caterpillar of the nearly allied European butterflies, Minois phaedra and Oeneis aello and many other satyrids, they hibernate without having eaten a morsel of vegetable food. It seems hardly proba- ble that some of the eggs remain unhatched until the spring, for, out of the large number sent me or retained by correspondents, all, excepting the shrivelled, unimpregnated ones, invariably gave birth to the larvae before winter set in. Still their condition Avould seem to be very similar if they remained in the egg ready to eat their way out. They are slow eaters in the spring, do not usually change to chrysalis before July and after spend- ing about a fortnight in that state appear again as buttei-flies. Flight, habits, etc. Cercyonis alope has a stronger flight than our other satyrids, — occasionally a prolonged and rapid one, but it may usually be seen tossing itself lazily in and out among the shrubbery at the edge of a wood or by the bushes beside unfrequented roads. Gosse describes it as wary and flying swiftly, " chiefly affecting lanes in the forests, but coming occasionally into the gardens early in the morning." Allen says it frequents the flowers of Coreopsis palmata Nutt. on the prairies of Iowa. Edwards says that multitudes gather on the flowers of the hardhack Spiraea tomentosa, which blooms in old fields in July, At night the butterfly rests upon the branches of low trees or shrubs, probably hanging from the under surface of the twigs. At least this is the conclusion reached by my experience in driving over the Nantucket moors one August day. The wagon track along the broad main road is here lined for a part of the way with a row of low pine trees, with an occasional scrub oak ; the wind was blowing across the road ; it was about sLx o'clock in the morning, and not a buttei-fly was naturally astir, but as we rumbled along the road, hundreds of this butterfly were swept across our track by the wind, forming indeed a continuous stream as long as the fringe of trees contimu^d. Close examination without stopping but kept up for half an hour, showed that they all came from the pine trees ; tha 170 THE BUTTERFLIES OF NEW ENGLAND. they had risen just as our horse's head was directly opposite them and wafted by the wind across our track, sank drowsily to the earth the other side. The trees were from eight to ten feet high and about twenty feet distant, and no butterflies were seen to leave the trees at any much higher or much lower level than five feet nor any from the ground. They were doubtless started from sleep by the tremor of the ground. Dr. C. S. Minot notes of the postures of these butterflies that when alighting they rest on the upper surface of leaves ; that when walking the leo-s move alternately, the antennae pulsate in the same way and the wings, held vertically, keep up a quivering motion ; the antennae divaricate about 50° while raised at a general angle of about 10°, though this is difficult to determine as the tips droop and the whole cur-ses with an upward convex- ity ; the tips of the fore wings are vertically above the tip of the abdomen. When at rest the outer margins of all the wings are pressed together. Desiderata. As this butterfly is frequently confounded with C. nepliele our information is insuflficient concerning its northern boundaries in New Eno-land ; the comparative abundance of the tAvo forms should be noted in every possible locality between the forty-third and forty-fifth parallel of latitude. The determination of its precise relation to C. nephele is the most important and the most exacting question to solve. Whether it would be possible to breed the forms in such a way that the parentage may be determined on both sides is yet to be decided. It would seem to be quite possible, for they have been known to pair in captivity (Can. ent. xviii : 17). If it can be done, the relation of the tw^o forms can and should be determined. If not, it will be difficult to bring conclusive evi- dence ; but in any case the experiment should be tried in the belt where both are found. The precise places sought by the young larva in hiberna- ting should be discovered, and the amount of difference — apparently a con- siderable one for so late a bvitterfly — in the time of its first appearance in a o-iven locality in different years determined. Some eggs hatch a month earlier than others ; is there any advantage or disadvantage in this to the caterpillar tiiat will eat nothing until the next spring ? What parasites affect the life of this insect ? LIST OF ILLUSTBATIO NS.—CEB(JYONIS ALOPE. General. Imago. PI. 18, fig. 3. Distribution in N. America, PI. 1, fig. 2. Female, both surfaces. Egg. 6. Male, upper surface. PI. 67, fig. 1. Micropyle. 11:8. Both surfaces. Caterpillar. 33:1. Male abdominal appendages. PI. 70, fig. 6. Caterpillar at birth, . 52 : 1. Side view, with head and appeu- 74: 18. Fullgrowiv caterpillar. clages enlarged, and details of thestruc- 78 : 12. Head, first stage. ture of the legs. 13. Head, third stage. 61:26. Papilla of spiral tongue. . 86:39. Dermal appendages of first stage. SATYRINAE: CERCYONIS NEPIIELE. 171 CERCYONIS NEPHELE.— The dull-eyed grayling. [The dull eyoil j;r;iylin.8:1. Xeuration. PI. 8.3, tig. 7. Side view. 4G:3. Amlroconium. 8. Dorsal view. SECTION ir. E(j(/ nearly smooth, but reticulate, with no vertical ribs. Caterpillar at birth with straight cuticular appendages, and the summit of the liead surmounted by a rounded projection. Mature caterpillar slender and elongated, with the head much larger than the segments immediately behind, and croAvued Avith pointed tubercles. Chrysalis AA'ith an angularly rounded mesonotum, and a protuberant head. Imago Avith extremity of cell of fore wing nearly transverse ; base of middle median nerA'ule identical with that of the outer nerA"ule, or much nearer to it than to the inner nervule. Gexera : Enodia, Satyrodes, Neouympha, Cissia. ENODIA HiiBNER. Enodia IliUm. Verz. bek. schmett., 61 (1810) . Type, — Oreas marmorata andromacha Iliibn, A brave old house ! a garden full of bees, Large dropping poppies, and queen hollyhocks With butterflies for crowns — tree peonies And pinks and goldilocks. l^GKi-ow.— Honors. Imago (52:. 5). Head of moderate size, pretty uniformly tufted with moderately long hairs; front full, curAnng on every side, broadly protuberant in the middle below, narroAver than the eye, a little higher than broad, teniiinating above at the base of the antennae rather squarely ; loAver edge rather abrupt, broadly rounded ; vertex A-ery transverse, very slightly protuberant, the posterior edge very slightly convex, tlie an- terior straight ; upper boi'der of the eye with a scarcely perceptible angulation opposite the posterior base of the antennae. Eyes pretty large, moileratcly full, pilose Avith short and very delicate hairs. Antennae inserted in the middle of the head, or possibly just behind the middle, in a broad not very deep pit just larg