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http://www.archive.org/details/califfruitshowtoOOwickrich

I
I

The

California Fruits

and How to Grow Them

A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED

GREATEST SUCCESS. WITH THE USTS OF

VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO

THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS

OF THE STATE

By EDWARD J. WICKSON, A. M.

Dean and Professor of Agriculture in the College of Agriculture of the

University of California; Director and Horticulturist of the

Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of "California

Vegetables in Garden and Field;" Editor of

The Pacific Rural Press; Member of

the National Council of

Horticulture, Etc.

FIFTH EDITION. REVISED AND EXTENDED

SAN FRANCISCO. CAL.

PACIFIC RURAL PRESS

NINETEEN HUNDRED TEN

Copyright, 1910.

By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press,

Published March, 1910.

BOLTE & BRADEN CO.

printers anij publishers
San Francisco - Cal.

PREFACE.

The Fourth Edition of this treatise met a wider de-
mand than anticipated and the Fifth Edition has to be
undertaken within a year from the publication date of its
predecessor — bringing the work to the end of its thir-
teenth thousand. The writer rejoices in this large
demand as a token of the usefulness of the undertaking.

The Fifth Edition returns to large octavo form as
preferable to a quarto for a book which is intended to be
always at hand as a guide in real work. Technical works
are largely in octavo form. The picturesque quarto of the
Fourth Edition, while admired by connoisseurs in art
printing, was condemned by others who found it agreeing
neither in length or breadth with other books they com-
monly used and therefore inconvenient and undesirable.

In the preparation of the Fifth Edition the writer has
seized the opportunity to bring the contents abreast of a
new decade by incorporating the most recent lessons of
progressive experience and repeats the request which he
has made in earlier editions that all readers whose obser-
vation and work teach them any better way than he has
described shall share with him the advantage of such
greater wisdom.

EDWARD J. WICKSON. «

University of California,

Berkeley, March, 1910.

224135

CONTENTS

PART ONE: GENERAL.
Chapter

I The Climate of California and its Modifications.

II Why the California Climate favors the Growth of Fruit.

III The Fruit Soils of California.

IV The Wild Fruits of California.
V The California Mission Fruits.

VI Introduction of New Fruit Varieties.

PART TWO: CULTURAL.

VII Clearing the Land for Fruit.

VIII The Nursery.

IX Budding and Grafting.

X Preparation for Planting.

XI Planting the Trees.

^ XII Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit.

■ XIII Cultivation.

XIV Fertilizers for Trees and Vines.

XV Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines.

PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS.

XVI Commercial Fruit Varieties.

XVII The Apple.

XVIII The Apricot.

XIX The Cherry.

XX The Peach.

XXI The Nectarine.

XXII The Pear.

XXIII Plums and Prunes.

XXIV The Quince.

PART FOUR: THE GRAPE.
Chapter

XXV The Grape Industry.

XXVI Propagating and Planting Vines.

XXVII Pruning and Care of the Vine.

XXVIII Grape Varieties in California.

PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS.

XXIX The Date.

XXX The Fig.

XXXI The Olive.

XXXII The Orange.

XXXIII The Pomelo or Grape Fruit.

XXXIV The Lemon.

XXXV Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits.

PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS.
XXXVI Berries and Currants.

PART SEVEN: NUTS.
XXXVII Nut Growing in California.

PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION.
XXXVIII Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Preserving.

PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION.

XXXIX Injurious Insects.

XL Diseases of Trees and Vines.

XLI Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds.

XLII Protection from Wind and Frost.

PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS.
XLIII Utilization of Fruit Wastes.
Topical Index.

CALIFORNIA FRUITS

PART ONE: GENERAL
CHAPTER I

THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL
MODIFICATIONS

In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali-
fornia almost an epitome of the whole United States, with added
climatic characters peculiarly our own. We have high mountain
valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where only hardy
northern fruits can be grown; we have hot valleys where the date
palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its feet
are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface;
but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our dry air denies
us many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites
for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow of the moun-
tains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable
modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these
extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adaptation lies.

When this breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations
is realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits
we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the
known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical.
Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the
equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same
is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau,
there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California,
and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which
here prevail. On the other hand, it has been abundantly demon-
strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions
and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of
wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper'
locations in California as are the people who come to grow them.
From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi-

IQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole
country, with some which no other State possesses.

But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a
whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State
must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed
ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain
California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced
in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible,
then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It
may be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture
and neglect, but to this proposition it must be added that in Cali-
fornia equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection
in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know
California well must undertake to master both its horticultural
greatness and littleness; and so closely are these associated, and
so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many
counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the
State itself.

It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for
him to believe that the terms "northern" and ''southern" have
almost no horticultural significance in California; that northern
fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and.
vice versa; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate
most frequently; that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley
frosts; that some fruits can be successfully grown through a north
and south distance of 500 miles, but can not be successfully carried
a few hundred feet of either less or greater elevation; that on the
same parallel of latitude within a hundred miles of distance, from
coast to mountainside, one can continuously gather marketable
Bartlett p^ars for three months — not to mention the second crop,
which is often of account on the same trees in the same season.

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per-
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern
certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively
Californian.

The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteor-
ologist as "insular or moderate," as contrasted with the "continental
or excessive" climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The
west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern
limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50
degrees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of
Europe and America respectively. But though there is this
similarity in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage
pertaining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our
range of temperature is less ; that is, extremes of heat and cold are
nearer together, and changes are therefore much less excessive.

CL.IMAT1G PECULIARITIES

11

This characteristic of our local climates is due in the main to
two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other passive,
shielding us from arctic influences.

First : Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor McAdie,
who has charge of the San Francisco office of the United States
Weather Bureau, says : ''The prevailing drift of the surface air
in temperate latitude is from west to east. Therefore the proximity
of the Pacific, with its mean annual temperature of 55 degrees
Fahr., serves to prevent large temperature changes, because of the
water vapor and also because the air comes landward. Whenever
the circulation is reversed, temperatures vary."

Second : Another agency contributing to the mild climate of
the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our
northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called
attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade
Mountains reach the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm
around its western and southern shore, thus shutting ofif or deflect-
ing the polar winds that otherwise would flow down over the
Pacific Coast States, while California has her own additional pro-
tection from the north in the mountain arch which has its keystone
in Mount Shasta.

CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS
OF CALIFORNIA

California is usually divided into three main areas and climates,
each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions,
more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence
each other. Dr. Robertson says* :

Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near
the Pacific, deflected north and south, and define three distinct climatic
belts. These may be named coast, valley and mountain; and while they
resemble each other in having only two seasons, they are dissimilar in
other respects. These differences depend upon the topography of the
country, and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from
the ocean, and situation with reference to mountain chains, giving to each
region its characteristic climate.

How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts
may be learned from the data shown in the following table, which
includes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State,
the difference in latitude of the extreme north and south points
being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south
distance great as that which separates the States of Georgia and
New York, similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the
following table the averages are deduced from observations by the
United States Weather Bureau observers for a long series of years :

♦ Report of State Agricultural Society, 1886, p. 322.

^2 CALIP^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

LOCATIONS FOR THE GROWTH OF DIFFERENT

FRUITS

-_ It is intended to describe as definitely as possible the locations
suitable for the growth of different fruits in the special chapters
given to those fruits, but there are a few general conditions which
should be outlined.

Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various California re-
gions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau to the close of 1907

a „^ „& „s „> „^ s p sj
s 33 33 II II |3 ,| I li

STATIONS COUNTY o 2® ^^ 2 2<W 2^

C

^ ^^. ^v ?§ c^ c3 3 2 g«

<->■ i^ (n a z^ 7 ^ <^

COAST ^

Eureka Humboldt 64 47 50 56 54 52 85 20 45.8

San Francisco... San Francisco 155 51 55 59 59 56 101 29 22.7

San Jose Santa Clara 95 50 57 67 60 58 104 18 14.8

King City Monterey 333 49 57 66 60 58 114 15 10.8

Santa Barbara... Santa Barbara 130 55 58 65 63 60 100 28 16.6

Los Angeles Los Angeles 293 55 60 70 65 62 109 28 15.6

San Diego San Diego 93 55 59 68 63 61 101 32 9.4

VALLEY

Redding Tehama 552 47 60 80 64 63 117 18 36.2

Sacramento Sacramento 71 47 59 72 62 60 108 19 19.9

Merced Merced 173 49 61 79 65 63 120 16 10.3

Fresno Fresno 293 47 60 79 64 63 114 20 9.2

Visalia Tulare 334 46 59 78 62 61 113 17 9.8

FOOTHILL AND MESA

Auburn Placer 1360 47 57 75 64 61 110 12 33.4

Redlands San Bernardino. ... 1352 52 61 77 65 64 113 25 14.8

In discussing the choice of location for an orchard it is not
intended to speak geographically. As has already been intimated,
latitude, which is a prime factor in geography, is of exceedingly
small account as an indication of horticultural adaptations in
California. The fact becomes strikingly apparent when it is known
that the apple and the orange, fruit kings whose kingdoms lie at
opposite borders of the temperate zone, so far distant that one
may be called semifrigid and the other semi-tropical, have in
California utter disregard for the parallels of latitude, which set
metes and bounds upon them in other lands, and flourish side by
side, in suitable localities, from San Diego to Shasta. Impressive
as this truth may be, it is not so startling as another fact, viz., that
fruits, in suitable interior situations, ripen earlier at the north than
at the south — a complete reversal of the tenets of the geographer.

THE COAST CLIMATE l^

It is apparent then that the selection of locations for orchards
must be made with a knowledge of special conditions governing
the distribution of equal temperatures and other natural agencies
contributing to the development of fruit. This distribution, as
has been intimated, is not by parallels of latitude, great circles
which appear as straight lines on a map, but by curves, which
proceed in various directions, governed chiefly by topography.
These are curves of temperature, of rainfall, of elevation, of soil
formation and deposit. Geography retires from authority;
topography and climatography govern.

Let these ruling conditions be reviewed, then, briefly : First,
as to general areas ; second, with reference to special situations
and locations.

COAST CLIMATE

The chief characteristics of the coast are equable temperature,
increasing southward ; summers cool and winters warm, as com-
pared with the interior; abundant rainfall, decreasing considerably
southward ; a somewhat humid atmosphere, as compared with the
interior ; frequent fogs or overcast skies ; prevailing westerly winds.

The extension of coast influence toward the interior is gov-
erned by local topography. Coast valleys open to ocean winds are
cooler and moister and demand hardier fruits than valleys sheltered
by intervening ranges. Gaps and passes in the ranges are subject
to winds of considerable force and low temperature, and are not
generally favorable for fruit ; on the other hand, situations sheltered
on the north and west favor growth of fruits even though quite
near the coast. Sometimes a distance of a few miles, sometimes a
wind-break of natural forest or of planted trees, so modifies coast
influences that fruits do well. Elevation on the sides of coast
valleys secures similar results. For example, the floor of the
Pajaro Valley is well suited for apples, late pears, cherries, plums,
prunes, and berries (except gooseberries), while on adjacent hill-
sides peaches do well.

In southern California, coast winds are warmer than in the
upper half of the State, but coast influences intrude further, as a
rule, because the hills near the coast in southern California are low;
the high ranges, answering to the Coast Range of the upper part
of the State, trending far into the interior. On the coast side of
these ranges fruits ripen later than in sheltered interior points in
the upper part of the State, but eastward of the mountains, where
soil and moisture favor, or irrigation is practised, extra early loca-
tions have been found and are now being rapidly developed — in
the Imperial and adjacent valleys, for instance.

Some of the horticultural effects of the conditions prevailing
on the coast may be described as follows :

-j^^ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Late Ripening of Fruits. — The late ripening of fruits west of
the mountains in southern California has just been mentioned.
Intrusion of coast influences has the same effect in more marked
degree at the north because the ocean winds are colder. Directly
on the coast, at Pescadero, San Mateo County, for example, fruits
ripen about a month later. than in Santa Clara Valley, which is just
across the Coast Range. Napa Valley, though about forty miles
inland and sheltered by ranges of hills, still is sufficiently affected
by coast influences to mature fruits considerably later than Vaca
Valley, ten or fifteen miles- further east, beyond a higher range,
which completely bars out these influences. Similar local effects
are found in southern California. For instance, in Ventura County,
in a canyon sixteen miles from the ocean, and at an elevation of
sixteen hundred feet, fruits ripen three weeks earlier than on the
coast or in the valleys opening thereon.

Failure of Certain Fruits. — Though killing frosts are few directly
on the coast, the deficiency in summer heat and sunshine renders
some fruits unsatisfactory. This is especially the case in the upper
coast region. Grapes and figs ripen imperfectly, while but a short
distance back from the coast, in situations, sheltered by ridges
parallel to the coast, they do well. Elevation sometimes produces
corresponding effects.

Pests and Diseases. — Certain blights are more prevalent under
coast conditions. The scab blight of the apple, the curl-leaf of
the peach, and some other blights, are prevalent on the coast and
in coast valleys, on the river bottoms in the interior, and on the
mountains, and less serious, or wholly absent, in the hot interior
valleys. Some insects prefer the coast but thrive also in the
interior, as hot dry wind is excluded by dense growth of the tree
and the included air becomes moister above irrigated soil. A
notable instance is the black scale, which, with the black smut
which attends it, has long been a grievous pest of growers of
olives and citrus fruits, and has recently become prevalent on
deciduous fruit trees in some regions. Directly under coast influ-
ences, moss and lichens gather quickly and should be removed.
Spraying with alkaline washes not only kills insects but cleans
the bark from parasitic vegetable growth. Although fruit trees
on the coast are not so subject to sunburn as in the interior, there
is especial value in low heading to withstand winds ; there should
also be plenty of room given the trees, that sunshine may have free
access to warm the ground all around the tree, which may be
undesirable in the interior.

VALLEY, FOOT-HILL AND MOUNTAIN CLIMATE -t^

VALLEY CLIMATE

The characteristics of the interior valley climate are higher
summer and lower winter temperatures than on the coast, the
range of temperature being nearly the same both north and south ;
rainfall abundant in the north and decreasing rapidly southward,
so that as a rule the interior valleys in the south half of the State
require irrigation; very dry air and almost constant sunshine,
freedom from fogs and from dew in summertime ; winds occasion-
ally strong, hot, and desiccating in summer and cold in winter.

Local Modifications. — The term 'Valley climate" is broad, and
includes everything, away from the coast to a certain elevation
on the slope of the mountains. Certain small valleys protected
from cold northerly winds and from fog-bearing westerly winds
and open to the spring sunshine, have a forcing climate which
produces the earliest maturing fruit of the season ; earlier not
only than the coast and the mountain, as has been stated, but also
somewhat earlier than adjacent locations in the broad, open
valley. Slight elevation, even on the sides of small valleys,
frequently secures freedom from winter frosts and ministers to
early ripening. Elevation above sea-level on the rims of great
valleys also secures similar results and gives rise to thermal belts
in which semi-tropical fruits are successfully growing even as far
north as Shasta County. On the floors of great valleys moderating
influences are secured on the lee side of wide rivers and by
planting on the river bank or on slightly elevated swells rather
than on the level, open plain. The river bottom lands of the great
valleys, though subject to severe frosts, are freer from the effects
of desiccating winds than the open plains ; they are, however,
more favorable to the spread of certain blights than the plains.

Some of the horticultural eflfects of valley conditions are as
follows: Early ripening and perfection of summer and autumn
fruits, owing to continual sunshine and dry air; forced maturity
of certain fruits, as apples for instance, which destroys character
and keeping quality; injury from sunburn and hot winds in'
summer, which seriously aflfect both fruit and foliage of some
varieties; occasional injury to tender fruits (semi-tropicals) and
to young trees of hardy fruits, which have been kept growing late
in the season, from low temperature, which sometimes is reached
suddenly on the floor of the valleys ; freedom from some blights
and insects which are prevalent on the coast, but not from others.
Many of these minor troubles are, however, counterbalanced by
the earliness, size, beauty, and quality of certain fruits, and by
the most rapid and successful open-air drying of fruits, owing
to high autumn temperature, the freedom from summer fog, dew,
and generally from rain during the drying season.

13 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

FOOT-HILL CLIMATE

Foot-hill climate is usually considered as a modification of
valley climate. It has been shown that up to about two thousand
five hundred feet, on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada, the
seasonal temperatures are quite like those of the valley, but the
rainfall increases about one inch for each hundred feet of elevation.
There are, however, in the foot-hills, places where early spring
heat and freedom from frost give very early ripening fruits, and
other places at the same elevation where winter temperature drops
below the valley minimum, and where late frosts also prevail.
This is governed by local topography. In many of the small
valleys among the foot-hills, both of the Sierra Nevada and the
Coast Ranges, frosts are more severe than on the hills adjacent
or in the broader valleys to which they are tributary. These small
''protected valleys" are apparently warm and cozy for early
blooming deciduous and citrus fruits, but are really very dan-
gerous. They frequently have such narrow and obstructed open-
ings that cold air is dammed up over their lower lands and frosts
are more severe and later than in valleys which have ample and
free outlets and seem less protected.

Of course the disposition of cold air to settle in low places
and to flow down canyons and creek-beds while the warm air
rises and bathes the adjacent hillsides, has much to do with frost
in the hollow and the freedom from it on the hills. The constant
motion of the air on the slopes is also a preventive of frost, pro-
viding the general temperature is not too low. It is not un-
common to find in deeper valleys, protected against the western
wind, flecks of snow and a wintry chill, with dormant vegetation,
while one thousand feet higher up the foliage is fast developing.

MOUNTAIN CLIMATE

Above an elevation of two thousand five hundred to three
thousand feet, conditions gradually intrude which resemble those
of wintry climates. The tender fruits, the apricot, peach, etc.,
become liable to winter injury and give irregular returns, or as
greater elevation is attained, become wholly untrustworthy.
Early blooming of these fruits during warm spells which are fol-
lowed by severe frosts, renders the trees unfruitful. At four
thousand to four thousand five hundred feet the hardy apple and
pear flourish, ripening late, and winter varieties possessing excel-
lent keeping qualities. Here, however, winter killing of trees
begins and locations even for hardy fruits have to be chosen with
circumspection.

ACTIVITY OP PRUIT TREES IJ

There are elevated tracts of large extent among the Sierras
where the common wild plum, choke-cherry, gooseberry, and Cali-
fornia chestnut are produced abundantly. April frosts have killed
the fruit of those same plums, transplanted to lower ground, while
those left in their natural situation were quite unharmed. It has
been observed that these plum trees, with other fruits and nuts
in their original positions, invariably occupy the broad tops of
the great ridges instead of the sides and bottoms of ravines or
narrow, pent-up valleys. Follow nature in the choice of orchard
sites (with due regard to a supply of moisture in the soil, either
natural or artificial) and little hazard attends the culture of the
hardier fruits of our latitude among the highlands of the State
than is incident to other seemingly more favored localities. The
beauty and quality of these mountain fruits are proverbial..

A RULE OF GENERAL APPLICATION

What has been thus suggested of the great variation of tem-
perature conditions within narrow limits should lead to the con-
clusion that not only must the kind of fruit to plant be determined
by local observation and experience, but often varieties of these
fruits must be chosen with reference to adaptation to local
environment. For this reason it is impossible to compile tables
of varieties suited for wide areas — ^and yet it is true that some
varieties have shown themselves hardy and satisfactory under all
conditions. These facts will be shown by the discussion which
will be given to each of the diflferent fruits.

REST AND ACTIVITY OF FRUIT TREES

Indication has already been made of regions adapted to the
growth of early and of late fruits. There is, of course, difference
in time of rest and of returning activity in blooming. On the
mountains under wintry conditions the trees leaf out and bloom
late, following more or less the habit of Eastern trees. In the
foot-hills, the valleys, and the coast, there is less difference in
time of rest and of leaf and bloom. Even in regions where there
may be a month's difference in ripening of fruit, as, for example,
in the Vacaville district, fifty miles inland, and in Berkeley, two
miles from the bay shore, trees bloom almost at the same date.
The difference in ripening is due to the higher temperature and
fuller sunshine of the interior situation, which have a forcing
effect, while the low temperature and dull skies of the summer on
the coast retard maturity.

The rest of the tree, in all save the mountain district. Is not
dependent upon the touch of frost. It comes rather from thirst

18

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

than from cold. The immense weight of fruit, the vigorous growth
of wood, and the exhaustion of moisture from the soil by the
draught of the roots to compass this growth, are the chief causes
which bring the sere and yellow leaf in California. It is not frost,
for the petunias may be blooming and the tomato vines still green
in the fields. But the time has come for a rest. The trees sleep;
but it is merely as a nap at midday; the early rains wake them
soon. The roots are active first, then the buds swell, and the
blossoms burst forth — sometimes as early as January — the almond
first heralding the advent of California springtime.

Sometimes this season of rest is too short for the good of the
tree or vine. The early rains, when followed by a spring-like
temperature, as sometimes happens, induce activity in the top as
well as the root, and the tree is not in condition to withstand cold
weather, which may follow. It is probable that such stimulated
activity, suddenly checked, is responsible for more ills to tree and
vine than are usually attributed to it.

CHAPTER II

WHY THE CALIFORNIA CLIMATE FAVORS THE
GROWTH OF FRUIT

It was pointed out by the earliest students of meteorology, as
related to horticulture, that perfect development of fruits depends
upon certain atmospheric conditions, which are included in the
term climate : First, temperature ; second, light ; third, humidity
or atmospheric moisture, — considered w^holly apart from soil
moisture. It was also shown that temperature and humidity should
be equable, or as free as possible from excessive extremes or rapid
changes.

Obviously, the chief characteristics of the California climate are :
First, freedom from extremes of low temperature ; second, an
abundance of sunshine ; and third, an atmosphere with a low per-
centage of humidity. It will be interesting to introduce enough
statistics to demonstrate these claims, and to cite reasons why these
conditions are of special value to the fruit grower.

THE OFFICE OF HEAT IN FRUIT PRODUCTION

Temperature conditions may preclude the success of a fruit tree
either by destroying it outright, by dwarfing it, or by preventing
it from setting or ripening its fruit. ^Extremes of temperature
accomplish the death of plants, and insufficient or excessive mean
temperatures may prevent fruition without killing the plant. The
first quality of the California climate to arrest the attention of
fruit growers in the states east of the Rocky Mountains is the
freedom from the effects of extremely low winter temperatures,
to which is due the deplorable failure, in the eastern and western
states, of many of the fruit varieties from the west of Europe, and
to escape which such zealous effort is now being so successfully
put forth to secure hardy varieties of native and foreign origin.

How slight is the injury from low temperatures in all parts of
the state where fruit is largely grown may be seen from the fol-
lowing compilation of extreme low temperatures at different points
approximately at the same latitude on the coast, in the interior
valleys, and on the foot-hills.

These records will show any one familiar with winter killing of
the leading orchard fruits that such disasters are not to be feared
in the chief fruit regions of California. Local temperature is largely
controlled by local conditions, as has been already pointed out, and

19

20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Lowest temperature at several CaFifornia points

Coast and Coast Degrees Interior Valleys Degrees Foot-hills Degrees

Valleys above zero above zero above zero

Eureka 20 Redding 18

Ukiah 12 Red Bluff 17 ..

Cloverdale 24 Oroville 20 Nevada City 7

Napa 18 Marysville 20 Colfax 14

San Francisco 28 Sacramento 19 Auburn 12

San Jose 18 Merced 16 Jackson 10

Gilroy 20 Fresno 20

San Miguel 15 Tulare City 14 Porterville 22

Los Angeles 28 Colton 22 Redlands 25

San Diego 32 Poway 21 Fall Brook 24

in the districts named in the table there are special locations where"
the lowest temperature probably differed a few degrees from the
figures given.

NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE SUMMER HEAT

Passing beyond the freedom from winter killing, it may be
remarked that the influence of certain degrees of heat upon the
growth of the plant and the perfection of its fruit, has been the
subject of much close observation. Boussingault conducted care-
ful experiments, and showed that a temperature above a certain
minimum of heat is found necessary for germination, another for
chemical modification, and a third for flowering, a fourth for the
ripening of seeds, a fifth for the elaboration of the saccharine juices,
and a sixth for the development of aroma or bouquet.

Originally the mean annual temperature was alone observed,
and the polar limits of plants, it was presumed, could be thereby
determined. More recently it was taught that the mean tempera-
ture of seasons is of more importance than that of the year, and
it is believed that to the relative distribution of heat over the
seasons rather than to the absolute amount received during the
year, we are to attribute the fitness or unfitness of a region for the
growth of certain kinds of vegetation.

It is held in Europe that the mean heat of the cycle of vegetation
of the vine must be at least 59 degrees Fahr., and that of the
summer from 65 degrees to 66 degrees Fahr. It is stated to be
impossible, for instance, to cultivate the vine upon the temperate
tablelands of South America, where they enjoy a mean temperature
of 62.6 degrees to 66.2 degrees Fahr., because these climates are
characterized by a constancy of temperature, never rising to the
higher heats necessary to the process of sugar forming, and the
vine grows, and flourishes, but the grapes never become thoroughly
ripe. Boussingault shows that, in addition to a summer and
autumn sufliciently hot, it is indispensable that at a given period —
that which follows the appearance of seeds — there should be a

SUMMER HEAT AMPLE

21

month the mean temperature of which does not fall below 66.2
degrees Fahr. As will appear presently, this temperature test
should not be taken alone, but it will serve as a standard to show
one featur* of the horticultural adaptation of the California
climate. Boussingault claims the need of 66.2 degrees Fahr. for a
single month. To be sure to include this, the accompanying table
gives the average summer temperature at the leading fruit-growing
centers named.

Average summer temperature at various California points

Coast and Coast Deg. Deg. Eleva- Deg.

Valleys F. Interior Valleys F. Foot-hills tion F.

Upper Lake 86 Redding 80 Auburn 1,363 75

Napa 65 Oroville 79 Colfax ...'. 2,421 76

Livermore 69 Marysvllle 78 Georgetown 2,500 85

San Jose 67 Sacramento 72 Caliente 1,290 82

Hollister 66 Merced 79 Fall Brook 700 68

Santa Barbara 65 Fresno 79 Redlands 1,352 77

Los Angeles 70 Tulare 78

San Diego 68 Riverside 73

These points are selected because the European varieties of
the grape reach perfection in their vicinity. The excess of heat
above that required, as is found at all the interior points mentioned
in the table, results in a very high sugar percentage in the grapes,
and contributes to the ripening of a second and third crop, as
will be noted presently. The superior length of the growing season
in California, of course, is an important agency toward the same
end.

DIRECT SUNLIGHT ALSO A REQUISITE

Count de Gasparin was first to point out that not alone sufficient
heat, but abundance of continuous sunshine is a requisite of per-
fection in fruit growth and ripening, and on his authority may be
based a claim of exceptional value to the fruit grower in the months
of cloudless skies which are characteristic of the California summer.

**The solar rays," says Gasparin, ''do not only produce heat, but
bring us light, and the effects of the heat and light rays differ in a
very pronounced manner. Without light there is no fructification ;
it is not necessary that the want 'of light should be complete that
there should be a failure of fruits. In fact, diffused light alone does
not suffice for the greater number of plants; cultivated plants will
not ripen their seed without the direct rays of sun, and the longer
they are deprived of it the smaller the quantity which they will
mature."*

♦ Cours d' Agriculture, t. II, p. 96.

22 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Again, referring to the grape, for in connection with the growth
of this fruit the most careful researches have been made, Humboldt
wrote : ''If to give a potable wine the vine shuns the islands and
nearly all seacoasts, even those of the West, the cause is not only
in the moderate heat of summer upon the seashore, but it exists
more in the difference which there is between direct and diffused
light; between a clear sky, and one veiled with clouds.'' §

Normal cloudiness at California and Eastern points

Avg. for
CALIFORNIA March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. 9 mo.

Red Bluff 4.4 4.2 3.6 1.9 1.0 0.7 1.3 2.4 3.4 2.5

Sacramento 3.9 3.5 2.7 1.5 0.5 0.4 1.1 2.0 2.8 2.0

San Francisco 4.8 4.3 4.2 3.8 4.3 4.3 3.5 3.3 3.8 4.0

Fresno 4.3 2.9 2.7 1.5 0.7 0.9 1.4 2.2 2.8 2.0

San Diego 4.8 4.4 5.3 4.8 4.3 3.9 3.7 3.8 3.3 4.2

EASTERN

Rochester, N. Y 6.6 5.4 5.2 4.9 4.6 4.6 4.9 6.0 7.6 5.5

New York, N. Y 5.5 5.3 5.2 4.9 5.0 4.9 4.7 4.9 5.2 5.0

Philadelphia, Pa 5.6 5.4 5.1 5.0 5.0 4.9 4.8 4.7 5.2 5.0

Baltimore, Md 5.4 5.1 5.1 4.9 4.8 4.9 4.7 4.6 4.9 4.9

Cleveland, Ohio 6.4 5.3 4.9 4.6 4.3 4.3 4.9 5.7 7.3 5.3

Grand Haven, Mich.. 6.2 5.4 4.8 4.6 3.8 4.0 4.4 5.6 7.5 5.1

Jacksonville, Fla 4.2 4.1 4.1 5.1 4.8 4.9 5.0 4.2 4.5 4.5

New Orleans, La 4.8 4.8 4.3 4.7 4.9 4.7 4.3 3.5 4.5 4.5

It is noticeable that at the California coast points the average
cloudiness is almost twice that of the interior valleys, while at the
East the interior fruit regions of western New York, Ohio, and
Michigan, have a greater average cloudiness than the Hudson
River, New Jersey, and Delaware regions near the Atlantic sea-
board. The average cloudiness in the Eastern fruit regions is
rather more than twice as great as in the regions of California
where most fruit is grown.

This excess of advantage, as it may be termed, in connection
with the high and protracted heat already mentioned, takes prac-
tical form in the successful ripening of a second and sometimes a
third crop of these grapes in a season, from later bloom on younger
cane growth. This behavior is of more value as a demonstration
of climatic conditions than otherwise, for it is generally better to
produce the main crop alone than to undertake later ones.

Another indication of excess of advantage in the interior valley
is found in the development of high sugar contents, which is of
direct value in raisin production. The same tendency, though
perhaps of less commercial value, is seen in the fact that some
grapes which yield a good claret wine nearer the coast develop too
much alcohol when grown in the interior.

§ Cosmos, t. I, p. 349.

ADVANTAGE OF DRY AIR

23

The advantage of California over Eastern and Southern fruit
regions in the abundance of clear sunshine is shown in the adjacent
table. Cloudiness is rated from 0 to 10, three observations daily,
and the figures in the table are the averages from these daily
observations for a series of years, compiled from the records of the
U. S. Weather Bureau.

RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE
GROWTH OF TREES

There is another important condition of the climate of California
which is intimately related to those which have been considered,
and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection
of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our
atmosphere contains. In California the percentage of humidity is
high in the winter and low in the summer; in the East the condi-
tion is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more
oppressive in the East than in California, and for the same reason
certain serious fungoid diseases which prevail at the East, though
found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, are wholly
unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air also
favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that
a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great
measure impervious to heat.

Normal relative humidity at Eastern and California points

Eastern Stations April

.Tacksonville, Fla 72.3

Philadelphia, Pa 63.4

Rochester, N. Y 67.8

Grand Haven, Mich... 70.9

St. Louis, Mo 63.7

New Orleans, La 76.0

Galveston, Tex 84.6

California Stations

Los Angeles 73.1

Fresno 59.3

Sacramento 67.6

Red Bluff 61.9

It is not necessary, then, that there should be clouds to lessen
the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do
clouds intercept sunshine, but water vapor in the air — when to the
eye the sun is bright as ever — can absorb a large quantity of the
effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an appar-
ently sunny country which has much invisible water vapor in the
air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening qualities.

Avff. for

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

8 mo.

73.0

77.6

78.6

80.9

82.9

79.8

82.2

78.3

68.9

69.2

68.6

71.2

75.2

70.7

73.6

70.1

68.6

69.1

67.3

70.7

75.2

75.6

76.2

71.3

71.4

73.7

69.0

73.1

75.0

75.7

79.1

73.5

67.8

68.8

66.3

67.3

70.2

65.9

71.1

67.6

74.2

78.1

78.3

78.8

77.3

74.0

79.4

78.0

78.0

79.3

77.4

78.1

77.2

75.6

80.4

78.5

75.2

73.0

75.4

76.2

72.9

74.3

66.6

73.3

52.7

42.4

34.7

34.7

43.6

55.1

64.1

48.3

67.6

66.1

59.8

59.8

59.0

62.4

66.8

63.6

56.8

43.7

35.6

35.3

43.6

51.6

60.7

48.8

24 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of
heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost
is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from
June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by
other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the
humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the
time of the year when it is most desirable to have it checked.

The acccompanying table, compiled from the records of the
United States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative
humidity in the East and South and in California.

THE THREE POINTS COMBINED

The three great advantages of the California climate — abundant
heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air — taken in connection with
the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season,
insure the characteristic excellence of California fruit, and the early
maturity, great growth, and abundant fruitage of our trees and
vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rainless summer also min-
ister directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things
considered, it is doubtful whether any area in the world excels
California in possession of natural adaptation to fruit production
and preservation.

A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA'S CLIMATIC

ENDOWMENT

Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per-
plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern
certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may
be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali-
fornian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the
growing season.

Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The
bloom may appear in February, followed by the grand foliage
expanding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach
leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor promised
by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though it would
burst its skin in rapid enlargement — and still it grows. The new
shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension, stops for
a rest, and then, reviving, starts out its laterals — while still below
the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot or more — ^all
carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit
ripens, after having a full year's joint work of root and foliage, if
it is a late variety. Is it any wonder is weighs a pound? But still
the tree is active. It forms its terminal buds, and then all along
the new main shoots and their laterals are formed the leaf and

IMPORTANCE OP CLEAR SUNLIGHT

25

blossom buds for the following year. Still the foliage holds green
and active, if the moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem
loth to fall in the ninth month from the time of blooming. Is it
any wonder California peaches are large and the trees require
pruning and thinning to enable them to carry the weight produced
in such a season of growth? And what has been said of the peach
is true of other trees, according to their nature and habits. The
trees themselves are more eloquent of California's conditions for
growth than descriptions or statistical tables can be made.

But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissable,
is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from
clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor Avhich weakens
sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a
clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of
the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and
thus adds to the calendar length of the growing season. The
surplus light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which
proceeds in the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size^
but quality, color, aroma — everything which makes the perfect fruit,
precious and beautiful beyond words.

It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to
allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher
sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit can not
endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test
which can fairly be put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of
the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an adequate
period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment
upon the majture peach carefully sun-dried and intelligently cooked,
or upon the ripe peach skilfully canned, and the distinctive adapta-
tions of California for fruit production will display themselves.

But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit
than intensity and duration of light and heat. Without adequate
moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such
benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit
would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree
which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends
at the time of the year when the tree is least active, consequently
is least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture-laden air, and least
affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds find
the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure pressure which would
tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on
branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endow-
ment that no tornado can pierce our protecting mountain-barriers,
and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the
confident swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the'
activity which ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate

26 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

moisture is not from rainstorm, but by irrigation, the same facts
remain, for the water reaches the tree without interrupting its
aerial activity. Temperature is maintained, light is unobstructed,
and the tree is refreshed with moisture without the chill and dark-
ness which favor fungoid parasites. Of all the ways by which
moisture could come to soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the
natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, endow Cali-
fornia with the best.

The characteristics of the California climate which have been
especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit
culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some interior or
continental climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from
the sea, and exposure to the sweep of arctic winds, induce sudden
and great weather changes which are serious in their effects.
Excessively low percentage of atmospheric humidity, in connection
with desiccating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the
leaves than the roots can supply. Excessively dry air admits a
parching sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation
of heat, until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts
frequent. It is evident that California has these agencies constantly
held in check by her insular situation and protecting environment,
and owes her wonderful adaptation to growth of tree and perfec-
tion of fruit not more to the possession of certain conditions than
to the fact of their existence in moderation.

CHAPTER III
THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA

The favoring characteristics of the California climates, which
have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation
of the California soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing
tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and consequent great
range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area, our soils
also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within
the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of
atmospheric conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot
and not in another, so he may find differences in soil which will
tend to produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot
in which to plant any given fruit must be chosen with regard to
both soil and exposure. In the chapters devoted to the several
fruits, there will be an attempt made to describe the soil require-
ments of each, so that the inexperienced planter may not err
seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he desires
to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special
chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives
the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest
value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local
markets, in regions where the soil is not what is usually preferred
for fruit production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and
diligence in cultivation, one need hardly despair of growing good
fruit on soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And
yet in commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing
most abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid
to choice of specially adapted soils.

It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowledge
exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the
Union, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W.
Hilgard, Professor Emeritus of Agriculture, and Director of the
Agricultural Experiment Stations of the University of California
from 1875 to 1905. For the last thirty-three years he has given
all the time he could spare from many other and pressing duties,
to the examination, and, when needed, the analysis, of represen-
tative soil specimens, and to practical expositions of their nature,
adaptations, and requirements in the event of exhaustion from too
long cropping, and he has just published a general treatise entitled,
"Soils : Their Formation, Properties, Composition and Relations
to Climate and Plant Growth in the Humid and Arid Regions,"

27

28 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which includes the results of his long study of California soils and
climates. It is the purpose of the writer to set forth a few general
characters of California fruit soils, with notes of their local
occurrence, referring the reader to Prof. Hilgard's treatise for fuller
exposition.

Very extensive studies of California soils have been recently
made under the direction of Dr. Milton Whitney, Chief of the
Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture,
and a new classification and nomenclature of them, from his points
of view, with extended maps of their occurrence, are to be found in
the special reports of the Bureau.

DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF CALIFORNIA SOILS

One of the most interesting and important recent achievements
in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differ-
ences between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic
conditions. In the development of this subject certain distinctive
characters of California soils clearly appear, and they are of direct
relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment and longevity of
fruit trees. These characters are : (a) lightness and consequent
permeability and ease of cultivation; (b) depth, admitting excep-
tional root extension and penetration; and (c) richness, containing
some kinds of plant food in considerably greater amounts than are
found in the soils of humid regions. These characteristics, as
demonstrated by Prof. Hilgard, may be outlined in this way with
special reference to their relations to fruit growing.

Lightness. — California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy,
silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid conditions,
save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geological
epochs, as well as slack-water deposits of the present epoch, all of
which are substantially independent of climate. While ''sand" in
the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid
country it means very largely grains and powder of the other soil-
forming minerals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region,
sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary,
sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the
score of high productiveness, durability, and ease of cultivation,
together with ready resistance to drouth.

Depth. — Another point of great importance is that the difference
between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and important in
regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in arid climates.
Very commonly hardly a perceptible change of tint or texture is
found for depths of several feet; and what is more important,
material from such depths, when thrown on the surface oftentimes
subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well

CALIFORNIA SOIL CHARACTERS 29

as the original surface soil. The unconcern with which irrigators
proceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this
may involve covering up large areas of surface' soil with subsoil
from several feet depth; the rapidity with which the red loam of
the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foot-hills is re-covered with
the natural forest growth of the region, etc., are examples familiar
to the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are accustomed
to dread the upturning of the subsoil as likely to deprive them of
remunerative crops for several years, until the *'raw" subsoil has
had time to be 'Vitalized" by the fallowing effect of the atmos-
phere, and to acquire the needful amount of humus or vegetable
mold. Thus the surface soil, which in the humid regions supplies
the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor importance,
serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture ; while
the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the
soil stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disinte-
gration and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The
second foot is rarely found to differ materially from the first, even
as to humus content; for the latter, being almost exclusively
derived from the humification of roots, the leaves and herbage on
the surface being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of
summer; it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the
first six inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second
foot.

Practical Results of Lightness and Depth. — The ''lightness"
and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region permit
of the penetration of roots to depth which in the humid region are
inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which
prevent the needful access of air. This deep penetration enables
even annual plants to avail themselves directly of the stores of
moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the humid region are
scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some perennials and
trees ; while the latter themselves reach depths never approached
by them in the region of summer rains. Professor Hilgard has
personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines at a depth
of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam ; and from ten to
fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of fruit
trees. Such depth of rooting, \^hen conservation of moisture is
secured by proper surface cultivation, enables deciduous fruit trees
to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth
while as many weeks of drouth may bring distress and loss of
fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow soils of the humid
region.

Richness. — The foregoing conditions are rendered the more sig-
nificant and effective through the third characteristic of soils
formed in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of plant-

30 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid
soils, wherever their derivation is at all generalized. Among the
agriculturally important ingredients contained in larger average
amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost;
its percentage in soils not derived from calcareous formations being
from twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid
soils. Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average differ-
ence is only about half as great. The average content of potash
in the arid soils exceeds that in the humid in about the proportion
of one to three or four. But no such constant difference exists in
respect to phosphoric acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen
of which it is the carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually con-
siderably less than in the humid soils ; but the total nitrogen per-
centage does not differ widely, because the humus of arid soils
contains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen
as is found in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply
of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, while
from several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more
available to plants.

CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS

Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific
lines or even to describe them in their wonderful variety, according
to their geographical occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations
of a treatise upon the practice of fruit growing. Rather let an
attempt bt made to designate certain grades of soil with brief
characterizacion of their leading features as they are related to the
growth of fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that
though the soils of the State are predominantly light, deep and rich
and thus eminently fitted for fruit growing, there are many degrees
in the possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils,
and upon this individual manifestation they rate all the way from
perfection to defectiveness. Let a classification proceed then upon
a descending scale.

Light, Deep Loams. — Admixture of clay with enough coarse
materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in cultiva-
tion, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water,
produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees
and vines. These soils are popularly known as loams. They are
designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay loams, accord-
ing to the proportion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse
materials.

Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature of
soils based upon their content of clay : Sandy soils, less than 5
per cent of clay; sandy loams, from 5 to 10 per cent; ordinary or

FINE, DEKP LOAMS

31

medium loams, from 10 to 15 per cent; clay loams, from 15 to 20
per cent; clay soils, from 20 to 50 per cent of clay.

The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock
particles in various degrees of disintegration. The fine materials
are clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam
soils may result from deposits by flowing water or many consist
of debris but little removed from local rock disintegration. They
include a wide variety of materials but agree in the possession of
striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances
of such soils may be cited.

Loams of the Valley Plains. — On the east side of the Sacra-
mento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river's
course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating
plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, sometimes
right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side
have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foot-hill
soil and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands are well
drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the
reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten feet depth,
being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width of this
class of profusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies consid-
erably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away from the
water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are largely red or
yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of cultivation unless
taken just in the right condition, sometimes gravelly and apt to
dry out unless the natural water supply is supplemented by irriga-
tion, but mostly a free-working, fairly retentive, light Ibam, very
satisfactory for some kinds of fruit.

The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much
greater admixture of sand than those of the* Sacramento Valley;
there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into
upland or ''bench" lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper.

Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare
counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irrigation has
been made during the last few years. Though its summer aspect
is most forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of vegetation,
the application of water has shown exceptional quickness of
growth, early bearing, and lavish productiveness of tree and vine.
These plains loams vary in appearance, and are from this fact
locally named, "reddish loam," "white ash," and "sand hill." All
are distinctly calcareous. Even in the case of the latter, which is
the lightest and made of almost 90 per cent of inert sand, it is so
deep and has its plant food in such highly available condition that
it is prodifcing very large crops of fruits where there is no rise of
the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In the foot-hills
of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light color

32 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

resulting from the decomposit' of granite, but they are as a rule
inferior to the red foot-hill so..s, which are more clayey, and will
be mentioned among the clay loams later.

The soils prevailing in the valley of southern California, from
Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the
sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the
slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere constitutes a
prominent ingredient of the valley and mesa lands. These mesa
lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy
loam of which they are composed, to depths varying from ten to
as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange
culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the
entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been washed away,
but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all
over the region, traversed by and more or less commingled with,
the granitic wash from the valleys and canyons of the Sierra
Madre. The latter frequently consists largely of gravel, and were
it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne by these gravel
beds, few would have thought of devoting them to the costly
experiment of orange planting, which, nevertheless, has proved
eminently successful even on these unpromising-looking masses
of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernardino Valley proper) the
red loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing city
and citrus district of Redlands, on the terminal slope ; but the
heavy flow of water from the upper canyons, notably from that
of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the valley itself, and
left there, at least on the northern portion, gray and blackish
granitic loams of great depth and productiveness, underlaid, and
therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel beds that hold the
artesian water of this favored region.

The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller Southern
California valleys as well, and are similar in character, as they are
derived from similar geological formations.

Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not
in bluflfs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange counties, coast
flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy
loarn, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected
with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts
of greater or less extent up the coast as far as Santa Barbara at
least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but
fruits for them must be chosen with reference to their low level
and exposure to coast influences.

The light loams of the so-called desert region of Southern Cali-
fornia are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best
soils of the great valley, which it greatly resembles, save in the
scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey,
however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against

VALLEY ALLUVIAL LOAMS

33

those overrun by arid sand. Thv .^-oil of the Colorado River bottom
is highly productive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly
calcareous soil, and now, as the water of the Colorado River
has been made available for irrigation, is yielding rich returns for
cultivation.

The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly
gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite similar in
appearance from Ventura to Humboldt county, though differing
considerably in composition, those of the southern region being
more calcareous, and apparently richer in phosphoric acid ; as the
coast region consists for the most part of low ranges with inter-
vening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, though a few show
considerable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide
diversity within smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the
great interior valley; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast
farms are often suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior
valley farms of similar size.

ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS
These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings
by Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley
of central and northern California. They occur along the courses
of existing streams, and extend back to variable distances, until
they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. These deposits are
considerably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are
sometimes described as "next to river bottom." They consist of
fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of coarse materials.
These river soils are usually very deep and they are naturally well
drained.

These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses ;
they are of greater or less width according to the drainage area,
whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down
on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which
they have been deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit
planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of
the rivers crossing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley,
there are, bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, consid-
erable areas of brown to blackish loam varying from heavy to light,
but for the most part easily tilled and exceedingly rich. Consid-
erable fruit has been grown for years on these situations, and some
kinds do well on these bottoms which do not show adaptation
to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions of these
''black lands" support thrifty orchards without irrigation. The
wider stretches of alluvial soils in the upper part of the valley, as
in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance,
are notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intru-
sion of alkali, which must be carefully avoided, is the chief obstacle

34 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

to the general approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes.

Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys con-
sisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some
places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable
change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and
durable.

The rich river bottom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers
and sloughs of the valley, has usually a dark, rich, and miost soil,
easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely
used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable
areas have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears,
which do ndt suffer from submergence of their roots for consid-
erable time.

In the coast valleys of the State there are also very extensive
areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit production,
as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegration of
local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from
Oakland southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Ala-
meda and Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil,
ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and
small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from intermixture of sedi-
ment brought by streams from adjacent hillsides with the clay of
the valley bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that
the region owes its great reputation in fruit lines.

CLAY LOAMS '''

Or loams containing sufficient clay to render them somewhat
heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in California.
Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selection of roots
adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of reten-
tiveness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage
than the free loams, but offer some compensation therefor in their
richness and durability.

Clay Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border. — The soils of
the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course along the
great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though
not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character
seems to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from
the decomposition of the ancient slate bed-rock or directly from
the dark-colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two
rocks are closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron
to the extent of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being
finely divided, imparts to them the intense orange-red tint. The
soils of the foot-hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a
good percentage of lime, while the supply of potash and phos-
phates, as well as of organic matter, is smaller, and sometimes low.

USES OF HEAVY LOAMS 05

though never apparently inadequate for present productiveness, in
the presence of so much lime.

Along the base of the foot-hills of the Sierra there is in Fresno,
Tulare, and part of Kern county, a narrow belt, irregular in width,
of partly red and partly black clay or adobe, so highly calcareous
as to break up, when dry, into small fragments, producing a con-
dition that has received the name "dry bog." It is upon this that
the citrus orchards of the Porterville district are chiefly grown. A
white, calcareous marl sometimes occurs beneath this soil at vary-
ing depths, producing chlorosis or yellowing of citrus leaves when
reached by the roots. Westward of this "dry bog" land there is a
belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those simi-
larly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey,
and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the
very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they
should be classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten
miles wide in middle Tulare county and narrows to the north and
south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty feet
per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be underlaid
at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The
soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, changing little in its
aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the
products of the Lindsay region.

CLAY SOILS

Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed
in horticulture. There is a great difiference in the character of
what is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as
the popular terms "black waxy," "black," "brown," and "gray"
adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition
also vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacra-
mento Valley is easily tilled as compared with the gray adobe
on the west side, which is very refractory and often largely impreg-
nated with alkali. To render soil of adobe character useful for
fruit growing, this tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing
evaporation from below as well as from the surface, must be over-
come. The discussion of this point belongs to the chapter on
cultivation. Adobe soils are, as a rule, rich and durable and there-
fore promise long fruitfulness to trees and vines with roots adapted
to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of
water, and other evils are always present. Some suggestions on
the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter on
fertilization.

* This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the
construction of adobe houses. Agriculturally, it means "a heavy clay soil," such as
could not be used in building.

35 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

DEFECTIVE SOILS

Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, light-
ness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit
trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are
marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in
considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much
land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt
to occur even in the vicinity of lands of the highest excellence. It
is, therefore, necessary to advise that the closest examination be
made before investment be made in the planting of fruits.

Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in Cali-
fornia soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess
of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local
reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make
inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil conditions which,
lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who
have owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops.
These defects are, in the main, three : ..

Hard-pan. — Good loams may be underlaid near the surface by
hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root penetra-
tion; they also limit moisture reception to the shallow surface
layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of drainage
during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and to quickly
lose its moisture by surface evaporation in the dry season, with
no compensation from the tight layer below. In such a situation,
then, the plant may suffer severely from excess of water at one
time of the year and lack of it at another. Such lands may serve
well for some of the small fruits, but not for trees or vines. Under
certain circumstances the defects of these soils may be corrected,
as will be suggested in the chapter on preparing lands for planting.

Leachy Sub-soils. — Good loams are also occasionally underlaid
by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water flows away
beyond the reach of roots which will only make measured progress
through such materials. Trees in such situations are apt to come
into distress in the dry season and can only be comforted by
frequency and volume of irrigation and fertilization, which may
be out of proportion to the returns they are able to make.

Rise of Ground Water. — Good fruit lands are also occasionally
rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward the sur-
face so that only a shallow layer is left for root extension — the evil
being aggravated by the fact that a temporary fall of the ground
water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent rise of the water
destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This trouble has occurred
over large areas where excessive irrigation, or the course of leak}^

TO DISCOVER SOIL, DEFECTS

37

ditches, on higher lands, has filled the lower level to such an extent
that there is actual outcropping of swamps in the swales. The
cure for these conditions is, obviously, drainage, which it is not
always possible to secure at a warranted outlay.

Alkali. — Connected with this rise of the ground water the alkali
evil may intrude. But little trouble arises from this cause in the
high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural rainfall
carries the soluble salts annually into the country drainage ; but in
the low-lying and less pervious soils of swales and valley troughs,
which are at the same time intrinsically the richest in available
mineral plant food, the accumulation frequently causes consid-
erable trouble and difficulty.

Prospecting for Soil Defects. — For subterranean prospecting.
Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter
of an inch in diameter (round or square, preferably the latter), well
pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron
ring for the reception of a stout cross-handle, such as is used for
post-hole augers. With such a prod, or sounding rod, not less than
five feet in length, the exploration of the subsoil for hard-pan or
dense clay layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy
also to detect thus the presence of underlying layers of quicksand,
gravel, or other loose materials through which irrigation water
would waste, or which would prevent the rise of bottom water
within the reach of plant roots, by the large interspaces between
their grains. Any remaining doubts as to the nature of such under-
lying materials at particular points can then quickly by solved by
the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, for thorough inspection
of each foot of depth which may be found desirable.

CHAPTER IV
THE WILD FRUITS OF CALIFORNIA

The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most
part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local
species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical
with the wild fruits common to great areas of the continent. For
this reason our wild fruits constitute a very interesting subject
for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps, more widely than
ever before, attracting the attention of botanical pomologists.
Viewed from the standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture,
our wild fruits can not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained
any very great importance.

A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated
their culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but
none have any notable commercial value. This may be due to
the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exact-
ing in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even
within the limits of our own State, and presumably would not take
kindly to longer journeys.

Another reason why we have made little of our own wild
species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior
growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world.
Therefore, we have little occasion for recourse to the improvement
of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation,
as has been done in other parts of the country. Neither fruit
planters nor propagators have given any special attention to the
wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks, although a beginning
has been made in both these directions, which may ultimately attain
importance. The horticulture of California wild fruits is a thing
of the future.

The distribution of our wild fruits is determined by limitations
of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may
be said that fruits are most abundant in foot-hill and mountain
regions, and that our great valleys have always been practically
destitute of them, except along stream borders. These fruits are
most abundant in the northern portion of the State, but some exist
throughout the State, usually thriving at higher elevations as they
proceed southward.

Oregon Crabapple (Pirus rivularis). — This fruit, though more
abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name
indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It
chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet
high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about

39

40 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten
by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making by early
settlers.

Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata). — This must be regarded as
one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the
plum varieties of all the world have been introduced, residents in
some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kelloggii)
abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and pre-
serving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed
over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with
white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch long, of red color
and inferior pulp. The better variety has a narrower range, forms
a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the
typical species. Some attempts have been made to improve this
variety by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and the results
are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs notably better
than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been used to some
extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advantage. The
late Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reported that grafting an
improved plum on the wild stock seems to cause the root to grow
to much greater size than natural to it. Observation upon grafted
and non-grafted seedlings in the same nursery row convinced him
of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the stock
because of dwarfing and suckering. In early days the wild plums
in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of
and are highly praised by pioneers.

Oso Berry (Nuttallia cerasiformis). — This fruit is sometimes
called the "California false plum." It has a plum-like form, one-
half inch long, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though
not disagreeable to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The
white bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock,
the plum varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed.

Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.). — Quite a group of wild fruits come
under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely
different characteristics. The western Choke-cherry (Prunus
demissa) closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its
round, red, or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marma-
lade by housewives in the mountain districts. This species has
proved of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting
in early days when better cherry stock was not available. Another
species, Islay (Prunus ilicifolia), has evergreen foliage, and is a
useful hedge plant.

Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we have
the Bitter Cherry (Prunus emarginata), which makes a handsome
tree, sometimes thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite

WILD FRUITS OP CALIFORNIA ^^

bitter and astringent. The bush form bearing bright red fruit
intensely bitter, is the variety CaHfornica.

California Grape (Vitis CaHfornica). — Along our streams the
native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit
resembling the ''frost grape" of the East. The vine frequently
covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its
foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is possible
that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some imported
species, bird planted. The species has attained something of a
reputation as a phyloxera-resisting root for grafting, but it has
proved exacting in its choice of soils and situations, and otherwise
not desirable, and some Eastern species are now relied upon for
this service.

Elderberry (Sambucus glauca). — The elderberry makes a fine
tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and
with a trunk a foot and a half in diameter. The fruit is borne in
large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry.

Raspberries (Rubus sp.). — In the mountains of the eastern part
of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor,
which is called "thimbleberry" (Rubus parviUorus.) It seems to
have an advantage over a variety {velutinus) of the same species
which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another
raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions,
both on the coast and in the interior is Rubus leucodermis. It
resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that
it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite largely gathered for
domestic uses, and some efforts have been made to cultivate the
plants.

Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis). — The beauty, size, and
delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have
enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther
northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high,
and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams. The praise
of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to mtroduce
the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts
have thus far uniformly failed.

Wild Blackberry (Rubus vitifolius). — This fruit should perhaps
be called a ''dewberry," as it has a trailing, or, at most, but partially
raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant
occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist
locations, both in the coast and interior regions of the State.
Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or
axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons
of the fruit are said to remain after the local housewives have done
their utmost in preserving and jelly-making. In the lowland region

42 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

around Stockton considerable quantities are sometimes gathered
for sale. The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since
pioneer days, is oblong, black, and sweet. The species is variable,
and the anomaly, a white blackberry, has been reported from Del
Norte county. The native wild blackberry is one of the parents
of the Loganberry and of some of Mr. Burbank's hybrids which
are widely grown.

Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.). — We have in California two
Eastern species: Fragaria vcsca and F. Virginiana. Thus far these
have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain
region. Another, the sand strawberry, has been found identical
with a South American species, Chilensis, and it occurs along the
coast, where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant
enough to gather in quantity. A fourth species, wood strawberry,
is local, and is named Calif ornica. It bears a small round fruit and
is partial to the coast region. Recently some cultural attention
has been given to the wild strawberries, and varieties worthy of
propagation have been reported by growers resident in the Sierra
region. Mr. Albert F. Etter of Ettersburg, Humboldt county, has
secured notable results in crossing with the wild strawberry, as will
be noted in the chapter on that fruit.

Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.). — Some of our
currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna-
mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Rihcs
tenuHiorum is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies,
etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the
extreme north of the State. We also have a species (Bracteosum)
which has something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized
fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very sweet.

There are also several species of Ribcs which are classed with
the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these
(Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this, coast; another (Ribes
oxyacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and
thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries
are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines,
Another species (Ribes leptanthum), common in San Luis Obispo
and Kern counties, resembles the flavor of the" cultivated goose-
berry, and is free from spines.

Cranberries and Huckleberries (Vaccinium sp.). — We have sev-
eral species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern
cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth of plant and
character of fruit. The fruit of two species is reddish, but insipid.
Other species (V. ovatum, etc.) have dark blue or purple fruit.
Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn from
them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should
be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants thrive

A GRAND CLUSTER OF BERRIES ^o

are not at all according to the requirements of the bog cranberry.
A huckleberry (Vaccinium ovatum) is largely gathered in the red-
wood region of northern California, for canning and pie-making.
The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a
very agreeable flavor. In one year as many as two thousand boxes
were profitably gathered on the hills of western Sonoma county.

Other Berries. — There are many small, wild fruits, commonly
designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest.
The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of
Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than
ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefly
enumerated :

The "manzanita" (Arctostaphylos manzanita), the ''little apple"
of the Spaniard, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit.

The "bear berry" {Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by the
Indians both as food and medicine.

The ''western bufifalo berry" (Shepherdia argentea) has small
acid edible fruits.

The "salal" (a species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red or
purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines.

Of "barberries" we have three species of Berheris. One, aqui-
foliiim, is called the "Oregon grape," chiefly notable for its hand-
some bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon.
The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a febrifuge. An-
other species {nervosa) has a larger fruit, which is esteemed in
cookery; and a third species {pinnata) bears a small, pleasant-
flavored fruit. It is the Lena amarilla of the Spanish Californians.

Our "service berry" {Amelanchier alnifolia) is from a quarter
to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color.

The "lemon berry" is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated
with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make
a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus trilobata is said to have both
a sweet and an acid coating.

The berries of the "toyon" or "tollon" {Heteromeles arhutifolia),
or "California holly," are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve
the white people a better purpose in Christmas decorations.

The "jujube "of commerce {Zizyphus jujuha) has a local rela-
tive in Zizyphus parryi, which is, however, dry, and mealy, rather
than juicy.

The "beach strawberry," or "sea fig," is the fruit of Mesembrian-
themupi aequilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized
fruit is gathered along the seashore, and remotely suggests a straw-
berry.

Wild Olive (Forestieria Neo-mexicana), — This is a tall willow-
like shrub, f(i>un<^l in springy places on the borders of the Mojave
Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their
botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted some attention.

44 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Experiments to determine its standing as a possible root for the
olive have been suggested.

Wild Nuts of California. — The wild nuts of California are of
very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus
Andersonii) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is chiefly of
botanical interest, although some experiments are in progress in
its use as a grafting stock for the sweet almond. The California
filbert (Corylus Calif ornica) has none of the quality of the im-
proved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut. Our chestnut
(Castanopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell,
almost like a hazelnut; its variety, sempervirens or Bush Chin-
quapin of the Sierra Nevada and dry Coast Range, is said to have
a bitter flavored kernel. Our native walnut (Juglans Calif ornica)
is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell
makes it of little commercial account in competition with better,
cultivated nuts.

The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market
is the ''pinenut" — seeds of several species of Pacific coast pines,
particularly the ''Nevada Nut Pine" or "One-leaf Pinon." Their
flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable.

The seeds "of two species of palms, Washingtonia Mifera and the
Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the Indians,
who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which
somewhat resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and
is called the "wild date."

The Indians also use the acorns of several species of California
oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and
then making a rude bread of the acorn meal.

The "jajoba," or "goat-nut" (Simmondsia Calif ornica), is a low
shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are
eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are
used as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or
as a simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of
fatty .-matter ; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and
possesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower
California it is prepared by boiling with water.

The nuts of the California laurel were roasted by the native
tribes and esteemed a great delicacy. Further improvements in the
preparation process may some day adapt them to the white man's
tastes.

Cactus. — The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a
sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for
winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight
fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stimulating.
The local species has been used by Mr. Burbank in some of his
crossing to secure improved spineless fruits on plants of more^vigor-
ous growth and productiveness.

CHAPTER V
CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS

Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the
south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was
actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Loreto by
Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and
cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this introduction came
ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of Cali-
fornia. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables
and fruits came about the same time, for there was a small garden
and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted
for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of
Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower
California, crossed over the mountain to a more suitable location
at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some
time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made
irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This eflfort
was successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707
Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and
sent some to Mexico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the
export trade in California wine.

The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in Lower
California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there
were vineyards, and presumably as many or more which had gar-
dens with fruit trees.

The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small.
They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some
olives and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the
exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to
thrive.

The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by
the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once
pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State
of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769.
Thence they proceeded northward, braving many perils, and under-
going great hardships, establishing missions through the coast
region of the State. Credit is given to the secular head of the
expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the
king of Spain, for ordering the carrying of seeds of fruits, grains,
vegetables, and flowers into the new territory, and from the plant-
ing at San Diego the same varieties were taken to the twenty mis-
sions afterwards established.
f
45

46 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Kinds of Fruit at the Missions. — It is of no little interest to
ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mission
orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara,
with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and prom-
ising. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura
apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pome-
granates. Robinson described the orchards connected with the
Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees
oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and
figs. There were also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed
at San Luis Obispo Mission the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape.
At the Mission San Jose he found an inclosure of fifteen or twenty
acres, the whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines.
There were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and
peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full perfec-
tion. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the apples
and peaches indiflferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enumeration
of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries.

Early Planting by Others than the Padres. — Though the earlier
Spanish population had the example of successful horticulture
before them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem
inclined to emulate the eflforts of the padres upon their own grounds,
except in occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees
in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said : *Tt is
an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern
portion of California while this State was still Mexican territory."
Exceptions there were, also, at the south. The old fruit garden on
the Cumulos Rancho, in Ventura county, has become famous.
Fremont, writing of his observations in 1846, says that among the
arid, brush-covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys
converted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears,
peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits
grew luxuriantly together.

Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement
of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabitants
were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more
was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state.

Decline of the Mission Orchards. — The decline of most of the
mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the
establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the
mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands.
During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the
more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine
in withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the
cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These

MISSION FRUITS AFTER GOLD DISCOVERY

47

pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good account
by the early American settlers; the olive and the vine furnished
cuttings for most of the plantations made during the first twenty
years or more of American occupation.

But it seems that not all the mission orchards were permitted to
fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bryant found at
the Mission San Jose two g-ardens inclosed by high adobe walls.
The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was planted
with fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees
and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in
great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples
and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission
orchards between the events of secularization and American occu-
pation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which
seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across
the deserts, or after months of ship fare.

Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers. — There were quite
considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by
early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidwell
saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyards that he had seen
in California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also
abundant — even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also,
mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that time were
those of Wolfskin, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. During recent
years the modern city of Los Angeles has been built over and
beyond them.

Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part
of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838,
and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and
peaches at Yount's in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits from
Yount's over into Pleasant's Valley, Solano county, in 1851. Dr.
Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a
mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good
bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted
a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842.

Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens. — After the incom-
ing of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees w^ere secured
by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning,
cultivation, and irrigation, that they might minister to the great
demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The
trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them and
there still exist at the San Gabriel Mission old pear trees grafted
over with improved varieties by W^ M. Stockton in 1854. The first
fruits oflfered for sale in San Francisco markets were from the pear
trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission
grapevines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles" county.

48

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

These grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer,
and were then re-shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the
most part in good condition, and were very popular. It is recorded
that one thousand five hundred tons of these grapes were sent from
Los Angeles county to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. An-
other instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact
that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the
orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable business
in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians.

At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still
remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old
date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders
of the old regime, while the new life of California is surging up
around them.

RUSSIAN FRUITS

The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was
by the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on
the ocean side in Mendocino county, is not known, but is believed
to have been as early as 1812. The survivors of the original
Russian planting look "very old and mossy, and are not very
thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year." They were planted
too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The
trees are apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and
some of both fruits survive. The trees are all believed to have been
grown from seed, and if this be true some fortunate results were
obtained, for there is still grown in Green Valley, Sonoma county,
a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is
called the Fort Ross or Russian apple, and was probably propagated
by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured
from this source for propagation of apple trees in early days in that
section of the State.

CHAPTER VI
INTRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES

The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California
with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the
American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it
is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first
budded or grafted trees upon California soil. It is a tradition in the
family of Martin Lelong, who came to California as a member of
Stevenson's regiment in 1846, that he brought with him a small
lot of French varieties of apples growing in a box, and that they
were planted in Los Angeles.

In the fall of 1849, W. H. Nash joined with R. L. Kilburn in
ordering from a nursery in western New York a small box of thirty-
six fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well survived the journey
around the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the
spring of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening,
Roxbury Russet, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg
apples; Bartlett and Seckel pears; Black Tartarian and Napoleon
Bigarreau cherries.

Before this introduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for
several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit-tree
seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett planted
Kentucky seed as early as 1847 in Napa county. T. K. Stewart
brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds
of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear and
apple, all of which were planted on the American River, within the
present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same
time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From
all these he secured bearing trees.

But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were
but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which followed the
great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first thought — to
get gold directly from the soil — would admit the second — to get it
indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural arts — there came a
demand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains,
better and more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards.
At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be
obtained was planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the mines
soon began to show growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind
would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every
direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a
few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration,

49

50 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and the advantage also of winning the attention of those who went
out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon
had grafted trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the
time the demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction
was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated
fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson
Bay Company and by early settlers from the Mississippi Valley. In
that year occurred the first considerable, if not the very first, intro-
duction of grafted fruit upon the Pacific coast. The story of that
venture has been so often wrongly told that it is well to record its
interesting incidents in the words of one quite near to the event,
if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee,
Oregon, writes :

In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from
Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general
variety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected
small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes and watered them to
keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a
mile up the mountains to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon, late
in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The same
fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees.
He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the first
nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five miles
south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the Willa-
mette River. For want of seedling stock they could not increase their
nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains,
bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We
also found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon,
who had planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown
well, and we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in
about twenty thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacramento,
taking with me a box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum and cherry, and
sold them in Sacramento, I believe I have the honor of being the first to dis-
tribute grafted fruit in California.

Other Early Introductions. — The introduction of grafted trees,
ior sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was quickly followed
by other commercial importations, and by shipments by planters
for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large.
Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late
G. G. Briggs, after his great melon profits of 1851, went back to
New York State for his family, and, returning to California, brought
with him, as he says, "with no idea that they would succeed, but
as a reminder of home," fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees.
To his surprise, the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year
blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. The
pears also bore some fine fruit the same year.

Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been men-
tioned, there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco
in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A.
Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples
were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Monterey, showed

EARLY GARDENS OF DWARF TREES

51

the first almonds grown in California. During the winter of 1852-53
the distribution of grafted trees must have extended widely over
the State. Five dollars for a small tree was frequently paid at the
nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees
were carried overland into the mining districts of California, as well
as brought to San Francisco for distribution through the valleys.

Fruit Gardens, not Orchards. — It is interesting to note that much
of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than
fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direction. One was
the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be
erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the
growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition,
which was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point
of view, to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, foi the double
purpose of determining what was adapted to the novel conditions,
and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the
market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested them-
selves, and were employed to an extent which seerrts wonderful
when it is remembered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is
worked upon a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from '52 to '58,
at San Jose, Oakland, Stockton and Sacramento, small areas, which
would now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned
to great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr.
Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, ''The finest orchard
of dwarf trees in the State." It consisted of three acres set with
one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwarf from
root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of them in
good bearing. He started the branches from the ground, pruning
severely, and heading in during the winter. He claimed that
dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from 'two to three
years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, but
plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June.

But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared
"to be the fashion," and though the list of stock of one Sacramento
nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thou-
sand and sixty-eight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of
the greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard
trees. Thus the Briggs'*orchard, of one thousand acres, on the
moist land of the Yuba, was planted with trees sixteen feet apart
each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other early planters on the rich
lands of central Alameda county, adopted about the same distance.

Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and
contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the
pioneer of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock
Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its
junction with the Yuba, of which the following description was
written about the time the trees were. coming into bearing:

52 CALIFORNIA FKUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees
and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden,
nearly every article in vi^hich is productive of fruit. The arrangement of
the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side
of the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various
directions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom
seen.

But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad
landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmonized
with the commercial idea of orcharding — large production and
economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosities of the
early horticulture of California.

Irrigation Abandoned. — The early abandonment of dwarf trees
suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of
Northern California — as early as 1856. Facilities which had been
secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused,
because it was seen that it was better not to use them. One case
is reported in Napa county where means to furnish the orchard
with thirty thousand gallons of water per day were allowed
to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for water, of
course, attended this reform. The announcement of a prac-
tice, in 1856, ''to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for plant-
ing, and work the ground from February to July, allowing no grass
or weeds to grow among the trees," shows that the thorough and
clean culture, for which California is famous, is not a recent idea
in our practice. Even the abandonment of the plow, and almost
weekly use of the cultivator, was the practice of some growers in
the San Jose district before 1860. In fact, the descriptions of orchard
management in that day include nearly the whole variety of meth-
ods which now prevail. The experience of the two decades has
shown that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous
fruits than was once thought possible. This proposition will be
discussed in the chapter on irrigation.

Early Wisdom and Enterprise. — It is evident to anyone who
studies the records, that California was very fortunate in numbering
among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill,
and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multi-
plied, and the confidence with which these early comers entered
upon the nursery business, shows their training. Although there
were many trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they
constituted only a very small percentage of the plantings of the
first few years, but the orchards, with the exception of a very small
number of trees introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock,
were the product of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes
all the more wonderful how so much could be done in a new
country, in a distant part of the world, in so very short a time. It
was an observation which was put upon record as early as 1856,

BEGINNINGS OF FRUIT SHIPMENT KO

that ''some varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this
State, and some are not benefited." The test seems to have been
that if a variety was not better than at the East, it should be
discarded.

The First Oversupply. — The wonderful stimulus given to the
fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing,
soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In
1857 it was publicly stated that ''there are single farms in this
State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orchard and
nursery — one person owning enough trees, when fully matured, to
produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year
throughout our State. The day is not far distant when fruit will
be an important crop for raising and fattening swine." This was,
to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker, for plantations con-
tinued, rare varieties were brought from the East, the South, and
from Europe ; the growth of some fruits continued to be very
profitable, and the nursery business, confined to fewer hands, was
profitable also. The idea that quality rather than size should be
striven for, led to more discrimination in propagation and better
treatment of trees.

The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit
interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly
planted trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and
the borer wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious
depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a
pound, and many were allowed to go to waste as not worth gather-
ing. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento
River, and replanting was slow until prices began to improve, as
they did soon afterward. The rapid development of the mining
mterest in Nevada, and the construction of roads across the Sierras,
opened the way for the disposition of much fruit growth in the foot-
hills and in the region around Sacramento.

The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers
were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves.
Something was done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product
of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Drying did not advance
so fast; for two years later there were imports of six thousand
barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels
of the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards.

The decade under review was also notable for the first appear-
ance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863. The
raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report
states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were
merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first
exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of
four varieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried

54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Placer county, exhibited the dried prunes,
which were of the German variety.

Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there
were rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for
coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines of
production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later
developments have been beyond any anticipations then cherished.

The New Era. — Another era in California may be marked as
beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits
were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. The first sea-
son's shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples,
grapes, and plums ; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hun-
dred tons, were sent.

The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with the
year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit
from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of
oranges from Southern California began at an earlier date.

During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit products
have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has
been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is
shown by the statement on the next page compiled from the records
of the State Board of Trade.

The Fruit Interest in 1910. — The fruit interests of California
now constitute the greatest single industry of California and the
fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State
in the Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in
the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest
with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things
which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems still
unsolved, and there have been grievous losses to individuals who
have proceeded upon too great expectations or have erred in loca-
tion for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less frequent in the
future. At present there is a disposition to proceed more cautiously
and to profit by the lessons which have been learned, many of which
will be mentioned in their proper places in later chapters.

Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be sug-
gested by the following statistics which have been carefully com-
piled from reports of the supervisors of the counties submitted to
the State Agricultural Society in accordance with the law of 1905.
These reports are published, unfortunately, without summaries, in
the Report of the Society for 1908. The figures for a few counties
which did not comply with the law are supplied from other sources.

The total acreage in 1898 was 542,399; since that year there
has been a gain of nearly seventy per cent.

RECORDS OF OVERLAND SHIPMENT

65

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56

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is interesting to estimate the total value of the annual products
of California trees and vines, using the best data and judgment
available. Valuation has advanced more than pro rata with in-
creased acreage of improved market demand, due to better handling
and distribution.

Number and Acreage of Fruit Trees and Vines In California, 1908.

Fruit. Bearing. Non -bearing.

Apple 2,298,454 653,642

Apricot 2,304,807 616,792

Cherry 765,866 125,411

Pear 1,743,671 274,259

Peach 8,433,314 4,481,696

Nectarine 84,946 7,659

Plum 1,672,417 240,734

Prune 8,499,369 761,289

Quince 43,148 5,354

Figt 258,788 233,463

Olive 1,252,367 398,810

Lemon 1,320,447 237,339

Orange 8,368,897 1,696,022

Almond 1,200,301 165,111

Walnut 755,637 248,893

Grapes, acres 247,272 83,726

Berries, acres 12,658 2,019

Totals 39,002,4291 10,146,474$

t Effective acreage probably considerably less.
t Acreage of grapes and berries omitted.

Total.

Acreage.

2,952,096

39,301

2,921,599

-38,688

891,277

11,883

2,017,930

22,423

12,915,010

143,500

92,605

1,024

1,913,151

21,257

9,270,658

110,275

48,502

285

492,251

6,563

1,651,177

22,051

1,557,786

17,302

9,065,919

100,702

1,365,412

18,707

1,004,530

25,113

320,998

14,677

48,159,103

914,749

Valuation of a Year's Fruits and Fruit Products.

Kinds. Pounds.

Fresh deciduous 322,448,000

Dried deciduous 267,696,000

Citrus fruits 1,080,000,000

Raisins 140,000,000

Nuts 21,775,000

Canned fruits 170,270,000

Olives and olive oil

Wine 294,944,184

Brandy 14,000,000

* An estimate upon meager data.
t Basis of 20c per gallon.
t Basis of 60c per gallon.

Price per lb.

Value.

2c

$ 6,448,960

6c

16,061,460

2c

21,600,000

3c

4,200,000

10c

2,177,500

5c

8,513,500

1,850,000'

2y2ct

7,373,604

8cJ

1,120,000

$69,345,024

These amounts, which are averages of several recent years, are
of available surplus for distant shipment. They do not include
the local consumption by two millions of fruit-loving people in
California.

FRUIT INTEREST IN STATE DEVEL,OPMENT c^

INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRIES UPON
CALIFORNIA DEVELOPMENT

Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly
satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various v^ays
along which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full
of cottage homes sheltering families of those who have begun with
small investments and have made a good livelihood, and often con-
siderably more, from a few acres of fruits grown largely without
expenditure for hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree or
vine and ministering to them by personal effort has brought new
health and new incentive to the worn and weary who have taken
up outdoor life and activity in California fruit growing with a wise
choice of location, land and fruits, for obviously in all investments
one must be wise as well as willing.

In large operations hundreds have notably succeeded by pur-
chasing good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample
investment for its development and improvement. Some of the
most delightful of our towns and villages have arisen as a direct
result of such employment of capital. Well established communi-
ties, well churched and schooled, well provided for in local trade
and transportation and widely known citizens, have followed invest-
ment money and devoted effort in colony enterprises.

Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and
have developed fine estates for their own personal gratification,
with thriving orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted
with improved livestock, parks, gardens and buildings comparable
with the estates of the European nobility, except that California
conditions favor freedom and variety in outdoor effort unknown in
Europe, and command proportional interest and enthusiasm.
Estates for winter residences in California are exceptionally desir-
able, not only because of natural advantages and greater possibili-
ties of development, but because of the advanced standing of the
State financially and socially.

All of these lines of effort, then — home-making in a small way,
colony enterprise and private estate development — have yielded on
the whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been
the central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that activity
in any productive line begets opportunity for other lines, and so all
branches of agriculture have advanced and the diversification is
highly desirable. Opportunities in manufacture, trade and profes-
sional effort of all kinds have been quickly seized and developed
with much originality and success. Fruit growing has created them
all and has in turn been advanced by all, for every accumulation
of capital promotes it. Successful toilers in all lines become
planters. The ancestral delight of the race, to sit beneath one's own

gg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

vine or fig tree, is nowhere more enthusiastically manifested than
in California, and nowhere else does the emotion of comfort in
ownership yield such profound and protracted satisfaction.

THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY

The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves
considerations of much economic interest. Though the volume is
already large and there may be experienced now and then tem-
porary dullness or depression in this line or that, the business is
on the whole brisk and profitable. There is such a wide range in
the fruits grown and the products made from them, and such
changes in local conditions in the many purchasing States and
foreign countries with which Californians deal, that there must be
some fluctuations in the values of some of the supplies offered in
distant market. The result is that first one fruit and then another
one seems to be more or less profitable. The fact, however, that
all are increasing in volume and the total traffic brings each year
more money to the State, is a demonstration of the standing of the
collective output. Each year new markets are found, both at home
and abroad, and the capacity of old centers of distribution is shown
to be greater than anticipated. There is every reason to expect that
the products can be profitably multiplied. There have been secured,
largely through co-operative efforts of growers, so many improve-
ments in handling and transportation that distant shipment has
become more safe and profitable and distribution far wider. It is
reasonable to believe that further improvement in movement and
reduction of cost will be realized and the per capita consumption
in the populous parts of our own country proportionally advanced.
In spite of all that wintry States can do for local supplies, Cali-
fornia can find open markets before and after the short ripening
season of the Eastern States for her early and late fruits, and can
use her own midseason fruits in the drying and canning industries,
though it is a fact that in the height of the Eastern fruit season a
considerable quantity of California fruit will command the highest
prices because of its exceptional size, beauty and keeping qualities.
The citrus fruits, so long as they are allowed to remain under the
favoring tariff which now exists, will continue to supply an Amer-
ican product of exceptional quality and freshness, while prunes,
nuts, raisins and wines will not only do this, but will push forward
into the trade of Europe, as they are now beginning to do in a most
vigorous manner. A very significant report was made by one of the
United States Consuls in France recently that our canned and dried
fruits were appearing on the shelves of all the provision shops of
the smaller French towns and were being freely sold without reduc-
ing the prices of the locally grown fruit. Practically the same
thing could be said of points in Germany and other European

THE FRUIT OUTLOOK

59

countries. The fact is that European countries can not grow fruit
enough to supply their own people and fruit has been largely a
luxury. California dried fruits are being welcomed by the great
middle classes and are likely to become a staple of their diet. This
explains the ultimate disposition of the large amounts now going
direct from California to Europe.

California's exports of high-class food supplies to European
countries are likely to reach values like those of the wheat and
barley which we are now sending to that part of the world. The
development of adjacent territory on the American continent and
other Pacific countries may shape the future of California as a fruit
producing State in a way which can at present only be dreamed
about. It should be remembered that California has a unique char-
acter from a horticultural point of view. Not only does the State
have a monopoly of semi-tropical conditions of the United States
(excepting small parts of the Gulf States and Arizona), but Cali-
fornia has command of the whole of northwest America and the
whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of semi-tropical
fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well.

California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been
conceded in Chapter I. They must come from the islands and the
tropical south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are,' however,
vastly more important in commerce than tropical, and a region
which successfully combines northern orchard fruits with the whole
semi-tropical class commands the fruit trade of all accessible popu-
lous regions which have limited fruit capabilities. There are now
four such regions with the kind of population which makes for
industrial advancement — Southern Europe, South Africa, parts of
Australia and California. As already shown, we are competing
successfully with South Europe in the capacious markets of North
Europe. South Africa and Australia are unfortunate in lying in
the southern hemisphere, which is mostly ocean wastes, and they
are handicapped by tropic crossing in their northern shipments,
although the fact of opposite seasons may help them, and also us,
m avoiding competition of trade which both desire. California will
soon be less than half as far sea from European and Atlantic coast
ports as at present, but California in the future will have less
occasion for such distant recourses. Prophets, far-seeing in world
courses, declare that the Pacific ocean is to be the arena for com-
merce greater than the world has yet seen, and the Pacific coast
countries are to contain the greater part of the world's population.
This greatest quartosphere with its superlative opportunities and
activities will have California as its treasure house of fruits and
fruit products. During the long winter the citrus fruits will afford
tonic and refreshment, and before hardy fruits bloom in northern
climes the same fruits will appear from the early ripening districts
of California. In this traffic California will not only be practically

QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THRM

without a competitor, but, sitting beside the sea, there will also be
every advantage of water transportation and the sustaining ocean
temperatures for the fruits in transit. California dried and canned
fruits will render acceptable diet even through the most Arctic
stretches along which development may advance in North America
and North Asia, while a succession of fresh fruits will flow to all
Pacific ports throughout the year. California, too, will be the winter
residence for all the North Pacific millionaires and the haven of rest
and recuperation for all who are worn by Arctic cold or tropic heat
throughout the great circle of the Pacific ocean. Here the arts will
flourish, education attain its highest achievements and culture pre-
vail. Then fruit growing both as a commercial enterprise and as a
home delight will attain value, volume and perfection, of which
present achievements are but a faint foreshadowing.

PART TWO: CULTURAL

CHAPTER VII

CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT

The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this State
was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of large trees,
which paid the cost of the work in firewood, or the grubbing out of
willows on some especially rich bottom land, was about the extent
of clearing which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many
of them perhaps never had to lift an axe. Still there has always
been some clearing done, here and there, even since the earliest
days, especially upon hill lands, the peculiar value of which for
some fruits is generally recognized.

The lands which need clearing are in the main the foot-hill slopes
of the Coast Range and the Sierra Nevada. In the south there is
besides, sometimes, the debris of the desert flora to clear away when
water is secured and the rich wilderness is subdued. This work is,
however, so easily accomplished that it hardly rises to the dignity
of ''clearing," as understood by the Eastern mind.

It is not possible in this connection to enumerate all of the great
variety of shrubs and trees which the settler lays low in his clearing.
The grand trees which figure most largely in lumbering operations
are not met with as a rule in foot-hill clearings. The trees which
the settler encounters are rather the degraded valley growths, which,
though assuming grand proportions in the valleys, become "scrubs"
amid the harsher environment of the hillsides. This is notably true
of the oaks and of some other trees.

Chamisal and Chaparral. — Of true shrubs to be removed, it will
only be possible to name a few of the most abundant. The common
manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita) occurs on dry ridges every-
where, both on the coast and at great elevations, sometimes only
growing a few inches from the ground, sometimes rising eight or
ten feet. Next to this, perhaps, the two terms which the land clearer
has most to use are ''chaparral" and "chamisal." To distinguish
between them it may be said, however, that the term chamisal
properly applies to the shrub Adenostoma fasciculatum var. obtusi-
folium, which is abundant on dry soils in the Coast Ranges and more
rarely in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, often covering extensive
areas with dense and almost impenetrable growth, producing an
eflfect on the landscape like that of the heaths of the Old World.

61

- g2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Another species, A. sparsifolium, with narrow, scattered leaves, is
sometimes abundant on the mountains east of San Diego.

By chaparral is generally meant shrubs of several species of
Ccanothiis, forming dense thickets and giving its name to certain
soils on which it most abounds, both in the Sierra foot-hills and
the hillsides of the Coast Range, where it is known as California
lilac. The genus includes the ''flat brushes," as they are called,
from their trailing on the ground, or low,^ horizontal shoots.

Other Small Growths. — Shrubs of frequent occurrence also are
the poison oak (Rhus divcrsiloha) , chiefly on the north sides of hills
m all parts of the State, but most abundant in the Coast Ranges,
and other species of Rhus which are not poisonous ; the hazel nut
(Corylus ro strata), which has been mentioned in the chapter on wild
fruits ; the buckthorns, several species of rhammus, well distributed on
the hillsides and mountains of the State.

In some parts of the State there are also large areas of sage-
brush or wormwood made up of several species of Artemisia, sage
or chia, two species of Salvia, and the famous white and black sages
of the bee-keepers, which are species of Audihertia, occurring
chiefly on the mountains of Southern California. Add to these the
spireas, the azaleas, the rhododendrons, the sweet-scented shrubs
(Calycanthus), etc., and include nearly all the wild fruit trees,
bushes and vines mentioned in a previous chapter, and one will
gain the idea that though California is widely considered a bare
State, the land clearer has a host of plants confronting him and
disputing his right to the soil.

Cost of Clearing. — The cost of clearing on the foot-hill slopes
of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges is too variable to admit
of estimates except such as may be made on the spot by experi-
enced persons. The cost varies, of course, according to the density
of the growth of trees and underbrush, and the rate of wages to
be paid. Though in some cases higher cost is reached, probably
as a rule the expense of clearing will be from $5.00 to $30.00 per
acre, less whatever the firewood might be worth. In exceptional
cases, where there is a large growth and a good wood market near
by, the wood may pay the expense or more; even the roots of
chaparral sometimes sell in our cities at $3.00 or $4.00 per cord.
It sometimes happens that charcoal can be produced to advantage;
in fact, there are now orchards upon land which was secured in
the first instance for the charcoal to be made upon it. Usually,
however, the clearing is an item of expense and must be reduced
as much as possible by working in the most econoniical and ef-
fective way.

Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler himself
the problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, some few
hints may be given from the experience of others which may be

METHODS OP LAND CLEARING . gg

useful. Spare time during the summer and fall can often be used
to advantage with a sharp axe in trimming up the smaller trees,
which are large enough to yield fencing material, and getting out
posts from the redwoods and oaks, and rails and pickets from the
pines. By thus using the waste material the settler can often get
out enough fencing material to inclose his land and thus save
considerable expense. Brush, too, which can not be made use of,
can be lopped off — in short, all the sharp axe work can be done in
a dry time. The actual clearing, however, should be done in
winter, when the ground is wet and soft, and digging is easy or
"snaking out" is possible.

Partial and Thorough Clearings. — Orchards are planted on both
partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former practice
clearing enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris
is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of work the
stumps are left to be taken out at a convenient season, the object
being to get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible. Where
one is working with little more than his own muscle, and has no
capital, this sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not planting
at all, but it must be borne in mind that all subsequent work will
be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultivation is likely to be
very imperfect, it would be a question whether in the end anything
would be gained by such a plan. The encumbered character of
the ground will, of course, prevent the use of the horse in cultiva-
tion until most of the stumps are removed. Aside from this,
decaying stumps and roots in the soil often kill the young trees;
especially is this the case with old oak stumps.

Clearing land for orchard or vineyard is a very different thing
from clearing for pasture, as is done in the redwood region of the
northwest Coast Ranges of the State, where the stumps are un-
touched; the trees not taken by the lumberman are girdled and
left a prey to decay and storms, and the brush slashed and burned
every few years to prevent it from completely taking possession
of the land. Clearing for fruit should be thorough, everything
which will interfere with good cultivation removed; roots grubbed
so that as little shooting up as possible is secured; the ground
evened up to obviate standing water, and, where needed, arrange-
ments made for irrigation and drainage, as will be considered later.

Removal of Trees. — The first operation in clearing will be the
removal of the trees. This can be partly done in the dry season
if one has unemployed time. In such case the tree is felled and
worked up into fire-wood and the stump left for subsequent treat-
ment when the ground is moist. Unless there is idle time to
employ, the whole work can, however, be better done in the winter,
for then the top of the tree may be made to help pull out its own
roots. This is done sometimes by digging out the soil and cutting

54 • CALIP^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

off the main lateral roots below the depth to which the plow will
reach. By thus reducing its anchorage the tree will topple over,
or may be pulled over with a team and tackle, and it will usually
lift out its stump quite effectively.

A Steam Puller. — An arrangement for tearing out trees without
digging has been used to some extent in Santa Cruz county, which
is said to handle redwood trees up to four feet in diameter success-
fully. It consists of a portable engine and a ''puller," which is a
windlass operated by steam, from which a wire cable is carried to
the tree which is to be pulled down. A strong chain is put around
the tree at a distance above the ground proportioned to its diam-
eter in such a way as to give necessary leverage. The immensely
strong hook at the end of the cable is attached to this chain and
the cable is slowly wound upon the reel. The coil begins to grow
taut, a dull creak and strain are heard as the roots begin to be
torn from the earth. Two chains are used, a second tree being
prepared while the first is falling, that no time may be lost. The
cable is detached from the falling tree, and a horse draws it from
amid the debris of fallen foliage to the next victim. The extraction
of roots by this method of pulling is said to be very complete, and
the earth is loosened to a considerable depth.

Powerful traction engines, manufactured for hauling combined
harvesters and steam plows, have also been very successfully used
for the removal of large trees in land clearing.

Horse-Power Stump Pullers. — The use of horse-power devices
for tree felling and stump extraction has increased considerably
of late. The one which has achieved good results is a local invention
called the "California Stump Puller." It is simply a specially-
designed capstan worked by one horse, with a wire cable five-
eighths of an inch in diameter, an improved snatch block, chains,
and a drafthook to unite the cable with the chains. Power is
applied to the capstan with a sweep. It is calculated that with
this device, properly adjusted, one horse is enabled to produce an
effect equal to the capacity of 60 horses without it, and that a 1,200-
pound horse which can move a dead weight of one and a half tons
for a short distance can move a dead weight of 90 tons with the
devices employed in the machine. It is so rapidly adjustable that
on one trial in Napa county eighteen stumps were pulled in eight-
een minutes, long roots coming clear out of the ground with each
stump.

The Use of Powder. — Another means for the removal both of
stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use
during the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly
cheapened the clearing of lands where either large trees or stumps
have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are

REMOVING SHRUBS AND BRUSH gg

furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an
expert to start the work and give instruction if there is much to
be done. It has been estimated that the cost of handling trees
and stumps with explosives is less than one-fifth that by hand
grubbing, and the ratio of saving increases as the trees are larger,
as powder is cheaper than muscle.

Removing Shrubs and Brush. — In the case of removmg shrubs
of a suniewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots.
This is done either with a good strong rope or a cham. To do
this requires two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each
ten or twelve feet long. A chain should be placed around the bush
some distance above the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is
not removed at the first pull, start the horses in the opposite direc-
tion. While the driver is unfastening' the chain from the chaparral,
the second man can place the other chain around another bush,
and the one who gets through his work first should at once assist
the other. In this way the horses are kept in constant employ-
ment, and neither of the men need lose a moment's time. This
work should be done when the ground is thoroughly wet.

Where manzanita grows somewhat upright, as it does on the
hills north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be
employed with it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the
rope or chain a few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower,
as, for example, on the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita brush
is gone over with a roller so as to break it down, and then the
land is burned over. The roller should be of the ordinary farm
pattern, but rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so that the horses
can push the roller and walk over the flattened brush. The only
object of the rolling is to smash the brush down so that it will
burn readily. When the brush is got rid of in this way, the plow is
trusted to get rid of the roots. The plow should be of the pattern
known as "prairie breaker," without coulter. Horses should be
shod with a plate of sheet iron between the shoe and hoof to
prevent snagging, and not less than four of them used. Much
of the Santa Clara county vine belt was cleared in that way. Of
course this method only answers for the lighter-rooted growths;
tough-rooted chaparral, oak, holly, etc., must be grubbed out, unless
the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has been described.

Marketable Products of Clearing. — Whether any money can be
made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local
markets for wood and charcoal and the cost of transportation to
them. From clearings near large towns enough can be sometimes
had to pay for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can
often be shipped with profit. This can only be learned by local
inquiries.

QQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Charcoal Burning. — Charcoal can usually be sold to advantage,
and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this way
when it can not be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of
unprofitable fruit trees has been disposed of in this way recently.
Charcoal is made from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps
and large roots are charred. A simple process of charcoal burning
is given by an experienced burner as follows :

To burn a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process
of combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable
place not too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be
watched from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary
to dig much of a ''pit" in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce
or whatever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not
decayed, take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together,
fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be
careful to keep that chimney free, because the fire should be there applied
to brisk "kindling" as far down as possible. Build round and round, tak-
ing the precaution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches
in diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may
have to be withdrawn to promote the draught.

The wood all being in place it is now required to cover it thoroughly.
In the absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green
boughs, or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped
on from running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as
far as possible, except when the port-holes referred to near the ground
are needed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to
be opened. When the fire — after a few hours, more or less, according to
the materials — has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit
regularly night and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem
needed; and in a week or teji days the two or three cords of wood should
be turned into good hard coal. When uncovered, water or dirt should be
thrown upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground.

Cutting to Kill Brush. — Just when to cut to kill depends upon
the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion
seems to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is
when they have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is
in the summer — but the month to be chosen for the work will
depend upon the location, though August is generally selected as
the best time.

In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before
the coldest weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Ever-
greens, however, diflfer much in tenacity of life, for while most
kinds are easily killed, the California redwood will endure almost
any abuse with axe or fire and still spring up repeatedly and per-
sistently for years.

The Use of Sheep on Sprouts. — On sprouting brush, there is,
perhaps, no cheaper or more efifective means of repression than
sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared
away instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by their persistent
cutting down of growth, many small stumps and roots will decay
enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team and
plow.

PREPARING LAND P^OR FRUIT

67

Burning of the Debris. — However the trees and underbrush
may be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final cleaner. Where
trees are to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon
as they are felled, for the work is much less than after they become
dry and hard. If it is not designed to break the land the first
winter, the wood is left to season and it becomes lighter and easier
to handle. The brush and roots, if no use is to be made of them,
can be left to lie on the clearing to dry out during the following
summer, and after the first rains of the following fall the whole
area can be burned over. Such stumps as do not burn with the
brush must be gathered in piles and re-fired. Burning before the
first rain should not be attempted, unless it be in exceptional situa-
tions, because of the danger of communicating fire to the surround-
ing country, which is a standing danger in our dry climate. Under
the present law it becomes necessary to secure permission from the
State Forester at Sacramento before starting field fires in the dry
season. After the rain, clean up the ground perfectly.

First Crop on a Clearing. — It is the opinion of some clearers
m the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first
year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a field
crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best corrective
of "redwood poisoning," and fortunately in the upper redwood dis-
trict they have a climate well suited to the pea. Whether their
theory is right or not, their practice is of advantage, because they
get a better cultivation and aeration of the soil, and kill out much
of the sprouting from the old roots, which is usually quite per-
sistent in the moister parts of the State. Usually the tree and vine
planter is in such haste to realize from his labor that he does not
allow the first year to go for any side issue.

Surface Leveling and Draining. — There is often occasion to
clear the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out
of the way so that the land may be clear for the plow and culti-
vator. Once in a while one will come upon a stone wall inclosing
an orchard in this State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty
New England farmer can boast, but walls are not common. Our
valley orchard lands are, as a rule, naturally as free from stone
as they are from underbrush, but on the hills it is different. Prob
ably the best way to dispose of much of the stone is to dig trenche*
in the natural water runs, put in stone, cover with small brush,
and then with soil deep enough so the plow will not reach the
brush. This disposes of the stone for all time, and at the same
time helps to drain the soil. Concerning other treatment of the
land after the rubbish is removed, P. W. Butler writes as follows :

When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending
entirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a run is
likely to have more water than can be conveyed properly through a

gg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

covered trench, it should be left open and graded so that a team can cross
it, and for fifteen feet on each side sow to red-top. In this way the land
can be utilized that would be worthless for trees, and the red-top, that
can be grown at a profit, will take the place of unsightly weeds, that would
otherwise grow at the point that can not be cultivated.

To distribute the work more evenly through the tirst year buildings
can be erected, a well dug, and the trenching done in the dry season, while
all the grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the follow-
ing season, as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depres-
sions where water would stand should be filled, and all flat places should
be graded until water will readily flow ofif, and not be retained so near the
surface of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can
be best done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated
land and scrape into the places to be tilled. The land is now ready for
plowing and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as
the removal of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the
ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so
they can be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as
deeply as possible without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the
ground will be ready to plant.

Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foot-hills of the Sierra
Nevada, where irrigation must be practised. Where irrigation is
not used, leveling, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is
often quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain
surplus water. The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may
demand this unless the soil should be light and deep enough to
allow free drainage.

CHAPTER VIII
NURSERY OPERATIONS

^^ vigor. This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has
been formally declared by the victories of California tree growers
at the World's Fairs held in this country, w^here the highest
premiums were awarded to Californians in nearly all classes in
which they exhibited since 1885.

The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our nurseries,
and the very reasonable rates at which they are sold, make it little
worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own trees.
In fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assortment
of well-grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard
planter can make. The professional grower, if he is honest and
enterprising, can give the purchaser the advantage of his experi-
ence and skill in the choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties
of fruit adapted to his situation, and be of assistance to him in
other ways connected with his enterprise ; and such helps to an
inexperienced planter or to a newcomer are very valuable. There
may be, however, some reader who is distant from established nur-
series, or possessed of limited means, who may like to use his
spare time in growing his own trees, and to such suggestions are
oflfered. There will, however, be very much which can be learned
only by actual experience.

In the selection of location for a commercial nursery there are
matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention
will be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called
a farm nursery. The first point will be the selection of a small
piece of ground which ofifers proper soil, exposure, and, in some
parts of the State, facilities for irrigation.

Proper Soil for Nursery. — The soil should be a mellow loam,
easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all
respects what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will
answer well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thor-
oughly drained, either naturally or artificially, for time and labor
will be largely wasted on a water-logged soil. In this respect a
soil which might yield fair crops of some shallow-rootmg vege-
tables would not always be suitable for young trees, which, to do
Avell, must have favorable conditions to send the roots to consider-
able depth. Good spots are often found in the rich loam along the
banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds generally a deep
alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such situations, if liable

69

70

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

to overflow, should be rejected because standing water is not good
for trees, and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with water
and inaccessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted for
transplanting to orchard.

It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every
ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places
if attention is given to correcting natural defects. For example,
if the soil be naturally heavy, it may be improved somewhat by
repeated plowing and cultivation during the year before starting
the trees. If it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be
greatly improved by the application of a top dressing of lime at the
rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds of lime to the acre.
For this purpose "lime waste," which contains both lime and wood
ashes, can be had cheaply at the kilns. Old plaster which may
have been left from house repairs is excellent. Even builders'
lime would not be very expensive, for but little would be required
for so small a plot of land as a farm nursery would need to cover.
The lime will increase the amount of plant food in a heavy soil as
well as render it more friable. Another way in which a small area
of heavy soil may be improved is by the addition of sand. A few
loads of sand, if it can be had near by, will remove the tendency
to crack, and will act as mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture.
If the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the
remedy will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it
should cease early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their
wood before the frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light, fine
materials, rotted straw and the like, may be used to advantage
among the young seedlings in preventing drying out of the soil,
if the plot is to be hand-worked, but such materials are apt to be
in the way of neat, thorough work with the horse. A mulch of
sand, if available, is not open to this objection.

In choosing soil for a nursery, a piece of land which has bfeen
in cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a
newly-cleared piece. It is often the case that soil from which old
stumps or shoots have recently been removed has become soured
from the processes of decay in the dead wood. Although the de-
posits of humus from decay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil,
afterwards certain acids are formed if the land lies without culti-
vation. These are not favorable to the growth of young roots,
and a crop to which as much time is given as a crop of young trees,
should not be placed upon it. This evil quality in the soil is
removed by cultivation and aeration, or may be corrected by the
application of lime. This state of soil is most complained of m
connection with old stumps and roots of oak trees.

Situation and Exposure. — Warmth in the soil is necessary to a
good growth, and a good year's growth is essential to the pro-

PREPARATION OF NURSERY GROUND fj-^

duction to a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to
the warmth of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty
of sunshine and protection from cold winds are to be secured.
Sometimes a little elevation is desirable. It would be a serious
mistake to seek moist, low land if the piece lies at the bottom of a
little valley or depression where the cold air settles during the
night and frosts are frequent. In such cases choose higher ground.
Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not this objection, for
such seasonable frosts as may be expected there are not injurious
to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest nurseries in the State
are m the open valleys, not on the lowest ground, however, in all
cases, but on what would be called good, rich valley land. There
are, however, situations in the thermal belts in which the tempera-
ture does not fall low enough to check growth of deciduous trees
and cause the leaves to drop. In such cases it has been found de-
sirable to select lower and colder ground for the nursery of
deciduous trees.

Preparation or Nursery Ground. — The best preparation for nur-
sery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or
hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough
pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop
should thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at
least. Where the retention of moisture is an object, as it really is
in some parts of the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes
small and no facilities for irrigation provided, it will perhaps pay
better in the end to keep the land in bare fallow during the previous
summer; but there must be frequent and thorough cultivation,
keeping the surface always mellow, or more moisture will be lost
by evaporation than a hoed crop would require for its growth.
Properly cultivated fallow soil will have moisture within a few
inches of the surface, while unworked soil adjoining will be baked
hard and dry to a depth of several feet. During the winter imme-
diately preceding planting, the green stufT should be allowed to
grow for a time, but should be plowed under before it gets high
enough to interfere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. The
decay of this green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plow-
ing in the spring, and a thorough harrowing, will leave the ground
in good condition to receive the pits or root grafts, as the case
may be. In this plowing for nursery there should be deep work
done and subsoiling, as will be more fully set forth under the head
of preparing land for orchard, to which the reader is referred.

Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery. — The two chief ways of
producing fruit trees are, first, from seedlings grown on the spot;
second, from buds and root grafts upon stock imported from the
East or from a1)road. First, as to the growth of seedlings :

It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be collected

72

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out from the
pomace of the cider press ; apples and pears from the coring and
peelings of canneries and drying establishments ; pits of the stone
fruits are derived from the same source. Supplies can usually be
purchased from such establishments at a moderate cost. The
trouble is that from such supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits
from all varieties, possessing different degrees of health and vigor.
There is just as much to be gained from selecting the seed from
Avhich to grow good strong stocks for fruit trees as there is in
selecting good garden or field seed. One can generally get good
peach pits, for it is easy to have the order filled when the cannery
is running on strong-growing yellow varieties, for these are believed
to be most vigorous, and yet some claim much preference for pits
from vigorous seedling trees, and make extra efforts to secure
them. Wherever it is possible, and if one is only to produce a
small lot of trees, it is practicable to select from the fruit the seeds
for planting. Not only is there great difference in the strength
of different varieties, but in dividual trees vary greatly. If one is
taking seed from an old orchard to start his nursery with, he can
take pains to get his seed from his strongest trees, and thus secure
also that which is probably best adapted to his locality.

Apple and Pear Seedlings. — For a small lot of apple and pear
trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and
keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit
until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be there or four inches
deep, with good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch,
and then cover the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent
the surface from drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks
or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist
l)ut not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height ot
three inches, they can be set out in the nursery rows as one would
set out cabbage plants.

Cherry Seedlings. — There are different ways of handling pits
of stone fruits to prepare them for setting out in open ground,
which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two
wild varieties; one is commonly called the ''Black Mazzard." It
is the common wild cherry of the East, and is the original type ot
what are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries.
The other is the "Mahaleb," a European wild species, which is
used in the East, where it thrives better than the Mazzard, as it is
hardier stock. In this State the Mahaleb does not seem to have
much dwarfing effect, as trees on that stock in this State over
twenty-five years old are twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk.
The Mahaleb, however, ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason
may be valuable in the colder parts of the State. It is also freer
Irom root trouble by extremes of witness and drouth in the soil

GROWING SEEDLINGS FROM PITS

73

and is largely used on low lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly
used in California. Cherry stones are sometimes taken from the
fully-ripened fruit, dried for. two or three days, the stones cracked
carefully and planted at once in good soil and kept properly moist.
They will germinate soon and make a growth of a foot or so the
first season. Such stocks are taken up for grafting in the winter
and set out in nursery row the next spring. A better way of treat-
ing cherry is that given by W. W. Smith, of Vacaville :

The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on
the tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that
they may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by washing them in
water. They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently
for about twenty-four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to
dry sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain
fresh and green. They should then be placed in moist (not wet) sand
and kept so until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in
drills, in good, rich, mellow soil prepared the previous spring and kept
clean of weeds through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should
never be allowed to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have
but little or no freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause the
pits to open; but if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same
purpose as freezing. The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with
less difficulty, but the same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to
them.

Other stock for the cherry will be discussed in the chapter on
that fruit.

Citrus Fruits. — The propagation of citrus fruits will be de-
scribed in detail in Chapters XXXII, XXXIII and XXXIV.

The Larger Stone Fruits. — In handling pits of the larger stone
fruits, apricot, peach, plum, etc., the chief requisite is to prevent
drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant in the fall and
trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in the spring, but
this interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the
seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy
winter rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear
the rows from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from
drying by covering with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprout-
ing by appropriate treatment towards spring, and then plant out
in thoroughly prepared soil, and they will make a satisfactory
growth. The following method, by D. J. Parmele, of Vacaville,
has given good results :

Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then
put them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for
drainage, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two
inches on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south
side, where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should
be a long dry spell during the winter, water them a little. About March
they will open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in
loose, mellow ground, and, with a hoe, pull about two-thirds of the dirt
back into the furrow, breaking the clods, and making it fine, the same as
you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted
pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the extra work
in preparing the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July.

74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of
ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three
or four inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted
out as soon as they crack open, although no harm wilf be done if
they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out.

Another method which has been especially recommended for
treatment for almonds is the following: Lay boards upon the
ground and cover them with an inch of sand ; spread on this a
layer of almonds and then another inch of sand, and bo on. Keep
the pile wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will burst
open. Plant in drills one inch deep and put over them a light coat
of rotten straw.

If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should
be soaked in water two or three days before planting.

Nut Tree Seedlings. — In growing nut-tree seedlings, much the
same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are
methods described in detail by California growers which should be
given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time
after ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower
will undertake the greater care and cultivation. On some light
soils where the rainfall is not excessive, this is not much trouble.
Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, gives this as his method :

The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City
it is too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely
lift the nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts,
I throw into the bottom of a box one inch deep of sand, then a layer of
nuts; put in another inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to
one or two inches from the top. Then water well with a sprinkler and
water again during the winter whenever the sand get's too dry. The sand
has to be pretty well saturated with water, especially from the first of
January down to planting time, which is in February, March, or April,
according to localities. The latter part of March or first week in April is
best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered to a
depth of two to three inches.

In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the
largest, finest, and healthiest nuts; in the fall or beginning of winter the
nuts have to be planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the box being
kept in a cellar. The nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a
layer of chestnut leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on
top of that a layer of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the
top, which has to be properly covered with two or three inches of earth
so as to prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February or March,
according to location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a
depth of three to four inches; less for smaller seed like American chest-
nuts.

In growi^ng seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Bowers
of Santa Clafa>4^as shown that water-soaking of nuts may make
it unnecessary to^iindertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are
of the last crop. He describes the method as follows :

"The nuts should be large and thin shelled and should be of last year's
crop. To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ
end, or the point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a

HOW THK WAl^NUT SKlilDLING STARTS

75

76 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

clear color they are of last year's crop, but if the flesh shows any dis-
coloration they are old and will not germinate. I have often got hold of
ci lot that were mixed, old and new together. Never risk a lot of this kind,
for failure will follow. After the nuts have been selected place them in
some kind of tin vessel; a five-gallon oil can, with the top removed, is just
the thing. Then cover them with hot water at not over no degrees F.
Let them remain in this water for 24 hours and plant at once, keeping
them in the water all the time. Do not let them become the least bit dry,
and be sure the soil is moist, and put every nut in with the sharp point
exactly straight down. The root starts from this point and will go
straight down, and if not molested will the first year be about three times
the length of the top; that is, if the top grows one foot, the straight tap
root will be three feet or more long, and will be from three-fourths to an
inch thick where it grew out of the nut, tapering both up and down."

Imported Seedlings. — A very large proportion of some kinds
of the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State are
worked upon imported seedling stocks. These stocks are cheap,
convenient to handle, and are therefore popular. It is easy enough
to grow peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small
seeds, like apple and pear, often do not show up well in the spring,
especially if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and
sunshine. Therefore our nurserymen import these seedlings in
the winter, plant them out, as has already been described, and bud
in the following summer, grafting the next spring where the buds
fail. If the seedlings are large when received, they are often root-
grafted at once, and then one summer in the nursery gives a tree
suitable for planting out. These stocks are of better budding size
during their first summer than California seedlings, which are apt
to overgrow.

Myrobalan plum seedlings were formerly imported to a large
extent, but are now chiefly home-grown, and seedlings are used
instead of cuttings, which formerly were employed largely. This
stock has secured great favor for plums and prunes, and in some
situations, for the apricot, as it is hardier against extremes of
drouth and moisture.

Prof. Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, has discovered in Cali-
fornia upon imported seedlings a serious root-fungus which kills
all kinds of orchard trees in Europe, and he advises the use of
home-grown seedlings to escape this danger.

Fruit Trees from Cuttings. — It is feasible to grow a number of
kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many
cases to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root
are much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally
stronger and more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start
out at the bottom and spread out horizontally and irregularly.
This style of a root system is expressively named *'duck-foot roots,"
and they do not give the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees
can, however, be multiplied very fast from cuttings. Notable in-
stances of this are the Myrobalan plum and the Leconie pear.
Cuttings of deciduous trees should be taken from weH-matured

PJLANTING SKlilDLlNGS IN NURSKRY 77

wood of the previous season's growth, and planted in rows and in
well-prepared soil, as has already been described for the sowing
of fruit tree seeds. The cuttings should be taken before the sap
begins running in the winter. A cuttings about ten inches long,
four-fifths of its length buried in the ground, will answer. Be
sure that the ground is firmed well at the base of the cutting, but
keep the surface loose. Small wood is better than large, though,
of course, the extreme ends of twigs should be rejected usually.
Cultivation of cuttings is the same as that of seedlings, and bud-
ding, when the cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed
by the same rules.

The orange and lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the
work is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut
from wood one or two years old ; set in open ground with partial
shade and give plenty of water (dry ground is death to their tender
roots), but be sure that there is free escape for surplus water.
Cuttings started in the warm weather and given partial shade and
plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. This method of grow-
ing these fruits is not, however, in wide use or favor.

The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will
be considered in the chapters on those fruits.

Planting Out in Nursery. — For planting out in nursery, the
term "spring" is given as the proper time, but in California it must
be remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year.
"Spring weather" comes from the first of February to the first of
May, according to the latitude or elevation or exposure resulting
from local topography. Cherries may be ripe in Vaca Valley
before fruit trees put out leaves in Modoc county; and between
these extremes there are advents of spring in other places accord-
ing to the situation. These facts are more fully set forth in the
chapter on climate. Spring must be detected in the behavior of
vegetation and not by the calendar. When the tree buds swell and
the leaves appear, spring has come for that locality. But whether
one can plant his nursery then or not will depend upon the char-
acter of the soil and the condition of the rainfall for that season.
This varies much from year to year. As a rule, however, in most
parts where fruit is grown at present in large quantities, the heavy
cold rains will be over by the first of February, and then nursery
operations can commence if the soil is in good condition. If not,
the planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work
nicely. There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of
February; but they will only necessitate cultivation to loosen the
soil, if the nursery ground is well situated for drainage, and if it
is not it should not be used for this purpose.

Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly
harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the

yg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ground is the next operation. Everything should be done with a
view to the use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be
laid out as straight as possible. Some use a plow furrow ; some an
arrangement like a corn-marker, with two cultivator teeth set four
feet apart; some stretch a line, to get the pits or root grafts as
true to it as possible, and some trust to the furrow for straightness.
No rule can be laid down for means to be employed ; the result
must depend upon the eye and skill of the individual. Some people
can hardly shoot a straight line with a gun. Each must do the
best he can in this respect.

There is difference in practice as to distance between the rows
in nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others claim that
it is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no
irrigation is practiced, as this gives the young trees more room,
and if the ground is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be,
it gives the roots a greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In
growing a small lot of trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of
course, desirable to give them every advantage in the way of
facilities for growth, but on the other hand, an overgrown tree is
not desirable. Thrift and strength must be sought rather than size.

At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be
left as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a
roadway. The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of
the grower. It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for a
horse and cart at intervals of one hundred to three hundred feet,
but in small nurseries the head-lands would probably give all the
access required.

^.^ The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by
the size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid
down by the authorities, and in this State another condition must
be made, and that is the climate or weather conditions prevailing
in the locality. Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil
loose, seed must be planted deeper than where good spring showers
are to be expected. In fine soils seeds must be planted shallower
than in coarse, even with the same rainfall. Judgment and experi-
ence must dictate in this matter, and if a man has no experience,
he is pretty apt to get it.

During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often
as may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the
soil from becoming to densely packed by heavy rains, but the
ground should never be worked when too wet. It requires some
watchfulness and promptitude to use the cultivator just at the right
time.

Nursery Irrigation. — In parts of the State where the rainfall
is adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive,
and atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its

USE OF WATER IN THE NURSERY 79

growth without irrigation, and many nurseries are on ground not
provided at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State
irrigation is necessary. Water should be applied sparingly, and
yet enough to keep the seedling in healthy growing condition. This
IS shown by the leaves, which should not drop or curl. Excessive irri-
gation should be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth
is very undesirable. Water is a good thing, and in some cases a
very necessary thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated.
At budding it is necessary that the sap should be free and the bark
slip easily. To foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to
give a watering a few days before budding commences. Water
should be applied by running it through shallow furrows between
the rows, and the cultivator should follow as soon as the ground is
dry enough to work freely.

CHAPTER IX

BUDDING AND GRAFTING

If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed prop-
erly handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid.
If an early start was had and other conditions favorable, some
kinds will be ready for budding in June, and the production of what
are called "June buds," as will be described presently. In ordinary
practice, however, budding will come later, and the budding season
extends from July to October. The weight of the budding of
deciduous trees is generally done in August and September.

BUDDING

The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit
trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting
a bud from another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the
bud shall come in contact with the layer of growing wood in the
stock, and then it will be quickly knit to it by the new cell-growth
if the bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough to
prevent the air from drying the two surfaces at the point of contact.

In the engraving 1 is the cutting or "bud stick" from the tree
of the kind into which it is desired to transform the seedling. This
cutting is usually made from the growth of the present season,
which has well-formed budfe at the axils of the leaves, although
in some cases older dormant buds may be used, as will appear in
the discussions of the different fruits. If buds are desired to
mature early, pinch off the ends of the growing shoots from which
they are to be taken. Suckers and so-called "water sprouts" should
not be used, but rather well-formed wood from the branches of
the tree. It is requisite that the buds be taken from a vigorous,
healthy tree of the variety desired. Bud sticks can be carried or
sent considerable distances if packed in damp moss or other mate-
rial to prevent drying, but care must be taken not to enclose too
much water or decay will be promoted. Fresh shoots in tight tin
boxes without wet packing are safer and carry very long distances.
Sealing the ends with grafting wax is also a good precaution
against drying out.

Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery
establishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end
of the handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a
bone blade inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for
lifting the bark of the stock into which the bud is to be placed.
Armed with a bud stick and such a knife, the "budder" starts in

80

BUDDING FRUIT TREES

81

upon a row of seedlings. Bending the seedling over a little and
holding it between his left arm and his left leg, he reaches down
for a smooth place on the bark as near the ground as convenient
to work, and makes a horizontal cut, and from that a perpendicular
cut downwards towards the roots, as shown at 3, in the engraving,
with the bark slightly lifted and ready for the insertion of the bud.
Next he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown at 2. This carries
with it, on the back, a small portion of the wood of the bud stick
as well as the bud and bark. It was once claimed that this wood
should be carefully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it
is not necessary ; in fact it may be better to leave it in ; such at
any rate is the general practice. The point of the bud is now
inserted at the opening at the top of the slit in the bark of the
stock and pushed down into place, as shown in figure 5. To handle
the bud the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material
assistance. Nothing remains now but to apply the ligature which
is to hold down the bark around the bud.

. There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will do
which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different
materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of
cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-named is perhaps the
best material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear
evenly upon the bark and do very good work. The use of twine
is speedy, but the strands bearing upon a narrow surface, and not
being elastic, they are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark
unless carefully watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood
bark was formerly largely used, but has given place to the other
materials named, which are more handily obtained. The buds must
be examined about a week or ten days after insertion, and the lig-
ature loosened, for otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing
stock. Sometimes trees are badly injured by neglect in this
particular.

In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is
desired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around the
stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the bud.
When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot
remains on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the bud.
Thin wire, known to nurserymen as ''label wire," is also used for
this purpose.

In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are
large enough are budded at once. In going through the row again
to look to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is
considered to have ''taken." In stocks where the first bud has
dried up, another is inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings
which were too small to hold a bud at the first working over are
given a bud later in the season, or left for taking up for root graft-
ing in the winter.

82

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

A Stick of bud wood. 2 Cutting the bud.

3 Vertical incision.

5 Inserting the^d. 5 Inserted bud ready

for tying.

7 Waxed cloth ready
for twisting.

Waxed cloth tightly

twisted. 9 Bud staked and tied.

GRAFTING FRUIT TREES

83

In nursery practice the budder does not stop to tie his budSj
but is followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying
material, and does this part of the work.

The common method of budding thus described is used on all
common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special fruits
will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits.

Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nursery
row with no other treatment that year than the insertion and care
of the bud, the latter remaining dormant until the next spring.
Then, as soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the
top is cut off down to about two inches above the bud, and all
growth is kept off except that of the inserted bud. When that has
grown out about twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three-
quarters of an inch or less from the bud, and the wood is quickly
grown over by the bark. As there are apt t(h be dormant buds on
the stock below the inserted bud, the trees have to be examined
from time to time, and all such suckers removed. This is the com-
mon practice with budded trees. Exceptions will be noticed pres-
ently in connection with definitions of different kinds of trees
known to the trade.

Spring Budding. — What has been said in reference to budding
applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work
with what is called a "pushing bud." This process, as described by
a distinguished French authority, consists of retarding the growth
of the buds on the scions by burying them in the ground until the
sap it starting well in the stock in the spring, and then putting
them in, trimming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud
into growth. In this way the grower of a rare variety may secure
trees for planting out the following winter, or he may secure a
stock of buds for fall budding, and thus multiply his stock of a
desirable variety very rapidly. A modification of this method con-
sists in taking buds in the spring when they have grown out even
half an inch, and inserting them by the usual method of lifting the
bark, when the sap is flowing well in the stock. Then cut off
about half the stock, so as not to give the bud too much sap at
first, and afterward, when it is seen to have taken well, the balance
of the stock is cut off near the bud. This method gives a tree
the first season and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade
and protection from dry wind are desirable.

GRAFTING

The next process of propagation to be considered is that by
grafting. Its success as with budding, consists in bringing the
growing wood (inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact

84

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

with the same layer of the stock. It can be applied to any part
of the tree, from the topmost branch to the lowest root, as is the
case when new trees are made from scions and root fragments.
Thus grafting pertains both to the production of young trees for
planting out and to the transformation of old trees bearing worth-
less fruit into producers of choice varieties.

Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order.
Instead of budding the seedling during the first summer of its
growth, it may be allowed to complete its season's growth, and
drop its leaves. When thus dormant the young trees are taken
from the ground, the roots rinsed ofif with water if the ground is
wet and sticky, or merely shaken free from clinging earth if in a
dry time. Enough trees are dug at once to graft at a sitting. The
grafting can be done at the work-bench in the tool-house or barn,
and if one is pressed with other daylight work, it may be done by
lamplight at the kitchen table, if the housewife can be conciliated
for the muss it will make.

Care of Scions. — The scions should be previously selected, and
whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or
distant sources away from the farm, should have been placed as
soon as procured in moist earth on the north side of the house or
other building, where they will keep cool and damp until one is
ready to use them. At the East and in parts of this State where the
ground is apt to freeze, it is necessary to keep scions in the cellar
with their butts covered with moist sand, but over most of the area
of the State nothing more is needed than to put down in the earth
at the base of a tree or on the north side of a building, with, per-
haps, a box or barrel inverted over them to keep out mice and
other intruders. Care must be taken not to let them dry up. If it
is desirable for any reason to keep scions dormant long into the
spring or summer, of course storage in a cool cellar is better, for
in the open ground the scions will burst into leaf after a warm spell
of spring weather.

In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water
shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up
through the older branches, but always give the preference to
sound, fully-matured wood, at the ends of the lower or nearly hori-
zontal branches. Careful experiments have shown that trees
grown from such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading
habit than those from the central or upper branches. The scions
should be tied in bundles with a stout cord; and a piece of a
shingle, with the name of the variety written plainly and deeply
thereon, should be tied in with each bundle.

Grafting Wax. — In grafting, a good grafting wax is requisite.
The ingredients are mixed in - different proportions by different

HOW TO MAKE GKA^^PING WAX

85

growers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are
as follows :

Two lbs. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin.
Two and one-fourth lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; ^ of a lb. tallow.
One lb. mutton tallow; 2 lbs. beeswax; 4 lbs. resin.
Two lbs. resin; 2 lbs. beeswax; Y^ lb. tallow, and a little linseed oil.
Two lbs. resin; i lb. beeswax, 2^4 lbs. linseed oil; 4 tablespoonfuls
turpentine.

One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; i pint linseed oil; i oz. lampblack.
One lb. beeswax; 5 lbs. resin; i pint linseed oil; i pint flour.

All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and
during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to apply easily
with a small brush. To do this the wax dish may be kept on a
hot brick, to be changed for a fresh one as it cools, or, better, still,
is to heat the wax in an old fruit-can or something of that kind,
inside another, which is partly full of warm water. A more capa-
cious heater can be made by removing the top of a five-gallon oil
can and making a hole for draft on one side near the bottom. A
slow fire can be kept going to heat the wax pot which is suspended
from a rod across the top. A wire handle makes this outfit porta-
ble. The wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but just
right to spread well.

Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed
cloth or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts,
which are low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also
for root grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat
of wax, with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up
the paper, when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips
about an inch wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton
cloth into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two
boards to take out as much wax as possible, and when the cloth is
cold, tearing it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider
strips for larger grafts. When grafting is going on in-doors, these
strips hanging near the stove are kept in good, soft condition for
use.

There are grafting preparations which do not require heating,
but remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard by
contact with the air. The following is a popular French prep-
aration :

Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of
beef tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little,
and then mix it with a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that
add about seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down
so rapidly that it will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring
in constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol.

This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep
for six months. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very

86

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

thin, and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not
only for grafting, but for covering the scars caused by removing
limbs in pruning. When bench grafting is done by nurserymen,
of course all appliances are arranged for the speediest work, and
wonderful results are attained by one man and a helper, even as
many as three thousand root grafts of apple in ten hours. We are,
however, merely discussing home practices.

Cleft Grafting. — Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as
will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, different
styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is much larger
than the scion, as is apt to be the case with California seedlings,
the cleft graft will be simplest. Cut off the top smoothly above the
root crown and then split the top of the stock, as shown in the
engraving. Then prepare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape
at the lower end. Open the slit in the stock with a little wedge and
insert the scion so that its inner bark matches with the inner bark
of the stock, something as shown in the second figure. It does not
matter whether the outside of the scion is flush with the outside
of the stock or not; the vital point is to get the growing layers,
just inside the barks, in contact with each other, and, to be sure of
this, it may be well to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if
the barks cross each other, this desirable contact is sure to be
made. It is well to make the side of the wedge of the scion which
goes nearer to the center of the stock a little thinner than the
outside.

A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of
the tree, for in planting, the point of grafting is placed a little
way under-ground. Such scions are usually cut with four or five
buds. After the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely
with a piece of the waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the
cut surfaces are covered, extending the wrapper a little below the
split in the root. Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on
with the brush, put a little on the top of the scion, and the graft is
complete.

Side Grafting. — Another method which prevents splitting the
stock is the side graft, shown in the accompanying figure. It con-
sists in bending the stock to one side and cutting in diagonally
with a thin-bladed, sharp knife, a little more than half-way through
the stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner
barks touch; then allowing the stock to straighten up, holds the
scion firmly. Covering with a wax band drawn tight makes a
good job, and such grafts make as good growth as the buds set
the previous summer. This method can be used with stems or
branches up to an inch in diameter, and is essentially the same, as
will be mentioned later, as a side graft for working over old trees.
In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches or more may be left

VARIOUS FORMS OF GRAFTING

87

Cleft Graft.

Bark Graft.

Saddle Graft.

Whip Graft.

Side Graft.

88

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

above the graft, and to this the graft can be tied to prevent blow-
ing out if it makes a strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut
back with a sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking.
Whip Grafting in the Stem. — Grafting above the root or in the
stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is
done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows
a whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in
diameter can be made in this way, but it is generally used for
smaller wood. Care must be taken to secure proper contacts of the
inner barks at least on one side of the stock. After pushing the
parts together, a wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint
may be simply tied and painted over with wax.

A Root Graft. — When the root stock and the scion are about the
same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In
making this both the stock and scion are given a' sloping cut of
about the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When
the two are put together, the wood "tongues in," or interlocks as
shown in the engraving. The object of this is to make more points
of contact for the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same
time to interlock the two more firmly. In putting the two together,
if the stock is slightly larger than the scion, be sure to put the
scion so that the inner bark contact is made, and this will bring
the scion a little to one side of the center. Bind with the wax band,
and paint with wax as in the case of the former graft.

In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late
years to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the
graft. For amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax.

Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the
scion, may be done without splitting the root by cutting or sawing
out a triangular piece on the side of the root, cutting the scion to fit
and trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is illus-
trated in the chapter on propagating the grape. It also works
well with root grafting the walnut, and is used by some in ordinary
top grafting on other trees.

Planting out Root Grafts. — This root grafting can be done in
the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made
a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as pre-
pared, should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make
their contact firm, and even start to growing a little. In planting
out in the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the
root, otherwise many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart
in the rows. Keep the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and
loose on the surface, and the first season's growth will give a tree
fit for planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation
the rules already given for the growth of seedlings for budding
will apply.

KINDS OF NURSERY TRKES

PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY

89

As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root
graft) in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of
opinion and practice. If the young tree will be content to make
a straight switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no
laterals thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting
in the orchard, and gives the planter a chance to make the head at
whatever height suits him, and to secure uniformity through the
orchard. All trees will not, however, be content with this growth,
but will push out laterals all along the stem. Even in this case
some let the whole growth go for the planter to treat as he thinks
best. Another plan is to go over the nursery when the young stock
is about two feet high and pinch back the laterals part way, but
retaining the leaves nearest the stem to shade the stem. This
pinching back is done from the ground up to a height of one to
one and a half feet, and above that the growth is left to take its
natural course, to be cut as desired when the head of the tree is
formed. Pinching back develops buds near the stem and gives the
planter a better chance to head the tree lower if he likes. Another
practice which prevails to some extent, is to pinch off the terminal
bud when the young tree has reached a height of about two and a
half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth of lat-
eral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown out
a couple of feet. The result is the formation of a head on a nursery
tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in orchard they
are merely cut back on the laterals, leaving the head as formed in
the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in packing, and take
much room in shipment. There may, however, be an advantage in
such practice for the home grower if he is situated in parts of the
State where the greatest season's growth is attained. Orchard
planters generally, however, prefer a June bud or a yearling of
moderate growth, without laterals.

CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS

The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries
are as follows :

Root Grafts. — These are seedling roots, or pieces of them, on
which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench
and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet
started in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock,
he should plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove
the trees to orchard the following winter.

June Buds. — For multiplying varieties very fast, buds are kept
dormant in a cool place ; or, by pinching off the top shoots of the

90 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

current year are forced to mature buds very early. These buds
art put into seedling stocks as early in the season as possible. After
budding, the top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, or partly
cut away, and growth is forced on the bud so as to give a small
tree at the end of the first summer. This method of propagation is
growing in popularity in this State, especially in the foot-hill dis-
tricts, where small trees are preferred for transplanting.

Dormant Buds. — Trees are sold in dormant bud when they are
lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has started
on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of
healthy bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are
not to be had and gain in time is very important. Care must be
constantly taken that growth starts from the right bud, and that it
be protected from breaking off by wind or animals. A considerable
percentage of loss is usual and extra dormant buds should be
planted in nursery row to fill vacancies.

Yearling Trees. — These are trees which have made one season's
growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two
seasons' growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of
a tree is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this
point is really the birth of the tree.

WORKING OVER OLD TREES

Another operation which may be properly considered as a
branch of propagation is the working over of old trees. There is
much of this being done every year in this State. The old seedling
fruits in the older settled parts of the State are being made toj^ear
improved varieties ; trees of varieties illy adapted to prevailing con-
ditions are changed into strong growing and productive sorts ; trees
are changed from one fruit to another, when affinity permits. This
will be mentioned in the discussion of the different fruits. Still
another reason for working over is to secure more valuable and
marketable varieties. Sometimes a mixed orchard is made to bear
a straight line of one sort which is in demand, or when the grower
finds he has too many trees of a single kind, which give him more
fruit than he can conveniently handle when it all ripens at one time,
he works in other varieties so as to get a succession of varieties
adapted to his purpose, and thus secures a longer working season
in which to dispose of them. This is especially the case in large
orchards of apricots, peaches, and plums, when the grower depends
upon drying his crop. Information concerning the successive ripen-
ing of varieties can be gained from the special chapters on the
different fruits. For all of these reasons, and others which need not
be enumerated, the work of the propagator is continually going on

RENOVATING OLD TREES

91

even in our large bearing orchards. As with young trees, so with
old, transforming the character of the tree is done both by budding
and grafting.

Budding Old Trees. — One way to prepare an old tree for bud-
ding is to cut back the branches severely during the latter part of
the winter, which has the effect of forcing out new shoots around
the head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety
are set in the summer, just as is done in budding nursery stock,
except that the budding should be done rather earlier because the
sap does not run as late. When the shoots are budded, those being
selected which are situated so as to give the best symmetry to the
new head, the shoots not budded are broken a foot or so from
where they emerge from the old wood, and are allowed to hang
until pruning-time. At the winter pruning the budded branches
are topped off a little above the bud and when the new shoot starts
it is often loosely tied to the stub of the old branch to prevent
breaking out in the wind. When it gets strength, the stub is cut
away smoothly to allow the wound to heal over.

Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points
where it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is some-
times done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary budding, and slipping
the bud under, sometimes by what is called shield or plate budding,
which consists in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and
putting in its place a piece of bark of the desired variety, having
upon it a dormant bud. With plate budding it is necessary to be
careful to have the inserted bark just the size of the bared spot,
and to wrap it more closely than when the bud is slipped under
the bark of the stock. In all cases in budding old trees, care must
be taken to get fully-matured buds, and it is well to take them
from large shoots, which have a thicker and firmer bark than may
be used in budding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very
sure that the buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired
variety, but from a healthy, vigorous tree of that variety.

In selecting buds, also, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds,
and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of bear-
ing trees, of course, he may sometimes, to get well-ripened buds, be
obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work
well if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. It is rather easier,
however, to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing
if one can be sure that these trees are of the desired variety.

Grafting Old Trees. — Old trees are also renewed by grafting.
This is most generally done by the old process of "top grafting."
The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the
scions, usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and
set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better
to use limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft

92 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

HI the trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following de-
scription, which the writer borrows in part from some unknown
source, will serve to guide novices in the matter :

The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw,
a regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight, sharp
blade, wax, light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting
the limb to be grafted, saw it off — your own judgment will guide you as
to best point, but before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the
bark on the under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down.

Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the
center of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two
buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a
single bud. Whittle the scion wedge-shape, so that it fits nicely down into
the cleft. To do this, hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of
the thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over,
and cut opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little
thinner on the edge opposite the bud than the other. This will insure a
firm pressure, at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet.

When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long
portion of the graft. The point to be closely observed in adjustment is to
have the inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the
stock. If a trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure.
Some people set the graft a little out at the top and a little in at the
bottom, so as to be sure of a connection at the crossing-point, but there
will be firmer hold if there is a union the whole length. Our rule has been
to have the wood of the scion come exactly parallel with the surface of
the stock, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs,
after years of growth.

After the scion are set, and two should be put into one limb if large,
carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the
wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme
care not to move the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the
stock is seen to be severe, a small wedge may be left in the center to save
the scions from crushing. If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with
damp clay before waxing over. "^^

Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using
one or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding
page. If the cut surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly-
waxed over as low as the bark is spilt, there is usually little trouble
with the growth of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In
the warmer valleys in the interior, the sun is often hot enough to
melt the wax and cause it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This
is prevented by dusting the wax thoroughly with brick-dust well
powdered ; but, by a little experimenting with the recipes already
given, one can secure a wax which will stand any heat likely to be
encountered.

For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, the neatest
and surest work can be done by methods of grafting which do not
require the splitting of the stock. There are various ways of doing
this. One method is shown in the engraving on the next page, and
consists in cutting the scion as shown, and inserting it beneath the
raised bark and then binding well with waxed bands, the preparation
of which has already been described.

TIMES FOR GRAFTING

93

Another method is an application of what the French call oblique
side grafting. It consists of making an oblique cut downward
through the bark of the stock and for a distance into the wood,
using a chisel and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife
are also used for making this cut, as well be described in the chapter
on the peach. A small form of side graft has already been shown
earlier in this chapter. In it the scion is held in with a wax band.
Some growers remove the top of the stock with a sloping cut about
half an inch above the scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap
the waxed band well around and over all the exposed surfaces.
Others do not remove the whole of the limb until the scion has
started well into growth, and then they cut down and pare the stock
and cover with a band or with a wax that will not run in the sun.

Several ingenious devices have been patented by Californians
for securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping
the scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools that such
inventions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench
grafting of vines have, however, been successfully employed to a
certain extent, but are not generally used.

TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA

There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means
employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California, but the
time at which the operation can be successfully done, and the condi-
tion of the scion, are different from those held to be necessary in
other climates. It is not at all requisite that the scions should be
carefully stored away to keep them in a dormant condition, nor
that the grafter should haste to do his work in just such a state
of sap-flow in the spring time. It was early discovered that graft-
ing could be successfully done with growing scions, and that scions
could be cut from one tree and set in another nearly at any time
the grafter desired. Grafting is therefore possible much later ir^
the season than is prescribed elsewhere, and it is also possible to
begin earlier. In one of the largest apple and pear orchards in the
State it is common to graft in December. The absence of freezing
weather saves the graft from injury. As our trees start their flow
of sap early, and often when the ground is too wet for comfortable
orchard work, it is the practice of many to get their grafting
and pruning done before the heavy mid-winter rains begin. The
practice of most growers is, however, to conform somewhat nearly
to traditional methods, to do most of the grafting in the spring
months, and to use dormant scions, the growth of which is retarded
by heeling them in on the north side of a building, or keeping them
in sand in the cellar, as the grower chooses. Of course it should be
understood that there are parts of the State where the winter con-
ditions are more nearly like those at the East, and practice has to
conform to them.

94

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree
and graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference of
opinion. The prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs
one year and the balance the following year; or else to leave part
of the top to shade the bark and take part of the sap flow until
the grafts start out well, and then cut it away. When a large
amount of grafting is to be done, the limbs may be cut off during
the weeks preceding grafting. In this case, the cut should be made
a foot or two above the grafting point and a second cut be made at
this point, when ready to put in the scions.

Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting,
thorough protection against sunburn must be provided. Jhe sim-
plest way to do this is to cover the exposed bark with good white-
wash. By using thirty pounds of lime, four pounds tallow, and five
pounds of salt with enough water to make it flow well, a tenacious
whitewash can be secured.

What has been said thus far relates especially to the working
over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the
same method will succeed with some of the semi-tropical fruits and
with nut trees, the discussion of their propagation and grafting over-
will be deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also
give opportunity to describe methods especially adapted to these
fruits.

CHAPTER X
PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING

The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep
and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the
situation is naturally well drained. Drainage will be considered in
connection with irrigation in another chapter. In this place, how-
ever, by way of emphasis, it may be remarked that high land is
not necessarily well drained, although the general feature of the
surface may be an incline, nor is low land necessarily wet, although
the surface may be apparently level. For horticultural purposes
the drainage of the land must be considered on the hillside as well
as in the valley, for reasons which will be more fully set forth in
the chapter on drainage.

The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with
grading. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal distri-
bution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is of
decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which
are likely to collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown
in Chapter III, this can be done on most California soils without
danger of uncovering a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the
method of grading is given at the close of Chapter VII. In prep-
aration for the irrigated orchard, and irrigation is now widely
employed even in regions where formerly rainfall was the sole reli-
ance, it is important that accurate grading should be done and the
use of the surveyor's level and grade stakes will be found very
desirable. All moving of soil should precede the general plowing.

For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in
as good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure this will
be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If prac-
ticable, it will be all the better to have the process of preparation
begin a year before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true
either with newly-cleared land, as has been described, or with old
grain or pasture land which is to be used, leaving the surface rough
during the winter, facilitates the access of air to the lower layers
of the soil, and in a certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven
it. Following in the furrow with a sub-soil plow is very desirable,
either at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain
land breaks up the old hard-pan,* which has probably been formed

* In this connection the term means "plow-sole." Treatment of true hard-
pan will be described in the next chapter.

95

m

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THFM

by years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue dur-
ing the following summer, and can often be made both thorough
and profitable by the growth of a summer ''hoed crop," the culture
of which will kill out many weeds and secure good pulverization of
the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land should be kept in
cultivation by plowing the weeds under as long as the surface soil
retains moisture enough to start them. A special advantage of such
summer-fallow in regions where the rainfall is apt to be short is
that, prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set the following
winter will have a good part of the rainfall of two seasons to grpw
with, and the result will often be very noticeable. If there are sup-
plies of manure available, as is often found in old corrals on oui
grain or stock farms, it is better to gather and apply this the winter
before the planting of the trees. If this work is not done, then it
should be left until after the trees are planted, and then be spread
upon the surface during the winter, and plowed in after it has been
in part leached into the soil by the rains. Applicaticfn should be
made evenly all over the surface and not massed around the roots
of the trees, unless it is to be applied as a mulch to the surface
after the spring cultivation is over, as will be considered later.

If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after
breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible to
do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches,
or more. Harrow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-plow for
fruit. Thorough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to
plow in the fall,, and also deeply when the land pulverizes well, and
follow in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to a depth of
fourteen inches or more. For this kind of work good teams are
needed, and the plow should be sharp and bright. If the work is
hard for the team, set the plow so as to take less land, but do not
sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, and the land is ready
for the trees or vines.

Avoiding Dead Furrows. — Unless dead furrows can be used to
advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it
will be of decided convenience in laying ofif to have the field free
from them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning the final
plowing at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows in-
wards. In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will
always turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and
packing the loose soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field
formed by the first two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple
of back furrows, and when properly harrowed the field will be found
sm-ooth as a floor for staking out for planting.

WAYS OF LAi^ING OUT ORCHARDS

97

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Trees planted on the square system. The Triangular or alternate system.

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The Hexagonal or Septuple system.

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The Quincunx system.

98 CALIP^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES

It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for
the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight
lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards
and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares; that is, the
rows of trees or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown
in the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement;
and by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true
that the trees are not equidistant from each other in all directions,
and that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground
unused — supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the
branches. Practically, however, it may be doubted whether the
hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of
the soil unvisited.

There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares
available for planting at long distances, with growths between,
which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees.
Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California.

VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES

Marking With a Plow. — This method was used in laying off
some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two-
horse turning plow is rigged with a "marker" — a light wooden bar
extending at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as
the desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this
bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches
along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow
has to be designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds.
When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next
row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on
for the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to
indicate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way
of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the
furrows.

Measure and Sight. — Another method which is quite commonly
used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combi-
nation of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plas-
terers' laths pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more
visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the
distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all
around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each
way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees
of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, meas-
urement can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sight-
ing through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to

HOW TO FIX DISTANCES 99

sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as
directed by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a
man has a good eye and patience enough.

Marking Off With a Wire. — A measuring wire or chain is, per-
haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines.
It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as
will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed
steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length
varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay ofif
the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred
and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length
of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use
a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of
no consequence ; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire
just the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the
wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in
diameter, to be slipped over stakes; some use a larger ring, say
three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling
taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the
distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these
places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points
may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wires is made of
small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of
several strands of small wire. It is more flexible aYid less likely to
become kinked than the large* wire, and can be easily marked off
to represent the distances, at which rows of different kinds of trees
should be placed, by separating the strands a little at the desired
points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires
together again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent
slipping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for
planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance be-
tween the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretch-
ing can be taken up by retwisting, which can not be done with the
stretching of a single wire. Another good style of planting wire is
made of 2, 4 or 6-foot links of No. 12 steel wire (including the diam-
eters of the small rings turned at each end of the link pieces). As
all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these link-
lengths, the cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked
for any desired distances.

Finding a True Corner. — To use the measuring wire for laying
out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true,
and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select
the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and
stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which
will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to
drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched

100 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

parallel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the
distance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first
row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting
point and measure off sixty feet along this row with a tape line,
and put a temporary stake, then from the starting-point measure
off eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be
judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point the tem-
porary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one
hundred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the out-
side lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with
the measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he desires, if
care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all
stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire — providing the
land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over
uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree
to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible.

Rows on Hillsides. — Laying off orchard or vineyard on hillside
too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in plac-
ing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the
rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage
to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill ;
thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower
side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side
of the rows, for. the plow or harrow is always below the team. If
trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill
a little between the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step,
and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The
same rule will apply to vines.

QUINCUNX PLANTING

There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State.
It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which
is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean "the
arrangement of things, especially of trees, by fives in a square, one
being placed in the middle of a square." Trees set in quincunx
would stand as shown in the accompanying diagram. To locate
them in this form it is only necessary to proceed as already described
for planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two
side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines
just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the meas-
uring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other.
Near one end of the wire place another mark just half way between
the end and the first tree mark; that is, if the trees are to be
twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should
be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with
the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each
twenty-four foot mark.

TRIANGULAR PLANTING |Qj^

Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting
the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there.
Put stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the
trees in that row. In the next row put the cud of the wire at the
first stake and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end
of the wire and the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will
be set in quincunx all over the field. If the midway stakes are now
pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where
the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about sev-
enty-eight per cent more trees upon any given area, but it brings the
trees at irregular distances from each other, and except in furnish-
ing a way to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary
trees, there does not seem to be any advantage in it.

PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES

This is the arrangement generally implied when the term "quin-
cunx" is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant
from each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible.
The arrangement admits fifteen per cent more trees to the acre
than the setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three
different directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities
for irrigation. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does
not admit of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is some-
times desirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving
through the orchard.

Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompany-
ing sketch.

It is termed hexagonal because, as the figure consists of six
trees inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing
trees makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because
seven trees enter into its figure.

An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring
wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half-
distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must
be placed at different distances apart. The following table, show-
ing the distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between
the trees, and the method of calculating the number of trees to the
acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement:

Trees set Sextuple Check-stakes should be

10 feet apart 8 feet 8 inches.

12- feet apart 10 feet 4 2-5 inches.

14 feet apart 12 feet % inches.

16 feet apart 13 feet 10^^ inches.

18 feet apart 15 feet 7 inches.

20 feet apart 17 feet 4 inches.

21 feet apart 18 feet 2i^ inches.

22 feet apart 19 feet % inches.

24 feet apart 20 feet 91/2 inches.

102

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should be
removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre by
the square and septuple system :

Square Septuple

10 feet apart 435 500

12 feet apart 302 347

14 feet apart 222 255

16 feet apart 170 1S5

18 feet apart 134 154

20 feet apart 109 125

21 feet apart 99 114"

22 feet apart 90 103

24 feet apart 75 86

For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of
trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will
give the number if planted septuple.

Laying Out Hexagonals with a Triangle. — It is possible to lay
out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake
with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaHng the distance
required between the trees.

One corner of triangle — all being made alike.

Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long
as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length,
and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces of
pine board six by six inches.

If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle w'ill be much stiflfer
and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making
sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they
do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nailing
a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use.

Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from good,
straight-grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have to
lay off.

Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of the
field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by a
line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes and

PLANTING ON HILLSIDES

103

its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while the rear
man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man.

After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle
alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in the
last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across the
field.

If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight,
and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like a
charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man
and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Remember
that no guide stak-es are used anywhere after the first time through.

The Triangle on Hillside. — The use of the triangle requires a
little nicety in ''leveling up" where the piece is hilly. By using a
plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting on
one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the
plumb-lines over another stake already set, the position of the
other line would determine the position of the next stake. Thi§
method has worked fairly well, even in places where the slope was
sufhcient to give a fall of six feet between the trees, which were set
twenty feet apart.

Locating in Triangles with a Chain. — Instead of a wooden tri-
angle, a chain has been used in this way :

First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first
row of stakes. This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice
the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on the
ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake and
the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of the
chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V, at the
focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision by the
joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off the first stake and
put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second stake where it is;
Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed. Thus continue all the
base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over the chain as one turns
a pair of draughtman's compasses in his hand when spacing ofif a line. The
second row of stakes being set, set the third row, and so on through the
ground.

The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways
enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs,
though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that
the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit. They are
intended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will nat-
urally seem laden with detail to those who have become familiar
with the operations by repeated practice.

CHAPTER XI

PLANTING THE TREES

After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully
laid off as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for
the trees. ''How large shall the holes be?" He was a wise fruit
grower who, when asked this question, replied, "As large as the
field." That is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground
over deeply than to trust to deep holes and shallow working else-
where. Where this is done, the tree holes need only be large ejlt^ugh
and deep enough to receive the roots without folding thenf in or
cramping them up. In a loose, deep soil, however, one can di^g extra
deep and broad holes if he desires, and will be repaid by extra
growth of the tree ; but in a close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not
only undesirable, but often positively a danger to the tree, unless
drainage of the holes is provided artificially. Such holes hold water
like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply facilitites its gather-
ing in the hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwind-
ling and dying because their roots were soaking in water.

Planting on Some Shallow Soils. — As a rule, trees should have a
deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but
there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production
can be had, even when the hard-pan is near the surface and the soil
would be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the
subsoil which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of
them. Sometimes the hard-pan is so thin and near the surface that
it can be broken through with a pick in digging the tree hole. Other-
wise boring is done. It is about forty years since Mr. James Rutter,
of Florin (on the ''bed rock" lands near Sacramento), first noticed
that there were viiies here and there which grew exceptionally well
and bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that
under these vines there were crevices in the bed-rock, and from
this he took the hint to bore through this hard-pan in the bottom
of the hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained
access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water through
the permeable substratum. He bored a hole two inches in diameter
into or through the bed-rock and rammed well into it one and a half
pounds of black blasting powder. After exploding this, he some-
times bored a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. In-
stead of blasting in the hole where the tree is to be planted, some
bore and blast the hard-pan midway between the rows, placing the
holes at "quincunx" with the trees. The shattering of the hard-pan

104

PREPARING HOLES FOR PLANTING

105

between the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are grow.-
ing, and may in certain soils relieve trees which are sufifering for
lack of drainage. A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been
successfully used for subsoil blasting, and some have reported in
favor of exploding a quarter-pound cartridge quite near to a tree
sufifering from standing water, putting in the charge during the dry
season.

There are many situations where such practice would be bene-
ficial, and in some cases mere digging or boring through the im-
pervious stratum avails much. There are spots where ''lava crusts"
overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes
through the lava to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting
the trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum
and obtain abundant moisture and nutriment. In certain situations
where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy clay, trees have been
blown over, but when a cut has been made through the clay, the
trees have rooted deeply and have withstood the winds.

Shooting Holes for Trees. — Even where there are continuous
depths of dense strata, and not shallow hard-pan underlaid by free
soils, trees can often be successfully grown by the use of high ex-
plosives. In his book on ''Soils" Professor Hilgard gives these
suggestions :

A permanent loosening of dense sub-strata is best accomplished by
moderate charges (j/^ to ^ lb.) of No. 2 dynamite at a sufficient depth (3 to
5 ft.). The shattering effect of the explosure will be sensible to a depth of
eight feet or more, and will fissure the clay or hard pan to a corresponding
extent sidewise. If properly proportioned the charge will hardly disturb the
surface; but if this be desired, from i^ to 2>4 pounds of black powder placed
above the dynamite will throw out sufficient earth to plant the tree without .
farther digging. Where labor is high-priced this proves the cheapest as well
as the best way to prepare such ground for tree planting, and it has often
been found that in course of time the loosening begun by the powder has
extended through the mass of the land so as to permit the roots to utilize it
fully and even to permit, in after years, of the planting of field crop*, where
formerly they would not succeed.

The boring for such blasting is usually with an ordinary carpen-
ter's auger, a little larger than the diameter of the cartridge to be
used ; the shank of the auger being lengthened by the blacksmith to
reach the depth desired.

It is becoming more and more apparent, however, that for com-
mercial plantings of trees and vines all such defective soils should
be avoided. There is plenty of good, deep land to be had, and the
burden of ameliorating poor land is a serious handicap in the com-
petition which has brought production to very narrow margins of
profit.

Digging the Holes. — Holes for tree planting may be dug at a
leisure time after the laying ofif of the field, even though it is not
designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters

106 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

do not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes
should always be freshly pared ofif before the trees are put in, be-
cause the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging
holes the surface earth should always be thrown on one side and
the lower soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil
to place in direct contact with the roots when the tree is planted, the
lower soil being used to fill up the hole with.

TREE SETTERS

No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off the
orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy
device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by
the stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are
called ''tree-setters," and there are a number of designs. Two are
given, either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board
one inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch
hole in the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the
center; then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a

[o

Bar for tree setting.

square, the corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make
two stakes, each one foot long, that will easily pass "through the
end holes. Place the center of this board against the stake, where
'the tree is to be planted ; push the stakes into the ground through
the holes in the ends, then lift the board from position and proceed
to dig the hole. When dug, replace the board over the end stakes
in its former position, then plant the tree with its trunk resting
against the center notch in the board, and you have it in just the
right place.

Another setter is in the form of a triangle : Take three pieces
of plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long,
and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the
ends project sufficiently to form a corner, as shown in the drawing.
Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and
about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to
set your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner
firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the
tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes
already prepared for the purpose. This done pull up the stake
against which the frame was first placed — the one indicating a place
for a tree — remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move
the other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting

DEVICES FOR SETTING . TREES IQ'J

the tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the
tree, again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the
tree drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the
dirt is being placed about the roots ; and this will bring the tree
exactly where the stake was originally. If the stakes are properly
put in line, so will be the trees.

These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug
and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in
planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary
to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to
mark the position of the setter w^hen the planting is done. Besides
its use in bringing a tree into line, the tree-setter enables one to

Triangular tree setter.

judge of the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the
surrounding ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye
if the hole be a large one. Where the measuring wire is used to
set the stakes, it is sometimes stretched across again after the holes
are dug, the tags on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees
of the whole row. The trouble with this practice is the bother of
having the wire in the way while filling and tramping the earth
around the roots.

SELECTING TREES

In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in
your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent men,
who keep themselves informed as they should about their business.
The advice of such a local nurseryman is often of great value to the
newcomer, for he will know by his experience and observation much
about the adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region.
If, for any reason, local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek
some well-established nursery at a distance. It is much safer to
deal directly with the grower of the trees than to patronize traveling

108 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

agents. Where, however, these agents are the accredited represen-
tatives of well-known establishments, they may save the planter time
and trouble by taking his order for him. So-called ''tree peddlers,"
who are jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees
which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and label them to suit,
without respect to truth or honesty, should be resolutely avoided,
no matter what inducements or blandishments they may ofifer.

The California legislature of 1907, passed a law making it unlaw-
ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and aft-
erwards to deliver trees of a different kind. To do this is a misde-
meanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be begun
at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of such
trees.*

It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock
which is to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy
look, with clean bark, and of size enough to indicate a good, free
growth. The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for
size of the top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty
of roots. On the other hand, stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth
planting, for a stunted tree, like a stunted calf, often does not make
a good after-growth. There are cases, however, in which, by extra
cultivation in good soil, fine trees have been grown even from
"culls" from the nursery. The best rule is to select trees of good
medium size, straight and healthy. In judging size, however,
one must take California and not Eastern standards, because
our nursery stock, if well grown, invariably is of much
greater size than Eastern. If the visit is during the digging
season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the tops and do
not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking and free
from knots or excresences. Gnarly and knotty roots in the young
tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth, and
planting such trees has occasioned our orchardists immense loss.
Many have been led into purchasing poor trees because they may be
had cheap. A tree selected merely because it is cheap may prove
the most expensive thing a man can put in the ground.

Guarding Against Insects. — The top of the tree should be care-
fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this
purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should
always be in the fruit grower's pocket. One can be bought at
any optician's for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as
to be carried without scratching. Our nurserymen, by forsaking old
infested locations and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner
trees than they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on
the watch for pests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially
provided. Details of treatment will be given in the chapter on
injurious insects.

* statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; Chap. 229.

TRli^ATMENT OF YOUNG TREES ]^Q9

TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY

Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows so as to
obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the
home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever
the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large
nurseries tree-diggers are generally used. They have two revolving
coulters, which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees,
and a sharp, curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under
the trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly.
The tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root
system than by the old style of "ploughing out," which broke off
so many of the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether
the taproot should be retained or not is not worth discussing on
theoretical grounds. As a matter of fact and practice, the taproot
cuts no figure at all in California orchard planting, although the
discussion of the question was formerly very warm in this State,
and is still occasionally heard. It is important, however, that the
planter should have as many small lateral roots as he can get. The
small fibrous roots are usually of little account, as they seldom sur-
vive transplanting, and it is better to clip them away, if the time
can be afforded, as they often prevent the proper close contact of
the soil with the larger roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs
at the base of the stem has succeeded in some instances in California
on moist low lands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying
of the surface layer which is to be expected in this State.

The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence,
in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well
covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nur-
sery to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack
trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costs
less and they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully
bundled with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw,
and the packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to
prevent drying out.

Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway
stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for
shipments to lie on the station platforms for days, often when a
desiccating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the
life out of the rootlets, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is
blamed for failure of trees which have suffered some such neglect
as this, either from transportation companies or from the purchasers.

Heeling In. — On arrival at the farms, trees should be "heeled in"
as soon as possible ; even if it is the intention to plant at once, heel
them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unexpected
manner. To heel in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or a double
furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil ; put in the trees singly

no CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

side by side, removing all the packing material carefully from the
roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the earth over
the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure
that the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this
treatment will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable
time if need be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival,
the bundles should be thoroughly drenched with water before heel-
ing in. In extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking
and shriveling of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then
they should be covered root and top with earth for two or three
days, when, if the trouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover
its smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, however,
that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by neglect.
In heeling in it will be found a great convenience and a safeguard
against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken
from the packing is placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen gen-
erally attach a label to each small bundle, if the trees are of several
varieties, and the novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when
heeling in the trench, unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving
the nurseryman's label to mark the whole lot of each kind.

If the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his trees,
or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions which
will be laid down in this book, he should insist that the nursery-
man shall not trim up nor cut back the trees before packing. Have
the trees packed just as they are lifted from the ground. The work
toward the shaping of the tree should be done after it is planted in
the orchard.

PLANTING THE ORCHARD

The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being moved
from the nursery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good evidence
of its dormancy. Such, however, is the effect of the climate of Cal-
ifornia, more apparent in some years than others, and with some
kinds of fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small part
of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to wait
for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for convenience
of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place, and in
such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evaporation.
It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the sake of
early setting in its new position than to wait for all the leaves to
drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery stock which
is kept growing late in the season by late irrigation. Such trees are
not always desirable.

Time to Plant. — The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali-
fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the

I

CONDITIONS FOR PLANTING m

ground. It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry
earth below. This can be removed by irrigation when available.
Early planting of common orchard fruits is of advantage for sev-
eral reasons. First, an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the
season's rainfall, whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a
year with short rainfall, is apt to suffer during its first season's
growth, unless it can be irrigated. The two main things to observe
are the dormancy of the tree and the proper condition of the soil,
and both of these are most apt to coincide in many parts of Cali-
fornia about the first of January, but in heavy loams in region of
large rainfall, the soil may then be too cold and wet. There will,
however, be some variation from year to year, and different parts
of the State disagree as to the date. Hence, the general rule must
be based on conditions, that of the tree and that of the soil. If the
novice can not judge these for himself, he must get the advice of
some one of experience in the locality.

The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated
in another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual
plants become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in compara-
tively frostless portions of the State, evince a tendency to become
evergreen. The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than
the inactivity of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to
have their root wounds callused over and new rootlets considerably
advanced before the buds Swell. Therefore, by early planting the
tree begins soon to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well
settled around it by rains, which often follow early planting, and
the high wands, which are apt to come in the spring in some parts
of the State, find the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself.

Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first com-
ing, may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are
over, say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and
then often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting
when the soil is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in
such condition it can not be properly disposed about the roots, the
inactive roots may begin to decay and trees moved at this period are
apt to show their dislike of the treatment. If the work has been
delayed unavoidably, so that early planting can not be done, it is
better to keep the trees heeled in until the proper soil condition
returns, even if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to culti-
vation for retention of moisture will pull through a late-planted tree.

These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but
there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the climate
approaches Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in
planting will also approximate Eastern methods. In regions of
very heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the rainy season
and moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the spring, late planting
is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier parts of the State.

il2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted.
Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some-
times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash
badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better
to plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant
when the soil has become warm and mellow.

THE OPERATION OF PLANTING

Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not
necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and
just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well
and rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage.
Using the straight *'tree-setter," which has already been described,
one takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the
tree stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the ''setter"
is laid aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades,
begin first around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface
dirt on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be
thrown out last, because its remaining serves to center the hole.
The lower soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and
when depth enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole
is loosened up to the depth of a shovel-thrust, without removing
it from the hole. A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown
into the center of the hole, being allowed to remain higher
in the center, because this generally furnishes a cushion about
the natural shape of the under surface of the root system of
the tree. Now replace the tree-setter upon its end pegs, let one
man hold the tree with its stem in the central notch in the setter,
and while the other man shovels in the surface earth rather slowly
at first, the man who. holds the tree with one hand will spread out
the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around them, being sure
that no cavities are left under any of the roots, but that their sur-
faces everywhere come in contact with the soil, and that they spread
out as widely as possible. The earth is being continuously put in
by the shoveler, and when the roots are covered the planter steps
in the hole and carefully firms the soil down upon the roots by
tramping (especially at the cut ends of the roots around the outer
side of the hole), at the same time judging of the perpendicularity
of the tree with his eye. When this is done, both men use their
shovels and fill up the hole with the earth taken from below, being
sure to leave the last few inches at the surface pulverized, but
untramped, unless the soil be very light so that tramping will not
overpack it. Some one said long ago that one should not plant a
tree as he does a post, ramming down the earth to the very top of
the hole. Many trees are doubtless ruined by over zeal in this
respect.

SUGGESTIONS ABOUT PLANTING -.-to

The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used
in planting. Where the soil is deeply ploughed, well worked, and
free from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other con-
ditions the long-handled spade, and in some cases the long-handled
spading fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom
of the holes and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man
with a shovel or spade, and the other with the fork, make a good
combination in this respect.

Planting in a Furrow. — A practice which has been largely fol-
lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed
and cheapness consists in laying off as described on page ninety-
eight, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by
a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly set
with the least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed.
Plowing immediately follows planting. The advantages of this
method are ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface,
and escape of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting
after plowing.

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS

The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All
large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or
shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside
of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most
cases be cut back to a sound place.

The tree should be placed if possible with the same side toward
the sun as was exposed to the sun in the nursery ; at all events, the
wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above the
bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak
point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun.

If the roots of the young tree grow more to one side than the
other, place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind.

The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is some-
times desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain.
Pour in the wat^r after the hand work in spreading the roots and in
pressing the soil under and around them has been done and the hole
partly filled. When the water has soaked away, fill the hole with
fine earth zvithout tramping. In irrigated districts leading the water
along the line of trees in a furrow to settle the ground at planting is
a good practice. It is almost essential in the planting of evergreen
trees which are best moved during the dry season. In early planting
in parts of the State where the rainfall is abundant, there may be
no need of water-settling; in late planting, however, it will some-
times be found of advantage. Puddling the roots, or dipping them
in thin mud and planting with this mud adhering, is governed by
much the same conditions as water-settling; it may insure the

114 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

growth of the tree when otherwise it might be seriously injured by
drouth. With puddled roots especial care should also be taken to
leave the surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle,
use loamy soil and never adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake
around the roots and may kill the tree.

The Use of Manure. — Never put manure in the hole with the
tree. Sometimes the injunction is. Never put anything but well-
rotted manure in the hole. It is better to put none of any kind.
Manure should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains
then leach it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing.
There are, however, light soils in the drier parts of the state where
turning under manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes
the soil too porus and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra
care should be taken to have the manure thoroughly decomposed
by composting, as will be described in the chapter on fertilizers, and
all applications should be made either late in the spring to act as
a mulch in the summer, or if a mulch is not thought desirable, apply
the manure in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned
under at the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegra-
tion. In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially
among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They take
ths scrapings of the corral, which have been trampled and pul-
verized, but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted. When
this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened by rainfall
or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury being the
drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best to put
nothing but well-pulverized surface soil around the roots of the
young tree.

Depth of Planting. — The depth to which trees should be set has
always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule
under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible
the same depth it stood in the nursery row ; that is, so as to have it
stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned
by cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the
drier parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low,
because several inches depth of the surface soil become dry, and the
roots should be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be
practiced, it must be remembered that the water level will rise when
the soil is saturated and deep-planted trees are apt to suffer. The
experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting, which
used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees
have been ruined by planting too deep except in light sandy soil.

Speed in Planting. — On good soil, well prepared, trees can be
put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on
one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four

TREATMENT OF YOUNG ORCHARD

115

acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes,
digging the holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost
three-quarters of an acre per day per man. In planting peaches
and apricots an average of one hundred trees per day to the man
has been attained. On the mellow loam, in another case, the aver-
age was one hundred and twenty-five trees to the man, digging holes
two feet square in land which had been plowed twelve inches deep.
Such work is only possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men
who work well together.

Mapping and Labeling. — Where mixed varieties of fruit are
planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set.
A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters
and architects use for their drawings. The map can easily be drawn
to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After
the map is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily pre-
served. With such a record, the grower need not care what becomes
of the labels, as he can locate a variety any time by its row and tree
number. If, however, one desires labels, let them be made in this
way: Take a piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. ' Across
this, cut pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and taper-
ing to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly with a
common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get brighter
by exposure to the weather. The small end may be coiled around
the branch of the tree ; it will yield as the tree grows and will do
no injury. Such labels will last for a long time. Labels attached
by a cord or wire should be removed as soon as the trees are set, for
they are apt to be forgotten and the tree seriously injured by the
cutting in of the ligature. Even when labels are used the map is
the only surety, because any kind of a label is apt to be lost by acci-
dent or through malice or mischief of intruders.

Mulching. — Although early-planted trees on deep soils in regions
of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, there
are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light materials
may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rotted
straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to
a distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less than
six inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to
be especially recommended when late planting is practiced. Even
in localities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in
the winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous
tree. Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using great
care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set out
early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late planting, but
where late planting is necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull
through. It is a far easier way of keeping the ground moist than by
irrigating, but is not a substitute for it where systematic irrigation

j^lQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is necessary, though irrigation may often be lessened, and in some
cases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least until the
trees come into bearing.

Guarding Against Sunburn. — Newly-set trees should be pro-
tected against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips
of burlap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning
just below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots
will appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and
rewound so as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can
be fastened with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured
''tree protectors" of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted
around the trees are now largely sold. Whitewash made according
to the formula at the close of Chapter IX is a good protection from
sunburn. For young trees, however, it should be made with air-
slacked lime, which has lost some of its causticity. Another white-
wash, which has been largely used for young trees, consists of four
ounces of whale oil soap dissolved in each gallon of water, Spanish
whiting being stirred in to give the solution a paint-like consistency.
Millions of trees have perished in this State, and as many more been
condemned to sickly lives, because of sunburn, and borers which
seek the injured bark for entrance. Pruning has much to do with
saving trees from this evil, as will be shown in the proper connec-
tion, but in the hotter parts of the State, the first precaution should
be to shade the bark of the young tree with some artificial protec-
tion.

Cutting Back at Planting. — Whatever idea the grower may have
as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting
from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system
of the young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The
planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future
growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree may struggle through
and regain strength, but it will for years be smaller than if it had
been properly cut back at planting. If the moisture supply should
be short the tree may die the first summer which would have sur-
vived if differently treated at planting. The manner of cutting back
depends somewhat upon the style of pruning to be followed after-
ward, as will be considered in the next chapter.

CHAPTER XII
PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT

It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theo-
ries of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to
the abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and European
treatises. The effort to approve or condemn these theories by con-
sidering them in the light of California experience and observation
might lead to interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work
aiming merely at an exposition of what appears to be .the most satis-
factory practice in California fruit growing. It will be found that
this practice varies somewhat in the different regions of California,
sometimes in degree, sometimes in kind, because of different local
conditions, and it might be found that nearly all reasonably theories
of pruning could be verified in California experience.

Pruning in California is at present almost exclusively a shaping
process. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear fruit that
pruning to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more
rarely practiced, while pruning to reduce bearing wood, and thus
decrease the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the
place, in part, of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to
the tree, as in cutting it back to induce a new wood growth, is also
rather a rare proceeding, but probably could be much more widely
employed to advantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the
many practical advantages which adhere in the form now prevailing
in California orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our
climate ; others we share with those who advocate a similar form
elsewhere.

Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are
almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and
those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same
principles are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed
to follow their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance,
but because their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement
of growers that they know what is good for the tree ; and this sub-
stantial unanimity is the result of the experience of the last fifty-five
years. People possessed of the art temperament sometimes com-
plain of the depressing uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree
shapes in California. They are apt to lament the fact that system-
atic orcharding destroys the picturesqueness of tree-growth. They
should understand that such conception of a fruit tree has no place
in commercial fruit growing. The producing tree is the result of the

117

j;j^g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

conception of an agency to serve certain purposes. The orchardist
does not prusue uniformity merely for its own sake, but rather for
the purpose it serves, and the fact that many thinking men have
practically agreed upon a certain form as an ideal of producing
ability is demonstration that such form is, at least, approximately
correct. There is an industrial conception of a tree, which is neces-
sarily and essentially different from an art conception of pic-
turesqueness based upon the feral type. The wild tree is rude and
crude from a cultural point of view.

PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING

One of the first things for the beginner to undertake as he
approaches the practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good
idea of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation
of intelligent pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions.
Satisfactory work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons
for each act and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and
experience should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably,
modifying method to meet condition, and producing desirable
results. Receive all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and
study your problem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of
its needs. Some of the best pruners in California are men who were
untrained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard
work. Reading, discussion, systematic instruction are all valuable.
They save much time and many errors, but recourse to the tree
aflfords the sovereign test of attainment.

These may be counted among the practical purposes to be
attained by pruning in California : (a) Convenience of the grower;
(b) health and strength of the tree ; (c) regulation of heat and
light; (d) attainment of strong bearing wood; (e) attainment of
size in fruit ; (/) promotion of regular bearing. Examine trees with
reference to their embodiment of these characters and one can
hardly fail to secure rays of light upon the subject of pruning which
seems dark to so many.

Convenience. — Trees which branch near the ground are most
quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spray-
ing, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising
branches are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal
branches, unless the head is carried so high that the animals pass
easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conven-
iences and economies which actually determine profit, and is really
out of the question from a commercial point of view. Sometimes it
does not pay to pick some fruits at a certain distance above the
ground, when picking at half that distance yields a profit.

REASONS FOR PRUNING

119

Health and Strength. — It is imperative in most parts of this State
that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat
of the day: This protection is secured even for young trees by low
branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree
with properly spaced branches attains superior strength by virtue
of thick, strongly knit, short growth between branches, and by its
strong, stiff, obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which brings
horizontal branches to the ground, and thus even high-headed trees
are liable to continually increasing interference with cultivation, and
the desperate grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the
air and farther above the profit line, while at the same time he ren-
ders it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding, and to unthrift by
forcing the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood
and bark which impede its movement. Besides, a low tree escapes
stress by strong winds which a high tree invites and at the same
time is less able to withstand. Pruning for health and strength of
tree also includes the removal of unthrifty or diseased parts, which
are not only an incumbrance to the tree but may communicate to
other parts the causes of their ill condition.

Heat and Light. — The maintenance of strong bearing wood in
the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning
of the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer
of the tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in
each fruit region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat
the denser the tree; the lower the heat the thinner the tree; but
everywhere the proper condition of openness must be constantly
in view in pruning. Not alone must this be done to maintain thrifty
growth below, but it is also essential to the best growth and ripening
of the fruit in the lower and interior parts of the tree. Fruit inferior
in size, color and quality results, in part, from lack of pruning to
regulate the admission of light and heat, sometimes one, sometimes
both, to the shaded portion of the tree.

Bearing Wood. — Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and <
good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and
heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some
fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of
forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Re-
newal is more or less a consideration with all trees, and especially
the securing of strong new wood. This is a point upon which close
study of the bearing tree will yield most satisfactory suggestions.

Size of Fruit. — The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy and
vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing wood
which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of the fruit
burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor should
always be minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to retain
more or less bearing wood according to the vigor, size and bearing

J20 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs, when
either are clearly seen to be in excess, should be the constant study
of the pruner.

Regular Bearing. — This point is largely involved in the preceding
and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit
borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a
tree may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and
perfect good fruit buds for the following year. It may generally
make buds which will bloom, but not always that. It it does make
the bloom, it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and
eflPective for bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount
of bearing should always be borne in view and should be practiced
at the close of the year of non-bearing with particular diligence, if
the alternate year bearing habit is to be broken up.

The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in
pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a
single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a
single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various
ends to attain ; they may be attained in different ways, although it
is not strange that substantial agreement in methods does largely
prevail. It is better to try to understand the purposes than to mem-
orize the formulae. Get the tree and its interest clearly in the mind;
have an ideal toward which to work ; be more interested in why a
neighbor prunes in a certain than how he does it. Learn constantly
by all available means, and at the same time study the visible forms
and aim to understand their fullest significance.

FORM OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA
CONDITIONS

The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular
uniformity all over the State is the "vase," or "goblet," or "wine-
glass" form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are
different ways in which this form is secured and maintained in
different parts of the State, and with different fruits, which will be
especially noted in the chapters devoted to these fruits.

The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees.
Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a
trunk six inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to
the general advantages of low-trained trees which have been
described, there are special reasons for this form in California. Hun-
dreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure
of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun-
burned sides have given the conditions desired by borers, and
destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees have not
survived their first season in the orchard, because of burned bark; or

THE POPULAR CALIFORNIA FORM ;£21

this, with the added injury by the borers. It is also found by Cali-
fornia experience that growth is more vigorous in the branches
when they emerge near the ground. Even where actual burning
may not occur the travel of the sap through the longer distance of
trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also, that benefit results from
shading of the ground at the base of the trees, by reducing evapora-
tion, and by maintaining a temperature of soil better suited to vig-
orous root-growth.

But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the
higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the
aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which will do
well in the central and upper coast region and adjacent to the bay
of San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear
trunk, would dwindle and probably perish in the heated valleys in
all parts of the State. In such situations, both north and south, the
best practice is to head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold
as low as six inches from the ground. There will always be some
difference of opinion as to detail, but the necessity of making the
trunk short enough to be effectually shaded by the foliage is admit-
ted by all growers.

Characteristic of the California Vase Form. — This vase form is
a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it
has undergone very marked modification in California, losing much
of the accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work
and in bearing capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical
value which adheres in the design.

The California vase form dispenses with the central stem or
trunk at a certain short distance above the ground, but this is not
done for the purpose of securing a hollow or open-center tree, which
is a leading characteristic of the old European vase-form. The few
branches which are desired to grow from the short stem are pruned
when the tree is young to induce successive branching with short
interspaces. At each cutting the aim is to get two branches from
one, and nearly as possible of equal vigor, so the California tree does
not, exccjjt, of course, in occasional instances, show the outline of
a leader from the bottom to the top, but there is a succession of
branchings, turned this way or that by the skilful pruner, occupying
available air space, distributing the weight so it comes more nearly
over the center of gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers
of the branch so that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. This
idea, however, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the
interior of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is
found desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight nat-
urally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without
exposing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus
it appears that instead of the true vase or wine-glass, with hollow

122

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

interior and thin walls, we have the general exterior outline of this
model, but give a good part of the central area of the figure to bear-
ing shoots, and thus secure a large bearing surface with well-
strengthened supports.

It has been found that this many-branching form, developed
upon a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a
stronger tree than can be had by growing a considerable number of
leaders, all starting from near the point where the tree was headed
at planting. Such leaders crowd each other at the point of emer-
gence from the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway outward and
break out at this point. A vastly stronger tree is secured by start-
ing but four or five branches from the low trunk and letting them
emerge from different sides of the stem, and at different levels.
Thus each main attachment to the stem has abundant room, and the
wood enlarges symmetrically and solidly. The expansion of the top
is attained by the branching which follows the cutting back of suc-
ceeding years. Starting branches from nearly the same level on the
stem has been the occasion of great losses of overladen trees, and
quite a considerable recourse to strengthening up weak trees by
running bolts through from side to side at the points where experi-
ence shows breakage is likely to occur. In this respect it is now
clearly seen that the practice which was widely adopted a few years

Forms of head resulting from cutting back.

Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer's garden in Berkeley, showing forms
of head resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches
at planting.

ago of beginning with a very short stem and using the three or four
adjacent buds nearest the point to which the tree was cut back at
planting is defective. It is much better not to cut back so far at

THK KFFECTS OF PRUNING

123

Results of cutting back to longer and shorter stems.
Apricot and cherry trees twelve years old, showing results of cutting back to
longer and shorter stems at planting, in 1897. as an experiment in head form.

124

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

planting, but to leave a longer trunk, keep a greater distance be-
tween the main branches and still have the lowest branch as near
the ground as before, thus securing a tree which is practically as
low as that secured by the old method of starting. This point will
be enforced by illustrations.

HOW TO SECURE THE DESIRABLE FORM

For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to
illustrate the steps by which the form of tree found so generally
desirable is to be attained.

Cutting Back at Planting. — This has been shown on page 116 to
be essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the
prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches,
formerly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the branches
allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It is better to
retain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches — providing
care is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinching, the
growth of too many branches near together. Allow those to grow
which are more distant from each other on the stem and pinch the
intervening shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch
at six inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve
inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or

Pruning for branch spacing.

Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater
or less space between main branches; also first
year's growth from each beginning marked for first
winter pruning.

RULES FOR WINTER PRUNING

125

L.. ,„.,.. „

^Khe main branches which was formerly allowed, and it is of vast
^Radvantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations of this fact
^■are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test this matter. At
^Bthis date they are large trees and show the forms of heads restdting
^Kfrom different spacing of branches on the young trees during the
i^first summer's growth.

First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the
engraving, deciding first at what height you wish your trees to form
heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure
a good bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds
the trees should be handled carefully while removing from the
nursery and during planting.

If the tree has already grown laterals where the head is desired,
three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be selected
to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound bud nearest the
stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the head, removed.
This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young peach tree well
branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the young tree have
started out above where the head is desired, as is sometimes the
case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top, and usually
others will start below afterwards. If there are no buds visible on
the stem at the place where the head is desired., the choice
must be made between heading the tree higher up, where the
buds are, or cutting back without regard to buds, trusting
to the development of latent buds at the right place, or to
the growth of a shoot from below, which can be cut back to form a
head the following year. It is for this reason, among others, that
planters prefer a yearling tree which has not branched, but has good
buds all along the stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in
the nursery but usually have dormant buds at the bases of such
branches which can be employed in making new growth where it is
desired.

After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the
head are allowed to make their full growth without interference.
All shoots not desired for branches are pinched off after growing out
two or three inches, leaving a bunch of leaves to shade the trunk
and contribute to its stouter growth. Constant watchfulness is
necessary to pinch off undesirable branches all the first summer.

First Pruning. — In the winter following planting, the shoots of
the previous season's growth are cut back to about ten or twelve
inches from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut
shorter, but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together
when they get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the
exact length which these future main branches should be left at the
first pruning.

-j^2g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

If, during the first summer's growth, all shoots except the num-
ber desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter
pruning consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals
have grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on the
tree, they should be cut back to a bud or two. This is better than
removing them entirely, for the next summer they will be pinched
after throwing out a few leaves to shade and thicken tlie branches,
just as the short growths left the previous summer serve the main
stem.

Second Pruning. — During the second summer it is usual to allow
two branches to grow from each of the main branches left at the pre-
vious winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described.
These branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except
where excessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer
pruning. This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the
State, as will be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit.
Usually, however, the main branches are untouched during the sec-
ond summer's growth unless some are running out so far as to make
the tree lop-sided. During the following wmter the main branches
are cut back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth they have
made, and if too many strong laterals have grown below this point,
some are shortened, others are removed entirely where they are apt
to cross or crowd each other or to interfere with cultivation. It is
not desirable, however, that all small growth should be cleanly
removed. Some of these small shoots will bear a little fruit and the
leaf action is in any case desirable as a contributor to the strength of
the larger branches to which they are attached. Besides, they serve
to shade the bark from sunburn.

Third Pruning. — When the tree reaches its third winter pruning,
its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach, apri-
cot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respectable
crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be
taken at the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low
down on the main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head
of the tree, most of the first crop will be found. Though some trees,
as stated, do bear earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not
usually considered of commercial account until the third summer.
An engraving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter
pruning. It is a very good representative of the vase-form of a tree
as grown in California. It has four main branches, each issuing
from a different point on the stem, each permitted to carry two
main branches, which are not arranged around the circumference,
but some of them tending toward the center. At the third pruning
more shoots have been left than are required by the rule, for, start-
ing with four main branches, there are usually sixteen left at the
third pruning.

STRONG TREES FROM A RIGHT START

127

^i hree winter primings of deciduous trees usually establish their
lermanent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward
he retention of that form ; for strength of branch and stem ; for
enewal of bearing wood; for regulation of amount of bear-
ng wood; for relative light and shade, and for convenience
m cultivation and other orchard work. Naturally, these ends
are sought according to the needs and habits of different fruits,
and the methods of attaining them will be discussed in the chapters
treating of these fruits. There are, however, certain general con-
siderations which are proper in this connection :

Pruning during the dormancy of the tree induces greater growth
of wood during the following summer; pruning during the active
period reduces wood growth and promotes fruit-bearing. The
amount of wood removed during the dormant period will make the
summer growth of wood proportionately stronger. Whether the
total weight of wood growth would be greater may be questioned,
but the effective wood growth is certainly greater. Whether the
feet of new wood grown on a peach tree cut back to stumps in the
winter would be. greater in weight than all the inches of growth
which would be scattered all over the surface of the tree if not cut

V

V

Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. First summer's growth in the

orchard.

These sketches, and those on pages 98 and 99, represent the progress of the
peach tree from a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer.

128

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

back, may be doubted, but the new growth secured by cutting back
will be of immense vigor and the following year will bear large fruit,
while the new growth on the tree not cut back will be thin and short
and the fruit absent or indifferent. The weaker the tree or the
branch or the twig of the tree, the greater the part of it to be
removed when dormant to get the stronger new growth.

In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth pruning during the
active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant
period, having the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some

First winter pruning.

Second summer growth in orchard.

trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will
bear fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals
are retained on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other
trees, like the prune, which bear on spurs, will delay the formation
of spurs if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse
policies in pruning bearing trees : A peach tree unpruned will
reduce its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals ; a prune tree too
severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs.
Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips,
others chiefly upon the lateral spurs ; shortening one reduces the
crop largely ; shortening the other may increase the marketable
crop by decreasing the aggregate number. These and other similar
facts suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be intelligently pursued,

HOW TO PRUNE FOR PJFFECTS

129

must be accompanied with the fullest possible knowledge of the
bearing habit of the fruit or variety thereof.

Cutting back or "shortening in" should be done in a way which
will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably
secured by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because the
sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pressure and forcing of
latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting
back of all branches to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees

Second winter pruning in orchard.

shorn across at a certain line become thick as a brush with top
shoots which require extensive thinning, or the bearing wood will
soon be all at that level through failure of the densely-shaded bear-
ing wood below. Cut to the nearest lateral below the line you wish
to approximate, and shorten the lateral if desirable, and the result
will be fewer and stronger shoots than from a stub-cut.

In the treatment of bearing trees the main eflfort should generally
be toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This
is related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the
burden of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection.
The work has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual
fruit specimens. It involves the whole future of the tree as a profit-

130

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

able affair. An unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and
dying laterals and spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by
sawing out many large branches is only partially successful, though
perhaps the best thing that can be done after such condition has been
allowed to exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full
enough of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin
out surplus shots as the tree advances in age and size. This work
is as important with trees which are not regularly cut back, as with
those which are thus treated. It is one of the most vital as well as
the most generally neglected item in orchard practice.

In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more than
one at any point; select the strongest; remove the rest close to the
branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one
remove the older one ; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of an
older one cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always
reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not apply to the
outbreak of strong suckers or water sprouts below the main
branches ; they should usually be cleanly cut away unless a new
main branch is desirable.

Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the
removal of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn,
blight or disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back
from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but
there is also danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such
wood and training new wood to take its place should always be in
mind.

Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it
should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and
least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done
near the beginning of the growing season and not at the beginning
of the dormant period.

TIMES FOR PRUNING

Some changes of view have lately prevailed as to the times,
within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done
to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter
that no cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this
is still the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts
the best. Recently, however, pruning in autumn, has been quite
widely practiced.

Fall Pruning. — There is a time near the end of the active season
in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no
marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and
drooping which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first
to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon
old trees earlier than young ones. The buds are well formed ; the

GOOD FORMS OP YOUNG TREES

131

season's growth apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten
the fall of the leaf and it remains in place. Does it render any im-
portant service? On the conclusion that it does not, many growers
begin the winter pruning while the days are longer and ground dry
and firm rather than delay pruning until the short, dark days and
rain-soaked soil of December and January render pruning expensive
and disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first assume
the appearance described, and the work proceeds with other varie-
ties afterwards until the winter pruning is finished by December 1 —
about the time when it commonly began under the old practice. Not
only is more thus accomplished in the same number of days' work,

Young peach and apple trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems.

but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter spraying and culti-
vation and the grower is ahead of his work and not behind it all the
season if the season is unusually rainy. Several years' practice of
this method discloses no bad results except in the one item of
increasing danger from frost. Vines and trees pruned early in the
dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier than those
pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where early
bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost, this
practice may be undesirable.

Spring Pruning. — Resting largely upon this matter of retarding
growth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or,
in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider
adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual

132

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

freezing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing
point which is feared, and during recent years such a temperature
has wrought havoc with some fruits, in early valley regions partic-
ularly. Later pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have
appeared, has worked no injury to the trees, but it is less conven-
iently done than when the trees are free of foliage.

Summer Pruning. — Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as has
been previously intimated, but little employed in this State, for the
constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear.
Enough has, however, been done in individual cases to show that
fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the
season has been attained. If the pruning results in forcing out
laterals late in the season it has been done too early. What is
desirable is the strengthening or developnient of fruit buds, and
this will be accomplished after the energy has been too far dissipated
to make new wood growth.

Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of
some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the
warmer parts of the State, where the vegetative process in som€
trees seems fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the
tree by breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test
its strength. The methods of summer pruning employed in different
parts of the. State for different fruits will be considered in connection
with the special chapters on these fruits.

Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates
in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable extension and to
direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This prac-
tice is approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by
them to a greater or less extent. More people believe in than prac-
tice it, however, because the summer months, with their long suc-
cession of fruits to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the addi-
tional consideration that there is always a scarcity of labor at this
time, give the orchardist so much work to do that he is more apt to
confine his ''pinching" to a little that he may do now and then when
he has a few moments' leisure than to do the work thoroughly and
systematically. The result is that the regular winter pruning is the
main operation for tree shaping in this State.

There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning
that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about it which
will not be disputed. Much of this difference comes, of course, from
different conditions prevailing in different trees and in different
parts of the State, and some of these will be met, as already prom-
ised, in following chapters. Leaving these wholly out of considera-
tion at this time, it is safe to advise those who wish to secure sym-
metry or any particular fcrm in any kind of a tree, that they can
resort to summer pinching with advantage, and can sometimes to
advantage remove wood too large for the thumb and finger to sever.

RENRWINO OLD TREES ^ qo

Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious
shoots starting out on stem or limb at points where branches are
not desired. Wherever they start out strongly, they should be
pinched, or entirely removed, according to the best judgment to be

Weak tree from ill-spaced branches.

formed in each case. Suckers, which, properly, according to
Downing, are "shoots sent up from the root or from parts of the
stem below the surface of the soil," should be removed whenever
discovered.

RENEWING OLD TREES

Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting
has already been considered under the head of propagation. It
is often desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this
IS done simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting
back was formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the
sap begins, but more recently it has been seen that the exposure
of large cut surfaces for weeks or months before growth begins,
lesults in drying and shrinkage of the bark and checking of the
wood, both of which are avoided by amputation later in the dor-
mant period or during the early part of the growing season. In
cutting back, of course, those stumps should be left to support
new branches which will secure the best balance and symmetry
in the new head. When the new growth starts, there generally
appear many more shoots than are desirable, and selection of the
best-placed and most vigorous should be chosen, the others either
being rubbed off in the bud or pinched back when a few leaves
are put out. In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk and branch
stumps should be wrapped in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed
as protection from sunburn.

In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should
be made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the
scar with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results
m an unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decay-
ing, carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or branch.
Cutting too close prevents covering with the new bark, and also
results in a hole in the branch. Cutting just to the right mark,

134 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which is the outer edge of the little collar or swelling which will
be found at the base of all branches, enables the wound to grow
over quickly, and if the wound is properly treated when cut, there
will be no decay, and the wound will soon be obliterated.

In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should
be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch
falls. Another good way is to saw off first at a distance from the
final cut and then saw off smoothly at the right place when the
weight is removed.

Trees often become ''hide-bound," as it is called. Especially
in this dry climate the bark gets dry and tough, therefore can
not expand in proportion to the growth of the tree, or supply
the amount of sap necessary for the demand. Slitting such trees
here and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a
sharp knife seems to have good effect, for often in three months
the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase
of growth, results. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of
moss and lichens which should be removed. This -can be done
by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alka-
line wash, composed of one pound of caustic soda or potash to
six gallons of water. If scale insects are present, the lime, salt
and sulphur spray should be used, as will be described in the
chapter on injurious insects. This will remove the parasites,
give the trees a clean, bright bark and contribute to their vigor.

PRUNING TOOLS

There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative
value of the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife,
if sharp, and well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of
the bark, and such a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if
of good pattern and sharp, also make a very good cut, but there
is always some little injury to the bark on the side opposite to the
entry of the blade. On small cuts, say three-quarters of an inch
or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the resistance does not
make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously consider, and the
speed with which the shears can be used renders them the main
reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles of hand
shears are used in this State.

There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful,
and enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened
they are very effective tools. There are a number of styles in
use, both home-made and imported.

Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the
cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to
throw the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more
lengths can be used. With this device one can stand on the ground
and shorten in the top shoots of a tree very handily.

CUTTING AND COVERING

135

For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or
one-hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of
which two styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the
best spring steel, constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher's
saw, except that the saw blade is much narrower; and instead of
being stationary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to adjust
the blade to cut at any angle, as is often necessary to do when
cutting where limbs grow close together, and where it would be
impossible to use an ordinary saw of a wider blade. The blade
is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and therefore not liable
to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted by a tension
screw under the handle, which tightens the blade. The blade is
easily detached by slackening the tension screw, and lifting the
blade out of the slot in the clutches at each end. The blade can
be thus reversed and made to cut with a push or a pull, as may
be desired.

Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve
and fourteen-inch blades, which cuts with a pull.

During recent years it has been possible to find quite full
assortments of pruning tools at the hardware and general mer-
chandise stores in all our fruit districts where these devices can
be compared and selection made according to individual preference,
for there can be no best tools for all men and all uses.

CUTTING TO A BUD

Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to
sever the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which
gives that bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same
time facilitates the healing and complete obliteration of the scar.
Cutting too far from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is
likely to carry decay into the pith and thence down into the limb.
Cutting too close to the bud or carrying the slope down too far
behind it, does not give it enough live wood to carry it, and it
makes a weak growth.

Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to
outside buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral
extension is desired, should always be remembered as a means of
throwing new growth in the direction demanded by symmetry
and equal occupation of the space allotted to the tree. This is
one respect in which study of the habit of the tree suggests proper
practice.

COVERING WOUNDS

Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will
not grow over in one season, the wound should be coated with
something to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has

136

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

been amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth-
paring of the cut made by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large
wounds should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the
wood and drying back of bark edges. Nothing is better or cheaper
for this covering than lead and oil paint, a little thicker than
for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, so that it will not run
down the bark.

GATHERING UP PRUNINGS

Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive,
and several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for
hand labor. Anderson's Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson,
of San Jose, has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all
kinds of tree and vine brush, compresses it considerably and is
easily discharged of its load by a slight lift while still going
forward. It is said to save about one-half the cost of hand raking.
Brush is often gathered into windrows by the use of horse rakes
borrowed from the hay field.

Baling Prunings. — There is a fuel value in prunings which has
become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely prac-
ticed, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G.
Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a ''brush baler." It is a large
strong saw horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever.
Attached to a cross piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent
in a semi-circle. The saw horse is filled with brush, the lever
is then pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake, the brush
is forced into a small, compact bundle, and when bound with wire
makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman.

THINNING FRUIT

Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the
thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits
so that each shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of
satisfactory marketable size. It has been fully demonstrated that
no demand is profitable which will be content with the undersized
fruit from an overladen tree. The superior price for good-sized
fruit for all uses, not excluding drying, is unquestionable; the
total weight secured may be variable as between thinned and
unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as an indisputable fact
that any increase of weight there may be upon an unthinned tree
will not be nearly an equivalent for the loss in value. It is the
conclusion of our largest and most successful growers that, large
as is the expenditure required for careful and systematic thinning
of fruit. It is the most directly profitable outlay which they have
to make for orchard maintenance.

13;

138

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THRM

Objects in View in Fruit Thinning. — But thinning fruit has
objects beyond the vahie of the visible crop which it makes profit-
able.;/ No overburdened tree can discharge the twofold summer
duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this
season's fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next year's
bearing./^ If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the strong,
vigorous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds for the
following year, there will either be a lack of bloom or a show of
bloom unfit to set, and the tree will work for itself next year, and
not for you, because this year you would not work for it. In
this particular, thinning fruit coincides in purpose with pruning
to limit the amount of bearing wood, which has already been
considered.

Other objects there are also which are related directly to the
profit of orcharding and should command respect from the most
careless. The following is an emphatic statement of the case :*

There are at least six ways in which growers are repaid for thinning
peaches, nectarines or apricots designed for drying:

First: You can thin off half the fruit when small quicker than you could
pick it when large, and when mature the time required to fill a basket de-
pends mainly upon the number of peaches it holds.

Second: It takes just as long to cut and spread on a drying tray a small
peach as a large one. It takes longer to cut eight peaches that will weigh a
pound than to cut three and pick off five when they are little.

Third: If peaches run six to the pound the weight of pits will not vary
much from that of the cured fruit. If they run three to the pound, they will
Weigh not muich over half. A ton of large peaches is as likely to yield 400
pounds of dried as a ton of small fruit of the same variety to yield 300
pounds. It means a difference of about $8.00 per ton in the value of the fresh
fruit" to the dryer. It will cost over $t.oo per ton to thin a heavily laden
peach orchard in a way to make that difference.

Fourth: Granted that you leave fruit to reach the same weight at ma-
turity, still you leave it along the body and in places on the limbs where the
weight has no breaking leverage and take it off the ends where it may get
sun-burned and is almost sure to break the tree.

Fifth: Vitality drawn from the plant and certain elements of fertility
from the soil, are in proportion to the number of seeds matured. The pulp
cuts little figure except in aerial substances and water.

Sixth : Suppose that fruit dried from peaches that weigh three to the
pound only brings one cent a pound more than that from peaches half that
size. Two cents would more accurately measure the difference in value.
Still, the smaller figure is enough to meet the whole cost of picking and haul-
mg or of cutting and drying in any well-managed establishment.

When to Thin Fruit. — Thinning of fruit should begin with the
winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con-
nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to
each tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of
bloom, which is urged on the ground of least possible loss of
energy by the tree in the partial development of fruit to be sub-
sequently removed. Hand-thinning of individual blooms is im-
practicable on a commercial scale, but the removal of spurs or

• Condensed from F. S. Chapin.

THINNING FRUIT mmgmm I39

twigs, or shortening of them with shears, is feasible enough. The
objection must He in the fact that profusion of bloom does not
necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and any severe reduc-
tion of bloom is, therefore, venturesome unless one is fully assured
by local experience of the habit of the variety under treatment.
Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is, therefore, the only
safe proceeding, and this should not, as a rule, be. undertaken
until the first drop, through lack of pollination, has taken place.
Even at greater theoretical loss of energy to the tree, it is better
to err on the side of thinning a little too late than too early
in order to secure the fullest assurance possible of the permanent
burden which the tree assumes. Where spring frosts are likely
to occur they afford additional reason for delay. If surety of the
local conditions comes before the pits harden in the young fruit
it is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is still a greater
saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower to reduce
the fruit to a proper amount than to permit overbearing.

The Practice of Thinning. — If the tree has not been sufficiently
relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning
and has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears
by cutting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even short-
ening in longer limbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible,
is of no appreciable injury to the tree. After all the shear- work
possible is done, the spacing of the fruits on the twigs and branches
must be provided for. This was done in early days by beating
the tree with a pole, and some still maintain that they can use
the pole to advantage. The almost universal practice, however,
is to use the hand in plucking or pushing off the small fruit. This
IS done very quickly by experienced workmen. If the trees are
low, as they should be, most of the work can be done from the
ground. It is best to work in vertical spaces and take all that
can be reached from top to bottom without changing position ;
then move a step or two and take another vertical strip, and so on.

The distance which should be left between specimens depends
upon conditions. It is as unsatisfactory to thin by rule of inches
as it is to prune by such a rule. The space to each fruit depends
upon the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size
and thrift of the lateral or spur which carries the fruit, the moisture
supply, the richness of the soil, etc. It also depends upon what
use is to be made of the fruit, because it is possible to have some
fruit which is too large for certain demands, though this objection
does not often arise. The strength of the shoot is perhaps the
most easily appreciable factor. With peaches, for instance, a
shortened lateral one-eighth of an inch in diameter should only
carry one peach, while one one-quarter of an inch in diameter might
mature four good large fruits. It would evidently be wrong to

■j^^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

work for an arbitrary inch-distance on all sorts of shoots, and it
will be seen to be just as irrational if it be applied without regard
to the other conditions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be
had, let it be this, that the distance,_b£tween the fruit shalLbe
two and one-half times the diameter desired in the^ fruit. This
would fix an arbitrary distance, then, of four to six inches for
apricots and six to eight inches for peaches — with other fruits
according to their respective sizes, and the late varieties with
greater distance than early.

Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the
fruit, not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of
one of the important ends of thinning, to conserve the strength
of the tree for next season's fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced
and still the tree be overladen, because it may be carrying
too many bearing shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in
this way, for instance : Peaches which weigh three to the pound
are of fair marketable size; sixty such peaches will fill an ordinary
peach-box of twenty pounds; ten to twelve such boxes is fruit
enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of age. Now count
the little peaches you have left on one main branch and its laterals,
which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree, and thin down to
about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way and thinking of the
relation of the bearing wood to the fruit, one will soon get a con-
ception of the proper degree of thinning, and proceed to realize
it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the branch.

It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches; pull both
off or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the
load of the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced
to singles, except where size is apt to be too great.

All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by
thinning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice
prevails at present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune.
With this fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree for the
reduction of the number of bearing branches, while with some
shipping plums hand thinning is practiced. Growers are still
striving for a prune naturally of larger size rather than to have
recourse to thinning.

The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further
removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop
and various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule
is to finish at one operation.

CHAPTER XIII
CULTIVATION

It was demonstrated very early in California experience in
fruit growing, that ''clean culture" is generally the proper treat-
ment for trees and vines during the proper season, at least.
Though the frequent stirring* of the soil and the eradication of
grass and weeds have been advocated by certain horticulturists
for generations and have recently been demonstrated to be desirable
by careful comparative experiments, it has nowhere secured such
wide adherence as in California. It may even be held to be an
essential to successful growth of tree and vine in most soils and
situations in California, and the several advantages of clean culture
are intensified under our conditions.

Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a
condition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this con-
dition is the retention of the moisture, though regulation of summer
temperature in the soil is also involved. Where moisture-retention
is not the chief concern, because of ample irrigation facilities,
and the moderation of soil temperature is of greater moment, a
summer-growing cover crop may be of benefit to the trees. In
irrigaied districts of excessive heat and dry air this policy may
prevail, but it will be only the exception to the rule of clean culture.

Retaining Moisture by Cultivation. — It is a familiar fact that
Avater will rise in a tube of exceeding small diameter very much
higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is
held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact
soil has extending through it, minute spaces, formed by the partial
contact of its particles, which facilitate the rise of water from
moist layers below, in accordance with the same principle which
causes the water to rise in the capillary tube. This movement
is constantly going on in firm soil, and as fast as the top layer
is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, the water rises from
below and it too is evaporated. During the long, dry summer,
the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several feet
in some soils, and the earth, beneath the baking sun heat, becomes
''dry as a brick."

When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is tempo-
rarily destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles
are so separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter-
spaces no longer exists. But if it be roughly broken up, so that
the disturbed layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free
access to the upper surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which

141

142 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the capillary condition still exists, and evaporation proceeds in
the same way, though in a somewhat less degree, as if there had
been no cultivation. It becomes evident, then, that the pulver-
ization of the disturbed layer must be so complete that the particles
are separated and capillarity destroyed, and, farther, that the free
access of air to the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be
prevented. This is accomplished by the fine loose earth which
acts as a mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the
upper surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is
evaporated, and the balance is retained for the use of the plant.
Plants growing, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water
in the lower soil held for their use, and as fast as they use it
the supply is replaced through the firm soil below, which evapora-
tion being stopped, remains moist and permeable by roots which
extent freely, seeking the nourishment they need.

Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results
gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as reten-
tion of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy.
Go into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the
soil with the foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches
from the surface, or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated
land adjacent, digging to the depth of several feet will show nothing
but hard earth, baked and arid. In such hard-baked earth, more-
over, the sun heat is conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly
during a hot day, so that in some cases the roots are seriously
injured. When the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket,
preventing a too rapid conveyance of heat downward, and thus
also diminishing the intensity of evaporation.

Accurate demonstration of these facts has recently been secured
as the result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and
uncultivated soil by the University of California Agricultural
Experiment Station.* Very striking exhibition of the condition
of trees with and without cultivation is found in the engravings
which are reproduced herewith. Upon the demonstration, the
practice in the uncultivated orchard was radically changed. The
exact determination of moisture present at various depths of the
soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the month of July is as
follows :

Depth in soil.
First foot

Cult
Per cent.
6.4

ivated.
Tons per acre.

128
116
128
130
134
120

Uncu
Per cent.

4.3
4.4
3.9
5.1
3.4
4.5

Itivated.
Tons per acre.
86

Second foot

Third foot

Fourth foot . . .

5.8
6.4
6.5

88

78

102

Fifth foot

Sixth foot

6.7
6.0

68
90

Totals, six feet...

6.3

756

4.2

512

♦Bulletin 121.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION

143

irhis shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by
cultivation.
Necessity of Adequate Cultivation. — It has been very fully
demonstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth
must be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of
the dust-mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent
the access of the dry air to the firm soil belov^. At the East, where
they have a moister air, a thin mulch may answer; but in California,
with a thirsty air for such a protracted period, there must be
deeper tilth. Two or three inches of dust spread over a hard-pan
layer, formed in some soils by cultivation, will not retain moisture
well in California. The cultivator should go twice that depth,
ordinarily, and then the result will be accomplished if it is done
frequently enough to prevent the re-firming of the surface by
atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture from below. The
exact significance of depth in the loose, surface layer has also
been demonstrated by moisture determination in the subsoil at
diflPerent points by the California Experiment Station, as follows :

Percentage of moisture

in cultivated loam soil.

Depth.

Three inches

Six inches

Niles. Santa Maria.
5.4 5.3
6.3 8.5

Ventura.
8.3
9.3

These may be accepted, probably, as average results : Varia-
tion may occur in soils of diflerent characters. The capillarity in
a heavy soil is vastly greater than in a light soil. The difficulty of
securing a pulverized surface layer is also greater in the heavy
soil. The poorer the pulverization, the deeper the layer must be.
Naturally, then, growers' practice will vary. The rule will remain
that there must be depth enough to secure eflfective protection
of the firm soil beneath from agencies promoting evaporation.

Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth. — One of the most active
agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the
growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and
then to allow a summer growth of weeds to "shade the soil" is
a great error. Although under the cover of rank weeds moisture
may appear even at the surface and convey the impression of
moisture-saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience
and actual experiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the
soil is reduced and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed
growth must be .resolutely suppressed during the dry season.

Moisture Storage in the Soil. — Conservation of moisture in the
soil is not only the surety of the current season's growth and
fruitfulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of
deficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The

144

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

moisture supply is equalized by this storage in the soil, and a
surplus from the liberal rainfall of one year is held over to supply
the lack of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is also
well calculated to catch water. While from a hard surface much
of a heavy rainfall flows off quickly to a lower level before it
can penetrate, a loose soil, if sufficiently deep, retains all that falls
upon it, except the excess, which disappears by drainage.

It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that plant-
ing some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young
tree and the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great
mistake. Though some rich, moist soils may afford moisture
enough to grow both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most
cases the growth of the corn is made at the expense of the tree,
and sometimes almost costs its life and thrift. It has been amply
shown by investigation that though shading ground by a leafy
growth may make the surface layer of the soil moister, the lower
layers are invariably made drier, and it is in these lower layers
that the tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should be
shaded as has been described in the chapter on planting, and not
by a growing plant.

GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES

The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions
of high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of
this chapter. The rule, however, must be : Grow nothing what-
ever between the trees if you desire the full success of the latter.
As with all rules, this one may admit of exceptions.

Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under
certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If
the soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and culti-
vation, and sometimes more, may be made by growing a crop
among young trees. Of course, if irrigation is available, much
more can be done in this direction than if dependent upon natural
supplies of water.

There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they
may do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has
been known to kill out an orchard. Grain is less dangerous, but
still is objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and
moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat deflected from
straw and stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their
requirements, and because of the constant cultivation of them,
checks the loss of moisture by evaporation, are corn, beans, pota-
toes, beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon
family, onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the
growth of these, however, there should be a width of several feet
of well-cultured soil on all sides of the tree, unoccupied.

I CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES -f^fc

In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is
abundant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried
on for a long series of years with profit both from the trees and
the inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation,
immense crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as high as
twelve to twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre have been taken
from between orchard rows, and one hundred and fifty sacks of
onions per acre from between the rows of a strawberry plantation.
In Ventura County some fields of lima beans, in favorable years,
have paid over $70 per acre — grown between young trees. In
other parts of the State considerable amounts of peas for sale to
canners- are grown between the rows in young orchards. This
crop is especially desirable when good sale is assured, because the
plant is hardy and can make a good part of its growth during the
rainy season and the ground be cleaned up and well cultivated
early in the summer. As beans and peas are legumes, their roots
enrich the soil, as will be noted in the chapter on fertilization.

How Exhaustion by Inter-Culture May Be Avoided. — But all

inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The
term may be very long and the rate of interest very small in
some cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution to
the soil of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This may
be accomplished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the
trees or vines should have all the ground is generally true. It
is also true that on merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall, or
on shallow soils, trusting in part to irrigation, the trees or vines
should have the full strength of the land and all the help which
can be given them in the shape of thorough cultivation.

METHODS OF CULTIVATION

In general terms the main objects of cultivation of orchard
and vineyard are two : Winter cultivation for moisture reception,
and summer cultivation for moisture retention.

Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too great
danger of soil washing, it aflfords the best available means of
admitting water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a deep
soil. Too frequently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air-
washing as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed
to run ofT into the country drainage, with the double loss of fertility
and moisture to the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains
should be, in all safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention
has already been strongly urged and is quite generally recognized.

To serve these main purposes there are two main divisions
of practice in this State, each of which has variations of greater
or less importance.

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CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

First : Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator
and pulverizer in summer.

Second : Use of cultivator at intervals both winter and summer,
following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer.

The main features of each division of practice, and some of the
claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will
be noted.

Plowing Orchard and Vineyard. — There is considerable varia-
tion in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds
of plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some
plow but once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable
condition ; and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a
looped chain is run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid
in drawing under the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth
gets so rank before the soil is in condition to plow^ that the weeds
are mown before plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the
soil is usually thrown away from the trees and afterwards is leveled
back by harrowing or cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care
should be taken that the soil is properly returned about the tree
roots, for injury is sometimes done by bringing the roots too near
the surface, which is soon afterwards intensely heated by the sun-
shine.

It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the
green stuff gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn under
handily. In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and
they easily decay and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing
is practiced, it is usual to plow again when the second growth of
weeds reaches the proper state in the spring. When two plowings
are given, the earth is usually thrown away from the trees in the
first plowing, and returned toward the trees in the second plowing.
But this order is sometimes reversed in situations where rainfall
is heavy and the soil retentive, for the dead furrow between the
rows often acts as a surface drain to carry off surplus water, which
is thus prevented from standing around the tree roots. In all
modes of plowing it is desirable that before the summer heat comes,
the surface be leveled as completely as possible.

Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing
when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To dis-
regard this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grievous mistake
to work any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition.
If too wet, they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard
clods, impenetrable by air, and even resist water itself for a long
time. When clods are thus formed, it may require long eft'ort to
bring the soil back to a good friable condition. The cultivation
of adobe is one of the problems of California agriculture. The
more refractory it is, the more particular care is needed to take it

147

148

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THFM

when it is in proper condition to work. To work it when perfectly
dry is simply impossible, and if it is plowed when too wet and sticky,
it becomes hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanageable. The con-
dition which favors best results by tillage must be learned by
experience. *

Another mistake, apt to be made where the orchard or vineyard
is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the
plowing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the
soil in the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large
clods, which are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but
never put in the fine tilth which should be secured for the retention
of moisture and otherwise to encourage the growth and productive-
ness of the trees.

Breaking up Hard-pan. — Those who advocate the use of the
plow, claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more
thorough tilth can be secured. In most, but not all soils, there is
formed by cultivation an artificial hard-pan at whatever depth the
implement attains, if this depth be kept the same for many succes-
sive cultivations. This hard-pan, in some soils at least, becomes
impervious to water and is otherwise an injury to the growth of
the trees. It occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land alike, but
probably is more quickly formed by irrigation. When continuous
summer cultivation is practiced, the hard-pan will be found at
whatever depth the teeth uniformly reach. The remedy is to plow
in winter just below this hard-pan layer and thus break it up,
and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced, and culti-
vation may proceed as before. Where the hard-pan is formed by
the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one year and
deeply the next, thus alternating from year to year.

Green Manuring. — Another advantage in the use of the plow
IS, as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth
of weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. Many growers
attach considerable importance to this, and some, who have
orchards in which winter growth has been killed out by long culti-
vation, are seeking for a quickly-growing crop which they can
sow with the first rains and secure growth enough to turn under
with the winter plowing. This consideration will be farther pre-
sented in the chapter on fertilization.

Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing. — Where the slope of the
land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy
season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches
carefully laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a
gentle grade. The old plan of plowing furrow^s one above another
around the hill to check the flow and let the water down easily,
is often found treacherous unless one is able to strike good grades.

I AVOIDING INJURY IN CULTIVATION -j^^g

tecause of the liability to collection of water at certain points and
he subsequent breaking away and washing. Recently some of
if the foot-hill growers have adopted the plan of plowing furrows
even or eight feet apart straight down the hill in the direction of
- its deepest descent. The rainfall is thus distributed over the
ground so that not much water is collected in any one place and
the harm done by washing will not amount to much. Hillside
work differs according to character of soil and of local rainfall and
conference with experienced men in the region will usually afford
the beginner the best suggestions of method. In some localities,
the plowing of a few furrows at intervals to assist in penetration
and the growth of a cover crop during the winter to assist in bind-
ing the soil, will be found better than any attempt at the early
plowing, which may work admirably on level lands.

The Best Plow. — For plowing orchards and vineyards many
kinds of plows are used, including the ordinary one and two-horse
walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang
plows of different kinds. Recently disk plows and harrows have
become very popular. In several of the leading fruit districts
there are plows made in the local shops which are patterned to
meet the different soils prevailing. Which is the best plow is
a question which can not be answered, it must be determined by
local conditions, and the best way to get information is to consult
the experienced cultivators of the locality.

Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines. — The great problem is to
use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to
the roots is one ground on which those who advocate the banish-
ment of the plow from orchard and vineyard base their opposition,
as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to
run tlie plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or
vine, and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a two-
horse walking plow between the rows and finishing up near the
trees with a single-horse walking plow, which is a common practice.
The injury by the plow, to which especial reference is now made,
is that to the bark of the tree or to the vine stump.

Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently
made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the
central line of draft, and these improved tools have rendered obso-
lete the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with com-
mon field plows.

Flat Hames and a Spreader. — Among the worst things for use
among trees are the pointed iron hames which are found on most
harnesses. They often seriously bark the branches under which
the horse passes, and should be dispensed with. An arrangement
widely used consists in having broad leather tugs and hames with

150

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

only one long iron loop on the swell of the hame. The tug is
passed around the hame and the end is brought through the iron
loop from the under side, so that the draft will hold the tug tight
between the collar and the hame and the end between the iron
staple and the pulling part of the trace. A spreader is put between
the tugs ; it is made of a hard-wood stick sixteen to eighteen inches
long; a hole is bored in each end large enough for a two-inch screw,
a hole punched in each trace about twelve inches from the rear end,
and the tugs are screwed to the ends of the spreader, and the ends
of the tugs attached to the plow clevis. This gives no iron or
wooden surfaces at all, either on harness or whiffletree, to strike
the bark.

Improved Singletrees. — Later than these came the orchard and
vineyard singletrees, invented and patented by Californians, which
are widely used and sold in all stores in the fruit growing districts.

Dispensing with Doubletrees. — Still other inventions which
admit the use of two horses even close up to the trees, because
they dispense entirely with whiffletrees and tugs, are known as the
steel harness. Eastern inventions, which have secured the approval
of some of our leading growers for use in orchard and vineyard.
The plow is attached to the steel yoke by a chain running between
the horses. With them it is possible to work quite close to the
trees and vines, and is especially desirable in the vineyard in
working close to the vines when they have grown out about two
feet, which is a difficult job with the old-style harness.

SUMMER TREATMENT OF PLOWED ORCHARD AND

VINEYARD

Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the
winter, the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow
leaves it. The moistening and aeration during the winter have a
good effect upon the soil both chemically and mechanically.

If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are supposed
to be over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to
good tilth, and to level the surface as much as possible. This is
done by harrowing with one of the several improved harrows which
are now generally introduced and found very effective. They act
in cultivating, clod crushing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory
manner. They are too well known to need description. Each
has its advocates and its adaptations to certain soils. As with
plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the best for one soil may
not be the best for another, and local inquiry among experienced
fruit growers will be the best guide for the newcomer. In addi-
tion to the excellent implements brought from the eastern States,

I^H CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING ^51

lere are others of California invention and manufacture which
ave very marked local adaptations, and almost every fruit region
in California has some embodiment of local inventive genius in the

Kirm of implements of tillage.
The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring
orking is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible
ithout compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount
of firming after plowing, or else there is too free access of air and
too great drying out. For these and other reasons, the grower
has to study his soil and learn from observation the methods which
succeed best with it. The practice which gave success under cer-
tain conditions might not be well adapted under other conditions.
The use of the roller is a striking example of this fact. In some
orchards the roller is a benefit, in others a decided injury. Its
chief effect is compacting the surface layer, which is only desirable
on very coarse open soils. The long-tooth harrow accomplishes
a very marked compacting of the soil to the depth it reaches and
often settles the lower layer too closely and causes it to run
together too solidly if rain follows. The modern cultivators, clod-
crushers, disk-harrows, etc., are superior in effect, each in the
soil to which its action is most desirable.

After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is
relied upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form
after spring rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting
of the surface layer of the soil from any causes.

CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING

There are orchards in California which have not been plowed
for years — in some cases the plow has not been used since the
trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in
irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the me-
chanical condition and disposition of the soil whether the practice
will give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on land prone
to develop hard-pan, as has already been considered, and yet the
term "cultivation" has taken such a wide range in this State, and
the tools have reached such efficiency, that there is not as much
difference as formerly between the plow and the cultivator, except
that the former turns the soil and the latter stirs without turning.
For some who oppose the use of the plow, use a chisel-tooth cul-
tivator, cutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, but at
other times of the year they are not more than half as deep.
This treatment would tend to dispose of hard-pan. However this
may be, and what the special nature of their soils, there are fruit
growers, both in northern and southern California, who have for
years trusted almost wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth
of three or four inches, and keep their orchards throughout the
year almost in the same state of tilth, never allowing a weed to

152

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

grow. This practice is, however, becoming" less prevalent, and for
certain soils the (piestion is practically settled in the minds of nearly-
all orchardists, while for other soils there is still doubt. For
the heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultivation is apt to
render too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to the plow to
open the land for proper aeration and penetration of moisture
which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-oflF. The
lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with
continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly
seen, however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of
the humus and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its
water-holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have induced
some growers to change their practice and take up the plow during
late winter or early spring to cover in the growth of green stufif
which they allow to grow instead of frequently destroying it with
the winter use of the cultivator. Either the fall and spring plowing,
or both, followed by the summer use of the cultivator, is the most
rational and satisfactory practice for most of our deciduous orch-
ards, though there are local conditions and circumstances under
which different procedure is preferable.

SUMMER CULTIVATION

Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in sum-
mer cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized
earth. It will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size
of a pea to that of a goose egg, resting on. a hard surface. The
finer the pulverization the shallower can be the surface layer, and
vice versa, and this is probably one reason why in practice the
work of the plow is, in so many situations, found the best founda-
tion upon which to rest the years' cultivation.

In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes
nece^ary to use what is called a ''rubber," where there are many
clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator.
There are different styles, and they are generally home-made.
The most common form is made of two-inch plank in lengths of
three or four feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-by-four-inch
scantling running crosswise, the edges of the planks lapped like
the clapboards which are used for weather boarding. As these
edges are drawn over the surface, the clods are rubbed into tilth
if the}^ are not too hard and dry.

But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the sur-
face smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunheat even to
tree-burning, and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is
most to be avoided. The best finish for the land is that produced
by a light, fine-tooth harrow, and an attachment of this kind is
provided with various clod crushers and cultivators. The result

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION

153

IS a surface of loose earth, flat and fine, which approaches very

jlosely an ideal conditign.

There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow

>r cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use
the cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to

^row and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside

md the land left unstirred until the following winter. This, of
^course, refers to unirrigated ground, for wherever irrigation is
practiced a cultivator must follow, except on hillsides where the
surface is left undisturbed after the irrigation furrows are made
at the beginning of the dry season. It is a fact, however, that even
if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted to a certain degree,
and the best way to imprison the greatest possible amount of
moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals all through
the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the surface
layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that fre-
quent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is
the best-paying practice.

WHAT IS THOROUGH CULTIVATION

As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be
desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be
approximately done, because of the great difference in individual
views and practices. Some indication of the operations which are
contemplated may be had in the following specifications upon which
contracts have been let for care of orchard : First, plowing away
from the trees, followed by harrowing ; second, plowing toward the
trees, followed by harrowing; ten summer workings with . culti-
vator; three workings with shallow cultivator or weed-cutter; five
hand hoeings around the trees. The contract intends the most com-
plete and perfect working of the soil and specifies the above merely
that there may be no difference of opinion between owner and
contractor.

In cases where the land is infected with morning-glory, weekly
cultivation is stipulated for in some cases, and this seems about
the only way to cope with this formidable trespasser.

CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING

Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cali-
fornia ^ because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually
disposes of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the
earth-mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few
most persistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson
grass and morning-glory are the most prominent of these. ^ The
only successful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a
weed -cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass under

154 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the whole surface and run so often that the plant is never allowed
to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely to cultivate
or "weed-cut" as for other weeds. This spreads the pest more and
more ; but if the rising shoots are continually cut under the surface,
and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the plant surely, but
it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives of this
description are usually contrived by local smiths and are attached to
sleds or fitted with plow-handles, or used with a pair of thills and
cultivator-handles, or other rigging as the operator may choose.
The vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp, and rigged to
run just under the surface. It must be used as often as once each
week.

MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION

The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of
light materials to prevent evaporation, is practiced to a small extent
in this State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds,
recourse has also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The mate-
rials, used are various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse
manure, damaged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and
leaves, and even fine brush from adjacent thickets. The practice
has been found of greatest value on hillsides where cultivation
is difficult, and danger of washing of loose soil is great. There are
cases where vines have been grown several years in this way to
the satisfaction of the owner. The danger of fire in our dry climate
when the surface is covered to a depth of several inches with a
dry mulch is considerable. As a rule, the mulch employed by the
California grower is a perfect pulverization of the surface soil.

CHAPTER XIV
FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES

t^m It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that Cali-
fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is some-
thing in our soil and climate which releases us forever from repay-
ing anything to the ground for the wealth of produce which we
take from it. Such a view is, of course, without foundation, and
yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early attempts to enrich
the soil by the turning under of coarse stable manure, as is done
in other countries, was undertaken here on light soil in a region
rather short of rainfall. The manure did not decompose, and its
coarse materials made a soil, already too light to retain moisture
well, so open and porous that its moisture was quickly carried away
by evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon adjacent
land which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth against
manure. The corrals* became undisturbed guano deposits, and
manure piles were fired in dry weather to get the soil poison out
of the way. Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground
in San Francisco and shipped away to countries which need fertil-
izers. Nature did much to foster the popular delusion, for field
crops were gloriously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly
and bore fruit the weight of which they were unable to sustain.
How could there be more conclusive evidence that manure was a
detriment to California soils?

A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies
and now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits,
are not only freely investing in commercial fertilizers but are buy-
ing and shipping considerable distances all available animal
manures. They are also untiring students of the art of fertilization
and the sciences underlying it. It was in response to their demand
that the California Legislature of 1903 passed a fertilizer control
law giving the University Agricultural Experiment Station regu-
lation of the trade in fertilizing materials. All dealers are required
to register and submit samples of their brands and there is con-
stant inspection to detect departures. Semi-annual reports are pub-
lished for public information and these, with special instructions for
taking samples when purchasers desire analyses on their own ac-
count, can be had by application to the Experiment Station at
Berkeley. The total amount of sales reported under the law for
the year ending June 30, 1908, was 31,228 tons.

• Inclosures for live stock of any kind.
155

156

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is foreign to our pur])ose to discuss the general su])ject of
the use of fertiHzers in CaHfornia, and the changes in belief and
practice which have recently gained ground. Of course, the marked
falling off in the yield of shallow-rooting cereals gave the first un-
mistakable intimation that there was something wrong about the old
theory of the perpetual youth of California soils. The lands used
for fruit are sometimes slow to show exhaustion, because trees are
deef) feeders, and the soils, as they are often the very best and
deepest of the State, selected for fruit because of that very charac-
ter, possess, in an eminent degree, lasting properties, as is shown
in the chapter on the fruit soils of California. But certain of these
soils are already showing the need of refreshment, and intelligent
growers are quick to minister to the lands which are giving them
such generous returns, as they can well afford to do.

WHEN IS FERTILIZATION NECESSARY?

Though the use of fertilizers by our fruit growers is beginning,
it should be plainly stated that at present, except perhaps with
citrus fruit trees, or the oldest orchards of other fruits, it is not
yet the rule that such applications are necessary. There are some
soils which are really too rich for fruit. There is sojiietimes an
overrank growth of wood, which delays or prevents the formation
of fruit buds, and there is a marvelous development of fruit which
is inconsistent with the highest quality. For this reason the grower
should not conclude, from the foregoing general remarks concern-
ing the need of fertilization in California, that he must manure his
soil whether it needs it or not. Especially is this the case with
young trees, in which the wood growth is easily overstimulated.
As with irrigation, so in fertilization ; the tree or vine itself will
give the observing grower hints as to its needs, and if the growth
of wood and color of foliage are such as obviously indicate health
and vigor, it may be concluded that the plant needs nothing but
good cultivation and intelligent pruning.

Usually cases of overrich ground will cure themselves as the
trees attain size and full bearing, and it is then that fertilization
may be necessary. When the tree or vine which has been properly
pruned and cultivated is not able to mature a good weight of well-
developed fruit, and make a satisfactory wood growth, usually at
the same time showing some degree of distress by the color of its
foliage, it needs help ; and if the grower is sure that the trouble is
not from lack of moisture in the soil, he should bestir himself in
the manuring of his orchard or vineyard. In examining the soil
for moisture, one should dig deeply, for there have been cases
of moisture near the surface, and drouth below.

THE USE OP FERTILIZERS . rn

[AT FERTILIZERS TO APPLY TO FRUIT TREES
AND VINES

I^H A discussion of this subject from a chemist's point of view is
nSeyond the scope of this volume. The results of research at the
University Experiment Station at Berkeley are summarized in the
treatise on soils by Dr. E. W. llilgard, who maintains the position
that the most intelligent and economical choice of fertilizers is to
be made after ascertaining by analysis in what constituents the
soil is deficient and in what it is well supplied. Some applications
made in conformity with suggestions based upon analysis have
proved very satisfactory. But as soils vary within narrow limits of
area, there must be analysis for each soil in question.

Approaching the matter of choosing fertilizers without soil
analysis, the method by local trial is open. In this recourse there
is danger of error, as pointed out by Dr. Hilgard, arising from local
differences in soil and subsoil, and must be checked by several
check plots so interposed between the others as to not only check
them by direct comparison, and to prevent the washing of fertil-
izers from one fertilized plot to another, but they must also be
compared, first of all, among themselves, to determine what is the
normal product of the unfertilized land. It will frequently be found
that these unfertilized check plots differ more widely between them-
selves than do the fertilized ones from them or from each other.
It usually takes several seasons to come to definite results.

From these statements it must appear that the prescription of
fertilizers is not an easy matter. Disappointments will naturally
be encountered, but unquestionably the advantage is on the side
of patient trial and wise investment in fertilizers honestly made
and honestly sold. The observing grower must learn all that
he can from experience. The University of California at its Citrus
Experiment Station at Riverside began in 1907 a series of experi-
ments in the course of which trees, specially planted in plots
guarded from interference, will be grown on various diets in order
that close comparisons may be made, from which it is expected
that important conclusions in plant nutrition can be drawn. It is
obviously the duty of the grower to constantly study fertilizer
questions as presented in books and journals and to be alert
for observation of the behavior of his own trees with the applica-
tions he may make. The publications of responsible fertilizer
manufacturers and dealers, also convey important information when
read discriminately.

Though the deficiencies of the soil, as learned by analysis, or by
practical test, must be the basis of prescription of fertilizers, the
analyses of fruits, as showing the special needs of the plants, are
of the highest importance. The following analyses of the different

158

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

fruits, containing, in each case, skin, pulp and seeds, are almost
entirely from California-grown specimens, and are supposed to
represent an average composition of the fruits named.

Quantities of soil ingredients withdrawn by various fruits

Compiled from analyses by G. E. Colby, University of California

Phosphoric

FRESH FRUIT Total ash Potash Lime Acid Nitrogen

1,000 pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds

Almondst 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01

Apricots .. 5.08 3.01 .16 ' .66 1.94

Apples 2.64 1.40 .11 .33 1.05

Bananas 10.78 6.80 .10 .17 .97

Cherries 4.82 2.77 .20 .72 2.29

Chestnutst 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40

Figs 7.81 4.69 .85 .86 2.38

Grapes 5.00 2.55 .25 .11 1.26

Lemons 5.26 2.54 1.55 .58 1.51

Olives %. 13.50 9.11 2.43 1.25 5.60

Oranges 4.32 2.11 .97 .53 1.83

Peaches 5.30 3.94* .14* .85* 1.20*

Pears 2.50 1.34 .19 .34 .90

Prunes, French 4.86 3.10 .22 ' .68 1.82

Plums 5.35 3.41* .25* .75* 1.81

Walnutst 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41

flncluding hulls. *Estimated.

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED SOIL

Based upon the clear characteristics of California soils as
already indicated in the chapter on that subject, Dr. Hilgard advises
that any large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates and
nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with
potash also, this being the order in which these substances are
likely to become deficient in most of our soils under cultivation.
In the course of time potash fertilization will become widely
necessary in this State; in fact some California soils are naturally
deficient in potash.

AVAILABLE SUPPLIES OF PHOSPHATES

Phosphatic manures which are clearly promotive of freer fruit-
ing of trees and vines, are now being supplied to fruit growers by
importers and manufacturers located in various California cities,
and results attained by their use are such as to warrant contin-
uance. They are bone and rock phosphates, which are transformed
into superphosphates, and, with nitrogenous matter added, serve
as good applications both for growth and fruiting.

I

HOW TO HANDLE BONES -jrQ

Home-made Bone Manures. — Much good bone manure can be
made by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from butchers'
shops or elsewhere. How to make such material available, by
simple proceedings, is described by Prof. Hilgard as follows :

1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves
gradually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent.

2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if placed
at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer's heat and drouth and
cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece, and, in course
of a few years, consume it entirely.

3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little
quick-lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In a few months the
hardest bones will be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super-
phosphate. Concentrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In this
process the nitrogen of the bones is lost, going off in the form of ammonia,
the odor of which is very perceptible in the tank used.

For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burning
of bones is an unqualified detriment to their effectiveness, which can only be
undone by the use of sulphuric acid.

4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure of
thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily 'crushed in an ordinary
barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for use. Practi-
cally, very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus lost.

POTASH

Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good supply
in California soils, it is very clear from experience that additions
of potash, perhaps in more available form, are advisable. The
fruit analyses already given show that the use of this substance
by fruit trees and vines is very large. Recent experiments also
show that potash ministers directly to the quality of the fruit in
some cases. Ashes from wood fires are the most available source
of potash, but it is a mistake to regard wood ashes as valuable
only for their potash contents. Professor Storer has found by
analysis of a number of samples of house ashes, that selected sam-
ples contain 8Y2 per cent of real potash, and 2 per cent of phos-
phoric acid, or say 4J/2 pounds of potash and one pound of phos-
phoric per bushel. Hence there is enough potash and phosphoric
acid to make a bushel of ashes worth twenty or twenty-five cents,
and besides that, some ten or fifteen cents additional may be
allowed for the "alkali power" of the ashes, i. c, the force of
alkalinity which enables ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat.

These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should carefully
preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the soil
at once, or, if stored for future application, be sure that they are
kept dry. Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes from
open piles, leached by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal
ashes are almost devoid of fertilizing properties, though, if finely
divided, as in the case of coals burning completely, their use is

;j^gQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

beneficial, mechanically, on clay soils, in the same way that fine
sand would be.

The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Ger-
many and are in the hands of local dealers, but there are exten-
sive deposits in Utah, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the interior,
which can be employed when railroads make them available.

NITROGEN

Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetative activity of the
plant and is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage.
Supplies of this substance can be had from animal manures, which
will be considered later. The effect of stable manure upon the
soil and the plant is notably strengthening and restorative. For
this reason money and effort are often well expended in securing
it even beyond the cost of the equivalent of the plant food which
it contains. Another natural form of nitrogen in cover crops or
green manures will be discussed presently. Of commercial forms
of nitrogen, tankage and dried blood are highly esteemed for
orchard use, and there is large use also of Chile saltpeter, which
contains about sixteen per cent of nitrogen, in immediately avail-
able form. From one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds
per acre is the usual application. Sulphate of ammonia is another
available source of nitrogen obtainable in commerce ; a good com-
mercial article contains twenty per cent and over of nitrogen. It
does not, however, act quite as rapidly as the Chile saltpeter. A
suggestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures will be
given presently.

LIME, GYPSUM AND MARL

Lime is another substance usually abundant in California soils,
but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably, the
case on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already been men-
tioned in another connection, the use of lime as a top dressing,
at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds to the acre,
not only makes the heavy soil more friable, but acts upon and
makes available the large amount of organic matter which such
soils usually contain. Lime also renders inorganic materials more
available for plant food, corrects acidity, and may destroy insects
and fungi. Application of lime is also desirable after applications
of barn-yard manure have been made for several years; and it is
especially valuable wherevef-, in alluvial soils rich in vegetable mat-
ter, there is an excessive growth of wood and leaf. Usually light
soils are not materially benefited by the use of lime.

Ground limestone is sometimes proposed as a fertilizer, and
has even been offered on the market, It is insoluble and inert

TREATMENT OF STABLE MANURES -j^g-j^

carbonate of lime, and is not worth the cost of hauling any distance.
^It can not take the place of burned limestone.

^H Gypsum. — Gypsum, or land plaster (sulphate of lime), occurs

^fti considerable quantities in this State and Nevada, and is now

^^eing mined and ground at a low price in the San Joaquin Valley.

It acts directly in correcting soils made alkaline by presence of

carbonate of soda. Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets free

potash, magnesia, and ammonia, which may be present in insoluble

form; and it also causes potash to be transferred from the upper

to the lower layers of the soil, so that roots can everywhere find

a store of it. Hence its special value when applied to deep-rooting

plants. The reason why gypsum is so capricious in its action,

' which was long a mystery, is now held to be clear, because upon

I soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash it will do good service,

while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In any event gypsum

i ' is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as a form of plant food.

Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies in

. its power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it delays

fermentation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addition to the

compost heap. But for covering fermenting manures or scattering

around moist places in horse and cow stables to absorb odors and

fix volatile manurial substances it is of value.

Marls. — Marl is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl,
rock marl, earthy marls, etc., according to its origin and mechanical
condition. A number of samples from different parts of the State
have been analyzed by Professor Hilgard and some of them com-
mended for local application to soils needing lime, but not valuable
j enough to warrant hauling far. Marl which sometimes occurs
in California too near the surface is injurious to trees, causing
yellow leaf and die back when reached by the roots.

BARN-YARD MANURE AND COMPOST

Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there
are abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination
is not characteristic of California, though prevailing to some extent,
and likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends farther
from the centers which are wholly given to it. But even in the
fruit centers there are certain amounts of material available from
the animals that are kept for cultivation and hauling, or to be had,
often, for the expense of hauling from adjacent towns.

As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be used
to advantage in this State, unless it be in heavy soils in regions
of ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irrigated;
and even in such situations either finely divided or well-rotted
manure is infinitely superior. Corral scrapings, which are usually

IQ2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the first resource when the idea of manuring springs up in a neigh-
borhood, are not always well decomposed, but they are finely
divided, and therefore decompose readily as compared with coarse
straw, which, it is said, has been found practically unchanged even
after lying two years in a dry, loose soil. It is, therefore, of the
greatest advantage to prepare barnyard manure with care for use
in this State by some such method as will be described below,
which includes composting, thereby turning to account nearly
all organic material likely to be available :

Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the
same on the land, and either cultivate it in or plow it under. What manure
accumulates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in
depth, and throw it over some three or four times during the winter to keep
it from burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten decom-
position. Put horse, cow, hog, chicken, and every other kind of manure that
can be had, all together. Never burn anything that will rot, but haul to the
pile corn-stalks, roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and potato vines, etc.,
as well as weeds of every description, in fact, anything and everything that
will decay and make vegetable matter. Use fresh horse manure mostly to
hasten the decomposition of said vines, weeds, etc., alternating as the heap
is made. By so doing there will not be a weed seed left with vitality enough
to germinate. It is well to have manure piles under a roof to avoid leaching
during the longest and most excessive rains, but so situated that some of the
rain falling on the barn can be easily conducted to the piles, giving them just
the amount of water necessary to wet thoroughly without leaching, and no
more.

Treatment of Manure without Composting. — Even when com-
posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not thought
worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to properly
treat the manure when stored alone. This can be easily done by
some such plan as is described below :

Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to prevent
burning or "fire-fanging." With a bin, say ten or twelve feet square and five
or six feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure can be placed
therein and watered from time to time with much less trouble than it can be
composted with other material. This, of course, presupposes the ability to
run the water in through a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of course, be
taken that too much water be not supplied, causing the substance to be
leached from the pile. But in my own experience I find the danger is at the
other extreme, and when I open my pile I sometimes wish I had used more
water. In filling the bin leave one end or side open as long as possible, for
convenience of filling.

Barn-yard manure and compost carefully prepared in some such
way as described, and applied before the rains or early in
the rainy season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be
in condition to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any
soil. Where no composting is undertaken it is rational to apply
the manure during the rainy season directly to the land if the
rainfall is not large and the land fit to haul over. During the dry
season the manure can be spread in the corral and tramped into
dust by the stock because as long as it remains dry no losses by

I

USING WASTE MATERIALS

163

ermentation can occur. Near the end of the dry season, the
corral should be scraped and all the material spread on the land.
In this way the cost and trouble of manure piles can be avoided.

Sheep Manure. — The proximity of the orange orchards of South-
ern California to extensive sheep ranges led to large use of the
manure from the sheep corrals until supplies were practically
exhausted. Afterwards large deposits in the San Joaquin Valley
were opened and the material, which has shown value by analysis
in one case of above $14 per ton, is finely ground and placed upon
the market in a business way. One deposit mined for several
years by George C. Roeding & Co., of Fresno, was several acres
in extent and at some points the material was ten feet deep. Such
deposits can seldom be found now except in remote parts of the
State.

Sheep manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though
not so lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly nitro-
genous, too free use of sheep manure tends to excessive growth
of wood, especially on young trees. Old bearing trees may be
benefited by such a stimulant.

VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS

The care advised in saving and treating barn-yard manure, hen
manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste
products of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to adja-
cent trees unless used in the flower garden, but not too long upon
the same trees for it may kill them. Peelings and corings of fruit,
cut for drying, should be fed to pigs and the resulting manure
secured. It is not wise to corral the swine in a dry run in the
summer and allow the manure to be sluiced out by the winter rise
of the stream.

Prunings. — Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be
burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the
ashes well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using
the portable, home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It
is not wise to carry all the prunings to the side of the highway
and burn them there and allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard
prunings are sometimes cut up with an arrangement like a straw-
cutter, which reduces them to bits about an inch in length. They
are then scattered over the surface of the ground, turned under
at the next plowing, and soon decay. Where, through lightness
of soil and short rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily decay,
burning upon an iron sled about ten feet long is practiced. At
its front is a V-shaped iron rod, to which a horse can be hitched.
On the sled are flaring sheet-iron sides and perforated bottom.

164

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THl<:M

This is filled with brush, a fire kindled, and as the horse moves
forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes by its motion are
sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard.

Refuse from Wineries. — The fermented husks, stems, and seeds,
all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often spread on
the road and in holes, where it is of no account whatever. If
scattered over the vineyard, much valuable substance would be
returned to the soil. In some soils application of raw refuse
would be undesirable because of the acidity developed. It is
usually safe on calcareous soils, and for other soils should be
composted with lime or wood ashes to facilitate decay and neu-
tralization of the acid. Of winery refuse the lees are especially
valuable because of the supplies of potash they contain, but they
are now being largely used in the manufacture of tartaric acid.

Other Waste Products. — There are available from various man-
ufactories different waste products which can not be specified.
When any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower,
he should seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station,
at Berkeley, as to the probable value of the material, and its special
uses.

CAUTION IN USE OF FERTILIZERS

Besides the injunction already given against application of
fertilizers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce
good fruit and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures unduly-
rich in animal matter should be used with caution, as they may
overstimulate the plant, delay or reduce fruiting, injure the quality
of the fruit, and possibly engender disease in the tree or vine.
Monstrous size and puffiness of oranges is clearly due in some
cases to excess of nitrogenous manures. Excessive use of soluble
fertilizers like nitrate of soda may kill plants or trees outright.

The effect of excessive use of stable manures, or other manures
very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has been
frequently noted as destructive to bouquet and quality.

METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS

Suggestions concerning proper application of barn-yard
manures, both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees
and vines, have already been given. The same conditions which
cause slow decomposition of stable manures apply to any fertil-
izing material which is not readily soluble in water. All such
material should be in a finely divided state. Surface applications
of ground bone, will, in the dry climate of California, lie practically
unchanged for a long period. Ground bone should be plowed in

MANURES IN IRRIGATION WATER igr

as deeply as can be done without injury to the roots of trees and
vines, and then, if the surface is kept cultivated, it will lie in moist
strata and decompose, or be siezed by the searching rootlets. On
the other hand, superphosphate, or other really soluble chemical
fertilizers, will produce immediate results, and can be most eco-
nomically used on light and easily permeable soils, on which falling
water sinks and does not flow over the surface. In leachy soils
a part of such fertilizers might be carried down beyond the reach
of shallow-rooting plants, but there is little danger of this in the
case of trees and vines.

When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is some-
times drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the running
water. One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator ahead of the
grain-seed drill and to distribute and drill in the fertilizer as deep
as feasible to do without injuring the roots. Spring application of
fertilizers are conveniently made by spreading upon the vegetation
which is plowed under at that season.

Manures with Irrigation Water. — Distribution of fertilizers by
using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chapman,
as follows :

We shovel sheep manure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree to
receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins
cover the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such
weeds as clover, alfilerilla, and the like; but the irrigator with his hoe de-
stroys the obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle.

In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming — about three barrels
of unslacked lime to the acre — applied in the following manner at the head
of our irrigating ditch: We plant a box about three feet wide, six feet long,
two feet deep, and six inches under the surface of the running water. In it
we place a barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its original bulk.
A man stands on this with his hoe and sees that the water carries it off
evenly. With an irrigating head such as we use, a man will run into the
ditch four barrels a day, or about three barrels to the acre. We have a con-
siderable fall, and the water runs very rapidly; but it takes up all the lime,
and the water runs white, like milk.

We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under weeds,
manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of lime,
potash, and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water and
attacks the inert plant food in the soil; hard-pan is prevented both by the
mechanical effects of the vegetable matter and the lime.

The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made, will
be more fully described in the following chapter.

FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER

Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious sub-
stances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the following
chapter; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties.
These facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hilgard
has found that the water of one creek in 7\lameda County carries
to the land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each gallon,

IQQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which means that if twelve inches of such water were used on
the ground during the season, each acre would receive therefrom
about twenty pounds of fully available potash. At Riverside a
crop of oranges requires about forty-two pounds of potash per
acre, of which the amount of irrigation water used in that case
contained thirty-five pounds, beside other matters required by
plants. These things have a definite cash value in the market; and
this value the irrigator gets as a free gift in addition to the water.
Even in the case of the Nile, the sediment is only part of the sum
of fertility conveyed by the river.

GREEN MANURING OR COVER CROPS

Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of weeds
or a sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of humus
to the soil. Plants grown for this purpose are currently called
''cover crops" because they cover the soil instead of allowing it
to remain bare in ''clean culture" of orchard or "bare fallow" of
grain fields.

All plants by their decay in the soil add organic matter to it,
and this matter is of nitrogenous character, but leguminous
plants do this and a great deal more, through their exclusive ability
to use atmospheric nitrogen gathered by the bacteria which cause
nodules upon their roots. There is also special value in deep-
rooting legume in soil amelioration. There is now reason to
believe, as has already been stated, that where moisture is ample
for both alfalfa and trees we shall come to using this plant for
a permanent cover of orchard ground as a substitute for apart
of the clean culture which is now observed. This is, in fact,
already being done to some extent. It is also probable that alfalfa
can be used for a certain time even where its permanent stand
is not desirable, for it is not difficult to destroy alfalfa with a
well-sharpened plow although the roots may have attained con-
siderable thickness. Of course this, as already stated, depends
upon moisture supply; where that is n6t abundant, clean culture
for moisture conservation is unavoidable. But where moisture in
excess of the needs of the trees is available it will be used in future
indirectly for their benefit in ways we are only just beginning to
discern, and one of these is likely to be the summer growth of
legumes in the orchard. Cow peas on moist or irrigated lands may
be used in this way.

A summer cover crop in California is, however, largely a matter
for future determination, and under ordinary conditions may never
be practicable. The wider problem is to secure the best legumi-
nous plant which will make a heavy growth during the winter
months, so that it can be plowed in early in spring, and the ground
put in shape for the thorough surface pulverization to prevent

Lemon orchard under clean culture.

Winter view of lemon orchard with coyer crop of vetche§,

IQ^ CAmFORNlA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

evaporation of moisture during our long, dry summer. For this
reason we can not use many plants which are used for green-
manuring in humid climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do
not make good winter growth unless the temperature is relatively
high and frosts few and light. They make exuberant growth for
a time in the spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant,
but at that time it is too' late to grow crops for plowing under
because the soil is too dry for their decay and their presence tends
otherwise to the loss of moisture and makes it very difficult to
secure a good surface tilth. The greatest care must be had not
to allow a growth either of cover crop or of weeds to stand too
long or its covering will do more harm than good. Hardy legumes
are therefore the desideratum both for winter forage and green-
manuring. The common "burr clover" (Medicago denticulata) is
proving very satisfactory in some parts of the State, the ''Canadian
field pea," the winter vetch, the hairy vetch and fenugreek are
coming into quite wide use in orchards in different parts of the
State. Which plant is best in any locality must be determined
by its local behavior. In some places native lupines make a good
natural cover crop.

A Matter of Local Study. — The recourse to cover crops in
the orchard or vineyard should be approached with a disposition
to careful study and experiment. Unless it is done in the right
way it is likely to be disappointing and the right way involves
both the selection of the best legumes and the best ways to grow
them. Scant growth, cloddy soil, loss of moisture and condemna-
tion of the practice are likely to result from ill-considered methods.
On the other hand, success with cover crops results in such numer-
ous and important advantages that the wide introduction of them
must be looked upon as one of the most important advances in
California horticulture during the last decade. One of the most
careful students of cover crops in all their bearings is Mr. L. L.
Palmer of North Pomona, who in a recent public address cited
ten different reasons for growing cover crops (legumes) in the
orchard :

1. They provide humus in the soil, by which the inert fer-
tilization materials of the soil are made available.

2. They make it possible to obtain results from the use of the
cheaper forms of phosphate, such as Thomas Slag and other unacid-
ulated phosphates.

3. They store up nitrpgen from the air, and therefore act as
a direct nitrogenous fertilizer.

4. They improve vastly the mechanical condition of the soil,
making it easily possible to secure the best cultivation.

5. They put the soil in a condition to retain moisture.

I

I

SERVICE OF COVER CROPS

169

6. They make the soil porous, so that proper aeration is
secured.

7. They are a means for overcoming- irrigation hard-pan and
plow-sole.

8. While growing they prevent the washing of the soil by
the storm waters.

9. While growing they probably assist in preventing the radi-
ation of heat from the ground in time of a freeze.

10. They do away with the cultivation of the ground during
the winter months.

Each of these reasons suggests a chapter of discussion and
explanation which can not be indulged in. Every reader should
keep himself up to date in this progressive subject by thoughtful
reading of our horticultural journals and proceedings of our horti-
cultural assemblies.

CHAPTER XV
IRRIGATION OF FRUIT TREES AND VINES

Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local
and specific question, and it must be answered with due regard
for several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum
local rainfall ; second, the depth and character of the soil and sub-
soil ; third, the situation and environment of the ground on which
the fruit is to be grown ; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired
to produce.

These conditions are all correlated, and a knowledge of them
all is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct practice
in any given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which
is adequate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may be
quite insufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be deep
and fairly retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find abun-
dant moisture; second, another soil may have sufficient depth,
but be so porous as to lose its moisture by evaporation, or so
leachy as to lose it by drainage ; third, still another may be shallow,
and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly drained by
reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hard-pan, while another
similar soil, dififerently situated, may receive abundant moisture
from the drainage of the slope above it ; fourth, possibly in all the
soils cited there might be adequate moisture for deciduous fruits,
but citrus fruits would require irrigation ; or enough for young,
but not for bearing trees.

Thus it appears that even to decide whether a location has
sufficient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one
must pass judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It is
hardly worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoretical
grounds, or to attempt to answer the general question. Shall irri-
gation be employed in the growth of fruit? The true guide is
enlightened local experience, and the true test is the growth of
the tree and the excellence of its fruit. So long as the grower
is able to secure every year a generous amount of good-sized
and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need concern himself
very little about irrigation ; if his tree shows distress, and his fruit,
even when properly thinned out, is not up to market standards
every year, he may do well to provide himself with irrigation
facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall when
it is occasionally deficient.

170

RESULTS OF OVER-IRRIGATION I'Jl

Of course it is not commended as a rule of practice that the
grower wait until the tree shows signs of distress before applying
water. This is a very bad plan of proceeding, but the visible
|langua.ge of the tree is mentioned as indicating that the tree needs
help, either at regular intervals or occasionally, and after such a
warning the grower should be able to tell by examination of the
soil and by study of the local rainfall record when this need will
occur, and apply his water in advance of the need.

Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of
California to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irri-
gation to the growth of fruits. Many who long scouted the sug-
gestion that irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees
in their districts, have found that w^ater, in addition to the rainfall,
was very profitable, either to enable large,- bearing trees to produce
larger fruit, or to maintain in full vigor their later summer growth
and to make strong fruit buds, which insure the following year's
production. It has also been widely demonstrated that a tree
which is adequately supplied with water, no matter whether it be
directly from the clouds or through the irrigating stream, yields
fruit of better size, aroma, flavor and carrying quality than a tree
which, from any cause, falls even a little short of an adequate
supply. It is clear then that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation
are in themselves principles, but are merely methods to be em-
ployed when conditions demand the one or the other.

Several claims against irrigated products may be stated and
opposed in this way :

(1) The claim that nursery trees grown by irrigation are,
from that mere fact, inferior is based upon experience in trans-
planting trees unduly forced by overirrigation. Immense growth
from the bud in a single season of an inch and a half in diameter
and ten feet in height tempted buyers who wanted to get as much
as possible for their money. The result of setting out such trees
created a strong prejudice against irrigated nursery stock. It
is now clearly seen that moderate, thrifty growth is the ideal in
a young tree, and if the soil does not hold rainfall enough to
secure this, water enough to secure it must be applied.

(2) The claim that irrigated fruit lacks aroma and flavor is
based upon observation of monstrous, insipid fruit forced into
such abnormal character by excessive irrigation. Growers who
concluded therefrom that irrigated fruit was necessarily inferior",
denied water to their trees and gathered small, tough, unmarketable
fruit, because there was not enough rainfall to enable the trees to
perform their proper function. As it is now conceded that the
highest quality, including the delicate aromas and flavors, can
be secured only by adequate moisture, it matters not how long
since it fell from the clouds nor by what route it reaches the
roots of the trees.

172

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

(3) The claim that irrigated fruit could not endure shipment
was based upon the bruising and collapse of fruit which was
unduly inflated by overirrigation. The best fruit for shipping
is the perfect fruit and that is secured as just stated. The fact
that the greater part of the fresh fruit shipped across the conti-
nent from California has been more or less irrigated, according
to the needs of different localities, has settled the point beyond
further controversy.

(4) The claim that canners objected to irrigated fruit was
based upon the early experience with overirrigated fruit, which
lacked quality and consistency. At present the canners encourage
irrigation and all other arts of growing which bring the product
up to the standards they insist upon.

(5) The claim that irrigated fruit is inferior for drying has
the same foundation as the preceding claims and is just as clearly
based upon misapprehension. Watery fruit is obviously inferior
for drying, but such fruit is the fault of the irrigator, not of irri-
gation. One of the plainest deductions from experience is that
small, tough fruit makes unprofitable dried fruit, and that the
best development of the fruit is essential to the best results from
drying. Many comparative weighings have shown that the great-
est yield in dried form has been secured from trees which have
had water enough to produce good, large fruit. Even to bear
fruit for drying, then, the tree must have moisture enough to
develop size and quality. If lacking moisture, the tree serves its
own purpose in developing pit and skin and reduces the pulp,
in which lie the desirability and value of dried fruits.

Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in
proper amount, and in a proper way.

HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED?

This is by its very nature an elusive question and any attempt
to answer it by a definite prescription is more apt to produce folly
than wisdom. For as it appears that whether irrigation is at all
needed or not depends upon several conditions which must be
ascertained in each place, so the amount of water, which is really
an expression of the degree of that need, depends also upon local
conditions of rainfall, of soil depth and retentiveness, of
rate of waste by evaporation, of the particular thirst of
each irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the use
of water is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in
each instance. In the case of fruit trees and vines, then, what-
ever amount of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth
and strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth ;
and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and
watery, fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that product,

INQUIRY INTO IKKIGATION PRACTICE -.170

-and to the ascertainment of that amount, by local experience of
himself and others, the grower should employ his most earnest
J:hought and his keenest insight.

During recent years the writer has continually renewed his
data of the irrigation practice of California fruit growers by sys-
tematic inquiry and has prepared four bulletins* which have been
published by the Irrigation Investigations of the U. S. Department
of Agriculture.

A study of local practice shows that infinite variety exists and
in the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescrip-
tion of the duty of water under various conditions is impossible.
In some cases the amount of water at each irrigation must be
small, as, for instance, the frequent irrigation in Sacramento and
Placer Counties, where the soils are shallow, over-lying bed-rock,
and a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-foot
of water is readily absorbed and retained in the deep soil. The
annual rainfall also has little relation to the amount of irrigation,
because neither fine shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the
volume of water which falls upon them during the rainy season.
Then the varying rate of evaporation, the character of the tilth,
etc., enter as factors and it becomes clear that he is fortunate
who knows how much water to use on his own place.

It is interesting to note that results of close inquiry by the Irri-
gation Investigations of the U. S. Department of Agriculture to
ascertain the amounts of water used by measurement of
water running in main ditches and by estimate of the acreage
to which ' the water is applied, do not agree closely with
the growers' estimates of the amounts of water which
they actually use. There are of course always issues between
water-purveyors and water-buyers which can not be entered upon
in this connection. A rough conclusion from data secured from
the ditch flow, etc., is that from 12 to 30 acre-inches of water are
used annually in irrigated orchards and vineyards, according to
local conditions involved. It is quite clear that the amounts chiefly
used would not be the average but would tend toward the lower
figure. The details of these inquiries are found in the publications
on irrigation of the Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture.*

* Farmers' Bulletin, No. 116, "Irrigation in fruit growing." Farmers' Bulletin,
No. 138, "Irrigation in garden and field," Bulletin of Experiment Stations, No. 108,
"Irrigation practice among fruit growers of the Pacific coast." Annual report of
Irrigation and Drainage investigations, 1904, "Relation of irrigation to yield, size,
quality, and commercial suitability of fruits."

* Definite citation is not made because these publications are continually appear-
ing with additional data on the effective use of water. The whole series should be
examined.

174 CALIFOIINIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

RELATION OF RAINFALL TO IRRIGATION

The amount of rain and the time it falls are clearly the most
important factors in determining the necessity for irrigation.
Absence of rainfall makes a desert of the richest soils at all
elevations and at all exposures. Its only remedy is irrigation.
But there are degrees of poverty in rainfall, and thorough tillage
will often lessen the ill effects of a scanty supply, so that an oasis
may be made to appear without water beyond that supplied from
the clouds. This is the triumph of tillage in the arid region which
is to be considered in another connection.

The line between adequate and insufficient rainfall can not be
closely drawn. In the growth of common orchard fruits, irriga-
tion is not resorted to at a number of points where the local
rainfall sometimes is as low as 15 or 16 inches, but with less
than that amount, unless the soil receive additional moisture by
underflow, it is essential. On the other hand, irrigation is regu-
larly practiced in some localities where the rainfall sometimes
rises to 45 inches. Under average conditions of soil depth and
retentiveness, the amount of rainfall which may be considered
adequate for deciduous orchard trees under good cultivation is
about 20 inches. So definitely is this amount fixed in the minds
of some California growers as meeting the needs of the tree for
satisfactory growth and fruitage that, when rainfall for a season
is less than that amount, irrigation is at once resorted to to supply
the shortage.

But owing to local conditions of soil and climate, the rainfall,
no matter how large, may not be relied upon to carry the trees
through the dry season. The fact is that the soil is not capable
either of receiving the heavy rainfall or of long retaining such
portions as actually enter it. There is, then, a considerable part
of the rainfall which is worse than worthless, because it does
injury by soil washing and soil leaching, and places where
extremely heavy rainfall occurs may be actually worse ofif than
other places with less rainfall. Some localities of large rainfall
lead in amounts of water supplied by irrigation. The converse is
also true, for some localities of light rainfall report success with
deciduous fruit trees with a minimum amount of irrigation water.

Deciduous Fruits. — Without making too much of individual
reports there appear instances enough to warrant the conclusion
that the deciduous fruit tree can winter successfully with a small
moisture supply and is, in fact, in less danger from lack of moisture
than from oversupply at this time of the year. If there be enough
moisture to prevent injury from evaporation, the tree will start
good growth as the season advances and continue it if irrigation

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175

176 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is given promptly and in sufficient quantity. There nnist always
be a determination of what is an adequate supply by reference
to local conditions, but as an estimate of necessary rainfall has
been made at 20 inches, it is evident that adequate irrigation may
be very much less than that. The rainfall of 20 inches is dis-
tributed through six or seven months. Some of it consists of light
rains, with long, dry intervals, where there is slight penetration
and quick evaporation. Some of it is lost by run off and by
drainage. It is not surprising, then, that some growers having
deep valley loams to render their irrigation effective, report success
with deciduous trees with 8 or 10 inches of water applied just at
the time of the tree's greatest needs and used, no doubt, with
maximum efficiency. It seems to be a warranted deduction, from^
all data known to the writer, that 10 inches of water, applied at
the right time to soils of good depth and fair retentiveness, and
accompanied by good tillage for conservation, is an adequate sup-
ply for five months of growth and fruiting even when the rainfall
is only about enough to prevent drying out during the winter
season. Some growers report use of less than this. Certainly
less will do for young trees under favorable conditions, and some
of the least amounts are reported from the newly planted regions.
As the trees advance in age and bearing, larger amounts will be
required. Instances of greatest frequency of application may be
taken as indicating soils lacking retentiveness, either through shal-
lowness or coarseness, or either of these accompanied by extreme
summer heat and aridity.

Citrus Fruits. — As these trees are evergreens, and as their habit
is to make their chief fruit growth in the autumn after the work
of the deciduous tree has been finished for the season, the irriga-
tion season for them is much longer. As they are, in fact, almost
always active and sustaining uninterrupted evaporation from their
leaf surfaces, they must always be provided with moisture or ill
will result to tree or fruit. They thus require more water than do
deciduous trees. There is the same relation between irrigation
and rainfall with citrus as with deciduous fruit trees, but the degree
of relation is different. Many trials have shown that it is prac-
tically impossible to grow satisfactory citrus fruits without irri-
gation, unless there be underflow, and this is attended by the usual
difficulties of high ground water and undesirable. There is no
combination of heavy rainfall, or winter irrigation, and soil reten-
tiveness which will supply the summer and autumn thirst of the
orange or lemon in California. Irrigation, too, must be maintained
both summer and winter wherever the rainfall is not well dis-
tributed and adequate. In the chief citrus regions of the State
rainfall is seldom adequate except during January and February,
and not always then. Under such conditions an estimate of the

I

IRRIGATION AND SOILS ^ y«

average requirements of citrus fruit trees in bearing- would be
about 20 inches of irrigation, irrespective of rainfall, although
there are localities of larger rainfall and more retentive soils where
crops of these fruits can be made with 10 inches used at just the
right time.

RELATION OF SOIL TO IRRIGATION

As already stated, the desirability of irrigation is unquestion-
ably, in many cases, conditioned upon soil depth and character.
This relation has received careful attention from soil physicists,
and an understanding of it involves problems of plant growth and
the movement of water in soils, the leading facts of which are
available in popular form."^

Analysis of such phenomena can not be undertaken in this con-
nection but a few striking contrasts in existing practice are very
suggestive.

On the famous river-bank fruit land of the Sacramento Valley,
with loams of great depth and good retentiveness, and with an
average rainfall of approximately 20 inches, irrigation is resorted
to only in years of minimum rainfall, when the precipitation is
perhaps only about half the average. At nearly the same level,
as already cited, where the soil is shallow and overlies hard-pan,
regular irrigation is required. But still more marked contrast
is found in the foothills within sight of these valley fruit lands,
where with twice the average rainfall irrigation must begin early
in the summer and continue until autumn is well advanced, because,
first, the slope is so rapid that much rainfall is lost by run oflf;
second, the soil is too shallow above bed rock to hold much water.
Even here, however, there comes in a local variation of measurable
effect. When the soil lies upon vertical plates of bed rock much
water is retained between them, and is capable of being reached
by tree roots, while soil lying upon flat plates of rock has no
such subterranean reservoir. In the foothill region there also
occurs exceptional exposure from slopes facing the midsummer
sun in an atmosphere whose dryness is but slightly ameliorated
by the influence of air currents from the coast.

In the valley and foothill contrast, just cited, the unirrigated
valley looks up to the irrigated foothills. There are also places
where unirrigated hillslopes look down upon irrigated valleys.
The uplands of San Diego County are nearer the coast than those
above the Sacramento Valley. They, too, have a rainfall usually
ample for deciduous fruits suited to their elevation. Their rolling

* Relations of soils to climate, U. S. Dept. Agr., Weather Bureau Bui. 3. Water
as a factor in the growth of plants, Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1894, p. 165. Some
interesting soil problems, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, p. 429. The movement
and retention of water in soils, Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr., 1898, p. 399. The
mechanics of soil moisture, U. S. Dept. Agr., Division of soils Bui. 10.

178

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THFM

plateaus of deep soil, free from excessive heat and evaporation
which occur on the highlands farther inland and 500 miles farther
north, produce very successfully without irrii^ation. In this region,
however, the rainfall in the valleys below is often less than the
needs of even the deciduous fruit trees, and waters flowing from
mountain snows through a region of unirrigated uplands must be
used to irrigate them.

Still another striking contrast, and one involving another and
wholly dififerent factor, is found in the San Joaquin Valley. Near
Visalia, 2 feet above river bottom and 4 feet above the surround-
ing plains, there is a large area of deep alluvial soil with much
decayed vegetable matter. The land is moistened by underflow
from the river, and, though the rainfall is but IVi inches, decid-
uous fruits are grown without irrigation. In the same county,
and only 18 miles distant, there are areas of rich loam mixed with
granitic sand 16 to 18 feet deep. In this locality, though the rain-
fall is 11J4 inches, irrigation is practiced freely, as the loss of
moisture in summer is very great.

RELATION OF TILLAGE TO IRRIGATION

Tillage, particularly during the dry season of the year, under
some conditions, directly determines the need of irrigation, and
is to a certain extent, as the popular phrase goes, a substitute
for irrigation. Under all conditions surface tillage by promoting
conservation of soil moisture, is determinative of the actual duty
of water, whether it be from rainfall or irrigation. The efifect of
frequent surface tillage has been accurately determined by investi-
gation and experiment, both in humid and. arid regions. These
experiments fully support the view taught by the experience of
about half a century in California, in accordance with which
thorough tillage has been so widely practiced in the arid sections
as an essential to successful fruit growing.

As already maintained in Chapter XIII, the relations of tillage to
soil moisture include both reception and conservation. For the
reception of moisture, deep work with the plow, and sometimes
with the subsoiler also, is almost indispensable. To retain this
moisture and to prevent, as far as possible, its escape into the thirsty
air of the arid region by surface evaporation, less depth and more
thorough surface pulverization are required. Recent practice has
been tending toward deeper summer cultivation, so that, as previously
claimed, 5 or 6 inches of loose, finely divided soil is now obtained
where formerly half that depth was considered adequate. It has
also been shown that frequent stirring of this fine surface layer
checks evaporation, even when no water is applied to compact the
surface or where no weeds grow to draw upon the soil moisture.
In a word, the aim of tillage in the arid region, so far as it relates

k

IRRIGATION AND COVER CROPS

179

to moisture supply in the soil consists in opening the soil to rain,
or to irrigation, and in subsequently closing it to evaporation. These
are the principles which were recognized and applied in California
half a century ago and are now enjoying somewhat sensational
renaissance in the "dry farming" agitation in the interior of the
United States.

A Negative Declaration. — It is interesting that current practice
affords full demonstration of the foregoing claims both positively
and negatively. The negative argument in favor of moisture con-
servation by clean summer cultivation is found in the fact that
growers in regions of heaviest rainfall approve the growth of cover
crops, like clover, after the trees reach bearing age, and also that
others employ scant summer cultivation, or cultivation for a short
period only. The idea of these growers is that such practices relieve
the soil of excessive moisture, either by the growth of the cover
crop or by facilitating surface evaporation, and so prevent the tree
from being stimulated to too large wood growth, or maintaining
growth so late in the season as to enter the frost period in too
active a condition and with new wood not properly matured. Quite
in contrast with this is the practice, which is gaining ground in the
hottest parts of the irrigated region, of growing alfalfa as a cover
crop for the purpose of shading the soil and thus reducing soil tem-
perature and, perhaps, of avoiding the ill effects of the reflection of
burning sun heat from a smooth surface of light-colored soil, or
the ill effect of "burning out of humus" by clean summer culture.
In such cases more irrigation is needed to supply enough water for
the growth of both trees and cover crop. But at present these ex-
ceptions are of rare occurrence.

Cultivation Not Determined by Irrigation. — The adoption of a
policy of clean cultivation in the dry season is not conditioned upon
the amount of moisture available either by rainfall or irrigation. It
is pursued both where irrigation is practiced and where it is not,
and also where the rainfall is greatest and where it is least. It pre-
vails in the humid region where rainfall may rise to 60 inches or
more and in the arid region where it may not exceed one-tenth as
much. As a matter of fact, there does not appear to be a good fruit
soil so deep and retentive that it can retain enough even of a very
heavy rainfall to effect good tree growth and fruit bearing if it is
forced to sustain the loss by evaporation from a compact surface
during the long dry season following. There may be, it is true, soils
weak in capillary, in which water can not rise from a great depth
and in which deep rooting plants may find ample water in the sub-
soil, providing it is held there by impervious underlying strata.
There are many more instances where loss by natural drainage is
added to loss by evaporation. But, disregarding exceptions, the
loss of moisture by both drainage and evaporation during the dry

-j^gQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

season is so great that the soil to a depth of several feet loses
practically all the water which is available for plant growth, and
the trees fail or become unprofitable. Loss by drainage can not,
practically, be prevented, but loss by evaporation can be so reduced
that trees and vines will be adequately supplied in spite of the loss
by drainage. Because, therefore, the soil can not retain enough
water in its natural state, no matter how much it may receive, clean
summer cultivation, involving quite complete and more or less
frequent stirring of the surface to the depth of 5 or 6 inches, as dis-
cussed in Chapter XIII, is the almost universal practice, irre-
spective of local rainfall or of irrigation.

Cultivation, However, Determines Success of Irrigation. — The

prevailing motive for cultivation in the dry-summer region is moist-
ure retention. In this respect good surface tilth is so effective that,
though enough moisture can not be retained without it, so much
can be retained with it that, even where irrigation or rainfall is
moderate in amount, it may serve all purposes of the tree or vine.
Thus cultivation enters into the fruit-growers' practice in the
region under consideration, not to make large rainfall effective as it
does in some parts of the region, but to make moderate rainfall
effective, or to make small irrigation effective, by increasing the
duty of water which is applied. It becomes not only a ruling con-
sideration in the effectiveness of a certain amount of rainfall, as
has already been suggested in another connection, but it also deter-
mines the success of irrigation and the amount of water required ;
for, although it was an early and rude practice to rely upon irri-
gation to support uncultivated fruit trees and to irrigate more and
more frequently as the ground became harder from its use, this
policy has now no standing in commercial fruit growing. Not only
was it wasteful of water, but it was otherwise detrimental to the
thrift of trees.

Cultivation and Irrigation Work for Soil Improvement. — Thor-
ough cultivation, both in winter and summer, has other very impor-
tant ends in view. It opens the soil and promotes aeration ; it en-
courages deeper rooting and thus encourages the tree to take pos-
session of a greater soil mass both for moisture and other plant
food. It is part of the very valuable policy of increasing humus by
plowing under the natural growth of weeds or specially sown
legumes, which is discussed in Chapter XIV. This affords oppor-
tunity to use water, beyond the amount the trees require, for soil
improvement.

WHEN TO IRRIGATE

When to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs
of different fruits, and can not be stated in general rules. There
are, however, some principles involved which may be hinted at.

WHEN TO IRRIGATE

181

Winter Irrigation. — On lands with sufficient depth of fairly re-
tentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall
by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation and then by
careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough
water in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through
bearing and autumn bud formation without further water supply.
But there are other situations in which no amount of winter irri-
gation nor rainfall will suffice for these ends. There are foothil!
orchard areas in which the winter rainfall is two or three times
as great as in the valley situations where fruit is successfully
grown without irrigation, and yet water must be applied in summer
on those foot-hills or the fruit would be unmarketable and the trees
in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall falling on a shallow
soil underlaid by a sloping bed-rock in some cases nearly sluices
the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet the oversaturation in
winter avails nothing for summer growth, because most diligent
cultivation can not retain moisture enough in shallow soil thus
situated to sustain bearing trees in good crops of full-sized fruit.
The same is true of valley soils underlaid by hard-pan. In such
cases winter irrigation could add nothing but distress to the soil
oversoaked by rainfall, and summer irrigation, well-timed and ade-
quate, is the secret of success in the orchard. The same conclusion,
although for very different reasons, must hold for soils underlaid
by gravel or sand, and thus too rapidly dried by leaching.

But even this generalization must be accepted only for sirua-
tions endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be
sloping hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not
amount to saturation'. Then winter irrigation to supply such irri-
gation is desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in proper
amount and at proper intervals, will also be demanded. Among the
foot-hills, also, there may be localities with depth of retentive
soil in which water enough can be applied in winter to carry trees
through the year. Thus we come again to the only safe generaliza-
tion which can be made, and that is, that everywhere water must be
adequate to the demands of the tree at the time it is needed, and
whether it can best be applied in summer or winter, or both, or
v^hether it is not necessary to make any artificial application at all,
depends upon existing coniditions which the grower must ascertain
and to which his policy and practice must conform. It is a fact,
however, that all soils, which under good cultivation are fairly
retentive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and
usually carries most sediment, can be made to go far toward mak-
ing summer irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits.

As to winter irrigation, practice varies, some relying upon a
single heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which,
perhaps, a foot in depth or more of water is allov^ed to soak into the
soil; others use the same method of application in winter as in

-j^g2 CALIFORNIA FKUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

summer, and, therefore, give a number of irrigations in winter.
There is, of course, much less danger of injury by water to decid-
uous growths in winter, because they are dormant, though an eye
should be kept on drainage for excessive irrigation as for excessive
rainfall. The grape and the pear are known to endure long sub-
mergence, but some other fruits are sensitive about it.

Summer Irrigation. — When this shall begin and when end are
to be locally determined. In some places even the earliest fruits
can not reach satisfactory size and quality without irrigation. In
others rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper devel-
opment of early fruits, but not for late. In both cases the fruit
may be satisfactory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until
the work of the growing season is properly completed. It is then
apparent that local practice must vary in order to reach the uni-
versal fact, and that is that all through its active season the tree
must have constant and adequate moisture supply. Many evils in
lack of bearing, in dying-back, in unseasonable activity and the
like are due to inadequate, intermittent and, in some cases, to exces-
sive moisture in the soil.

Cultivation and Irrigation. — Although the relations of irrigation
and cultivation have been freely discussed, it must be remarked
in this connection that with such an extension of irrigation practice
as is now realized, there is danger that those who have previously
trusted so fully upon good cultivation may swing to the other
extreme and trust too much to the stream of water and too little
to the plow and cultivator. There is a temptation this way when
one finds that he can run water in large amounts very cheaply.
Not only is there danger of over-irrigation in the growth of tree
and fruit, but the ill effects of water upon the soil, when unattended
by good cultivation, are constantly threatened. The tree needs
air as well as water; i't needs a certain free condition of the soil
for its best root action. These needs can be amply secured when
adequate application of water is quickly followed by soil-stirring.
Irrigated soil rightly treated is delightfully mellow and free and
of condition to invite the fullest activity on the part of the tree.
Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured,
cloddy and generally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting
around the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent
shrinkage. These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils,
and yet even these are best when cultivated in a rational manner.

METHODS OF IRRIGATION

There are' various methods employed in California for the con-
veyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the
principal ones will be described.

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184

CALIFOBKIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

As this writing does not prejtend to be a treatise on irrigation
engineering, no attempt will be made to describe the more ambi-
tious undertakings, which should never be entered upon without
the engagement of a qualified engineer. Nor is it possible to dis-
cuss the numerous devices which are covered by patents. Invest-
ment should always be preceded by visits to irrigation works now
in operation, and procedure should be guided by observation. The
hints presented herewith relate chiefly to things the irrigator can
do for himself.

Free Flooding. — Flooding — that is, the free flow of water over
the whole surface, or the flow between rows with furrows near
the trees to retain the water in the interspaces — is only employed
on some flat lands where winter irrigation is used to supplement
rainfall when the latter is occasionally below normal. In such
cases water is available in large quantities, and the lay of the land
favors quite even distribution. Even under these conditions the
experience of growers soon leads to the adoption of deep furrows
or lateral ditches, or some simple check system, as superior to
flooding. Summer flooding is done only by those who are unac-
quainted with better methods or who count their trees of too little
account to warrant extra effort. It seems, therefore, a fair con-
clusion that flooding is only resorted to as a temporary expedient
and has little standing.

The Check System. — With soils of such character that vertical
percolation is very rapid, flooding in checks, by which water is
held upon a particular area until it sinks below the surface, is
considered necessary. There is a tendency to change from this
method to a furrow system wherever practicable, because the
former requires more soil shifting, a larger head of water for eco-
nomical operation, more labor to handle it, more working in water
and mud, and more difficult cultivation to relevel the land and to
reduce a puddled surface to satisfactory tilth. For these and other
reasons, perhaps, on loams of medium fineness one may find two
adjacent growers pursuing different methods, while on coarse,
porous loams the check system prevails, and on fine, retentive loams
the furrow system is without a rival.

The check system can be seen on the most extensive scale in
the upper part of the San Joaquin Valley, where the land is so
level and water so abundant that the checks can be measured by
acres or fractions of acres. In its most perfect form it is found
in Orange County and some parts of Los Angeles County, where
the checks are measured by feet, rarely by rods. Very large checks
are chiefly used for field crops, although also employed for winter
irrigation of vineyards and orchards of deciduous fruits. With
fruits, however, even in the same district, the tendency is toward
using smaller checks carefully leveled before planting. With the

THb] WAY TO MAKE CHECKS

185

large-check system permanent levees, either in rectangular form
or on the contour plan, are generally used. The small-check system
is chiefly laid off with temporary levees, quickly made with special
appliances and as quickly worked back to a level as soon as the
ground dries sufficiently after irrigation, and the whole surface
kept well cultivated until the time arrives for a restoration of the
levees for the next irrigation. The latter is the leading horticul-
tural mode. It is carefully described by Mr. Sydmer Ross, of
Fullerton, Orange County, California, as follows :

The check system, as carried out in the best-handled orchards, entails
much hard work, but after you are through with an irrigation you know that
each and every tree has had its full supply of water or you know the reason
why. The ground must be cultivated, say, about 5 inches deep, so as to have
plenty of loose soil with which to throw up a high ridge. Then a four or
six horse "ridger" should be run once each way between the rows, if it is a
citrus or deciduous orchard, or twice should the trees be walnuts, because
these trees are grown about 40 feet apart. After this is done the ridger
should be run entirely around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as
to have as perfect a ridge as possible on the outside. One man will ridge
about 15 acres in a day. The ridger should be built with a steel plate extend-
ing along the bottom of both sides, bolted to the inside and projecting about
2 inches, so as to take good hold of the ground. Then with one horse
attached to what is locally known as a "jump scraper," one side of the checks
should be closed up, for the ridger in making the cross ridges breaks down
the first ridge at its intersection. These repairs were at first made with a
shovel, but the jump scraper, also called locally the "horse shovel," closes
up the gaps very quickly. The practice generally followed is to close up the
high side of the checks if the land does not cut by running water, but if it
cuts, close up the lower side.

After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out and then the V-
shaped "crowder" is run twice through them. On lands inclined to cut it is
advisable that the length of the rows to be irrigated should not be over 250
feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if neces-
sary, without danger of cutting the ridges by too long a run of water.

If the checks have been closed up on the low side of the ridge, it is
better to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first;
but if the high side has been closed up, it is best to water first the row
nearest the gate or the main ditch, as the case may be, as in each instance
dry earth will thus be available, if necessary, to close up the checks. The
water is run down the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is
filled it is closed up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water
is turned down the next row.

To do good work it is usual to allow three men for every 50 inches of
water, but in our own practice we have had much better results by dividing
up our water and running from 35 to 40 inches to a ditch and allowing two
men for such streams. In doing this we get better work and find it much
easier for the men. If everything is well in hand, each man will irrigate
about 30 acres in a day.

For turning the water from the ditches into the checks metal dams or
tappoons are used. Some of these have a gate for the division of the water
when the stream is too large and is divided, and two rows are watered at the
same time. The gate is not a great success, as the water is apt soon to
cut its way under the tappoon, but it may be much improved by having a
shelf for the water to drop on after it passes through the opening. The com-
mon practice for dividing water is to throw a tappoon partly across the ditch,
putting a gunny sack on the opposite side to prevent cutting by the water.
This is, on the whole, fully as satisfactory as using the tappoon with a gate.

All who follow this system should get ready for the water before it comes.
A great many seem to think that if they ridge up their land, close up the
checks, and plow out their ditches, everything necessary has been done.
Such is not the case, a^ ditches that are liable to cut should be fixed in the

186

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THKM

weak places with brush or burlaps. Old gunny sacks cut open and spread
out are excellent for this purpose. Occasionally there are places where it
is impossible to get a perfect ridge. These should be looked up and fixed
with a shovel. The jump scraper will not entirely close up a check; it gen-
erally requires a shovelful or two to complete it. It is usual after the water is
turned down one row to fix up the next one, but it is an excellent plan to
have a few rows fixed up ahead, for there come times when breaks occur
and there is not time to make the necessary repairs, and when water once
gets the start there is apt to be much trouble and hard work before it can
be put under control, besides doing poor work.

After the ground is dry enough to work, the ridges are split with a listing
plow or a furrower attached to a cultivator. Then the ground should be run
over with a harrow, setting the teeth to go well in, so as to pulverize the
surface thoroughly. By using the harrow the ground can be worked about
one day earlier than with the cultivator, and it also prevents the ground from
baking till such time as it can be worked with the latter implement, besides
doing far better work than with the cultivator alone, especially when there
is much land to go over, as some of it is certain to get too dry before it can
be reached, and then it will not pulverize well. All trees should be worked
around by hand with either a fork or hoe as soon after irrigation as the
ground becomes dry enough and before it becomes hard.

Specifications for Homemade Implements for the Check System.
— The following implements, used in preparing the ground for irri-
gation by the check system, were made on the fruit ranch of J.
B. Neff, Anaheim, California, with the tools ordinarily found on
a ranch and with but little help from the blacksmith :

The "Ridger."

For levee making in the check system of irrigating trees and vines.

The ridger. — This has sides of 2 by 16 inch pine 7 feet long, stand-
ing 18 inches apart at the rear and 5 feet apart at the front end. The
sides may be made of two 2 by 8 inch pieces with 2 by 3 inch
battens' bolted on securely. The front crossbar is of 2 by 4 inch
pine 6 feet 2 inches long and is set 20 inches from the end. The
rear crossbar is of 2 by 4 inch pine 4 feet 4 inches long. It is set
7 inches from the end of the sides. The diagonal braces are 1 by 3
inch pine 6 feet 10 inches long. The short side braces are 2 by 3
inch pine 15 inches long. The lower inside edge should be pro-
tected by a strip of steel or iron 1-8 by 2 inches extending to and
around the front ends, which should be beveled to a sharp edge.

TOOLS FOR RIDGING

187

i

H?-^ The inside should also be lined with sheet iron 6 or 8 inches above
W the 1-8 by 2 inch piece, and should have sheet iron pieces extending
I 16 inches beyond the rear end of the sides, tapered and braced in
f the manner shown in the cut, for the purpose of making the

««:

Use of homemade ridger, orange orchard of A. D. Bishop,
Orange County, Cal.

ridger firmer at the top. Every part of the ridger should be
firmly bolted with 3-8 inch bolts, except the 1-8 by 2 inch iron,
which should have 3-16 inch bolts, and the sheet iron, which may be
put on with nails. The hooks on sides for hitching draft chain
are 3-8 by 1 1-2 inches, and the draft chain is 3-8 inch cable chain.

The V-shaped Crowder or Ditcher. — This has sides of 2 by 12
inch pine and cross-brace of 2 by 9 inch pine. The long side is
7 feet 8 inches long and short side 3 feet 6 inches long. This is
also protected by a piece of steel or iron extending entirely around
the ditcher and bolted with 3-16 inch bolts. The sides come
together in a point and stand at an angle of 45 degrees. The brace
is placed 2 feet 10 inches from the point on short side and 3 feet
10 inches from the point on long side. It also has two handles,
as shown in cut, 3 feet long. These are made of 2 by 3 inch pine
reduced so as to hold conveniently. The sloping handle is bolted

188

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THRM

The "Crowder."

Used in the preparation for distribution of water in the check system.

to the short side. When in use this implement stands with the
short side elevated at an angle of about 35 degrees, and a floor is
placed in the triangular space so that it will be level when in use. An
ordinary wide clevis is used for the draft and is placed as shown
in the cut. A vertical hole may be made in front of the clevis pin
and a small rod driven in to strengthen the hold of the clevis.

"The Jumper."

Used to complete levees by the "ridger" for the check system.

The Jump Scraper or Horse Shovel. — This is used for filling
gaps in the ridges and is the work of the blacksmith. The beams
are 1-4 by 1 1-4 inches and 30 inches long from the draft ring to the
bend downward. The shovel is of No. 16 sheet iron 24 inches long
by 18 inches deep. The handles are those used on any cultivator.
The beams are bent to stand 6 inches forward of a square placed
on top of the beams. The braces are of 3-8 inch round iron. The
shovel is slightly cupped to make it hold more earth.

The Portable Gate or Tappoon. — These are for shutting ditches,
and are made of No. 16 sheet iron 2 feet wide and of any desired

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CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

length, but usually 3 feet, 4 feet or 5 feet long. The corners are
cut off to a circle, starting about 1 foot back of the corner. The
handles are made of two pieces of 1 by 3 inch pine,- 12 inches longer
than the gate, and are placed one on each side of the sheet iron
and secured by 1-4 inch bolts.

The Combined Check and Furrow Method. — An effort to escape
in some measure the puddling of the surface which results from
allowing water to sink away upon finely pulverized soil, lies in
the direction of breaking up the soil roughly in the bottoms of the
checks, which facilitates the quick passage of the water into the
subsoil. This is done by running a small plow or three large culti-
vator teeth attached to a single frame before the ridger is used to

}, «_ FURRO'WS

Combined check and furrow irrigation.

form the levees. Mr. A. D. Bishop of Orange County, California,
uses a combined furrow and check system, as shown in the accom-
panying diagram. He furrows the land first with a three-tooth
furrower at right angles to the direction in which the water is to
flow, and then uses the ridger to make levees in line with the water,
laying out the work so as to get the closest approximation to a
level. When the levees are made, the jump scraper is used and
the end of each third or fourth furrow bank is connected with the
levees at alternating sides of the check made by the levees. This
causes the water to flow through the furrows from side to side and
distribute itself evenly over the whole ground. The number of
furrows which can be passed before connecting with the bank
depends upon the slope of the land — the nearer level the land the

HILLSIDE IRRIGATION j^g-j^

greater the distance that can be left between the connections, and
vice versa. In this way the water is taken slowly down a grade
where it would flow too rapidly were it admitted to furrows in the
direction of its flow.

Another combination of the check and furrow system is found
where the lowest spaces of a slope irrigated by furrows are laid off
in checks to catch the overflow from the furrows and compel its
percolation at a point which would otherwise receive too little
water. The parts of a furrow system which lie farthest from the
source of supply are obviously least supplied, because long flow
can not be maintained there without much loss from overflow.
Holding the water in checks at the lower end — usually for two
rows of trees — is quite a help toward even distribution.

The Basin System. — The term basin should be restricted to
inclosures which do not aim at covering the whole surface, but
only a small area immediately surrounding the tree. The check
system is clearly a more rational and perfect method of flooding.
When basins were used on ground capable of irrigation by the
check or furrow systems, it was probably due to a misconception
which has prevailed also in the practice of fertilization, that the
tree derived its chief benefit from the soil immediately surround-
ing and beneath its bole, and that distant applications were likely
to be wasted. Years ago it was held that the lateral root exten-
sion of a tree was equal to the spread of its branches, but recent
investigations have shown that under favorable soil conditions the
root extension is vastly greater. It is not reasonable then to restrict
water or other plant food to the region chiefly occupied with
the stay roots and not the feeding roots of the tree, and it is a
frequent observation that basined trees do not do so well and that
they show distress sooner than those under systems which secure
more complete water distribution.

To the basin system may, however, be conceded these possibili-
ties : (1) Trees may be grown on hillsides too steep for other means
of irrigation unless the hillside be previously terraced; (2) the
basins afford an opportunity to use a very small stream of water
by allowing it to run for a long time in each basin, thus making
a miniature reservoir at the base of each tree ; (3) for young trees
a small amount of water may sustain growth, while with other
methods the same amount of water would be almost wholly lost
by evaporation or percolation, or both; (4) the expense of wider
application of water and the necessary after cultivation is obviated.

In planting on hillsides, terracing is the foundation of the basin
system. Terraces are plowed and scraped out until they have
width enough to accommodate a line of basins and a ditch at the
foot of each bank to supply them. The terraces are given a little
fall, alternating in direction so that the water, starting from the

^Q2 CALlFOliNlA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ridge above, is dropped through a box, or otherwise let down, from
the low end of one terrace to the high end of the next, and so on
until the stream reaches the bottom of the slope. As a basin is
reached it is filled and closed and the water sent along to the next
and so on. As these basins are usually small and shallow they
are filled two or three times in succession at each irrigation.

Wherever water can be handled in contour ditches or furrows,
terracing should seldom be undertaken for commercial purposes.
With slopes which do require terracing, basins on the steeper parts
are largely made by hand labor, after plowing to loosen the whole
surface, and the operation consists in moving the earth from the
upper side of the tree, so as to form a circular levee on the lower
side, until the tree stands in a level, roundish pan as large as can
be made without too much excavation and filling. As the slope
becomes less the basins enlarge and reach a diameter, finally,
where the sides can be made by turning a small horse or mule
around the tree with a plow, the ^rim being further raised and
shaped by hand so as to hold 3 inches or more of water without
danger of breaking away.

The basins are filled with a small stream by ditch or hose or
pipe line, according to the ground and notion of the irrigator. They
are filled at such intervals as the water supply admits or the growth
seems to need. The basin bottom is rarely disturbed. The crack-
ing soil is finally given another dose of water to close up its
wounds; meantime the frequent surface soaking puddles the soil
and the conditions unfavorable to growth arrives sooner or later,
according to the disposition of the soil to run together by water
settling. Drying and cracking is lessened by filling the basin
with manure or rotten straw or other light rubbish, or by a layer
of coarse sand on the bottom. As the tree grows the foliage
shades the basin and thus reduces evaporation.

The Furrow System. — The furrow system is the prevailing
method of irrigating fruit lands except with some soils which can
be better handled with less water by the check system. The fur-
row system has, however, a very marked theoretical advantage
in the escape from saturating the surface soil, which has to dry
out again before it can be cultivated, and it is only with difficulty
reduced to fine tilth after such puddling. Another advantage is in
saving the water used in moistening soil which has to be dried
by evaporation. Other theoretical advantages lie in the even dis-
tribution of the water with the least displacement of the soil and
the introduction of the water to the subsoil, where deep-rooting
plants should derive their chief sustenance. It is becoming quite
clear that all these theoretical advantages have not been realized
by the furrow system as generally practiced, and a number of
modifications are now being introduced which promise their fuller

I

LARGE FURROW SYSTEM

193

realization. The changes now taking place tend toward reducing
the difference between what are known as the "large-furrow" and
the "small-furrow" methods, because the improvement lies chiefly
in introducing the water more deeply in the soil, as will be shown
later, and this is done by using fewer and deeper furrows.

Irrigating by Large Furrows. — Where one to four furrows are
used, these are large furrows, while the small-furrow system uses
from five to eight or more between two rows of trees. Large fur-
rows are made with the double-mpldboard plow, or with a single
plow followed by the "crowder," or by plowing out dead furrows
between the rows, etc. Their number depends upon the size of
the trees and the fitness of the soil for lateral seepage. They are
wide enough and deep enough to carry or hold a large stream
of water and is a method used chiefly for winter irrigation on land
which is so nearly level that the water will flow slowly into the

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SOUTH FURROW

NOETH nURKOW

Large furrow.

Large furrow irrigation of orange trees at Palermo, Butte County, Cal.

furrows and stand there until it disappears by percolation. It is
also used where one of two summer irrigations are all that are
required to carry the trees through. It is obviously adapted only
to land of slight and uniform grade. Irrigation by a single furrow
cut near to the row of trees is a v/idely prevalent method with
yoimg trees. When the trees are larger, or when intercultures

]^94 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

are undertaken, the large furrows are multiplied. In this case the
water is admitted to the furrows from a board flume. Large fur-
rows are often used in a bearing orchard, the furrows being filled
from a lateral ditch, this lateral being parallel to the main ditch.
In this case the board dam is used to divert the lateral into one
large furrow after another, and when the furrow is filled dirt is
thrown in to prevent the reflow of the water into the lateral.

The great variety in large furrow practice is suggested in the
foregoing. A systematic manner of proceeding is that of Mr. A.
Trost, of Palermo, California, as described by himself :

The soil is red, gravelly clay, the upper 12 inches without rocks; below
this the gravel is more rock. At the depth of 3 or 4 feet the red clay changes
into a whitish one and water enters it very slowly. My orchard is 12 acres —
1,120 feet long from north to south and 510 feet from east to west. The
northeast corner is the highest. Here the water ditch enters, and I run
my head ditch along the east side from north to south. There are' 51 rows
of trees in that direction, the north and soutji outside rows being olives.
There are 23 orange trees in the row from east to west and 1 olive tree on
the west end. All trees are 20 feet apart. I use 24 miner's inches per day
for 5 days in the following manner: I use 4 furrows about 5 or 6 inches deep
and about 3 feet apart between rows, leaving the furrows nearest the trees
from 5 to 6 feet from the trunks. The 4 lower rows on the west side I cross
furrow with 2 furrows between the trees. I divide the 24 inches into 51
equal streamlets by using one gate for each 4 rows. First turn this amount
in the furrow south nearest to tree. When the water has moved to the olive
tree, I divide the water between the 4 furrows for the lower 6 trees and
through the cross furrows. The next morning I divide the water at the tenth
tree for the 4 furrows. On the third day I let only one-half the water
go down in the furrow south of tree, the other in the one north nearest
to tree. On the fourth day I turn part of it in the middle furrows near
the head ditch, and by the fifth day I have my place equally wet from one
end to the other, taking care that the top soil near the trunks of trees remains
dry on the surface. I keep the soil around the trunks of the trees about
2 inches higher for a width of 3 feet. In this way I use all the water with-
out running any off, and lose only the evaporation. The whole amount of
water used is 120 inches, equal to 10 inches or 130,000 gallons per acre, or
4.5 acre-inches or 1,200 gallons per tree.

I irrigate about every four weeks, running the water five days and turning
it on again three weeks after it is taken off. I have irrigated as early as the
1st of April and as late as the middle of October, depending on late rains
in spring and early rains in fall; usually from five to six irrigations per year.
After four or five days I cultivate 14 feet wide between the trees from 6 to 8
inches deep; for this I use a 7-foot cultivator and four horses. Near the
trunk of the tree I work about 2 inches deep and a little farther away 4
inches deep, using the three-cornered orchard plow with a cultivator 4 feet
w^ide and two horses.

Irrigation by Large Furrows Without Summer Cultivation. — •
An exception to the continuous cultivation of orchard ground
which is prevalent in the irrigated regions of the Pacific coast is
found in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada in California, where
furrows are made at the beginning of each irrigating season and
used continuously during that summer. The ensuing winter plow-
ing and early spring cultivation arc relied upon to keep the soil
in good condition. Although this constitutes an exception and
the practice is widely followed for what seems to the growers of

I

i

FOOT-HILL IRRIGATION 195

the region to be a good and sufficient reason, it does not militate
against the truth of the continuous summer cultivation policy
which elsewhere prevails, nor does it follow that this policy would
not be better in some respects even in the region where it is
abandoned. It is a district of very large water supply, and the
arrangements of the water company are such that the grower must
pay for a certain number of inches of water by the year and is
entitled to this amount of continuous flow. He has to use it or
neglect it as it flows, and can not get more at one time by not using
it at another. For this reason he has not the motive for close
observation which prevails under other conditions, and to escape
the cost of summer cultivation and fresh furrowing out he has
recourse to frequent flows in the old furrows. The following
interesting account of the prevailing method was prepared by Mr.
W. R. Fountain, of Newcastle :

Water is supplied almost exclusively by one company, which has met
requirements up to date and seems fixed to supply in excess of demand. It
is supplied by the miner's inch; price $45 per inch per season for a constant
supply. The inch is measured under 6-inch pressure.

Beginning May 1st, five months is called the irrigating season, but the
purchaser can have the water twelve months per annum if he wants it. The
water company collects monthly. The purchaser can not start the season
with little and increase at pleasure, except upon payment for the full season on
the basis of the largest amount used at any time.

With this constant supply we use it constantly, piping to high points and
moving it from place to place. When no fruit is ripening it is attempted to
water a block of trees in twenty-four hours. The water is not checked
back, but is run in ditches, mostly in one, but occasionally in two, along each
row of trees or vines. When a variety of fruit is ripening more water is
given the trees, while after a variety is picked and before any other is nearly
ripe the effort is made to water each tree every ten or twelve days. Level
land and low spots stand a good chance, as a rule, to get too much water,
and a larger stream is used per row to force the water through quickly. Then
it is taken off in a shorter time than it would be where the trees are on a
side-hill and have good drainage.

About I inch for each 8 acres is generally used. This is for deciduous
fruits. The citrus fruits and berries require wateriilg about once a week; if
there is good drainage they would prosper if watered every three days. In
such ground I have not heard of their getting either too much water or too
much fertilizer. The general practice is to plow, cross plow, and then after
each rain cultivate, with no cultivation whatever after beginning the use of
water. I think an occasional cultivation after watering would help.

There is a tendency for the ditches to become packed after water has
been flowing through them for some time, in which case but little water
soaks into the ground. When this occurs, I dig a pot-hole in the ditch
to allow the water to soak in, or else loosen the ground about the trees
with a spade and carry the ditch through this loosened ground. I block out
my ditches so that I can get my stream through the last tree in about sixteen
hours. Where the water has not reached the end of some of the ditches, I
turn the water into it from a stream that is flush, and by keeping a man
with a hoe constantly with the water, I manage to get it over the field at
about 4 p. m. I wet about 350 trees in a block on hillsides; on a flat I wet
less, using more water in each stream, and changing it about every twelve
hours instead of every twenty-four hours. My trees grow about 130 to an
acre.

196

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Systematic Distribution of Water on Hillsides. — l^he common
method of carrying water in pipes to the various hii;h points of
several slopes or "irrigation faces" from which it can be admitted
to large furrows crossing or descending those faces is open to
some difficulties and disarrangements. P. W. Butler, of Penryn,

NEARLY LEVEL

Zigzag ditches.

Large furrow system on hillsides with zigzag ditches for distribution, catchment,

and redistribution.

has had in successful operation for several years a system of zig-
zag ditches for carrying and distributing and for catching outflow
and redistributing on a lower face. This is also a system which
makes ditches and furrows but once a year and dispenses with
summer cultivation. Mr. Butler's account, as illustrated by the
accompanying diagrams, is as follows :

The amount of water generally used in this section for the irrigation of
deciduous fruit trees is 1 inch to 5 acres of orchard (miner's inch under 6-
inch pressure), and is applied to each row of trees by one stream of water
of sufficient quantity to just reach the end of the row. Much of the water
is thus wasted because of inability to properly adjust its distribution. It is
usually run twenty-four hours, then changed to other parts of the orchard
until the whole is covered, which takes about three weeks' time, when the
process is repeated, continuing throughout the summer, or from May 1 until
October 1. There is no cultivation in the meantime, and at each irrigation
the water is run in the same ditches. This system is followed in nearly all
the orchards of Penryn and vicinity, some on quite steep hillsides, which
suffer when the water is thus applied. I have never liked this method, and
for many years have used a different system in irrigating all orchards over
which I have had control. In my home orchard I have a reservoir on the
highest land, from which water can be conveyed as desired to every part.

DEEP FURROWS AT RIVERSIDE

197

My ditches arc run on a grade with a fall from 2 to 3 inches to the rod and
from 5 to 8 feet apart. At each irrigation the water is run about thirty-six
hours before changing. The round of the orchard is made in ten to fourteen
days. None of my small ditches exceeds 400 feet in length. When 1 begin
to irrigate a section I turn on from the reservoir water sufficient to cover
that section in a few hours, then lessen it until it just reaches the end of each
row, but see that it reaches the end of each row if a little surplus passes
over. This surplus I take up in a main ditch, to be again used on lower
ground. This is continued until the lowest part of the orchard is reached,
and very little water is ever wasted. By running on a grade that is so nearly
level the water is applied uniformly, even on the driest parts of the hill
slopes. I run the main distributing ditches in a zigzag manner, taking water
from these ditches to cover the lower sections. I formerly used pipes to
lead the water down the steepest grades, but this system I have abandoned
and now use open zigzag ditches for mains. From the main zigzag ditches
I do not take the water at the turning point, as there is more liability of
breakage than if taken when running straight, or at whatever point is neces-
sary to keep the distributing ditches on an average of 8 feet apart. The
length of the zigzag ditches varies according to the slope of the hillside.
When steep, the ditch, before turning, must be of greater length than where
the ground is more level. (See diagram.) I use no gates, but bush the
openings with coarse swale hay. I also bush the turning points of ditches,
as they are in permanent use throughout the season, and after the first few
days' use require but little care to keep them in order. These ditches are
torn up during the season of cultivation and have to be renewed every year.

I use a level set on a frame 8.25 feet long and about 2.5 feet high (one
leg longer than the other) to make any grade desired. Then I drag its length
on the ground after getting the level, and can mark the line of ditch nearly
half as fast as a man can walk.

During the last ten years I have used many thousand feet of pipe in irri-
gating, but have found it too expensive to be practicable, and it frequently
gets clogged, causing much trouble. The zigzag method of taking the water
down hills on the dry ridges, distributing to right and left, picking it up
again in zigzag ditches at the end of the rows or system, to be used again
on lower ground, brings into use the largest quantity where it is most
needed and utilizes it all without waste.

Irrigating by Small Furrows. — It has already been suggested
that recently the small furrow method of irrigation is undergoing
certain modifications. The occasion for the change is that in

Newer system of furrow irrigation at Riverside, Cal.

198

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

certain of the heavier soils, particularly, the use of water in many
shallow furrows followed by cultivation results in the formation
of a compact layer, and this prevents the percolation of the water
into the subsoil. This discovery led many Southern growers to
resort to fewer and deeper furrows and to new devices to enable
the tree to get the benefit of the water. There has been wide
use of the subsoil plow, with a wedge-shaped foot attached to a
slim standard rising to the ordinary beam. The standard opposes
its thin edge to the soil so as to cleave it with the least difficulty,
and the foot, passing through or beneath the hardpan, lifts and
breaks it. The result of the subsoiling is to open a way for the
water to sink and spread below the hardpan. It is usual to run
this plow once through the center of the interspace between the
rows of trees, sometimes at right angles to the irrigation furrows.
When this is done the water is admitted to the furrows as usual,
but instead of flowing along smoothly it drops into the track of
the subsoiler and runs there a long time before rising agam to
continue its course down the furrow. It is the experience of some
growers that the water has taken five or six days to reach the
lower end of the furrows, a distance which would have been
covered in twenty-four hours if the subsoiler had not intervened.
This has been shown to result in much water for the subsoil and
a notable invigoration of trees which had been famishing, although
shallow-furrow irrigation had proceeded regularly.

Recent changes in the furrow method at Riverside, California,
are described by Mr. J. H. Reed as follows :

The handling of the water in the orchard has materially changed in recent
years. Instead of flooding up, basining, or using shallow furrows, deep fur-

Irrigation of fruit trees by large furrows between rows.

CONDITIONS FOR DEEP FURROWING

199

rows, from 3 to 5 feet apart, are most generally used. In heavy adobe soils
more furrows are used than in the more porous granite soils. The most
usual length of furrows is 40 rods. Every precaution is taken to have the
surface wetted as little as possible.

The amount of water run at a time is materially lessened. Formerly the
common practice was to run 3 inches per acre for twenty-four hours each
thirty days. Now, 2 inches continuous run for seventy-two hours is found
to serve a much better purpose, except on loose soils. The general practice
in the valley is to irrigate once each thirty days. A few of the most careful
orchardists had found that by intelligent and thorough manipulation of the
soil they obtained as favorable results from the application of water every
sixty days or more, using the same amount as they formerly did at interva^^
of half that time. The writer has watched with much interest an eight-year-
old orchard that during the three years preceding the present received in
all but ten irrigations, the usual amount of water being used only at each
four irrigations the first year and three irrigations each the second and third
years, with results comparing favorably with those on trees of the same age
on the same soil in neighboring orchards that received the ordinary thirty-
day irrigations. While there are few orchardists who have the skill and
patience required to secure such results, they show the possibilities of
improved cultivation in conserving moisture. So long as water is abundant
and not expensive, more frequent irrigations will probably be generally prac-
ticed; but the advantage of running the water slowly for a longer time, in
furrows as deep as possible, covering the saturated bottoms as soon as prac-
ticable and keeping the surface perfectly pulverized and in loose condition,
is being generally recognized.

The usual practice is now to have 6 deep furrows in 20-foot
spaces. The number varies according to the character of the soil,
but is in any case less than in the small, shallow furrow system
which formerly prevailed.

The recourse to deeper furrows and to the subsoil plowing
has been made in several citrus fruit districts of Southern Cali-
fornia. Its success depends upon conditions. There are cases in

The V-shaped "Crowder" and Metal Dams or "Tapoons.'

c
6

200

CEMENT IN IRRIGATION

201

which too (kcp use of the subsoiler has admitted the water at
a point too low for best results to the tree which grows on a leachy
subsoil, and the cutting of roots by the subsoiler has in some cases
brought shallow-rooting trees into temporary distress. The gen-
eral conclusion, however, is that deeper introduction of water favors
deeper rooting and is very economical of water by preventing the
loss by evaporation from the surface, which, theoretically, is dry,
but which actually, with shallow furrows over an irrigation hard-
pan, becomes too often saturated over nearly the whole space
between the trees.

Continuous cement flume with weirs to raise water to outlet tubes.

Cement Pipes and Flumes for the Furrow System. — The use of
cement in the construction of flumes has largely increased because,
by means of locally devised machinery, continuous cement flume
has been cheapened so that its first cost is less than that of lumber
flume where suitably durable lumber is high. Similar machinery
is used for the construction of continuous cement pipe, which is
replacing open laterals in carrying water from main ditches to
the land of individual irrigators. This pipe is made by a machine
constructed by two Riverside men who are both machinists and
practical orchardists. Sand and barrels of cement are distributed
along the line ahead of the machine, as shown in the background
of the picture. The mixing is done in flat boxes, each being
carried forward when emptied. One of the lines of large rubber

202

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

hose conveys steam to the head of the cylinder of the machine
and the other returns the spent steam. The mixed cement and
sand is carried to the feeding box (shown in vertical position in
the trench), from which it is dropped into the steel pipe form
below. Steam pressure is then brought to bear upon it and then
cut off by the lever; loose earth is thrown around the steel forming-
cylinder as it moves forward and is firmed by the operator's
feet ready to sustain the walls of the new pipe as the cylinder is
withdrawn from it. More loose earth is thrown over the new
pipe, which is allowed to harden before the trench is filled.

Continuous cement flume is made in a similar manner, the
machine working on the surface and the required pressure being
given by a strong lever instead of by steam power. Instead of
a cylindrical form, one to properly shape the flume is used. After
this form is moved and before the cement hardens, grooves are
made at intervals in the side walls to insert board dams to raise
the water so that it will flow out of zinc tubes with gates, which
are also put in place while the cement is plastic. Not only is such
flume sometimes cheaper than board flumes, as stated above, but
annoyance of leaking and cost of extensive repairs are done away
with.

Board flume and furrow irrigation at Fullerton.

The Board Flume and the Furrow System. — Although in the
older regions the cement flume is advancing in popularity, import-
ant service will always be rendered by the homemade board flume
where suitable lumber is cheap. A detailed account of its con-
struction and operation will be widely useful. The following is
contributed by Mr. A. S. Bradford, of Orange County :

I consider the board flume best because it is in many places cheapest
and because it will last fifteen or twenty 3^ears in California if made of good
soft redwood. The common redwood lumber is generally so, but the so-
called flume lumber is hard, generally, and will warp the flume out of shape.
Even in the common redwood lumber hard pieces will be found, and these

SOURCES OP IRRIGATION WATER 203

should be avoided. My first flume has been in use nine years and is appar-
ently as good as ever.

The first thing to be considered is getting a flume put in properly, as this
alone will cause much trouble if not done right. A flume should run nearly
on a level. It should be placed about two-thirds in the ground at the com-
mencement, and, as soon as it comes out of the ground to about two-thirds
of its height, there should be a drop made of 1, 2, or 3 inches, if necessary,
and then carried along as before, so as to keep the entire length of flume
practically on a level.

Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer, as it is lighter to handle. I
prefer 8-inch sides with 18-inch bottom, or, in some cases, 10-inch sides
with 16-inch bottom. The first section, however, should be about 2 feet
wide, narrowed to the size of the flume, so as to control the stream. Collars
should be put around the flume every 8 feet of distance; that is, one in the
center and one to cover the joints at each end. These collars should be 2 by
3 inch stuff on the bottom and sides and 1 by 3 inches on top. This makes a
strong, durable flume. The length of the flume should be divided, so that
the stream will decrease as it goes along. The width should be decreased
also, say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10, and 8 inches, the sides being the same
throughout or reduced so as to have 10-inch sides on the 16-inch bottom
and 8-inch sides on the rest, nailed to the side of the bottom, making 7
inches depth inside. Two-inch holes should be about 30 inches apart and
2-inch gates placed on the inside instead of outside, as they will collect less
trash, the hole through the wood, if uncovered, making a lodgment for leaves,
etc. In the narrow and flat flume it is much easier to fix the gates.

From 8 to 9 furrows for trees set 24 feet apart is sufficient. The streams
should be run from one-eighth to one-half the capacity of the holes in the
flume, according to the soil and fall of ground. I commence the stream
small and increase it if necessary later on. The streams should be kept as
near together as possible, and when the end is reached the gate should be
nearly closed down, so as to allow the stream to just trickle to the end.
In this manner the soil will become thoroughly wet from one end to the
other. The streams should be run very slowly on most of our soils. A great
many failures have been made on hard soils by running the stream too large
and then reducing it. This seems to "slick" or cement the soil so that it
will not take the water, and the consequence is a poor and unsatisfactory
irrigation. On the other hand, if the streams are started small and allowed
to soak the ground as they go along, it is simply astonishing how much
water can be put in the ground. On sandy soils the streams should be
larger. A little practice would give any one the desired information.

About three rows of trees at the lower end should be blocked up, provided
one has no place where the overflow water could be used. This last pro-
vision is the better, however, as there would be only about 10 inches of
water run over the last three or four hours, and a thorough job would be
done from one end to the other.

In making furrows I have an extension made for by cultivator to bolt on
each side and use four plows. With this extension I can wet the whole
ground thoroughly. The furrows will extend under the limbs of the trees,
and by making a slight curve around each tree the ground will become wet
in the rows as well as between.

As compared with the check system, the furrow method, properly handled,
makes the soil light and loose, while the check system is apt to pack the
soil, rendering it lifeless and leaving it so that it will not retain moisture
long. Besides, the cost of ridging and extra labor in handling water in
checks for one season will nearly pay for the flume by which one man can
do the irrigating. Two horses will furrow out 10 acres in half a day, and a
little hand labor at the flume will connect the furrows. In the check system
generally a disk is run first where the ridges are to be made, and then the
ridger is run with 4 horses ; then the jump scraper is run to stop up one side of
the blocks; then ditches must be made; then from 2 to 3 men are required
to handle the water by shutting up the checks when filled. Afterwards the
ridges must be plowed down before the ground can be harrowed and got
in condition to cultivate. At a glance one can see that it costs fully three
times as much to irrigate by the check system as by the furrow system,
and with the latter the soil acts more as it does after a ram.

204

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER

It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to attempt
an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practices. The
enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among
settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All these
matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed in this
work. As, however, it has been the aim of the writer to aid the
inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a little space
will be given to suggestions as to how a planter may develops and
use such small water supply as may be derived from spring, small
creek or well, on his own land without employing an engineer.

Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches. — How far to go up a
creek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land is a
question which frequently arises in individual practice. There is
also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The
fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water
which it is desired that it should discharge, and upon the width
and depth with which it is intended that the water should flow.
It may also be dependent upon the character of the soil in which
the ditch is to be constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water
itself. A strong current in soft soil may cause mischievous ero-
sions. Water carrying much sediment must never be allowed to

homemade leveling instrument

move sluggishly, as clear water sometimes may. It is best to state
the requirements to a competent engineer and act on his suggestion,
or secure the counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with
similar soil and water.

Llaving decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point
at which water can be taken out of the creek to be brought to a
certain piece of land is found by commencing with the point at
which the water is to be delivered (generally the highest point of

I

LOCATING DITCH LINES

205

the land to be irrigated), and running up stream a line which has
the inclination intended for the ditch.

To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the
way, use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as follows:

With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in
the sketch. The three pieces, A B, 6 feet long, B C, 12 feet long, and C A,
4 feet long, are made fast to each other at A, B, and C. The board, A D,
IS fastened to the triangle at right angles to B C. Near A, on the board,
A D, a plumbdine is made fast. The plumb, like a mason's plumb, hangs in
a hole at F, so that when A D is vertical, the string hangs very near the
surface of the board, A D.

It will be seen that when A D is exactly vertical, 5 C is exactly horizontal,
if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter's, square used
in .the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accuracy in the position
oi A D.

In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string of
the plumb will hang when B C is exactly horizontal, more care is required.
Two pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points to rest on.
The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about
the center line of the board, A D. Having marked this position of the plumb-
line, the triangle is reversed so that the end B rests on the peg where be-
fore we had the end C, and vice versa. Should the plumb-line be in a position
at variance with the first one marked on the board, then the correct position
for the B C horizontal will be exactly in the middle between the two found by
the aid of the two pegs.

It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked off
on B C. Holes in the pieces A B and C A at E E, or handles, will make the
triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it.

Starting with the "Jump Scraper" to close a row of gates.

To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, cal-
culate the amount which your line should rise between each two

206 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

pegs. Drive a peg at the starting point with its top say six inches
from the general surface of the ground. Hold one end of the
leveling apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount which
the line rises per each instrument-length (B C), and swing the
other end around into the direction from which the ditch is to
come, until, when level, it is just six inches above the ground.
Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six inches high, and
proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the top of each
peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be horizontal
when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount which the
line rises per level-length, above the preceding peg. It will be
found convenient to use a carefully-prepared block to hold on the
top of each stake at the rear end of the level instead of trusting
to measurement each time.

Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches.

— This work can be done with the aid of the level above described.
For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal elevation), as
required in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until
its top has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot.
Rest one end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other
around until, when B C is horizontal, this other end has exactly the
same elevation from the ground as the top of the peg. At this point
drive a second peg and proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs
be chosen as the height of the levee, they may be retained as grade
stakes as well as line stakes for the embankment.

Storing Water from Small Sources. — For individual uses quite
a' respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from
apparently mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and
opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside
to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well.
Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per second, would be
sufficient to irrigate several acres in fruit trees. To derive the
greatest benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is neces-
sary, in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a
longer period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as required.
It is by using water in driblets that many springs are wasted.
A spring supplying even one and a half inches of water would be
wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hundred feet of
its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumulating it in a
reservoir and discharging at intervals in a volume four times as
large, it would more than cover eight times the surface. A spring
flowing two quarts per second will discharge forty-three thousand
two hundred gallons in twenty-four hours. This would require a
reservoir forty by twenty feet, and seven feet deep, or double that
width if the depth is decreased one-half. The shallower it can be

LOSSES OF WATER 207

made the better, for many reasons, but especially on account of the
temperature of the water. That of springs is generally too low in
summer for immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by
being raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the
air. This is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A res-
ervoir can be constructed entirely in the ground where the slope
will admit of it, and by lining the bottom and sides with clay well
puddled, will answer for most purposes. Some are built of adobe,
backed with earth and plastered on the inner side with hydraulic
cement. Concrete of lime, sand, and broken stone, is, however,
the best material, where lime can be readily obtained, and any
person with ordinary mechanical skill can construct them. The
following hints on a dirt reservoir may be suggestive :

A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to
be irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large
area as not to affect the utility of the land from which it is taken. With a
levee all around 5 feet high, 5 feet of water could be carried safely. The
slopes ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square
and 4 feet deep would hold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the
reservoir should be measured 2 feet from the bottom, or half way up the
4 feet of water; consequently to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,000 gallons,
put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other size one take 8 feet
off the same as in this. A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750 gallons
and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square would hold
27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 35 feet square — 27
at the bottom — will hold 36.000 gallons; one 40 feet square — 32 on the
bottom — will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an
acre would be a little more than 134 inches of rainfall.

Almost any loam soil will hold water with a little puddling. The cheapest
way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the intended reservoir, including
at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very wet,
put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barlej% a little at a time,
so as to make them not only walk around but root for the barley. A half
sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make a
good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily the water could be taken off
and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand mixed one
part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be covered slowly.
A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and with the
mixture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 1^ inches. This
would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from the bottom, so
that the lift would never be more than the height of the surface.

Loss of Water by Seepage. — The great loss of water by seepage
during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the
use of miles of large w^ooden, concrete and iron pipe by the irri-
gation companies of Southern California; also, where the slope is
rapid, paving ditches wdth rock has been resorted to. Similar
efiforts naturally suggest themselves to the user of a small water
supply to save his flow from loss. The lining of ditches to prevent
seepage is being tested by the California Experiment Station at
Berkeley, and publication of results is being made.* Where lumber
is cheap the use of a board flume is an available means of saving
water, when the soil is coarse and leachy.

Bulletin 188 University of California Experiment Station.

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I

THE CURRENT WHEEL

209

Irrigation from Flowing Wells. — A considerable area of orchard
is irrigated from flowing' wells in different parts of the State.
Nearly everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well-
borers who have kept records of the strata traversed in their work
and can estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method.

Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Stream. — Where a stream
has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height
of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to distribute the water
over a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current
wheel which is largely used in this State. The engraving gives an
end view of such a wheel. Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat
buckets like those of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub
rotating on metal bearings. At either end or both ends of each
bucket are fixed wooden or tin water boxes which fill themselves
on entering the water, and on being brought to the highest point
of rotation empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough
supplies the distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed
that it comes under the projecting buckets of the wheel without
interference with the motion of the arms. The current of water
in the channel underneath forces the buckets down stream, the
latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. By using
a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the water
may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. A little experi-
menting will indicate the proper size boxes, which depends upon
the velocity and volume of water in the channel as well as the
amount to be delivered.

End view of irrigating wheel.

At the Fancher Creek Nursery, in Fresno County, a wheel is
used eighteen feet in diameter, and carries sixteen buckets, which
empty into a trough sixteen feet above the ditch. The wheel lifts
about one cubic foot in two seconds.

210 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION

The use of pumps for irrigation is continually increasing. The
capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation in this
land of oil wells and of ponderous waterfalls whose power can be
transformed into electric energy, warrant the conclusion that in
many places water can be lifted from below more cheaply than
it can be brought long distances by ditch; and that the supply is
more constant and subject to the users' command and convenience.
In all parts of the State well-boring and digging and pump con-
struction have advanced very rapidly. Pumping plants of all
capacities, from the greatest of the gasoline class, lifting fivQ
thousand gallons per minute from a depth of twenty-five feet, down
to the plant with a throw of three hundred gallons per minute,
all styles of motors and pumps are being constantly multiplied.
These plants are being placed upon wells in the orchard or in the
vicinity, or upon adjacent streams or ponds. Many new designs
by California inventors are coming into use. It would require
a volume to contain any adequate account of California's recent
progress in these lines. Economic pumping is governed by so many
considerations that no general statement would be conclusive in
any specific case. Each orchardist must ascertain his own condi-
tions and then confer with trustworthy manufacturers or their
agents as to what will meet his requirements.*

WATER MEASUREMENT

The Miner's Inch. — Although the miner's inch, as commonly
measured, is open to objection because of inaccuracy, from an
engineer's point of view, it is so easily applied that it must remain
a popular recourse. It consists in causing the water to flow
through an opening, the capacity of which is known, and which is
readily capable of adjustment to the flow in any case. A simple
form of this device and its use is shown in the illustration, which
represents a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and about 8 feet
long. The opening is 1 inch wide and 50 inches long, and the dis-
tance from the top of the board to the center of the opening is
exactly 4 inches on the up-stream side. On the down-stream side
the opening is beveled so that the hole presents sharp edges to the
stream. A sliding board is hung upon the top of the first board,
with a strip screwed along its upper edge, this sliding board being
wide enough to cover the opening on the up-stream side. In the

* Full details of the cost and flow from pumps drawing from various depths and
operated by various motors are given in the publications of the Irrigation Investiga-
tions to which reference has previously been made.

i

I

THE MINERS' INCH

211

slot there is a closely-fitting block, made to slide on the beveled
edges and fastened by a screw to the sliding board. It is obvious,
then, that when the sliding board is moved backward or forward,
by means of its end, which is extended for a handle, the block
moves in the slot and determines the length of the opening.

In operation the board is placed in the stream as shown in the
figure, so as to dam the flow completely, and the sliding board is
moved backward or forward until the water is all passing through
the slot, the water being kept up to the top of the board, or 4
inches above the center of the opening. The length of the opening
measures the number of miner's inches of water flowing through.

pnp

Measuring miner's inches in a small stream or ditch.

If the flow is too great to pass through the opening 1 inch wide,
the opening may be made wider, the water still to be kept 4 inches
above the center of the opening. The laws of several States
provide that in devices for measuring water for sale by the miner's
inch the opening shall be 6 inches high and shall be provided with
a slide as shown in the picture. The number of miner's inches
then discharged is equal to the number of square inches in the
opening. The assumption made that the discharge is proportional
to the size of the opening is not true, but the error in measuring
small quantities is not great enough to be taken into consideration.
By converting the results of measurements in miner's inches to
gallons, cubic feet, or some other familiar unit, it may be deter-
mined how long it will take the stream to fill a reservoir or cover
a given field with the necessary depth of water. This unit is readily
convertible into cubic feet or gallons or acre-inches of water,
according to the time the water flows.

The following data will be helpful in computations : One
miner's inch, as described above, equals 0.1496 gallons per second,
8.976 gallons per minute, 538.56 gallons per hour, 12,925.44 gallons

212

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

per day; 0.02 cubic foot per second, 1.2 cubic feet per minute, 72
cubic feet per hour. One acre-inch of water (that is, 1 inch in
depth over an acre of surface) equals 27,152 gallons, or 3,630
cubic feet, and 1 miner's inch will supply this quantity in about
50.4 hours. Thus a simple calculation shows that a little stream
of 5 miner's inches will supply enough water to cover an acre 2.3
inches deep in about 23 hours — a fair amount for one irrigation
of soil of average character if it has not been allowed to become
too dry before the application. In fact this is an average amount
actually used for an irrigation of shallow-rooted plants like most
field and garden crops.

Weir Measurement. — The term "weir" is not always understood
by those who use it. The term can properly be used only for
structures designed to allow the water to flow over the crest with
a considerable fall on the down-stream side. There are a large

Weir box in operation showing post from which to measure depth of stream.

number of forms of weirs, taking their names from the shape of
the weir notch, or the form of crest. The triangular weir has a
V-shaped notch. The rectangular weir has a horizontal crest with
vertical sides. Both of these forms of weir are good, when used
by the expert irrigator or engineer who understands the principles
and factors which enter into their calculations. In order to avoid
the variable factors which enter into the calculations for the flow

I

WEIR MEASURL]MENT 213

of water over weirs, Cipoletti invented the form of weir which
has taken his name and which is in general use throughout the
irrigated sections of the world.

The Cipoletti Weir. — The Cipoletti weir has a thin horizontal
crest, the sides of the weir notch sloping back from the vertical
at an angle equal to one inch in horizontal for every four inches
in vertical. This, for each additional inch in depth the weir notch
widens on each side one-fourth of an inch, or a total addition of
width of one-half inch. A weir having a length of crest of one
foot, and designed to be eight inches in depth, will have a top
width of notch of 16 inches.

When the weir box is placed, care should be taken to have the
bottom of the notch, or crest, level. An ordinary carpenter's spirit
level may be used for this purpose. When the crest is horizontal,
one end of the spirit level is placed on the center of the crest,
and when level the other end will mark the point for the zero of
the weir gauge. In rough w^ork a nail may be driven part way
into the side of the box, the top of the nail being level with the
crest of the weir. A thin plate of brass is to be preferred to a
nail. In other cases gauges are inserted on the sides of the flumes
and properly marked in tenths of feet or inches. At other times
a post from 1 to 2 inches square is placed in the center of the box
and several feet above the weir board. The top of this post is on
a level with the crest. This is the method shown in the accompany-
ing sketch.

How to Measure Water Over Weirs. — The method to follow
can best be shown by examples. Let us suppose that a farmer has
made and placed a box similar to the one shown in the drawing,
after turning in the water and allowing it some time to attain a
uniform flow he proceeds to the weir box and with an ordinary
rule measures the depth of water flowing through the weir notch.
Bear in mind that this measurement is not made at the weir board,
but at the regular gauge, whether it be a nail, brass plate or post,
as already described. We will assume that the depth as found by
the rule is 3^ inches. Now by referring to the table below he
follows down the first column until 3^^ is reached. The weir used
is one foot, and under the column marked *'l-foot weir" and oppo-
site the figure 3^ already found he finds the cubic feet per minute
or the gallons per minute flowing over a one-foot weir when the
depth of water is 3^ inches. The equivalent flow in gallons per
minute for any given length of weir and depth of water over the
crest was obtained from the accompanying table :

214

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Discharge Over Cipoletti Weirs.

Depth of water
on crest.

1-foot weir.

11^ -foot weir.

2 -foot weir.

3-foot weir.

5 Oft

1 0.08

IVs 0.10

114 0.11

1% 0.13

11/^ 0.15

1% 0.17

1% 0.19

lyg 0.21

2 0.23

21/8 0.25

214 0.27

2% 0.30

2% 0.32

2% 0.34

2% 0.37

278 0.39

3 0.42

31/8 0.45

314 0.47

3% 0.50

Z^ 0.52

3% 0.56

3% 0.59

3% 0.62

4 0.65

41/8 0.68

4^ 0.71

4% 0.74

41/^ 0.77

4% 0.81

4% 0.84

4% 0.87

5 0.91

51/8 0.94

514 0.97

5% 1.01

5% 1.05

5% 1.08

534 1.12

5% 1.15

6 1.20

6V8

61/4

6%

eva

6%

6%

678

7

o .

ft ^

1.2

OS

36
44
51
59
67
75
84
93
103
113
123
133
144
154
166
177
189
201
213
225
238
251
264
277
291
304
319
333
347
362
376
391
406
422
437
453
469
485
501
517
534

O a

0.12
0.15
0.17
0.20
0.22
0.25
0.28
0.31
0.34
0.38
0.41
0.44
0.48
0.52
0.55
0.59
0.63
0.67
0.71
0.75
0.80
0.84
0.88
0.93
0.97
1.02
1.07
1.11
1.16
1.20
1.26
1.31
1.36
1.41
1.46
1.51
1.57
1.62
1.68
1.73
1.79

55
65
76
88
100
113
126
140
154
169
184
199
215
231
248
262
283
301
319
338
357
376
396
416
436
456
478
499
521
543
564
587
609
633
656
679
703
727
752
776
801

U ft

0.16
0.19
0.23
0.26
0.30
0.34
0.38
0.42
0.46
0.50
0.55
0.59
0.64
0.69
0.74
0.80
0.84
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.06
1.12
1.18
1.24
1.30
1.36
1.42
1.48
1.55
1.61
1.68
1.74
1.81
1.88
1.95
2.02
2.09
2.16
2.23
2.31
2.38
2.46
2.53
2.61
2.68
2.76
2.84
2.92
3.00

o s

73

87

101

117

139

150

168

187

206

225

245

266

287

309

332

355

378

402

426

451

476

502

528

554

582

609

637

665

694

723

753

782

813

843

874

906

938

970

1,002

1,034

1,069

1,102

1,136

1,170

1,205

1,240

1,275

1,310

1.346

a <V

.^ m

•5 ^
U a

0.24
0.29
0.34
0.39
0.45
•0.50
0.56
0.62
0.68
0.75
0.82
0.89
0.96
1.03
1.11
1.18
1.26
1.34
1.42
1.51
1.59
1.68
1.76
1.85
1.94
2.04
2.13
2.22
2.32
2.42
2.52
2.62
2.72
2.82
2.92
3.03
3.13
3.24
3.35
3.46
3.57
3.68
3.80
3.91
4.03
4.14
4.26
4.38
4.50

109

130

152

175

200

226

252

280

308

338

368

399

431

464

497

531

566

602

639

676

714

753

792

832

872

913

956

998

1,041

1,084

1,129

1,174

1,219

1,266

1,312

1,359

1,407

1,455

1,503

1,553

1,603

1,653

1,704

1,755

1,807

1,859

1,912

1,966

2,020

SPECIAL POINTS FOR IRRIGATORS 215

RANDOM SUGGESTIONS

Without attempting an impossible thing, to-wit, to furnish
explicit directions for the practice of irrigation, for much of it
every man must learn for himself by experience, a few suggestions
may be noted, even though more important ones do not come to
mind.

Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with the
trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to such
contact, and resent it by "gum disease," which was formerly far
more prevalent in the State than now. Care must, therefore, be
taken not to set trees which are to be irrigated, too low. It is
better to raise them up a little and draw the earth up around them
to prevent approach of the water, but this must not be overdone.

If possible, the ditch should run on the shady side of the tree,
because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn the
bark.

In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig deeply,
for often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well cultivated,
while lower layers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid.
Therefore, when trees or vines are suffering, dig far down in exam-
ining the soil.

In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and exam-
ination must be made to see if an artificial hard-pan which prevents
the descent of the water has been formed.

Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season. It
will prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if more
fall irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for perfecting
the fruit, the trees will continue growing tender shoots until they
are injured by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is often desir-
able to give deciduous trees a draft of water after the fruit has
been gathered, if the soil is so dry that the tree is likely to drop
its leaves too soon, and wake from its dormancy with the first
rains. Many times the fall blooming of deciduous trees, which is
very undesirable, may be prevented by keeping them growing later
in the summer by moderate irrigation.

If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be grown
without irrigation, it is important that the grower be more than
usually thorough and constant with his summer cultivation. In
trying the non-irrigation experiment, one should, of course, begin
with young trees which have not been irrigated, and not usually
expect success by withdrawing the water from trees which have
been accustomed to it, and have developed a root system accord-
ingly.

210 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA

The word "sub-irrigated" is freely used in California to describe
land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage from
streams or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, traversing
higher levels. This land is sub-irrigated, it is true, but there is
no system about it, except the natural distribution of water, which
is to seek its level. Some of our most productive lands are of this
character, and where the soil and subsoil are fitted to the move-
ment of this living water, and not apt to retain, it up to the point
of saturation, most satisfactory growth of deep-rooting field crops
and of trees and vines are secured. But this is not sub-irrigation
in the ordinary signification of the term.

Several systems of sub-irrigation by subterranean pipes have
been devised by California inventors, but none have passed beyond
the experimental stage, and no considerable acreage has been con-
tinually operated.

DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA

There was for a long time a very erroneous popular generaliza-
tion that California soils do not need drainage; that in a dry state
the aim should be to retain the moisture, not to part with it. It
is, of course, true that we have vast areas of naturally well-drained
soil, upon which any money spent for drainage would be in great
part thrown away, but we have, also, both in the valley and on the
hillsides, localities where, by peculiar character and conformation
of the subsoil, water is held in the soil until evaporated from the
surface, and the result is a boggy, miry condition, which prevents
proper winter cultivation, and at the same time injures the roots
of the trees or vines. This defective cultivation, added to the
puddling effect of standing water, makes the soil dry out completely
under the fervid sun of summer, and the result is that the wettest
soil of the winter is the driest in the summer, and plants which
are injured by soaking in winter suffer again from lack of moisture
and sustenance in summer. Thus it is a fact, clearly proven by
observation and experience, that thorough under-drainage removes
surplus water in winter, and ministers to the retention of moisture
in summer. More than this, a soil puddled by standing water can
not present its contents in available form for plant nutrition, and
besides, it loses the fertilizing effects of atmospheric currents, which
pass through an open, well-dried soil. Wet land is cold and late
in spring, and hot as a baked brick under the summer sun; it is
no fiction of the imagination to say that well-drained land is
warm in winter and cool in summer — that is, cool to a degree which
favors quick and free root growth, and cool enough to escape the
parching effect of deeply baked soil.

DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION

217

These, and a host of similar considerations, which have made
nnderdrainage popular in older countries, are of weight in Cali-
fornia. Possibly, as a rule, because of our vast area of deep, kind
loams, the proportion of land needed drainage in this State is less
than elsewhere, and yet there is a vast extent of country to be
improved by tilling. There have been large losses of trees from
planting upon soils defective in this respect. The evil has resulted
from excessive rainfall and excessive irris^ation, either direct or

Furrower at work in orange orchard of A. D. Bishop.

by underflow from adjacent irrigations. In some places this latter
movement of water has brought alkali to assist in the ruin of the
trees and vines. The cure is drainage to sufficient depth and with
good outlet for the drainage water.

Information on the construction of under-drains is too available
through other sources to call for its presentation in this connection.

Drainage and Irrigation. — A special importance attaches to com-
plete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation. There
is pressing need of such provision where the soil has become over-
loaded by seepage w^atcr from irrigation ditches, and it is well that
people in such situations are waking up to the need of coupling
drainage outlets with their irrigation inlets. Another matter closely

21g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

allied to this is the action of alkali on soils thus artificially water-
soaked. This has been made the subject of a special publication
by Professor Hilgard, to which allusion has already been made
in Chapter III. Drainage is plainly essential, both in individual
farms and in districts where the water level is rising too high, and
the striking statements given below by Professor Hilgard should
incite all to give immediate attention to the needs of vines and
trees in this regard.

The following summary of drainage needs, and the advantage
ot providing drainage when needed, is made by Professor Hilgard :

In the valleys and plains of the arid irrigation countries the soils are pre-
dominantly of a light, sandy or silty nature, easily penetrated to great depths
by water and air. With these the roots of plants also reach to such depths,
drawing therefrom not only moisture but also plant food, which in these
soils is, as a rule, very abundant. The plants of the arid region thus are
enabled to utilize nearly as many feet of soil mass as in the regions of
summer rains inches would be drawn upon; and it is evident that this advan-
tage, which postpones for a long time the need of fertilization, should not
be lightly thrown away. Each farm in the arid region has several similar
ones underground, which with proper management can be fully utilized.

But this presupposes that the water, air and roots can all penetrate
under irrigated culture as they do in the natural condition. It means that
the ground water level shall not be allowed to rise to such an extent as
to prevent the penetration and healthy life of the roots in the depths of the
soil mass. If by intentional or careless over-irrigation, or by leakage from
the ditches, the water level is allowed to rise within a few feet of the sur-
face, the wonderfully productive lands of the arid valleys are reduced to
the same condition as are those of the humid countries: a shallow layer
of surface soil, within which alone the roots can exercise their functions
of plant nutrition. The natural result is that this layer soon becomes
exhausted, and copious artificial fertilization is required to maintain prof-
itable production.

And even this is the most favorable case. When, in addition, the upward
movement of the soil water carries with it the entire mass of salts of various
kinds which exist in all arid soils, and brings theni within reach of surface
evaporation, these "alkali" salts impregnate the soil to such an extent as to
render the cultivation of many crops unprofitable, or sometimes altogether
impossible.

Summarizing the advantages of systematic land draining it may be said
that:

1. It prevents the drowning out of the deeper roots of plants by the
rise or fluctuations of the ground water, by which the vineyards and orchards
are so frequently rendered unprofitable.

2. It prevents, or at least limits definitely the shallowing of the soil
caused by high-lying ground water, resulting in the need of early and
copious fertilization, which would otherwise not have been called for in
many years. The annual cost of such fertilization will soon exceed the first
cost of drainage.

3. Drainage does away definitely with the alkali evil. When drainage is
established the land can easily be so handled as either to remove all the
alkali, or to leave in the soil so much of it as may be rationally considered
beneficial, on account of its usual content of valuable and highly available
plant food. To prevent the waste of much of this soluble plant food, the
use of gypsum is also valuable; but subsequent swamping of the land would
cause a return of the black alkali unless drainage were provided for.

CHAPTER XVI
COMMERCIAL FRUIT, VARIETIES

In preparation for revision of this work and to serve also asso-
ciations of nurserymen and fruit growers who requested specific
information as to the relative standing of commercial varieties of
different fruits in the various states which participate in the over-
land fruit trade, the writer undertook a careful inquiry into the
present standing of varieties of the fruits chiefly grown in Cali-
fornia for commercial purposes. The objects in this inquiry were,
first, to secure exact data which would be of business advantage to
large propagators of fruit trees ; second, to make widely known
the particular requirements of California production and trade for
the information of originators of new varieties, which might pre-
serve, with improvements, types which ministered to specific oppor-
tunities and demands; third, to enforce upon local planters the
conviction that their clearest path toward satisfactory income lies
in choosing varieties which have demonstrated two fundamental
characters, viz : adaptation to the locality and to the uses of the
fruit trade.

It may surprise the casual reader to find that our production
proceeds so largely upon old standard varieties and that the striking
achievements of Mr. Burbank are not more prominent. Anyone,
however, who is acquainted with commercial fruit growing knows
that it is not possible to revolutionize an established and profitable
industry in less than a decade by the substitution of new varieties
for the old standards. It takes not less than half that period to
determine whether the new variety is really trustworthy and suit-
able, and it takes much longer to get a large acreage in bearing
either by grafting or new plantings because people are slow and
conservative in making changes. It is little more than thirteen
years since Burbank distributed the first grafts of ''Wickson," the
first of his plums to make a deep impression upon the commercial
fruit growing of California.

Another reason why new varieties do not figure more largely
in California fruit growing is the smallness of the amateur interest.
There is, in fact, almost an absence of pure amateurs — enthusiastic,
critical, discriminating, athirst for novelties. Even suburban plant-
ers follow the lead of commercial orchardists and plant chiefly
that which has shown adaptations to local growing conditions,
and few are averse to making what they can by sale of small sur-
pluses. The result is that California fruit growing is almost

219

220 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

wholly commercial in spirit, policy and point of view, which is
perhaps only natural in a state where the fruit products reach an
annual aggregate value of something like seventy millions of dollars.
The effect is to concentrate attention upon varieties which have
achieved fame for profit, and to repress amateur devotion and in-
dulgencies.

At the same time there is, and has always been, quite a disposi-
tion toward trial of novelties among commercial growers, espe-
cially manifested in search for specific characters which are seen
to be desirable rather than desire of newness for its own sake, which
is often a point of pride among amateurs. To this enterprising
and discriminating search is due the prominence of some of the
leading varieties, which are chance seedlings recognized as meeting
special requirements and having grown great because they really
did so. The California grower is, therefore, quite certain
that he needs not varieties new throughout and of startling charac-
ters, but improved varieties which hold the good points of the old
and add other points. For instance, he calls for trees resistant to
disease, for improvement of the fruit in beauty, flavor and keeping
qualities ; for varieties, similar in kind, which fill gaps in the ripen-
ing season so that he can employ help continuously, and shippers
and canners agree with him so that they can keep the cars moving
and the cannery plants at work. The grower says he must be care-
ful not to plant something different from what is already growing
and selling well in his region, and this is also the advice of the
trade to him. He can not risk much on varieties of entirely differ-
ent types, although most growers are always doing a little experi-
menting. Nor should he undertake too many varieties, because a
profitable orchard is not a pomological museum. There must be a
large quantity of uniform fruit to make any district commercially
prominent.

For these reasons the number of varieties now planted is but a
fraction of what it was a quarter of a century ago, and, stopping at
this point, one might get the idea that the California grower was a
monument of conservatism and lacking in enterprise and adventure.
Subsequent chapters will, however, show that he has very definite
ideas of what he wants that is new, and that he has problems
enough to keep plant breeders busy for a century. This will be
done for each fruit by citing in its chapter particularly desirable
characters which California growers, shippers and canners have
described in response to the wide inquiry upon which this statement
rests. The writer was fortunate in securing 1,601 observations
from men who have their livelihood and fortunes involved in profit-
able growth and handling of California fruits, and what are given
as specific requirements of new varieties in California are not vain
imaginings, but deeply felt wants.

THE MOST POPULAR FRUITS

221

It will be noted by the reader that the preference for certain
varieties, which isembodicd inthis statement, does not involve pomo-
logical standards as a leading factor. The claim is distinctly not
made that these varieties are chosen on the basis of quality,
beauty, hardiness or health. In the case of nearly all the fruits, there
are other varieties which might equal or even surpass them in
one or more of these respects. The choice is made because they
are most profitable to grow; not alone because they are good, but
because they are good for something. This particular suitability
or serviceability may involve pomological considerations and com-
mercial and manufacturing considerations as well. The planter
must use these lists in connection with what he may find about the
varieties in subsequent chapters, without neglecting to confer also
with older growers hi the district in v/hich he may plan to plant.

Perhaps an intelligent use of the statement can be concretely
suggested by bpefly discussing the first group of varieties men-
tioned— the apples most approved in California. First comes the
yellow Newtown Pippin, and that means that most apples commer-
cially grown are winter apples and this variety is, on the whole,
the most profitable of them. But a planter in a hot interior valley
should usually reject them for all winter apples are apt to be unsat-
isfactory, and, if he plants apples at all, should choose early vari-
eties like the Red and White Astracan, because they ripen early,
thus escaping the highest heat and at the same time being ready
for the early market.

Similar comments might be made upon other varieties. Some
years ago the distribution of commercial fruit varieties was taken
into account in a biological way because it was taken to be certain
that the grower would select varieties which "did best" in his
district. Enough has been said to emphasize the fact that the lists
of fruits are not made of those who do best alone, but of those which
sell to best advantage, and that has no biological significance what-
ever.

The varieties are arranged not according to ripening season but
in the order in which the greatest number of growers consider
them worth planting.

Fruit varieties most popular in California :

Apples. — Newtown Pippin, Bellflower, W. W. Pearmain, Gra-
venstein, Red Astracan, R. I. Greening, E. Spitzenberg, W. Astra-
can, Red June.

Apricots. — Royal Blenheim, Moorpark, Hemskirk, Peach. New-
castle, Tilton.

Cherries. — Royal Ann, Black Tartarian, Black Republican, Rock-
port, Bing, Chapman, Purple Guigne, May Duke, Centennial, Black
Bigarreau, Lambert.

222

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Peaches. — Miiir, Phillips, Salway, Lovell, Early Crawford,
Tuskena, Foster, Elberta, Late Crawford, Orange Cling, Susque-
hanna, Nichols, Sellers, Lemon, St. Johns, Henrietta, Mary's
Choice, Hales, Alexander, Heath.

Pears. — Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Seckel, Easter, De Comize,
Doyenne D'Ete, Clapp's Favorite, Glout Norceau, Barry, Comet.

Plums.— Wickson, Hungarian, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Tragedy,
Washington, Satsuma, Burbank, Jefferson, Climax, Grand Duke,
Clyman.

Prunes. — French, Imperial, Sugar, Giant, Robe de Sergeant,
German, Silver, Splendor.

Grapes. — Muscat, Tokay, Cornichon, Thompson, Emperor,
Malaga, Rose of Peru, Zinfandel, Black Morocco, Sweet Water,
Verdal, Carignane, Black Prince, Alicante, Sultana.

I

i

I

CHAPTER XVII

THE APPLE

During the last decade notable progress has been made in apple
growing in California. The old idea that our conditions did not
favor excellence in the apple has given way to full assurance that
in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very highest points
of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured.
Even before the wonderfully satisfactory test of both northern
and southern California apples at the New Orleans World's Fair,
it was clear that the right variety grown in the right place yields
an apple in California than which a better can not be grown any-
where, and during the last five years California early apples have
been in sharp request for shipment to all regions of the Northwest
and British Columbia, and California winter apples have been sold
at the highest prices east of the Rocky Mountains and in Europe.
Shipments beyond State lines of above one thousand and seven
hundred and forty-four car-loads in 1905 testify to these facts.

Localities for Apples. — Speaking generally, it may be laid down
that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited to the
apple ; also, there are some situations which are much better than
others. In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foot-
hills, however, excellent early apples are profitably produced. In
the great valley and lower foot-hill region of the State, the late
apple usually lacks character and keeping quality. On the great
plains the tree is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is called.
Some varieties, because of the character of their foliage, are less
liable to this injury than others, and it is possible that this evil
may be finally overcome by the selection of varieties with blight-
proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the great valley, how-
ever, on the rich river-bottom land of the Sacramento and the San
Joaquin and its tributaries, the apple roots deeply, attains good size,
bears good fruit, with fair keeping quality, while but a few miles
away on the plains it is inferior.

In the interior the region of adaptation to the apple lies at an
elevation on the foot-hills on both the east and west rims of the
great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are flour-
ishing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five hundred
feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from two
thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is cammonly regarded
the best apple region of the mountains. The trees attain large
size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of well-adapted varieties, is

223

224 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO CROW THKM

large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keeping qualities. On the
Tule River in Tulare County, at an eleration of 4100 feet, eight-
year-old Winesaps have borne 300 pounds. Yellow Newtown
Pippins 250 pounds, and White Winter Pearmains 300 pounds
per tree. At such elevations, however, there is constant danger
of spring frost injury.

Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of
the State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced
on good soil. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast
region as well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked
nor is the required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central
and upper portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce
most excellent apples, but even here the lower hillsides, with deep,
well-drained soils, are, perhaps, preferable to the floors of the
valley. Departing from immediate coast influences and approach-
ing the interior, with its greater heat and aridity, the greater ele-
vation becomes desirable. The apple, excepting the very early
varieties, does not relish the forcing heat which brings such per-
fection to the peach, but to insure late ripening and long keeping,
with accompanying crispness, juciness, and flavor, it must have
atmospheric surroundings which favor slower development.

Localities for apple growing in southern California are to be
chosen with much the same rules as in the upper parts of the
State. As has already been said, valleys in which coast conditions
largely predominate produce good apples, on suitable soils, but
away from the coast, proper elevations must be sought, and they
should be above the so-called thermal or frostless belts. Good
apples are grown on low lands near the coast in Los Angeles and
Orange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Bernardino County,
winter apples fail in the valleys, but are most excellent at a suffi-
cient elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding mountains or in
elevated valleys like the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands, where
a Rome Beauty of excellent quality Avas grown in 1903 to a weight
of twenty-seven ounces and a circumference of fifteen inches. In
the elevated interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian and
Smith Mountain districts, excellent apples are produced in hrge
quantities and profitably carried long distances.

Second and Third-Crop Apples. — There is a peculiar behavior
of the apple tree, most noticeable when winter temperature is mild-
est, and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the case
of early apples the second bloom may appear about the time the
first fruit ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half
grown. Even such behavior may be followed by regular blooming
the following spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount
nor regularity enough to be of much economic importance, as the
second crop of pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop

CONDITIONS FOR THE APPLE 225

occasionally ripens. An instance is on record at Chino, San Ber-
nardino County, where in 1903 a tree ripened its first crop in June,
ami its last fruit was picked on Christmas day following. Such
behavior, of course, indicates conditions ill suited to the apple.

Exposures for the Apple. — The choice of exposure for an apple
orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about
localities. In regions with high summer temperature the apple
will do best on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure becomes
doubly desirable when the location has high temperature with only
moderate annual rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to
the retention of moisture. With such prevailing conditions, the
apple will be grateful for the cooler air and the greater moisture
of the northerly slope. Where the temperature is moderately
cool, and the rainfall adequate, the matter of exposure is of less
account, and the grower can make the existence of the best soil
the test of location of his orchard. At elevations on the sides of
high ranges where late cold storms are liable to rush down from
higher snow fields, protection from the usual course of such storms,
or from the course of cold winds generally, must be sought ; and
directly up the coast, especially in the northern part of the State,
in certain places where the peach does not usually succeed even
the apple needs protection, and the benefit of all heat available,
and then a southerly or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable.
The choice of exposure is thus seen to be largely a local question
and to be determined by a knowledge of local conditions. A new-
comer in a region can best learn these conditions by conference
with older residents, or by personal observation of older orchards.

Soils for the Apple. — Experience with the apple in California
confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older
regions. If one avoids an extremely light, sandy soil on the one
hand, and a very stifif clay or adobe on the other, he may plant
apples on almost any soil which allows extension of the roots to
a considerable depth without reaching standing water. The apple
thrives in a moist soil, but it must be well drained, naturally or
otherwise. A soil which may be called best for the apple is a deep,
rich, moist, calcareous loam, but the tree will thrive on coarser
materials. The subsoil, whatever its nature, must be sound and
open to the passage of moisture. The most unfavorable condition
for the tree is a subsoil of clay which holds water. There is some
difference in varieties as to choice of soil. The Yellow Bellflower,
for instance, will do well on a lighter soil than the Yellow New-
town Pippin.

226 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW TiiFM

PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE

The apple is chiefly propagated by root-grafting upon apple seed-
ling roots either whole-roots or root pieces. Budding is also practised
to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise stock is used.
Repeated trials with working the apple on the pear, chiefly by top
grafting, have secured growth of limited life but without fruiting.

The resistance of certain roots to the woolly aphis has been
fully demonstrated by local experience in the use of the Northern
Spy and Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of North-
ern Spy car^ not be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis.
It is necessary to get a root actually grown from the Northern
Spy wood. The best way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy
trees from some reputable nurseryman, specifying that they shall
be Northern Spy root and top. With these resistant roots and
wood growth for scions or cuttings can be grown. Resistant trees
are made by root grafting the scion of the variety which it is
desired to propagate upon a piece of Northern Spy root and then
being careful that the scion does not send out roots of its own,
but is wholly dependent upon the Northern Spy root. It is cus-
tomary with nurserymen selling resistant trees to save the root
pieces which are removed in digging and packing for subsequent
propagation. It is also possible to get a resistant tree by starting
from the cutting of a Northern Spy. To facilitate the rooting of
these cuttings a small piece of any kind of apple root is put in by
side graft near the bottom of the cutting. This acts as a starter,
but the cutting will also make roots of itself. At the end of the
first year then the cuttings are taken up, the piece of root used
as a starter is cleanly cut away and the rooted cutting replanted;
henceforth it is dependent upon its own roots and is resistant.
The variety desired is then grafted in a little way above the ground
surface so that there will be no danger of its making its own roots.
By either of these processes it is more troublesome and takes more
time to produce a tree with a resistant root than in the ordinary
way, and for that reason trees on resistant roots are sold at a higher
pHx:e. This may be the reason why resistant trees are not yet
largely used in this State.

Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees
are given in Chapters VIII and IX.

''■DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE

The apple is subject to various diseases' and insect enemies
which must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees un-
profitable. Chief of the diseases are the ''pear blight" and the
apple scab, and the apple mildew. Of the insect enemies the codlin
moth, the apple-leaf aphis, various leaf-eating caterpillars and

PRUNING THE APPLE

227

several scale insects must be kept in check and the latest approved
means of reducing these troubles will be described in detail in later
chapters.

PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD

The chapters on planting, and pruning contain suggestions to
which the reader is referred. Care should be taken to obtain trees
w^ith clean, healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis.

Distance in Planting. — The distance between the trees is of the
highest importance. All the old apple orchards are overcrowded.
More recently trees have been set at greater distances, and such
planting is now generally advised. There is some difference of
opinion as to proper distance, but certainly twenty-five to thirty
feet is near enough, and some of the best new orchards have been
planted at forty feet, the ground being used for a time with other
crops or planted with early bearing trees, for which the soil is
suited, between them.

Pruning the Apple. — The manner of shaping fruit trees
described in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the
apple. Yearling trees are usually planted, and they are regularly
pruned until proper form is secured.

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, a leading apple grower of the Watsonville
district, near the coast in central California, gives the following
excellent outline of a simple and economical, yet successful, method
for apple tree building under ordinary conditions :

First Year: On planting cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in
height, with the terminal bud toward the southwest. In the
spring, when growth begins, strip off all shoots from the ground
up to about 20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain
during the summer. If for any cause during earjy summer a bud
does not start where wanted, a short transver&e cut through the
bark just above the bud will cause it to develop into'a limb.

Beginning of Second Year: Cut off all limbs except those
selected to remain permanently. Two, three, four, and not more
than five limbs should be allowed to remain, the number depend-
ing on their position. It should be the aim to distribute them
evenly on all sides, and to give all possible space between limbs
up and down the trunk. This latter precaution is to give room
for expansion of limbs in after years. Cut back the limbs that are
to remain, taking off from one-third to one-half of the previous
season's growth. If the tree is of a spreading habit, and it is de-
sired to have it grow erect, cut to inner buds. If desired to spread
the top cut to outer buds.

228

THINNING THE APPLE 229

Beginning- of Third Year: Allow two or three lateral limbs to
remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking
off from one-third to one-half the previous year's growth. Con-
tinue this method during the first four years ,at which time the
tree should begin to bear, and if surrounding conditions are favor-
able, it will prove strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a
heavy load of apples. The after treatment will consist mainly in
keeping the top properly thinned.

After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning
according to the growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, like
the Yellow Bellflower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bear-
ing, and slow growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not
need it. On the other hand varieties, like the Winesap and Smith's
Cider, are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends.
This can be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots
which will bear better fruit. Some varieties, like the Jonathan, will
make plenty of short spurs under this treatment while others like
Rome Beauty and Rhode Island Greening are persistent tip-bearers,
but can be gradually drawn in without reducing the crop too much.
The grower must study his varieties not only with reference to
this but in forming the tree, cutting to an inside bud all varieties
which naturally take a horizontal direction, and cutting to an
outside bud varieties which have a tendency to send up tall, straight
shoots. By thus throwing the new growth upward in the first
case, and outward in the second, one can shape each kind to greater
symmetry and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spread-
ing varieties to a form which admits near approach of the plow
and cultivator. This manner of shaping the tree must continue
as long as seems necessary to secure a tree which will come to
bearing age shapely and strong, and within reach.

Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches,
and pruning will largely consist of thinning out surplus shoots and
removing interference between branches. It is not desirable to
shorten-in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach.

Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and promote bearing
is practiced to a limited extent in some districts upon varieties
inclined to shy bearing. In regions of the most intense summer
heat, less pruning is admissible than in the coast and elevated
regions. It is necessary that the foliage be dense to protect the
tree and the fruit from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to relish
cutting back. Slight thinning out if the tree becomes too brushy,
seems to be the best treatment in some of the hot valleys.

Thinning the Fruit. — One of the most important items in the
handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the
fruit of all varieties which are prone to over-bear, and this work
is now regularly provided for by the leading commercial growers.

230 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Only one apple should grow at a place and spacing of four to six
inches is commended. Although this work is tedious and expen-
sive, it is profitable, because of the improved price which can be
had for the larger fruit which will be secured, and it is desirable
in the effects of thinning on the tree. It will be relieved from the
exhaustion of overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often
saved from breaking down with a too heavy burden.

Cultivation and Irrigation. — All that has been urged in measures
to secure adequate moisture supply has full force with the apple.
Excepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing sea-
son and therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and
quality. Most California apples are grown on deep, retentive
soils in regions of large rainfall and if this is conserved by thor-
ough cultivation, good fruit can be secured. It is doubtless true
that apples in even such places in California would sometimes be
improved by irrigation just as they are in interior and mountain
districts.

Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California
apple orchards but they are manifestly nfeeded.

There has arisen recently evidence of the unfinished character
of the fruit in some districts because it has shown blemishes after
picking and during shipment which can not be attributed to any
parasitic encroachment. This is probably due to some unfavorable
condition in the local climate or to some other stress upon the tree
which prevents it from doing perfect work.

GATHERING AND STORING APPLES

The disposition in this State, as elsew^here, is to allow the fruit
to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago
demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked a
little in advance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California
is so delightful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than
where the approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his
fruit under cover. Picking apples for shipment should be done
just when the seeds begin to blacken and when the fruit yields to
pressure. If left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the
fruit is apt not to keep well. This rule applies to fall apples for
shipment to distant markets, or for apples to be stored at home.

Mr. H. G. Keesling of Edenvale, Santa Clara County, gives a
sketch of his way of handling apples on a small scale : In picking
apples we insist on just as careful handling as in picking other
fruits, and we find that the picking pail made of tin or light gal-
vanized iron, holding about twelve quarts, or nearly twenty pounds
of apples, is the best vessel to pick in, and we use them right
through the season for cherries, apricots, peaches and even prunes.

STOREHOUSJi]S FOR APPLES 231

A pail of this size is not too heavy to handle even on high ladders,
and it carries the fruit without bruising. Our plan is to pick and
sort into boxes in the orchard. If a number of pickers are at work,
then one or more men will do the sorting. As each picker fills his
pail, he carries it a short distance to the sorting station, taking an
empty one and returning to his work. The apples are sorted out
of the pails and very carefully examined. The perfect apples go
into one box, seconds into another and culls into another. They
are then loaded onto a truck or wagon with springs and hauled to
the house. A good sorter will keep pails empty for several pick-
ers, all of course depending on the crop, size of apples, etc. I put
my winter apples in redwood boxes, which, when piled one on top
of another, five or six high and close together, and covered with
canvas or muslin, are in a condition to keep their flavor and juici-
ness a long time. Storing apples in boxes saves a lot of work in
handling if they are to be examined or sorted during the winter.

Nearly all the ways of keeping winter apples have been tried
in California. The main difficulty in keeping apples in good con-
dition during the dry months of the autumn is the loss of moisture
from the fruit by evaporation. This causes shriveling and operates
against long keeping. It has been found by experience that apples
keep perfectly until late in the spring by piling under the trees
and covering with leaves, etc., allowing the rains to fall upon them.
When dry north winds blow, the fruit should be sprinkled occa-
sionally. They come out from the cover fresh, smooth, and
plump, and for family use such rough storage will often answer
a good purpose. For commercial storage, even on a small scale,
however, good fruithouses are used. The requisites of such houses
are an evenly cool temperature, moist air, and good ventilation, the
fruit being open to free access of the air. In the mountains where
stone is abundant excellent apple houses are made of it, which
resist temperature changes notably.

Mr. Edward Berwick, of Monterey, apple grower of experience
in the coast region, handles his fruit in this way :

The apples are carefully hand-picked into baskets and at once trans-
ferred to ordinary apple boxes — just put in loose, not packed tight as for
shipping. These boxes are hauled to the fru^t house with as little jar as
possible.

This fruit house is built of rough boards (fastened on a heavy frame)
with inch-thick battens covering the cracks, and rustic-nailed outsid<' the
battens, thus leaving an inch air-space between the boards and the rustic.
It is of two stories — the upper devoted to tools and stores, the lower used
for fruit, and arranged with shelves accordingly. This lower story has
only an earthen floor. One object of this is to give as lodgment for rats
or mice, the other is to serve as a means of maintaining a cool, damp
atmosphere. To this end it is kept well watered in apple-keeping season;
and, to avoid mildew or mold, it is also liberally sprinkled with ground
sulphur. By day doors and windows are mostly kept shut, by night open;
this, of course, is to exclude the heat and allow free circulation of the cool
night air.

232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

A rather more open house is used in the coast region of south-
ern California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria :

It is a slat house made of strips 1x2^/4 inches, put on one inch apart.
The roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side
of which are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves
are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a foot high. The
apples are spread on these shelves a foot or more deep. The floor is made
of slats, and there are bins on this also. The fruit must receive a thorough
sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough
to prevent birds doing damage, and the whole building is raised six inches
from the ground.

In the mountain regions arrangements must be made for frost
exclusion, — a consideration which does not apply to the valley and
coast.

PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE

Mr. C. H. Rodgers, a leading grower, and president of the
Santa Cruz County horticultural commission, gives the best meth-
ods in his district as follows :

In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules
which should be strictly adhered to:

(1.) Do not pull the apple ofif the tree. By so doing, the stem may
be detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise
would be choice.

The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full
hand, not with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement
detach it with the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided
in the picking, as bruises thereby produced injure the value.

(2.) The apple must never be dropped into a receptacle or fro:n box
to box, but should be transferred as carefully as so many eggs.

(3.) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the
fruit.

Once within the packing-house the more perishable varieties should be
handled immediately and forwarded to market, while the long-keeping
varieties, especially those intended for export, should be held at least a
month before sorting and packing. This latter precaution enables the
packer to discover and eliminate all diseased and defective fruit — a thing
that would be impossible if the fruit were packed at an early date after
picking.

Three grades or qualities are recognized in the "trade" — first, second
and third. First grade includes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes
the fruit having a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull
class includes all wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples.

Though grading for size varies somewhat in different localities, in the
Watsonville district, the leading apple-prcducmg center of the West, there
are but three sizes recognized. These are 3^/4, 4, and 4y2 tier. The unit
of size is the 4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 2^ to 3^
inches in diameter, and derives the name from the fact that when packed
in the box there are four rows of four apples each, both vertically and hori-
zontally across the end of the box. Apples in excess of 3^/4 inches are
classed as 3^ tier size. The third size, or 4y2-t\er, includes those apples
ranging between 2^4 and 25/^ inches in diameter. Both the 3^-tier and
4^-tier are packed in the manner known as "diamond" pack or "pear pack.
Apples smaller than 4^ tier are thrown into the cull pile. The sorter
ascertains the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a board.

APPLES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES 233

n7/^u ^^'X^^^oo^ .^^''^ standard box is made of pine. Its measurements are
y% by 11 by 22 m., and it holds about 50 pounds of fruit. A modified box
of extra thick material, reinforced by iron straps, is frequently used for
export trade. Redwood boxes are used only for cheap grades of apples
packed for the local market.

After being sorted, the apples are passed to the packer, who, before
placing them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for
the purpose.

The apples must be so packed in the box as to permit the nailing firmly
of the lid at each -end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about
three-fourths of an inch at the middle of both top and bottom. On account
of the resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety
only on their sides.

The packed boxes after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to
the cars and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four
feet is left between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space
between the doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes,
after being systematically placed in the car, are so braced with timbers as
to prevent any movement. The usual carload consists of about 650 boxes.
Refrigerator fruit cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice
is used.

Summer and Fall Apples. — In some regions noted for early
maturing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing
there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Except
to minister to some special local or distant trade which can be
thus foreseen, it must be said that very early apples are hardly
worth the attention of the commercial planter. These sorts are apt
to come into direct contest with the magnificent peaches, grapes,
and other summer and autumn fruits, and suffer thereby.

On the other hand the fall apples, chiefiy the Yellow Bellflower
and Gravenstein, are so good and profitable in regions where they
bear well that they are among the varieties which constitute our
chief commercial reliance.

Winter Apples. — For large ventures in apple growing, in local-
ities carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the finest
varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the
judgment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom
have old orchards including many varieties, that new plantations
of winter apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these,
in all parts of the State, two would be the Yellow Newtown Pippin
and White Winter Pearmain ; the other four would vary in differ-
ent parts of the State, as can be learned from the table which will
follow.

Apples for Long Shipment. — There has been for years quite an
important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports
in the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp
demand for California apples for shipment to the eastern states
and England. The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the
fruit, together with the size and style of package, have strongly
commended the fruit. The center of this trade is Watsonville,
in a coast valley, in the central part of the State. The two apples

234

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

which are most popular are the Yellow Bellflower and the Yellow
Newtown Pippin. It is an interesting fact that these varieties by
virtue of quality have overcome the popular fervor for a red apple.

For the Interior Valleys. — In choosing varieties for the hot val-
leys of the State those making a heavy leaf growth are to be pre-
ferred. The Spitzenburg, for example, is a failure in the valleys of
the interior, though satisfactory at points on the valley borders.
From experience already had it seems likely that some of the Rus-
sian varieties, with thick, large leaves, will prove best for such
situations. The behavior of the Astracans, the Duchess of Olden-
burg, and others of Russian origin, are illustrations of this fact.
Other varieties have been on trial for several years, but no great
distribution of them has yet been attained.

SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION

Selection of varieties of the same blooming season to secure
whatever advantage there may be in cross-pollination to promote
bearing arises chiefly with reference to White Winter Pearmain,
which is sometimes very shy when grown alone. Association can
be arranged with a number of our most popular varieties by con-
sulting the following dates of blooming as prepared by Mr. Fred-
erick Maskew based upon observations in the coast region of Los
Angeles County.

Blooming Season of our most popular varieties.

VARIETIES.
White Winter Pearmain..

Red Astracan

Bell Flower

Fall Pippin

Rhode Island Greening...

Kentucky Red Streak

Early Harvest

Shockly

Fameuse

Ben Davis

Winesap

Yellow Transparent

None-such

Missouri Pippin

Alexander

Smiths Cider

Transcendent Crab

Hyslop Crab

Montreal Crab

General fall

rst bloom.

Full bloom.

of bloom.

April

11

April

27

May 5

April

17

April

30

May 12

April

20

April

30

May 16

April

20

May

5

May 15

April

20

May

5

May 15

April

20

May

10

May -20

April

21

May

6

May 12

April

27

May

15

May 20

April

27

May

15

May 22

April

29

May

15

May 23

May

5

May

17

.June 1

May

5

May

16

.Tune 1

May

7

May

16

June 1

May

10

May

20

June 1

May

15

May

25

.June 1

May

15

May

25

.June 6

Mar.

30

April

7

April 22

April

11

April

22

April 30

April

16

April

24

May 7

This is a later range of bloom than will be found in many parts
of the State, but the same relation may be expected everywhere.

235

236 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

VARIETIES OF APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IN
CALIFORNIA

Of the hundreds of varieties tested in CaHfornia comparatively
few are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named
below have been reported by growers as succeeding in localities
named with the description, or indicated in the table which will
follow. The descriptions of the standard sorts are, in the main,
condensed from Downing,* with local notes interpolated when
thought necessary. The arrangement is, approximately in the
order of ripening.

Carolina Red June (Southern). — IMedium size oval, irregular, inclined to
conic; deep red covered with light bloom; stalk in small cavity; calyx closed;
flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid ; core rather large.

Early Harvest (American). — Medium size, roundish; straw color with few
faint white dots; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in moderate
cavity; calyx in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleasant.

Early Strazvberry (New York). — Medium size, roundish, narrowing towards
the eye; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one and a half inches,
rather slender and uneven, in deep cavity ; calyx small, in shallow basin ; flesh
white, tinged with red next the skin, tender, subacid, sprightly.

Red Astracan (Russian). — Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish
yellow in the shade ; pale white bloom ; stalk short, and deeply inserted ; calyx
partially closed and set in slight basin ; flesh white, juicy and crisp, pleasant
acid ; tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main reliance in
California for an early apple.

IVhite Astracan (Russian). — Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly
white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white.
Considerably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foot-hills for early ship-
ment. Sometimes attains a weight of 29 ounces. Excellent in the Modesto
district of the San Joaquin valley.

Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian). — Large, roundish, oblate; yellow, streaked
with red; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow; flesh juicy,
subacid.

Gravenstein (German). — Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or
angular ; broadest at base ; stalk short, strong, deeply set ; calyx large, closed,
in a large basin ; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red and
orange ; flesh tender, crisp, highly flavored, aromatic ; a strong-growing and
heavily-bearing tree ; a standard fall apple in this State.

- Red Bietigheimer (German). — Large to very large, oblate, slightly conical,
regular ; smooth, whitish or yellowish white, shaded with light and dark red,
and purplish crimson in the sun ; stalk short, rather stout ; calyx closed in
large, deep, slightly corrugated basin ; flesh white, Arm, juicy, brisk subacid.

Maiden's Blush (New Jersey). — Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow,
with evenly shaded red cheek ; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow ; calyx
closed in moderate depression ; flesh white, tender, sprightly.

Fall Pippin. — Very large, roundish, a little flattened; stalk three-fourths
inch, projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from
the Holland Pippin) ; calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in round,
narrow basin ; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow ; brownish
blush and few scattered dots; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich, aromatic

Alexander (Russian). — Very large, showy, conical, greenish yellow, streaked
with red in shade, bright red in the sun ; calyx large, in deep basin ; stalk

* "Downing' s Fruit and Fruit Trees of America." John Wiley & Sons, New
York,

VARIETIES OP APPLES

237

slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and juicy.
Tree vigorous but not always a good bearer.

Gloria Mundi. — Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed; greenish yellow A
popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. (See table.)

Fanieuse; syn. Snozv Apple (Canada).— Medium size, roundish, somewhat
flattened; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground; flesh snowy
white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in narrow
funnel-shaped cavity; calyx small, in shallow, rather narrow basin; "tree
vigorous, with dark wood; one of the finest dessert fruits; succeeds particu-
larly well in the foot-hills." — John Bidwell.

King of Tompkins County. — Large, globular, angular, inclining to conic;
yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crimson; stalk
short and stout, in large, somewhat irregular cavity ; calyx small, closed ; flesh
yellowish, rich juicy, vinous, aromatic ; chiefly grown in mountain regions

Rambo (Pennsylvania). — Medium to large, flat; yellowish white with pale
yellow and red in the sun, with large, rough dots; stalk long, rather slender,
curved, deeply set; calyx closed, in broad basin; flesh greenish white. Reported
a failure in some counties.

Ben Davis. — Large, roundish, sides often unequal; light red and deep red
on yellowish ground; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow cavity;
calyx partially open. Commended as a market apple by the Southern Cali-
fornia Nurserymen's Association. Grown in the upper Sacramento Valley,
sometimes keeps until July i.

Baldwin (Massachusetts). — Large, roundish, narrowing a little towards the
eye ; deep bright red over a yellow ground ; few russet dots ; calyx closed and
set in narrow basin ; stalk one-half to three- fourths inch, rather slender, set
in deep, even cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, subacid. Best in
northern and elevated regions ; coloring varies greatly according; to locality.

Hoover (South Carolina). — Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellowish,
mostly overspread with red, with conspicuous light dots ; stalk rather long, in
large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp, acid.

Rhode Island Greening. — Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regular;
dark green, becoming yellowish green ; calyx small, woolly, closed, in shallow
basin; stalk three-fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom; flesh yellow,
fine grained, tender, crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree healthy and
the variety widely popular.

Vandevere; syn. Newton Spitsenhurg. — Medium size, oblate, slightly conic;
fine yellow, washed with light red, striped and splashed with dark red and
shaded with carrnine in the sun; light bloom and peculiar gray specks; stalk
short, in wide cavity ; calyx small, closed ; flesh yellow, rich, sprightly, vinous.

Jonathan (New York).— Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering
to the eye ; light yellow nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the
sun; stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity;
calyx in deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in
California; specially commended as a market apple by Southern California
Nurserymen's Association ; keeps till midwinter.

Winesap. — Medium size, roundish oblong ; dark red with traces of yellow
in the shade ; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cavity ; calyx
small, in regular basin ; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor ; largely grown ;
tree a good bearer.

Stayman Winesap. — An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming
more prominent. Some growers reporting favorably on Winesap have this
variety which 'is larger and better and the tree a stronger grower and more
productive. Approved by Mr. Frank Femmons of Madera county.

Ortley; syn. White Bellflower, etc. (New Jersey). — Large, oblong, greenish
yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush ; stalk medium, slender, Sfet in
deep, acute cavity ; calyx closed, set in abrupt corrugated basin ; flesh white,
fine-grained, juicy, subacid.

^38 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Swaar (New York). — Large, roundish; golden yellow with numerous brown
specks ; stalk slender, three-fourths inch, in very round cavity ; calyx small,
greenish, set in shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained ; very rich, aromatic
flavor and spicy smell.

Lawver.—'Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots ; stalk
medium, cavity deep, regular ; calyx small, closed, in medium furrowed basin ;
flesh white, sprightly, aromatic ; a promising, late keeping variety.

Yellow Bellf lower (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, irregular, tapering
toward the eye ; smooth ; lemon color, with blush ; stalk long and slender, in
deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy, crisp,
with sprightly, subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree a strong grower
and healthy; one of the universal favorites in California.

Romanite. — Small to medium, roundish, conical, truncated ; yellow, mostly
covered with clear,, handsome red ; indistinct light dots ; stalk slender ; calyx
in an abrupt basin ; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, juicy, pleasant, subacid.

: Esopus Spitsenhurg (New York). — Large, oblong, tapering roundly to
the eye ; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yel-
lowish russet dots ; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and broken
stripes of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, projecting beyond
the base and inserted in wide cavity ; calyx small and closed, in shallow basin ;
flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a delicious rich, brisk flavor. A
largely grown variety; tree a good, upright grower and healthy; fruit keeps
fairly.

Hyde King. — ^Very large, glistening golden yellow with blush, very hand-
some. Ripens October 15th in Humboldt county. Approved by A. F. Etter.

Smith's Cider (Pennsylvania). — Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow,
shaded and stciped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots ; stalk slender, in
deep, rather narrow cavity ; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin ; flesh whitish,
juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till midwinter.

Rome Beauty (Ohio). — Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow, shaded
and striped with bright red, sprinkled with light dots ; stalk one inch, in large,
deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep, narrow basin; flesh yellowish,
juicy, sprightly ; fruit keeps late. Particularly fine in the mountain valleys of
Southern California.

Missouri Pippin (Missouri).— Large, roundish oblate, sHghtly oblique,
somewhat flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and
dark red, often quite dark in the sun; many large and small gray dots; stalk
short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin rather abrupt
deep, slightly corrugated flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately juicy, sub-
acid. Quite largely planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping quality in
coast valleys.

^[/.Nickajack (North Carolina). — Large, roundish to roundish oblate, _ slightly
'iconic, sometimes oblique ; yellowish, freely striped and splashed with red,
jmany large dots ; stalk short, in large cavity ; calyx partly open ; flesh yellowish,
fair quality; reported a shy bearer in high altitudes.

,... Northern Spy (New York). — Large, roundish, oblate conical; pale yellow,
purplish red stripes in the sun ; stalk three fourths inch, slender, in wide, deep
cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleasant; highly esteemed in a
few localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing.

White Winter Pearmain. — Large, roundish oblong conic, somewhat oblique ;
pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots ; stalk short in deep
cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant
subacid, extra high flavor ; grown everywhere, and fruit keeps late ; tree a
strong grower and health/.

Lady (French). — Small, regularly formed, flat; smooth and glossy, with
brilliant red cheek contrasting with lemon yellow ground ; flesh white, crisp,
juicy and pleasant; chiefly used for ornamental purposes.

CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APt»LES '28^

Black Ben Z>a2;t>.— Resembles Ben Davis in tree and fruit, except that the
latter is deeper colored, more symmetrical and of better quality. Highly praised
by Mr. Frank Femmons, Madera county.

Delicious. — Resembling Bellflower ; yellow, almost covered with dark red ;
very mild acid, quality good; a late keeper. Also approved by Mr. Femmons.

Arkansas Beauty (Arkansas). — Medium to large, oblong conical, yellow and
red stripes, fine, juicy, very good, subacid. Approved in Southern GaHfornia.

Razvlcs Janet (Virginia). — Medium to large, oblate conic, yellowish, shaded
with red and striped with crimson ; stalk short and thick, in broad, open cavity ;
calyx partially open, in shallow basin ; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, pleasant vinous
flavor; tree healthy and prolific.

Stark. — Large, roundish, inclined to conic ; sometimes elongated, sometimes
oblique; greenish yellow, nearly covered with dark red and sprinkled with
light and brown dots; stalk short, rather stout; calyx closed; flesh yellowish.

Yellozv Newtown Pippin. — Large, roundish, oblate and oblique, more or less
flattened yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh firm, crisp,
juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Generally considered the best winter
apple in California.

CRAB APPLES.

Hyslop. — Fruit large, growing in clusters ; roundish ovate ; dark rich red,
covered with thick blue bloom; stalk long, slender ; calyx closed; flesh yellowish.

Large Red Siberian. — Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx; pale
red and yellow skin.

Large Yellozv Siberian. — Fruit similar in size to foregoing, roundish oval,
flattened at base and crown ; light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with warm
cheek.

Transcendant. — Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends,
slightly but regularly ribbed ; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or nearly
covered with red ; delicate white bloom ; stalk long and slender, in open, deep
cavity; calyx closed; flesh creamy yellow. . ^

Montreal Beauty. — Large, roundish, oblate ; bright yellow, mostly covered
and shaded with red one of the most beautiful of crab apples.

Whitney's Crab. — Large, handsome, greenish yellow, sjriped with crimson.

CALIFORNIA SEEDLING APPLES

Skinner's Seedling (Name approved by California State Horticulturar Soci-
ety, November, 1887). Syn. Skinner's Pippin, Santa Clara King. — Originated
with Judge H. C. Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large; form oblate,
conic, slightly mixed ; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red ;
flesh yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality best.
Season, September and October.

Marshall's Red (Name approved by California State Horticultural Society,
November, 1887). Syn. Fied Bellflozver, Marshall's Seedling.— Qrighmted with
J. L. Marshall, Brown's Valley, near Napa. Fruited first about 1877; intro-
duced by Leonard Coates in 1884. The tree resembles Red June in habit of
growth; fruit large, same shape as Yellow Bellflower, but of same color as
Red June ; quality very good ; flesh firm and fine grained ; aromatic, and slightly
more acid than the Yellow Bellflower; tree, a very heavy bearer, and the fruit
ripens in October in the bay region.

Magoon. — Large, roundish oblong, deep red shading to light red on yellow
ground resembling Esopus Spitzenburg in form, flesh and flavor. Found in
1893 O" pl^ce formerly occupied by S. E. Magoon near Ahwahnee. Named
l)y Frank Femmons.

Cook's Seedling; syn. Sonoma Seedling. — Brought to notice by O. B. Shawj
of Sonoma, as a seedling raised by David Cook from the seed of the Juneat-
ing. Above medium size, pale yellow striped with red ; sharp acid flavor.

240 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Not decidedly rich, but flavor full and acceptable. Excellent keeping quali-
ties. Chiefly grown in Sonoma and Napa counties.

Lawton. — Seedling on place of Mrs. F, H. Lawton, one-half mile north of
Sebastopol, Sonoma county. More symmetrical than Belmont or Waxen. Very
promising show variety.

Tabular Showing of Adaptations. — In preparation for this edi-
tion the writer undertook special inquiry to secure information
from growers as to what their choice would be if they were to
plant apples as explained in Chapter XVI. The result is a large
shrinkage in the list of varieties which are now thought to be
worth planting in the different parts of the State.

An attempt is made to district the State for the apple, and for
the other fruits which follow, in accordance with the scheme of
climatic divisions described in Chapter I. This groups regions of
nearest resemblance, and is more rational than any prescription
according to county lines can be, for though some counties lie
wholly in one climatic division, many more counties extend through
two, and someeven through three, such divisions. It is, therefore,
a more promising proposition to encourage planters in any locality
to study their climatic adaptations, not with regard to county lines
but rather as related to the conditions of elevation, exposure to
ocean influences and other factors which characterize natural belts,
or areas, of similar horticultural fitness. The only instances in
which these agencies are grouped geographically, is in constituting
southern California a division by itself. This is a recognition of
the fact that though in southern California coast and interior
differences clearly exist, they are not so marked, until the devel-
opment of the Colorado river region began, as they are in the upper
portions of the State, and there is consequently less marked con-
trast in suitability to various fruits. This concession to the south
as sui generis also escapes, or answers instead of a third division
of coast valleys, for the older fruit districts of southern California
have a mollified or subdued coast climate, their region of strictly
interior valley and foot-hill climate being restricted by the fact
that practically almost all their cultivated area, until recently, lay
south and west of their high mountains. It is an interesting fact
that the California coast climates north and south show much
greater contrasting conditions than do the interior valley regions,
north and south, and southern California being so largely in the
coast class could on this basis of wide coast variations claim a
distinctive designation, though it could hardly be granted on the
comparison of interior valley characters throughout the State.
Just what effect the development of fruit growing in the great
interior valley of southern California, which is irrigated from the
Colorado river, will have upon the future re-classification of the
horticultural divisions of the State can not now be determined for
the planting of all kinds of fruit is but now beginning.

APPLES FOR DIFFERENT REGIONS

241

Apple varieties approved by California growers.

VARIETIES.

Alexander

Arkansas Beauty

Arkansas Black

Baldwin

Ben Davis

Bietigheimer

Black Ben Davis

Cook's Seedling

Delicious

Early Harvest

Early Strawberry

Esopus Spitzenburg

Fall Pippin

Fameuse

Gravenstein

Gloria Mundi

Hoover

Jonathan

Langford

Lawver

Maiden's Blush

Marshall's Red

Missouri Pippin

Nickajack

Northern Spy

Oldenburg Duchess

Ortley

Rawles's Janet

Red Astracan

Red June

Red Pearmain

Rhode Island Greening...

Romanite

Rome Beauty

Smith's Cider

Skinner's Seedling

Stark

Stayman Winesap

Swaar

Tompkins King

Vandevere

Wagener

Wealthy

White Astracan

White Winter Pearmain,

Williams's Favorite

Winesap ,

Winter Banana ,

Yellow Bellflower ,

Yellow Newton Pippin.,,

Yellow Transparent

York Imperial

•

Interior

Mountain

Northern

Central

valleys

valleys

Southern

Coast

Coast

and

and

California

region.

region.

foot-hills.

*

plateau.

*

**

*

■ *

*

*

**

«

*

•■**■■

**
*

*

*
*

•

*

*

*

**

*

«*

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**
**

**

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*

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*

*

*
•

**

**

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*

**

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*

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* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated.
** Most highly commended.

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Biiiiiii:

242

CHAPTER XVIIl
THE APRICOT

California has nearly three million apricot trees which stand
in the open air without protection of any kind and bear large,
luscious fruit. That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the
unique features of California fruit growing and proclaims it differ-
ent from fruit growing in other States, for, excepting a few locali-
ties in other parts of the Pacific slope, California has a monopoly
of commercial apricot growing, and nowhere else in the world does
the fruit attain such commercial importance. Although the apri-
cot has been grown here from the earliest days of the American
occupation, and though since the opening of the export trade in
canned and dried fruits, the apricot has gained in popularity, the
planting of apricot orchards has not proceeded recently with great
rapidity, although indications are that our distant patrons are only
just beginning to recognize the desirability of the fruit, and their
demands will make it well-nigh impossible for us to extend our
production beyond profitable limits. The reason why the apricot
has not kept pace with the advance of some other fruits in Cali-
fornia is to be found in certain limitations of suitable area which
will be mentioned presently.

Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend
with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is gen-
erally regarded as one of our healthiest and most vigorous,
as it certainly is one of our most beautiful orchard trees.
It is long-lived and attains great size. There are here and
there groups of trees nearly half a century old which have a height
of fifty feet ; the main trunks life forest oaks, and the first branches
or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The smaller limbs and
foliage are at least fifty feet across ; a half dozen of them shade
an acre of ground and they sometimes yield per tree a ton of fruit.
But such trees do not meet orchard requirements and are only
mentioned to show what the tree may do when it has its own way.

The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in
California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it
yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and
from eight to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several
years in succession, in Judge Blackwood's old orchard of Royal
apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties
which are uncertain bearers, are large and vigorous growers, and
have warranted the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot

243

244 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

tree for a windbreak for the protection of other trees. The trees
may be planted near together in strong land and make a windbreak
that will pay its way without regard to such fruit as it may inci-
dentally produce.

Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit and the operation
of drying will be described in the chapter devoted to such pro-
cesses. The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production,
about one-quarter of that for drying, while the weight of fruit sold
fresh to consumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used
by the canners. The total product of apricots in 1905 was approx-
imately 175,000,000 pounds, fresh weight.

LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT

In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course,
only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without pro-
tection of any kind. It shows even in California that it does not
forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late
frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable.
Speaking broadly, the quarter of the State lying northward of the
Bay of San Francisco and westward of the high ridge of the Coast
Range is not suited for commercial apricot growing, though here
and there are places where bearing may be regular and abundant
enough to make trees satisfactory for home gardens. The moun-
tain regions everywhere in the State above an elevation of about
1200 feet are also to be excluded. The lowest lands of the great
interior valleys, except here and there, where frosts are prevented
by proximity of broad, streams or by favoring air currents, are
unsuited for apricots, and the bottoms of small valleys whence cold
air can not find drainage outlet, are also treacherous. It is evident,
then, that even in regions of general adaptation to the fruit, local
discrimination must be exercised in selecting lands for apricots,
and the occurrence of spring frosts, which are usually governed
by topography, must be guarded against. This is not the same
problem, which arises in the selection of land for citrus fruits,
because apricots are not open to injury during December, January
and February, and consequently they may be successfully grown
in places where winter temperatures might injure the evergreen
trees of the citrus family. Still, next to the almond, the apricot
is most liable to frost injury of all our deciduous tree fruits, and
commercial success depends largely upon the selection of a proper
place for them. The occurrence of even light frosts during the
blooming and setting, or soon after, may strip the tree of its bur-
den of fruit without injury to even the softest tissues of twig and
leaf; consequently, regular bearing of the apricot can not be
expected wliere the temperature is apt to fall four or five degrees
below freezing point during the months of March and April, even

LOCATIONS FOR THE APRICOT 245

though the duration of such temperature may be very brief. For
this reason the area of California which is well suited to aprjcot
growing is limited when compared with the great area of the State,
though when counted by acres it is ample enough to supply all the
fresh canned and dried apricots which the markets of the world
can be expected to take at profitable figures.

It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean
influences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers
that the apricot ''points its best branches to the ocean, in the very
teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs
bend up and endeavor to reach the same direction. This is patent
in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking." This
is taken to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of
the coast. It is well enough to interpret it that way, providing one
does not lose sight of the perfect success of the apricot in the in-
terior as well. It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher
color, and the less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat
easier to handle, but the earlier ripening in the interior, coupled
with freedom from fog and constant sunshine for drying, are points
of the highest industrial importance. The fact is that the apricot
has a very wide range in California, and though the trees have
been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because too frosty
locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has seemed
to be locally more desirable, for one reason or another.

In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly
to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the
fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine and fog
seems to have something to do with this, for in favorable years,
when fogs are few, the fruit is sound.

Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen
with reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in
Chapter I. In a general way, it may be said, in regions directly
subject to coast influences, both in northern and southern Cali-
fornia, the apricot is late. On the west side of the Sacramento
Valley, on slightly elevated places, in small, hill-locked valleys,
the earliest apricots have been grown for years. Protected situ-
ations in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern rim
of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the pro-
duction of the earliest ripening fruit. There is probably about a
month's difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest
interior situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and
southern California.

In the interior of southern California, in irrigated situations, on
the west side of the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Ari-
zona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys
of interior northern California.

246 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been
attained in irrigated sections of eastern Washington, Idaho and
Utah. If winter temperatures are low enough to keep the tree
dormant and yet not to injure fruit buds and frosts are absent after
growth begins, success ought to be attainable.

STOCKS AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT

Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded
on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to different
soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on
the light, warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights.
The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives
the tree quick growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the
gopher does not like the peach root is a consideration with some
planters. In growing stocks, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach
are believed to yield more uniform and thrifty seedlings.

For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own
root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily
secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where
cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next
spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling
apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows
in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers
of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San
Joaquin Valley there are situations in which the apricot seems
more productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the
moister parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in south-
ern California the apricot root has recently advanced in popularity.
It is, however, rather more sensitive to soil-drouth than the peach
root.

When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier
soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid
by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum
root. Only a non-suckering plum stock should be used. For this
purpose the Myrobalan has been considerably used. Some growers
complain that the root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, and object
to its use. The manner of securing Myrobalan stocks has been
described in the Chapter on propagation.

Apricot on Almond. — The almond should as a rule be rejected
as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that
the scion never made a good union with the wood of the stock,
but was knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken
off by the wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two
or three inches in diameter before it breaks off, thus wasting much
time for the orchardist. Whole orchards worked in this way have
been a loss and disappointment.

PLANTING THE APRICOT 247

'growers, however, approve the ahnond and use it with
the idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the
Royal apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root graft-
ing, instead of budding, using the side graft. Cut off the top of the
stock about four to six inches above ground, scrape away the dirt,
bend the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cut into the root to
the center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will
be that w^ay when inserted. The scion should be made wedge-
shaped. After insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the
work is done until the graft has made a growth of eighteen to
twenty-four inches. This is given as a record of experience, but
still caution is urged against the use of the almond as stock for
the apricot.

The apricot may also be made to hold on the almond by double
working, growing first as a shoot from a peach or plum bud and
then working an apricot bud higher up on in the new shoot.

In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different
soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems
to thrive better on a tolearbly heavy soil, with enough sand to
make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil
rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better
and gives signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all
during the season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be
planted on undrained situations.

PLANTING THE APRICOT

The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already
been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty-
four feet each way is certainly a minimum distance for so large
and long-lived a tree, and some orchards have been planted at
thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be with reference
to subsequent removal of part of the trees, wdiich, however, is very
seldom done. Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the
trees to double the distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of
Azuza, in this way :

In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as
an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900
square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x20 feet;
then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty
feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, taking them out diag-
onally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick.
When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside, it is quite evident
that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees is worse than wasted.
I have cut roots 40 feet from a nine-year-old tre'e.

The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends
upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one
year's grow^th is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some

248

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old
tree, and cases have been reported from dormant buds outgrowing
yearling trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But
in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard care should be
taken to develop a short trunk, with properly-spaced branches, by
pinching the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dor-
mant bud and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed
very unsatisfactory form, and have, in some situations, lost their
lower branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head,
but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, and more elasticity
to the branches.

PRUNING THE APRICOT

Of all the California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in
need of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper
shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous
haste for size and fruitage it over-reaches itself and becomes the
prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have
been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their
fruit, and being torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thou-
sands more have been rescued from such a fate by bolting the
branches to each other. This excessive growth and consequent
weakness of the apricot is greater in some parts of the State than
in others, because of the difference in degree of forcing conditions,
but everywhere the apricot needs watchfulness and timely aid in
building up its strength. The general principles to be observed
in securing branches strongly attached to a short trunk have
already been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning.

There has been a very marked change during the last few years
of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after
the fruit is picked, has become mucli more general, and winter
pruning has proportionally decreased. The new practice is cer-
tainly more rational than the old. Young trees are w^inter pruned
to promote low branching and short, stout limbs ; bearing trees
are summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood
growth — the excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning
during the winter.

The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum ; also upon
the new wood, like the peach* This fact has to be borne in mind
when winter thinning of the new growth i;> undertaken.

A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Neff, of Ana-
heim, Orange County, who built up one of the best apricot orchards
in the State as he describes. This orchard has been displaced to
make way for English walnut trees which are more profitable in
that district, but that was no fault of the pruning :

I

PRUNING THE APRICOT 249

Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment, which
can only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of the tree.
Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when
planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches
from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and frequently two
or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving
not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one bud, nor
be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the
ground, the .others in such a manner as to divide the space and make the
branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree.

It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to
remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back
should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the limbs
are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head
balanced.

The pruning of the second year should be done in January, as the tree
will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thrifty condition. The
first year's growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of the
body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates form-
ing a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young tree than
to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear fruit.

When the shoots start for the second year's growth, take off all that come
on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two, or three, as may be
needed to balance the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree inclines toward
the coast breezes in this locality.

The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in
order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under
side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright
as possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the second year also.
The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the
first, but should not be trimmed earlier than December, and a month later is
preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds
so long before the sap begins to flow and consequently will heal over better.
The second year's growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to twenty
inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty-
four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have
thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be thinned down
to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that tend to turn down or
out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs.

The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July to
remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the
limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth of
downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is
to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly
irrigated and cultivated, the trees should now be large enough to begin to
yield fruit. The object in trimming during the first two years and the first
half of the third year has been to grow a vigorous upright tree, with strong
limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as
close to the body of the tree as possible.

There will be a few specimens of the fruit the third year, and as soon as
these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care
being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry
so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the
laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about
one-half of all this season's growth all over the tree, using the same judgment
as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this
is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth
will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed.

The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out
any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer.

After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so
vigorouslv, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be

250 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM'

necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get
so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done
without damage to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown, than in
the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs.

When it becomes necessary to take out old wood — as the best fruit grows
on new wood — a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full top of new
wood is again made.

Winter Pruning. — The evident defect of many old apricot
orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket of
brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need renewal
of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should preferably be
done toward the close of the dormant season rather than early in
the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have been
reclaimed in this way.

Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of
the State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of
the tree and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for.
The practice is to remove half or two-thirds of the new growth
and thin out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to
prevent the tree from becoming thick and brushy.

THINNING THE APRICOT

All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to
secure size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the old-
est growers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is
very profitable. When half the fruit is taken ofif in thinning, the
remainder reaches as large aggregate weight as though the whole
were allowed to mature and the thinned fruit is worth about twice
as much per pound. Even if less weight is secured, and in most
cases the purpose should be to get less weight, the tree is spared
the exhaustion of overbearing and the owner escapes a year of little'
or no fruit. A discussion of this subject is given in a previous
chapter.

Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than
it can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the
fruit on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size
of a pigeon's egg, is almost a universal practice among the best
commercial growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits
to the diameters required by canners or overland shippers, and
which they scale in price according to size: Extras, 2%. inches;
No. 1, 2 inches; No. 2, 1^ inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale
unless the crop happens to be very small. It has also been found
that thinning to regulate size is quite as important when the fruit
is to be dried by the grower as when sold as fresh fruit.

DISEASES OP THE APRICOT

IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT

251

Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in
the chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning,
thinning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown
with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will
satisfy all the needs of the tree; in others a single irrigation just
after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree through.
It is a fact, however, that as the trees advance in age some supple-
ment to the average rainfall is often desirable and in dry years irri-
gation is the saving of two crops. Some idea of the amount of
water used can be had from the chapter on irrigation. The fol-
lowing account by Mr. Neff applies to his practice in Orange
County, which is an average situation as to rainfall and atmospheric
humidity, and is as good a general statement as could be made :

If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed widi during the
first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees reach
the' age for bearing fruit the rain water should be supplanted by irrigation
water until the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to have this,
at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land. Three
irrigations should be given the trees during the first summer, but it is not
necessary to wet more than a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows. The
orchard should have three irrigations during the second summer and a strip
12 feet wide should be watered, as the roots are reaching farther and the trees
require a greater amount of water. The irrigation for the first two years
should always be done before the trees show any want of water, so as to keep
them growing vigorously.

All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and after-
ward ; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best time for
the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit is about half
grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May.

If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time
to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar which
will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered
in the winter should now have as much as full 100 inches of water for two
hours on. each acre (equal to four acre-inches).

The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the summer
pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop the fruit buds
for the next year. This will not require so much water as the irrigation in
May, but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for one hour on each acre.

DISEASES OF THE APRICOT

Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one
of the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees
perish from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases,
if the evil be stagnant water in the soil, or penetration to alkaline
subsoil, the root shows it. Sometimes, however, a branch or a
whole tree withers and dies without apparent cause early in the
summer, and while the^xoot is still sound. The disease is evi-
dently acute, but its cause is not known, nor a remedy proposed.
It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not peculiar to California.

The so-called ''gum disease" sometimes causes injury to trees.
The best treatment is to cut away the diseased part down to

252 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

healthy wood and cover the wound with common lead and oil
paint, putting on sparingly so as not to flow over healthy bark.

Some years certain varieties in particular are blackened at the
pit and rendered unsalable, but the trouble has not thus far
proved serious generally, except with certain varieties which have
generally gone out of use for that reason.

The worst injury to tree and fruit is done by what is called
the ''shot-hole fungus" {coryncum), from its perforations of the
leaves as though by a charge from a shotgun. It makes ugly scars
on the fruit, which renders it unsalable. The same disease also
affects the leaves of cherries and plums. Thorough use of the
Bordeaux mixture described in a later chapter will prevent this
trouble.

A disease which is prevalent in some districts of southern Cali-
fornia is called ''black heart" ; a pith disease which sometimes does
great injury. No treatment except that of pruning back to healthy
wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also a serious
trouble of the apricot as of several other trees. It will be con-
sidered in the chapter devoted to diseases of fruit trees.

Until recently the apricot has been generally free from scale
insects, and it is not affected by those species which are worst
on some other fruit trees, but recently it has been seriously infested
in some places with black and brown scales, which will be con-
sidered in a later chapter.

The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diabrotica,
a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers.
Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been used to
some extent. Fortunately, the insect only occasionally occurs in
large numbers.

Varieties approved by California growers.

Central Interior

VARIETIES. coast valley and Southern

valleys. foot-hills. California.

Bergetti **

Blenhiem ** ** **

Early Golden * **

Early Moorpark **

Hemskirke ** *

Large Early * **

Large Early Montgamet * *

Luizet *

Moorpark ** * *

Newcastle **

Oullin's Early * *

Peach ** *

Royal ** ** **

Routier's Peach **

Spark's Mammoth *

St. Ambroise , *

Tilton *

Wlggin's Seedling *

I

POPULAR KINDS OF APRICOTS

VARIETIES OE THE APRICOT

253

Though nearly all staiulard varieties of the apricot have been
introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few^ are found
on the list of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have
been brought to notice and propagated to some extent but are less
used now than twelve years ago, and the disposition is to restrict
planting to a few old varieties. There is, however, still a need of
new varieties combining size, quality and regular bearing. As
with most other fruits, some varieties are found to succeed wher-
ever conditions favor the fruit at all ; other varieties succeed in
some regions and not in others. Our table of varieties for the
different counties shows this fact, and an attempt will be made
to make the showing more explicit by notes in connection with
the mention of each variety.

In the following statement the arrangement is approximately
in the order of ripening, and the descriptions are from Downing,
with additions and changes to meet local observation :

. VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN

Large Early. — A French variety; fruit of medium size, rather oblong and
compressed ; suture deep, skin slightly downy ; pale orange in the shade, fine
bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun ; flesh separating readily from
the stone, orange colored, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This variety is espe-
cially popular in the southern coast counties, but in most situations has proved
an uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal.

Wiggins's Seedling. — Favored in Winter's district as best of early apricots ;
good size, fine color, solid red cheek, good bearer ; ten days earlier than Royal.

Early Golden. — Origin unknown ; small, roundish oval, with suture well
marked and extending half way around ; skin smooth, pale orange ; flesh
yellow, moderately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; separates from the
stone. This variety is reported favorably from some counties, but generally
otherwise, and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal.

Royal. — A French variety, and at the present time the leading California
apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and
flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well grown ; a favorite with
the canners and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large, oval,
slightly compressed ; skin dull yellow with orange cheek, very faintly tinged
with red, and a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich
vinous flavor.

There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano counties,
sometimes called "White Royal," which is not liked by canners, because of its
lack of color and flavor.

Large Early Montgamet. — Large, orange yellow, reddish on sunny side, firm.

Oullin's Early. — Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious flavor.
Ripens in Amador county four weeks earlier than Peach.

Liiicet. — Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other ; orange
with crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, firm, rich. Especially approved in
the upper San Joaquin.

Blenheim or Shipley. — This is a valuable variety in this State and seems
to surpass Downing's description both in vigor of tree and size of fruit. John
Rock modifies Downing's description to suit California experience with this
variety, as follows : "A very good variety, above medium, oval ; orange, with

254

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

a deep yellow, juicy, and tolerably rich flesh; vigorous grower and regular,
prolific bearer." This agrees perfectly with the behavior of the variety in
the University orchard at Berkeley, where it is the best of twenty varieties.
It is not reported so constant a bearer in some other parts of the State. Fruit
runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed on the
tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety has been approved by canners.
Ripens a little later than the Royal.

Early Moorpark. — Very popular in southern California, where its identity
has been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Early Moor-
park of Thomas Hogg is as follows: Roundish, inclining to oval, with very
deep suture on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yellow, mottled,
and dotted with crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all respects resembling
Moorpark. Stone oblong, with a covered channel along the back, which is
pervious. Kernel bitter. Ripens three weeks earlier than Moorpark.

St. Ambroise. — Large, early, compressed, deep yellow, reddish on sunny
side. Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the interior ; apt
to be coarse and to lack flavor near the coast. Condemned by canners for
not processing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for white color
around the pit. It has served well as a shipping variety.

Bergetti. — An undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and widely
distributed under his name in the San Joaquin.

Hemskirke. — A fine English variety quite widely grown in California ; ripens
later than Royal, described by Downing as follows : "Fruit large, roundish,
but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides ; skin orange, with red
cheek; flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly than the
Moorpark, with rich, luscious, plum-like flavor ; stone not perforate, rather
small, and kernel bitter." Esteemed in California because the tree is more
hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly
on both sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties.

Peach.— ^A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in
diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides,
with a well-marked suture ; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange mottled
with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich,
and high flavored ; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark and has bitter
kernel. This is a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State espe-
cially, and is a favorite in the Sacramento Valley. It ripens just ahead of
the Moorpark.

Moorpark. — A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated
in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diameter
each way ; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other ; skin
orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked
with numerous dark specks and dots ; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting
free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculiarly
perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed through ; kernel bitter.
In California the Moorpark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening
unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which
leads to its rejection by most planters, though some growers cling to it because
of its size and quality and occasional grand crops. The San Jose districts
lead in the production of this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara
Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported
from localities in the upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a
more regular bearer. The variety is almost wholly rejected in Southern
California.

VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN

Nezvcastle. — Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer
county, in 1881 ; size medium, round, with spherical pit ; freestone ; not quite
as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly colored ;
rather darker on the side to the sun. Early, regular and good bearer, a medium
grower, being more upright than the Royal. Its time of ripening has been

CALIFORNIA APRICOT VARIETIES

255

reported as seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden and twenty-five days
earlier than the Royal.

Routier's Peach. — Originated with Hon. Joseph Routier, near Sacramento.
Large, yellow in shade ; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the sun ;
flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a week
later than peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys.

Sparks's Mammoth. — Popular in Ventura county. Largest size, even larger
than Moorpark, pale yellow, very tender, juicy and sweet. Quiet widely dis-
tributed in Southern California, but its bearing habit is in question.

Tilton. — Chance seedliaig first noticed about 1885 on place of J. E. Tilton,
near Hanford, Kings county, and distinguished by regular bearing. Propa-
gated and introduced by J. W. Bairstow of Hanford. Fruit large; freestone;
symmetrical, ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than Royal. Tree
vigorous and prolific. Widely planted recently and very promising.

Late Englehardt. — Chance seedling originating at La Crescenta. Propa-
gated and introduced by W. B. Thornc of Tropico. Large as Moorpark, ripen-
ing evenly and twenty-eight days later than Royal. Claimed by Mr. Thorne
to be a very late bloomer and thus escaping frosts which caught all other
varieties at similar elevations. Planted chiefly in Los Angeles county.

CHAPTER XIX

THE CHERRY

Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small
as compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the
cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of
the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of Cali-
fornia. The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter of
pride with the residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related
that, many years ago, one of the most distinguished Eastern
pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard
during picking-time, could not recognize the varieties, though
he had himself propagated and shipped to California the very
trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far sur-
passed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate
with size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the
flavors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the richness
and excellence of the California cherry have never been impeached.
Recently the shipment of cherries to eastern markets, the extension
of the canning interest, and the uprising of a demand for mara-
schino-preserving have considerably enlarged the opportunity for
profitable growth of the fruit.

Famous Old Trees. — The longevity and productiveness of the
cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries were
planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State are still
in full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which
was brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by
him in 1854, on land afferwards owned by Robert Hector in
Placer county, just below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American
River, about eight hundred feet above sea-level. It is described
as above seventy feet in height, the branches covering a space
between seventy feet and seventy-five feet in diameter. The trunk
branches about six feet above the ground, and at that point has
a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop, kept for a num-
ber of years when the tree was over thirty years of age, showed
that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half a year. Such trees
are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with
the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung in
swings from such ladders or the forks of the trees. At last reports
there were about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees were
to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oroville
and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton of
fruit in favorable seasons.

25(5

SORTS FOR THE CHERRY 257

LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY

In California there are many districts in which the cherry does
not do well, and situations for the fruit must therefore be
selected with discrimination. The chief product is made in the
coast valleys adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco, including its
extension east of the Coast range, known as Suisun bay, for in all
these regions there is a modification of climate due to the influ-
ence of ocean temperature and moisture. Away from these influ-
ences the cherry also thrives on the alluvial bottoms of large
rivers and their tributary creeks, both on the low lands of the
valleys and the foothills, while on the broad valley plains and
foothill slopes it is not usually satisfactory. In the mountain
valleys cherries also thrive in suitable soils. In southern Cali-
fornia at elevations where moisture is adequate and temperatures
favor suitable winter dormancy of the trees, good cherries are
profitably grown, while on the mesas and valleys below, where
citrus fruits flourish, the cherry is an aggravation.

How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control
influence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be
fully determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the unsat-
isfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sun-
burned foliage, on the plains of interior valleys, although the soil
is kept moist enough. There is, however, still the chance of secur-
ing varieties of the fruit which have been developed under condi-
tions similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. The
Russian cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to
high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California
where the varieties originating in west Europe fail. Though this
was suggested long ago, the effort has not yet been made.

SOILS FOR THE CHERRY

The cherry thrives in free, deep soil, in which water does not
stand within about 15 feet from the surface. It delights in deep
deposits from old water courses, and does not dislike a moderate
amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil is accept-
able, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its unfitness by
the early failure of the trees, while those on deep loam near by
have remained vigorous and profitable. On the foothills it thrives
in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil
or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower lands ; and yet a clay
loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil may grow good trees
if the clay be so disposed that surplus water from winter rains
can escape and water is at hand to guard against summer drouth.
But this is merely a suggestion for garden growth of the cherry.
Commercial orchards should have a good depth of sufficiently re-
tentive soil. The great cherry trees which we have mentioned.

253 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

are growing right on the bank of the American River, where the
soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet deep, as
proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the orchard.

But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about
its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being
greater than some other trees. During the dry years 1898 and
1899, trees came into distress where they had never sufifered before,
and many large, valuable trees died. The only new condition
they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that
while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the
soil, it is still very exacting in its requirement of an adequate
supply. If this can not be retained in the soil by cultivation, irri-
gation must be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous
Willows district, of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give
their trees an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening
of the fruit, and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered.

Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the cherry to
bloom and fruit unseasonably. There has been bloom in October
and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees become dor-
mant in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be
evidences of salubrity but they betoken poor horticulture.

These facts show that the cherry must have enough water or
it will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a
good summer growth die outright on leachy soils which dry out
before the fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not
be excessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by
moisture. Cherry trees in southern California, planted with orange
trees and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting
on naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed
facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the
cherry should be planted on well-drained land, which could be
irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of water),
rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likelihood of
excessive moisture in such situations. More recent experience has
declared mellow, well-drained soils of the higher lands well adapted
to the cherry, and on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries
have done well without irrigation at Pasadena, Pomona and else-
where. The commercial cherry product of southern California
comes, however, from mountain valleys and high plateaux — the
chief regions being the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands and the
Mesa Grande region in the interior of San Diego County.

In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may suc-
ceed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems
especially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail
utterly.

SITUATIONS FOR THE CHERRY

259

Delayed Fruiting of Cherry Trees. — Though the cherry in fav-
orable situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich
lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling
blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making
marvelous wood growth, and this apparently suppresses the fruit-
ing function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their
exuberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner
by allowing the trees to go uncultivated or by root pruning,
digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and sever-
ing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning of twig
ends. Because of this overgrowth, growers give such soil to the
apple or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-
bearing of the cherry is inexplicable. Though everything seems
to be right, and the blooms are profuse, the fruit will not stick.

Unquestionably lack of bearing is due with certain cherries to
lack of association of different varieties and cross fertilization.
There is warrant for the claim that keeping bees in the vicinity
of cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must
be provided which will act as cross-pollinizers. The Royal Ann
needs this assistance and will bear better when associated with
Black Tartarian, Black Bigarreau, Bing and probably others. In
Oregon the Deacon and Lambert are said to be good pollinizers
for Royal Ann.

EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY

Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to
protection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The
cherry blooms early; though hardly as venturesome as the apricot
and almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold north-
erly winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the
fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about
a month of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early
cherry, and ripe cherries have been shipped as early as march 31.
The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from their
old homes in Napa Valley, because they could gather and
market cherries in their new locations before the same varieties
were ripe in Napa. They chose places protected on the north and
west by steep hills. The two things to secure are, apparently,
protection from the sweep of cold winds and elevation above the
deposits of cold air, which occurs in depressed places.

In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is
no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties
should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are
comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they

26Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

will reach the market alongside of better later sorts from earlier
districts. The place for the cherry in the latter districts is on
the most proper soil, according to the requirements which have
been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-swept
spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by ele-
vation or intervention of hills and windbreaks.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY

In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of
growing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are almost ex-
clusively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Maz-
zard. The Mahaleb root is more hardy than the Mazzard and
is less subject to injury by soil saturation during the winter sea-
son. It is also more hardy against injury by summer drouth on
shallow soils, which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry
tree in some parts of the State. While there may be particular
places in which the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of
fifty years' experience in California cherry growing, which approve
the Mazzard, are on the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a
better grower and, where moisture conditions are fairly good,
leaves little to be desired. The Mazzard, however, though credited
with a dwarfing influence, does make a good sized tree under our
conditions. Recently the Morello or sour cherry seedling, has
found favor with some growers on the Sacramento River, although
it is inhospitable to the buds of some varieties, like the Early
Purple Greigne and Royal Ann, and double working has to be
resorted to, which is expensive, both in outlay and time. The
Black Tartarian takes well on the Morello and other varieties can
be budded upon the Tartarian top growth.

The planting of the cherry is covered by the general consid-
erations already given for the planting of orchards. The distance
which cherries should be set apari: is a disputed point among
planters. When planted twenty feet apart the trees have inter-
laced their branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between
the rows have been covered in like colonnades. In the Haywards
region the branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight
feet apart have nearly reached each other, though continually cut
back. Much depends in the matter of distance upon the manner
of handling the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer
together by continuous pruning than where the usual way of
cutting back for the first few years and letting the tree take its
natural growth after that, is followed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa
Grande, San Diego County, practises close planting and cutting
back which may work better on his upland than on deeper, moister
soils. He says :

PRUNING THE CHERRY

261

I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plan thus
closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year ; this facilitates
gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther
apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method
I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the
difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the trees
headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as it does
tall trees.

The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have
been described as best befitting the tree and though one may
fix his distance in planting according to the method of pruning
he proposes to follow, he should remember that the cherry is
naturally a large tree, and most old orchards are now overcrowded.

As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one
year's growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually
get, then, a straight switch with well-developed buds all the way
down, and the head can be formed as desired. For garden plant-
ing, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to
advantage,

PRUNING THE CHERRY

All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head
for the cherry, and all aim to have the trunks of young trees from
the ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with
leaves, which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun.
In planting, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved — not
to be grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when
they have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to
clothe the tree with a covering of its own foliage. These spurs
not only furnish leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit
spurs and bear well.

Low Heading with a Central Stem. — Some of the trees in the
older orchards have been shaped by carrying up a leader with a
regular system of side branches. Head back at planting to two
feet, pinching ofif the shoots below the head as stated, and allow-
ing the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they too
are all to be pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow
as long as it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter
pruning cut back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches
from its starting point and cut back the side branches to about
six or eight inches. This is done year after year, cutting back
and thinning out the side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allow-
ing the leader to grow, never interfering with it until the winter
pruning, and always letting it predominate over the side shoots.
By cutting short, wood is increased, but at the end of six years the
tree goes into fruit very rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it
decreases in wood, and by the time it is ten or twelve years old

202 CALIFOENIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

there will be but little cutting to do, except to shorten in and thin
out, and this requires some judgment and experience, to know
where to cut, how to cut, and when to cut. To shorten in, never
cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very difficult to get healthy
wood out of such; but whenever you can find last year's wood,
there you can cut with safety anything that is less than one inch
in diameter.

This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant
pinching during the summer-time. It should commence when
the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up
closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk
should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any cir-
cumstances. After these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or
fifteen days, or until the branches in the top get a good start.
Then pinch everything clean but the leader, in every main branch
in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through the growing
season, to prevent the effects of over-pinching or checking growth.
If only the side shoots are kept back, the leader or head of the
branches receives the current or flow of sap and maintains and
carries on life and vitality in the tree. One object in pinching or
spur pruning is to keep back surplus wood and create fruit spurs,
throwing all the little twigs and branches into fruit, thereby utiliz-
ing all the wood the tree can produce, not allowing it to grow at
the tree's expense, and then have to cut it off. And another object
in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree produce fine large cher-
ries, all closely nestling around the big wood, and no long, slim
branches hanging down like weeping willow. All such branches
are always more or less sunburnt on the top and full of worms,
one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree.

This method is commended to those who like a tree with a
central leader, and are willing to give their orchards such constant
attention. Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots
and foliage is faithfully followed such a tree is apt to become tall
and rangy and to expose its bark all the way up to sunburn and
borers.

THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY

As we have said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and
on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they
make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treat-
ment, the usual method is quite different from that we have
described. It follows the vase or goblet form, which' has been
discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the application
of this method to the cherry, W. W. Smith, in an address before
the State Horticultural Society, said :

GRAFTING THE CHERRY

263

The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree until
it is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except when
necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more
or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be avoided as much
as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low heads not to
exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches ; fifteen inches
is better. From three to five branches are enougK to form the head of the
tree; all others should be removed early. Three are better than five; two
make a forked tree, which is likely to split down in after years.

At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to
five branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back
to six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce
two branches each (no more) ; then, at the end of the second season from
planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following
winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen
inches — according to the amount of growth the tree makes — the less the growth
the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the following winter,
treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is about five years
old ; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry well established.
After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the
ground, they should be removed during the summer. At this age the tree,
if well grown, will have top enough to shade its body from the sun, and
there is no further need of branches on the main trunk.

It necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in midsummer,
as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We make
it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard immediately
after the crop is gathered — which in our part of the State is the last of May.
All wounds made then by the removal of branches or otherwise will heal
over the same season. All large wounds made at any time, however, should
be coated over with paint.

The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which
probably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped.

In the cherry there should be the same observation as to cutting
inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the outside
bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upward
growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling at
the base of the limb is especially important, also the covering of
the wound to prevent checking of the wood.

GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY

Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has
been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal
Ann ( a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the favorite.
Other white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor
of the white cherries has vastly increased their proportionate pro-
duction as compared with the choice black and red varieties, which
are still popular as table fruit.

It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over
as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large
trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing
the smaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree.
J. W. Cassidy, of Petaluma, used to advise grafting before the sap
begins to flow in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the

2g4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

buds are well advanced or the tree in bloom. He has trees which
were over thirty years old before they were re-headed, and they
made fine tops of new and healthy wood, and produ(5ed abundantly.
The cherry is in fact a very easy tree to graft by the usual top-
grafting methods.

PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY

The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the "gum,"
or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often
induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting
to explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exudation, it may
be said that prompt treatment of certain manifestations is desir-
able, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow.
Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin
outer bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumu-
lation of gum and sap removed, and the wound painted with lead
and oil paint, or covered with grafting wax.

Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when soft-
ened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and
offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three
limbs come out close together a kind of cup is formed, which will
hold the gum from one year's end to another, and in its soft state,
leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stick and hang and
sometimes the mass becomes very foul. By this collection also,
a nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs and worms. Another
evil is letting the gum stay on is, if rain does not wash it off clean,
it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad,
and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract
and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injurious to the tree.

Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting
the young cherry as advocated in the chapter on pruning.
Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at
wide angles seldom gum ; those which are crowded together or
emerge at acute angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a
gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those
branches selected to remain which start out at a wider angle ; in
older trees there is nothing to do but keep the fork clean, as already
described.

There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has
been stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds
being cut down with the hoe. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives
with good cultivation.

Die-back of the Cherry. — The dying back of cherry branches is
more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof
is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the
dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from

POPULAR CHERRIES

265

standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition
may result from lack of sufficient moisture. Anything which causes
destruction of the root hairs is apt to cause die-back and other
forms of unthrift in the top. Early vegetative activity in the
branch, followed by frost, seems also to occasion die-back in some
cases. Fortunately, this can occur without injury to the rest of
the tree, though it is sometimes and in some places destructive to
the tree in the end. The only treatment is removal of the aflfected
wood, and if this can be done during the growing season, as soon
as signs of injury appear, it is all the better.

The Gopher. — One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry
is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young
or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for,
and killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a
tree is seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is that a gopher has
girdled it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not
usually.

Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent
chapter.

VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY

Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and
many have been abandoned from one cause or another. Those
most frequently starred in our table are the survivors in public
esteem. As our reports have come from those who grow for
market, possibly some sorts are too tender for shipment, but excel-
lent for family use, are omitted, but will be included in the descrip-
tions which follow the table. The claims to value upon which a
variety is judged are several: Extra earliness, an important con-
sideration in early districts for shipment, and elsewhere for local
sale or family use; firmness to withstand mechanical injury by
jarring in transit and durability to escape decay during the long
journey to distant markets; firmness and fixed color to stand pro-
cessing in the cannery, and to prevent coloring the juice; lateness
to extend the cherry season.

In classification of cherries it was originally considered
that there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the
tender and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux Avere
the firm-fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and
blended together by hybridization that no distinct line can now
be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of these,
whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the
tree. The Duke and Morello cherries, also wanting a natural divis-
ion, really constitute but one class.

2gg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

In addition to the old standard varieties, a number of Pacific
Coast seedlings have become popular, and others are very promis-
ing. Special description of these seedlings will follow the standard
sorts.

Cherry varieties approved by California growers.

VARIETY.

Upper
Coast
region.

*
*

*

•

*

**
**

*

*

**
*
•

Central
Coast
region.

**

**

**
••

•*

•*

Interior

valley

and

foot-hills.

*
**

*

*

*

•*

*

*
**

*

**
**

*

*

**
•

Mountain
valleys Southern
and California,
plateaux.

*

Bing

Bl'k Heart (B. Bigarreau)

Burr's Seedling

Centennial

Chapman

•

•

9 •

Cleveland

Early Purple Guigne

Elton

• • •

•

Knight (Early)

*

Lewelling ('B, Republican)
Mezel

♦

Napoleon (Royal Ann)

Nonpariel

• * ••

Rockport

Schmidt

Spanish (Yellow)

Tartarian (Black)

Paul

** •«

Wood (Governor)

• •

Buttner's Yellow.

Eugenie

May Duke

Morello

Olivet

Richmond

* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designat(id.
** Most highly commended.

BIGARREAU AND HEARTS

Early Lamaurie. — Fruit large, dark purple; flesh rich, juicy, excellent.

Downing says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the

earliest cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville dis-
trict. Not fully tested as to regular bearing.

Guigne Marbree. — "Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red ; flesh purplish
red, tender, juicy, delicate flavor." — Gillet. "A better bearer than Early Purple
Guigne."—^. W. Smith.

Baumann's May (Early Black Guigne). — Rather small, deep rich red,
becoming rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and good.

Early Purple Guigne. — Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and
sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry. It is reported a
shy bearer in some localities.

CHERRIES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 267

Belle d' Orleans. — Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped; whitish yel-
low, half covered with pale red, very juicy, sweet and excellent.

Early White Heart. — Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin dull
whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; flesh melting,
sweet, and pleasant when fully ripe.

White Tartarian. — Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin pale
yellow; stalk slender; flesh whitish yellow; half tender and very sweet.

American Heart. — Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four-sided
and irregular in outline borne in clusters; flesh half tender; skin strong and
adhering to flesh.

Werder's Early Black. — An early variety, moderately productive ; tree
vigorous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent.

Knight's Early Black. — "Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and excellent; high
flavor ; a shy bearer until the trees attain age."

Rockport Biggareau. — Large; pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun;
half tender, sweet and good ; a very excellent and handsome cherry ; good
bearer ; highly esteemed for canning and shipping.

Coe's Transparent. — Medium size pale amber, red and mottled next the
sun; tender, sweet and fine.

Cleveland Bigarreau. — A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and productive ;
large ; clear red and yellow ; juicy, sweet, and rich.

Black Tartarian. — Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh
purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous,
erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer ; the best of the black
cherries.

Governor Wood. — Large ; light yellow shaded with bright red ; flesh nearly
tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious ; a vigorous grower and very productive.

Elton. — Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; juicy,
with a rich and luscious flavor; one of the best.

Black Eagle. — A very excellent English variety, ripening in June; large
size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high-
flavored juice.

American Amber. — Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped; skin thin,
smooth, light amber; delicately mottled and overspread with bright red; flesh
tender and juicy, but not high flavored.

Yellow Spanish (Bigarreau Grafiion). — Large; pale yellow, with red cheek
in the sun; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful,
and popular of all light-colored cherries.

Mezel, Monstreuese de (Great Bigarreau). — A foreign variety of the largest
size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late.

Pontiac. — Large ; dark purplish red ; half tender, juicy, and agreeable.

Burr's Seedling. — Large; yellow, shaded with red; sweet and rich vigorous
and great bearer apparently does better near the coast than in the interior.

Oxheart. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped ; skin dark red ; flesh red, half
tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality.

Napoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann). — A magnificent cherry of the largest
size; pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with
deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree
a free grower and an enormous bearer.

Tradescant's Blackheart (Elkhorn, Black Bigarreau). — Large, heart-shaped;
deep, glossy black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy.

Schmidt's Bigarreau. — "A new German variety lately introduced. The
largest of all the Black Bigarreau cherries. Skin of a deep black color; flesh
dark and very juicy, with a fine flavor." — John Bidwell.

2gg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

DUKES AND MORELLOS

Early Richmond (Kentish). — An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for cook-
ing early in the season.

Eugenie. — Medium large ; heart-shaped ; amber red ; good quality ; early.

May Duke. — An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicy,
subacid, rich.

Arch Duke. — Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming dark;
flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, sub-acid flavor, very good; tree more
upright and vigorous than May Duke.

Late Duke. — Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart-shaped ; white, mottled
with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy;
hangs long on the tree.

Reine Hortense. — "It is one of the very largest of cherries ; a beautiful,
glossy red, or deep pink, when fully ripe; heart-shaped; a universal bearer,
and when hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful; excellent for canning,
but too soft and juicy for shipment." — W. W. Smith.

English Morello. — Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid,
productive and late.

Guigne Noir Luisante (Black Spanish). — Fruit medium size, round, heart-
shaped, glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich acid.

Belle Magnifique.— Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a fine
bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly sub-acid flavor; one of the best
of its class ; a fine table fruit when fully ripe.

Buttner's Yellow. — Medium, roundish; clear yellow; firm; late.

PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS

Lewelling — Black Republican (Black Oregon). — "Seedling by Seth Lcwell-
ing, Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in i860; first fruited in orchard in
1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple ilesh ;
ripens ten days after Black Tartarian." — James Shinn. "Large, late black
cherry, good flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well. Seems to succeed
better on footrhills than in the valley." — Robert Williamson. "Supposed to
be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian, having the solid
flesh of the former and the color of the latter ; very late." — John Rock. 'I am
of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln came from the seed of
the Black Eagle, but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed with."
— Seth Lewelling.

Bing. — Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican. "Fruit
large, dark brown or black, very fine; late; a good shipping variety." — Seth
Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that trees can
be cleaned at one picking.

Centennial. — A seedHng of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry Chap-
man, in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propa-
gated and introduced by Leonard Coates, then of Napa, in 1885. It is larger
than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed
with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable
keeping quality. Described by Committee of American Pomological Society
(1885) as follows: "Size large, slightly oblate; amber, with dark crimson
marbling; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; quality best; condition excellent (after
crossing continent by mail), showing its good shipping quahties." The Cen-
tennial has been little planted recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann.

California Advance. — Originated by W. H. Chapman, of Napa, propagated
by Leonard Coates, then of Napa. Seedling of Early Purple Guigne, ripens
one week earlier than its parent is larger and more obtuse, rounded form, and
said to be a heavier bearer ; dark purple turning black ; rich and sweet, aiid
of good degree of firmness.

PACIFIC COAST CHERRIES 269

The Oregon. — Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman, of
East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Society in 1888;
described as larger than Napoleon ; firm ; dark red ; "fit to eat earlier than
Napoleon, but coming to full maturity somewhat later." Introduced in 1888
by W. S. Failing, Portland.

Lambert. — Seedling of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon, 1887; presented
to Oregon State Horticultural Society ; right to propagate sold to Oregon
Nursery Co., 1896, and introduced by this company; very large, roundish,
heart-shaped ; stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid ; smooth, glossy,
dark purplish ; red flesh dark purplish red, firm flavor rich, quality good. Ripens
ten days to two weeks after Black Tartarian.

Atidreivs. — Fruited French seedling about 1896 by C. N. Andrews, Red-
lands. Grown in mountain valley near Redlands. Apparently a fine shipping
variety locally named after the grower.

Paul. — Found by E. V. D. Paul of Ukiah on place purchased by him and
previous owner could not account for its presence. Very large, black, mottled
with dark red; late; remarkable shipping endurance demonstrated; diploma
at Oregon Cherry Fair, 1907. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates
Co., Morgan Hill, California, 1908.

Nonpareil. — Originated at Vaca Orchard ; a fine, black, shipping cherry,
owned by Earl Fruit Company of Vacavilk and not distributed.

Oregon has been prolific in originating new varieties of the
cherry which are locally popular, but only a few have established
themselves in California.

CHAPTER XX
THE PEACH

Until the great prune planting passion of the decade ago the
peach was the greatest deciduous fruit of California judged by the
total number of trees in service. When the boom impression
went forth that cured prunes could be put up in sacks more cheaply
than wheat, people took to planting prune orchards by the sec-
tion all through the wheat districts of the great valley, and boom
planters even carried the trees where no one would think of plant-
ing wheat — cutting up shallow-clay upland sheep pastures and
even yucca sand wastes into prune-growing colonies. Under such
planting propositions it is little wonder our nurseries sold prune
trees for twice the normal prices and still could not fill the demand.
Figures of prune trees in orchards rushed far beyond the peach
figures. This overplanting of prunes naturally brought loss and
disappointment, and interest turned again to peach planting, so
that now the peach has secured notable advance beyond the prune,
as shown by statistics in Chapter VI. During the last three years
the peach has had the call, the nurseries have had difficulty in
keeping up with the planting demand for certain varieties, which
will be discussed later, and the peach has demonstrated its right
to attain again its old position by possession of a greater acreage
than is given to any other deciduous fruit.

The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees
brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence
of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which
greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was
ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the
gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Colma, where
gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred
and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold foiv$3j00 each, or $1,350 for the
crop of the one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one
hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer
trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit.

LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA

There are many other facts to establish the claim that the
peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for
with any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in California.
California is too young to mark the limits of its duration, but there

270

I

LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH 271

are instances in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach
trees above fifty years old are still vigorous and productive. Some
trees have, in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below
which looks like that of a forest tree, and a framework of main
branches sound and stalwart throughout because they have never
been allowed to sunburn until protected by their own roughness,
and have never been pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb
nor had a wound into which decay could penetrate and descend to
the root. When the peach has a fair chance in its aerial parts and
is in a soil which favors health of the roots, it shows itself to be
very long lived in California. Where trees break to pieces
and show decay wounds, they are in bad places and have suffered
through natural stress or have been weakened by cultural errors.

In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in
the root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over neglect by
discarding its old, wind-broken, sun-burned and bark-bound
branches, and forms a new head of its own. Such renewal is some-
times very rapid. In the interior valley new shoots on a cut-back
Muir tree have grown twelve feet in one season, with a thickness
of one and one-half inches at the base. Such shoots will bear the
following summer. It is through this disposition to renewal of
good wood that the intelligent system of pruning which is now
prevalent, ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of
the tree, aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its
exuberance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood
on which to grow its fruits and foliage. But while these are facts,
there is some difference of opinion as to the point at which an old
tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the Sacra-
mento River some count about a dozen good crops as the limit, and
thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. This is a
point which may vary greatly, according to local conditions.

Early Productiveness. — Quite as important as the longevity of
the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early produc-
tiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield
a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will
mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small
shoots are not pruned away from the main branches, and during
the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have
been secured from considerable acreages. These facts are stated
to show what the peach of good variety may do in a good situation
and soil and with the best of care. Of course they are not to be
taken as average results, although greater than those given are
sometimes attained. For example, on the rich, alluvial land near
Visalia, an Admiral Dewey yearling tree planted in March, 1904,
had in October, 1905, attained these dimensions: near the ground
the trunk was eleven and three-quarter inches in circumference,

272

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

branching two feet from the ground it had four main branches,
each seven inches in circumference; height of tree, twelve feet;
spread of branches, ten feet. It grew near a crack in a cement
ditch and so had all the moisture it could use, and being in a free,
open soil was not impaired by standing water.

As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna
tree in Kern county yielded twenty-seven forty-five pound picking-
boxes — twelve hundred and fifty pounds in one crop — about four
times as much as good trees may average.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH

The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many dis-
tricts suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights
in it. As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the
sheltered valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the
Coast range, in which the apricot is of little commercial moment;
it yields those peerlessly beautiful "mountain peaches" from one
to two thousand feet higher in the vSierra foot-hills than the apri-
cot can be trusted; it goes everywhere in the lower foot-hills and
over the great valleys that the apricot will go, and beyond it also,
because it is less restless in the spring and escapes some frosts
which injure apricots. Counted from trees in orchard the peach
is about three times as great as the apricot.

Nearly every county in California reports the possession of
peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides
of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and
lower still careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid
frosts at blooming-time — the peach in such places being subjected
to some dangers which beset it in the eastern States. Below
these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of the foot-hills of
the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excel-
lence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness, delicacy of flavor and
firmness, which endures carriage to the most distant markets, are
all characteristics of the foot-hill peaches of California.

In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper con-
dition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives,
the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the
fruit a^ttaining great size. The San Joaquin Valley is the greatest
peach district in the State.

In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the
eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas
suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western
edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit
for a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit

SITUATIONS FOR THE PEACH 273

of these districts, with the foot-hill district on the east side of the
Sacramento Valley and special locations in the upper San Joaquin
Valley, has been quite close.

In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the
Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is great-
est, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences.
Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown
by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which do well by pro-
tecting the trees from harsh winds, and by seeking elevation above
depressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of
curl-leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered
presently. In the coast counties north of the Russian River Valley
the danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions
increases as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen
with greater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for
home use and local markets can be successfully grown.

South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you
proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean,
choosing, however, elevations, and avoiding broad, wind-swept
areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At
considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some
varieties of peaches are notably excellent. The general rule holds
with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences retard
ripening and the season of the fruit is late.

In some valleys and at elevations in southern California the
peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the
mesas and plains there is often too high a temperature which starts
growth out of season and follows with dormancy and die-back
when the tree .ought to be most active. It has recently been demon-
strated that varieties like Luken's Honey, descended from the
Peen-to or flat peach of China, resist such irregularities better than
the common sorts which are largely of Persian origin.

SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH

Though the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat
extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be con-
sidered presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the
apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather
dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will
thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel,
providing it contains also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid
growth and heavy fruitage of the "peach requires abundant nutri-
tion. Though it accepts coarse materials both iji soil and subsoil,
it relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial loca-
tion than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit border-

274

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

ing the creek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots
deep to secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether
along existing streams or deposited by prehistoric water courses,
which have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment
above the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly
drained, and delight the peach. Peaches are grown very success-
fully on what is called hard-pan in some parts of Fresno County,
providing the hard-pan is blasted as described in Chapter XL In
these situations the hard-pan is near the surface and has a deep,
free soil below it into which the roots can extend.

At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result
from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach
thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and where the
underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and afiford-
ing escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes
are partly excavated in these rotten rocks, as in the soft sand rock
on the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in
what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior
warmth of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening
of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt
a greater factor to the end.

The influence of comparatively slight difference in elevation is
very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant Valley, Solano County,*
had for many years a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace about
seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On
the terrace peaches ripen and are disposed of before the same
varieties ripen in the orchard below.

As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so
on the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable.
Of course natural defects of this kind can be corrected by ade-
quate under-drainage.

Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to
the peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets
on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but
drainage must be insisted upon, for thousands of trees have per-
ished because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline
soils which are usually rather heavy should, however, be avoided,
as the peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all
fruits most sensitive to alkali.

As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other
fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage.
Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low
gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an
incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to
escape serious injury.

GROWING PEACH TREES

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

275

The chapter on propagation gives the general method of grow-
ing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, preference is
usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow peaches, at
least for working on the same colored fruit, while others use pits
of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will
use only pits frorrt vigorous seedling trees. In this State the
peach is usually so healthy and vigorous, and the "yellows ' not
known, and less care may be needed in selecting pits; still, there
is certainly nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock.

The hard-shell sweet almond has long been used as a stock
for the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root, in
dry soils especially.

When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits
its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myrobalan
has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not
favor any plum stock for the peach and our largest propagators
have abandoned its use.

The so-called ''peach-almond" has often been urged as a stock
for the peach but has been little used, probably because the straight
peach and straight almond are so satisfactory and available. It
is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of an almond,
that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond
hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in
the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for
nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced good
trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there
over the State. Mr. Burbank has produced a hybrid of the Wager
peach and the Languedoc almond.

Distance in Orchard. — Distance observed in planting peach
orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers.
Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot,
pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-growing, larger trees, the
trees may be set comparatively close; that is, with the latter trees
at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach planted quin-
cunx, and to be removed at the end of ten to fifteen years. If the
peach is to have the ground to itself, some planters plant at
eighteen feet in equilateral triangles, or twenty, to twenty-four
feet on the squares, the present tendency with the peach, as with
other trees, being to give more room than was the custom a few
years ago.

Age of Trees. — In planting peach orchards yearling trees are
generally used, although far more are planted in dormant bud
than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for this is easily
found in the disposition of the peach to make a tree the first 3^ear

27g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

from the bud. It sp-rings almost at once into a full outfit of lat-
erals. Some growers employ this disposition to form a head the
first year in the nursery. When the bud has grown out eighteen
inches, pinch it off at the top and force out laterals, which make
long growth the same season. When planted but in orchard the
following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this any
one can get a yearling with the equivalent of a two-year-old head
on it. The common practice is, however, to*let the growth from
the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the yearling is set in
orchard, cut back to a single bud the laterals which are desired
to form the head and removing others. If there is a dormant bud
on the stem where a branch is desired and it is obstinate in not
starting, a cross-cut through the baik just above it may concen-
trate pressure and force it out. The development of form from a
yearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in chapter on prun-
ing.

Recently preference has arisen for smaller trees for transplant-
ing and, especially in the foot-hills, June buds, described in the
chapter on propagation, are largely employed.

Planting Dormant Buds.— The chapter on planting describes
the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from
the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W.
Butler, of Placer County, as follows :

Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard in
early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees are
in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be planted
in half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches from the
trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels,
one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many
of the roots ; and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a
sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be
planted, and take from it only a few at a time. Put them in a basket or
box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the
ground.

On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but
do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The
stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with
shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree),
when it will take in moisture and not heal readily.

Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until
growth has started out well on the dormant bud.

Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in
planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout must
be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with
dormant buds is notable. In good hands they commonly out-
grow yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of
loss from failure of the bud to start is very small. Of course
every bud should be examined before planting, to see that it has
a healthy color.

SHAPING THE PEACH TREE

277

In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy
root only should be taken. During recent years there have been
a good many young roots afifected with knots or swellings from
some obscure cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted,
the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top
growth is made.

PRUNING THE PEACH

As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great
fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by reg-
ular shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon
which alone fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this,
but it promotes longevity and vigor in the framework of the tree
upon which these bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach
soon becomes bark-bound, and the bark itself becomes hardened
and brittle. Lower shoots are apt to give out, and the tree becomes
an umbrella of foliage and fruit held aloft by bare branches bark-
burned by the sun, invaded by borers, exuding gum, covered with
moss and lichens — a picture of distress and unprofitability because
its owner does not give the tree a chance to re-invigorate itself
with large fresh leaves from the new wood which alone can carry
them.

As has been advised for other trees, the peach should be given
a low head, developed as described in the chapter on pruning. In
its after-treatment, it has been the universal experience that con-
stant ''heading' in" is essential to the strength and health of the
tree. This also has been considered in an earlier chapter. Illus-
trations of the pertinence of these remarks are found in the practice
of the most successful peach growers in all parts of the State. A
few instances will be given :

'The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year's growth, bears
fruit farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots
of from one-eighth to three-sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when
the fruit is removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches
must be removed the first winter following their fruiting, when there is
a greater tendency to form small new growths, which may fruit the following
season. In the peach, it will seldom be found necessary to remove any
interior branches, except suckers, until they have produced a crop, when
they will begin to decline and should be removed.

"I would certainly not cut peach trees back less ^ than one-half of the new
growth in the winter pruning, and our trees are getting too large for their
age even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other localities,
summer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far my
own experience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing rap-
idly that the fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to take
away too many of these buds to cut back one-half in the winter pruning,
but by cutting back about one-half the new growth in August, fruit buds
are developed lower down, and where they would not be developed without
tlie summer pruning." — H. Culbertson, El Cajon San Diego County.

., >

' .2

i G

THINNING PEACHES 279

"Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center,
using great care not to cut out too many of the Httle fruit shoots of new-
wood growing on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of
the old wood, leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will
support. In this case judgment must be used as to what the tree will
support. The soil may be w^et or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the
judge. To grow small fruit, prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with
care and judgment. To get this judgment you must have some practical
experience. I prefer doing the work when the sap begins moving in the
spring of the year. All cuts heal over better then and the pruner can see
how the buds are setting and use his own judgment as to how much wood
he wants to cut out." — R. C. Kells, Yuba City, Sutter County.

"Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new
wood diminishes. Not more than five or six fruit buds should be left on
a shoot, and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should
be trained low and their vigor encouraged by permitting a reasonable amount
of young shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. When
this method is continued systematically every season, the trees will bear
large crops of fruit, of good quality, for many years. When they are allowed
to overbear for one or two seasons, the fruit will decrease in size, and soon
become almost worthless ; the trees will be enfeebled, and in consequence
very liable to be attacked by disease. The only thing to be done in this case
is to cut off the whole top of the tree, allowing it to form a new head. I have
seen old peach orchards thus renovated, and the results are often very flat-
tering, but it is far better not to allow them to get into a condition where this
desperate remedy is necessary." — Leonard Coates, Morgan Hill.

Cutting Back the Peach Is not Shearing. — Some undertake the
annual pruning of the peach by a shearing process, treating a fruit
tree as one would a hedge — cutting everything to a line. There
has been a good deal of this done in California, but it is wrong
nevertheless. Shortening in the new growth of the peach each
year is proper practice. It is the first step toward preventing over-
bearing of small, unmarketable fruit and saving the tree from
profitless and injurious effort. Thinning the shoots by removing
all but one when two or three start from the same point is also
working toward large fruit and regular bearing in the tree. This
shortening and thinning of the new wood must also be followed
by thinning of the young fruit just after the natural drop and it is
seen that the tree carries too many. Proper pruning can not be
done by shearing because it is apt to shorten the strong shoots
too much and the weak shoots too little. Each shoot must be
cut by itself according to its growth and its ability to carry more
or less fruit. Shearing, too, does not thin out the shoots but con-
tinually multiplies them until the tree is full of brush as a hedge.

THINNING PEACHES •

Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of
obtaining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in
preserving the health and future production of the tree. The
importance of thinning has been urged in a previous chapter, but
the following is a very strong statement, by Mr. Culberston :

280

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

In my own experience there is no single operation in connection with
fruit growing of more importance than thinning. The past season, in order
to test the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for
drying, I timed the cutting, and found it took double the time; hence, double
the expense, which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried fruit.
Add to this a difference of two cents per pound in price makes $55 per
ton. Suppose an orchard under good treatment produces a ton of peaches
to the acre, then $55 would represent the difference in profits. Unthinned or
small fruit is certainly undesirable.

As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions.
Some take off one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet
a certain ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule
if leaving a specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule ; that
means many must come off. Different conditions of soils, climates and irri-
gation vary the amount to thin out more or less. More may be left where
the tree is on land giving a strong, vigorous growth.

In thinning peaches I have been practicing a method that, gives good
results and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches,
that are one-eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter.
The first has two peaches, the second three, and the third four ; this, of
course, after there has been a judicious course of pruning and the trees
under irrigation ; trees on dry land should have only one-half as many left.
To reach this result often a dozen may have to come off, allowing only two
to remain. The more there are the greater necessity for thinning.

The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are
likely to remain on the tree and which will drop of their own accord.

IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH

As the peach is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior val-
leys and foot-hills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly
grown with irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth
in Chapter XV. are based upon experience with the peach and the
reader is advised to consider them from that point of view. One
of the most important points of success in irrigating the peach is
to use enough water earlier in its growth so that application need
not be made within about three weeks of ripening. Enough water
before that will usually insure size on properly thinned trees and
the withholding of water near ripening will secure good quality.
After the crop is gathered, irrigation can be resumed to continue
the late summer growth for next year's fruit buds and to save the
tree from injury during the long autumn drouth.

WORKING OVER PEACH TREES

The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according
to the demands of the canners of the market for dried fruit. The
grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy,
less productive, or, for other reason, less desirable than others.
There is, therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Bud-
ding is often resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old
wood, providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood
buds from young trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but
because of greater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is
common to take wood and fruit buds together from bearing trees.

I

GRAFTING THE PEACH

281

A larger cut of bud and adjacent bark is taken when working in
old bark than for use on seedlings. When a branch is budded, it
is sometimes broken at a distance beyond the bud and allowed to
hang, the idea being to furnish the bud some but not too much sap.
Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches, allow-
ing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing processes
of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have not
taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond
is successfully grafted over with the peach, and this course has been
followed with thousands of unproductive almonds.

Grafting the Peach. — Grafting the peach by the ordinary top-
grafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with
saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, formerly of
the University Branch Experiment Stations, in southern California,
as follows :

Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away
with all difficulties arising from splitting and there is no cavity left in the
heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the desired
place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at
an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the
knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge
at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides
of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one stroke ; this operation repeated
on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a
solid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at
the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he
can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where to trim. If he
is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discoloration, he can make a
fresh surface by placing his knife parallel to the edges and shaving off a thin
slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper,
which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump
next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of bark is. The
inside of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the
stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or
in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to
grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over con-
siderable length and will make a much better start than if the union is at
only one point, owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is
transmitted. One of the most important points in grafting is to have good
wax and go over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them.

DISEASES OF THE PEACH

Curl-Leaf. — The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in
California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first planting
of peach trees by Americans, nearly sixty years ago, and free con-
jecture as to its cause was indulged in until it was shown to be
a specific fungus, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal
character demonstrated. The treatment will be described in the
chapter on tree diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated
as follows :

Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others,
and in one place than another in the same section, and some sec-

232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

tions are practically free from.it. Some varieties are much more
subject to curl-leaf than others; generally speaking, some curl
nearly everywhere, others curl in one place and not in another,
others are practically free from curl in all situations.

Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem
to injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and
sometimes the tree itself. The disease is almost always at its
height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the
curl is ''bad," the fruit will fall to the ground, there not being
healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however,
the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and sometimes none
of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well known, is of brief
duration, say twelve to twenty days^ after which the trees resume
a healthy appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been
able to survive the ordeal, it also appears to grow and become as
perfect as if no check had been given to its growth. But it is
better to save the tree the burden of a new foliage growth.

Mildew. — This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish
felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally
affects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and
occurs on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from the
coast to the Sierra foot-hills. Observation in this State has fully
affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, glandless-
leaved varieties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf
stems are free.

The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties
with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been
found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to
mildew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to com-
bat the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which
will be described in a later chapter.

As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in
others.

The most serious disease which has thus far stricken the peach
in California is locally known as the ''peach blight," the work of
a shot-hole fungus {coryneum). This also has been satisfactorily
checked by spraying as will be described in the Chapter on Dis-
eases of Trees and Vines.

A common trouble of the peach known as "split-pit," has
recently been studied by the California Experiment Station and
the tentative conclusion has been reached that split-pits are physio-
logical phenomena and not caused by disease germ. Whether this
abnormal growth is due to weakness of variety or to cultural con-
ditions is not determined. It is true that varieties differ in amount
of splitting, and selection is being made to some extent on that
basis.

LEADING CALIFORNIA PEACHES OR^

Peach varieties approved by California growers.

VARIETIES.

Alexander

Amsden

Albright

Bergen

Bilyeu

Briggs's May

California Cling

Decker

Early Charlotte

< Early Crawford

Early York

Elberta

Foster

George Fourth

George's Late Cling

Gen. Bidwell

Globe

Golden Cling (Sellers)..

Hale's Early

Heath Cling..

Henrietta (Levy's)

Honest Abe

Honey (Lukens')

Imperial

Indian Blood

Jones's Large Early

LaGrange

Late Crawford

Lemon Cling

*. Lovell

McDevitt Cling

McClish Cling

McKevitt Cling

Mary's Choice

Morris's "White

Muir

Newhall

Nicholl's Cling

Oldmixon Free

Orange Cling

Peento

Persian Cling

*^Phillips's Cling

Piquet's Late

Runyon's Orange Cling.

Salway

Smock

Snow

St. John

Strawberry

Stump

Susquehanna

Triumph

Tuskena (Tuscan)

Wheatland

Wylie Cling

Yellow Tuscany

Upper

Central

Interior

Mountai

n

coast

coast

valley and

valley

Southern

valleys.

valleys.

foot-hill.

region.

California.

*

*

**
*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*

*
**

*

*

*

*

*

*

**

**

**

4>*

**

*

*

*

*

*

**

*

*•

*

**

**

*

*•

*

*

*
*

*

*

*

**

**

**

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

**

**

*

**

*

*

*

*

*
*
*

;;;;;;

*

*

*

**

**

*

*

*

*

*

**

**

**

**
**

*

*

*
«

*

*

*

**

**

**

**

**

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

**
*«

*

*

*

**

**

•

*

*

**

*

*

*

**

*

*

**

**

*

**
**

*

*

*

*

*
*

*

*

*

**

**
**

*

*

*ip

**

*

*
*

*

*

**

* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated.
** Most highly commended.

284

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

VARIETIES OF THE PEACH

Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California,
and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties must
be chosen with reference to their success in special locations.
Choice has also to be made according to the purpose of the grower,
whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or
distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is
little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local
use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late
region is killed by competition with better middle season sorts
from the earlier regions.

Dates of Ripening of Leading Varieties. — The relative ripening
of a large number of peach varieties, as noted at the University
Experiment Station, at Pomona, will be useful to planters in determ-
ining proper succession of varieties, although of course the exact
dates will not widely apply.

VARIETY. First flower. Full flower. Ripe.

Briggs's Red May March 4 March 24 June 16

Amsden's June March 8 March 25 June 17

Alexander . March 17 March 31 June 17

Large Early York March 4 March 18 July 15

Yellow St. John March 4 March 12 July 17

Crawford's Early March 2 March 15 July 21

Foster March 4 March 15 July 21

Oldmixon Free March 7 March IS July 25

Morris White March 4 March 15 Aug. 3

Muir March 8 March 23 Aug. 5

Susquehanna March 4 March 14 Aug. 5

Crawford's Late March 2 March 14 Aug. 8

Newhall March 4 March 14 Aug. 8

Runyon's Orange Cling March 2 March 14 Aug. 8

California Cling March 2 March 16 Aug. 12

Stump the World March 2 March 16 Aug. 12

Lovell Feb. 28 March 9 Aug. 13

Nichols's Orange Cling March 4 March 14 Aug. 14

Seller's Cling March 2 March 14 Aug. 14

MoDevitt's Cling March 2 March 18 Aug. 16

McKevitt's Cling March 2 March 19 Aug. 19

Wilkins's Cling March 3 March 14 Aug. 20

Indian Blood March 5 March 25 Aug. 20

Yellow Tuscany Cling March 5 March 19 Aug. 21

Lemon Cling March 14 April 1 Aug. 21

Smock's Late Free March 4 March 18 Aug. 28

Picquet's Late March 5 March 18 Sept. 1

Staley's California March 2 March 15 Sept. 6

Henrietta (Levy's) March 6 March 15 Sept. 15

Heath's Cling March 7 March 14 Sept. 15

Salway March 7 March 9 Sept. 18

In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties
to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The
peach season in interior districts begins at the first of June with
the Alexander, and continues to the end of November with local

DESCRIPTIONS OF PEACHES 285

seedlings — giving six months of peaches. Of course the very early
and very late sorts are only of use for marketing as table fruit.
The most important series is a fine succession of mid -season
peaches suitable either for canning, drying, or distant shipment.
Such a selection can be made from the tables and descriptions
which w^ill be given later.

Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners
and Eastern shippers use the beautiful v^hite peaches to advantage,
the fashion for canning and drying is nov^ strong in support of
the yellow-fleshed clingstone varieties. The yellow freestone
peaches are also in greatest demand. The color about the pit is
also an important point. Canners demand a peachj whether white
or yellow, which is almost free from color at the pit, because the
extraction of the red color dyes the juice; in drying, the demand
just now is for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors
give the dried fruit a more attractive appearance. Of course there
is a market for. dried white peaches but the preference is for the
yellow.

A succession of yellow freestones very popular in the San
Joaquin Valley is the following: Foster, Wheatland, Elberta,
Muir, Lovell, Late Crawford, Salway. A succession of yellow
clingstones is this: Tuskena, Seller's Runyon's, McDevitt's, Hen-
rietta, Phillips. The two most popular white clings in the same
region are McKevitt's and Heath.

In the enumeration following the table only those seedlings
which are now commercially propagated are included. Many
which were prominent ten years ago have been dropped by this
test. The writer has record of many others some of them likely
to rise to important place, which are reserved until after further
trial.

The following are the peaches chiefly grown in California,
arranged approximately in the order of ripening:

Brigg's Red May (California). — Originated as a chance seedling in nursery
row, on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from
Yuba City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier than the
Early Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach. Fruit medium
to large, round; white skin with rich, red cheek; partially free, a standard
early variety; subject to mildew.

Jones' Large Early (New York). — Large, roundish, flattened, white with
deep crimson.

Alexander (Illionis). — Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit
medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm,
juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit is partly free.

Triumph (Georgia). — Medium sized, early, yellow, partial cling, very good.

Anisden (Missouri). — Resembles preceding, but averages smaller; claimed by
some to be slightly earlier ; rather less liable to curl-leaf.

Honey (Lukens). — Medium, oblong pointed, white mottled carmine; very
sweet, related to Peen-to.

286

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Peen-to. — Flat peach or saucer peach of China; good in Southern California.

Early Imperial (California). — Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and
planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most
growers find it no improvement on St. John.

Yellow St. John (New Orleans). — Earliest yellow peach; averages smaller
than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large ; roundish, orange yellow with deep
red cheek; juicy, sweet and high flavored; freestone.

Hale's Early (Ohio). — Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish, mostly
covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich and
sweet ; fair for local market and shipping ; widely grown ; freestone.

Strawberry (New Jersey). — Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk;
suture extending half way round ; skin almost wholly marbled with deep red ;
flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate ; tree healthy.

Bergen's Yellow (New York). — Large, roundish; suture deep; orange yellow,
red cheek; approved in Southern California.

Foster (Massachusetts). — Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight suture;
stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color deep orange,
dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and productive; very widely grown
in California and popular. Ripens before Early Crawford, which it sometimes
resembles, but is of better quality.

^Crawford's Early (New Jersey). — Very large, oblong, swollen, point at the
top prominent, suture shallow skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, rich,
and excellent ; freestone ; tree very healthy and productive ; probably the most
largely planted variety in California.

George the. Fourth (New York). — Large, round, deeply divided by broad
suture sides unequal ; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red cheek ;
flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good. Somewhat
troubled with curl-leaf.

Snow (American). — Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost wholly
white; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich and sprightly.

Mary's Choice (New Jersey). — Large, yellow, resembling Early Crawford,
but ripening later.

Red Cheek Melocoton (American). — Large, roundish oval, swollen point at
top; yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow, red at stone, which is free, juicy,
good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito Counties.

^Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi). — Wrongly called "Tuscan" and "Tustin"
Cling in this State ; largely planted in interior valleys and foot-hills ; very large
yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable for early shipping.
Ripens with Crawfords Early.

Oldmixon Free (American). — Large, roundish or slightly oval greenish or
yellowish white, marbled with red ; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy
and rich ; high flavor.

Honest Abe (California). — "Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma County.
Large, yellow, with red cheek; best quality; ripens between Crawford's Early
and Late. Does not curl." — James Shinn.

Morris White. — Large, oval ; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe ;
flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich; especially
good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf.

Wager (New York). — Lemon yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow, rich,
juicy, sweet, excellent, having much the appearance and flavor of apricots; stone
small and free from the flesh ; quality best.

(^ Muir (California). — Originated as chance seedling on the place of John Muir,
near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of Winters.
Fruit large to very large ; perfect freestone ; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich
and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer r.nd strong grower, if on rich soil.

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233 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

to which it is best adapted free from curl in Vacaville district; fruit a good
shipper and canner and pecuHarly adapted to drying because of exceptional
sweetness and density of flesh ; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds
fresh. One of the best CaHfornia seedlings. Claimed by some to be identical
with Wager.

Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir but not splitting at
pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg, A. S. Coon, Fresno, and H. R.
Shaw, Selma.

Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, Sonoma County. Commended
by Green Valley Cannery ; propagated by A. F. Scheidecker, Santa Rosa, T907.

Wheatland (New York). — Large, roundish; skm golden yellow, shaded with
crimson.; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality.

^Elberta (Georgia). — Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden-yellow,
faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific; perfect
freestone.

Newhall (California). — "Originated with Sylvester Newhall, of San Jose.
Very large; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and
a rich, vinous flavor ; ripens about one week before Crawford's Late ; tree
very hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected by curl ; freestone." — John Rock.

Stump the World (New Jersey). — Large, strong; skin creamy white, with
bright red cheek; flesh white, juicy and high flavored. Commended for family
use by the Southern California Nurserymen's Association. Curls somewhat in
some localities ; freestone.

Crazvford's Late (New Jersey). — Very large, roundish, yellow with dark red
cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent; a pop-
ular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities;
freestone.

Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina). — Large, lemon-shaped or oblong, having
large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon ; skin fine yellow ; flesh firm, yellow
with sprightly vinous subacid; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firmly.

Orange Clingstone. — Large, round; suture distinctly marked and extending
nearly around the fruit ; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Clingstone ; deep orange
color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat sub-
ject to mildew. Though largely grown, this variety has been largely supplanted
by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it.

Sellers' Golden Cling (California). — Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers,
Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden
color ; tree healthy ; one of the very best of clings ; ripens with Late Crawford.

Runyon's Orange Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Sol Runyon,
on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Runyon's
Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common
sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek ; rich, sugary, and
vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento
region and elsewhere." — John Rock.

Nichols Orange Cling (California). — Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles,
introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek ; flesh yellow and
good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer.

Peck's Orange Cling (California). ^"Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma
County. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large, handsome,
yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorous, productive, superior for market
or drying ; planted ir.ore extensively in Santa Rosa Valley than in any other." —
Luther Burbank.

Stilson (California).— "Originated at Marysville (?). Perfect shape; v^ry
large ; red cheek with crimson stripes ; yellow-fleshed, more highly colored than
Susquehanna ; table and market quality excellent ; ripens after Crawford's Late ;
freestone."— F. W. Butler.

Susquehanna (Pennsylvania). — Large, nearly globular suture half round; skin
rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous
flavor ; freestone ; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular.

POPULAR CALIFORNIA PEACHES

289

McCowan's Cling (California). — Originated with Dr. McCowan, of Ukiah,
Yellow cling ; round, smooth outline ; no suture ; no red at pit, which is small ;
flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet; not much subject to curl; fruit apt to run
small unless carefully thinned; reported an irregular bearer in Alameda County;
liked by canners ; approved by Placer County.

d^Lovell (California). — Originated as chance seedling with G. W. Thissell, and
named by him in 1882 ; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yellow free-
stone ; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round ; flesh fine, texture firm, solid,
clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning
and shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some places. "The richest peach
I ever saw on a tray." — E. A. Bonine, Los Angeles County. The most popular
yellow freestone for canning and drying. Sometimes reported as drying
"heavier" than the Muir.

McKevitt's Cling (California). — Originated as chance seedling in apricot
orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt, Vaca
Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white clingstone;
flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit; skin
strong and friut excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in
growth and free from disease. Widely distributed.

»

The Lovell, a California seedling.

290

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Phillips's Cling: a California seedling.

McClish Cling. — Yellow cling, grown in Sonoma County.

Wylie Cling. — An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma County,
increasing in popularity in northern Sonoma County as superior to Orange
Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. A fine peach
for canning and drying.

General Bidwell (California). — Originated from a shoot from a peach root
upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Rancho Chico. Named by State
Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for cultivation. Ripens
one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway and Picquet's Late.
About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger ; very yellow with reddish
cheek; flesh very solid, juicy, and rich; freestone and a small pit.

California; syn. Edward's Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento.
Very large, round, regular ; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich red ; flesh
deep yellow ; flavor delicate, rich vinous." — C. W. Reed.

Picquet's Late (Georgia). — Large to very large; round, sometimes a little
flattened, yellow, with red cheek ; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fragrant >
freestone; not subject to curl-leaf.

Smock Freestone (New Jersey). — "Large yellow, mottled with red; mod-
erately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway." — E. A. Bonine.

La Grange (New Jersey). — Large, oblong; greenish white, some red on
sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone.

POPULAR CALIFORNIA PEACHES

291

Salway (English). — Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extending
beyond the apex ; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek ; flesh
deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard
late peach in California ; tree very healthy.

^Phillips' Cling (California). — Originated with Joseph PhiUips, of Sutter
County; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling,
no color at pit, which is very small ; exceedmgly rich and high colored ;
described by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best
peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. Ripens progressively
so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good
land and ample moisture.

Persian's Cling (California). — "Originated in Visalia, probably from seed of
Heath Cling, and a few days earHer than its parent. Large; clear white skin
and flesh, the latter very sweet; commended for canning." — /. H. Thomas,
Tulare County.

Heath (Maryland). — Described by Downing as the most delicious of all
clingstones. Very large ; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red;
flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor; best
adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl.

^_ ^"f^ad/j; (Missouri). — "Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at the
pit, firm, rich, and good flavor ; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried
fruit." — /. H. Thomas, Tulare County.

George's Late Cling (California). — "Originated in Sacramento. Large;
white flesh, colored around the pit ; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed
with bright red ; a very heavy and uniform bearer ; a good shipper and at its
season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County^ that yields the
grower so much profit." — P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities.

Yellow Tuscany {Dura cini, Tuscany). — A very large yellow cling; propa-
gated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro; tree a strong grower and free
from curl-leaf, very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the University
Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been largely planted
in Southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling for canning in that
section. Ripens with Lemon Cling.

Albright's Cling (California). — "Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placer-
ville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in quality and
flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape,
and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling." — P. W. Butler.
Endures long shipment even after being well colored.

McDevitt Cling. — "Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uni-
formly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe ; flesh very firm
and solid, superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regular bearer.

Staley (California). — Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circum-
ference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with
very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous around
the peach ; stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerable longer than stone ;
flesh white to the pit, very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as
sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken off in Selma, Fresno
County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four weeks after Susquehanna.
A high-class white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma.

Levy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia). — Above average size,
yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Very popular in San Joaquin Valley.

Bilyeu's Late October. — "Large greenish white with red cheek; flesh whitish,
freestone ; tree a rapid grower and attains great size ; prolific bearer ; fruit
ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place does particu-
larly well in the foot-hills." — P. W. Butler.

Decker (California). — Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in
Sutter and Butte Counties.

CHAPTER XXI
THE NECTARINE

The nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions,
as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Dcwn-
ing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin; only a
distinct, accidental variety of the peach ; and this is rendered quite
certain, since there are several well-knov/n examples on record of
both peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same
branch. Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they
occasionally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasionally produce
nectarines; the Boston variety originated from a peach stone.*
All these facts which are recorded of relation between the peach
and nectarine have been verified by California observation.

The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that
employed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the
same ways, except that, as pointed out by Mr. Culbertson, the
nectarine has -more of a tendency to form short interior growths,
and fruit buds are formed on the larger new growths, thus enabl-
ing the pruner to cut them back more closely, and yet have an
abundance of fruits buds remain. The peach and nectarines are
the same in natural adaptations and requirements, and in diseases,
so that what has been given concerning the growth of the peach
in this State has an apt application in the case of the nectarine.

The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has
been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the graft-
ing over a good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine,
though this has not been done to the extent to which the French
prune and some other plums have been worked on old almond
stocks.

Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach. — It may be

wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the necta-
rine, why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous
fruit and the latter is the least grown, but one, of all the temperate
zone fruits, only the lowly quince being less in importance. The
explanation is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the
East, prefers the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried,
and some of those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines
have found many occasions to wish the ground had been given
to peaches. How much of this preference is due to lack of knowl-

■ * "Downing's Fruit and Fruit Trees," p. 565.

292

NECTARINE VARIETIES 293

edge of the nectarine, and how much to its somewhat different
flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine.

It is true, however, that the nectarine is now advancing in popu-
lar favor. This has been prophesied for some years and seems
now being slowly realized because of the wonderful excellence of
the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing
beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both
when sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The
excellence of the canned nectarine, has also figured in the antici-
pation. It is, however, questionable how far this anticipation
has been realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nec-
tarines is less than two per cent and of canned nectarines less than
one-half of one per cent of the respective forms of peaches. Nor
does the demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a
slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great
preponderance of supply. Still, the price for dried nectarines has
been better of late, but whether this is due to better appreciation
or reduced production, is a question. It is true that during the
last decade many nectarines have been rooted out to be replaced
by peach trees, or have been grafted over into peaches. There
are, however, some growers who are confident that the nectarine
will in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product.
It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popularize
the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle a? an
apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly exceeds that
of the peach, and is rather more easily attained, is very gratifying
to the producer.

VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE

Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local
adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties
grown, are, however, comparatively few. The following have been
found most satisfactory in California ; the descriptions are somewhat
condensed from Downing's treatise, modified to suit local growth,
arid arranged approximately in the order of the ripening of the
varieties :

Advance. — Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish
white; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen.

Lord Napier (English). — Large, pale cream color with dark red cheek;
flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf glands
reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular
bearer ; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station.

Doivnton (English). — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit
large, roundish oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale
green, slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very good.

Early Newington (English). — Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large;
fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and terminating

294 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

with an acute, swollen point; skin pale green, but nearly covered with bright
red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep red at stone,
which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent.

Hardwicke (English). — ^Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large, round-
ish, inclining to oval ; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek ; flesh pale
green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and high-flavored ;
freestone. This variety is a favorite in southern California ; described by the
Southern California Nurserymen's Association as being the only satisfactory
bearer.

Boston. — Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston ; tree hardy
and productive ; leaves with globose glands ; flowers small ; fruit large and
handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek ; flesh yellow to
the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant
and peculiar flavor ; freestone ; a general favorite in California.

New White; syn. Large White. — Leaves with reniform glands; flowers
large ; fruit rather large, nearly round ; skin white with occasionally slight tinge
of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone small and
free commanded wherever nectarines are grown in California, and more freely
planted than all other nectarines combined.

Stamvick. — Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large,
roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base ; skin pale, greenish white, shaded
into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and
delicious.

Humboldt. — Very large, bright orange yellow vigorously marked with crim-
son, flesh orange, tender; juicy, and high flavored. Described as one of the
best of the newer varieties. Ripens late.

As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and
canning of the fruit, the light-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed
varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For dry-
ing there has been thus far a .decided preference for freestone vari-
eties, though possibly the present popularity of cling peaches for
drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color,
however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the production of
the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which
is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, unde-
sirable in canning, because of the discoloration of the syrup. These
facts have had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties
named in the foregoing list.

At present the largest orchards of nectarines are in the interior
valley locations, which are also fine peach counties and are per-
fectly adapted both to the growing of the fruit and to the open-
air, sun-drying of it.

CHAPTER XXII
THE PEAR

The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees,
as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old mis-
sions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is a century
and a third since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the
old mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent
oaks. Notable instances are found in the Stillwater district of
Shasta County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over
half a century old, with a trunk seven and a half feet around and
yielding annually about fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of
which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition.

The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations
which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and
excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage even
when the soil is trampled almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carry-
ing its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear
repays care and good treatment, and receives them from California
growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits.
It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment,
and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow delib-
eration in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for shipment
by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of the
commercial suitability of the California pear is found in successful
marketing in London. Solomons, who is called ''London's great-
est fruiter," said in 1903 that California Bartletts from Block of
Santa Clara are the ''best in the world." Even after crossing the
continent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic better
than eastern pears.

The pear has not the beauty of the peach, nor is its handling
characterized by so much dash and spirit, but the production of
favorite market varieties at a time when the market welcomes
them, is about as well repaid as any effort of the California fruit
grower. Some idea of the yield of thrifty trees in large numbers
can be had from the report of 100 acres of Bartletts on the Cone
ranch near Red Bluff, which in 1904 yielded 900 tons of fruit
'which sold at $30 per ton — a gross yield of $27,000 of which not
more than $7,000 were required to pay for the year's care and
harvesting, a net yield of $200 per acre. There are much higher
figures, of course, as the product of eight acres near Yuba City
which yielded eighty tons in 1905, sold at $50 per ton or a gross

295

296 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

return of $500 per acre; and 95 tons in 1906 at $36 per ton or $427
per acre. There are higher returns than this, and, unfortunately,
many that are much lower.

The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and
beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which is
the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and
dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color,
aroma, and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size
has been reached is not known to the writer, but he saw at the
San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown
by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed fourteen pounds, the
heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and one-half ounces.
Other pears have made standard sizes in California far in advance
of their records elsewhere. There was in 1870 a Pound pear sent
from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. Wilder, president of the
American Pomological Society, which weighed four, pounds nine

..QUlic^es^ and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be larger than any-
thing previously reported in pear annals.* But California has
recently done even better for a pear from near Marysville in 1904
is reported as nine inches high, sixteen inches around the base and
five pounds in weight. Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar

~of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces ; nine Easter
Beurre weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest
single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds ; thirty-
five Beurre Clairgeau 'weighing thirty-seven pounds, the heaviest
one, nineteen ounces ; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches
in circumference — Downing's figures make the Seckel five and
seven-eighths inches around.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PEAR

The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations.
It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable vari-
eties are grown; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior
valleys : it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra
Nevada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as
does the apple. By rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or
by proper protection against the scab fungus (fusicladiuni dendriti-
cum), in regions where its attacks are severe, one can grow pears
almost everywhere in California — providing pear blight can be held
in check, as will be discussed later.

The choice of location is governed more by commercial consid-
erations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make
the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate

* "Tilton's Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this
fruit, natural size, was given in Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873."

WHY THE BARTLETT RULES 297

the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by
the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of
the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows :

In the r>acramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will
justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all varieties may
be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for home pur-
poses, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one
variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures
very late. The reason for this will be better understood by the inexperienced
if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make it a universal
favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic market, no other variety is
wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the time of its ripening
in different localities that are adjacent, our markets are supplied with this
variety about four months each season, viz., July, August, September and Octo-
ber. While this pear is in the markets, any other variety to compete with it
must sell at very low prices. It is not only the great demand the Bartlett pear
has over the other varieties in the markets, but as a healthy grower and regular
bearer it has no equal. [This was written before the introduction of the pear
blight.] In higher altitudes, where pears will keep till the Bartlett has dis-
appeared, other varieties may be quite profitable, although they can never be
grown to any similar extent.

Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon
cloy with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the
superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would
dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California
taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and ship-
pers and local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually
sell at the East for nearly twice the price of other varieties, the choice
of location to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is
the part of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields
better prices than the middle. Some growers are even opening
the Bartlett season by growing Clapp's Favorite, which sells well
because it is taken for a Bartlett, and closing the season with the
Winter Bartlett, a local variety recently introduced. The earliest
Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the
last week in June ; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the bay
of San Francisco; the next, from the higher foot-hills of the Sierra
Nevada; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although
some coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the mar-
ket from the Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this
district, which has long been famous for marketing the first early
fruits, should also market very late ones. It is true, however, that
early fruits hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late
fruits push along until about midsummer, then stop growing for
a month or two during the hottest weather, and afterwards pro-
ceed on their course and finish up well. W. W. Smith, of Vaca
Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is
unusually late. In years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett
ripens earlier in the Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and
when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bartletts are gathered

298 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

green and shipped all through the season, as their first growth
usually makes them large enough for this purpose.

Though the Bartlett is in wide favor, as stated, there is some
progress being made in introducing other varieties, as will be
stated in connection with the discussion of the adaptations of vari-
eties. This substitution of other sorts is in part because the merit
of others is being recognized, and in part because in some regions
some of them are healthier and more trustworthy bearers than the
Bartlett.

There is produced in some situations a ''second crop" of Bart-
letts and of other varieties which is of account when pears are
scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the
bloom appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season's
growth. The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims
of ''seedless pears." Bartlett pears have actually been picked in
the foot-hills above Peatz in Butte County on February 25, 1905,
and described as "fine, delicious and ripe." This fact must be
regarded as a token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic
or pomological account.

SOILS FOR THE PEAR

The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally
do well on shallow soil and over a tight, clay hard-pan, where
most other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The
trees will thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cul-
tivated. In laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety
of soils, even in comparatively ' small area, the pears and plums
(if on the right stock, as will be seen) should beset in the lower,
moister, stiffer soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and
better-drained portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better sit-
uation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to
attain its greater growth and heaviest bearing on the alluvial soils
of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears
will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown
on a clay subsoil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish
whether the water is near or far from the surface. On wet land
the apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On
dry land the apple lives longer, but the fruit is small and tasteless.
But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under the same conditions.

It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish
on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experi-
ment Station at Tulare, this subject has been demonstrated in
detail. It is shown that though the pear endures a certain amount
of alkali its limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there
is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill
a space that would otherwise be vacant in the orchard. If it is

PEAR PROPAGATION 299

not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in plant-
ing, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly aban-
doned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely
used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A.
Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally
planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by
removing part of the trees ; the remainder doing exceedingly well
under liberal manuring and irrigation. It is quite possible that,
at least for gardens, there may be in the future more use made of
dwarf trees, but for commercial orchards there appears no need
of dwarfing. The common conclusion is that it is better to have
fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight became an
issue in this State the Angiers quince has been advocated as a
means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above
ground.

The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince
stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and
abundant bearers in suitable localities : Bartlett, Beurre Hardy,
Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d'Angouleme, Glout Morceau,
Pound, Beurre Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis,
P. Barry, Winter Bartlett.

But the pear is usually grown in California on its own roots;
that is upon imported French pear seedlings. It comes into bear-
ing early enough, and is a long-lived tree unless badly attacked
by blight. Trees are grown by either budding or grafting, as
described in the chapter on that subject. Only good seedling
roots should be used, and not suckers from old trees. The Japan-
ese stock, so called, being seedlings of the Sand pear, of Asia,
has been used to some extent, but no definite results reported.
Propagation upon rooted cuttings of the Le Conte, which has
a measurable resistance to the pear blight, has been advised for
the purpose of securing less susceptible roots. Mr. M. B. Waite,
orchard pathologist of the United States Department of Agricul-
ture, has in progress a test of many cross-bred seedlings in the hope
of reaching a hardier seedling stock for pears than is now known.
He also proposes top grafting the Bartlett upon Winter Nelis,
Seckel, Angouleme, Lawson and other partially immune varieties to
increase the chances of securing a somewhat resistant tree-body and
sound roots. Fortunately the pear is readily grafted-over by the
common methods.

Distance in Planting. — If the pears are to have the whole
ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart

300

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bear-
ing than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears
are sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx.
Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when
the soil chosen for pears suits them also.

PRUNING

Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in
the general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers,
heading low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome,
gently-spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition which
some varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with
main branches crowded together.

As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning
must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety
under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in
windy places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by
prevailing winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The
general rules of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to
an inside bud to raise and concentrate it, and to an outside bud
one pear and an inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to con-
tinue in a certain course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with
some pears, of which the Winter Nelis is a conspicuous example,
it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree by these general rules,
and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening in where
too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and trust
to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant grow-
ing period. It will be interesting to cite a few methods of Cali-
fornia pear growers :

"The Winter Nelis pear is an uncouth grower. Let the trees alone until
they have borne a good, heavy crop, and the hmbs come down and spread
out nicely ; this will occur in five or six years after setting. This will give
you an idea what you want to do with the balance of the top that is not borne
down with the fruit. My plan is to cut straggling branches, thin out so that
the branches will not wind around each other, but don't cut the top, for you
will find that the more you cut the more wood you get, and after the tree
comes into full bearing is plenty of time to head back." — A. Cadwell, Petaluma.

"Our orchard is not in a very windy place, but still it is windy enough to
throw our Nelis trees out of form. To get any regularity of shape, we cut
off every year all the shoots growing low down on the leeward side, shortening
in what are left as occasion may require, to an inside bud. On the windward
side we rarely cut any branch out, but shorten in a little to an outside bud,
frequently being obliged to cut back a strong shoot to a lateral which is grow-
ing outward." — Leonard Coates, Napa.

"It is hard to get a misshapen Winter Nelis tree into shape. Let the grower
take his shears and go around the tree and examine the difficulty until he is
conversant with it, and then commence to prune, not too heavily, though. Cut
the Hmbs that lean too far leewards back a little with an inside bud, and
train all future limbs toward the weather side of the tree; cut the limbs this

PRUNING THE PEAR

301

year so that the coming buds will form limbs growing in the direction of the
weather side of the tree. But use moderation and take your time for it, and
don't cut too many big limbs off three-year-old trees — none, in fact, if it can
be helped. In bringing limbs to proper place, I have found a piece of corn-
stalk the required length for the intended place, inserted endwise between the
limb and the body of the tree to be spread, to be a very good brace, easily
made, and not likely to injure the tree." — T. E. Ozven, Santa Cruz.

These methods will suggest others by which one can bring
the most irregular grower into shape. If the tree is cut at plant-
ing so as to form the head low, it may be safely left until bearing
age for shaping. The tree naturally makes a viny growth of
young wood, and the object of leaving it alone is that one limb
holds the others more upright until the main limbs become large,
or stiff enough to keep the shape ; so they may be left, after being
thinned out to form three to five limbs, as judgment may direct.
Some trees will be best with three or four, others five.

The experience of pear pruning just cited has been secured in
regions more or less subject to coast influences. In the hot interior
valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be taken to
prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten
in and thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good
covering of foliage.

The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the
apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to
secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff-
ness enough to sustain it.

Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an
old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees,
but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood
and prevent overbearing.

THINNING PEARS

It is quite important to attend to thinning the fruit on over-
loaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too
small for profitable sale unless thinned. With pears, as other
fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the fruit
is well set. Dropping off from natural causes sometimes thins the
crop quite enough.

IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR

In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will
endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There
is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on
irrigation the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture
needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development
by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an important
factor in their value.

302

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

BLIGHT OF THE PEAR

Although California pear growers who came to the State en-
dowed with eastern experience have always apprehended the intro-
duction of the true pear blight and shivered every time they saw
die-back or blackening on a pear branch, the probability is that
all early reports of its entrance were misapprehensions until the
real scourge appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about a decade
ago. The rapidity with which trees began to be destroyed at that
time manifested its habit in this State and warrants the conclu-
sion that earlier troubles of the tree probably arose from other
causes. In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in
the southern counties of the San Joaquin Valley the disease began
to devastate the orchards along the Sacramento River through
the vast area of rich valley land which it traverses and on which
is situated our most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute
warfare was made upon the blight, with a large appropriation of
State funds, by the plant disease experts of the United States
Department of Agriculture and of the California Agricultural Ex-
periment Station, with the assistance of the local horticultural
authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign ever made
against a single tree disease although some insect warfares have
been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results
attained are to be found in the publications of the institutions
engaged.*

In a later chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines, an outline
of procedure against pear blight will be given. It is apprehended
that neither paying crops nor living trees can be counted upon in
the future unless the disease is successfully kept under control
by successful fighting or by recourse to some form of natural
immunity which can be discovered or developed by plant breeding.
It is probable that pears can not be grown in the future as cheaply
and profitably as in the past and there is a certain amount of
bravery or daring in pear investments at the present time. It
is encouraging, however, to note that in California the disease
shows signs of relaxing the' virulence which characterized its first
attacks and it is reasonable to believe that here as elsewhere it
may be possible to have the blight and pears also. The reader
must keep himself continually informed of the various phases of
the problem as they will arise, by careful study of our excellent
California horticultural journals and of later publications from the
official sources which have been indicated.

* Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, includ-
ing Reports on California Fruit Growers' Conventions for 1905-6-7, J. W. Jeffrey,
Commissioner, Sacramento. Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment
Station, Berkeley, 1906 and 1908.

THE PEAR BLIGHT 3Q3

The very exuberance of the pear in California seems to increase
the virulence of the blight. The long growing season with its con-
tinual production of new soft tissue, the unseasonable bloom which
attracts bees to bring new supplies of blight germs, the break
of new shoots from root, trunk and main branches — all these make
the tree subject to repeated renewals of the disease in its most
vulnerable parts. How far growth can be repressed by scant cul-
tivation or by summer pruning; how far suppression of later shoots
and blooms is practicable and whether the tree can be depleted
so that it can only make fair sized fruit and no surplus soft tissue
for blight invasion — all these are cultural problems which make
pear growing very interesting to the enquiring mind. A Sonoma
grower suggests that pruning may be used to control pear blight
in the following manner : It is the natural tendency of the pear
and apple while young to form fruiting spurs upon the body and
larger branches of the tree. These fruiting spurs produce blos-
soms from year to year, which are in turn as liable to be visited
by bees or other insects carrying the destructive spores of the
disease as are the blossoms at the ends of the branches. It is
evident, therefore, that a blossom situated upon the body or
larger branches of a tree, becoming infected, would communicate
the disease directly to the framework of the tree, with the result
that it would be fatally injured; but if these fruiting spurs are all
removed from the body and larger branches by pruning, the possi-
bilities of infection in this way are overcome. The available means
of gaining entrance to the tree by this parasite is confined to the
smaller branches, which if affected can be cut away without
severely injuring or disfiguring the tree. All suckers at the base
of the tree should be removed at 'the point where they emerge
from the trunk or the roots as they favor the entrance of blight
to the root. The Leconte root is being used because of its resist-
ance.

The gcab fungus which seriously afifects some varieties, and
notably the Winter Nelis, in the Coast region, is identical with the
scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree
diseases. Because Of the liability of the Winter Nelis, to this dis-
ease, and because of its irregular bearing in the coast region, there
have been many trees grafted over into varieties better suited to
coast conditions. The Beurre Clairgeau, because of its health,
prolific bearing, and acceptability to shippers, was largely intro-
duced in this way, but it has not sold as well as expected. Ordi-
nary top grafting succeeds admirably with the pear. Clapp's Fav-
orite and other varieties have also been worked upon Winter Nelis
but they are apt to be more susceptible to blight than Winter
Nelis so this old practice is now of less value than formerly.

304

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS

Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing
the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and
ripening in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first
indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem
to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This
test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and
laying away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked
at this stage and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route
and the boxes open well on the Eastern markets. There are a few
varieties which shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good
one, and the grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable
varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because
allowed to ripen on the tree.

To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed
in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open
to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple
endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound
heart in spite of wind, rain, and rough weather. The pear under
similar conditions decays rapidly.

POLLINATION OF PEARS

As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California
and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acre-
ages by itself, the eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile
does not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent
observations indicate that even at the east the Bartlett is self-
fertile when conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and
self-sterile when they are otherwise. As conditions are usually
favorable in California this may be the reason why its self-fertility
is more conspicuous here than at the east. It has been individ-
ually noted, however, that the White Doyenne is a good fertilizer
for the Bartlett. The Winter Nelis is the one of the pears com-
mercially worth growing which is most apt to be fruitless, but
thus far association with other varieties has not been demon-
strated to be a full remedy. For the assistance of those who desire
to test pear pollination the following statement is made of the
relative dates of bloom of a large number of varieties, based upon
records kept in Tulare County :

VARIETY. First bloom. FuH bloom.

Barry March 10 March 20

Bartlett March 14 March 24

Belle Lucrative March 14 March 26

Beurrg Clairgeau March 11 March 22

Beurr4 d'Amanlis March 10 March 20

Beurrg d'Anjou March 16 March 24

WHEN PEARS BLOSSOM

305

VARIETY. First bloom. Full bloom.

Beurr6 Diel March 20 March 30

Beurre Giffard March 16 March 26

Beurrg Grls d'Hiver March 14 March 24

BeurrS Hardy March 18 March 28

Clapp's Favorite March 14 March 24

Colonel Wilder March 14 March 24

Counseiller de la Cour March 12 March 22

Dearborn's Seedling March 16 March 28

Doyenne d'Alencon March 18 March 28

Doyenne d'Ete March 18 March 28

Doyenne du Cornice March 16 March 26

Duchesse d'Angoulene March 12 March 20

Easter Beurre March 14 March 20

Flemish Beauty March 20 March 30

Forelle March 2 March 10

Frederick Clapp March 16 March 26

Howell March 14 March 24

Jaminette March 12 March 22

Josephine de Malines March 12 March 22

Keifer's Hybrid March 2 March 10

Kennedy March 14 March 24

Lawrence March 12 March 22

Lawson March 16 March 26

Le Conte Feb. 28 March 2

Louise Bonne de Jersey March 10 March 20

Seckel March 14 March 24

Sheldon March 18 March 28

Souvenir du Congr6s March 20 March 29

Swan's Orange March 14 March 24

Vernon March 8 March 19

White Doyenne March 14 March 24

Winter Nelis March 12 ' March 20

VARIETIES OF THE PEAR

Though large collections of famous Eastern and European
pears have been brought to California, the peculiarity of the local
market, and demand for canning and shipping has led to concen-
tration upon very few sorts. The pears chiefly grown in Cali-
fornia are the following, arranged approximately in the order
of their ripening:

Harvest; syn. Sugar Pear (American). — Small, roundish, pale yellow,
brownish in sun, brown and green dots ; flesh v/hitish, rather dry but sweet ;
tree upright, young wood olive yellow brown.

Madeleine (French). — Medium, obovate pyriform, stalk long and slender,
set on the side of a small swelling ; pale yellowish green, rarely brownish blush ;
calyx small, in shallow, furrowed basin ; flesh white, juicy, delicate.

Wilder Early (American). — Small to medium, yellow with red cheek; sweet,
and good. Recently introduced and profitable for local sale in San Diego
county. Should not be confused with Col. Wilder, a California seedling which
has gone out of use.

Bloodgood (New York). — Tree short, jointed, deep reddish brown wood;
fruit medium turbinate, incHning to obovate, thickening abruptly into stalk ;
yellow, sprinkled with russet dots ; calyx strong, open, almost without depres-
sion ; stalk obliquely inserted, without depression, short, fleshy at its base ;
flesh yellowish white, melting, sugary, aromatic ; core small.

306

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Clapp's Favorite (Massachusetts). — Tree a strong grower; young shoots
dark reddish brown; fruit large, sHghtly obtuse pyriform; pale lemon yellow
with brown dots; flesh fine, melting, juicy, with rich, sweet delicate, vinous
flavor; resembles Bartlett, but lacks musky flavor.

Dearborn's Seedling (Massachusetts). — Young shoots long, reddish brown;
under medium size ; roundish pyriform ; smooth, clear, light yellow, with few
minute dots ; stalk slender set with very little depression ; calyx spreading in
shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sprightly.

Lawson; syn. Comet (New York). — Medium to large, bright crimson on
yellow ground ; flesh fine, rich and sweet.

Souvenir du Congres (French). — Large to very large (exceeding Bartlett
and Clapp's Favorite, to both of which it bears a strong resemblance) ; skin
smooth, bright yellow when fully ripe, brilliant carmine in the sun ; flesh
resembling Bartlett, but has not the musky flavor ; firm to the core ; tree a
good grower, but somewhat subject to smut.

Bartlett (English). — Tree a strong grower, early bearer, and healthy; fruit
large, smooth, clear yellow, sometimes with delicate blush ; stalk moderately
long, stout and inserted in shallow cavity ; calyx open ; flesh white, fine
grained, juicy, buttery, highly perfumed (musky), vinous flavor.

/Beurre Hardy. — Large, long obovate, sometimes obscurely pyriform ; skin
greenish with thin, brown russet ; stalk an inch long ; cavity small, uneven,
oblique, basin shallow ; buttery, somewhat melting, rich, slightly subacid ; tree
a strong grower.

Flemish Beauty (Belgian). — Large, obovate, often obscurely tapering to the
crown, very obtuse, surface slightly rough, with some reddish brown russet
on pale yellow ground; flesh juicy, melting, and good if picked early and
ripened in the house.

Seckel (Pennsylvania). — Rather small, regularly formed, obovate; brownish
green, becoming dull yellowish brown, with russet red cheek; stalk slightly
curved, and set in a trifling depression ; calyx small and set in a very slight
depression; flesh whitish, buttery, very juicy and melting, with peculiarly rich,
spicy flavor and aroma.

Howell (Connecticut). — Rather large, roundish pyriform, light waxen yel-
low, often with finely-shaded cheek thickly sprinkled with minute russet dots
and some russet patches ; stalk medium, without cavity and sometimes lipped ;
sometimes in small cavity ; calyx open in large, uneven basin ; flesh whitish,
juicy, brisk, vinous.

Duchess d' Angouleme (France). — Very large, oblong obovate; somewhat
uneven, knobby surface ; dull greenish yellow, streaked and spotted with russet ;
stalk long, stout, bent, deeply set in irregular cavity; calyx set in somewhat
knobby basin; flesh white, buttery, and juicy, with rich flavor.

Louise Bonne of Jersey (France). — Large oblong pyriform, a little one-
sided; glassy, pale green in shade, brownish red in the sun, numerous gray
dots ; stalk curved, rather obliquely inserted, without depression, or with a
fleshy, enlarged base; calyx open in a shallow uneven basin; flesh very juicy,
and melting, rich, and excellent; very prolific.

Beurre Diel (Belgium). — Large, varying from obovate to obtuse pyriform;
skin rather thick, lemon yellow, becoming orange yellow, marked with large
brown dots and marblings of russet; stalk stout, curved in rather uneven
cavity ; calyx nearly closed, in slightly furrowed basin ; flesh yellowish white, a
little coarse-grained near the core; rich, sugary, buttery, delicious.

White Doyenne; syn. Virgalieu (Franch). — Medium to large, regular, obo-
vate ; smooth, clear pale yellow, sprinkled with small dots, sometimes red
cheeked ; stalk brown, little curved, in small round cavity ; calyx small, closed
in shallow basin; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, rich, and high flavored.

Beurre Bosc (Belgium). — Large pyriform, a little uneven, often tapering
long and gradually into the stalk ; skin pretty smooth, dark yellow, dots and
streaks of cinnamon russet, slightly red on one side; stalk long, rather slender,
curved ; calyx short, in shallow basin ; flesh white, melting, buttery, rich, with
slightly perfumed flavor.

POPULAR PEAR VARIETIES

307

Onondaga; syn. Swan's Orange (Connecticut). — Large, obtuse, oval pyri-
form, neck very short and obtuse, body large and tapering to obtuse apex ; flesh
melting, sprightly, vinous. A vigorous, upright grower, healthy; yellow shoots;
sells well in distant markets.

Beurre Clairgeau (France).— Large, pyriform, but with unequal sides; yel-
low, shaded with orange and crimson, thickly covered with russet dots, some-
times sprinkled with russet; stalk short, stout and fleshy, inserted by a lip at
an inclination almost without depression; when lip is absent, the cavity is
uneven; calyx open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, granular, sugary, perfumed,
vinous. A popular variety for local and distant markets.

Beurre d'Anjou (France). — ^Large, obtuse pyriform; stem short, thick, and
fleshy, in a cavity, surrounded by russet; calyx small, open in small cavity,
russeted; skin greenish, sprinkled with russet, sometimes shaded with dull
crimson, brown and crimson dots; flesh whitish, not very fine, melting, juicy,
brisk, vinous flavor, perfumed; tree a fair grower, but somewhat affected by
fungus.

Dana's Hovey; syn. Winter Seckel (Massachusetts). — Small, obovate, obtuse
pyriform; greenish yellow or pale yellow, with much russet and brown dots;
stalk rather short; a little curved, set in slight cavity, sometimes lipped; calyx
open and basin small; flesh yellowish, juic>, melting, sweet, aromatic.

Vicar of WinkHeld (France). — Large and long pyriform; pale yellow, fair
and smooth, sometimes with brownish cheek and marked with small brown
dots ; stalk slender, obliquely inserted without depression ; calyx large, open,
set in a basin very slightly sunk; flesh greenish yellow, juicy, with good
sprightly flavor.

Doyenne du Cornice (France). — Large, varying, roundish pyriform, or
broad, obtuse pyriform ; greenish yellow becoming fine yellow, shaded with
crimson, slightly marked with russet spots, and thickly sprinkled with russet
dots ; stalk short, stout, inclined and set in shallow cavity, often russeted ; calyx
small, open ; basin large, deep and uneven ; flesh white, fine, melting, aromatic.
Very profitable during last few years in eastern shipments.

Glout Morceau (Flemish). — "Rather large, varying in form, but usually
short pyriform, approaching obtuse oval; neck very short and obtuse; body
large and tapering towards crown; often considerably ribbed; green, becoming
pale greenish yellow ; stalk stout, moderately sunk ; calyx large ; basin dis-
tinct, rather irregular flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, melting, rich, sweet,
and fine flavor." — J. J. Thomas.

Block's Acme (California seedling, by A. Block, of Santa Clara). — Large
and very handsome, surpassing Beurre Clairgeau in size and color ; regularly
formed, pyriform, skin pale yellow, covered with russet all over, which becomes
a fine growing red on the side exposed to the sun ; flesh white, crisp, and
melting, juicy, sweet, and slightly musky; a pear that will rank foremost
with our best shipping pears; reserved by originator for his own export trade.

Winter Nelis (Belgium). — Medium, roundish, obovate, narrowed in near
the stalk ; yellowish green, dotted with gray russet and a good deal covered
with russet ; stalk rather long, bent, and set in narrow cavity ; calyx open in
shallow basin ; flesh yellowish, white, fine grained, buttery, very melting, and
full of rich, sweet, aromatic juice.

P. Barry (California seedling by B. S. Fox).— Fruit large, elongated pyri-
form, a little obtuse ; skin deep yellow, nearly covered with a rich golden russet ;
stalk of medium length and thickness, set rather obliquely on a medium cavity,
sometimes by a lip; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous,
and rich. "An early and prolific bearer. December to January." — California
Nursery Co. The pear, P. Barry, is recommended for planting, by the South-
ern California Nurserymen's Association. It is, to some extent, displacing
the Winter Nelis as a more healthy tree and a more certain bearer.

Easter Beurre (France). — Large, roundish, obovate obtuse, often rather
square in figure ; yellowish green, sprinkled with many russet dots and some
russet patches; stalk rather short, stout, set in an abruptly sunken, obtuse

oQo CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

cavity; calyx small, closed, but little sunk among plaited folds of angular
basin; flesh white, fine-grained, very buttery, melting, and juicy, sweet, rich
flavor; was successfully shipped from California to England as early as 1872.

Pound. — Large, pyriform ; yellowish-green with red cheek, esteemed for
cooking; reaches enormous size in this State as already noted.

Kieffer and Le Conte. — These pears, recently introduced as especially hardy
varieties, are grown to a limited extent in all parts of the State, but are
usually condemned as inferior to the European varieties which attain such
excellence in this State. The Le Conte root is used as a stock for the Bartlett
because of its resistance to blight.

Crocker's Bartlett (California). — Chance seedling on place of L. L. Crocker,
Loomis, Placer county. Introduced by Mr. Crocker in 1902. Described in
year book, 1905, of U. S. Department of Agriculture ; medium to large, oblong,
obovate, pyriform ; rich golden yellow, somewhat russety ; quality very good ;
keeps until March. Claimed to be blight-free and regularly productive.

Winter Bartlett (Oregon). — Chance seedling in a dooryard in Eugene,
Oregon. Introduced in California by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno. Closely
resembles Bartlett in shape and appearance and flavor but a little coarser ;
ripens four months later than Bartlett in interior situations in California and
promising as a winter pear.

Pear varieties approved by California growers.

Upper Central Interior Mountain

VARIETIES. coast coast valley and valley and Southern

valleys. valleys. foot-hill, plateaux. California.

Angouleme, Duchess'd. . . . *****

Anjou ** *

Bartlett ** ** ** ** **

Bloodgood

Bosc

B. S. Fox

Brandywine

Clairgeau ■

Clapp's Favorite

Cornice

Dana's Hovey

Dearborn

Diel

Easter Beurre

Emile d'Heyst

Flemish Beauty

Glout Morceau

Hardy, Beurre

Howell

Kieffer

Lawson

Louise, Bonne de Jersey..

Madeleine

Onondaga

P. Barry

Seckel

Souv. du Congres

Vicar of Winkfield ......

Wilder, Early

White Doyenne * * *

Winter Bartlett * * *

Winter Nelis * ** ** **

* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated.
** Most highly commended.

**

**^

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

**

** ,

CHAPTER XXIII
PLUMS AND PRUNES*

^H The plums of California, are exceptionally fine in appearance
""^ and of high quality. Both tree and fruit have thus far escaped
the parasites which have wrought greatest injury on the eastern
side of the continent. The curculio has never been found here,
and the "black knot," though detected in some of the indigenous
species of the genus prunns,^ has never been observed in our
orchards. The tree suffers, it is true, as do most other fruit trees,
from various pests and diseases but their work is a light affliction
compared with the ravages of the curculio and black knot which
Eastern plum growers have to contend against. Because of reduced
planting during the last few years, the plum stands second in point
of number among the fruit trees of California, for, as noted in
Chapter XX, the peach now holds first place. Of the plums, at
least four-fifths are those varieties designated as prunes. This is,
of course, owing to the profitable shipping demand for our prune
product, while ordinary dried, pitted plums are expensive in pro-
duction and do not always command good prices. There is, how-
ever, a large trade at the East in our fine plums in a fresh state.
Some varieties stand shipment well, and are large, handsome and
in some cases possessed of unique characters, resulting from Mr.
Burbank's work with the Japanese species as will be noted later.
Considerable shipments of fresh plums have been made from Cal-
ifornia to England. The maximum in plum profits is much like
that with other fruits, for L. W. Leak, a Placer County grower,
reported in 1906 a net return of $759 from an acre of "Hungarian
prunes."

By choosing varieties ripening in succession, the plum season
extends from May to December, thus enabling the California plum
grower to strike the Eastern markets both early and late. It is
on record, also, that second crop plums have ripened. In 1904
Judge Leib, of San Jose, sent to Luther Burbank, on December
1, ripe fruit from a tree which ripened its first crop on July 4 of
the same year.

* All prunes are plums, but all plums are not prunes. A prune Is a plum which
can be dried without the removal of the pit without fermenting: the result being a
fleshy pulp with a high degree of sweetness. All plums which will not do this are
not prunes, even though the word may appear in their California common names.

t Found on prunus demissa, in Tosemite valley and in Coast range in Skn Mateo
County, by Dr. H. W. Harkness. Report State Board of Horticulture, 1883, pp. 54, 55.

309

3J^Q CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

There is also a considerable demand for plums by the canners
who do not use, however, the varieties in chief demand for ship-
ping.

LOCALITIES FOR THE PLUM

The plum has an exceedingly wide range in California. The
trees are thrifty and profitable even from the immediate vicinity
of the coast and in coast valleys, where the sea winds and fogs
intrude, eastward across the great interior valleys, and upwards
upon the sides of the Sierra Nevada. In the upper half of the
State, at least, wherever there is sufficient moisture in the soil,
good plums can be grown. The tree is quite hardy, but in situa-
tions open to sweep of the winds there has been found to be decided
advantage in belts of sheltering trees for protection. At some
points subject to direct coast influences, there is sometimes loss
by cracking of the fruit. It is seldom encountered in the interior val-
ley, except near the rivers or in draws where the damp coast
air makes its way through. It seems to be worst where there are
marked differences in atmospheric humidity within short periods
of time. Where the percentage is quite uniformly high or low
there seems to be less trouble. Some years conditions usually
restricted to more exposed coast situations prevail in the interior
valley, and the result is unusual prevalence of mildew and other
moist fungi and cracking of fruit also, though they have no rela-
tion to each other except that the same conditions favor both.
Only certain varieties are thus affected, and they can be avoided
where the trouble is found to exist.

It was for a long time held that southern California was not
adapted to the growth of the plum, but the experience of the last
few years has shown that the conclusion was too broad. The
"French prune" demonstrated its success adjacent to the coast
in Santa Barbara County, and elsewhere, in the low, rich lands of
the Santa Ana Valley, of Orange County, in the interior at various
points on the rim of the San Gabriel Valley, in Los Angeles
County, notably at Pomona, and still farther inland in the San
Bernardino Valley, but the Southern California prune product is
small because the land and water can be more profitably used for
other fruits. There is, however, difficulty in some dry uplands
where the tree is shy in fruiting and subject to serious gumming;
but this is encountered locally in all parts of the State. Irrigation
does not always overcome these troubles, and yet, no doubt, the
arrangement of proper moisture conditions is important. The
tree should be helped to make one good growth and to ripen its
wood in the fall. To have growth checked by drouth and a sec-
ond start made later in the season is not desirable.

I

VALUE OF HYBRID PLUMS

311

Still it must be admitted that prune planting in the interior,
proceeding with such rapidity, has encountered some soils and
situations in which bearing has not been altogether satisfactory.
New planters should confer with older residents before making
investments in prune planting in interior valleys and foot-hills.

All the foregoing observations are based upon the behavior
of plums of European origin; descendants of the prunus domestica.
One of the grandest contributions to the extension of the range
of the plum in California was the introduction of the Asiatic species,
prunus triflora and simoni. Varieties of these species directly intro-
duced or locally developed by Burbank and others, have proved
productive in places where the domestica varieties were abandoned
as shy or sterile. To estimate the value of these varieties one has
only to visit the home fruit gardens of southern California or in-
spect the fruit-stands of Los Angeles which are continuous exhibits
of fine specimens of these varieties in their seasons. Even in places
where the domestica varieties are largely grown the Asiatic vari-
eties are also prominent as is shown by the fact that the Wickson, a
Burbank triflora-simoni hybrid, is the leading shipping plum of
California, and shipping plums are chiefly grown in the central and
northern regions of the State. Other notable Burbank plums of
recent introduction will be included in the descriptions of varieties
at the close of this chapter.

SOILS AND STOCKS FOR THE- PLUM

With the plum, as with the apricot, the subject of soils and
stocks are intimately related, but the whole matter has been won-
derfully simplified by the experience of the last few years. This
relief has come through the adoption of the myrobalan, or cherry
plum {Prunus myrohalana) as a general all-around stock for plums
and prunes. Before this practice was taken up the effort to grow
the plum on its own roots generally resulted in getting an orchard
full of suckers, and to avoid this, plums were worked on peach
roots wherever this root would succeed in the soil to be planted.
But some varieties of plums do not take kindly to the peach, and
then "double working" (putting first on the peach a plum which
is known to take well and then on that plum wood the variety
desired) was followed. The use of the myrobalan does away with
the suckering nuisance and the need of double working.

There was considerable discussion a few years ago as to what
is the true myrobalan, and it must be acknowledged that some of
the refined distinctions formerly claimed have been abandoned.
Seedlings grown from the seed of the myrobalan vary as do other
fruit seedlings, both in fruit and in foliage and habit of trees, and
perhaps this fact has given rise to the distinction between "true"
and "false" myrobalan, so called. Practice has proceeded without

312

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

much reference to the discussion, and our nurserymen now have
/ large, thrifty myrobalan trees from which they secure their seed
supply. Growing stock from myrobalan cuttings is but little prac-
ticed. The myrobalan is now the accepted plum stock for Cali-
fornia, except in light, alluvial, well drained soils, where for the
French prune, peach, or almond may be preferred. Though
described by some authorities as a dwarfing stock, it is found to
be sufficiently free growing in California to suit all purposes, and
to form a good foundation for full standard trees, though the peach
and almond roots in proper soils give a quicker and greater growth.
Experience has shown that the myrobalan root thrives in this
State both in low, moist, valley lands, in comparatively dry lands,
and in stiff upland soils.

In some soils especially adapted to the peach, peach roots are
preferred as stock for the French prune, but, as already said, all
plums can not be worked directly on the peach root, the Robe de
Sergeant, Columbia, Yellow Egg, Washington, and Sugar Prune
for example. Sometimes the bud or scion may make a large
growth, but the two woods do not unite, and the trees break off
sooner or later.

Some work the plum on the apricot root, and report success
when the soil suits the apricot root, and the gophers do not get at
it. But it sometimes happens that the French prune parts from
the apricot root even after growing some time upon it. There are,
however, instances of the French prune thriving, and, apparently
making good union with the apricot root and some of the softer
wood varieties, like the Sugar Prune, take kindly to it.

Some plums do well on the almond root and some do not. The
French prune succeeds admirably both when worked on young
almond stocks and top grafted in old almond trees. Success is
also reported with the Felenberg on the almond. But the almond
root is suited especially for warm, dry soils. Excellent results
from the use of almond stock are reported from the interior valley
and the Sierra foot-hills.

Propagating by Sprouts. — The French practice of growing cer-
tain varieties of the plum by means of sprouts from the base of
old trees has been successfully followed in this State by Felix
Gillet, of Nevada City, and was strongly commended by him as
securing a tree which will not gum, which is one of the reasons
why the same practice prevails in France. Sprouts growing at
the foot of old and large trees, and but few are found to each
tree, are taken off and planted close together in a bed to make them
root well, and the ensuing spring planted in nursery rows, where
they are trained like any other trees, and transplanted where to
remain, when branched. For this method it is necessary that
the parent tree should be upon its own roots, else one is apt to

PRUNING THE PRUNE

313

get suckers from a wild stock. Sprout-grown trees can not, how-
ever, be defended unless some special point like that claimed by
Mr. Gillet can be attained by them.

PLANTING AND PRUNING

As with other trees, there is difference of opinion as to the
best distance apart for plum trees. The present tendency is
toward wider planting; not nearer than twenty feet is the usual
advice, and on rich land, twenty-two or twenty-four feet is better.

The plum, in California, is a most rapid grower; six to ten
feet from the bud or graft in a season, and about as much after
the first winter's cutting back, is not at all unusual. At this rate
of progress, then the tree soon runs up and away, in a spindling,
sprawling fashion, unless severely cut back for the first few years.
Neglected trees of some varieties show long, streaming branches,
arching outward, and exposing the bark to sunburn (to which
it is very sensitive), breaking the tree to pieces as the fruit gets
weight, and, even if supported by props, breaking off at the bear-
ing of the prop. This condition of the tree can only be obviated
by low heading and moderate cutting back each year, with due
regard to limiting the amount of bearing wood to get large fruit.
For such plum varieties the suggestions on forming the tree and
subsequent treatment in the chapter on pruning will be found help-
ful. This reference to repressive treatment for brittle-wood plums
is emphasized by experience with the Sugar Prune of which
Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill says :

"The sugar prune is a great bearer, but the tree must receive very different
pruning from that given the French prune. The annual growth must be short-
ened in every winter from one-half to two-thirds, and all laterals and fruit
spurs must be cut back at every pruning. Of course, judicious thinning out
of wood also needed. This will result in a very large, showy product for long-
distance shipments, as fresh fruits, which have brought satisfactory returns."

Pruning the French Prune. — Growers of the French prune, and
other varieties of similar growth of strong and pliable wood, have
reached substantial agreement as to the best practice. The old
method of cutting back bearing trees has been abandoned. Cutting
back the young tree to secure sufficient low branching is followed
by thinning of shoots from this low head so that the tree shall
not become too dense or carry too much bearing wood. . The
strength in the head depends upon proper spacing and arrange-
ment of the branches as insisted upon in the chapter on pruning;
and large, well-ripened fruit, which is essential to successful and
profitable drying, is conditioned upon avoiding excess of branches
and admission of sufficient light to the tree.

A rather longer central stem is retained than in the old style,
and a central stem throughout is admissible if one prefers it and

314

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

;;--.->-f J - -.'TTt.,

Young and old French Prune trees, never pruned and assuming natural form.

does not desire to dispense with it as the first step toward secur-
ing a more open tree. Some retain the longer stem at planting,
others cut back to eighteen inches, develop three side branches
upon that and train the branch from the top bud for a lengthen-
ing of the stem, and bring out more branches upon that the second
year, and then dispense with its farther extension. The engravings
on page 316 show this method of developing the head of a young
French prune. The tree was cut back as planting in orchard to
a straight switch about eighteen inches high. At the end of the
first summer this showed the form in the first picture, which is
marked for the first winter pruning. The second engraving shows
the branching developed from this during the second summer's
growth, also marked to prune away some undesirable branches.
Upon a tree of this form farther cutting back is not desirable as it
has enough well-placed branches to form the tree.

How long cutting back shall continue depends partly upon the
locality and partly upon the notion of the owner. In interior
localities the tree grows with great rapidity and branches more

PRUNING THE PRUNE

315

WW-- V

Al/.

■vi

V

jYoung and old French Prune trees rationally pruned for number and spacing of branches.

freely. During the third summer it will bear some fruit if not cut
back the previous winter and, where growth is so rapid, there is
little danger of injuring the tree by early bearing. In the coast
valleys cutting back may continue another year, and fruiting be
thus postponed a year to get another summer's freer wood growth.
Though cutting back may properly cease early with the French
prune, it is a great mistake to allow the trees to go unpruned.
Remove of defective wood, prevention of branch crowding and
overbearing are of the highest importance, as insisted upon in the
chapter on pruning.

Special Study of Varieties in Pruning. — ^The points just ad-
vanced apply especially to the management of the French prune.
In addition to what has been already said about the Sugar prune,
the grower must be exhorted to study the habit of the variety he
has to deal with. The general rules for handling trees with differ-
ent habits of growth are applicable to a certain extent to the plum.
When to apply a rule or make an exception must be learned by

316

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

observation and experience. Some plums, like the Silver prune,
have something of the growth habit of the peach, and this is also
very true of some of the Japanese varieties. Cutting back in winter
and pinching in summer are both useful facts in securing lower
branching and low-growing fruit spurs.

Pruning after first summer's
growth in orchard.

Growth during second summer
in orchard.

Grafting the Plum. — The plum has been grafted and regrafted
in the constant effort to secure varieties promising superiority in
various directions. Within the scope of their affinities plums graft
easily by common top-grafting methods, and if the roots are strong
the new growth is so rapid as to need special attention. Mr.
Luther Bowers gives these hints about pruning such growths :
"From practical experience I have found out that the Sugar prune
wood should only be summer pruned and only cut while the shoots
are tender, or so soft that the top can be pinched out; this will
cause the top to be well branched and this should be done at least
twice during the first year of the graft. This system will avoid
long, slender limbs. After a graft is two years old I would never
cut the top off of a limb. If a tree gets too thick a top, I would
cut out some of the main branches."

CALIFORNIA PRUNE PROBLEMS

THE PLUMCOTS

317

One of the most striking achievements of Mr. Burbank from
the fruit grower's point of view is the cross of the plum and the
apricot, which he has very fitly named the **plumcot." He has
combined in a single fruit enough of the diverse characters of
two fruits to that the ordinary observer can recognize the com-
bination clearly and distinguish the gift of each to it. Mr. Bur-
bank has secured several such crosses, the first of which to be
made public is the ''Rutland," introduced by Mr. George C. Roed-
ing in 1907. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary apricot
with a deep purple velvety skin. One of its striking features
is its brilliant red flesh possessed of a strong sub-acid flavor
rendering it suitable for cooking, jellies and jams, and it ,is in
good demand for such uses. When fully ripe, it is an excellent
dessert fruit possessing an apricot-plum flavor. Obviously the
amalgamation of the apricot and the plum must produce a fruit
unique m character, hence its economic value is a matter still
largely to be determined by its development and the exploitation
of its uses.

HOW A PRUNE QUEST DISTURBED THE PLUM
FAMILY IN CALIFORNIA

Referring to the distinction between plums and prunes cited
at the opening of this chapter, and to the extent and methods of
the great prune industry of the State which will appear later, in
Part Eight of this work, it may be stated here that the Cali-
fornia prune product was obviously undertaken in emulation of
the globe-trotting French prune, which had attained position as
the leading commercial dried fruit of the world long before Cal-
ifornia arose on the horticultural horizon. Naturally, French
settlers in California bethought themselves of transplanting this
great industry in their new home, and Mr. Louis Pellier intro-
duced scions from the district of Agen to his place near San
Jose in 1856. The product was good, and planting for a large
output was entered upon, though slowly at. first. There was
disappointment over the fact that, while all fruits came sur-
prisingly large in California, the dried prunes were smaller than
the great French prunes in cartons and cannisters which sold
for great prices. Had we secured the true French prune : did
they not have larger ones which they were holding back from
us? This was the great question of five decades ago. Some
nurserymen of that day had spirits of enterprise larger than
their consciences. If the people demand larger prunes they
must have them, surely. Because of the small average size of
the prunes of Pellier's introduction, they christened that variety
''petite prune d'Agen," which was subsequently corrupted into

3X8 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

"petty prune" — a free translation and a mispronunciation at the
same time, for a prune which seemed to be too small and inferior.
The people must have something large, and they happened to
mix a little German into the title which they manufactured, and
offered trees of the "gros prune d'Agen." When shown that if
the French had such fruit it would probably be called "grande"
and not *'gros," because the French word "gros" is not a compli-
mentary term, the propagators simply changed their geographical
base and declared: "This immense prune, just what you need
to beat the French, is really German, and if you desire you may
call it Hungarian prune." It of course did not matter much
what it was called, because it did not come from either France
or Hungary, but was the fine, old, large, light red, English plum,
properly called Pond's Seedling, re-christened in California to
meet a long-felt want. But it did not meet such a want; it would
not dry sweet nor fleshy, but became merely a skin and pit, with
a sour streak between. Still the question persisted : Have we the
true French prune? It was definitely settled by the late W. B.
West of Stockton, who visited France in 1878, and after close
examination of the trees, announced that the variety grown in
California was really the prune d'Agen, and that we had made no
mistake so far as getting the main standard variety of French prune
was concerned.

But still we needed a variety which would run more to large
sizes, and how to get it, with sweetness and flesh, characters
which would resemble the best French product, was, and even
now is, still a question. One of the early introductions to meet
this end is now generally known as Robe de Sergeant. Here
again confusion attends the name. Robe de Sergeant is one of
the synonyms of prune d'Agen, and yet the fruit we secured
was different. Much discussion was given to the elucidation of
this problem, and the conclusion seemed to be that the variety
is grown in France, but in another district, and is generally con-
sidered inferior to the prune d'Agen. Still it runs larger, and
has sold well, even though of distinctly different quality, and
would probably have cut a much larger figure in California
prune production if it had shown itself to be more free and reg-
ular in bearing. The same is true of the "prune d'ente, or
Imperial epineuse," which has been quite widely planted, but
because of shy bearing, especially when attacked by the thrips,
as discussed upon another page of this book, and because of the
difficulty in drying such a large prune which ripens rather late,
this variety, of which so much was expected, has fallen into dis-
favor, and many which were grafted in have been grafted out
again. Other introductions made much earlier, like the German
and Italian, also fell out of the race very early, for shy bearing
and for different flesh characters. Although the latter leads in

PLUMS WHICH ARE NOT PRUNES

319

Oregon and other States north of us, it is out of California cal-
culations. The conclusion of the whole matter now is that we
have never secured from abroad a better than the one which
came 50 years ago — the true prune d'Agen. We have learned
to grow it better, to seek places where it comes larger and in
full quality; to use irrigation when it is needed by the tree to do
its best; to guard against overbearing by reducing the amount
of bearing wood and excessive branching; to strengthen the ,soil
by fertilization, and to grade the fruit into sizes which commend
themselves to different demands. Here we are again, doing our
main business at the old stand, but knowing how to do it better.
Have we anything more to expect? Probably nothing from old
varieties, for we have prospected them all from a prune-making
point of view, taking Coe's Golden Drop plum, or its seedling,
for the Silver Prune, and canceling all others as possibly good
plums for various uses, but not for prunes.

Probably our only expectation lies along the line of plant
breeding, although nothing to supplant the prune d'Agen has
yet been attained. The Giant prune is a large red plum ; several
Oregon prunes are simply large red plums. The standard of
sugar in the prune d'Agen as grown in California is from 15 to
23 per cent of sugar in the fresh juice, according to degree of
ripeness and localities in which the fruit is grown. The sugar
in Pond's Seedling and in the large red plums just named is less
than 10 per cent — sometimes very much less. But percentage
of sugar in the juice is not the whole story; there are tissue or
flesh characters which are essential also. Mr. Burbank's Sugar
prune answers the sugar requirement; it is a free bearer and
early ripening variety, and it dries easily though large ; but it
has not the fine grain nor distinctive flavor of the prune d'Agen,
and it becomes a good plum for shipping and possibly for other
plum purposes. But Mr. Burbank has many of the plum family
in training, and it would not be surprising if he should announce
at any time a variety educated fully up to the very definite Cali-
fornia requirements, which he fully understands. Others are
also working at the problem, and the next generation of California
prune growers may attain what the last and present have striven
for. The most promising line at the present time is the search
for better types of the Prune d'Agen which are found here and
there, arising from natural variation. Mr. Leonard Coates of
Morgan Hill, is giving particular attention to this subject.

POLLINATION OF PLUMS

The shy bearing of certain plums is probably due to lack of
pollination, either through the self-sterility of the variety or
lack of acceptable pollinating agencies. Bearing can be induced
in many cases, no doubt, by either planting or grafting-in of

320

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

efifective pollinating varieties. But this is not always profitable.
For instance, there are many instances proving that the Tragedy
can be brought to greater bearing by the presence of Clyman,
but an early variety like the Clyman is not worth growing for
sale in a late district, though in an early district both are valuable
as shipping plums and should be planted together. The pollina-
tion of plums has not been given as much attention as of other
fruits.

Plums and Prunes approved by California growers

VARIETIES.

Abundance

Agen, Prune d' . . . .

Bradshaw

Burbank

Chabot

Climax

Clyman

Coe's Late Red....

Columbia

Damson

Diamond .

Duane Purple

German Prune . . . .

Giant

Golden Drop, Coe's.

Golden Prune

Grand Duke

Green Gage

Hale

Imperial Epineuse

Imperial Gage

Italian Prune . . . . ,

Jefferson

Kelsey

Peach

Pond (Hungarian)

Red June

Robe de Sergeant..

Royal Hative

Satsuma

Silver

Simon

Sugar

Tragedy

Washington

Wickson

Yellow Egg

Upper
coast
valleys.

Central Interior Mountain

coast Valley and valleys and Southern

valleys. foot-hills. plateau. California.

* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated.
'* Most highly commended.

POPULAR PLUMS

321

VARIETIES OF PLUMS AND PRUNES

As with other fruits, comparatively few varieties of the plum
are largely grown in California, and the list is continually being
reduced. The following tabulation is the result of a very wide
inquiry made during the year 1907:

Simon (Prunus Simoni). — Medium to large, roundish, flattened, with cavi-
ties at base and apex ; brick red, small yellow spots ; stalk stout and short ;
flesh yellow, adhering to flattened pit ; largely grown for shipment in early
interior regions where it has good quality ; lacks flavor and cracks badly near
the coast. ,

Climax (Burbank). — Large; very early; heart-shaped; deep red; flesh yel-
low. Popular for shipping in places where it does not crack badly.

Clyman (California seedling introduced by Leonard Coates). — Large, rourwl-
ish oblong, flattened suture indistinct ; mottled reddish purple, beautiful blue
bloom ; freestone ; flesh firm, dry and sweet ; prolific ; the leading early plum
for shipment.

Red June (Japanese). — Medium to large, deep red flesh light yellow, firm,
good quality. The best of the early Japanese plums.

Tragedy (California seedling). — Medium to large, suture shallow, wide and
extending beyond apex ; dark purple ; flesh yellowish green, sweet and well
flavored ; freestone. Very valuable for shipping from early regions in all parts
of the State.

Ahundance (Japanese) ; syns. Yellozv-flcshcd Botan, Mikado of Hinclay. —
Large, globular with point at apex ; cherry color covered with white bloom ;
flesh yellow, juicy and rich. Popular for shipment from early regions.

California Red (California seedling).— Introduced by J. T. Bogue, of Marys-
ville. Large, light red, firm flesh and small pit. A good shipping plum.

Peach (French, prune peche). — Very large loundish oblate, regular, flat-
tened at ends ; suture distinct, shallow ; color varying from salmon to light
brownish red ; stalk very short, cavity narrow, shallow, flesh rather coarse,
juicy, sprightly, free from the nearly round, very flat, much furrowed stone;
shoots smooth. A prominent variety for early eastern shipment.

Royalc Hative (French). — Medium roundish, slightly wider at base; light
purple, stalk half an inch long, stout, scarcely sunk ; flesh amber yellow, with
rich, high flavor, nearly free from the small, flattened, ovate stone ; shoot!
very downy. Grown as an early market plum and for eastern shipment.

Bradshazv. — Large, obovate, with obtuse suture on one side, sometimes with
very slight neck ; dark purple, with light blue bloom ; stalk three-fourths inch
long; cavity narrow; flesh a little coarse, becoming light brownish purple, at
first adhering, but becoming nearly free when fully ripe; juicy, good, slightly
acid ; tree vigorous ; shoots purple, smooth. Reported from Sacramento county
as blooming late and seldom injured by frost. Not in high favor.

Green Gage (French).-— Rather small, round; suture faint green, becoming
yellowish green, usually with reddish brown dots and network at base ; stalk
half to three- fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh pale green, melting, juicy, ex-
ceedingly rich, and flavor excellent ; shoots smooth.

Burbank.— TreQ imported from Japan by Luther Burbank. Named "Bur-
bank" by Professor Van Deman. Tree usually vigorous, with strong, upright
shoots, and large, rather broad leaves ; comes into bearing very early. Almost
globular, being five and a half inches around horizontally, and five and
five-eighths inches around vertically ; rich cherry red, slightly mottled with yel-
low and freely dotted with same tint; flesh deep yellow, juicy, very sweet, and of
fine, somewhat peculiar, but very agreeable flavor ; pit is very small, three-
fourths by a trifle over half an inch in diameter.

Duane's Purple (New York). — Very large, oblong oval, longer on one side;
slightly narrowed towards the stalk; reddish purple, bloom lilac; stalk three-
fourths inch; slender; cavity narrow flesh juicy, moderately sweet, and mod-

322

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

shoots very downy and leaves large

erate flavor, mostly adhering to stone
and downy beneath.

Washington (New York). — Very large, roundish oval, suture obscure, dis-
tinct at base ; yellowish green, faintly marbled, often with pale red blush ;
stalk half to three-fourths inch ; slightly downy ; cavity wide, shallow ; flesh
rather firm, sweet, mild, very rich and lucious, free from the pointed stone;
shoots downy; very vigorous.

Burbank's Wickson Plum.

Wickson. — A crossbred by Luther Burbank ; form suggests the Kelsey, but
more symmetrical ; in ripening, the color develops from a deep cherry red down
to a rich claret as full ripeness is attained. The color is solid and uniform.
The flesh is of amber tint, very juicy and translucent; the pit is small and
shapely, the flavor is striking and agreeable, but likely to be deficient near
the coast. The most popular shipping plum in the State.

Yellozv Egg; syns. White Egg, White Magnum Bonuni (English). — Very
large, oval, narrow at ends, necked at base, suture distinct ; stalk one inch,
not sunk, surrounded by fleshy ring at insertion ; light yellow, bloom thin,
white, flesh firm, rather acid until fully ripe, and then sweet, adheres to the
pointed stone.

Jefferson (New York). — Large, oval, base slightly narrowed, suture slight;
greenish yellow, becoming golden, with reddish cheek ; bloom thin, white ; stalk
one inch, but httle sunk or not at all; flesh rich yellow, very rich, juicy, high
flavored and luscious, adheres partly to its long, pointed stone ; shoots smooth ;
tree a slow grower, but productive.

Columbia (New York). — Very lar^e, nearly globular, one side slightly
larger; brownish purple, reddish brown where much shaded, with many fawn-
colored dots; bloom blue, copious; stalk one inch, rather stout; cavity small;
flesh orange, very rich and sweet, free from the stone, which is very small
and compressed. Shoots downy, stout, blunt, spreading; leaves nearly round.

Satsuma; syn. Blood Plum of Satsuma.— Introduced and first fruited in this
country by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa. Described by Prof. H. E. Van
Deman, U. S. Pomologist, as follows: "Leaves more lanceolate than those

POPULAR PLUMS 323

of Kelsey; fruit averages about two and a quarter inches in diameter, nearly
round, and but slightly sutured on one side ; surface dark red, under a thick
bloom ; dots rather conspicuous and numerous ; flesh dark purplish red, which
has caused the name of 'Blood Plum of Satsuma' to be given by some; stone
very small and pointed." Chiefly grown. in Southern California.

Red Magnum Bonum syn. Red Egg. — Large, oval, tapering to the stalk;
suture strong, one side swollen ; deep red in the sun ; slight bloom ; stalk one
inch, slender, cavity narrow ; flesh greenish, coarse, subacid ; shoots smooth.

Imperial Gage (New York). — Medium size, oval, suture distinct; stalk
three-fourths inch, slightly hairy, evenly sunk ; green, slightly tinged with
yellow, with marbled green stripes ; bloom copious and white ; flesh greenish,
juicy, melting, rich, and delicious, usually free from the oval, pointed stone;
tree very vigorous and productive ; shoots long upright, slightly downy ; leaves
with slight shade of blue. A popular canning variety.

Damson (English). — Small, roundish oval; purple, ' with thick blue bloom;
melting, juicy, subacid.

German Prune {Common Quetsche, Germany). — "This name has been
applied in this State to numerous plums and prunes which are sold under it.
The fruit of the true German prune is long oval, and swollen on one side ;
skin purple, with thick blue bloom ; flesh firm, green, sweet, with a peculiar
pleasant flavor ; separates readily from the stone." — John Rock. Complaint
is made in many localities of the tendency of the variety to drop before ripen-
ing, almost the whole crop sometimes dropping.

Kelsey Japan. — Trees brought from Japan by the late Mr. Hough, of Vaca-
ville, in 1870, and purchased by the late John Kelsey, of Berkeley, who propa-
gated and fruited them for several years. First wide distribution was made
by W. P. Hammon & Co., in 1874, who named the fruit after Mr. Kelsey.
The following description is by H. E. Van Deman, U. S. Pomologist, from
California and Florida specimens : "Tree upright in growth, leaves narrow,
twigs brownish gray. Fruit from one and a half to two and a half inches
diameter, heart-shaped, with a distinct suture on one side from stem to
apex ; stem is short, and set in a depression at the larger end ; colors mixed
yellow and purple, which vary in depth, but rarely make a brilliant appear-
ance, covered with a bloom ; flesh yellow, very firm, and clings to the stone,
which is rather small, and nearly always partly surrounded by a cavity ; when
fully ripe the quality is very good." Very widely grown; is in less favor
than formerly in interior valleys where color is not well developed. Where
the fruit is of good color it is profitable for shipping and is highly regarded
everywhere for domestic use.

Quackenbos (New York). — Large, oblong oval; deep purple; suture faint;
stalk short, slightly sunk ; slightly coarse, sprightly, sweet and subacid ; partly
freestone.

Victoria (English). — Large, obovate, suture distinct; color a fine light red-
dish purple ; stem half inch, cavity rather deep and narrow ; flesh yellow, pleas-
ant ; clingstone ; next to Pond's Seedling in size, beauty and productiveness.

Hungarian Prune; English Pond's Seedling; Gros Prune d'Agen (English).
— This variety was brought to San Jose probably about 1856, and in some unac-
countable way was first contrasted with the French prune and called the
"great prune of Agen ;" afterwards, also in a mysterious way, it took the
name "Hungarian prune." It is still marketed by these names both here
and at the East. The true name is English Pond's Seedling. Fruit very
large, ovate, slightly tapering to stalk ; skin thick, reddish violet, with numer-
ous brown dots, and covered with handsome bloom; rather coarse, juicy,
sweet ; a very showy fruit ; tree a strong grower and prolific bearer ; fruit
has a tendency to double ; sells well in local and distant markets on its style
and is largely grown.

Giant. — Burbank seedling ; very large, dark crimson upon 3^cllow ground ;
fle.sh yellow, flavor good ; freestone. A shipping plum, disappointing as a
drying plum.

324

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Splendor. — Burbank seedling; medium size but larger than French prune;
clear red, drying dark, does not shake from the tree ; earlier than French prune.

Sugar. — Burbank seedling, introduced in 1898; large and sweet; sugar in
fresh fruit 23.92 per cent ; not a good prune but valuable for shipping ; oval,
slightly flattened ; dark purple with thick white bloom ; freestone.

■^ Imperial Epineuse S3^n. Clairac Mammoth. — Introduced in 1884 by Felix
Gillet and in 1886 by John Rock. Described by Mr. Rock as follows: "Uni-
formly large size, reddish or light purple, thin skin, sweet and high flavor."
Described by Mr. Gillet : "Uniformly large, more oval than the French
prune ; nearly of the same color but somewhat lighter or reddish purple ; earlier
than the French and with thinner skin." Fruit grown by Mr. Rock analyzed
at the State University in 1898, showed 20.4 per cent of sugar against 18.53
per cent average of three analyses of French prune. Largely planted and
grafted in, in the Santa Clara Valley, as a drying prune but irregular in
bearing.

There has been quite widely planted another prune called Imperial which
is very inferior in sugar content and likely to prove much less satisfactory.

Robe de Sergeant.

Prune d'Agen.

^ Prune d' Agen; syn. Petite Prune d' Agen; French Prune, etc. — This is
the drying prune at present most widely grown in this State. It is described
by John Rock as follows: "Medium-sized, egg-shaped, violet purple, very
sweet, rich and sugary; very prolific bearer." The first trees of the kind
were grown by Louis Pellier, at San Jose, about the year 1857, the graft
having been brought from France by his brother in December, 1856. The
identity of this variety (which was first largely grown in the neighborhood
of San Jose) with the variety chiefly grown in the French district tributary
to Agen, was first announced by W. B. West, of Stockton, in the year 1878,
during his visit to France.

_j Robe de Sergeant. — Though this term is given in Downing as a synonym
of Prune d'Agen, and seems also to be in French a synonym for the d'Fnte

BURBANK'S NEWER PLUMS

325

prunes ; another prune grown in this State from an importation by John
Rock, is quite distinct from the foregoing. Mr. Rock describes the variety
as follows: "Fruit medium size, oval; skin deep purple, approaching black,
and covered with a thick blue blo(^m ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet, and well-
flavored, sugary, rich and delicious, slightly adhering to the stone." This
variety makes a larger, darker-colored dried prune than the Prune d'Agen,
and has sold in some cases at a higher price. It has recently been in disfavor
in coast valleys for defective bearing, but is more satisfactory at some interior
points.

Bulgarian. — "An undetermined variety grown under this name, chiefly in
the vicinity of Haywards, Alameda County ; above medium size ; almost round ;
dark purple ; sweet and rich, with pleasant acid flavor ; tree a vigorous grower,
and an early, regular and profuse bearer." — John Rock.

Coe's Golden Drop (English). — Very large, oval, suture distinct, one side
more enlarged, necked; light yellow, often dotted red to the sun; stalk three-
fourths inch, rather stiff; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, and rich, closely adher-
ing to the pointed stone ; shoots smooth, rather glossy. A standard late variety
for canning.

Silver Prune (Oregon). — Originated with W. H. Prettyman, who says:
"It is a seedling from Coe's Golden Drop, which it much resembles, but it
is much more productive." Profitable as a bleached prune, but defective in
bearing in some California districts. A red variety by bud variation is reported
by Mr. J. G. Grundel of Alma.

Golden Prune. — Originated from seed of Italian prune by Seth Lewelling,
of Milwaukee, Oregon, and described by him as larger than Italian ; light
golden color ; exquisite flavor ; dries beautifully.

Bavay's Green Gage; syn. Reine Claude de Bavay (French). — Large, round
oval, greenish yellow, spotted with red, with small violet-colored longitudinal
veins; flesh rather firm, juicy, sugary, rich, of fine quality, adhering slightly
to the stone ; shoots smooth, leaves roundish, shining ; a free-grower and very
productive.

Ickzvorth Imperatrice (English). — Large to medium, obovate, purple, with
irregular streaks of fawn color ; stalk medium ; flesh greenish yellow, sweet,
juicy, rich, mostly adhering to the rather small stone ; shoots smooth ; very
late, hangs long on the tree, and keeps well ; endures long shipment well.

FeUenherg, syns. Large German Prune, Swiss Prune, Italian Prune. —
Medium size, oval, pointed and tapering at both ends ; suture small, distinct ;
dark purple, with dark blue bloom ; stalk one inch, scarcely sunk ; flesh green-
ish yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious, parts from the stone; tree a free grower
and very productive; late, excellent for drying. But little grown in California,
but largely in Oregon.

Coe's Late Red, syn. Red St. Martin. — Size medium, roundish, suture
distinct on one side ; skin light purplish red, or dark red ; bloom thin, blue ;
stalk' three- fourths inch, scarcely sunk; flesh rather firm, crisp, rich, vinous;
very late, shoots downy.

LUTHER BURBANK'S NEWER VARIETIES

Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa, has not only produced the
leading shipping plum of California, as already stated, but he
has six others in the list of twenty varieties which are chiefly
grown as plums and prunes. During the last few years he has
introduced many other varieties not included in the foregoing
list, which possess striking characters and some of which will
become famous. They must, however, endure the test of trial
and await later credit. Seedlings by other growers are also under-
going a similar ordeal.

326 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Two of Mr. Biirbank's recent creations, introduced by Mr.
George C. Roeding, are of striking characters, and are described
as follows :

Santa Rosa. — "It is a fine grower, the wood is very tough and the limbs
will not break. It is a sure, regular bearer and bears always most abundantly.
It does not have any oflf years. The fruit runs remarkably fine, even in size,
and astonishingly smooth and clear of any defects. It is beautiful, delicious
and a very fine carrier to Eastern markets. It will keep well in hot weather
for a week after it is ripe, so there is no occasion to pick it half ripe in order
to ship, I intend to plant it very largely myself, and to the exclusion of ajl
other shipping plums." — S. F. Leib.

Formosa. — "Unusually large, thick, healthy, light green foliage ; strong,
hard, wiry wood ; blooms with the Burbank and Abundance, and always
escapes late spring frosts, and always bears profusely even when contiimous
rainy weather prevents full pollination in most other plums. No disease has
ever found lodgment with Formosa. The fruit is of uniform size, averaging
about six inches in circumference one way by eight the other. Fruit yellow
with a pale bloom until nearly ripe, turning to a clear rich red. Flesh pale
yellow, unusually firm, sweet, rich, delicious, with a delightful apricot flavor,
nearly freestone. Formosa has been very thoroughly tested for its keeping
qualities, which are unequaled except by Santa Rosa, Wickson, Burbank, and
a few others." — Luther Burbank.

)

CHAPTER XXIV
THE QUINCE

The quince enjoys California conditions to the utmost, and
rewards the grower with large crops of very large and beautiful
fruit. A quince weighing a pound is no curiosity, and it is unlikely
that any city of the world can show such fine quinces at such
low prices as San Francisco. The lesson from this fact is that
the fineness of the fruit, and the evident adaptation of the State
to its growth, should not alone be considered by the planter.
The local consumption of quinces is naturally small, and it is
chiefly for home preserving and jelly making. The commercial
jelly makers use apple juice as the basis of nearly all their jellies,
only using a little quince for flavoring, and some housewives
follow the same course. The hope for profitable sale of the fruit
in large quantities must therefore rest on distant markets, and
though those well acquainted with the growth and sale of the fruit
in the cities of the Mississippi Valley, have predicted a great
demand for the California quince in that territory, experiences
of shippers thus far have been varied, and not such as to induce
the extension of our quince product'ion, as present at least.

But though the quince in California has at present narrow com-
mercial limitations, a few trees should find a place in every orchard,
for family use or local sale.

CULTURE OF THE QUINCE

The quince is readily grown from cuttings. Take good-sized
shoots of well-matured wood of the current year's growth, after
the leaves drop in the fall, and set out at once in nursery row in
moist, alluvial soil, or in any loose soil which is well drained
and can be kept moist enough by cultivation or irrigation.

Quinces are planted at all distances apart, and are grown either
as bushes or trees. Undoubtedly the best way is to plant about
fourteen or sixteen feet apart, and prune into low standard tree
form. This can be done much as already advised for other fruit
trees. An annual cutting back of about half of the new growth,
while forming the tree, will strengthen the trunk and limbs and
prevent the running out of long leaders, which droop to the
ground on all sides when laden with fruit, and are often broken
by the weight and the wind. Owing to the disposition of the
quince to throw out several small shoots at a single point, it is
advisable, when forming the tree, to remove all buds but one,,

327

328 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

just as the growth is starting. This will give one good, strong
branch where it may be needed, instead of several weak ones.
Pinching off shoots which start out too vigorously, or at unde-
sirable points is, of course, advisable.

Soils for the Quince. — As the quince grows naturally in moist,
though not wet lands, many persons think it always does best
in springy ground or along the banks of rivulets ; but though
moist soils are preferable to dry, such positions are not essential
to obtaining large crops of fine fruit. In fact, the quince, like
most fruit trees, prefers a well-drained location, and does best
on a soil which can be freely worked. It thrives when fanned
by the ocean breeze and does fairly well in the interior, providing
it has moisture in the soil, and in some situations will doubtless
require summer irrigation.

VARIETIES OF THE QUINCE

Though notably all varieties of the quince are introduced by
our nurserymen and carried by them in small stock, most plan-
tations are of the "apple" or "orange" . variety. The following
may be enumerated, however, as growing in this State :

Apple or Orange. — Large ; bright yellow ; the best. August and September.

Rea's Mammoth. — A very large and fine variety of the Orange quince; a
strong grower and very productive.

Smyrna. — Introduced from Smyrna in 1897 by George C. Roeding of Fresno ;
large, lemon yellow, handsome, tender and delicious after cooking; keeps well;
tree a strong grower, with heavy foliage.

Pineapple. — Originated by Luther Burbank and distributed by him in 1899;
the result of a long effort to secure a quince which would cook tender like an
apple. The name comes from its flavor, which is suggestive of the pineapple.
Resembles Orange quince but is smoother and more globular.

Portugal. — Very large, and fine flavor, turns a fine purple or deep crimson
when cooked.

The Chinese Quince. — A most extraordinary fruit, oblong, of immense size,
often weighing from two to two and one-half pounds ; growth rapid and distinct.

West's Mammoth. — Originated by W. B. West, of Stockton, from seed received
from Boston in 1853; of the Orange quince family; round; clear yellow; very
large; fine flavor and for the class a very good keeper.

Champion. — Fruit very large, fair and handsome ; tree very productive, sur-
passing any other variety in this respect; bears abundantly when young; flesh
cooks as tender as an apple, and without hard spots or cores ; flavor delicate,
imparting an exquisite quince taste and odor to any fruit with which it is cooked.

PART FOUR— THE GRAPE
CHAPTER XXV

THE GRAPE INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA

The grape grows in all parts of California, from near sea level
on the coast to an elevation of 5000 feet or more on the mountains.
It is contented, too, with nearly all fertile soils, from the deep
valley loams, where the great fat, firm-fleshed grapes are grown
for raisin and table grape shipments, to the shallow soils of the
high foothill and mountain slopes, where the grapes are less in
quantity, but of superior aromatic qualities. This wide adaptation
gives an immense area' suited for grape culture, but the chief
reason for the achievement and the promise of the grape in Cali-
fornia is in the fact that the European species, Vitis vinifera,
thrives, and thus the Californian grower has command of all that
Europeans have accomplished in centuries by developing special
varieties of the species for special purposes. The grapes of the
States east of the Rocky mountains are only grown in California
in a small way because the European varieties are the only ones
from which raisins can be made; they also furnish the world's
wine and brandy, and they give size, beauty and shipping quality
beyond all comparison with American varieties. Wherever
wealthy Eastern connoisseurs choose grapes for their glass houses,
they select European varieties ; the Californian grows his "hot
house" grapes in the open air. He also grows most of them with-
out the cost of trellising, because the European varieties generally
will bear well in short-pruned bush form. California has a large
acreage of grape vines, and planting has been very active during
the last few years, because good prices have prevailed, especially
through the increased opportunity for fresh grape shipments. At
the same time, new economic and commercial problems are con-
tinually arising and the industry has to readjust itself to new con-
ditions. Discussion of such problems does not come within the
scope of a cultural treatise like this. It is the duty of the grower
to keep himself up to date on such subjects by faithful reading of
California periodicals and by participation in public assemblies in
the grape interest. Concerning cultural difficulties, the protection
of vine from its enemies and problems in vinification, special

329

330

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

researches are constantly pursued by the University Experiment
Station at Berkeley and publications are furnished on application.
The culture of the grape is one of the great branches of Cali-
fornia horticulture. Its three chief divisions are : Grapes for the
table, grapes for wine, and grapes for raisins. In all these
branches the product has far exceeded local requirements and has
become an important item in the export trade of the State. The
attainments of the industry can be roughly measured by the sta-
tistics of the shipments of grapes, raisins, wine and brandy, which
are given at the close of Chapter VI.

THE GRAPE AREA OF CALIFORNIA

The grape has a very wide range in California. If the imme-
diate seacoast and the higher altitudes on the mountains be
excepted, the grape may be planted with a good chance of suc-
cess anywhere if soil and local topography be suitable. As has
been shown in Chapter I, the vine can approach quite close to
the ocean if some shelter from prevailing cool winds be aflforded,
and quite high on the mountains if one keeps out of depressions
where late frosts are frequent. In planting the grape in doubtful
situations much depends upon choice of proper varieties. For
example, in the cool air of the coast region and the short summer
of the higher altitudes, early maturing varieties must be the main
reliance, for late sorts will not receive heat enough to bring them
to full maturity.

Away from immediate coast influences, and up to perhaps three
thousand feet or more on the sides of the Sierra, the grape is suc-
cessfully grown both upon the floors of the valleys and upon the
hillsides. But there is still need of choice both of special loca-
tions and of varieties according to the purposes which the grower
has in view. The coast valleys of the upper part of the State
produce good table grapes, but they are unfavorable for the
raisin industry because of the deficient sunshine and excessive
atmospheric humidity of the autumn months. The best raisins
are made in the dry, heated valleys of the interior, and the condi-
tions which there develop the fullest quality of the raisin grape
also develop the sugar in some kinds of wine grapes beyond a
desirable percentage. Here again the choice of suitable varieties
intrudes itself, for the varieties which yield light table wines in
the coast valleys may yield heavy ''heady" wines in the interior.
Valleys, too, as a rule, although they yield larger crops of grapes
and greater measure of wine than similar area on the hillsides,
must yield the palm for quality to the warm soils of the slopes.
And here enters the business proposition whether large amount
and less quality is better than less amount and higher quality.
To this there can be no general answer. It depends upon the

SOILS FOR THE GRAPE 33 J

disposition which is to be made of the crop, and the demand for it.
The coloring of certain varieties is a matter underlying their
profitable production for fresh shipments and this is determined
by local conditions concerning which the best information is actual
observation of their eflfects. These few facts out of many which
could be stated will serve to enforce the fact that wide as is
the range of the grape, both localities and varieties for certain
purposes must be intelligently chosen. Much has been learned
during the last few years, but it will require the experience of
another generation, perhaps, to make the matter clear.

Soils for the Grape. — The grape will thrive on a great variety
of soils, in fact, on any of those enumerated as fruit soils in
Chapter III. There are thrifty vineyards on the light, deep valley
loams, on the heavy clayey loams, on adobe, and on the red soils
of the foothills. Even on shallow soils the grape will do well if
given sufficient moisture, and on rocky subsoils it thrives if there
be crevices for the roots to penetrate, or if the rock be shattered
to admit the roots to permeable substrata. Standing water dur-
ing the active period of the vine is, however, unfavorable to
growth, and alkali is adverse to satisfactory results in wine mak-
ing. Almost any soil which does not hold excess of water or
is not tainted with alkali will do for the vine, although the plant
appreciates good, deep soil, and will grow and bear fruit in pro-
portion to its supply of it. Of course the economic question of
ease of cultivation enters into the choice of soil for the grape,
as for other fruits, but its claims are obvious and need not be
enlarged upon.

Length of the Grape Season. — By choice of early and late vari-
eties the grape season extends over, half a year in California,
without recourse to artificial means of preservation. Where the
fall lains are not very protracted, the late varieties sometimes
remain in good condition on the vines until the winter pruning.
Good grapes have been picked from the vines as late as the mid-
dle of January.

CHAPTER XXVI

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING VINES

The grape is propagated from seed or by layers, or by cuttings
of various lengths. Growing from seed was somewhat resorted
to in California to get stocks for resisting the phylloxera, but such
wide variation in resistance occurred in seedlings that propaga-
tion by cuttings, of varieties demonstrated to be best in this
regard, has become universal. There is at present little dispo-
sition to grow grape seedlings in the hope of securing better and
hardier varieties, as is so largely done in other parts of the country.
The vast numbers of varieties of the European species, vinifera,
which we have to draw from, makes the effort for new seedlings
of little object.

Growing Vines from Seed. — Seed is easily removed from the
grapes by crushing the berries and stirring the pulp rapidly in
water. From one pound of good, fresh seed one might get from
two to three thousand seedlings. Some advocate sowing grape
seed in the fall, just as it is taken from the fruit, but best
results are usually obtained by spring sewing, after danger from
frost is over. It is advisabk to keep grape seed moist for some
time before sowing. Seed soaked one week in water, and after-
ward ^allowed to lie in a heap for three weeks germinates quickly,
starting in ten days or two weeks after being put in the ground.
Professor Husmann advised pouring hot water on the seed and
allowing it to cool, the seed remaining in the water for twelve
hours, and after that it is kept for a week in a sack, exposed to
the sun, and covered at night, the sack being moistened from time
to time.

The seed should be sown in the open ground, the soil having
been worked deeply and finely, as for a garden. Sow the seed
about an inch apart, in drills far enough from each other to admit
the use of the cultivator in the summer; cover not to exceed an
inch in depth, and after moderate pressing of the ground, cover
the whole bed with rotten straw, which should be gradually
removed as the sprouts appear above the ground. This mulch
will not only retain moisture, but will prevent the surface from
being crusted by heavy showers. Summer cultivation with cul-
tivator and hoe should be given.

332

WAYS TO GROW GRAPE VINES 333

Growing Vines by Layering. — This is another method of mul-
tiplying vines which is but little employed in California, because
it is so much easier to secure plants by cuttings, as the vinifera
species roots so readily. Layering consists in bending down and
burying one of the lower canes so as to facilitate top and root
growth from each of the buds. To hold the cane in place, stakes
are used, the trench being left open until the shoots grow out
and then, by covering the roots are developed. The cane must
rest in. moist earth, and usually has to be watered artificially, as
well as treated to prevent evaporation. The following winter the
cane is raised and a plant made at each node.

Another use for layering is to fill a vacancy in the row, a cane
being taken from the nearest living vine. In this case the layer
must be set in a deep trench so as not to be torn out by the plow,
and the layered cane is at once covered in with earth, all but
one or two buds at the extremity, where the new vine is desired.
Such a layer usually bears the second year and is then detached
from the parent vine.

Both the layers described are laid down early in the spring,
before growth starts in the vine. Summer layers of the current
season's growth are sometimes made, but are not usually satis-
factory.

Growing Vines from Cuttings. — This is the prevailing method
in this State both to secure grafting stocks and to grow vines on
their own roots. In growing from cutting^, different policies are
adopted, L c, placing the cuttings in permanent place in the vine-
yard, or rooting them in nursery to be afterward transferred to
the vineyard as "rooted vines." First, the various kinds of cuttings
will be considered, and their placing mentioned later.

Growth from Single Eyes. — The use of single eyes or single
buds, the shortest possible form of cutting, is not large in Cali-
fornia, but some growers have reported good results. The method
is to prepare the cuttings with a half-inch or so of the cane on
each side of the bud and plant them carefully, with the bud upwards,
in well-prepared soil, covering the cutting completely, but very
little under the surface. Success depends upon retention of mois-
ture in the surface soil to induce rooting, and mulching is advis-
able. The method of propagation, too, seems best adapted to the
moister parts of the State, whence, in fact, most success with it
has been reported. Besides economy of wood in getting a plant
from each bud of the cane, which is sometimes an object, growing
from single eyes is advocated because of the satisfactory root
system secured, which much resembles that of a seedling. The
use of single eyes is obviously better adapted to nursery than
to field growth.

334

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Use of Longer Cuttings.-'' — It was formerly considered
good practice to leave a piece of old wood attached to the base
of the cutting, on the ground that such cuttings always grew.

Properly made cuttings.

This practice is now very generally abandoned, as it often gives
rise to weak and diseased vines. The piece of old wooi always
decays finally, and the decay may spread into the trunk and roots

* Much of the following description of handling cuttings is taken bodily from the
excellent University publications by Mr. F. T. Bioletti, viz.: Circular 26, "Selection
and preparation of Vine Cuttings." Bulletin 180, "Resistant Vineyards — grafting,
planting, cultivation." Bulletin 193, "The Best Wine Grapes for California," etc.
All these contain discussions of propagation methods.

MAKING GRAPE CUTTINGS

335

of the vine. A good cutting should consist exclusively of one-
year-old wood ; that is, the wood which has grown during the
previous season.

The form and length of the cuttings will depend on the use
that is to be made of them. If they are to be used as scions for
grafting they may be cut up in any way and of any length that
is found convenient for handling and keeping them in good con-
dition. If they are to be used for rooting either in the nursery
or the vineyard it is most convenient to cut them up into the
exact lengths which are to be planted.

The length will depend altogether on the soil and climate
where they are to be planted. They should be of such a length
that when planted the base of the cutting will be at the level
where the conditions are most favorable to root formation. If
the base is too deep, it will be too wet and too cold to develop
roots. Roots will start higher up and the bottom part will be
wasted, or worse still, may decay and injure the vine. If the
base is too near the surface the whole cutting may dry out and
die before its roots have developed sufficiently to supply it with
water.

In the moister soils of the cooler districts a cutting 10 inches
long is sufficient for direct planting in the vineyard. In the drier
and warmer interior a 14-inch to 16-inch cutting is better, while
in the driest soils of the warmest districts it is often necessary
to have a cutting 18 to 20 inches long. For planting in the nursery
a 12 or 14-inch cutting is about the most convenient. -If the soil
of the nursery is wet and cold more of the cutting should be left
above ground; if, on the contrary, the soil tends to be hot and
dry the cutting must be planted deeper and even covered up com-
pletely.

It is not necessary, or possible, to make every cutting of
exactly the same length, because they should all terminate at each
end at a node. A vine cane consists of nodes where the buds are
and internodes between them. The pith is interrupted at each
node by a woody partition (called the ''diaphragm") which extends
through the cane at each bud. In making a cutting, therefore,
we should cut exactly through a bud both at the top and at the
bottom. This will leave the woody partitions, which will prevent
decay at the bottom and drying out at the top. If removed, the
pith in the upper internode will be exposed to alternate wetting and
drying, and may decay, thus weakening or killing the bud below.

In planting, the cutting should be placed with just one bud
above the surface of the ground, as indicated by the dotted line
in the accompanying engraving. It is a great mistake to leave
more than one bud out of the ground, as this increases the danger
of drying out.

336 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW * THEM

Making and Caring for Cuttings. — Cuttings can be taken from
the vines at any time after the fall of the leaf and before the
spring flow of sap begins. The earlier cuttings — those taken
before January — are more likely to make a successful start and
after-growth than those cut later in the season.

It is common, however, to defer preparation of cuttings till
the pruning is done, be it early or late, and this will generally
answer the purpose, if care be taken to secure the cuttings imme-
diately at the pruning; but if the branches be allowed to lie upon
the ground for days, exposed to sun, wind, or frost, before the
cuttings are secured, their chances of growth are seriously lessened,
and a good part of the failures in planting are due to such cuttings.

Cuttings should be taken from the short-jointed, well-ripened
wood of the previous year's growth, cut squarely and smoothly
as already described. Cuttings from the outer ends of long canes
are not so likely to root, nor to grow so vigorously, as those from
stronger wood, from three-eighths to five-eighths of an inch diam-
eter generally.

Keep them dormant until the time comes to set them in the
vineyard, else the tender shoots may get broken. To keep them
back, place them, at the pruning, in trenches, about as deep as the
length of the cuttings, on the north side of a close board fence
or a building, cover with loose earth, and over that throw some
straw and boards. Take care that the trenches are in moist but
not wet ground as too much moisture rots the cuttings. If the
ground has not been moist enough, and the cuttings seem dry
or withered, plunge them in water to within three or four inches
of their top, for a few days before setting, and do not let them
dry again before planting.

Rooting Cuttings in Nursery. — What has been written is in
reference to cuttings designed for placing in permanent position
in the vineyard, but, for the most part, applies as well to the
preparation of cuttings for the nursery. For nursery treatment,
however, shorter cuttings can be used than for field planting,
because of the better cultivation and more generous moisture con-
ditions which are usually provided.

In preparation of ground for the rooting of vines and the
planting of cuttings therein, the suggestions in Chapter VIII are
directly applicable, as, to secure rooting of the cuttings, there is
just as great need for deep and fine working of the soil, pressing
of it around the cutting, and for careful culture during the grow-
ing season, as there is for such treatment of fruit-tree seedling
or root graft. It is just as necessary, too, that the rooted cuttings
should be carefully lifted and guarded from drying out while on
the way from the nursery to permanent place. The reader is,
therefore, referred to Chapter VIII for suggestions on ])reparation.

BUDDING THE GRAPE

337

laying out, and care of nursery ground intended for the rooting
of grape cuttings.

To secure vines upon resistant roots recourse has recently
been made by some growers to the cutting-graft which will be
mentioned presently.

There is a growing tendency to use rooted vines instead of
cuttings in planting out vineyards, for, although the former cost
several times as much as the latter, either in the time of the
grower or in cash outlay, the balance is believed to be usually on
the other side, when the uniform stand and more satisfactory
growth secured by rooted vines are considered.

BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE GRAPE VINE

Working over the grape-vine is largely practiced in this State
and is easily accomplished. The occasion is twofold : Replacing
undesirable varieties with those of better quality, or in better
market demand, and in bringing the vinifera varieties upon roots
which resist the attacks of the phylloxera. The employment of
resistant stocks has proved eminently satisfactory in this State,
the resistant stock having been successfully installed even in the
hole from which the dead vinifera root had been taken. For this
reason resistant roots are largely relied upon in the planting of

Budding from previous season's growth.

new vineyards in infested districts, and also used to some extent
in regions where the insect is not now found, by those who fear
and desire to provide against its coming. And yet in the large
planting of vineyard in the interior valley which has recently

338

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

been undertaken very little attention has been paid to resistant
roots. It is so cheap to proceed with simple cuttings of the variety
desired, and the vine comes into bearing so soon, that most
planters are willing to take the risk of infection with phylloxera
for it may be long delayed and several profitable crops may be
realized before its arrival. This is a question which each planter
must answer for himself.

Budding the Grape. — Buds can be readily made to grow in
grape canes, though budding is not largely used. Success can
be had with the same method of budding that is common with
fruit trees as described in Chapter IX. Insert the bud (which is
taken from a cane of the previous season's growth) in the spring
as soon as the bark will slip well on the stock, and before the
run of the sap is too strong. Keep the cuttings in a cool place
so their growth will be retarded, and then seize upon just the
right condition of the stock, insert the bud under the bark of a
cane of the previous season's growth, tie it around with a string,
and the bud starts readily without further treatment. When its
growth shows its ability to take the sap, the top of the stock is
removed.

Herbaceous budding is also practicable. It consists of taking
buds from the current season's growth and working them upon
canes also of current growth by the usual shield budding process.
Mr. Thomas Casalegna of San Martin succeeds well with this
under these conditions: All buds put in from. July 15 to August
15 start the same year, but may be injured by fall frosts. Those
put in from August 15 to September 15 remain dormant until the
following year, unless the stock is exceptionally vigorous. Bud-
ding is most successful in the month of August. The buds should
be taken from canes which have reached the stage of maturity
indicated by the pith turning white and just before the bark turns
yellow.

Grafting the Vine. — Grafting in old vine roots is a simple opera-
tion, and is performed in various ways. The principles involved
in vine grafting are similar to those affecting tree grafting, as
described in Chapter IX. The processes employed are also sim-
ilar, but the graft requires less binding and covering, because it
is usually made beneath the surface of the ground, and is, there-
fore, less subject to accident, exposure, and drying out.

Grafting in the old Stump. — This is resorted to when the char-
acter of the vineyard is to be changed. Out of the many ways
for working into old stumps, one introduces the scion by a side
cut into- the stock without splitting across as shown at C C in the
engraving on page 341. The earth is removed from the old vine
down to its first lateral roots, and the top is sawed off cleanly

GRAFTING THE GRAPE

339

a few inches above the first laterals. A cut is then made into the
side of the stump with a knife and mallet, as shown in the figure.
The scion is then cut long enough so that one bud will remain
above ground when the surface is leveled again, the bottom of

Herbaceous buds which have taken hold.

the scion being given an oblique wedge-shape, so as to fit the
crevice in the stock. Some care is needed in shaping the wedge
of the scion, so that the surfaces are in contact will give good
results. If the stock is well made and the end of the scion so
adjusted that the stock will pinch it when it is pushed into place,
nothing more will be needed except to smear over the cut surface
of the stump and the joint of the scion and stock with clay or
with a mixture of two parts clay and one part fresh cow manure.
If the scion is held firmly and sealed in with this mixture, it usually
needs no tying, and the hole can be carefully filled with loose earth,
with a strong stake to mark the place of the graft, and to which
the new growth can be securely tied afterwards.

Another common method of grafting beneath the ground is to
split the stump across its center, as is done in top-grafting fruit
trees as shown in Chapter IX, and one or two scions inserted.
If two are used and both grow, the weakly one is afterward sup-
pressed. In this cross cleft graft some grafters rely upon the
stock to hold the scion without tying, and daub it over with the
clay mixture, care being taken to fill and cover the split in the

340 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

stock to exclude water. Others put a ligature around the split
stump, as shown in the engraving. Strips of cotton cloth answer
well for this purpose. Tying offers better security from knocking!
out the graft with the cultivator.

In grafting into very tough old stumps, some growers leave a
slim wedge of wood in the cleft with the scion to prevent the
stock from closing too forcibly upon the scion.

Side Grafting. — Side grafting the vine is commended by some
growers. It consists in inserting a graft by a cut into the side of
the stock, the method being essentially the same as that employed
with fruit trees, as described in Chapter IX, except that in side
grafting the vine the top is not amputated, but is allowed to bear
its crop and is then removed the following winter. The next
summer the scion will bear a crop, and the vine is worked over
without cessation in its bearing.

Herbaceous Grafting. — This term is applied to a graft in which
the scion of the current season's growth is set by a cleft graft
into canes also of the current season's growth, while both scion
and cane are elastic, but not too soft. The method has not
been usually successful in this State, apparently because of the
dryness of the summer air. Still some satisfactory results are
reported. Mr. Casalegna of Santa Clara county, whose success
with herbaceous buds has been noted, does well also with soft-
wood grafting by the whip-graft method. . He says it is most
successful in June, provided the scions are hard enough. The
pith must be white. In a strong-growing vineyard grafting may
be done in July. The leaves are taken off the scions when they
are cut. If they are to be used immediately they are placed in
water; if to be carried some distance they are placed in a wet
sack. Tie the grafts with German knitting yarn, not with raffia.
The season for herbaceous grafting will, of course, vary according
to the locality. Hot weather immediately following the work is
fatal to most of the grafts. If two or three cool days follow the
insertion of the scions he obtains an almost perfect stand.

Care of Scions. — Scions should be kept cool and moist enough
to prevent drying but not wet enough to cause decay, as has
already been described in the keeping of cuttings.

Time of Grafting. — Grafting into old vine stumps is done in
February, March and April in different parts of the State, March
being the month usually chosen for the work. If a spring graft
fails, the stump may be regrafted in August or in the following
spring. In regrafting, the stump is cut off again below the pre-
vious cleft. The time for the work is when the sap has ceased
flowing, usually from the first to the tenth of August.

GRAFTING THE GRAPE

341

The recourse to resistant roots to escape the phylloxera has
been attended with some disappointment because the wild roots
at first widely used proved only partially resistant. Recently,
in the main through employment of French selected varieties of
the American wild species, stocks with satisfactory resistance,

Methods of field grafting grape vines

A. Whip graft for stocks 1-2 to 2-3 of an inch in diameter.

B, BB. Whip graft for stocks 2-3 to 3-4 of an inch in diameter.

C, CC. Cleft graft for stocks 3-4 of an inch in diameter and for old stumps.

342

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

larger growth and vigor and adaptation to different California
soils have been secured. Notable success has been attained in
the habilitation of vineyards on the basis of resistant roots. The
University Experiment Station, at Berkeley, has maintained lead-
ership in this direction by publication of specific information which
can be had by application to the Director.

Instances of successful herbaceous grafts.

Resistant Varieties. — American wild vines are characterized by
very marked dififerences in degree of resistance to phylloxera, and
especially in adaptability to soils. Not only do species dififer in
this respect, but varieties of the same species show widely differ-
ent characteristics. As a result of the process of selection varieties
have been secured which are far above the average of the species
in vigor of growth and development, degree of resistance and gen-
eral suitability for resistant root purposes. The few varieties
which have thus demonstrated particular excellence in France
and have given notable indications of success in California, are
presented by Mr. Bioletti as follows :

The varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability
be most used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot),
Riparia X Rupestris 3306. Riparia X Rupestris 3309, Riparia So-
lonis 1616, Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202, Aramon X Rupestris 2,
Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande globre. These are all varieties

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344

VARIOUS RESISTANT VINES g45

which have given excellent results for years in Europe, and have
all been tested successfully in California. Among them are vari-
eties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with
perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays.

The Rupestris St, George is remarkably vigorous and grows
very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It
roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera vari-
eties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate.
Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist
soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils.
Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often
necessitates long pruning.

In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 have given better results in
France and give indications of doing equally well here. In drier
soils 3309 will probably be found preferable.

Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris
St. George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils.
It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more
difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it
is rather less susceptible to root-rot.

There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and
Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit
them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils
which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most
productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks
earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their principal defect is
that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow
quite as large as the scion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and
the difference is less with this variety than with any other Riparia.

The Mourvedre X Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots
and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist
soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not suffi-
cient.

The most promising varieties for general use at present seem
to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309.
They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost
as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to sup-
port any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the
moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the
latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger
variety of soils and conditions than perhaps any other varieties.

Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil
containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would
be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to
overflow.

346

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

In most Other soils Riparia X Rupestris 3306 is to be recom-
mended, except those which are rather dry, where 3309 is to be
preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis X Riparia
1616 is surer to give good results.

The Cutting Graft. — Grafting the desired variety upon a resist-
ant cutting, putting these cutting-grafts through a callusing bed
and then planting the grafted cutting in nursery for rooting is
an accepted French method which is being successfully employed
in California. This has advantage in time gained and in securing
a full stand of vines as compared with grafting upon cuttings
already rooted in place in the vineyard though the latter has been
successfully practiced.

If cutting-grafts are placed directly in the nursery many will
fail. For this reason it is always best, except at the extreme end
of the grafting season, to "stratify'' the grafts in a "callusing'' bed,
where conditions of moisture, temperature, and aeration can be
controlled. This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand
placed in the south end of a wall or building surrounded by a
board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming too
wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an over-
hanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by a surround-
ing ditch. It should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas
or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the temperature
to be controlled by admission or exclusion of the sun's rays. A
water-proof wagon-cover, black on one side and white on the
other, is excellent for this purpose.

The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3
inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row
along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around them.
The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with
the scions uppermost, and the sand should be dry enough so that
it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. The bundles of grafts
are then covered up completely with sand, leaving it at least 2
inches deep above the top of the scion. There should be but little
more moisture present for callusing than in the sand used for
keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture will stim-
ulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding
the dallus formation, which is a perfectly distinct process from the
formation of roots.

An adjacent engraving shows the subsequent rooting of cutting-
grafts in the nursery.

Grafting of Resistant Stocks after Rooting. — Grafting on resist-
ant roots differs from working in old stumps in the size of the
wood to be operated on, and in the fact that the graft must be set
higher up because it is not desirable to have the scion strike roots

LAYING OUT VINEYARD

347

P^'

of its own, for the obvious reason that depending on such roots
ould make the vine no longer resistant. The advantage of cov-
ering the graft with earth is, however, still to be enjoyed, for the
earth can be raised in a little mound around the graft, to be
removed when the graft has taken well. For this reason grafting
on resistant roots is usually done at or near the surface of the
ground.

The common cleft graft is used when the stock is large enough
to give a split strong enough to hold in the scion. In grafting
smaller stocks the whip graft is used both in making cutting-
grafts and in grafting cuttings already rooted. This graft is
variously treated. It is covered with clay by some, by others
with grafting wax ; but the common experience is that grafting
wax makes too tight a joint, and holds in surplus sap, which
begets disease. The use of a wax band specially adapted to ruling
conditions has proved very successful, but the easiest and usually
most satisfactory way is to wind with soft twine or raffia which
will, decay and loosen as the graft enlarges, but care must be taken
to cut the band if it has not decayed at the time of transplanting.

LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD

Vines are planted in rectangles, generally in squares, but some-
times at a less distance in the rows than the rows are from each
other. The stakes which are to represent the future vines are in
either case placed by the same methods of measuring or mark-
ing off. All the methods described for clearing and preparing
lands, in Chapter VII, and for laying off ground in squares,
described in Chapter X, are applicable to vineyard ground. The
measuring wire therein described is the means usually employed
for laying off. A special contrivance which has been used to
some extent on level ground is thus described :

The marker most in use is made in the form of a sled, sixteen, fourteen,
or twelve feet long, with three runners so placed as to mark rows eight,
seven, or six feet wide. These runners should be made about three feet long,
of some hard wood (Oregon pine will do), two inches thick and firmly
nailed to two planks placed upon them of the lengths first above named.
Upon these should be bolted two strong pieces of joist in the form of wagon
hounds projecting in front far enough to receive a stout pole like a wagon-
tongue, well braced and fastened with an iron rod. Care must be taken that
the motion of the machine is steady and true in all its parts. With a well-
made marker, a gentle team, and a careful driver, excellent work may be
done.

Distance of Planting. — There is as much difference of opinion
and practice in fixing the distance between vines as between
orchard trees, but usually more room is given than formerly.
Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven to ten feet,
with eight feet as most prevalent, taking the State as a whole.

348

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Planting in rows is also adopted to some extent. Such planta-
tions are made with the vines seven by ten or eight by ten feet,
four and one-half by eleven feet, etc. There is great variation
in the distances. Some advantages of the row system are as
follows: Greater space to spread trays for raisin curing; plow-
ing can be done with double team and larger plows ; the brush
can be gathered and burned between the rows instead of carry-
ing it to the avenues; sulphur and materials for spraying can be
brought in by team to any part of the vineyard ; empty boxes can
be distributed and filled ones gathered up without carrying, etc.
Planting in rows recommends itself not only for planting new
vineyards, but also for changing old vineyards from seven by
seven feet to three and one-half by fourteen feet, or from eight
by eight feet to four by sixteen feet, giving opportunity to change
from g. vinifera-voot vineyard to a resistant-root vineyard. This
can be accomplished by planting resistant roots in the alternate
rows to be preserved, right between the two old vines.

Number of Vines to the Acre. — However the vines be set, it
is very easy to calculate the number of vines which an acre will
accommodate. Multiply the distance in feet between the rows
by the distance the plants are apart in the rows, and the product
will be the number of square feet for each plant, which, divided
into the number of feet in an acre (forty-three thousand five hun-
dred and sixty), will give the number of plants to the acre.

Avenues in the Vineyard. — For convenience of access with
team and wagon there should always be avenues through the
vineyard. They are usually arranged so as to cut up the vine-
yard into blocks about twice as long as broad, if the vineyard
be on level land. Of course, on hilly lands the avenues should
be located for ease of hauling. The avenue is made by leaving
out a row of vines, and, therefore, the exact size of the block
will depend upon the distance between the rows. Some advise
having not more than forty vines between the avenues. Plant-
ing in rows, with wide spaces between the rows, renders few ave-
nues necessary.

PLANTING CUTTINGS AND ROOTED VINES

Various means are used for planting cuttings. An essential
condition to successful growth is to have the lower part of the
cutting well embedded in the soil, as it will not root unless in
close contact with the earth. To lack of care in this regard most
failures are due, and for lack of surety that such contact is made
the various contrivances for speedy planting, such as the plant-
ing bar, are widely condemned ; an excavation of the hole and

I

WAYS TO PLANT CUTTINGS

349

refilling with fine surface earth, just as advised in Chapter XI,
for planting orchard trees, is commended as the safest practice.
Much, however, depends upon the soil. In loose, free soil such
a use of bar or '*sheep's-foot" as will be presently described may
be satisfactory, while it would be impracticable on firmer soils,
both because of the difiiculty of insertion and because the packed
condition caused by the forcing in would not favor root exten-

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Dibbles for planting vine cuttings.

sion, and not desirable on shallow soils because the contact of the
better surface soil with the bottom of the cutting will stimulate
the growth of the cutting, and is, therefore, very desirable.

The post-hole auger and a device for taking out soil as a
**trier" takes out a sample of cheese or butter, have also been
used to some extent, but not widely, in making holes for cuttings.

350 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Other forms of dibbles for planting vine cuttings relate par-
ticularly to the setting of cutting-grafts in a light deeply-worked
nursery soil, but may be also used to advantage in placing cut-
tings in the vineyard if the soil favors such a method. They are
described by Mr. Bioletti as follows :

Two of the best forms of nursery dibbles are shown in the
engraving. The first, A, consists of a piece of round one-half-inch
iron, 18 inches long, furnished with a wooden handle at one end
and a curved double point with a V-shaped cleft in the other.
The bottom node of the stock is caught in the cleft and the graft
forced down to the desired depth. Unless the ground is very
light the other dibble, B, is preferable. It consists of a sword-
shaped piece of iron 18 to 20 inches long and 2 inches wide, fur-
nished also with a handle. The usual way of using it is to press
it into the ground to the desired depth, open the hole a little with
a lateral thrust, withdraw it and insert the graft. The dibble
is then pushed into the ground again at about an inch to one side
of the graft and by another lateral thrust the earth is pressed
tightly around the graft. This takes more time than is necessary
with the other form of dibble, and usually done carefully there is
danger of failing to make the soil close around the base of the
stock, which is thus left surrounded by an air space. Grafts
left in this way are apt to become moldy and fail to make good
roots. The figure C is a planting dibble to be used with hand
and foot like a spade. All such contrivances are only suited to
light soils which crumble and settle easily. On heavier soils,
digging holes and placing the soil around the roots or the base
of the cutting by hand is indispensable.

Planting Bar and Sheep's-foot. — The following methods,
described by Dr. Gustav Eisen as prevailing in the raisin districts
of the San Joaquin Valley, on sandy, loamy soils, will well illus-
trate similar methods wherever followed :

The planting bar consists of a bar of hard iron, sharpened at the lower end
and furnished with a cross-handle at the other. The length of the bar is about
three and a half feet, width about two and a half inches, and thickness a third to
half an inch. If less than this the bar will bend. The planting is done by pushing
the bar perpendicularly in the ground. After withdrawing it, insert the cutting
and push it down to the bottom. Fill up the hole by again inserting the bar, in
the ground close by and pressing the flat side against the hole.

The sheep's-foot consists of a round rod with cross-handle at the upper end.
The lower end of the rod is slightly flattened, bent, and forked. The planting is
done by fitting the forked end over the butt-end of the cutting, and immediately
pushing cutting and rod together to the desired depth in the soil. A slight twist
is now given to the sheep's-foot. This loosens it from the cutting and allows it
to be withdrawn. A tamp with the foot fills the hole. Great care must be taken
in withdrawing the sheep's-foot, lest in doing so the cutting should be lifted also,
and this will leave a fatal air chamber at the lower end. The slight twist given
the rod before withdrawing loosens it and leaves the cutting undisturbed.

PLANTING ROOTED VINES

351

For planting in dry situations some careful planters run water
and fine earth into the hole made by the bar after inserting the
cutting; others run in fine sand dry and then pour on water. In
using water in this way one must take care that he does not
use adobe earth, for a succeeding dry spell may bake it, and the
cutting will be worse off than if not puddled.

Planting Rooted Vines. — Planting rooted vines is governed by
the same rules commended for planting trees in Chapter XI, sa
far as preparation of holes, care in placing and firming the soil
around the roots, etc., is concerned. In handling rooted vines
there must be greater care in packing and transportation to pre-
vent the roots from drying, and in carrying to the field it is gen-
erally advised that the plants be kept in a pail or other receptacle
with water. The vine roots are very small and tender, and
success will largely depend upon good care of them. At planting
all dead or injured roots should be trimmed away, healthy roots
shortened so that they can be placed well in the hole, and the
top reduced to a single cane cut back to two eyes.

When to Plant. — The exact time to plant can not be stated,
for the condition of the soil and the local season-points are the
best guides. Planting can be done much later as a rule in the
coast regions than in the interior, because the soil is usually
later in getting into good condition of mellowness and warmth,
and the late rains are usually heavier. It is certainly not advis-
able to place cuttings in cold, wet soil, and dry soil will quickly
destroy their vitality. The suggestions given in Chapter XI
should be carefully considered. The planter must use good judg-
ment in choosing his time for planting, aided in forming it by the
best local experience he can get.

Cultivation of Vineyard. — General suggestions concerning the
cultivation of the vineyard have already been given in Chapter
XIII, preceding.

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352

CHAPTER XXVII

PRUNING AND CARE OF THE VINE*

Most of the varieties of vinifcra grown in California at present
thrive under the short pruning system. There are exceptions,
however, which will be noted later. The prevalence of the short
pruning system frees our growers from the expense and incon-
venience of trellises. Though in the early years of the vine stakes
are used, our older vines stand by themselves and are as inde-
pendent of supports as our fruit trees. The vines are, in fact,
shaped upon something the same model as our fruit trees, the
so-called ''goblet form" of the French being our prototype.

THE FIRST. YEAR

During the summer of the year the vines are planted, no prun-
ing or training of any kind is needed in most cases. For this
reason it is nearly always unnecessary to stake the vines when
they are planted. The only exception to this is when strong-
rooted vines are planted in a rich, moist soil in which they will
make a very large growth the first year. In this case it is desir-
able, though not quite necessary, to stake the vines immediately
after planting to adopt the method of summer treatment described
below for the second year.

In most cases it is best to allow all shoots to remain to feed
the vine and to insure a good root growth the first year.

Staking. — In the autumn or winter following planting, the
vines should be staked, either before or after pruning, but in any
case some time before the buds start in the spring.

The kind of stake used will depend on the variety of vine and
on the method of pruning to be ultimately adopted. For ordinary
short-pruning, the stake should be of such length that, after being
driven into the ground, sufhcient will be below the surface to
keep it firm and prevent its being loosened by the force of the wind
acting on the vine which is tied to it, and sufficient above the
surface to extend one or two inches above the height at which
it is intended to head the vines. It should be from one and one-
quarter to one and one-half inches square, according to the length.

* The detailed instructions and accompanying illustrations in this chapter are
taken from the excellent writings of Mr. F. T. Bioletti for the California Experiment
Station, and embody the teachings of long experience and wide observation.

353

854

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

In firm ground, for small-growing vines such as Zinfandel, a
stake 1 1-4 by 1 1-4 inches and 27 inches long will be sufficient.
This will allow 15 inches to be driven into the ground and leave
12 inches above, which is enough for vines to be headed at 10
inches. If the ground is loose or sandy a 30-inch stake driven 18
inches into the ground will be needed. For strong-growing vari-
eties, such as Carignane or Tokay, especially when planted in rich
soil, a stake 1 1-2 by 1 1-2 inches and 36 inches long will be neces-
sary, and 15 or 18 inches of this should be left above the ground.
This will permit the heading of the vines at 15 inches.

If the vines are to be trellised with one wire, a 36-inch stake
driven 18 inches into the ground is the proper length. If two
wires are to be used, a 48-inch stake will be needed, leaving 30
inches above the surface.

If the vines are to be pruned long and the canes tied to the
stake, a 5-foot stake will usually be needed, and this must be
stronger, 2 by 2 inches square. This stake should be driven 2
feet into the ground.

These dimensions are all smaller than are usual in California,
but are quite sufficient for all practical purposes. The stake should
be placed 1 to 2 inches from the vine on the side opposite to the
prevailing heavy winds. The force of the wind will thus keep
the vine pressed against the stake and the tying material less liable
to break.

First Winter Pruning. — In California, the young vines may be
pruned at any time after the leaves have fallen, except in sections
very subject to spring frosts, where it is sometimes advisable to
defer the pruning until after the top buds of the canes start.

The way the vines are to be pruned will depend altogether on
the growth they have made. If the growth has been small the
tops are pruned exactly like rooted vines before planting. All
the canes are removed entirely, except the strongest, and this is
cut back to two buds (see Fig. 1, a).

Any vines which have made a strong growth and possess at
least one cane of which a sufficient length is well ripened may be
pruned for tying up. All the canes are removed entirely, except
the strongest, and this is cut back to 10, 15, or 18 inches, accord-
ing to the height at which it is intended to head the vine (see
Fig. 2, a). The top cut is made through a bud, just as in making
cuttings. This will facilitate tying up and insure the healthy
growth of the top bud.

Sometimes, even when the vine has made sufficient growth, the
canes are prostrate or crooked and none can be tied up straight
to the stake. In this case the vine must be pruned like a weak
vine — that is, thinned to one cane and this cane cut back to two
buds.

FIRST STEP IN SHORT PRUNING

855

Fig. 1. Treatment of an average vine during second season.

a. Winter pruning.

b. Spring pruning — removal of suckers (S) and thinning of shoots (W).

c. Summer treatment — tying to stake and topping.

In no case should two canes of any length be left, and in all
cases where it is impossible to obtain the full length of well-ripened
wood for tying up, the cane should be cut back to two buds. It
is very bad practice to leave some of the canes of intermediate
length, as this causes the vines to head out at various heights
and produces an irregularity of shape which can never be remedied
and which interferes with regular pruning, cultivation and other
vineyard work.

The idea to be kept in mind is to cut back each winter nearly
to the ground — that is, to two buds — until a cane is produced
with a length of well-ripened wood and good buds equal to the
height at which the vine is to be headed. It is very important
that this cane should be straight, healthy and well-ripened, as it
is from it that the trunks of the mature vine develops. All the
vines on which a cane has been left should be carefully tied up.
Two ties will be needed in most cases. A half hitch should be
made around the cane below the swelling left by the bud which
has been removed, and the cane tied firmly to the top of the stake.
Another tie is made about half-way down the stake. The lower
tie need not be very tight, and in any case the tying material should
not be passed completely around the cane, except above

356

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Fig. 2. Treatment of average vine during the third season,
or of a vigorous vine during the second.

a. Vine pruned to one cane and tied to stake.

b. Removal of sucker (S) and lower shoots (W) in spring.

c. Vine in summer at time of pinching.

the top bud, or the vine will be strangled when it commences to
grow (see Fig. 2, a). Any kind of string or twine, sufficiently
strong to withstand the pressure of the growing vine in a heavy
wind, may be used. Binding twine, or a single strand of good
baling rope, is suitable. No. 16 or 17 galvanized wire is preferred
by some and is better than string, if care is taken to remove the
bottom ties the following year before they strangle the vine.
Wire is a little more expensive and takes a little longer to put on
than string, but holds the vines better and can be used for several
years.

SECOND YEAR

Summer Pruning. — The treatment during the second and third
spring and summer is of great importance to the future welfare
of the vine. A little judicious care at this period will avert many
troubles in later years. It will be necessary to go over the vine-
yard four or five times to do the suckering, topping, and tying
which are necessary.

The shoots starting from the vines which have been cut back
to two buds should be thinned to a single one. I'his thinning

FORMS OF THREE-YEAR-OLD VINES

357

Fig. 3. Three-year-old vines after pruning.

a. Average vine with two spurs.

b. Vigorous vines with three spurs, the lowest of which is to be removed the

following year.

c. Vigorous vine with three spurs.

should be done as soon as possible in such a way that it is never
necessary to remove a shoot more than 3 or 4 inches long (see Fig.
I, b). If the thinning is deferred until the shoots are a foot or
more long the vine will be weakened by the removal of so much
foliage. If the thinning can not be done early, it is better not to
do it at all. The object of this thinning .is to throw all the force
and growth of the vine into the cane which is to form* finally
the trunk of the vine. If it is done too late not only does the
growth not go into this cane, but the vine is weakened so much
that this cane does not grow so well as it would have done without
thinning.

The first thinning can be done with the first hoeing, and the
second with the suckering. The suckering consists of the removal
of all shoots which come from below the ground. These also
should be removed as early as practicable, both to avoid weaken-
ing the vine by the removal of mature leaves and also because a
young sucker is much more easily separated from the vine at this
time. Every sucker must be cut or broken off at the point where
it originates. If a little piece of the sucker is left, several new

358 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

suckers will start at the same place. The more completely the
suckering is done during the first two years, the less* trouble in
this respect there will be in later years. This is particularly true
of grafted vines.

A few weeks after the first thinning, the single shoot which
has been left will have grown 10 or 15 inches. At this length
it should be tied up to the stake (see Fig. 1, c). If this tying
is neglected or deferred too long, a heavy wind is very liable to
break off the whole shoot. A piece of string tied rather loosely
about the middle of the shoot is all that is needed. If the vines
are to be headed high (18 inches) another tie near the top of the
stake may be necessary.

For vines which are making only a moderate growth this is
all the treatment needed during the summer. Strong-growing
vines in rich soil, however, should be topped.

Topping. — The object of this is to force the shoot to send
out laterals at the right height above the surface of the soil, to
be used as spurs during the following year. This topping is
an operation which requires a good deal of judgment. If the
topping is done too soon, laterals will not start, but a new ter-
minal shoot will be formed. This is not a serious defect, how-
ever, but simply necessitates a second topping two or three
weeks later. Neither will the laterals start if the topping is
done too late, or if they start they will not mature, and the vine
is weakened by the removal of foliage without any compensating
advantage.

Until experience has shown the proper time for the variety
and locality, it is best to top when the shoot has grown to from
8 to 12 inches above the top of the stake, and if necessary top
again later.

The shoot should be topped within 1 or 2 inches of the top
of the stake, if the stakes have been chosen and driven as advised
above (see Fig. 1, c). This will insure the growth of laterals
just where they are needed for the next winter pruning.

The vines on which a cane has been left and tied up during
the preceding winter must be treated a little differently. The
removal of underground shoots or suckers is the same. Instead
of thinning out the shoots to a single one, as for the vines just
described, all the shoots should be left to grow, except those too
near the ground (see Fig. 2. b).

As a rule, all shoots between the ground and the middle of
the stakes should be taken off. It is even more important that
this should be done early than in the case described above. If
the lower shoots are allowed to become large and then removed,
not only is the vine weakened by the removal of mature leaves,
but the stem of the vine is suddenly exposed to the direct rays

SUMMER PRUNING OF VINES

359

of the hot sun and is very liable to injury. This injury does not
show by the peeling off of the bark as with fruit trees, but by
a general weakening and dwarfing of the vine.

The shoots coming from the upper half of the cane are to
form the spurs for the following winter pruning, and can often
be left to grow without further treatment.

Fig. 4. An ideal three-year-old vine after pruning.

If the growth is very rapid and succulent, however, it is neces-
sary to pinch them, or the first heavy wind may break them off
(see Fig. 2, c).

Pinching consists in the removal of 1 or 2 inches of growth
at the extreme tip of the shoot. This delays the growth in length
temporarily and gives the shoot time to strengthen its tissues
before its length gives too much leverage to the wind. This
pinching usually has to be repeated at least once.

Pinching may be replaced by topping a few weeks later, but
the latter is somewhat weakening to the vine.

In all summer pruning — that is, removal of green shoots and
leaves — of young vines, two things should be kept in mind : First,
that all summer pruning is weakening; second, that the object
of summer pruning of young vines is to direct the growth as

360

CALIB^ORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

much as possible into those parts which are to become perma-
nent portions of the mature vine. The weakening effect is almost
nil if the shoots or tips are removed when they are very small,

Fig. 5. Showing method of bending fruit
canes to insure growth of shoots
from replacing spurs.

but may be very serious if large shoots are removed or heavily
topped. When a large shoot covered with leaves is removed it
is a total loss to the vine. When a small shoot is removed the
food materials which would have gone into that shoot are diverted
to the shoots that remain, and the vigor and size of the latter are
increased.

LONG PRUNING OP VINES 3g][

THIRD YEAR

Winter Pruning. — After the leaves have fallen at the end of
the third summer every vine should have a well-formed, straight
stem with two, three, or more canes growing from the upper part,
and the formation of the "head" or crown should commence. Any
vines which have not been brought to this condition must be
pruned like two or one-year-old vines, as the case may be.

If the work up to this point has been well done, the formation
of the head is a simple matter. It consists in leaving two,
three, or four spurs, arranged as symmetrically as possible near
the top of the vine. The stronger the vine, as evidenced by the
number, length, and thickness of the canes, the larger the num-
ber of spurs and buds that should be left.

A spur consists of the basal portion of a cane, and normally
of two full internodes. This leaves two buds besides the base
bud. The number of buds to leave on a spur depends on the
strength or thickness of the cane from which the spur is made.
A thin, or weak, cane should be cut back to one bud or even to the
base bud. A strong cane, on the other hand, should be left with
three buds besides the base bud.

The pruning of each vine requires judgment, and it is impos-
sible to give an inflexible rule to follow. The ideal of a perfect
vine should be kept in mind and each vine pruned as nearly in
accordance with this ideal as circumstances permit. Fig. 3 and
Fig. 4 represent nearly perfect three-year-old vines consisting of
two or three symmetrically placed spurs of two buds each near
the top of the stem.

Sometimes it is necessary to leave a spur lower down (see
Fig. 3, b). This spur will be removed the following year after
it has produced two or three bunches of grapes. Sometimes a
vine may be very vigorous but have only two canes properly
placed for making spurs. In this case the spurs should be left
longer — three buds and even in extreme cases four buds long.

In stump pruning there is a difference of practice as to low
heading according to locality. In the interior regions the vine
is now headed almost at the surface of the ground; in the coast
regions there is usually a stump of one to two feet or more. As
with trees so with vines, the practice is to prune to make lower
heads than during the early years of California fruit growing.

Long Pruning. — Some v^arieties grown for market and for
raisin making do not thrive if pruned by the short-spur system.
Notable among these are the Sultana, Sultanina, (Thompson's
Seedless), Emperor and Sabalskanski. There are also a number
of wine varieties which must be pruned long. Whatever the vari-
ety of vine and whatever the system of pruning to be ultimately

862

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

adopted, the treatment for the first two and even three years is
practically identical and is that which has already been described
in detail.

Long pruning admits of degrees, but it usually signifies using
a five or six instead of a four-foot stake and leaving the selected
canes from eighteen inches to three feet or longer instead of
cutting back to two or three buds, as in short pruning. These
long canes are securely tied to the long stakes.

With varieties needing long pruning the first two or three
buds next the old wood do not bear fruit, hence the need of
leaving buds farther removed from the old wood to secure it.
This habit of the vine invites the practice of growing a long cane
for fruit and at the same time providing for wood growth for
the following year's fruiting by cutting another cane from the
same spur down to two or three buds. By this practice the
wood which has borne the fruit is cut back to a bud each winter
and the cane which has grown only wood is pruned long for the
fruit of the following summer. A modification of the practice
is to prune the canes from some of the spurs long, and from
other spurs short, thus making the spurs alternate from wood
bearing to^ fruit bearing from year to year. Unless some method
is adopted to promote the growth of strong canes from near the
head of the vine, long pruning becomes unsatisfactory. Accord-
ing to the common way with those vines which are known to
require longer canes for satisfactory bearing, such canes are
selected when the vine is well established and two, three, four, or
more canes four or five feet long are tied up vertically to a high
stake. This process is repeated the next year and the next, and
the result is, with the Sultanina at least, that after the second or
third year all the bearing wood is at the top of the stake, and the
vine must be pruned short again or suckers and watersprouts
left as long canes. Neither way is satisfactory.

Two methods have been successfully used to insure the growth
of new fruit wood every year in a position where it can be util-
ized. The first consists in bending the fruit canes into a circle,
as illustrated in Fig. 5. This diminishes the tendency of the
sap of the vine to go to the end of the fruit canes. The conse-
quence is that more shoots start on the lower parts of the fruit
canes. All the shoots on these canes are made weaker and more
fruitful by the bending, and at the same time the sap pressure is
increased and causes strong shoots to start from the wood-spurs
left near the bases of the fruit canes. These shoots are used
for fruit canes at the following winter pruning, and new wood
spurs are then left for the next year.

The tying and bending of the fruit canes require great care,
and repeated suckering and removal of watersprouts are neces-
sary to insure a strong growth of replacing canes on the wood

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363

364

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Spurs. This method can be used successfully only by skilful
hands.

The other method requires some form of trellis. The most
practicable trellis is a wire stretched along the rows at about
lyi or 2 feet above the surface of the soil. For very vigorous
vines in rich soil as second wire 12 inches above the first is
advisable.

The pruning is the same as for the method just described.
The fruit canes, however, instead of being bent in a circle and
tied to the stake, are placed in a horizontal position and tied to
the wire. The horizontal position has the same effect as curv-
ing in promoting the starting of more shoots on the fruit canes
and the consequent production of more bunches of grapes. At
the same time the buds on the wood spurs are forced to start,
and not being shaded they tend to grow vigorously. It is best
to tie the shoots from the wood spurs in a vertical position to
the stake, and they should not be topped. This system of prun-
ing is not only theoretically correct, but is easy to explain to
pruners, and can be carried out much more perfectly than the
first method with ordinary labor.

Whatever system of winter pruning is adopted with the Sul-
tanina, careful summer pruning, suckering, sprouting and top-
ping are necessary for the best results. This variety has a ten-
dency to send out large numbers of suckers from below ground
and watersprouts from the old wood. These shoots are usually
sterile, grow vigorously, and unless removed in time divert the
energies of the vine from the fruit and fruit shoots. Two or
three times during the spring the vineyard should be gone over
carefully and all sterile shoots which are not needed to balance
the vine or to replace weak or missing arms should be removed.
This removal of shoots should be done in such a way that no
shoot longer than 12 inches is ever removed. If the watersprouts
are allowed to grow large their removal weakens the vine. The
shoots which are to give fruit canes for the following year should
not be topped. The shoots from the horizontal fruit canes on
the trellises, however, will set their fruit better and are less likely
to be broken by the wind if they are pinched or topped early.

SUMMER PRUNING AND SUCKERING

Summer pruning or topping of bearing vines is usually prac-
tised. Some follow the pinching process, by which the terminal
of the growing cane is nipped off with the thumb and finger when
it has grown out about two feet. Others wait longer and then
slash oflf the ends of the canes with a sickle. The tendency is to
leave summer pruning until too late and to slash off wood indis-
criminately, to the injury of the vine. Summer pruning, if done

HINTS ON PRUNING VINES

365

early enough, and this would be while the growth is still soft
at the point of removal, will induce the growth of laterals and
will shade and improve the fruit, and at the same time thicken
the growth of the main cane and strengthen its connection with
the spur. Slashing of canes too late in the season deprives the
fruit of the service of enough leaf surface for the elaboration of
the sap, often seriously checks the growth of the vine, and in
hot regions induces sunburn. The first summer pruning should
be done soon after the bloom, but not during blooming. The
second could take place whenever the canes or laterals extend
beyond the length necessary to shade the grapes.

Suckering is an important process and usually has to be
attended to at least twice in the season. It consists in removing
all shoots from old wood which are not provided for at the pre-
vious winter pruning. The growth of these suckers takes sap
which should go to the other canes. All such shoots should be
rubbed or pulled off while they are still soft; if a sucker puts out
at a point where it would be desirable to have a spur to balance
the head of the vine, it should of course be allowed to grow, to
be cut back to two buds the following winter. By such selection
of suckers new spurs are secured to replace old and failing ones.

GENERAL NOTES ON PRUNING

Longer or shorter pruning produces effects not only upon the
amount and early ripening of the fruit of certain varieties, but
upon quality, as shown in the wine. Such effects have to be
discerned by local observation.

It is a very difficult matter to lay down any rule for pruning
a vineyard, so much depends on the age of the vines, the differ-
ent varieties, and the quality of the soil. A basis on which to
build a theory on the subject might be found in and through an
understanding of the quantity of grapes that may be expected
from a vine, as the secret of pruning is to keep a just medium
between the production of grapes to the injury of the vine and
its wood and an overproduction of wood to the detriment of the
crop. In older vines a proportion should be maintained between
the vigor of the vines and the crop desired ; each bud may be con-
sidered good for two bunches of grapes the ordinary size, and
upon this estimate may be obtained. It must be borne in mind
that the result of overloading the vine is detrimental to its vigor
and health, while the reverse will not injure it, but will lessen the
profits for that season, often giving greatly increased returns in
after years.

Close attention should be given to the growth of the wood
and fruit of the preceding year. If the canes are very large
and the bunches of grapes poor and there are many suckers, it

3gg CALIP^ORNIA P^RUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

indicates that more eyes are necessary. On the contrary, if the
canes are small, and the bunches of grapes numerous and strag-
gling, and the ripening not even, it indicates that the number
of eyes left should be less.

Pruning may be regulated to produce a good second crop of
grapes or to prevent the formation of a second crop. The second
crop is often desirable in raisin and table varieties, but unde-
sirable in wine varieties.

Attention should be paid to the tools used in pruning. Let
the blades be kept sharp and thin; large shears are very apt to
bruise the wood more than small ones.

Pruning is done after the fall of the leaves and before the
swelling of the buds, usually in January and February. Early
pruning has a tendency to make the vines start growth early,
consequently in frosty situations pruning is often deferred till
late in the winter — as late as the middle of March in some cases.
In such situations it is advised to leave more buds at pruning,
so if the frost kills the first shoots there are buds below to make
later growth. This practice has been followed with m.arked
advantage in some regions liable to late spring frosts.

The treatment of vines injured by spring frosts is clearly the
immediate removal, by a sharp downward jerk, of the frosted
shoots. P. C. Rossi, a large vineyardist, recites this experience,
both in the San Joaquin and Santa Rosa Valleys :

We had all the vines affected by frost entirely stripped of the damaged shoots,
and we had the pleasure of seeing that, in a short time after, all the dormant buds
came out finely, with their regular two bunches of grapes ; therefore we have lost
only one-third of the crop. In order to make careful experiment we left a row
of vines untouched, and the result proved that the vines that were not stripped
did not do as well as the others, as the dormant buds in many cases did not come
out, and those that came out were not healthy and strong, and hardly had any
grapes. The damaged shoots that were not removed died gradually, and at the
junction with the cane new shoots came out without any grapes at all. The
result clearly proves that we will have fully two-thirds of the crop out of the
frost-bitten vines which were stripped of the damaged canes, while we had hardly
any first crop and only a second crop on the vines which were not attended to.

DISEASES OF THE VINE

One of the most prevalent diseases of the vine in California
is caused by a fungus which afifects leaves, canes, and berries,
and is locally known as "mildew." This disease is recognized
by grayish white coloring of the affected leaves, which, as the
disease progresses, shrivel and dry up; the young cane also black-
ens and dries, and the berries show whitish patches, which be-
come darker colored and the berries crack open. The usual rem-
edy for the trouble is finely-ground or sublimed sulphur applied
several times during the season, as will be described in the chap-
ter on diseases of trees and vines.

VARIOUS VINE TROUBLES

367

The Bordeaux Mixture and other copper preparations are
sometimes useful upon grape-vines, as will be cited in the chapter
on plant diseases.

Coulure. — A frequent misfortune of the vine, and for w^hich
no remedy is yet known, is coulure, a term signifying the failure
of the fruit to set or to remain on the cluster. This occurs in
varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the almost
complete clearing of fruit from the stem. It is worse with some
varieties than others and in some localities than others. The
trouble is believed to arise from various causes.

There is, also, occurring with more or less frequency, a red-
dening and death of the vine leaves, supposed to be identical
with the trouble known to the French as "rougeole." The leaves
show light-colored spots at first, which afterward turn red and
finally involve the whole leaf or cane, and sometimes the whole
vine. It usually occurs in mid-summer, and is not necessarily
fatal in its effects.

Root Knot. — An evil occurring on the main stem of the vine,
generally near the surface of the ground, is an excresence of
woody character commonly called "black knot." There has been
much discussion as to the cause of this abnormal growth, without
full agreement among observers. Some attribute the knots to
injuries to the stump in cultivation, others to outbursts of sap
which the short pruning system does not give top growth enough
to dispose of, and to various other causes. This is analogous to
the "crown knot" of fruit trees which will be mentioned in the
chapter on plant diseases.

Anaheim Disease. — There has prevailed for several years in
California a mysterious disease of the vine known as the "Ana-
heim disease," because its evil work first appeared in that vicinity.
It destroyed many thousand acres of vines and led to the aban-
donment of grape growing in some regions in southern California.
The fullest statements concerning its performance can be found
in Bulletin No. 2, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of
Vegetable Pathology, by Newton B. Pierce, 1892, and Farmers'
Bulletin No. 30, 1895. Fortunately during recent years the trouble
has been less aggressive but neither its nature nor satisfactory
treatment has been fully demonstrated. The latest available
information concerning it and other troubles of the vine can be
had by application to the University Experiment Station at
Berkeley.

CHAPTER XXVIII
GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA

Large collections of grape varieties have been brought into
California during the last forty-five years. They were sought
in all grape countries, and from such wide experimental planting
a few have survived in popular esteem and are now chiefly grown.
Being derived from different countries, they came bearing many
names. Some of these have been preserved, some wholly lost,
and replaced with local appellations. The result is that our grape
nomenclature is full of confusion. Some varieties have been iden-
tified by the means of the standard French grape literature :
others are apparently unknown to the compilers of that literature.
It is, therefore, impossible to-day to determine a number of our
most popular table and shipping grapes, as well as some of the
wine varieties. The relative importance of the most popular table
and raisin grapes is shown in the accompanying tabulation of
reports from growers secured as described in Chapter XVI, relat-
ing to the relative standing of orchard fruit varieties. These
growers were asked to name the grapes which they considered
best worth planting in 1908.

Grape varieties approved by California growers

Central Sacramento San Joaquin

GRAPES, coast valley and valley and Southern

valleys foot-hills. foot-hills. California.

Muscat * ** ** **

Tokay * ** ** *

Cornichon * ** * •*

Sultanina (Thompson) * ♦♦ ** **

Emperor •* **

Malaga , * ** ** **

Rose of Peru ** * ♦

Black Morocco * * •

Verdal * *

Sultana * *

Mission * * • *

Black Hamburg * * * *

Black Ferrara *

Gros Colman *

Zabalkanski *

Palomino * *

Sweetwater * ** *

Pierce * *

Concord * **

Delaware * *

Niagara * . ^

Campbell's Early *

Agawam *

* Indicates that the variety is approved in the region designated.
** Most highly commended.

368

GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

3^9

The last six named are grapes of popular eastern types. They
are of exceedingly small commercial importance and are chiefly
grown in Southern California : not because eastern varieties are
better suited to local conditions there than in other parts of the
State but because there are more people who enjoy them.

In order to characterize our leading table grapes, descriptions
will be quoted from the best available local authorities, as follows :

Early Black July, syns. Madeleine, Madeline Noir, ^fc— "Leaves rather small,
light green above and beneath ; bunches small and compact ; berries small, quite
round ; skin thick, black, covered with a blue bloom ; flavor moderately sweet,
but not rich nor perfumed. The earHest grape, and chiefly valued for dessert on
that account." — Hyatt.

White July; syn. Luglienga.— "Vine strong-growing and sensitive to frost;
leaves of medmm size, deeply five-lobed, dark green, glabrous on both sides,
sharply toothed, the terminal tooth of each lobe very long and acuminate;
bunches of medium size, well filled ; berries of medium size, oval, at first green,
becoming yellow with overripeness, with thin skin, crisp, firm flesh, and agreeable
{{a\or."—Bioletti. The Luglienga, which means July grape, is one of the earliest
grapes known.

Early Madeleine; syn. Madeleine Angevine. — "Moderate, grower, with long-
jointed, brown wood; leaf medium, deeply lobed, dark green above, tomentose
below; young points reddish, woolly, slender; bunch medium, compact, shoul-
dered; berry medium, oblong, yellowish green, transparent, rather thick skin,
sweet and juicy. Vine a shy bearer when frost is prevalent." — Husmann.

Chasselas Dore; syn. Fontainebleau, Sweetwater. — "A rather vigorous grower,
with medium or somewhat slender canes of a reddish-brown color; young shoots
of garnet color, nearly or quite glabrous; leaves rather below average size, a
little longer than wide, glabrous above and nearly so below, except for a few
hairs on the main nerves, with well-marked sinuses, the petiolar one often closed,
the petiole long, rather slender, and rose-colored; bunches of medium or over-
medium size, conico-cylindrical, shouldered, more or less compact ; berries medium
to large, with firm but tender skin^ small seeds ; of delicate flavor and texture, at
first crisp but becoming soft with full maturity. The grapes are of a clear green
color, tinged with a beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun." — Bioletti.

Chasselas Rose. — Fruit resembling foregoing, except that both bunch and
berries are usually smaller, and flavor is more pronounced.

Chasselas Victoria. — "Vine vigorous, very short- jointed and brittle, and bears
well with short pruning; wood grayish yellow, thick and strong; leaf light green,
deeply lobed and shining ; young shoots with numerous laterals ; bunch very large
and heavy, often weighing five pounds, shouldered, very compact ; stem brown,
very thick; berry medium, round, pale lilac, purple, with lilac bloom, juicy, vinous,
refreshing." — Husmann.

Palomino; syn. Golden Chasselas. — "The vine quite largely grown as "Golden
Chasselas" is undoubtedly identical with the Listan, or Palomino." — Hilgard.
Vine a fair grower ; wood close-jointed ; leaf medium, oblong, deeply lobed, bright
green above, grayish green and tomentose below ; stem short, young points with
reddish tint and woolly ; bunch large, conical, rather loose and shouldered ; berry
round, full medium, sometimes flat, pale green with yellowish tinge ; thin skin,
juicy and sweet, resembling Chasselas." — Husmann.

Black Malvoise. — "Vine a strong grower ; wood long-jqinted, rather slender,
light brown ; leaf medium size, oval, rather evenly and deeply five-lobed ; basal
sinus moderately open, with parallel sides, upper surface smooth, almost glabrous,
lower surface lightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets ; bunches large, rather
loose, branching ; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom ; flesh
juicy, flavor neutral." — Hilgard. Widely grown as an early table grape.

370

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Mission. — "This variety, grown at the old missions, has never been determined,
nor its exact source ascertained. It is by some regarded as a most deHcious table
grape. It can be found in small areas in every county of the State adapted to the
grape. Vine a strong grower; wood short- jointed, dull dark brown to grayish;
leaf above medium size, slightly oblong, with large, deeply-cut, compound teeth,
basal sinus widely open, primary sinuses shallow and narrow, secondary sinuses
ill-defined, smooth on both sides, light green below with light, scattered tomen-
tum." — Hilgard. "Bunches slightly shouldered, loose, divided into many small,
distinct lateral clusters ; berries medium size, round, purple black, heavy bloom ;
exceedingly sweet, juicy, and delicious; seeds rather large; skin thin." — Hyatt.

Muscatel; syn. White Frvntignan. — "Vine of mediufti size, with strong, spread-
ing canes ; canes reddish-brown, with short internodes ; leaves of medium size,
thin, five-lobed, glabrous, except for a few hairs on the lower side of the well-
marked ribs ; bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact ; berries round, golden-
yellow, becoming amber-colored, very sweet and of marked aroma. Ripens a
little later than the Chasselas." — Bioletti.

White Muscat of Alexandria.* — "Vine a short, rather straggling and bushy
grower, well adapted to short stool pruning, as it forms rather a bush than a
vine; wood gray, with dark spots, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed, bright
green above, lighter green below; young shoots a bright green. The laterals
produce a second and even a third crop ; bunch long and loose, shouldered ;
berry oblong, light yellow when fully mature, transparent, covered with white
bloom, fleshy, with thick skin, very sweet and decidedly musky." — Husmann. The
leading table grape of California. Rejected for irregular bearing on some mesa
lands in southern California.

Muscatel Gordo Blanco. — "Muscatel Gordo Blanco has a closer bunch and
rounder berry than the Muscat. The skin is softer and the pulp is not quite so
hard. The berry inclines to be a little darker in color and not nearly so green
when it is ripe, and I think not quite as long as the Muscat of Alexandria. If
the. Muscat would set as well as the Muscatel, the difficulty would be obviated.
One very important difference is that when you come to dry them, the Muscat of
Alexandria loses the bloom very rapidly. The bloom comes of¥ when you come
to dry and pack them. But the Muscatel does not lose its bloom. The Muscat
of Alexandria has to be dried a little more than the Muscatel to bring it into a
keeping condition under the same condition of ripeness." — R. B. Blowers.

"The growth of the Muscatel or Gordo Blanco vine is low and spreading, with
no upright branches in the center; clusters heavy, and, when perfect, close and
shouldered; berries round and large (the greatest circumference being at the
center), a crease often being found at the apex of the berry; color green, or,
when fully ripe, amber green or yellow. Distinguished from Muscat of Alex-
andria by low, depressed growth of vine, closer cluster, rounder berries, and by
thicker and finer bloom. The Muscatel is the choice raisin grape for the San
Joaquin Valley, and for the interior generally." — Dr. Eisen.

Huasco Muscat. — A variety brought from Chile, but after wide trial in Cal-
ifornia, seems not superior to the other White Muscat varieties previously men-
tioned. Its dense cluster is not well adapted to raisin making. It is held, how-
ever, to be less subject to coulure.

Feher Ssagos. — "Vine a strong grower and heavy bearer ; branches erect but
slender; leaves glossy, entire; bunches medium to small, pointed, and solid;
berries greenish amber, medium oval, pointed, with thin skin and few small
seeds; flesh not firm, but dries well and makes a good raisin." — Dr. Eisen.

Larga Bloom; syn. Uva Larga. — A variety of Muscat said to be named because
of the length of its berries, but held by some growers to be indistinguishable from
Muscatel Gordo Blanco. An excellent raisin grape, but now chiefly grown as a
table fruit in the Santa Cruz Mountains.

* There is much doubt about the White Muscats as grown in California. Some
claim inability to distinguish between certain grapes of the Muscat type which are
being grown in this State under distinctive names; others pronounce them clearly
different varieties. The matter can not be adjusted at present.

GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

371

White Malaga. — "Vine a strong grower; wood reddish brown, short-jointed;
leaf medium, leathery smooth, deeply lobed, light shining green above ; bunch very
large, loose, shouldered, long; stem long and flexible; berry very large, oval,
yellowish green, covered with white bloom ; thick skin, fleshy." — Husmann.
Grown in southern California in situations where the Muscat does not do well;
also elsewhere as a table grape, and to some extent in San Joaquin Valley for
raisins.

Sultana; syn. Seedless Sultana. — "Vine vigorous, upright; leaves large, five-
lobed, with rather large sinuses, light colored, and coarsely toothed ; bunches
large, long-cylindrical, with heavy shoulders or wings, well filled when not cul-
tured, but not compacted ; berries small, round firm and crisp, golden-yellow, and
without seeds." — Bioletti. In California the variety is apt to have some seeds.
It has more acid, and therefore greater piquancy of flavor, than Thompson's
Seedless, but the latter has recently far outstripped it in popularity among
growers.

Thompson's Seedless. — Named by Sutter County Horticultural Society, after
W. Thompson, Sr., of Yuba City, who procured the cutting in 1878, from Ellwan-
ger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. It was by them described as "a grape
from Constantinople, named Lady Decoverly." When it fruited in Sutter County,
it was seen to be superior to the Sultana, and has been propagated largely. It was
first widely distributed by J. P. Onstott of Yuba City, and others, and is now to
be found in all parts of the State. The variety is described by Dr. Eisen as
follows : "Oval ; greenish-yellow ; as large as a Sultana ; seedless, with a thin
skin ; good, but not strong flavor, and without that acid which characterizes the
Sultana grape and raisins ; bunches large or very large ; vine an enormous bearer."
Mr. Bioletti considers the variety identical with the Sultanina of Asia Minor, and
gives this description : "Vine very vigorous and with large trunk and very long
canes ; leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellowish-green above and light below,
generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses, teeth short and obtuse, bunch large,
conico-cylindrical, well filled, on herbaceous peduncles ; berries under medium,
ellipsoidal, crisp, of neutral flavor, with moderately thick skin of a fine golden-
yellow color."

Flame Tokay; syn. Flame-colored Tokay, Flaming Tokay. — "Vine a strong
grower, large in all its proportions, wood, joints, leaves ; wood dark brown,
straight, with long joints; leaves dark green, with a brownish tinge; lightly lobed;
bunch very large, sometimes weighing eight to nine pounds, moderately compact,
shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, red, covered with fine lilac bloom ; fleshy
and crackling, firm ; ripens late." — Husmann. The leading shipping grape of the
State, quality low. Defective in color in some localities.

Black Hamburg. — "Bunches very large, from six to ten inches in length, very
broad at the shoulders, tapering to a point gradually ; berries very large, round,
slightly incHning to oval ; skin rather thick, deep purple, very black at maturity ;
very sugary, juicy, and rich." — Hyatt. A very popular market grape.

Rose of Peru; syn. Black Prince (?). — "Vine a strong grower, with dark
brown, short-jointed wood ; leaf deep green above, lighter green and tomentose
below ; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose ; berry round, large, black, with
firrn and crackling flesh, ripens rather late; a very handsome and productive
variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long shipment." — Husmann.

Moscatello Pino; syns. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat. — "Leaves of medium
size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above, slightly downy
below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp ; bunches large to very
large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged ; berries very large, on long,
thin pedicels; skin well colored, thin but tough; flesh soft and juicy, with deli-
cate Muscat aroma. An excellent table grape. It is a heavy bearer, and pro-
duces very fine-looking bunches of dark colored grapes. Rather late." — Bioletti.

Purple Damascus; syn. Black Damascus. — "Vine a medium grower; wood
light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed; leaf round, five-lobed,
smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath ; stem reddish, large, long and
woody ; bunch large, loose, shouldered ; berry very large, oblong, dark blue,
covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late." — Husmann.

372

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Purple CornicJwn; syn. Black Cornichon. — "Vine a heavy grower, with
thick, light brown, short-jointed wood ; leaves large, longer than wide, deeply
five-lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below, coarsely toothed,
and with short, thick petiole ; bunches very large, loose, on long peduncles ;
berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and spotted, thick-
skinned, and on long pedicels. Desirable on account of its attractive appear-
ance, curious shape, excellent shipping qualities, and late ripening." — Bioletti.

White Cornichon. — Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, but
has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but poorer
for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut ; smooth on both sides.

Emperor. — "Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with five
shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth, glabrous above, woolly beneath, light green in
color; bunches very large, long, conical, loose, with large, dull purple, oval,
firm berries." — Bioletti. An excellent shipping grape, largely grown by R, B.
Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo County, by whom its merits were first announced.
Pronounced unsatisfactory because of irregular setting and non-ripening in
localities near the coast in northern California, and generally condemned in
southern California. Seems best adapted to interior situations and is chiefly
grown for shipping in the San Joaquin valley.

Black Ferrara. — A large black grape; large bunches; berries cling well to
the stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market variety
and long-distance shipper.

Gros Colman; syn. Dodrelabi. — "Vine strong-growing, with dark brownish
wood; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and bluntly
toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below ; bunches large, short, well filled,
but not compact ; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick but tender
skin. Remarkable as having the largest berries of any round berry variety
known, and is probably the handsomest black table grape grown. The grapes
have good keeping qualities, except that they are liable to crack." — Bioletti.

Black Morocco. — "Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes ; leaves
under medium size, very deeply five-lobed, even when very young, the younger
leaves truncate at base, giving them a semicircular outline, with long, sharp
teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both sides ; bunches very
large, short, shouldered, and compact ; berries very large, round, often angular
from compression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull purple color or colorless in
the center of the bunch. Remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches
which it produces on the laterals. Late in ripening and of very fine appear-
ance ; a fairly good shipping grape, but difficult to pack on account of the size
and rigidity of the bunches. The grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but
lacking in flavor." — Bioletti. Vine quite subject to root knot.

Verdal; Aspiran Blanc. — "Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes
somewhat slender and half erect ; leaves of average size, glabrous on both sur-
faces, except below near the axils of the main nerves, sinuses well marked
and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes ; teeth
long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate ; bunches large to very large, irregular
long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well-filled to compact ; berries
yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with thick but tender skin, agreeable,
but without marked flavor." — Bioletti. Largely grown as a late table grape ;
in good condition ; in some regions as late as November,

Almeria. — "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not
at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and
small ; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical ; berries from small to
large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." — Bioletti.^ The
grape cultivated at the University experiment stations under this name is one
of the several varieties which are shipped in such large quantities from Malaga
and Almeria packed in sand or cork-dust. The grapes ripen late and attain
about 20.0 per cent of sugar. They have remarkable keeping qualities. Vine
needs long pruning, and is only adapted to hot, interior situations.

WINK GRAPES FOR CALIFORNIA

373

There are many other vinifcra varieties which are grown to a
limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these
are the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion,
Cinsaut, Zabalskanski, etc., for table use; the White and Black
Corinth, for drying. With grapes, as with other market fruits,
the planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular
kinds.

EASTERN GRAPES

Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species
indigenous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids be-
tween these species and the vinifera, have been introduced in
California, their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant
proportions, and does not constitute even a respectable fraction
of one per cent of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly
prefers the vinifcra varieties. There is, however, a variety believed
to be of local origin, which is worthy Of mention as follows :

Isabella Regia. — "A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of the
Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa Clara.
The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when ripe the fruit
is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore, acceptable as a
showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but readily surfeiting those
who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The berries are too soft for ship-
ment to any distance, but all things considered, keep fairly." — Hilgard. Grown
as the "California Concord" in the Los Angeles region.

WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

Progress is being continually made in the propagation of
varieties yielding wine, and in the manufacture thereof. The
hosts of considerations involved in this efifort are beyond the
scope of this work and largely beyond the writer's knowledge.
It is important, however, to have an intelligent discussion of the
suitability of varieties grown for this purpose, prepared by Mr.
F. T. Bioletti, as follows :

1. Vineyard for sweet wine in the interior valleys

Red. Proportion.

Grenache i^

Alicante Bouschet i/4

Tinta Madeira i/4

White. Proportion.

Palomino i/^

Beba i/4

Boal %

374

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Grenache and Alicante Bouschet are heavy bearers with
short pruning. The former naturally takes a port flavor and the
latter insures sufficient color. The Tinta Madeira, when pruned
properly, bears well and will increase the quality of the port wine.

The Palomino is one of the heaviest and most regular bearers
grown in California and is peculiarly suited for sherry making.
It is the principal grape of the Spanish sherry district. The Beba
bears nearly or quite as well as the Palomino and is of rather
better quality. Both bear with- short pruning. The Boal bears
good crops and gives a sweet wine of high quality.

2. Vineyard for dry wine in the interior valleys

White. Proportion.

Valdepenyas ^

Lagrain ,' 14

St. Macaire 14

Red. Proportion.

Burger ^

West's White Prolific i/4

Vernaccia Sarda %

The Valdepejjyas has been growing for nearly twenty years
at the Tulare Experiment Station, and has always given regular
and good crops with short pruning. The dry red wine made from
it has been in every way satisfactory and much superior to that
made from Bouschet, Zinfandel, or any of the varieties usually
grown in the valley, and approaches more nearly than any other
variety the wines of the cooler localities. This variety has been
planted to some extent in the cooler localities, where it is com-
pletely out of place. In Napa its bearing is unsatisfactory and
its wine harsh. The vine needs a hot climate to bring out its
best qualities. The Lagrain and St. Macaire are valuable on
account of their intense color, which at Tulare is equal to that
of the Bouschets and is more stable. The St. Macaire is partic-
ularly recommended on account of its high acidity, which is
extremely useful for the region. The Gros Mansenc retains its
acid even better than the St. Macaire, and is also deeply colored,
but it has not born quite so well.

The Burger has, fortunately, been planted extensively in the
hotter parts of the interior, and probably no better choice could
be made for the production of a cheap, light, neutral dry white
wine in that region. Its acidity, which is excessive in the coast
counties, is normal or even low in the interior. For this reason^
and in order to give a little more character, it should be blended
with such grapes as the West's White Prolific and the Vernaccia
Sarda, which retain their acidity at Tulare better than any other
white grapes tested.

!

WINE GRAPES FOR CALIFORNIA 0^5

3. Vineyard for dry wine in tiie coast counties

Red. Proportion.

Petite Sirali Vz

Beclan %

Cabernet Sauvignon %

White. Proportion.

Semillon Mi

Colombar i/4

Sauvignon blanc i/4

The conditions of soil and climate in the hills and valleys of
the Coast Ranges are so varied that it is much more difficult to give
recommendations that will be of general use than in the case of
the interior valleys. In some parts of some of the valleys the soil is
so rich and productive that it is possible to grow grapes as cheaply
as in the interior. The grapes recommended for the interior,
however, would not in most cases be suitable on the Coast, owing
to the difference in climate. As a rule the grapes which are suit-
able to the hill slopes will do well in the valley, making up in
quantity what they lose in quality.

Of the many scores of red varieties which have been widely
grown in this region, the Petite Sirah has undoubtedly given the
most generally satisfactory results. Some growers are dissatis-
fied with its bearing, but most report that it produces as much
as the Zinfandel. Ungrafted, it requires long pruning. Its wine
is of excellent quality but apt to be somewhat harsh. This harsh-
ness can be avoided by careful winemaking and by blending
with a smooth variety such as the Beclan. The finest red wines
which have ever been made in California are the product of the
Cabernet Sauvignon. This variety, unfortunately, has been
rejected almost everywhere on account of its light crops. Very
satisfactory crops, however, can be obtained if care is taken in
selecting cuttings for planting and a suitable system of pruning
adopted. This variety, like most others, moreover, bears better
when grafted on a suitable resistant stock. It is very much to
be desired that a certain proportion of this variety should be
planted in all the coast vineyards which are capable of producing
a dry red wine of high quality.

No white grape has given better results in both crop and
quality than the Semillon. The Colombar (sometimes called the
Sauvignon vert) has also proved itself a regular bearer, and,
while not of such high quality as the Semillon, it blends very well
with that variety and serves to modify its aroma, which is some-
times excessive. The Sauvignon blanc increases the quality of
the wine, but like the Cabernet, Sauvignon requires careful cut-
ting, selection and pruning to give satisfactory crops.

gYg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

4. Vineyard for dry wine in the cooler parts of the coast counties

Red. Proportion.

Beclan %

Blue Portuguese Vi

White. Proportion,

Franken Riesling %

Johannisberg Riesling 14

In certain parts of the coast counties, owing to the frequent
occurrence of ocean fogs, many varieties of wine do not ripen
their fruit properly. By a careful selection of varieties, however,
good crops of well-ripened grapes may be obtained. It is in
these localities that the finest light wines, those most nearly
resembling the wines of the Rhine, can be produced.

The Beclan has shown itself especially suited to this region,
and has the great advantage of being very resistant to oidium.
The Blue Portuguese is a good bearer, ripens easily, and blended
with Beclan gives a good wine of Burgundy type. The best Ries-
ling wines are grown near the coast and, undoubtedly, profitable
vineyards of the Rhine varieties can be grown in this region if
proper methods of grape-growing and wine-making are adopted.

Undoubtedly there are many excellent varieties of grapes that
could be grown with profit which are not mentioned in the fore-
going lists. The varieties mentioned are simply those which have
given evidence of being most generally adapted to the more usual
conditions.

PART FIVE: SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS
CHAPTER XXIX

DATE CULTURE IN OUR DESERT AREAS

Ever since the arid, semitropical regions of the United States
became known through the narratives of explorers, the date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera) has been projected as a plant likely to
demonstrate commercial value in America like that which it has
held for centuries in the arid regions of Asia and Africa. This
idea was also cherished even at an earlier date by the Spanish
missionaries who brought the palm to California, as will be
described presently. During the last decade the problem of intro-
ducing and establishing a date-growing industry has been taken
up more seriously and systematically than ever before and must
now be looked upon as approaching successful solution. As, how-
ever, the undertaking is still in an experimental stage and appeals
to relatively few people as a line of investment, no attempt will
be made to discuss the date in detail. Instead, citation will be
made of sources whence the reader who desires them can easily
secure information of date-growing methods in the old countries,
discussion of their suitability to our conditions and suggestions
of ways to enter upon date-growing in California.*

The date palm was brought to California by the padres, and
the oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early
plantings. Such trees are found at the San Diego Mission. They
are conjectured to be more than a century old, and they
have survived drought and neglect, making unsuccessful eflfort
at fruiting, for, according to common report, the fruit does
not ripen, but whether owing to the unfavorable conditions indi-
cated, or to lack of fertilization of the bloom, is not known.
There are trees at Ventura,, on the site of the garden of the old
mission of San Buena Ventura, about forty feet in height and
ten feet in circumference at the base, with long, graceful, fern-
like leaves, which put forth about thirty feet from the ground.

* The Date Palm and its Utilization in the Southwestern States, by Walter T.
Swingle, Bulletin 53, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Uept. of Agr., Washington, 1904.

Date Varieties and Date Culture in Tunis, by T. H. Kearney, Bulletin 92, Ibid,
1906.

Date Growing in Southern California, by S. C. Mason. Report of Riverside
Fruit Growers' Convention, State Horticultural Commissioner, Sacramento, 1908.

377

378 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit bear-
ing probably long prevented further attention to the date as a
profitable growth. Still there were date palms grown from seed
of the commercial date planted h^re and there for ornament or
out of curiosity, and in due course of time the fruit appeared.
The first public exhibition of California dates known to
the writer was made at the Mechanic's Institute Fair,
in San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on
the south bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of Solano
County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain
of the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants were
grown by the late J. R. Wolf skill, from seed of commercial dates
purchased in San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The
seed germinated readily, and the young plants were set out in
a row about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich,
fine, sandy loam, lying about twenty-five feet above the bed of
the creek. The plants received good cultivation but no irriga-
tion. This treatment was continued after the property passed
into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants being allowed
to remain in the row as originally planted, and they have attained
great size, considering their crowded condition. They are approx-
imately six feet apart, have trunks about two feet in diameter,
and are twenty-five feet or more in height.

Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of
the situation just described, near the residence of the late J. R.
Wolfskill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which
was planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. Near
it stands a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom. This
latter tree was originally one of the row previously described,
and was successfully moved to its present situation after attaining
considerable size.

The fruit of the two bearing palms diflfers notably in appear-
ance. That of the first-mentioned tree is of bright yellow color
and angular outline ; that of the second tree is wine red, with
smooth surface.

Daring recent years the date has fruited at many places in
California and Arizona. There is little doubt that it will succeed
in any of the interior regions which have a sufficiently high sum-
mer temperature, and even the so-called Colorado Desert may be
dotted with groves of date palms, as portions of it now are with
groves of the majestic fan palm of California.

Soils and Waters for the Date. — Until recently the date
palm has only been planted on good orchard land, but, accord-
ing to experience in date-growing countries, the tree does not
require rich soil, but on the contrary, will thrive in a soil poor in
humus — too poor and too purely mineral for any other fruit tree ;

HOW TO GROW DATES 3*79

and it produces the finest and best-flavored dates, nourished by
water too alkaHne for man and beast to drink. These observa-
tions warrant the trials of the tree which are now being made in
"situations not adapted to other fruits.

PROPAGATION OF THE DATE

The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date
of commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now fruiting
in this State have been obtained in this way. By the use of
seed one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus
securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than with
other fruit-tree seedlings. In date-growing countries the best
varieties are propagated by rooting the off-sets, sprouts, or suck-
ers which appear at the base of the old palms. To secure the best
foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The first suc-
cessful enterprise of this kind was accomplished in the summer
of 1890 by the United States Department of Agriculture, under
the direction of H. E. Van Den>an, then chief of the Division of
Pomology. The plants were divided between New Mexico, Ari-
zona and California. The plants for California were sent to the
Department of Agriculture of the' University of California, and
were planted at the experiment stations at Tulare and at Pomona,
some of them being subsequently transplanted to the United
States Date Garden at Mecca in the Colorado desert region*
Upon fruiting a number of these plants, they seemed to be only
seedlings and not the best foreign varieties, as represented.

•A full account of this effort and its outcome is given in Bulle-
tin 29, of the Arizona Experiment Station.

The United States Department of Agriculture undertook
arrangements in 1899 for new importations, which were success-
fully made, but all that was anticipated in securing valuable vari-
eties was not attained. Director R. H. Forbes, of the Arizona
Experiment Station, writes in Timely Hints No. 72 (April, 1908) :

"Several of the Old World varieties which have thus far fruited
have failed to make good for various, reasons. Some have required
a longer growing season to mature ; others have soured in damp
or cool weather, and still others do not appeal to the American
consumer. A few varieties have proved acceptable in all respects,
and to such as these we must look for future commercial develop-
ments."

Of the foreign varieties thus introduced the following have
been produced in small commercial quantities : Rhars, Tedalla,
Birket el Haggi and Deglet Noor.

Growing Palms from Seed. — Seeds taken from the dried dates
of commerce germinate readily; in fact, seedlings frequently

380 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

appear in the gutters of unpaved streets where the seeds have
been thrown during the rainy season. Director Forbes, of the
Arizona Station, says that seeds will come up more promptly if
first stratified. This may be done by taking a gasoline can or
deep box and placing three inches of sand in the bottom after
making a number of holes in it for drainage. The seeds are placed
upon this layer and the can or box filled with sand, the whole
then being put in a sheltered place and kept moist for three to
six weeks, when the seeds will be soft and ready for prompt
growth when planted. The seedlings may be started in nursery
rows for transplanting after one to three years, or if frequent
irrigations may be relied on, in the field where the trees are to
remain.

Dr. W. T. Swingle, whose work on date growing has already
been cited, gives the following suggestions on the growing of seed-
lings and their subsequent handling to determine sex and to select
bearing palms of desirable type :

The seed should be planted rather thickly in well-drained beds of fertile
soil, free from alkali. These beds should be watered frequently, as the young
date seedlings need an abundance of moisture. If properly cared for, the
seedlings will reach a height of from 12 to 18 inches the first year and can be
transplanted into the permanent orchard the second year.

These seedlings should be set out' in rows about 30 feet apart and placed
5 or 6 feet apart in the row. Ordinarily field crops can be grown between the
rows until long after the palms come into bearing. After three or four years,
when the young palms begin to flower, the male trees can be dug up and
destroyed, thus thinning out about half of the trees. Then when the female
trees come into fruit, those which yield decidedly inferior fruit can also be
removed, so that finally about one-fourth of the original number of seedlings
will be left standing. The spaces between the seedlings will be irregular and
offshoots can be taken from the best sorts and planted where the largest gaps
occur. By preventing offshoots from growing on the poorer sorts they will
yield more fruit and finally can be destroyed and replaced by offshoots from
some of the better sorts. In this way, by degrees, the orchard can be improved
without expense for offshoots aside from the labor of planting them.

Rooting Suckers. — Suckers taken off in w^arm weather and
watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken
not to let the plants dry. Director Forbes gives these points :
Suckers should not be taken from the parent tree until they have
attained a diameter of 5 to 6 inches and a weight of 15 to 20
pounds. Suckers should be removed by cutting in and down
along the line of cleavage between them and the main trunk, with
a strong chisel or a flat-pointed bar. If possible the cut should
be carried down so as to bring away at least one or two sound
roots. The leaves should be closely pruned and for shipment the
cut bases had better be protected against drying out by layer of
wet moss or similar material. In planting, the sucker should be
set in previously irrigated and well settled soil to the depth of
its greatest diameter, taking care that the center of the palm is
not below the irrigating water level.

BLOOM OF THE DATE PALM

381

For convenience in irrigating, a shallow basin of earth should
be made about the sucker, in which, to lessen evaporation and
the rise of alkali, a mulch of fine barnyard litter three or four
inches deep should be spread. The soil about the newly trans-
planted suckers should be kept constantly wet by frequent irriga-
tions. Suckecs should be cut and transplanted April to August,
inclusive, but not during or approaching cool v^eather.

Bearing Age of the Date. — There is much difference in the
ages at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of
different growers. Fruit has been reported on seedlings six years
old and even on plants four years from the seed. Such early
maturity must not, however, be generally expected.

Blooming of the Date. — The date palm is dioecious, and, its
staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on
different trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect
fruiting. Growing plants from seed, as already stated, leaves
the grower in doubt as to the sex of his plants until they bloom.
Usually one obtains a large preponderance of male plants. In
propagating from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the
parent. It is advised to have about one male to twenty female
trees. The pollen can be transported long distances and main-
tains its vitality for a long time.

Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has
been found of advantage in this State and was probably first prac-
ticed by J. R. Wolfskin. Though the staminate tree was but a
few feet away from the pistillate, the male bloom was broken in
pieces and hung to the leaves of the female tree near to the pistil-
late flowers. It was found that the parts of the date cluster which
are nearest to the suspended male blooms have more perfect fruit
than the more distant parts. Other California date growers have
had similar experience.

In Winters the bearing date palms bloom in April and May,
and the fruit ripens in November.

Beauty of the Date Palm. — The date palm in fruit is a beau-
tiful sight. The glaucous green pinnate leaves arch outward.
Between two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished
fruit stalks, which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow
stems a foot or so in length ; and thickly set upon these in clusters
are the various colored fruits covered with a rich bloom. It is a
sight not easily forgotten by a lover of nature, and especially by
one reared in a northern zone, the characteristic vegetation of
which is so different.

CHAPTER XXX
THE FIG

The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of California. Its
majestic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature of the
landscape, and its dense foliage renders the wide space embowered
by it a harbor of refuge from mid-summer heat, both for idlers
and for the industrious. On adjacent farms in Pleasant's Valley,
Solano County, there are large fig groves ; one serves as a shelter
for the packers of fruit from the contiguous orchard, and the other
incloses and shades a croquet ground. Measurements of large
trees are abundant, for old trees are numerous in the interior of
the State, both in the valley and on the slopes of the Sierra
foot-hills. At Knight's Ferry, in Stanislaus County, there is a
fig tree sixty feet in height, with branches of such length as to
shade a circle seventy feet in diameter. The trunk at the base
is eleven feet around, and nine feet at a distance of three feet
from the ground. A little higher the trunk divides into seven or
eight large branches, each of which is nearly five feet in circum-
ference. At thirty feet from the ground the limbs are seven
and eight inches through. The largest grove is in the neigh-
borhood of Knight's Ferry, and consists of fifteen massive black
fig trees, which, though set sixty feet apart, mingle their branches
overhead and form a network through which, in the summer,
hardly a beam of light can pass.

Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts of
the State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is that on
Rancho Chico, quite near the residence of General Bidwell. It
was planted in 1856, and has attained a marvelous growth. One
foot above the ground the trunk measures eleven feet in circum-
ference; the widespreading branches have been trained toward
the ground and, taking root there, banyan-like, they now form
a wonderful inclosure over one hundred and fifty feet in diameter, ^
the tree is loaded every year. fl

The crop on these large trees is proportionate to their size ™
and, entering their area in the morning during the ripening season,
one can scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit may be
gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying.

REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG

Though there are still many fine points to be determined as
to what situations and conditions favor the production of the
very finest figs, and there are indications that there is possibly

382

I

r
I

SOILS FOR THE FIG

383

much difference, it may be truly said that a very small part of
the State is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the im-
mediate coast of the upper part of the State, where the summer
temperature is too low for successful ripening, and keeps below
the altitude of the mountains where winter killing of the tree is
possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere.

Selections of varieties adapted to particular situations has
much to do with the success of the fig, as with other fruits, and,
therefore, a broad statement of adaptability must be received
with such an understanding. The intrusion of the coast influ-
ences borne eastward by the winds of summer, as described in
Chapter I, gives a night temperature too low for ripening of some
varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. Present indications
are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest skin and the
nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the commercial
standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier portions of
the valleys and foot-hills. Even in Southern California fig-souring
is quite prevalent, and selection of locations must be circumspectly
made. More time is requisite for the final demonstration of these
matters, although years have already been devoted to the problem.

SOILS FOR THE FIG

As it must be left with the future to determine the mooted
point as to the influence of special situations upon the bearing
of the fig, and the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so
more experience is needed to demonstrate the comparative effects
of different soils. It might seem, from the fact of the age of our
trees in different parts of the State, that time enough had elapsed
to determine these points, but it must be remembered that all
our oldest trees are of the very hardy variety found at the mis-
sions, and conclusions drawn from them as to all varieties are
unsafe.

The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of select-
ing for any of our common orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig suc-
ceeds on a wider range of soils than any one of them. One is
safe in planting figs for family use, or for marketing, wherever
the summer temperature is high enough to ripen the fruit well,
and the winter temperature high enough to preserve the life of
the tree. This applies merely to the successful growth of the
fig; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit can be profitably
sold for table use, is another question.

The selection of soils especially suitable to the production of
the best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule
in the growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should attain
a good size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In some
parts of the State the first crop of figs in the season has been

384

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

found unfit for drying. The second, and, in some localities, the
third crop, appearing later in the season, when the moisture
supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condition of the first
crop is, however, affected by local conditions, for there are places
in the Sierra foot-hills where the soil moisture has to be replen-
ished early in the season by irrigation to prevent even the first
crop from falling prematurely, and subsequent irrigation brings
to perfection the second and third crops. The fig tree needs
plenty of moisture in the soil, but not too much. As with other
fruits, if the soil does not retain the needed amount naturally, it
must be supplied by irrigation wisely administered.

PROPAGATION OF THE FIG

The fig grows very rapidly from cuttings, and this is the chief
method of propagation. Cuttings should be made while the tree is
fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous
season's growth, giving preference to the stocky, short-jointed
shoots, and making the cuttings about six to eight inches in length.
The cut at the lower end should be made at the joint, or where solid
wood is found. The planting and care of the cuttings is essentially
the same as of vine cuttings, already described. If well made and
cared for, a very satisfactory growth is made the first season, and
the trees are ready for planting out in permanent place the follow-
ing season.

Single Bud Cuttings. — If one desires to multiply a new variety
very rapidly, single-eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also,
analogous to single-eye grape cuttings, as already described.

Budding the Fig. — The foregoing means enable one to propa-
gate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in
propagating other trees ; still, budding is feasible, either on small
plants or on young shoots of old trees which it is described to bud
over.

The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used
for ordinary fruit trees, and described in Chapter IX, but owing to
the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be
closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air. As
the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut out a little of the edges
closest to the bud when in place.

Another method of budding the fig is by annular or "ring bud-
ding," a method also relied upon with the walnut and chestnut.
Annular budding is done in the fall. A circular ring of bark is
taken off from the stock by the aid of a budding knife, by running
two circular cuts around the stock, and a longitudinal one between
the two circular cuts ; the ring of bark taken off must be at least one
inch wide, and from that up to two inches. A like ring of bark is
taken off in the same manner from a scion of the variety to be bud-

.l^i

BUDDING AND GRAFTING THE FIG

385

ded in, and from a branch of the year, or preceding one, well in sap,
and having about the same diameter as the stock. This ring should
have on it one or two buds. It must fit exactly the space prepared
on the stock, and more particularly at the lower circular cut, so that
both barks will exactly unite at that point. When the ring is too
long, a little bit of it might be cut off with a very sharp knife till it
fits well ; if the ring is too large for the stock, a longitudinal strip
would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip, if with a bud on
so much the better, will have to be used to fill up the empty space.
One must be very careful while drawing the knife around the stock
not to go too deep into the wood to injure the cambium layer, or to
weaken the stock. Tie a bandage pretty firmly over the whole.
After two or three weeks the bandage has to be taken off, and, in
the ensuing spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three
inches above the budding.

Another way of working such trees is by "whistle budding,"
which is done /;/ the spring, when the sap is well up. The stock and
scion must be both of the same size and well in sap. The top of the
stock is cut down to several inches from the ground ; a circular ring
of bark is then taken off, and a corresponding ring from the scion,
but without a longitudinal cut, is put in its place. In inserting it
care should be taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive
the ring from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily
pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case of the fig, it is
especially desirable to use the latter method when the sap is up,
because if the top of the stock is not removed, the exudation from
above sours around the bud and prevents the union of stock and
bud.

To prepare an old tree for budding over, the limbs may be cut
back in February within two to six feet of the trunk, covering the
ends with paint of grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start near
the end of each of these amputated limbs, and rub off all other
shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thickness of one's
finger, taking green buds from the growth it is desired to introduce,
or let them grow and bud in the fall, whichever is most convenient;
or bud in the growing shoot, and rebud in the fall where buds have
failed.

Grafting the Fig. — The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft
method, as described in Chapter IX. but the cleft should be made to
one side of the stub and not through the central pith. Especial
care must be taken in excluding the air. Fill the cleft between the
scions with warm wax, which will run in and fill the cavity. Then
bind the stock with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover
the exposed wood surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig
is very prone to shrink and draw back), and as far down the stock
as the bark has been split.

3gg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Cut the shield from a Hmb of about ^ inch in diameter, length of shield
about 11/2 inches, its thickness from J/^ to ^4 inch, and its bud near the middle
of the shield. Do not remove the wood from behind the bud. Make a cut
in the stock, tlirough the bark and into the wood, its length and width a little
greater than those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so that the
inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that one side of
shield and cut — and both sides, if practicable — will coincide. Tlace the flap
of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap so the bud will not be
covered), and fasten flap, shield and stock together very firmly with twine,
and protect them with paper tied around them. They may be grafted in that
mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for the shields. Twenty-four shields
were inserted at several times, during one spring, and there was only one
failure.

A method of bark grafting applied to the fig by George C.
Roeding of Fresno and approved by him after several years of
successful experience, affords an excellent way of grafting over
large trees. It does away with splitting the stock and therefore
hastens the barking-over of an amputation. The branches to be
grafted are cut off within 18 to 24 inches from the point of diverg-
ence from the main bod}^ of the tree, allowing at least two branches
to remain, one of which should be on the southwest, if possible, so
that the grafts will be protected from the afternoon sun.

After having sawed off the branches, the stumps neatly
smoothed over, with a sharp knife, so as to have a clean, smooth
surface, particularly along the edge, two, four or six scions should
be placed on each stock, the number, of course, being regulated by
the size of the stump. Cut out a V-shaped piece of bark. The dis-
tance from the top of the stock to the point of the V should be
about !%■ inches.

Another method is to make slightly outward and downward
cuts into the stub with a sharp knife, so as not to cause a split,
but rather deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge-shaped scions
are firmly pushed and a cord wound around the stub to hold all
strongly in place before waxing thoroughly. This form of grafting
will be shown in the chapter on the walnut, for it is very success-
fully used on that tree also.

The form of side-graft with a saw-cut as described in the chapter
on the peach is also available. A form of bud-graft, that is, bud-
ding with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge
Rhodes of San Jose describes his method, both with the olive and
the fig, in this way :

Select a scion of the proper size, never be smaller than an ordi-
nary lead pencil. As a rule scions from two-year-old wood, with
very little pith and with a diameter of about ^2 inch, will give the
best results. The scions should have a sloping cut at the lower
end, with the bevel all on one side and not like a wedge. The
bevel should be as long or a little longer than the V-shaped
opening in the stock and should fit snugly into this opening, so
that the bark on both edges of the scion touches the bark of the

PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG 3g7

stock. After the scions are placed, wrap tightly with five or six-
ply cotton twine, and cover the wounds as well as the stub with
liquid grafting wax. Wax the top of the scion to prevent drying
out. If waxed cloth is used it must be removed before the warm
weather sets in or the bark will be smothered and will die. After
the scions have become well united, which takes from two to
three months, the strings should be cut. This method of grafting
can not be made successfully until the sap begins to flow, say
from the latter part of February to the first of April. The scions
should never be more than four inches long.

Seedling Figs. — Figs are readily grown from the imported fig
of commerce. Dr. Gustav Eisen of San Francisco, our leading
writer on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for growing
the fig from seed :

Cut open imported Symrna figs ; wash out the seeds in warm water, those
that float are empty and worthless ; those that sink are generally fertile. Sow
these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a frame under
glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very sparingly watered.
Set out next season in nursery row. hi three years from the seed such plans
will be found to bear.

The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to
revert to the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing good
varieties.

PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG

The chief point to observe in planting the fig trees is to get
them far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches
which they attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet
apart if the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant
at forty feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines
between, on the plan of alternate or double squares, described
in Chapter X, would be the best way to lay out a fig orchard —
the intermediate growths to be removed as the figs require more
room.

Very handsome effects are produced by planting the figs along
avenues to inclose orchards of other fruits. Fig trees are grand
for shade around buildings, and wild or Capri figs are desirable
to plant in this way for a purpose which will be mentioned later.

In transplanting fig trees extra care must be taken to keep the
roots from drying. After planting, the stem must be diligently
guarded from sunburn, to which it is liable in the warmer parts
of the State.

Pruning the Fig. — The fig requires very little pruning after
its shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and practice
as to the height at which the head should be formed ; some head

338 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

nearly as low as already advised for common orchard trees ; others,
having in mind the immense thickness attained by the limbs, and
their disposition to droop, head as high as four to six feet, which
is the better way to proceed when the trees are wide-spaced and
expected to attain large size.

In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a
distance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their
expansion without crowding each other, and care should be taken
not to leave too many main limbs. Three limbs, well placed
around the stem, are enough. The branches putting out on the
under side of these limbs should be suppressed, and those grow-
ing upright, or obliquely upright, retained. As the fig has pithy
shoots it is very desirable to cover all cuts with paint or wax.
After getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little
need of pruning except to remove defective branches or those
which will cross and interfere with each other and to prevent
the interior of the tree from becoming too dense. It is better to
remove branches entirely than to shorten them; or, in shortening,
always cut to a strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very,
undesirable in the fig.

Cultivation. — Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other
fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are
usually left to themselves, without cultivation, except cutting out
weeds. Irrigation is governed by local conditions, as already
stated. In starting the orchard it is exceedingly important that
the young trees should not be allowed to sufifer from drying out
of the soil.

Bearing Age of the Fig. — The fig often, and, perhaps, usu-
ally, begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situa-.
tions in this State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and
a crop worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to
calculate definitely upon such returns, for four or five years some-
times pass without a satisfactory crop. We have, also, instances
of ''barren fig trees," which persist in ''dropping their untimely
figs," year after year, during their youth. How much of this
is due to variety, and how much to locality, is not definitely known,
but successful fruiting has been secured by grafting over barren
trees, using scions from bearing trees growing adjacent to them.
This has no relation to the subject which will be next discussed.

THE SMYRNA PIG ggg

CAPRIFICATION*

Caprification consists in suspending the fruit of the wild or
Capri fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that the
pollen may be carried by an insect from the former to the latter.
Until the present decade California has never been able to pro-
duce dried figs equal to the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig.
This was. at first, thought to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety.
After painstaking efifort this variety was introduced. Trees grew
readily from the cuttings ; fruit appeared upon them and dropped
before maturity. Doubt then arose as to whether importers had
not been deceived, and other efforts w^ere made which resulted
in other importations. These also cast to the ground immature
figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact of caprification — the
necessity of having the fruit of the Capri or wild fig adjacent to
the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from the Capri might
visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate its inclosed
flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an almost closed
cavity, could not be reached by ordinary visiting insects. The wild
trees had already been introduced and were freely growing near the
others, but this fact availed nothing — the figs fell just the same
from the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno,
essayed to demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination
was the secret of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the
Capri pollen into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby
the retention of such pollinated figs upon the trees, and when
ripened and dried these had the Smyrna character. The demon-
stration was complete that California could not grow Smyrna figs
without the pollinating agency found to be essential to success
in Smyrna. This agent is a minute wasp called the blastophaga
— an insect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh
of ordinary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost closed eye of
the young fig — so minute that a magnifying glass is necessary
to give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant
effort has been made by various parties to secure the introduction
of this insect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States
Department of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to
secure the insect alive or otherwise in form for permanent resi-
dence. In April, 1899, the feat was accomplished, the blas-

*In a general treatise like this only a passing reference can be made to this
subject, which is perhaps the most interesting in the whole realm of entomo-horti-
culture. The fig grower should secure the following monographs: "Smyrna Fig
Culture in the United States," by L. O. Howard. Year Book of U. S. Dept. of Agr.
for 1900; "The Fig — its History, Culture and Curing," by Gustav Eisen, Bulletin No.
9, Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1901; "The Smyrna Fig at Home and
Abroad," by George C. Roeding, Fresno, Cal., 1903; "Some Points in the History of
Caprification in the Life History of the Fig," by W. T. Swingle; Report of River-
side Fruit Growers' Convention, 1908; "The Latest Development in Fig Culture,"
by G. P. Rixford, Pacific Rural Press, December 18 and 25, 1009,

390 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

tophagas being received from Algiers as collected and forwarded
by W. T. Swingle to Mr. Roeding. Their offspring appeared in
large numbers during the summer and fall of the same year. On
the basis of this achievement the commercial production of a
true Smyrna fig in California began and has rapidly developed.
Mr. Roeding gave his product the musical patronymic "Cali-
myrna," which now adheres also to the variety from which it is
produced.

It is an interesting fact that after this strenuous work was
successfully accomplished it was ascertained that the fig wasp
had really reached California without assistance before 1880 and
has been established in San Joaquin county since that remote date.

To avail himself of the benefits of caprification, every grower
of varieties which require it must also grow suitable Capri figs
and establish the insect in them. California nurserymen supply
these and the insects also when the trees are of suitable age to
receive them.

FOES OF THE FIG

The fig is freer from insect pests than other fruit trees, and
yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly free. The writer has
seen the leaves well covered with a lecanium scale and has found
a moth larva boring in the pith of the young shoots ; still, prac-
tically, the fig tree in California has not yet suffered from insects.

The gophers have a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their
presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a liking
for fig bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at Hock Farm,
on the Feather River, by General Sutter, were completely girdled
from the ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its
hind legs. Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have
been made with this in view, but if the hogs are to be harvesters,
it will be well to protect the stems of the trees from them.

VARIETIES OF THE FIG

The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated example
of the confused nomenclature which pervades California fruits.
Dr. Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring order out of
chaos by a study of foreign records and locally-grown fruit, and
has published a catalogue of varieties chiefly grown in California,
with descriptions of each in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.* The following enumera-
tion is largely restricted to varieties which have been commercially
propagated :

* A much fuller discussion of fig varieties is to be found in Dr. Eisen's Bulletin P,
already cited. Many notes are made of the fruiting in the late John Rock's collection
on the grounds of the California Nursery Co., at Niles, Alameda County, of many
introduced varieties which have not been commercially propagated in California.

FIGS GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 39]^

"^ Adriatic. — Size, medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short; ribs obscure;
eye open, with red iris ; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellowish in
the sun; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in the meat;
varies in quality according to location. This has been found very useful in
California, but is not of fine flavor when dried. It requires rich soil, with con-
siderable moisture and a very large percentage of lime. This variety is not
identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic.

Agen. — Medium size, roundish ; skin bright green, cracking longitudinally
when ripe, showing white bands ; flesh deep red, very rich ; a good bearer, but
very late, requiring a long hot season.

Angclique ; syn. Angelica. — Medium, pyriform ; ribs prominent; yellowish
white ; pulp white, with rose-colored center ; leaves five-lobed. A very good
variety in some of the coast valleys.

Bardajic. — "Very large, obovate, pyriform, long neck and stalk, skin very
thin, grayish green ; pulp rich crimson, fine table fig and largest of Smyrna
class." — Rocding.

Bcllona. — Large, pyriform, dark purple, red flesh, fine flavor when dried.

Black Bulletin Smyrna. — Large, .obtuse, pyriform, short neck, long stalk,
light purple, flesh pink, luscious.

Black Smyrna. — Small, globular, short stem, pulp dark amber, good for
home use.

Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissotte, White. — Medium, round and some-
what flattened, eye large, sunk ; skin waxy, green ; pulp bright red. A very fine
fig. Tree very large.

Brozvn Turkey. — Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck; stalk
short ; apex flattened ; ribs few ; slightly elevated ; eye medium, slightly open,
scales large ; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun, with darker ribs ;
pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer. Brunswick is fre-
quently confounded with this fig. A distinct variety is grown in Vacaville as
Brown Turkey, which is named by Dr. Eisen "Warren."

Brunsivick. — Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is
larger than the other ; apex very obtuse ; neck and stalk very short ; ribs dis-
tinct, but not much elevated ; eye medium, open ; skin pale amber, with violet
tint ; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but lacking flavor. Very common ; re-
quires rich, moist soil.

Celeste, White. — Very small, amber; suitable for preserves.

Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette. — Small, ovate, turbinate; ribs few, but distinct,
especially near apex ; eye raised, rough ; color dark violet amber, without red-
dish blush ; bloom confined to the neck ; skin thin ; pulp deep rose ; meat amber,
sweet, but lacking in flavor.

Checker Injur. — "Roundish, oblate, short neck, flesh reddish, skin greenish
yellow, very thin, dries well." — Roeding.

Col. de Signora Bianco. — Medium sized, pyriform; long ribbed neck; skin
green, changing to yellow ; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious a strong
grower ; late, suited for a warm region.

Dauphine. — Large, round turbinate, purple with blue bloom ; flesh amber.

Doree. — Medium, oblong, bright yellow, flesh rose-color.

Dottato. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck well set; stalk very short or none;
ribs low; skin smooth; eye medium; skin thin, yellowish green, meat white;
pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of the best figs for
drying; tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil. Lately introduced into
California.

392 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Drap d'Or. — Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk ; ribs elevated ;
apex obtuse and concave ; color light violet-reddish amber, not dark ; pulp
rosy red. A fig of very fine quality ; especially useful for confections and
crystallizing ; not identical with Brunswick.

Du Roi. — Above medium ; round, pyriform ; stalk very short ; eye large or
variable, with scales standing out ; skin smooth, pale bluish green ; pulp amber,
with rosy streaks and exceedingly minute seeds. Related to Marseillaise and
Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying.

Early Violet. — Small to very small, round turbinate ; neck distinct but
short ; stalk medium to long ; ribs distinct, elevated ; skin rough ; violet-brown,
with thin pearl-colored bloom ; pulp red. This variety bears almost contmuously
and is preferable to the Ischias and Celeste.

Genoa, White. — Above medium, pyriform ; neck small ; stalk short ; ribs in-
distinct ; skin downy ; eye very small ; skin pale olive-green ; pulp pale rose.
One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise.

Gentile. — Very large ; ovate pyriform ; neck short but distinct ; stalk very
short; skin uneven, with ridges; eye very large, open, with projecting scales;
color greenish yellow, spotted with white ; pulp amber, streaked with rose ;
seeds few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety ripens. It is of
the San Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs.

Grosse Grise Bifere. — Medium ovate pyriform ; neck very short ; stalk short ;
ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in shade;
the bloom is separated by a distinct line from the apex ; pulp deep red. A
tender, good fig.

Hirtu du Japan. — Medium size, roundish with long stalks ; skin very dark ;
flesh opaline ; quality best ; very prolific.

Ischia, Black. — Small ; neck short ; stalk medium ; skin smooth ; color dark
violet black, greenish around the apex ; neck dark ; eye medium, open ; bloom
thin, dark blue ; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size.

Ischia, White. — Size below medium, round, with small neck ; stalk very
short ; eye open ; skin smooth, bluish green, with brown flush ; pulp rosy red.
Common in California.

Kassaba. — "Medium to large, globular, flattened, short neck and stalk, pale
green, pulp reddish, very sweet, dries well. Tree handsomest of Smyrna vari-
eties."— Roeding.

Ladaro. — Very large, oblong, pale yellow, brown cheek, flesh deep, red, rich
and sugary.

Magdalen (Madeleine). — Below medium, round; ribs distmct, rough, dis-
appearing around the eye ; stalk longer than the fig, eye open, large ; skin
greenish yellow ; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Ischias
and Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique.

Marseillaise, Long. — Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish
shade; pulp dull red. Requires moist soils. A fair fig, which dries well. Not
related to either Black or White Marseillaise.

Marseillaise, White. — Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk medium;
ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin downy, pale
yellowish green, mottled with white; pulp amber, with a few large seeds. One
of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil.

'^Mission, Black. — Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short; ribs
distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with red
flush; pulp not fine, red but not bright or brownish amber; sweet, but not high-
flavored; common in the Southern States, California and Mexico. The oldest
fig in this country.

PIGS GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

393

Monaco Bianco; syn. White Monaco. — Large, rounded, turl)inate; flattened,
neck small but very distinct; ribs numerous; eye very open; skin dark bluish
green, with thin bloom; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent tig for table,
one of the best in California.

Mouissouna. — Globular, turbinate, flattened, dark violet, blue bloom, pulp
red, soft and sweet.

Pacific White. — An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer
County. Medium, size, fine grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is
thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are
the only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in southern California.

Pastiliere. — Large, 3 inches by i^^; elongated, pyriform, with long neck;
stalk short; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris; skin rough, hairy, with
blue bloom; pulp red. Fine for preserves.

Ronde Noire. — Large, round, but irregular; neck distinct, short; eye small;
skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown; pulp amber. Greatly to be recommended
as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn Prolific.

Ronde Violette Native. — Large, globular, with no neck; glossy green, shaded
violet brown; eye large; flesh amber, surrounding rose center.

Rose Blanche. — Large, roundish, flattened; long stalk; brown or white
ground; flesh bright red. Suitable for table and drying.

Royal Vineyard. — Medium, pyriform, long, slender neck; reddish brown, blue
bloom; eye large, open; flesh bright red.

San Pedro, White; syn. Brebas. — Very large, round, flattened at apex; stalk
and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color or
greenish in the shade, without bloom; pulp amber. A remarkable and hand-
some fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited only for
table use. Requires moist, rich soil.

San Pedro, Black. — Very large, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with
well-set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck; pulp red, coppery,
tinted violet. For table use. The largest fig known.

'Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying fig of Smyrna, Calimyrna). — Of sev-
eral attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces
the well-known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco
Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence, and
is now generally conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thousand cut-
tings were obtained through United States Consul E. J. Smithers, in 1882, and
a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A later direct
importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the Fancher Creek Nur-
sery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit, as has been described
in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the summer of 1890 cuttings
imported from Smyrna by the United States Department of Agriculture were
sent to several parties in this State. As the fig insect has fully established
itself, as described on a previous page, this variety will establish itself as the
leading drying fig here as a Smyrna, and a very important industry will be
established upon it. Other figs previously called Smyrna in this State are
misnamed.

The Rixford Fig. — There are, however, new varieties of direct Smyrna
parentage attracting attention in this State. The planting of Smyrna fig seed
by Mr. E. W. Maslin, at Loomis, in 1886, has yielded several varieties which
Mr. W. T. Swingle described in the Pacific Rural Press of February 27, 1909,
as of decided promise, and at least two of them represent a new type of drying
figs, decidedly different from any of the varieties of the Smyrna fig as yet im-
ported from the Old World. These new varieties, which might be called
self-sealed figs, show a drop of pellucid gum completely filling the very narrow

394 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Rixford Fig Showing the Gum Drop.

Original Rixford Fig Tree at Loomis.

THE GUM DROP FIG 395

mouth of the fruit when it matures. As the figs dry and shrivel on the tree
and fall to the ground, the drop of gum hardens and hermetically seals the
mouth, effectually preventing the entrance of filth beetles, pomace flies and
other insects. Such figs do not sour, since the germs causing fermentation
are unable to effect an entrance to the pulp within. One of the self-sealing
varieties was discovered late in October, 1908, by Mr. A. H. Brydges of
Looniis, through the circumstance that the fruit had withstood uninjured two
soaking rains that had ruined the figs on the adjoining trees, which, being
seedlings, were all different varieties, and not self-sealed. The best studied
of the self-sealed figs Mr. Swingle has named "Rixford," in honor of Mr.
G. P. Rixford, whose early service in the introduction of the Smyrna fig has
been mentioned above. The figs are of medium size (about i^4 to 2 by i^ to
2 inches) with a short stalk. The skin is pale in color, very thin and tender,
often translucent and amber colored in the figs that have cured on the ground.
The pulp is light amber colored, full of fertile seeds, sweet and of excellent
flavor. The drop of hardened gum that closes the mouth is usually from one-
sixteenth to one-eighth inch in diameter, sometimes concealed just within the
mouth, but usually partly protruding outside. The Rixford tree is of free
growth, having a spread of perhaps 50 feet, though grown from seed planted
in 1886 and set out in 1887.

Verdal, Round. — Below medium, round pyriform without stalk or neck;
skin smooth, waxy, bluish green; eye closed; pulp dark, blood red. A small
fig, but valuable for canning and preserves ; better than the Ischias or Celeste.
It does well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the interior of the
State.

White Endich. — A re-named variety. Medium, golden yellow, pulp white
tinged with pink; tree prolific and long ripening season.

Verdal Longue. — Medium, oblong, turbinate; stalk and neck short; eye
closed; yellow, ribs brownish; flesh red; sweet aromatic.

Ziiititca. — Large, pyriform, greenish yellow amber flesh; good grower and
bearer.

There are many uncletermincd varieties of the fig grown' here
and there in the State. Some may be finally identified, others
may be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried fruit and
shonld be more carefully experimented with. During the last
decade there has been a marked decline in interest in the fig
because of the failure to secure the Sniyrna type in the dried fruit
and because so many varieties soured before drying. The out-
look seems to rest upon successful caprification, although recently
there has been increased success in profitable drying of other
varieties.

CHAPTER XXXI

THE OLIVE AND ITS GROWTH IN CALIFORNIA

The olive is another of the old mission fruits and though the
tree and its products have been constantly under discussion since
the American occupation, and though experimentation has been
constant, it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular favor turned
strongly toward the olive. For twelve years thereafter planting
proceeded with enthusiasm amounting almost to infatuation, until
the acreage in olives ten years ago reached such a figure that even
the most enthusiastic ceased from further planting, because the
future of the products of the olive was by no means clear. The
competition of olive oil with cheaper salad oils worked greatly to
the disadvantage of the higher-priced article, but as deception is
now ruled out by recent pure-food legislation, cheaper oils can
no longer be sold under the name of the olive, and legitimate pro-
ducers will henceforth be protected.

The difficulty of producing pickled ripe olives with good keep-
ing qualities is also vastly greater than anticipated. In addition
to these troubles the sterility of the trees in some situations,
through frost or other agencies, discouraged many growers. It
is probable that during the last decade the uprooting of trees far
exceeded the planting and the olive acreage decreased consider-
ably. At the same time there has been much progress attained
in the building and equipment of oil mills and pickling estab-
lishments, and in mastery of processes which yield acceptable
products — all of which have favorably influenced the demand and
price of the fresh fruit. The fact is, the olive was boomed in Cali-
fornia along spectacular and speculative lines, and the industry
must outlive the mistakes which were made. California will pro-
duce profitably, good olives and olive products in suitable places
and through the efiforts of masterful men and women who can rise
to the requirements of production and of protection against imi-
tation articles in the trade.

The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14 degrees Fah-
renheit in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below
the freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varieties
which carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months.

The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of Cali-
fornia, and it has been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry
even for the grape-vine, and too rocky for any other fruit tree,

396

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39§ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

but the growth of the tree and the bearing of fruit will be pro-
portional to the amounts of plant food and moisture, and it is
idle to expect fruit without irrigation if the soil can not hold
water enough for the tree. On foot-hill slopes the trees bear fruit
earlier than in the rich valleys, although in the latter the trees
attain larger growth. Trees in the interior bear sooner than
on the coast, and ripen their fruit earlier in the season.

The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great variety
of soils. It is productive, if frosts are not too severe, on moist
valley lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations had to
be made between boulders, or into disintegrating rock, the tree has
exhibited thrift and content with the situation. But the conclusion
should not be drawn that the olive relishes poor soil. It may
thrive with loose rocks or boulders, but it finds among them the
elements it needs including an adequate supply of moisture. It
is not to be inferred that the olive will succeed on sterile soil.

Although the relations of soils to the qualities of oil have been
investigated by the University of California Experiment Station
and some interesting results published, we have not had experience
enough in this State to demonstrate the influence of soils on the
quality of the oil, but trade results have shown that good oil has
been made from fruit grown on some of our best valley fruit so'ls,
deep and naturally well drained, as well as from fruit grown upon
drier uplands, and the production on deeper, richer lands is much
larger.

PROPAGATION OF THE OLIVE

Olives are propagated from seed, and from cuttini^s of various
kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom ]:)ractiscd in
this State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes
the variety desired without grafting.

Growing Olives from Seed. — The olives should not be planted
with the pulp, but cleaned of this either by letting them rot in a
pile or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut the oil.
A simple way to hasten germination is to break the pits, taking
care not to hurt the germ. An instrument similar to the nut
cracker has been invented in France which is said to work well.
When the kernels are deprived of their shell, they are kept moist
in a compost, or mixture of cow-dung and sandy soil, and are
sown thickly in the month of April. If it is thought to be too
much work to take the kernels out of the pits, they must be soaked
for twenty-four hours in a solution of one-half pound of concen-
trated lye to the gallon of water. Most of the seeds sprout the
first year. Planting the naked kernels gives the quickest result.
Without using this artificial means the seeds may remain dormant
at least for two years.

GROWING- OLIVES FROM CUTTINGS

399

Large Cuttings. — There are two chief methods of propagating
the oHve from cuttings now practiced in California. One uses
well-matured wood, and the other young wood which has just
passed out of the herbaceous state. Practice with hard wood
proceeds by taking cuttings of sound wood about a foot long and
one-half to one inch in diameter, and rooting them as already
described for vine cuttings, in Chapter XXVI. These large cut-
tings sometimes remain dormant for a year or more, and recent
propagation has been almost exclusively by the small-cutting
method.

Manner of Rooting of small olive cuttings.

Small Cuttings. — Propagating by small cuttings has increased
rapidly during the last few years. It serves an excellent purpose
in rapid multiplication of the new varieties which are being secured

400 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

from abroad; it enables the grower to handle a large number of
plants in a small space, and the plants from small cuttings have
a symmetrical root system quite resembling that from a seed.
These cuttings are made from very small shoots and both the
tips and the lower cuts are used. In the engraving the figure on
the lower left is a tip cutting; the next, a cutting lower down the
shoot. These figures are about natural size, and show clearly
how the cuttings are made. They are placed closely in boxes

ti

Propagating the Olive by small cuttings.

of sand about four inches deep, and after a few months are potted
in small pots, or may be reset farther apart in boxes of soil or
in the open ground. In January or February, the wood seems
to be in the best condition in Berkeley, but such condition may
come at other times in other parts of the State. From such cut-
tings the trees will be of good size for planting in permanent place
the next year. It is very important to take the small cuttings
just when the wood is in the right condition, not too soft nor
too hard. How to determine this point can not be described ; it
must be learned by experience.

Growing Trees from Truncheons. — New varieties secured
from the south of Europe generally come in the shape of trun-
cheons, which are long sticks of hard wood. They may be planted
entire, or be sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive cuttings,
even in firewood shape, will grow if properly treated), though

BUDDING AND GRAFTING OLIVES

401

better trees come from small cuttings. If the truncheons are
bedded a few inches below the surface in moist, warm soil, shoots
will appear which can be worked up into small cuttings wdien they
reach the proper condition.

BUDDING THE OLIVE

Since the planting of a large area of Redding Picholines and
the fruit found to be that of a wild or poor seedling olive and not
a superior named variety, there has been a demand for working;
over the trees into better varieties. More recently many of the
imported varieties have proved disappointing and a change to a

Olive: Twig-Bud as cut.

variety profitable in the region is imperative. The method of
budding commonly employed with fruit trees does not usually
yield a high percentage of success with the olive, and other ways
have been adopted with much better results.

Budding may be performed at any time of the year when the
sap flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie dormant
through the winter. Best results are obtained when the buds are
inserted early in the spring, as the operation can be performed
to a much better advantage, and the buds will grow to some height
before winter. When inserted in large orchard trees, or in limbs
of large trees, the shoots from the inserted buds are allowed to
grow until they have attained such a size as. will justify in the
removal of the entire top.

Twig Budding. — Twig budding is very successful. The bud
is cut deep into the wood, in order to give the bud as much bark
as possible. The leaves are partly cut ofif; then, with the sharp
point of the budding knife, the greater part of the wood inside
of the bud is removed, as shown in the picture. If part of the wood

402 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

IS not removed, then the bud can not take, as the wood in it pre-
vents the two barks (the inner bark of the bnd and the inner
bark of the stock) from nnitin.e^. When the wood has been partly
removed from the bnd, the bnd is inserted into the stock, as bud-
ding is done in the regular, ordinary way, and tied tight. A small
tip-twig may be used or a longer twig, cut back to the lowest
bud and part of the foliage cut away, as shown in the engraving.
At the end of three or four weeks the string is removed, and part

Olive: Twig-Bud inserted.

of the top of the stock is cut back to force the bud to start. As
the bud grows, the foliage of the stock is gradually removed,
until the bud is able to take up the entire flow of sap ; it is then
left to grow, and it may be protected by tying to a long stub of
the branch which may be left for that purpose above the point
of insertion. When the bud has grown out strongly, what remains
of the stock above the bud is cut smooth, close to the bud, to allow
it to heal over.

GRAFTING THE OLIVE

Grafting is also used in working over both large and small
olive trees. Good success can sometimes be had with the ordinary
method of top grafting, as described in Chapter IX, using scions
not larger than a lead pencil and inserting them in April. The
olive can also be successfully grafted in the bark according to
the method shown in Chapter IX. This graft is used for work-
ing in the top of the tree, but it may also be used at the surface
of the ground, covering the cut surfaces with earth when the
scions are in place. The shield grafting to which allusion is made
has already been described in the preceding chapter, as it works
well with the fig. Judge A. L. Rhodes, of San Jose, gives the
following explicit account of his success with this graft :

Distress of the unpruned Olive tree on moist land in California.
403

404

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The stock, where cut off, may be from half to two and one-half inches in
diameter; the scion about one-quarter inch in diameter, the lower end to be
formed by an oblique cut of about one and one-half inches. Split the bark of
the top of the stock about one inch, raise the bark at the sides of the split
slightly, insert the point of the scion between the bark and wood of the stock,
at the split, and press it down the length of its oblique cut. Fasten it by bind-
ing twine around both stock and scion, about ten times, very firmly. Apply
grafting wax to top of stock and scion.

If the bark of the stock be three or more years old, make two slits
in it, about one and one-half inches in length, the width between them equaling
the width of the oblique cut of the scion, raise the bark between the slits, cut
off about half of it by a sloping cut, then insert the scion and press it down,
and bind with twine and apply grafting wax, as above directed. Cotton wrap-
ping twine is of sufficient strength.

Stocks the diameter of one inch or more should receive two or more scions.
Scions gathered a short time before their insertion are the most successful.
The twine around the stock and scion should not be loosened until it indents
the bark of the stock. Protect the graft from sun and wind. Wrap paper
around stock and scion, the paper to extend a few inches above the scion —
or place the paper, in the form of a bag, over scion and stock — and secure the
paper with twine, tied around the stock in a slip-knot.

Bark grafting may be performed at any time when the bark of the stock
can be readily raised — whenever the bark will "slip." I grafted in that mode in
each week of April and May and the first of June, and in September. Failures
not 5 per cent. Twelve scions inserted about the middle of last September
are all growing. Shield grafting is the most successful in the spring. I prefer
the bark grafting, as the shield buds may not start for months, or even for
a. year.

Side Graft on Small Wood. — A satisfactory graft can be
made with an oblique cut, as shown in Chapter IX, which is
superior to a split of the stock, because on a small stock the split
is apt to continue farther than desirable when the scion is pushed
in. With the slanting* cut in the stock the scion can be firmly
pushed into place without splitting. The union of inner barks
of scion and stock must be made on one side when the stock is
larger than the scion. This graft is tied in and waxed, or a waxed
band may be used.' In working small wood at the ground surface,
the earth should be drawn up around the graft.

PLANTING THE OLIVE

There is nothing gained by planting out the olive too early
in tHe spring. Both cuttings and rooted plants will do better
if planted af'^er the soil becomes well warmed, and after the heavy
rains of the winter are well over. Of course the time when this
condition comes is different from year to year, and varies, also,
according to locality and situation. During the first summer the
young plants will need occasional watering in some situations ;
in others, merely mulching, or keeping the surface finely stirred,
will suffice.

Olive trees are planted at different distances, but the ruling
intervals are twenty to twenty-five feet. This will allow the trees
to bear a number of years before they crowd each other; and then
removing alternate trees gives ample distance for future growth.

PRUNING THE OLIVE

405

But it clearly the part of wisdom to hold the olive to a low growth
in order that the fruit may be cheaply gathered, and this may be
done by proper pruning.

PRUNIxNG THE OLIVE

Pruning policies as insisted upon in Chapter XII, have direct
bearing upon the commercial growth of the olive. The develop-
ment of the tree according to principles there laid down is prac-

Bearing Olive tree before pruning.

ticable and desirable. After proper low form is secured, satis-
factory bearing will depend upon regular pruning to secure new
bearing shoots and thinning to prevent the tree from becoming
too dense and bushy. The olive bears upon wood which grew the
preceding year, and upon no other. It is just as important, then,
to secure a good supply of such shoots as it is to secure new bear-
ing wood for the peach, and the ways to do it, by cutting back
and thinning out, are much the same. Keep the tree from running
out of reach of a step-ladder: prevent it from becoming a brush-
heap, for both these acts are essential to the growth of good

406

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

bearing wood, low down. At the same time it must be remem-
bered that too severe cutting-back forces the growth of branches
which form only wood buds ?.nd fruiting is postponed. The secret
is to prune enough to induce plenty of new growth but not so
much excessive, non-bearing, new growth results. This result
is secured by regular and moderate pruning.

Bearing Olive tree after pruning. The amount of thinning
can be estimated by the litter on the ground.

Trees which have been allowed to form umbrella -like tops may
be brought down to business again by cutting back the main limbs
and making selection from the many new shoots which appear,
but by proper, regular pruning a tree can be so trained that the
removal of large limbs is seldom necessary. The times to prune
the olive are just after the gathering of the fruit or just before
new growth starts in the Spring.

Developing the Vase Form. — Explicit suggestions as to the
development of a low, vase-form tree may be helpful to inexperi-
enced growers. The following is from a foreign writer, whose
illustrations are presented herewith :

DEVELOPING THE VASE FORM

407

Fig. 1.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

408

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

When the young tree has attained some height, it is the practice to cut off
the top, so that the main stem shall be about four and a half feet in rich
soil, or three feet in poor soil or in locations exposed to strong winds. Six
or eight branches are left to form the head. The process of shaping the
tree then proceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. i shows the young
tree to be cut off at the point marked by the dotted line C. Six branches,
three on each side, are left, and the lower twigs shortened. Each of the
branches left develops, during the year, as the one shown in Fig. 2, which is
then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D are shortened. This process starts
out the upper shoot, and it appears the following year as A in Fig. 3, and it is
again cut at C. This causes the two upper shoots to develop, and at the end
of the year they appear as shown at BB in Fig. 4. Thus they stand at the
fourth year's pruning, and each of them is cut at C, and A is shortened and D
.allowed to develop. By this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and
exposes much surface to the sun, which is desirable.

The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more vigorous
branches, bear only wood buds; the others, which are weaker, bear fruit buds
on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring of the second year.
The latter never blossom again in the same place, but the shoot extends itself
and forces two lateral ones. These new shoots bear the following spring, and
so on. It must therefore be always borne in mind that the olive bears only on
the two-year-old wood. If the new shoots are formed every year, the olive
will bear annually; but in years of good crops, the sap employed to nourish
the fruit only produces a number of very diminutive shoots, and the next crop
is a short one. The pruning ought to favor the growth of young lateral shoots,
either by shortening the terminal ones, suppressing the "gormand," or fruitless
shoots, or by reducing in a certain proportion, each year, the fruit-bearing
shoots, if we wish for a crop every year. The shortening of a branch is made
immediately above an outside bud in an oblique direction, the interior one
being suppressed. The suckers at the root of the tree should be continually
cut off.

Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when the
winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring. By
early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situated on the
tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the old wood. Thus
one is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming covered with naked limbs.

THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS

The agricultural experiment station of the University of Cali-
fornia was occupied for many years in the growth of olives and
close examination of olive products both by laboratory and prac-
tical test. The publications of the station discuss the operations
of oil making and pickling and the suitability of varieties and for
the purpose of this treatise outlines will be drawn from these
sources.

Gathering the Fruit. — Olives should be picked carefully and
at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very
soon after they obtain full size, but before they have begun
to color or soften. For ripe pickles and for oil makin
the fruit should be gathered when it contains the maxi-
mum amount of oil. This is soon after the olives are well
colored, but before they have attained the deep black which sig-
nifies overripeness. If the olives are gathered too green the oil
will be bitter; if too ripe, it will be rancid. When they can be

&

MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL 4Q9

easily shaken from the tree they are ripe enough. If they com-
mence to fall without vigorous shaking they are overripe. For
whatever purposes the olives are to be used they should be care-
fully gathered by hand, and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit
rejected. Sound fruit is required for high-grade oil or for hand-
some pickles with good keeping quality.

THE MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL

Olive oil is made in this State with apparatus of both Cali-
fornian and European design, and, as a rule, there is made only
one, and at most but two, pressings of the pomace, which s then used
for fattening swine. In the frequent working over of the pomace,
and the close extraction of the oil, as practiced in Europe, we
have done little as yet.

Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties who
use home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider machinery
for the crushing and pressing. During the last few years quite a
number of mills have been erected at several points in California
and they have made a market for the olives produced by growers
who do not care to undertake manufacture. A detailed account
of oil making, including descriptions of buildings and machinery,
has been published by the University Experiment Station.* As
this is available to those who desire such specific information,
only an outline will be undertaken for the information of the gen-
eral reader.

Drying. — Extraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best
oil, but it is somewhat troublesome, and it is customary to partially
dry them. This partial drying is also useful to keep the fruit for
some time or for shipment before crushing. Place the olives in
layers not more than three inches deep, on trays that are stacked
in a dry, well-aired room, protected from the wind and the direct
rays of the sun. Turn daily until the fruit bec'omes well wrinkled.
This requires about eight or ten days, according to the degree of
temperature. The partially dried fruit may be stored in a dark
room where the temperature does not rise above sixty degrees
Fahrenheit, for three or four weeks without any serious deteri-
oration of oil. To hasten the drying process, artificial driers, con-
structed on the same principle as the fruit or hop driers, are
sometimes used. The olives are placed in a single layer upon
trays, and the drier is kept at a temperature of about one hundred
and twenty degrees Fahrenheit ; at over one hundred and thirty
degrees Fahrenheit the quality of the oil may be impaired. The
drying takes about forty-eight hours — more or less — according to
the nature of the fruit.

* "California Olive Oil: its Manufacture," by G. W. Shaw, Bulletin 159, Uni-
versity Experiment Station, Berkeley, Cal,

410

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Crushing. — The oHves are usually crushed by heavy stone roll-
ers revolving in a circular depression in a bed of masonry into
which the fruit is placed. Crushers with corrugated bronze or
bronzed metal rollers are now made that perform their work in a
very satisfactory manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very
thoroughly. As they are all of metal they absorb no oil and are
easily cleaned. It is very essential that the flesh should be crushed
thoroughly in order to break up the cells and permit the oil to be
pressed out.

Pressing. — When the revolving crusher has reduced the olives
to a mass, the pomace is shoveled up from the bed of the mill
and prepared for pressing. Instead of the fabric of woven esparto
grass which is used abroad, coarse linen cloth is used. A certain
amount of the pulp is put in each cloth, so that when the cloth is
folded back it makes a cheese about three feet square and three
inches thick. Ten or mOre of these cheeses are placed one above
the other, with slats between, and the pressure applied gently at
first. From the liquid which runs out first is made the very finest
oil, known as "virgin oil." The pressure is then increased very
gradually until the full power of the machine is reached. This
presses out the second quality of oil, which is generally mixed
with the first. After obtaining all the oil possible by the first
pressure the "cheese" is taken out, thoroughly broken up in hot
water, and again pressed. This yields the third quality, which
is very much inferior to the first and second. Sometimes the
"cheese" from the first pressing is thoroughly broken up with
cold water and pressed .again before being treated with hot water.
In this way a little oil is obtained that differs little from the sec-
ond quality, and may be mixed with it. After this a certain amount
of oil still remains in the "cheese," but it can be extracted only
by very powerful hydraulic presses, or by chemical means, and
then is of very inferior quality, and suitable only for burning
or for soap making.

Settling and Clarifying. — The liquid from the press is dark
colored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling. Much
of the foreign matter quickly separates, the oil appearing on the
top. The oil is removed to other receptacles in which it can stand,
from two to five months for perfect separation of undesirable
sediment. These settling tanks may be of well-tinned metal, or
of cement lined with glass or other impervious substance. The
first settling is conveniently made by means of a funnel-shaped
apparatus, which by its conical shape facilitates the rapid deposi-
tion of sediment. After standing for twenty-four hours in this
apparatus the major part of the sediment is deposited and can
be drawn off at the bottom. It is well, before running the oil
into the settling tanks, to pass it through two or three inches of

PICKLING AND CANNING OLIVES ^-j^-j^

cotton wool. This is accomplished l^y means of a funnel with a
perforated, horizontal cross partition, upon which the cotton is
placed. It takes, generally, about one month for the oil to settle
sufficiently in the first tank, after which it should be drawn off
carefully into the second, and so on until it is sufficiently bright.
Three rackings are usually sufficient.

Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider mills
or ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a small scale.
As the above description shows, oil making is a simple process,
and may be carried on at home with rude devices. It is, however,
a process requiring care and cleanliness, and intelligent personal
attention.

PICKLING THE OLIVE

Olives are pickled in a green state, as is the case with the
imported olives; or in a ripe state, as largely undertaken in Cal-
ifornia. No one had any conception at first of the difficulties
attending the production of pickled ripe olives which would have the
keeping quality demanded in an article of commerce. It is now
clearly seen that treating olives to extract the bitterness and to
secure firmness, good flavor and keeping quality is one of the most
difficult propositions in our horticultural manufacturing, and we
can but admire the wisdom of the Spaniard in teaching Anglo-
Saxons to enjoy green olives. To succeed with the ripe olive
requires the utmost patience, experience, and intelligence, and
one who undertakes it must not get weary of the most exhaustive
study of difficulties that may arise and how to meet them. When
the most careful picklers with the best appliances sometimes lose
hundreds of dollars worth in spite of all they know about it, the
difficulty of the matter may be appreciated.

The following is an outline of the pickling of ripe olives as
drawn from the Lhiiversity publications :

The Lye Process. — The vats or other receptacles used for pickling should
be perfectly clean, odorless, and tastless. Earthenware is the best material,
but it is cheaper to use wooden receptacles thoroughly treated with boiling
water and soda until they are sterilized and all taste of the wood removed.
Metal receptacles must not be used. The vats should have a plug below to
draw off the liquids and should be covered to exclude air. They should be
shallow, so that the layer of olives should not be much over a foot in thickness.

1. Place the olives in a solution, composed of two ounces of potash lye
to each gallon of very pure water, for four hours. Repeat this once, or twice
if necessary, to sufficiently remove the bitterness. If the olives are soft at first,
or if they are of a kind that softens rapidly in the lye, use brine from the
beginning, adding two ounces of lye and four ounces of salt to each gallon
of water. As the lye acts much more slowly when used in combination with
salt, it may be allowed to stay on the olives for a longer time without injury,
eight to twelve hours or even more.

2. Rinse the olives thoroughly and replace the lye solution with fresh
water. Change the water twice a day, until the lye has been removed from
the olive, as judged by the taste. Use weak brine if the olives are too soft,
changing once in two days.

412

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

3. Replace the water with brine composed of four ounces of salt to a gallon
of water and allow to stand two days.

4. Put in brine of six ounces of salt to a gallon for seven days.

5. Put in brine of ten ounces per gallon for two weeks.

6. Put finally into a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the gallon
of water.

Much depends upon having pure water. Ditch or stream water should be
boiled before using.

Pure-Water Process. — The best pickled olives are made without the use
of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose bitterness is easily
extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and plentiful, and even then
it is very slow and tedious. It differs from the last process only in omitting
the preliminary lye treatment. The olives are placed from the beginning in
pure water, which is changed twice a day until the bitterness is sufficiently
extracted. This requires from forty to sixty days or more. The extraction
is sometimes hastened by making two or three shallow, longitudinal slits in each
olive, but this modification, besides requiring a large amount of expensive hand-
ling, renders the fruit peculiarly susceptible to bacterial decay and softening.
Altogether, the pure-water process can not be recommended for California,
as it is too expensive and uncertain.

Green Pickles. — Green pickled olives are made by essentially the same
processes as are used for ripe olives. The contraction of the bitterness requires
the same care. The olives are pickled soon after they have attained full size,
and before they have shown any signs of coloring or softening. They contain
at this time comparatively little oil, and are in every way much inferior to the
ripe pickles in nutritive value. They are not a food but a relish. They are
rather more easily made than the ripe pickles, as there is less danger of spoiling.

CANNING THE RIPE OLIVE

The use of heat and hermetical sealing is a recourse to avoid
the difficulties of ripe pickling and canned olives, put upon the
market in the same form as other canned fruits, have recently
become popular. There are special canneries for their prepara-
tion at several points in the state and the general canneries are
also h^dling olives in considerable quantities. The process is
in the n^n like that of canning other fruits but special points
have to be learned through experience. The University investi-
gation of the effect of heat on the olive* shows that ripe pickled
olives, heated to 175 degrees F., kept perfectly for thirty-two
months. By heating them still higher in sealed cans or bottles
they can be kept indefinitely with as great facility as any other
food product. The heating does not injure the flavor and the
texture, but, on the contrary, improves them. Olives, preserved
by heating do not require such strong brine, and it is only neces-
sary to add as much salt as the palate requires. The heating causes
some of the coloring matter to diffuse into the brine, so that the
olives are made a little lighter colored. With time, however,
the colored matter diffuses out in the same way from unheated
olives, so that at the end of a year the heated olives are actually
darker in color than the unheated.

* "Olive Pickling, etc.," by F. T. Bioletti. Circular 24, Univei-sity Experiment
Station, Berkeley, Gal.

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE ^-^o

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA

Many varieties of the olive have been brought to California
from southern Europe during the last thirty years. Fifty-seven
varieties have been analyzed and elaborately reported upon by
the University experts, and of these about fifteen varieties rose to
commercial account but several have been dropped, as show^n
by the statements of their operations wdiich leading propagators
have kindly furnished for this work. It is an interesting fact,
however, that in spite of all the efforts put forth to secure a better
olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort comprises three-
fifths of all the planting which has been done during the last
few years — that is, the Mission has received fifty per cent more
orders from planters than all other sorts combined. Several
varieties at first popular have been abandoned because of an inte-
rior decay of the pulp. The following is the list of the varieties
now favored in California on a commercial scale, arranged approx-
imately in the order of their present popularity :

Mission, '^

Manzanillo, '

Oblonga,

Ascolano,

Columbella,

Uvaria,

Sevillano,

or Columella,

Peiidulina

Nevadillo,

Oblitza,

Lucques,

Rubra,

Picholine d'Aix.

These may be taken, then, as the varieties to which attenti,on
should be given. C)f course the next few years' experience may
produce marked changes in this list.

The Mission Olive. — By this name is signified the variety found growing
at the old missions in California. Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by F.
Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a noted Spanish authority on the
olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Cornicabra- Corni-
zuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was confirmed. It has long been known
that the so-called Mission olive embraced several varieties, or sub-varieties
at least.

Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive. — The variety of olive most gen-
erally known as the Mission; ovate, oblique — sometimes very much so — the pit
straight or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size, growing singly or in
clusters of two or three, or even five; time of ripening, late, in the coast region
sometimes not before February, but generally in December; in warm localities,
in November.

Redding Picholine.— Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect oval
in shape, ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mission; dark
purple or black when ripe; in pickling the pulp loses the bitterness quickly, the
fruit being very pleasant. This variety was propagated extensively in the
State, and, until fruiting, was supposed to be a large pickling variety, but ii
proved to be a srnall seedling— a shoot coming from the root below the graft.
It has produced oil of good quality. The smallness of the fruit is its irreme-
diable defect.

Picholine d'Aix. — Fruit medium, elongated, tapering toward apex which
is pointed; reddish black when ripe.

Picholine de St. Chamas. — Oblong, reddish black
for quality when pickled.

highly esteemed in France

414

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Polymorpha.

Nevadillo.

Oblonga. — Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a peculiar,
club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and
strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp loses its bitter-
ness comparatively quickly in pickling. This olive ripens quite early — at least
two or three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission; color, dark purple.

Pendoulicr. — Large, oval, slightly curved at apex end; desirable for pick-
ling; early ripening in October in the interior valley and in November in coast
valleys.

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVK

415

Sevillano.

Mission.

Man::anillo No. i.— Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain, large regular
rounded oval; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine-sixteenths of an
inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens early, several weeks earlier
than the Broad-leav.ed Mission. The fruit grows on long stems. The pulp
parts readily with its bitterness, and is exceedingly rich when pickled. Excel-
lent in the San Joaquin Valley both for oil and pickles.

Monzanillo No. 2. — Imported by F. Pohndojff from Spain. As the name
("small apple") indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded
oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety ripens early —
several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows
generally singly on long stems.

416

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Gordal. — A popular pickling olive in Spain, medium size, early.

Rubra. — Imported by John Rock from France ; ovate, slightly oblique, looks
a good deal like a small Mission olive; pit straight, pointed; ripens three to
four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is of a jet black when
ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is a prolific bearer. Very hardy
and prolific even in dry situations.

Atroviolacea. — Medium size, black, chiefly valuable for oil.

Uvaria. — Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and rounded
on both ends; pit straight, heavy, late; later than the common Mission olive;
color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, "grape-like," is well chosen,
the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven together, and in shape them-
selves resembling the grape. Very prolific.

Mission Olive of California (single Olive natural size).

Pcndulina. — Imported by John Rock from France. An even, oval shape,
rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many fruits remaining small and
undeveloped; pit has small, sharp points often at both ends. Fruit grows in
clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts very readily with its bitterness.
Larger and more ovate than Pendoulier. Tree a strong grower; fruit desirable
both for oil and pickles.

Columbella. — Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly
oval; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all
the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple; pit
small, straight and sharp pointed ; the pulp contains little bitterness ; flavor
very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mission. Tree hardy in dry
places and a prolific bearer. Also called "Columella."

Polymorpha. — Imported by John Rock from France. Very large, ovate,
oblique, and pointed; light colored; pit square at the base, strongly pointed at

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE

417

The Picholine, reduced.

the apex; flesh firm; ripens very early; fruit grows on strong stems in clusters
of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but productive.

Lucques. — A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing oil of
good quality; strong-growing tree and hardy; sometimes shy bearer when
young; fruit shiny black, curved; product called "Crescent Olive,"

418

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Nevadillo Blanco. — Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly
oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is generally more elon-
gated in proportion to its diameter than the latter ; pit small, curved, and gen-
erally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three to five;
ripening not much earlier than the Mission; a fine oil olive, largely planted, but
disappointing in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to frost injury.

Ascolano Olive.

Manzanillo Olive.

Sevillano, or Queen Olive.

Ohlitza. — Imported by the late G. N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles the
Pendulier, and may be identical ; fine in the San Joaquin Valley ; very large
oval, but broad and rounded at both ends; grows in clusters; tree a good
grower, hardy and productive; fruit excellent for pickles; ripens in November
in the interior — about the same as the Mission.

VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE

419

Sc7'illano. — Recently largely planted as the variety exported from Spain
as the "Queen olive." The largest of all olives; only useful for pickhng ; when
ripe, hluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grower, leaves deep green, green-
ish white underneath. Described by Mr. Roeding as a regular bearer, but
requires deep, rich, well-drained soil and will not stand much cold.

Ascolano. — "White olive of Ascoli." Very large, "large as a French prune
and much like one in shape" (Biolctti). Excellent for pickles, but not desirable
in color of either green or ripe pickles.

The foregoing enumeration and description of varieties is only
partial and mainly restricted to varieties which have been more
or less largely planted. Many more have been experimentally
fruited, but the tendency is to concentrate on very few which have
made good in California and there is far less interest in varieties
than a quarter of a century ago. The following are the leading
facts^ as to size, pit, and oil contents of the varieties which have
been most largely planted and a few others :

Averages of Olive varieties, determined at tine University of California

VARIETY.

Mission

Nevadillo Blanco

Manzanlllo

Redding Picholine

Uvaria

Rubra

Oblonga

Columbella

Pendulina

Polymorpha

Macrocarpa

Regalis

Correoiolo

Razzo

Frantoio

Cucco

Leccino

Grossaio

Palazzuolo

Infrantoio

Lucques

Picholine

Ascolano

Oblitza

Empeltre

Sevillano

Number of

Oil, per cent.

Olives

Pit, per cent. in

per pound.

whole fruit.

111.6

17.2

17.56

157.3

17.3

19.21

106.6

14.7

16.94

398.2

23.0

16.18

205.1

25.5

13.71

196.1

17.9

18.58

179.4

18.7

13.34

114.6

16.6

15.59

157.1

13.7

18.63

71.9

17.1

15.85

72.8

17.5

14.70

112.5

16.3

16.37

262.7

2 .8

21.15

216.5

24.3

21.10

298.9

25.9

24.10

IS 2. 9

21.1

27.22

245.5

21.7

22.45

242.3

25.7

23.96

272.1

22.2

29.34

375.0

30.0

19.3

192.9

23.0

14.81

77.0

17.5

17.83

60.6

12.0

16.26

105.2

14.6

11.23

111.4

15.7

19.86

36.2

14.5

17.23

It should be remembered that olives vary in size according
to growing conditions which environ the tree, just as other fruits
do. For this reason the foregoing table may not do full justice
to some varieties, but relatively it should be accurate enough for
most comparative uses.

CHAPTER XXXII

THE ORANGE

The orange leads all the fruits of California. Near the close
of Chapter VI will be found the numbers of trees and value
of product shipped out of the State, upon the latter of which the
supremacy of the orange rests. In view of this leadership it
seems fitting to take a little wider range in the discussion of the
significance of the orange in the development of California than
has been indulged in the consideration of other fruits, and this
is justified by the fact that the orange is the exponent of the horti-
cultural resources of the State and its attributes in this direction
are shared in varying degrees by the other fruits. The great-
ness of orange grov/ing in California becomes, then, in various
ways the token of our advancement in one of the highest of the
agricultural arts, and in the mastery of long-distance commercial
distribution of fresh fruits. These achievements are also a demon-
stration of the quality of our agricultural citizenship.*

THE ORANGE INDUSTRY OF THE WORLD

From the beginning the orange has reigned as king in the inter-
national fruit trade of the world. The grape has always been and
is still, greater in the value of its contribution to commerce and
in the distance it safely traverses, but the grape rules not as fruit,
but through its manufactured products, while the orange carries
its natural beauty, fragrance and flavor unchanged around the
world. From the earliest times the orange has not only been
accepted in northern climes as a symbol of tropical and sub-tropical
salubrity and sumptuousness, but by its own distinctive charac-
teristics as a fruit it has won recognition as befitting the highest
uses of mankind. By its nature too the orange ministers to its
own commercial popularity. It endures long shipment ; it ripens
slowly and through a season of several months which constitute
the winter in northern latitudes when local fruits are scant or
absent and the refreshment in the citric juices most welcome.
The production of such a commercial commodity has from the
earliest times constituted an important industry.

* The Orange Industry "Encyclopedia Americana," Scientific American, New
York, 1904. "The Orange in Northern and Central California," California State
Board of Trade, San Francisco, 1903, etc., by the author.

420

I

THE ORANGE IN COMMERCE 421

It is a significant fact that though the orange thrives in the
tropics it does not resent the sHght touch of frost which charac-
terizes semi-tropical situations. It is also significant that the
fruit grown in semi-tropical countries, especially those which
have a more or less distinctly marked two-season climate, differs
in character from the strictly tropical orange and is firmer, heavier,
more sprightly in flavor and with much better keeping and carry-
ing qualities. The tropical orange has but small commercial im-
portance ; the semi-tropical orange rules in the markets of the
world. That the semi-tropical orange should have this distinctive
character is most fortunate, for it ministers directly to the will
for industry which is superior in semi-tropical countries. By the
seven degrees of frost which the orange tree will endure without
injury, it has gained the seventy degrees of north latitude through
which its fruit freely seeks a market. Because, though the tropical
orange would reach most distant markets in small quantities, it
could never attain the commercial supremacy which the fruit now
enjoys.

The sweet orange is a native of eastern Asia and was carried
thence to India and to Asia Minor. It possibly reached Portugal
from India through the early Portuguese navigators. Thus the dis
tribution of the fruit was westward. The history of modern com-
mercial orange growing consists of a series of progressive move-,
ments always trending westward and gaining in volume — the
newer centers of production outstripping the older and ultimately
largely displacing their product from the greatest markets of the
upper divisions of the temperate zone. When the Moors intro-
duced orange growing into Algeria and Spain they displaced the
traflic from Asia Minor and gave the Mediterranean region for
several hundred years undisputed possession of the markets of
the north of Europe and possession also of the American demand
when that arose. When the Spaniards and Portuguese carried
the orange to the West Indies and to Florida they laid the foun-
dation for an industry which American enterprise developed in
Florida until that district not only contended with the Mediter-
ranean region for American markets, but was planning to invade
northern Europe by direct shiploads wdien the demonstration
came that the climate of northern Florida and of the Gulf coast
westward was too treacherous for commercial ventures in orange
growing — at least with the then popular varieties and methods of
propagation. But as the Florida supply failed through the severe
freezing of 1895, California came forward and is now not onlv
supplying four-fifths of the oranges consumed in the United States,
but is selling the highest priced oranges in the London market
against a world of competitors.

422

California fruits: how to grow them

RELATION OF SOUTHERxNF CALIFORNIA TO THE
WORLD'S ORANGE PRODUCT

Competition with the product of California is working hard-
ship in the Mediterranean region because this region can more
than supply Europe, and needs American markets as an outlet.
Italy has exported six million dollars worth of oranges and lemons
in a year, but recently prices have declined and the interest is
depressed. Every efifort is being made to secure relief from local
taxation and from duties imposed by north European countries.
The Spanish product of oranges and lemons which ranks next to
the Italian, has to meet heavy tariffs in all countries except the
United Kingdom and the belief at Valencia is (U. S. Commercial
Relations, Vol. 2, 1902, page 686) that the limit of British consump-
tion of Valencia oranges at paying rates has been reached ; in fact,
the British markets collapsed under the heavy shipments of 1901.
When it is stated that the value of oranges imported into the
United Kingdom in 1900 was $10,603,950, and such a free buyer
has more than enough, it can be realized how important it is to
the Mediterranean producers that the populous countries of central
Europe should hold less strictly to agrarian interests which aim
to hamper the entrance of food supplies even if they can not
themselves produce them. Manifestly the American product can
only enter such markets with a fancy product which will win an
extra price, except as a little difference in the ripening season
may afford an opportunity.

The commercial position of the orange in the United States
is also such as to awaken apprehension. The present strength
of the situation lies in the protective tariff and the bcfc noir of
growers is the possibility of making gaps in it by reciprocity treat-
ies. The product of the West Indies is a direct menace to the
Florida product, which meets it in point of market season, and the
Mexican product, which is undergoing expansion at the hands
of American capitalists, is constantly feared by the California
growers because the Mexican railway will give it quick entrance
to the great central States and consequent advantage in distri-
bution to the East and the Northwest. The orange from the West
Indies and South Florida is different from the California orange
in main ripening season and in character of the fruit, but the dif-
ferences do not give full relief. With the late ripening varieties,
the California grower extends his shipments into the autumn and
thus laps upon the early fruit from Florida and Jamaica, while the
parts of California which bring earliest maturity to the fruit are
shipping before the southern fruit is cleared away. In fact, Cali-
fornia can keep the markets supplied with oranges fresh from the
trees and in prime condition the year around.

WHY CALIFORNIA LEADS IN ORANGES 423

As to the difference in oranges grown under humid and arid
conditions, the moisture being supplied by rainfall in one case
and by irrigation in the other, there has been shown in the arid
region* orange a superior density, thinness and texture of rind,
higher sugar and higher acid percentages and a more sprightly
or vinous flavor. The popular conception of the superior sweet-
ness of the orange grown in humid countries is due not to a greater
amount of sugar in the juice, but to less amount of acid. The fol-
lowing are the determinations of sugar and acid of fully ripe
Southern California and Florida navel oranges:

California Navel
Florida Navel . ,

Total sugar,

Citric acid

per cent.

per cent.

9.99

1.45

7.46

0.95

Of course, the quality of an orange is largely inherent in the
variety, but all varieties are similarly changed by growth under
humid or arid conditions of climate and soil, and this modifica-
tion becomes a factor of much industrial importance. This fact
is strikingly illustrated by the standing of the Navel orange in
California. This variety has been grown for a century or more
as the chief orange in Bahia, Brazil, whence it was taken to Cali-
fornia. In Brazil it demonstrated no shipping qualities, and
according to Burke ( U. S. Special Consular Reports, Vol 1, page
411) would need to be picked before maturity if to be shipped,
while as grown in California and Arizona it is picked at full
maturity and is successfully shipped all over the United States
and to Europe.

Orange growing in Florida is recovering from serious reverses.
The product of 1894 was about 6,000,000 boxes. Then came the
disastrous freezing in December of 1894 and February, 1895, with
a temperature of 14 degrees Fahrenheit at Jacksonville, and in the
latter year only 75,000 boxes were shipped. In 1907 the product
was about 3,000,000 boxes, produced in the central and southern
parts of the State. In Louisiana the freezing of 1895 nearly anni-
hilated the citrus fruit interest and there is thus far no disposition
to resume production on a commercial scale. In the southwestern
corner of Arizona there is a small orange industry which is suc-
cessfully shipping Navel oranges to distant markets. Conditions
favor early ripening and an advantage is secured by sale in advance
of the main California product. From California the shipments
of oranges beyond State lines in 1907 were about 30,000 carloads
or 12,000,000 boxes. The orange industry of the United States is
now largely supplying the home demand for the fruit. Imports of
oranges reached their highest value in 1883 at $3,010,662, and have

^24 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

since then declined. The value in 1907 was $354,495 — but little
more than one-tenth of the imports of twenty-five years ago.

The orange industry of the United States is unique in the high
social and financial standing of those who have engaged in it, and
in the striking features of its development. Both in Florida and
in California large scale production was first undertaken by north-
ern men who had gained wealth and had lost health in the pursuit
of it. They brought capital and commercial ability to the ventures
which they exploited. The professional classes of the north also
participated largely in the work, bringing scholarship, insight and
experience in organization. There were a few also who possessed
horticultural experience, but the other classes largely predom-
inated. The result has been the development of an industry char-
acteristically American in spirit and new in methods. It has bor-
rowed very little from the practices of old world orange growers.
Free from tradition and prejudice it proceeded rapidly upon the
results of original investigation and experiment, establishing a
system of culture and of commercial handling of the product which
are without precedent in the older orange regions of the world.

THE ORANGE A STATE AFFAIR IN CALIFORNIA

Thus far the discussion has been based upon the achievements
of Southern California and the effort made to assign them due
credit for greatness and uniqueness. The relation of Southern
California to other parts of the State in orange growing is not less
important and significant.

Citrus fruit trees have been successfully grown in suitable situ-
ations in northern California for nearly half a century. There is a
famous orange tree at Bidwells Bar, in Butte county, which was
started from an Acapulco seed in Sacramento in 1855, and planted
out in Butte county in 1859, which has been generally made to
stand sponsor for the demonstration of citrus conditions north of
the Tehachipi mountains ( but it is not entitled to all the distinction
which has been heaped upon it. In the fifties there were other
orange and lemon trees growing in widely separated northern
localities — in the valleys of the San Francisco Bay region, also near
the rivers and among the low foot-hills on both sides of the Sacra-
mento Valley. It was, even in early days, the proper thing to include
citrus trees among ornamental dooryard plantings and one reason
why ^he demonstration at Bidwells Bar was so widely accepted as
complete, when it was brought forward as a guaranty for com-
mercial planting in the later eighties, was because similar instances
of successful old trees existed in many and widely separated places.

This question naturally suggests itself: Why, if such early
demonstration was had, was large commercial planting of the
orange delayed at the north until after southern California became

I

THE ORANGE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 425

famous for its orange product? Several good reasons can be ad-
duced. In the first place a disposition toward wider planting did
at one time arise and quickly subsided. In the later seventies when
the general rush to fruit growing, which has resulted in the present
vast extension of the interest, began, citrus fruits were not over-
looked. There was a sharp demand for orange trees. Southern
California nurseries had a large overstock of trees budded on China
lemon roots which southern California planters had learned to
despise as forcing excessive growth of tree and large, coarse fruit.
The natural tendency of such a root, exaggerated by excessive irri-
gation in the nursery, gave a stem as thick as a broom stick and
higher than a man in a few months' time, and these soft mon-
strosities were sent north by carloads, by astute tree speculators,
and sold to unwary planters, who thought they were getting a
great deal for their money. Such trees were planted in all sorts
of situations and their broad leaves made a fine display as soon as
planted. There were fond anticipations of evergreen orchards
everywhere from the swamps to the hillsides. Then came the cold
winter of 1878-9. The temperature in places reasonably situated
was not very low — not lower than is frequently encountered in
southern California and not low enough to injure well placed old
trees, though it did destroy some ill-placed ones and helped to
define suitable situations for citrus culture in the north as such
temperatures have also defined them at the south. But the degree
reached was fatal to those soft trees on a lemon foundation almost,
everywhere, and the disappointment of the new planters who based
calculations upon them, discouraged them from farther efforts to-
ward citrus culture for some time. It was not a logical conclusion
because a careful inquiry made after the frosts in 1879 elicited
careful written statements from sixty-nine orange growers, living
in thirty counties and fully justified this conclusion, which was at
that time published : "this mass of testimony shows that orange
growing is no longer an experiment in the north, and that, not-
withstanding the severe frosts of such winters as this, orange and
lemon trees can be profitably cultivated' in nearly every county in
the State, and by selecting favorable localities, no district, except
it be. situated in the high Sierra, need be without these most beau-
tiful and useful fruits."

But there was another and more logical reason why the well
suited lands in the central part of the State were not at that time
given to citrus fruit culture. Citrus fruits require irrigation every-
where ; deciduous fruits, including the grape, do not require irri-
gation except in places of shallow soil or light rainfall. Without
waiting for irrigation facilities then, hundreds of thousands of acres
of deep valley loams were immediately available for the planting
of deciduous fruits. The growers understood these fruits, while

420 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: tlOW TO GROW THEM

the orange to an English-speaking people was an unsolved problem.
The long list of deciduous fruits had varieties to suit the tastes
and ambitions of all planters and the opportunity for selling many
different fruits and their different products seemed illimitable.
''The world for a market" seemed a reasonable proposition, for de-
ciduous fruits and their products had been shipped to eastern
markets since the first overland railway was opened in 1868, and
very large prices were attained, just often enough to be alluring.
No citrus fruits had been shipped out of the State on a commercial
scale, and no one knew that they could be, profitably. The central
and northern districts threw their full strength into the deciduous
fruit interest and the result has justified the effort, for, at the pres-

Cover Crop in Orange Orchard of Mr. W. M. Bristol, East Highlands.

ent time, the annual shipments of deciduous orchard fruits fresh
dried and canned; the grape, both fresh, as raisins and as wine and
brandy, has reached a total value of about forty millions of dol-
lars— almost all of it from the regions of California north of the
Tehachipi mountains. The engrossing requirements of this grandly
successful undertaking gave northern growers, packers and capi
talists no leisure to think seriously of citrus fruit planting — that
was left for a decade and a half to the special attention of the
southern California people, and they developed it splendidly for

PRECOCITY OF THE ORANGE TREE

427

the settlement and upbuilding of their portion of the State — reach-
ing a total value of product sold beyond State lines, of about
eighteen millions of dollars. The chief reason, then, why, although
citrus adaptations were demonstrated very early in the upper part
of the State, the commercial planting was largely postponed to the

Early Bearing of Budded Orange Tree in California.

present decade, was that the people were too busy developing a
greater fruit industry to which their conditions were superlatively
suited. -_-_ _„

During the last few years new interest has arisen in citrus fruit
growing in northern California and all the scattered experiences
of the last half century are becoming of inestimable value in guid-
ing this planting aright. There are several important reasons why
the north has now turned to the orange.

428

THE ORANGE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA

429

First : Deciduous fruit production has reached large volumes,
margins have become reduced to those which assert themselves in
any well established and extensive industry, and some of the early
glamour has gone out of it It will henceforth proceed soberly,
and consequently safely, to grand aggregates which no one can
foresee, but it is readily demonstrable that with the present rush
of population to the more wintry districts of the Pacific slope, the
opening of Asiatic connections and the victories being attained
each year in the distant East and in Europe, our production of
deciduous fruits and their products will go steadily forward. In-
creased interest in citrus fruit planting in northern California is in
no sense a menace to the deciduous fruit industry. It is merely a
new graft upon a very vigorous industrial stock.

Second : Owing to natural conditions which will be briefly
explained presently, orange growing can be pursued at the north
without competition with the main crop in southern California.
The northern California crop will be consumed before the bulk
of the southern crop moves from the trees.

Third : All California oranges have characteristics and quali-
ties which are recognized as of distinctive excellence, and therefore
have a commercial advantage, which, under a wise system of pro-
tection against free entry of cheap tropical fruit, enables them to
compensate the high grade American labor which is employed in
their growth, packing and marketing, and leave a reasonable return
to require the grower's efifort and investment. This being so, the
production, so long as protection is continued, justifies extension
of the efifort to produce an American orange for Americans.

Fourth : Semi-tropical fruits are nature's demonstration of the
existence in a place of a climate which promotes health, comfort
and a maximum of physical and intellectual attainment in mankind.
Probably all that is urged against tropical climates as enervating
and depressing of human standards is true, but not a word of it
applies to an arid semi-tropical climate, in which the blessing of
dry air and freedom from the debilitating effect of temperature
extremes rejuvenate the old and weary and bring the young to
stature and stalwartness which all newcomers notice in the rising
generation of Californians. Of the existence of such conditions
a well-grown orange of the California type is unimpeachable evi-
dence. It has brought a hundred thousand people and a hundred
millions of capital to southern California which would not have
come otherwise. In the conscious strength with which northern
California has recently awakened to make systematic effort for
settlement and development, the orange is accepted as an exponent
of the possession of those natural characters of sky and air and
soil, constituting the most desirable environments of human life —
the highest desirability in the location of a home.

430 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Fifth : It is but a corollary of the foregoing that the successful
and profitable production of citrus fruits is par excellence the
motive force in promoting colony efforts and in drawing into hor-
ticulture the class of people which constitutes the most desirable
element in the upbuilding of a great State — people who know what
is noble and desirable in human life and desire it for their children ;
people who know how to secure what their aspirations and tastes
approve; people who by intellectual force and training and by suc-
cessful professional and industrial experience are prepared for at-
tainment in the higher horticultural arts and in the new commer-
cial efforts which make those arts profitable. The splendid devel-
opment of southern California communities upon a horticultural
basis points the way to achievements in other suitable parts of the
State, and the citrus fruits become then the token, not alone of
superior natural endowments, but of the type of manhood which
can use them to the best advantage. None know this better than
the southern California people themselves, and it is a demonstra-
tion of the desirability both of the natural resources of northerr
California in citrus lines and of citrus fruit culture itself, that in
all the newer citrus regions at the north, there are to be found
among the leading planters and promoters, southern Californians
who have sold their early plantings at the south at high prices to
newer comers and have started anew in the northern districts,
where they find cheaper land, more abundant water supply and
fruit which is marketed at an earlier date.

DISTRIBUTION OF CITRUS CONDITIONS IN
CALIFORNIA

The claim has been made above that citrus culture conditions
.exist in suitable situations in central and northern California from
Shasta to San Diego county, and historical evidence has been cited
to prove it. It is so surprising that practically the same climate
should be found through a distance of between seven and eighr
degrees of latitude that many, even of those who have lived in
California, do not appreciate the fact, nor know the explanation of
it. An effort is made toward such explanation in Chapter I of this
work. Even at the risk of repetition the subject will be reviewed
with special reference to the occurrence of conditions affecting the
growth of citrus fruits.

First: California is not only blessed with benign ocean influ-
ences, but northern California is additionally protected from low
winter temperatures by the mountain barrier of the Sierra Nevada,
extending southward from the multiplied masses of protecting
elevations in the Shasta region, while southern California enjoys
the protection of the Sierra Madre and other uplifts on the north

CALIFORNIA CITRUS CONDITIONS 43;[

and east of her citrus region. Northern blizzards are, therefore,
held back from entrance to California and are forced to confine
themselves to southerly and easterly directions over the interior
parts of the Pacific slope, while the great blizzards of the north-
west traverse the Mississippi valley and, if they have sufficient
impetus, extend to the gulf and carry destruction to semi-tropical
growths even in northern Florida. The ocean then bringing
warmth and the high mountains defending against cold, combine
their influences to give nearly the whole length of California semi-
tropical winter temperatures.

I Second: Although this striking similarity does exist, in citrus
idistricts north and south, there is another even more startling
jproposition involved and that is the influence exerted by the
presence of the coast range as the western boundary of the great
interior valley of the State, and intervening between that great
valley and the ocean. The several ridges of the coast range with
their enclosed small valleys serve as a colossal wind-break against
northwest winds, which might otherwise, now and again, bring
a temperature too low for citrus fruits, where now they are safe
from injury. The chief effect of these mountains is to protect the
northern interior valleys and foot-hills from the raw winds of early
springtime and to allow the sun as he crosses each day higher
in his course, to expend the increasing heat directly in promot-
ing vernal verdure. The result is a protected interior region in
central and northern California, of quick growth in all lines — early
pasturage, early grain harvest and early fruit ripening. The valleys
of southern California, which have thus far been largely developed,,
have no high range between them and the ocean. They are open
on the west because the coast range of mountains takes a sharp
turn eastward in the southern part of the State and afterward
curves southward, passing along the eastern side of the chief
productive region. The influence of this opening of the valleys of
southern California is not so unfavorable as such opening would
be at the north, because ocean winds are gentler and warmer there,
and there is winter service rendered by this eastward trend of the
southern California mountains, as has been said, but the fact
remains that the absence of high barriers against ocean influences
retards the springtime and causes a slow development of summer
conditions and late ripening of fruits, while the presence of high
barriers at the north so hastens springtime and summer heat, that
early summer fruits in California are shipped from the north to the
south — a thing v/hich does not occur anywhere else in the northern
hemisphere. It is due to this same early start which the local
topography gives to the orange, followed by the high summer
heat which is essential to the development of a good orange, that
the orange reaches an acceptable commercial condition at an earlier

432 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

date in suitable interior places at the north and is at present being
almost wholly shipped to eastern markets before free movement
begins at the south. This early marketing also relieves the growers
of much anxiety and costly frost fighting, because the fruit, which
is always more susceptible to injury than the tree, is out of the
way before the frost period, which usually begins about Christmas,
is reached.

There is in southern California, east of the mountains, a district
which has thus far been but scantily developed where protection
from ocean influences tends to early ripening of fruits. The same
is true of some parts of Arizona adjacent, and small quantities
of early fruits move westward and northward from that region.
That region is not in view in this discussion, for too little has
been accomplished in citrus lines to warrant conclusions which
the present confident planting in that part of the State will soon
supply.

Third : Still another feature of local topography must bd
mentioned as influencing citrus conditions north and south and
explaining why winter temperature has fallen no lower at the
north than at the south. At the north the snow fields of the high
mountains are farther from the valleys and mesas, where citrus
fruits are grown, than they are at the south. The benches and low
foot-hills of the Sacramento Valley, for instance, are forty to fifty
miles from the high range to the east of them and there intervene
countless ridges of high foot-hills and small valleys, and before
the citrus plantations can be reached by the descending air currents
they are considerably warmed by rustling over so much land which
has been warmed by the ample winter sunshine. From many of
the southern citrus regions one looks almost directly upward and
outward upon the grand snow-clad mountains, whose crests are
but fifteen to twenty-five miles away. It is a splendid scenic
effect — ripening oranges and dazzling snow fields in the same
glance of the eye, but it is sometimes not so grand as a pomo-
logical proposition.

Fourth : Another protective influence for citrus fruit trees dur-
ing the frosty period of December and January, is the low canopy
of land fog which covers the interior valley of central and northern
California much of the time at that season of the year and checks
the radiation of ground heat, which is apt to take place rapidly
under a clear sky. Though the nights are thus often protected
from frosts, the day temperature is held low, which is also oi
account, because the citrus trees are held dormant, which is desii
able, as there is no fruit to ripen. On the other hand, the highei
day temperature in southern California is valuable in that districi
because the later fruit is still maturing. The winter aspects of th(

THE ORANGE OUTLOOK

433

I

trees in northern and southern California are therefore quite dif-
feren-t : in the north, the dark green of dormancy ; in the south, the
gold of the fruit and the oft-protuding light green of the winter
wood growth. In both regions all growth conditions seem good :
each after its own kind, and the two, in a sense, complementary.

In 1910 the outlook is for rapid extension of the orange product,
particularly in the suitable lands on the eastern rims of the San
Joaquin and Sacramento valleys. The orange product of the north-
ern district is about one-eighth of the southern and will increase
rapidly, for of about two million trees now growing, only half
have attained bearing age and planting is still being freely under-
taken. Three-quarters of all the trees north of the Tehachipi
mountains are in the citrus districts of eastern Tulare county.

THE GENERAL OUTLOOK FOR THE ORANGE

At the present time orange growing has a very promising out-
look. The prospect for much larger consumption, at the east and
abroad, is very encouraging. The orange is passing from its old
status as a luxury to its proper recognition as a staple winter fruit
for dwellers in cold climates. For such use the agreeable acid
and sprightly flavor of the California fruit especially commend it.
The consumption of the fruit per capita, away from California,
is still small and will be greatly increased when people know
better its desirability and the reasonable prices at which it can
be secured. This wider distribution is to be confidently expected
and the rapid increase in population through the great west and
north is each year giving California growers nearer markets of
growing consumptive capacity. It will be of great advantage tc
the whole country, as well as to California, to have production
steadily increased.

The development of the orange industry in California to utilize
the splendid natural adaptations which have been discussed, to
make good the large investments which have been made, and to
afiford a field for the profitable employment of the high quality of
American citizenship which has entered the list of producers, sev-
eral things are essential. First, the advancement of horticultural
art and science. Second, the maintenance of the protective tariff,
as has already been suggested. Third, the extension of co-opera-
tive handling and distribution of the product as now embodied
in the successful operation of the California Fruit Growers' Ex-
change and its auxiliaries in all the producing districts. Fourth,
the pursuit of systematic and intelligent inquiry and experiments
into the durability of the fruit in transit as affected by cultural
and commercial practices, and the reformation of policies and
methods in accordance with the results of such investigation as

434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

conducted by Mr. ,G. Harold Powell of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture and his associates. Every j^rower of oranges
should familiarize himself with this work.'''

SOILS AND SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE

While citrus conditions do exist through large areas of Cali-
fornia, there is still danger of loss and disappointment through
unwary individual investments and unwise locations of citrus
colony enterprises. The tracts of land for orange planting even in
a favorable citrus climate are limited in area and every citrus
climate has numerous places where local meteorological conditions
will prove destructive to the profit of the enterprise, if not to the
life of the trees. The orange is a hardy tree, judged within its
temperature limits, but there is no money in a tree which is sub-
jected to any kind of hardship. For this reason the selection of
a good depth of strong, free loam should be made, for such is
essential not only to good growth of the young tree, but to its
support through the long productive life which the orange enjoys.
Depth of good soil is not only a storehouse of plant food, which
will postpone the use of purchased fertilizers, but it is a reservoir
of water so that irrigation can be applied in larger amounts at
longer intervals. While it is quite possible to grow an orange
tree and to secure good fruit on shallower soils, if conditions are
kept just right by frequent use of water and fertilizers in just the
right amounts, such conditions impose heavy burdens in their
constant requirements of extra care and expenditure, and these
are handicaps of no small economic importance. The tree can not
live upon climate as a man may, because a tree can not speculate ;
it must have a good foundation in the earth as well as a good
outlook in the sky.

Growing orange trees on defective soils has brought disap-
pointment and loss in all parts of California. Ample supplies of
irrigation water available have encouraged over-irrigation where
trees have been planted above hardpan, and drainage is absent.
Dying-back and yellow leaf have appeared in some groves and
have been accounted for by digging to find the roots bedded ii
mud and slush. All plantings over clay sub-soils should be guarded
against this danger. Digging deep holes and filling them with good
soil is setting a trap for the future failure of the tree unless the
deep hole is properly drained by the nature of the su1)-soil or by
artificial provision. On the other hand, planting over a gravelly
sub-soil is often disappointing, because the water passes through
the sub-soil as through a sieve and the tree shows distress although

* "The Decay of Oranges While in Transit from California," by G. Harold
Powell, Pomologist in charge of Fruit Transportation and Storage. Bulletin 12.S,
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C, 1908.

I

SITUATIONS FOR THE ORANGE

435

generous amounts are applied to the surface. Wide observation
through the State teaches that such warnings are needed by the
unwary. There has also been injury to trees from planting over
sub-soils carrying excess of lime.*

Local temperature conditions even in sections generally suited to
orange culture should be carefully ascertained. Frosty places must
be avoided. A few feet difference in elevation may change profit
to loss, but one must not therefore draw the hasty conclusion that
all small elevations are favorable. The experience of the last few
years shows that nothing is. on the whole, more dangerous than
the warm bottom land in a small elevated valley which seems natur-
ally protected on all sides. There are many such places which are
far more treacherous than the uplands of the broad valleys, which
may be considerably lower. The benches around the sides of the
small valley may be safe and the bottom of the same valley dan-
gerous because there is no adequate outflow for cold air to the
large valley below. Look out for small valleys which have divides
of crumpled hills where they debouch into the main valley. Cold
•air can be dammed and held back; consequently the low land of
a small valley may be worse than lower land in the main valley,
because in the latter there are air currents which prevent accumu-
lation of cold air in particular places. These air movements make
some plantings on the upper plains of the main valley safe, though
the whole region may seem to the eye rather flat and low, but, of
course, broad sinks of the main valley may also be dangerous. Too
great elevations are to be guarded against. Where one approaches
the reach-down of mountain temperatures and loses the warming
influences of the valley mesas, the danger line is at hand.

An ample water supply is essential. Small waterings which may
bring satisfactory growth to a young tree are no measure of the
needs of a bearing tree. The orange is using water all the year,
as discussed in the chapter on Irrigation. Its crop requires nearly
a year to reach maturity. Both in leaf growth and fruit growth it
nearly doubles the activity of the decidous tree and all the time it
is pumping water with its roots and pouring forth water into the
air through its exposed surfaces. No investment in orange planting
can be profitable without assurance of adequate water supply.

PROPAGATION OF THE ORANGE

The orange is grown from cuttings, layers, and seeds. Growth
from the seed is the method almost exclusively followed, and by
far the best, but the others will be mentioned briefly.

Growth from Cuttings. — This method of propagation is de-
scribed in the chapter on Propagation.

* "Marly Subsoils and Chlorosis of Citrus Trees," by E. W. Hllgard. Circular 27,
University Experiment Station, Berlteley.

436

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Growth from Layers. — The orange roots readily by layering, the
drooping branches being partly cut through, buried in the soil with
the terminal shoot above the ground. Layers must be kept moist.
Layering may be employed to obtain a few plants easily, but, other-
wise, it cuts no figure in propagation. Layers and cuttings, of
course, reproduce the original variety without recourse to budding.

Growth from Seed. — The orange is grown upon seedlings of
the common or sweet orange; the bitter orange or orange of Seville,
generally called ''Florida sour stock," and of the Pomelo or Grape
Fruit. Good plump seed should be selected in growing orange
seedlings either for their own fruitage or to use as stocks for
budding.

When seedlings for fruiting are grown, select seed from a choice
variety in a situation where other citrus species are not grown ;
but the orange can not be trusted to come true from seed, and,
more than this, the seedling class for fruiting purposes has been
practically abandoned as unprofitable to plant, though fruit from
old seedling trees is occasionally sold at a profit.

In securing seed the fruit is allowed to rot and when thoroughly
decayed, it is pulped by mashing in a barrel, and the mass is
washed, a little at a time, on a coarse sieve, the pulp passing
through, and the seed being caught on the wires, and pieces of skin
thrown out. The plump seed will sink if thrown into water, and
the imperfect can be skimmed from the top. The seed should never
be allowed to dry, and unless it is to be sown at once, should be
stored by mixing with moist sand, from which it can be afterwards
removed by sifting; or it can be kept for a time in water, changing
the water from time to time to prevent souring. The best time
for sowing orange seed is after the ground has become warm in
the spring.

Orange seedlings are grown either in boxes or in the open
ground. In either case a rich sandy loam which will not bake
should be secured or artificially made by mixing sand with rich
garden loam. Boxes of about two square feet area and six inches
deep are convenient to handle. The bottom should have holes, or
sufficient crevices for good drainage. Fill the boxes about four
inches with the prepared soil, place the seeds about an inch and a
half apart each way, and sift over them about an inch of the soil.,
or a little less of the soil, and a layer of clear sand if it is at hand.
It is essential that the soil should be kept moist, and light sprinkling
daily or every other day with water that has been warmed by
standing in the sun, is desirable. Seed can be sown in boxes in the
house at any time, if plenty of light and heat are given. If the
boxes are to be out-of-doors, it is best to sow in the spring, and
to rip up a cover of cheap cotton cloth, suspended about a foot
above the surface, to prevent effect of frost at night, and of burning

I

THE ORANGE NURSERY

437

by sun heat by clay. The seedlings usually appear in about six
weeks, and with good care in weeding and keeping sufficiently, but
not excessively, moist, they will make a growth of about a foot
the first season. Some growers collect the boxes in a sheltered
place, and build over them a lath house, tacking on old sacks or
other cloth, to shield from sun and frost. The lath house keeps
^nimals from running over the boxes, etc.

Growing seedlings in an open bed involves about the same oper-
ations. To guard against intrusion, it is advisable to make board
sides to the bed about a foot high, and to make lath frames which
will reach across, resting on the edge boards. A cloth sun-and-frost
shade is also desirable, to be laid over the lath frames when it
seems needed. Beds should be made narrow enough so that one
can easily reach half way across from each of the long sides for
weeding, etc. In open seed beds it is usual to sow the seed broad-
cast.

The Orange Nursery. — Planting out in nursery is usually done
after the ground is thoroughly warmed in the spring, and the seed-
lings are then about a year old. The preparation of nursery ground
and the planting out of the seedlings can be done as described in

a b c

Root systems of seedlings,
a Florida sour. b Pomelo. c Sweei seedling.

438

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Chapter VIII. Orange seedlings should, however, be given greater
distance apart than is usual for deciduous trees, because the orange
remains longer in nursery, and because it is often desirable, when
taking up, to sack the ball of earth embracing the roots. If the
roots are not to be sacked, about nine inches will do between the
plants ; if to be sacked, the distance should be twice as great. The
rows should not be too close in the orange nursery. If horse cul-
tivation is to be used, at least four feet between the rows should be
allowed, and even greater distance is desirable. In taking the seed-
lings from the seed beds, a few should be lifted at a time, and their
roots kept shaded and moist until the ground closes on them in
the nursery row. To get an even stand in the nursery, small and
weak plants should be placed by themselves, or set in boxes to take
another year before going into nursery.

Young trees in nursery are very liable to frost injury, and it
is wise to protect them by some sort of a cover during the winter.
A framework covered with cypress brush is often used, the wliole
being cleared away in the spring, to allow of summer cultivation.
Cultivation of trees in nursery is about the same as with deciduous
fruit trees. The horse should be used, and the surface kept per-
fectly pulverized. The cultivator should follow irrigation as soon

Bearing Pomelo budded to orange: leaving side branch
to keep up circulation.

as the soil will admit of it. Frequency of irrigation of nursery
depends, of course, upon local conditions. Some give two or three
irrigations, by running the water in a little trench alongside the
rows, at intervals of two weeks, for a time after planting, and then
irrigate once a month during the summer. It is important that
irrigation should not be continued too late into the fall, because

BUDDING AND GRAFTING ORANGES

439

the young tree should harden its wood before cold weather. Nor
is it desirable that the growth be too rapid. A good growth o£
sound wood is better than extra size. •

Length of Time in Nursery. — Seedlings are usually budded after
being one or two years in the nursery, or at two to three years
from the planting of the seed. At a convenient time in the winter
the lower shoots and thorns are removed from the seedlings, so
as to leave a clear stem of about six inches for the convenience of
the budder.

BUDDING THE ORANGE

The orange root is the best foundation for an orange tree, and
the seedling sweet orange has been the main reliance. The seed-
ling of the Florida sour orange has been used to some extent to
escape gum disease. It has not been entirely free, though conceded
to be less subject to the trouble. Oranges have also been worked
upon pomelo seedlings, which force a strong growth, root deeply
and are satisfactory. Qf course many lemon, and recently many
pomelo trees, have been worked over to the orange, but in these
cases the orange root was below the other wood. All lemon roots
are not suitable for the orange. The Japanese practice of dwarfing
with the citrus trifoliata has never prevailed in this State. Recently
the trifoliata stock has been used considerably to secure earlier
ripening of fruit, and the tree claimed to be sufficiently free growing,
but experience favors the other roots for standard trees.

Orange top on lemon trees eighteen months after budding.

440

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Budding is almost exclusively adopted for working in desirable
varieties. The best time to bud is about the time the new growth
starts on the seedling in the spring, though some practice budding
in midsummer and fall. Good, well-matured buds only should be
used; those from both base and tip of the shoots are frequently
defective. The method of budding described in Chapter IX is that
usually employed in budding citrus trees, and the rules for loosen-
ing the ligature, etc., are similar. Midsummer buds are apt to have
soft growth at the coming of cold weather; fall buds remain dor-
mant until spring; spring buds start to grow almost immediately,
and have the benefit of the whole summer season for growth and
maturing of wood.

After the bud has started out well, the top of the stock should
be removed at a short distance above the bud, and suckers on the
old stock should be continually looked for and removed. The tender
shoot of the bud may be protected by tying to the stub, and when
the growth of the bud has become strong enough to support itself,
the old stock is smoothly sawn away above the bud and the wound
covered with liquid grafting wax, or paint.

The care of budded trees in nursery is similar to that of the seed-
lings of the previous year. If too great a tendency to branch low
down is observed, the tips of the lower shoots should be pinched,
but it is not desirable to underprune much; the retention of the
lower branches thickens the stem. Sometimes a very rank growth
on the bud will need a stake to strengthen it or to protect it from
blowing out. The intrusion of gophers and other vermin should be
resolutely and persistently guarded against.

Working over Old Trees. — Old orange trees can be transformed
into improved varieties either by budding or by grafting, as de-
scribed at the close of Chapter IX, though re-working by grafting
has been almost entirely superseded by budding. The common way
to bud over an old tree is to cut back part of the branches and
force out new shoots, the best of which are selected for budding
and the others removed. Sometimes only a part of the tree is
removed at first, and when the new buds have grown out on that,
the other part is similarly treated. Others remove the whole top
except a single low branch to maintain sap circulation until after
the. new buds start.

Recently the practice of budding into old bark has been widely
adopted as the quickest way to secure a new tree. As with working
into old bark in other trees, it is necessary to take an older bud and
a larger, thicker shield of bark behind it, than when budding into
younger stock. Some remove the wood from the back of the shield,
but generally it is not done. The following is an outline of practice
approved hy_llie . Rejdiands. HortLcultura^UClub : _ j

PLANTING THE ORANGE

441

Keep the buds carefully in a damp cloth. Slide the bud upward, above the
cross-section. Bind around the bark, steering clear of the buds proper, a
wrapping of waxed cloth, already prepared, three-fourths of an inch wide.
When enough of this has been wrapped about the tree trunk or branch to
keep the bark and the bud in place, rub the end of the muslin strip with the
handle of the budding knife, down upon the muslin already wound about the
bark. This will hold the waxed wrapping firmly in place. From ten days to
two weeks after the buds have been inserted, cut off the entire top of the tree,
above the buds, and cover the stump of trunk or large branch with grafting
wax — applied hot — with a brush.

As soon as the wax is put on — and it must be put on as soon as the top
is sawed off — whitewash the tree, over the waxed cloth, also over the bud,
over every part of the tree that is left, except the stump ends, to which the
hot wax has been applied. Immediately the buds will begin to grow. From
ten days to two weeks after whitewashing take off the muslin wrap, and, if the
work has been done carefully, in accordance with the above directions, 90 per
cent of the buds will develop — perhaps more. A prime necessity for this work
is a razor-sharp budding knife.

There is a variation in practice in cutting back the stock above
the bud. Instead of cutting back at once, heroically, as just de-
scribed, some girdle the branch or cut back part of the top at a
distance above the bud, cutting dov^n to the bud after it shows
good strong growth, tying the young growth to the stub at first
to protect it. Others insert the bud in the fall, cutting back to start
the bud after the fruit on the old top is gathered. It is very im-
portant to watch for suckers below the bud and remove, or pinch
them back, to make a bunch of leaves. The growth from the bud
itself often needs pinching to induce low branching. Twig-budding
can also be used on the orange by the method already described for
the olive.

Budding in old trees is best done in the spring, when the sap
flow is strong, but, as stated, can be done in the fall and the bud
allowed to lit dormant until spring.

PLANTING ORANGES IN ORCHARD

As already stated, orange trees are planted out at greater age
than deciduous fruit trees. Budded trees are given one or two
years' growth in nursery and one or two years' growth on the bud.
which, added to the year in seed bed, makes them three to four
years of age from the sowing of the seed. Seedlings, to be planted
out as such, are allowed two years' growth in the nursery, which
makes them three years old from the seed. For this length of time
and the unusual care involved in their growth, taking up from nur-
sery and preparation for carriage, orange trees of planting age arc
of much greater cost than deciduous fruit trees.

Since the growing of seedlings for their fruit has practically
ceased, the distance between the trees in orchard planting has
ranged from twenty to twenty-four feet. All the varieties now
propagated are quick to bear fruit, and if properly shaped will find
ample space in these distances — the greater distance on the richer
soil as a rule.

442 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Preparation of land for orange planting by deep and thorough
cultivation and laying off to secure straight rows by the square,
quincunx, and hexagonal methods have been quite fully discussed
in Chapter X, and Chapter XI has suggestions for planting, many
of which are applicable to the setting of orange trees. There are,
however, special methods employed in lifting the orange trees from
the nursery rows and in placing them in permanent position, which
will be outlined.

The orange, in common with other evergreen trees, is exceed-
ingly sensitive to exposure of its roots, and for this reason the
handling of the young trees is very different from that of ordinary
orchard trees. Three ways are employed for securing this constant
moisture of the roots, as follows :

Packing in Wet Straw. — As fast as the trees are lifted from the
nursery ground by digging carefully so as to loosen and secure all
the roots possible, they are packed in damp and partially rotten
straw, proper receptacles being at hand so that the roots are not
exposed by carrying them any distance. In taking up, all roots
bruised by the spade are cleanly cut with a sharp knife. The tap-
root is cut away at a depth of a foot or so from the surface. This
use of wet straw, if faithfully carried out, will answer well in taking
trees short distances for planting, but the use of a puddle on tne
roots before packing in damp straw gives additional assurance oi
success.

Puddling the Roots. — This method is also used for deciduous
fruit trees, as mentioned in Chapter XL It consists in having a thin
puddling of loamy soil with preponderance of sand rather than of
clay, into which the roots are dipped as soon as the tree is lifted
from the nursery. This mixture, which should be about as thick as
cream, may be made in a hole in the ground, or, better still, in a
box or cask large enough to allow complete plunging of the roots.
As soon as dipped, and with all the mud which will adhere, the roots
are packed in wet straw. If the trees are to remain thus packed
for any length of time, the greatest care must be observed to keep
the straw damp, and water must be applied gently to avoid washing
the puddle from the roots.

Sacking the Roots with a Ball of Earth. — This is a very satis-
factory way to move orange trees, and if it is well done, the tree
does not wilt, and may be moved long distances and handled more
freely than the puddled roots. To ball and sack trees, dig a trench
along one side of the row about six inches away from the trees,
and about a foot and a half deep. By careful digging under each
tree from this trench the tap-root is reached, and severed by a cut
with a sharp spade. The side roots are also cut by thrusting the
spade down on the three sides not opened by the trench. The top

I

PLANTING ORANGE TflEES ^^3

earth is carefully removed nearly down to the highest lateral roots,
and after being sure that the roots are severed all around, the
tree is lifted out with the ball of earth which encloses the remain-
ing roots. This ball is rounded off carefully and then placed
on a half of a grain sack or other piece of burlap, the corners of
which are drawn up and tied around the stem of the tree with
baling rope. It is also an additional surety of safety to allow
the baling rope to run under and around the ball to aid in hold-
ing it together. The balled trees must be carefully handled so
as not to break the ball, which would result in tearing to pieces,
as well as exposing, the roots.

The manner of handling the trees depends somewhat upon
the character of the nursery soil. Successful balling of course
requires a certain amount of adhesiveness in the soil.

One can not be too careful in the handling of orange trees.
Though they will stand harsh treatment when in permanent
place, they must be most carefully transplanted. Lifting from
the nursery when the soil is too dry, exposure of the roots, or
careless planting, will consign the tree to a slow, sickly growth,
and often kill it outright.

Cutting Back at Transplanting. — The rule of reducing the
top to compensate for the loss of roots, is vital in moving orange
trees, but sometimes cutting back is carried too far' and subse-
quent growth is checked rather than promoted. Some growers
cut back the young trees a little while before lifting them from
the nursery. Some take off all leaves after planting out, and
claim that growth starts sooner and more strongly, but it is
doubtful whether defoliation is advisable, except in case of wilting,
when it is necessary.

Digging Holes and Setting Trees. — The same considera-
tions which require extra care in lifting trees for nursery, rule
in putting them in permanent place. All authorities on the sub-
ject specify exceptional care in preparing the tree holes as a
profitable investment on the part of the planter. Large and
deep holes are commended, provided the planting is done in a
deep, free soil. Deep holes would be more injurious than bene-
ficial in a tight subsoil, unless drainage were furnished, but there
are good orange trees now bearing in such places — good enough
at least to be an ornament and acceptable fruit producers for
family use.

On large-scale planting in deeply prepared soil, holes large
enough to allow good spreading of the roots are sufficient.
Handling the soil at planting has been fully described in Chaptei
XI, and the importance of bringing the soil into firm contact
with the roots has been urged. The use of water in planting
citrus fruit trees is especially desirable. Transplanting should

444

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

be done just as the growth is starting in the late spring or eariy
summer, and this is the opening of the dry season and rains can
not be expected. Therefore when the roots are arranged and
the top soil lightly tramped around them, water is run in the
hole and the earth compacted around the roots by water settling.
After the water has settled away, the hole is filled and the sur-
face left loose to prevent evaporation.

These instructions apply to the planting out of trees which
are taken up with long roots and puddled. In planting out balled
trees, the sack is not removed, but after the tree is embedded in
the earth, the tying rope is cut. The sack soon decays in the soil.

Orange trees can be successfully transplanted at different
times of the year, but the best time, as just stated, is after the
ground gets well warmed by the spring sunshine. The date
at which this condition arrives depends upon locality. Experience
seems to indicate that the young orange tree is in best condition
to transplant just as the new growth is starting out, and prefer-
ably when it has not grown out more than two inches.

Good form secured by training.

m^ —

Fig. 1. Orange tree at planting

in orchard,

3 feet high.

PRUNING THE ORANGE

445

Great care must be taken that transplanted orange trees do
not become dry after planting. The methods of irrigation are
described in Chapter XV. Good cultivation should also attend
the orange from its first planting onward. This subject is fully
discussed in Chapter XIII.

PRUNING THE ORANGE

All the considerations urged in Chapter XII in favor of low-
headed and strongly-branched trees apply to the orange, though
the habit of the tree in growth and bearing requires different
pruning policies. The orange tree is more disposed naturally to
assume a good form than most other trees, and for this reason
most experienced growers declare their belief in pruning as little
as possible. This is unquestionably good policy providing atten-
tion enough is given to securing a shapely and convenient tree,

Fig. 2. Branch form of orange before
removing lower branches.

and to overcome the tendency in the young tree to run out very
long shoots which result in unsymmetrical shoulders with hollows
beneath them and obviate a weeping habit, which interferes with
irrigation and cultivation and prevents the development of good
bearing space above. It is so easy to bring the orange tree into
good form by a little hard thinking about what shape is desirable
and a little timely cutting and pinching to secure it.

446

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It has long been held that the orange tree should assume a
compact wall of foliage. The interior of the tree being consid-
ered merely the framework to support this and pump sap into
it. Recently the importance of removing dead wood from the

Fig. 3. Good form of five-year-old orange tree.

center of the tree is being urged, even though the cost is con-
siderable, and a rational thinning of branches to admit light and
air in sufficient amount to secure good fruit nearer the center
of the tree is also being advocated and practiced to some extent,

Fig. 4. Branch form of orange six months
after planting.

PRUNING THK ORANGE

447

All these progressive tendencies carry the orange nearer to the
application of the principles of pruning which are discussed in
detail in Chapter XII, including the rational recourse to more
severe pruning or cutting back to induce a growth of new and
stronger wood for subsequent bearing. In other cases cutting
back of varieties inclined to make a rank wood growth, like the
Valencia Late, to encourage a better supply of fruiting wood,
is being advocated. It seems clear that there are important ends
to be gained by more pruning of the orange tree, and by earnest
thinking and close observation along this line.

Fig. 5. Tendency of clipped branches to rise.

It has been held that it was necessary to prune the young
tree to quite a high head at first to allow for the natural droop
of the branches, and the result is seen in many young trees with
slim stems and umbrella-like tops. It is better to develop a stout
stem by allowing for a time a low growth upon it and then raise
it later by removal of the lower growth which has done good
service and outlived its usefulness. By wise underpruning it is
possible not only to secure a shapely and convenient tree but
also to so train the lower growth that it shall present good, low
bearing wood without groveling in the dust.

Unquestionably the drooping habit of budded orange trees is
largely due to their treatment. A grower who does not believe
in pruning allows the branches to extend too far horizontally,

448

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and the weight of the foliage and the early fruiting brings the
branches to the ground. To relieve the lower branches of the
young tree of a part of this weight will enable them to assume
a better direction, and this slight relief at first will prevent much

'^^^^r

Fig. 6. Branch form of five-year-old
tree built down.

branch-sawing in later years. The young tree as it comes from
the nursery usually starts upon an upright course. If stopped
at about three feet it can be brought along to develop strong
and well-arranged branches, much as has been described for
deciduous fruit trees in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving.
Fig. 1, shows a young tree in planting condition, stopped at three
feet and needing only a slight cutting back of the laterals to be
readv to begin its orchard life. If young trees are transplanted

Fig. 7. Foliage form of five-year-old tree.

J

I

SHAPING THE ORANGE TREE 449

short distances and at the right time they do not need so much
cutting back as is commonly given them. If allowed to grow
from the start shown in Fig. 1, pruning only to prevent long
branches from running out at random, and removing branches
which may start strongly from near the base, the tree will
assume the branch-form shown in Fig. 2 and at from two to three
years after planting in the orchard. At about this age the removal
of lower branches begins, as they have served their purpose in
shading the trunk and bearing the first fruit. These branches are
removed one by one until, when the tree is five years in the orchard,
it has lost all branches below the two-foot line except the one branch
marked "a" of which the upright-growing part will be retained.
The higher branches assume the more horizontal habit, too great
out-shooting is repressed and at about five years orchard-age the
tree attains a height of about twelve feet and is of the general form
shown in Fig. 3. The next few months will bring its foliage to the
ground to remain there or to be under-trimmed, as the notion of
the grower may be.

BUILDING DOWN AND NOT SAGGING DOWN

It is perfectly feasible and rational to secure a good form of
low tree without removal of large branches and without relying
upon the sag of the branches from a high head. It requires
rather more watchfulness and attention and study of the subject
than some growers desire to give, but the results when attained
are very satisfactory. The method is that of J. H. Reed, of
Riverside, and has been followed by him for a number of years
with his own orchard and others of which he has had charge.
It will be found readily intelligible with the help of the sketches.
Mr. Reed would begin with a young nursery tree like that already
shown in Fig. 1. He does not believe in much cutting back
before planting providing a fair amount of roots are left in the
ball at transplanting. If the tree has been properly planted and
cared for, it will soon begin to put out new growth, usually first
along the stem, the strongest growth being lowest down. As
many of these young branches along the stem as are not desired
for permanent branches, are rubbed off, the earlier the better, at
least before woody fiber is deposited in them. Mr. Reed rubs
off promptly all below a point about two feet from the ground,
if there is a prospect of getting sufficient good branches above
that point. If not he saves them down to eight or even twelve
inches lower if need be.

Mr. Reed's idea is to build the head along a considerable
length of the trunk and not have the branches bunched at the
top, and this is the same idea that is urged in the development
of the trunk of the deciduous fruit tree in Chapter XII. He finds

450 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

it impossible to do this in the nursery because if it is attempted
to form a head 18 or 24 inches along the upper portion of the stem
instead of one bunched near the top of it, the lower branches will
appropriate most of the sap and the upper portion will not be
well developed; while if this upper story is well established in
the nursery the lower portion can be built on without detrinjent
to the upper, if nutriment sufficient for both is furnished. Fig.
4 will show approximately the branch-form of the young tree at
about six months from planting and the shoots with which the
building-down is begun. The first step is to check the drooping
habit. Upon this point Mr. Reed says :

The common notion that the branch Df the Navel orange naturally tends
down is a mistake which grows out of aie fact that in its rapid growth the
new part of the stems and large leaves are so loaded with sap that they pull
the stems from their natural upright position, and, unless relieved, hold them
there till the deposit of woody fiber fixes the branches in the drooping or
unnatural position. If the tips of these rapidly growing branches, with their
heavy leaves, be clipped at the right time, the branches will spring back to the
erect position, where they will remain to send out new branchlets. It is won-
derful how the orange tree can be molded like a thing of wax by pinching and
clipping here and there, if done at the right time.

Fig. 5 shows the result of this clipping of heavy shoots to
allow them to assume a more upright growth and the encour-
agement of new shoots below the two-foot mark. Fig. 6 gives
the branch-form of a five-year-old tree, with its lower story of
bearing wood well developed, and Fig. 7 is the foliage-form of
the same tree, about fifteen feet high, with its leaves and fruit
reaching to the ground. As to how low the branches should be
allowed, Mr. Reed says that until recently he has thought it best
to keep the lower branches clipped back so that the fruit would
not touch the ground, but he is persuaded that it is better to let
them come to the ground even if considerable fruit rests on it.
He finds that many of the best orchardists do this, and claim
that there are really less culls among the fruit on the ground
than on the less-protected branches above.

Later Pruning of the Orange. — After the form of the orange
is well established the aim should be to preserve a compact, sym-
metrical and convenient form. It is desirable that weak wood
should be removed; dead interior branches, which have given up
the struggle for the light, should also be removed. It is an
appalling undertaking to get into the inside of an old orange
tree and saw ofif and drag out the dead wood but, as already stated,
the conviction is growing that this should be done. Of the grow-
ing shoots there is a reasonable amount of thinning to be done.
The clipping back of ambitious shoots multiplies laterals. There
should be a good cover of leaves, but the crowding of leaves on
leaves excludes light and air and weakens the tree by lessening

J

THE WASHINGTON NAVEL

451

the vigor of leaf action. Dead twigs which appear among good
bearing shoots should always be removed. The gourmand shoots
or suckers should be repressed, unless, by clipping, one can be
turned into a branch where a branch is needed.

DISEASES OF THE ORANGE

The orange is thus far subject to few diseases in California.
The most grievous is the so called gum disease, which as analo-
gous to the gumming of other trees and will be discussed in the
chapter treating of tree diseases. Cracking of the fruit is a trouble
which has never been fully explained.

There are several serious insect enemies of the orange, which
will be discussed in the chapter on that subject. The "black
smut," which makes leaves and fruit unsightly in some parts of
the State, is a fungoid growth upon the exudations of insects, and
can be prevented by removing its cause.

VARIETIES OF THE ORANGE

Though many varieties of the orange have been introduced
in California, but few are largely grown. During the last fifteen
years there has been a pervading disposition to concentrate upon
the Washington Navel, and, except to get other varieties either
earlier or later to extend the season, there seems little reason
to go beyond the Navel for commercial purposes. Not only have
recent plantings been predominantly of this variety, but old trees
of other kinds have been very largely budded over to it, and this
work is still going on at a rapid rate.

As already claimed in the opening pages of this chapter, the
Washington Navel is the greatest commercial orange in the
world. As it goes from California into the world's commerce it
is a combined product of grower's skill and climatic conditions
operating upon its own natural qualities and characters. Neither
of these factors alone could achieve its present position. The
navel mark is neither peculiar to it nor determinative of it, for
there are other navels which are inferior here and our navel is
inferior elsewhere; and even in Bahia, whence it came, it has no
such quality and standing, because in coming to California it
passed from humid, tropical to arid, semi-tropical environment.
As already suggested, the tropical orange is not in the same class
with the semi-tropical from the point of view of commerce. Trade
in tropical oranges is local or limited ; trade in semi-tropical
oranges is world-reaching. The orange produced in an arid, semi-
tropical climate is dense and compact, firm and better in keep-
ing and carrying characters. It is also of more sprightly flavor
and richer composition. Those who are disposed to exalt the

452 OALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

humid air orange for superior sweetness forget that the California
orange, as compared, for instance, with the Florida product, has
not less sugar but adds to it more acid; being, in fact, not less
sweet but more sour. As both sugar and acid are nutritive sub-
stances, the superiority of the California fruit from a dietary
point of view is clear. Such an orange, enclosed in a thin skin of
silky texture and beautiful finish, comes very close to an ideal
upon which to found an industry.

Although California has apparently no need for changes of
type in oranges and has worked diligently and long for the
attainment of the types which are at present supreme in her
industry, there is still opportunity for improvement within the
types. Such improvement is probably to be attained not by
hybridizing, but by selection. The Washington Navel, like other
members of the citrus family, is keenly disposed to variation and
some of its variations have been named and propagated as the
lists below will show. The pursuit of such and other improve-
ments is now being systematically taken up at the Citrus Experi-
ment Station at Riverside which is a branch of the University
of California Experiment Station at Berkeley.

Of the few varieties which are now largely grown the follow-
ing is the ripening season :

Navel and Seedlings, November to May; Malta Blood, March
to June; Mediterranean Sweets, April to July; St. Michaels, May
to July; Valencia Late, June to September.

Washington Navel (Bahia, Riverside Navel). — Fruit large, solid, and heavy;
skin smooth and of a very fine texture; very juicy; high flavored, with melt-
ing pulp; is practically seedless, only in exceptional cases are seed found; tree
is a good and prolific bearer, medium thorny, a rapid grower, although it does
not attain a very large size; bears when very young, commencing to bear as
early as one year old from the bud; ripens early. This variety was imported
from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by Mr. W. Sanders, of the Department of Agricul-
ture at Washington, and in 1874 two trees were received from Washington
by Mrs. Tibbetts, of Riverside, Gal. Trees were also received about the same
time by Alexander Craw, but the Riverside trees were first in fruit, and the
excellence of the variety being at once recognized, it was propagated rapidly
and took the name Riverside Navel from the place where its characteristics
were first made known. As it came to be grown largely in other districts as
well, a broader name, Washington Navel, recognizing its receipt from the
national capital, was adopted.

There is much tendency to variation in the Washington Navel, and sub-
varieties are to be found involving departures in the direction of thinness and
silkiness of rind, etc., as well as interior characters. The first to become
prominent of these is Thomson's Improved Navel with A. C. Thomson, of
Duarte, Los Angeles County, claimed to have produced by a process of prop-
agation, but which is believed to be a natural variation. It is a very refined
fruit; generally held to be too fine for ordinary handling.

Two new variations, developed on the propagating grounds of the San
Dimas Citrus nurseries of R. M. Teague are as follows :

Golden Buckeye Navel. — Young wood, slender but strong; tree of striking
appearance; fruit marked with bands of deeper color, skin very smooth; pulp
aromatic with suggestion of pineapple flavor.

PACKING CITRUS FRUITS

453

Golden Nugget Navel. — Young wood willowy and slender, tree umbra-
geous; fruit smooth, solid, thin-skinned, rather oblong and good size, rich
golden color ; pulp free from rag, and delicious.

Australian Navel. — A coarser type of the Navel introduced from Australia
in 1874 by Lewis Wolfskill, of Los Angeles, and largely propagated formerly.
It has now been practically abandoned for the Washington Navel. It seems
to be of more account at some points in the San Joaquin Valley than elsewhere.

Valencia Late {Hart's TarJi^) .—Medium size, oblong, pale yellow; flesh
rich, deep yellow, sprightly and crisp; tree a strong grower, slightly thorny.
Ripens late, and valuable for late shipping.

Malta Blood. — Fruit small to medium, oval; flesh fine texture and flavor,
streaked and mottled with red; few seeds. The tree is thornless and regular
and heavy bearer.

Ruby. — Medium size, roundish; when ripe often reddened by deep red pulp
within; juicy and sprightly, often rather acid; tree vigorous, thornless and a
good bearer.

Mediterranean Sweet. — Fruit medium to large, pulp and skin of fine texture,
very solid and few seeds; ripens late, often not until May or June. The tree
is thornless and of dwarf habit of growth and is inclined to overbear. It was
at one time the most widely-distributed variety in the State, next to the Wash-
ington Navel, but has recently been largely budded over. It was introduced
and named by T. A. Garey, of Los Angeles.

Paper Rind St. Michael. — Fruit small, round, very firm and very juicy;
pale, thin skin ; very elegant in appearance. It ripens late and keeps "well on
the trees as late as August; tree is of dwarf habit, medium thorny, a good
bearer, and very desirable.

Kumquat {Citrus Japonica). — Fruit very small, oblong or olive shaped, rind
thick, yellow, smooth; sweet-scented; very little pulp; containing many seeds;
tree dwarf (a bush), a prolific bearer. Chiefly used for conserves.

Dancy's Tangerine, or Kid Glove. — ^Leaves broad, fruit flat, small to medium,
reddish; skin separating readily from the pulp; flesh juicy and aromatic.

Satsuma {Unshiu Oonshiu). — A considerable acreage of this variety, planted
ten years ago on dwarfing stock, has availed very little commercially. At
present there is disposition to grow the variety on sweet orange stock because
of its earliness, but this practice has been recently condemned by Florida"
experience, where it is held that it must be grown on the trifolicata root. Tree
quite hardy, fruit irregular in size, but usually medium size, flattened; rind
easily detached; fine texture, sweet and nearly seedless.

Mandarin, Willow-Leaved. — Medium sized, flattened, deep yellow; flesh dark
orange, skin loose; tree compact, ornamental.

King. — Of the Mandarin class ; large, rough skinned, skin and segments
loose, pulp high flavored, sweet, aromatic.

STANDARD PACK FOR CITRUS FRUITS

A standard orange box in California is 12x12x26 inches outside
measurements with a fruit space ll^/^xl 1^x24 inches, and its
weight is usually estimated at 72 pounds. A standard California
lemon box is 10^ x 14 x 27 inches outside measurements, divided
also into two compartments. Pomelos are packed in the orange
box, while the Tangerines, Mandarins and other kid glove vari-
eties are packed in half boxes of the orange size, two of which
are cleated together for shipment. In rare instances they are
packed in quarter boxes, four being cleated together.

454

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

A carload of packed oranges varies some in number of boxes
in keeping with the size of the car. A 36-foot car will take 336
boxes, the 40-foot car 384, and the 42-foot 409. In lemons the
36-foot car will take 288 boxes, the 40-foot car 312, and the 42-foot
car 336. When packed the boxes are placed on end two tiers
high and six rows wide, with a space for ventilation between
each and every box, made feasible by nailing small strips of lum-
ber of sufficient strength crosswise of the car.

In oranges the regular sizes are 126, 150, 176, 200, 216; small
"off-sizes" 250, 324, 360; large "off-sizes" 64, 80, 96, 112. The
relative value of the different sizes in the regular trade is given
by Mr. Powell, whose excellent publication on the marketing of
oranges is cited in the chapter on that fruit, in this way : "A
car of Washington Navel oranges may contain boxes of all sizes.
A car is called a "standard car" when it contains not more than
ten per cent of each of the following sizes: 96, 112, 250, and not
over twenty per cent of the 126 size. The remainder of the car
may be divided among the 150, 176, 200 and 216 sizes. If a car
is sold to a dealer at a fixed price per box it is usual to allow a
discount of 25 to 50 cents per box on the excess in the 96, 112,
126 and 250 sizes, and a discount of 50 cents per box on the 48,
64, 80, 288, 300, 324, 360 and 420 sizes. The rule concerning the
sizes in a standard car may vary with the season, with the sec-
tion and with the general size of the fruit taken as a whole.
When oranges of either the large or small sizes are scarce, they
are at a premium, and the proportion in a car may be raised with-
out discount.

CHAPTER XXXIII
THE POMELO OR GRAPE FRUIT IN CALIFORNIA

This citrus fruit achieved a very sudden interest in California
because of the prices commanded by Florida pomeloes about fif-
teen years ago. When this supply of eastern cities was cut off
by the serious frost injuries in Florida there arose a passion for
planting the trees in California, and a considerable acreage was
planted, and as the tree is a very rapid grower and precocious
in fruit-bearing, large shipments were made in 1898, but the
the results were not satisfactory, and since that time, although
pomeloes sometimes sell to good advantage, the demand is on
the whole light and irregular. The local consumption of pomeloes
in California is increasing but does not warrant much acreage.
For these reasons early plantings have been largely grafted over
to the orange.

The fruit is a Shaddock (Citrus decumana). Varieties have
been secured of smaller size and of blander flavor than the coarse,
sour and acrid fruit which is suggested by its name. An effort
has been made to secure the favorite varieties, and a large list
has been planted in this State, but the fruit does not command the
place at the East which was awarded to the Florida product. As
a tree the pomelo most nearly resembles the orange and its culture
is the same. As for varieties, California experience has been too
brief and fitful to demonstrate particular value or adaptation in
them. Among growers there is no wide agreement as to superi-
ority from a commercial point of view. Amateurs can find many
desirable sorts in our citrus nurseries.

Mr. A. P. Griffith of Azusa is perhaps the most enthusiastic
and confident of California growers that the pomelo grown in
this State will attain wide popularity in the United States. His
grove is now seven acres in extent, nearly all of the Nectar vari-
ety which is of the type which he believes should be grown to win
public favor. He concludes that the market wants a fruit not
smaller than 80's and prefers them to stop at 64's. A fruit flat-
round that will cut up into two halves each of which will stand
upright on a plate, cut side up, seems especially desirable. A
fruit that is spherical or pear-shaped is not desired. There are
several varieties whose similarity in type would seem to warrant
including all under one name. These, with the addition of the seed-
less, comprise all there is of intrinsic value among California
pomeloes. If all other varieties not of this type were budded

455

466

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

over, and thus taken out of the market, Mr. Griffith believes the
demand would increase. Of the following varieties, the first is
propagated by Mr. Griffith and the others by Mr. R. M. Teague
of the San Dimas Citrus Nurseries and other citrus nurserymen :

Nectar. — A Florida seedling, grown at Duarte; flat-round, heavy; peel
smooth and bright, pale-lemon color ; oil cells small and numerous ; flesh dense,
firm texture, abundant juice, vinous, excellent, bitter-sweet element distinct;
few seeds and little rag; sizes from 42 to 80 to the box.

Imperial. — Medium to large, peel very smooth, medium thin and of fine
texture; little rag, juice abundant, fine aromatic flavor, good keeper and shipper.
Tree upright and heavy bearer.

Marsh Seedless. — Medium size, 52 to 64 to the box; thin rind; almost en-
tirely seedless ; flesh dark and rich, a late keeper and early and abundant bearer.

Triumph. — Medium size, peel smooth, clear, thin and fine grained ; very
juicy, heavy and good flavored; juice free from bitterness; very little rag; an
early and prolific bearer.

Marketing Grape Fruit. — The California problem seems to
be not only to grow grape fruit acceptable to consumers in distant
markets but to place the fruit upon those markets when they are not
otherwise well supplied. Recently better results have been
attained by shipping during the Valencia season than earlier.
When California growers give as much attention to meeting the
demand as they have to the orange and the lemon, it is to be
expected that the grape fruit will become commercially more
satisfactory.

CHAPTER XXXIV
THE LEMON AND MINOR CITRUS FRUITS

Lemon growing is a very unique and distinctive branch of Cali-
fornia horticulture, which in the present advancement of culture
and preparation for the market, well illustrates the originality and
invention which the California fruit grower has displayed in his
undertakings. Lemon growing in California is old because it arose
at the old missions in the second century back of us, but success-
ful lemon growing as a great industry is new and constantly assum-
ing new phases. For the old seedling lemons were bad, and
though enterprising growers soon learned that fact and set about
getting better ones, it took years to secure them and to learn how
to grow and handle them so that the Californian could displace
the Sicilian fruit in the markets of the United States. Nor was
time the only thing sacrificed — hundreds of thousands of dollars
were lost before the California grower could put upon the market
a good lemon, fit to stay good for a sufficient length of time. Un-
profitable plantings ; expensive curing houses, which did not cure
well ; countless experiments which yielded only loss and disappoint-
ment— all these are wrecks upon the rock of American lemon grow-
ing.

Naturally Californians sought first to know how lemons were
grown and handled abroad. At cost of great effort and outlay they
learned practically nothing that they could do and a great deal
that it was not necessary to do. Then they assumed a more rational
mood — a disposition to discern what principles are involved in the
problem, and to apply them in their own way according to con-
ditions locally prevailing. Along this line grand success has been
attained by a few masterful men conducting large lemon enter-
prises or smaller undertakings of their own, while the mass of
lemon planters, for one reason or another, have never reaped the
reward they expected. On the whole, it may be said that lemon
growing is a much harder and more exacting enterprise than orange
growing, and for this reason many have new-topped their trees to
oranges and thus escape difficulties which they could not overcome.

With the aid of the protective tariff the most resolute and
capable have attained success, and now the California lemon is
highly esteemed upon its merits everywhere. The tariff has some-
what reduced the effect of cheap labor in Italy and cheap water
transportation from the Mediterranean region, and our lemons can
sometimes compete with the foreign product not only in the west

457

458

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

but even in the cities of the Atlantic seaboard. All this has been
accomplished within two decades and it is a notable result. One
measure of this fact may be found in the shipment of over three
thousand five hundred carloads during the season of 1906-7. The
California lemon has, however, not yet attained mastery of Amer-
ican markets as the orange has, for there is a value of about four
millions of dollars in imported lemons while imported oranges are
only worth one-fourth as much. It is manifest that the lemon
should be encouraged with increased protection to enable producers
to push the issue of an American lemon for Americans to a suc-
cessful termination.

The best pack of California lemons has a uniformity of size, a
finish of skin, a juiciness and keen acidity which is unrivaled in
the world. Numerous careful tests have been made of the Cali-
fornia lemon in Atlantic cities in comparison with the best south
European product, and the superiority of the American fruit has
thus been demonstrated.

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE LEMON

The lemon does best in a practically frostless situation. Such
places are found in largest area in the southern half of the coast
regions of California, but also exist at favoring elevations in the
interior. The moderating influence of proximity to salt water, and
the effect of local topography and environment, which give frost-
free nooks or belts, are elements favoring the lemon grower. In
such situations the lemon blooms and fruits continuously through-
out the year.

While the lemon requires a less extreme of low temperature
than the orange, it also thrives with a less extreme of high tem-
perature and less duration of it. It apparently does not require as
much heat to develop acid, which is the charm of the lemon, as
it does sugar, which is essential to an acceptable orange ; therefore,
a coast situation which may not yield a sweet orange may produce
a good lemon, although it is a fact that in the southern coast region,
where the largest commercial production of lemons is now
achieved, the orange also does well. Another advantage of the
lower summer temperature is that the continuous ripening is not
interfered with, as it is by high summer heat, which hastens ma-
turity and brings the mass of the fruit to marketable condition
in the winter — a season when the demand for the lemon is very
small. This objection is, however, being measurably overcome
by the proper storage and treatment of the fruit for sale, at a con-
siderable interval after picking, as will be mentioned presently.
But both the curing and storage of lemons are more eas^ily secured
in the more equable temperature and moister air of the coast
region.

PLANTING AND PRUNING LEMONS

459

The lemon delights in a sandy loam, and probably our best
orchards are on such soil, but the trees thrive in other soils. There
is a difference of opinion among growers as to what soil is to be
especially sought for. There are profitable lemon orchards in
southern California located upon deep clay loams, and even upon
strong red clay soils. As with some other fruits, the choice of
soil is, to a certain extent, governed by the stock on which the
lemon is worked.

PROPAGATING AND PLANTING

The prevailing stock for the lemon is the orange seedling
either the sweet or sour stock, under the same conditions that each
is preferred for the orange, the sour stock resisting measurably
the effects of ill-drainage of heavy land or flat, low places. The
orange root thrives on a greater variety of soils than the lemon,
and produces a healthy lemon tree where the lemon on its own
root would fail. The growth of orange seedlings for budding has
been described in the last chapter. If lemon seedlings are desired
they may be grown in the same way. Plants either for permanent
growth or for stocks for budding can be grown from cuttings, as
explained in Chapter VIII. The budding of the lemon is prac-
tically the same as of the orange, which has been described. An
old tree can be changed from one variety to another by the meth-
ods described for the orange, and oranges can be worked into
old lemon trees and good fruit secured if the lemon itself be grow-
ing upon an orange root, which is likely to be the case with trees
planted during the last decade.

Planting of the lemon is the same as that of the orange. The
distance in planting varies from twenty to twenty-five feet. Irri-
gation of lemon and orange trees is also similar.

PRUNING THE LEMON

The pruning of the lemon is essentially different from that of
the orange, because the habit of the tree is different. The lemon
requires constant attention to bring it into good bearing form and
keep it there ; the orange, after it is well shaped, simply needs
attention to encourage it to retain the bearing form to which it
seems naturally disposed. The orange provides itself with sat-
isfactory bearing wood, as a rule ; the lemon devotes itself, even
when it is old enough to know better, to a rangy rambling wood
growth with bearing wood upon the ends of willowy rods where
it is swept about in the wind and burned in the sun, instead of
nestling it neatly among the leaves as the orange does.

The rational proceeding with the lemon is, then, to develop it
at first into a low, stocky and strong form, such as is described in

460

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Chapter XII for deciduous trees. This may be secured by pinch-
ing so as not to allow running out of long branches at first, or it
may be secured by severe cutting back of the long growths of the
young tree. In either case low branching will be secured. Make
good selection from these branches to form a symmetrical tree
and cut back the growth which comes upon them to cause it to
branch in its turn. In this way plenty of good, strong wood is

^ k /'S

r --^^mi.iSfe.

Pf^>'' ^ '"^Hm

^mr-jwrnm^-w^.

it^M^-

Lemon tree with fruit near ground but capable of under-cultivation.

secured low down, and with short distances between the laterals.
Strong, upright shoots (wrongly called ''suckers") which break
out at points where branches are not desired, should be rubbed
off or cleanly cut away. Having secured about the right branch-
ing in about the right places no strong sprouts should be allowed,
and the tree should be encouraged to make smaller laterals, which
will be the bearing wood. It must be admitted, however, that this
rational plan of restricting wood growth and directing the energies
of the tree to fruit has in some cases been pursued too far and
the tree has resented repression by diminished thrift. The pruner
must allow freer growth of shoot to secure better foliage. The
pruning of the lemon as of other trees must always be pursued
with judgment rather than by recipe.

When the adequate growth of bearing wood within reach is
borne in mind it appears that the pruning of the lemon involves
many of the considerations urged in Chapter XII for deciduous

I

PRUNING THE LEMON

461

fruits; the method of making a strong, short trunk, the arrange-
ment of branches, the prevention of long growths, the encourage-
ment of low, bearing twigs, the thinning of twigs to prevent the tree
from becoming too dense, the points to be observed in cutting back,
not by shearing but by treating each branch according to its position
and vigor — all these must be borne in mind by the lemon pruner. It

Lemon tree under-pruned to bring fruit a distance from the soil.

must also be remembered that the work must be resolutely con-
tinued and the tree always prevented from wild growth and kept
down to bearing on the smaller twigs, which are promoted and
retained for that purpose. The building-down process described for
the young orange is easily applicable to the lemon.

Old lemon trees which have been allowed to grow away into
a long, rangy form and to bear fruit too high for profit, can be
brought down to good form by severe cutting back and after-
treatment of the new shoots, keeping the smaller horizontal
growths and cutting out cleanly the strong upright shoots, or cut-
ting them back if more branches are needed. The time for pruning
the lemon depends upon the end in view; if a young tree, to
promote wood growth, prune at the opening of the growing season
in the spring; in older trees, to repress growth and advance fruit-
ing, prune in midsummer.

When it is remembered that harvesting lemons is a continuous
operation as will be stated presently, keeping the bearing wood

462

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

of the tree within easy reach is more imperative from an economic
point of view than with trees from which fewer pickings gather the
crop. Adjacent engravings give suggestive views of rationally
controlled lemon trees. Pruning is also related to escaping infec-
tion of the fruit from the ground which will be discussed in the
Chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines.

Lemon tree with medium amount of under-pruning.

PREPARATION OF LEMONS FOR MARKETING

The lemon as taken from the tree is not in condition for
marketing except to packers who wish to undertake the curing.
To secure best results in quality and in keeping properties, the
lemon should be carefully cut from the tree as soon as proper size
is reached. To allow the fruit to hang upon the tree until lemon
color is assumed, gives a lemon which is deficient in juice, over-
sized, apt to develop bitterness, and prone to decay. Two and
five-sixteenths rings are used for winter pickings and 2^ for
spring and summer, never more than six weeks being allowed
to elapse between pickings, and the fruit is usually picked once
a month. By careful attention to this, desirable sizes and good-
keeping stock are obtained. Neglect of this is the weak point of
many of the lemon growers of California. Mr. C. C. Teague, man-
ager of the Limoneira Company of Santa Paula, Ventura County,

LEMON PACKING AND CURING 4^3

the largest lemon growing concern in California, has made close
examination of practice among lemon growers, and concludes that
the carelessness with which picking is done is almost criminal.
In grove after grove which he visited at least 50 per cent, of the
values had been lost by allowing the fruit to hang on the tree
too long. Not only on account of large sizes would it have to
be discounted 50 cents per box, but the keeping quality of the

Washing Lemons — Curing Tent in background.

464

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

lemon which is allowed to mature on the tree is never good. Good
results can not be obtained, even by the best methods of keeping
lemons, unless the fruit is picked at the proper time and properly
handled. Mr. Teague says a lemon should be handled as carefully
as an egg.

If gathered before the color begins to turn properly cured
lemons may be kept for months, and they will improve in market
qualities, by a thinning and toughening of the skin, and by increase
of juice contents. This curing of the fruit, as it is called, is
accomplished in many simple ways. If the fruit is gathered and
placed in piles under the trees, where, with low-headed trees, it
is completely shaded by the foliage, it processes well and comes
out beautiful in color and excellent in quality, providing it is a
good variety. Some have trusted wholly to this open-air curing
under the trees, merely protecting the fruit by a thin covering of
straw, or other light, dry materials. Others let the fruit lie a
few days under the trees, carefully shaded from the sun, and place
it in boxes or upon trays, and keep it months in a darkened fruit-
house, providing ventilation but guarding the fruit against draughts
of air. Gathering the fruit while still green and packing with alter-
nate layers of dry sand, has given excellent marketable fruit, but
of course the handling of so much sand is too expensive nor is it
at all necessary.

Much attention has been given to lemon storage in 'southern
California, and many curing and storage houses have been con-
structed. Naturally there is great variation in design and method
of operation. The essential conditions to be secured are exclusion
of light; regulation of temperature; ample ventilation, under con-
trol, however, so as to prevent entrance of air which is too dry or
too hot; convenience and cheapness of handling, for the lemon is
expensive in handling at best during the months of storage which
is often desirable. Some of these conditions are relatively of much
more importance in the interior than in the coast region, because
heat and dry air reach occasionally extremes which are not ex-
perienced near the ocean which is a great regulator of temperature
and atmospheric moisture. For these reasons a much simpler
system of storage is now in large use in the coast district, while
in the interior suitable special buildings or basements are appar-
ently necessary. Anyone entering upon lemon handling should
certainly visit establishments now in satisfactory use and learn by
careful observation of their suitability to his purposes.

Near the coast, and so far toward the interior as ocean influ-
ences extend in adequate degree, the building of special curing
houses has been abandoned and some quite expensive structures
have been turned to other uses. An objection to house-storage
lies in the fact that the fruit is apt to be massed in the house and
that which is just picked given the same ventilation as that which

LEMON CURING HOUSE 4g5

has been in the house several months, when, as a matter of fact,
lemons in different stages of curing require radically different
treatment as regards ventilation. As a result of this treatment
some of the fruit is usually wilted from receiving too much air,
while the greater portion of it is badly decayed from receiving too
little.

Proper ventilation is the keynote of success in keeping lemons.
and after extensive and expensive experience along the old lines,
Mr. Teague of the Limoneira Company, already cited, concluded
that lemon handlers had been on the wrong track in believing a
low temperature first in importance. If the ventilation is right
the temperature will take care of itself. Mr. Teague decided that
proper conditions for keeping lemons lie just between the points
where they wilt and where they sweat, inducing neither if possi-
ble, for too much moisture induces decay and too little causes
shriveling. The fragment of the stem left on the fruit by the cut-
ter may be used as a test : if it adheres, the conditions are right
for slow curing; if it detaches easily, the best keeping quality is
not being secured.

The Limoneira Company was first to equip a house on the
open air plan. The house is 300x100 feet. The flooring is 2-inch
planking and the roof covered with gravel-paper roofing. The
building has no sides whatever, allowing free circulation of air.
The fruit for storage is put into regular shipping boxes, piled in
blocks of 560 boxes. There is a double row of these blocks on
either side of a 20-foot space which extends to the entire length
of the building, and which answers the double purpose of a
work room and an air space. The boxes are so piled as to permit
of the circulation of air around each box. Each block of fruit is
covered by a canvas 10x10x20, made box shape by a canvas cover
and four canvas curtains on rollers, the openings at the corners
being closed by lacings as desirable. The ventilation is controlled
by raising or lowering the canvas, and each block of fruit can De
given exactly the ventilation that it requires, irrespective of the
other fruit in the house. By this method 50 or 100 cars of fruit
can be handled and kept in as good condition as if there was only
one. Each block being numbered, a complete record of the lemons
from each of the six sections of the ranch is kept from the time
it is picked until the fruit is shipped. The fruit is all washed in a
lemon washing machine, and is piled up in the house wet, just as
it comes from the machine. The canvas covers are not dropped
over it, however, until it is thoroughly dry. An idea of these
curing tents can be had from an adjacent engraving which shows
them on both sides of a central space which is used for packing
the fruit in the shipping boxes.

With proper curing facilities lemons picked in November and
December may be kept until the following July. Later pickings

460 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

may not keep so well and may be marketed first. Of the finer
points in lemon handling, however, there is much which must be
learned by experience.

VARIETIES OF LEMONS FOR CALIFORNIA

During the earlier years of California lemon growing there
were continuous efforts put forth to secure better lemon varieties.
During the last decade three varieties have been accepted as satis-
factory and nearly all others have been dropped. The three are
Eureka, Lisbon, and Villa Franca, arranged according to present
degree of popularity in southern California, where nearly the whole
commercial product is now made, although some plantings have
been undertaken farther north, chiefly in the citrus belt on the
east side of the San Joaquin valley.

Eureka. — A native of California, originated by C. R. Workman, at Los
Angeles, from seed imported from Hamburg in 1872, only one seed growing,
from which buds were put by him on orange stock. Distributed by T. A.
Garey, of Los Angeles. Tree very free from thorns. Fruit medium size, sweet
rind, a good keeper, few seeds; very popular, especially in coast regions. Less
popular in the interior because of scant foliage.

Lisbon. — Imported from Portugal ; first grown by D. M. Burnham, of
Riverside. Fruit uniformly medium size, rather oblong, fine grain, thin sweet
rind, strong acid; few seeds; a good keeper; tree is a strong grower, with com-
pact foliage, prolific bearer, but starts bearing late; quite thorny, but thorns
decrease in size as the tree grows older ; popular at interior points especially.

Villa Franca. — Imported from Europe. Medium size, oblong, slightly pointed
at the blossom end, rind thin, without bitterness, acid, strong, juicy, nearly
seedless. Tree thornless, branches spreading and somewhat drooping, foliage
abundant; withstands lower temperature than other imported varieties.

THE LIME

The lime {Citrus medica acida) has proved much less hardy
than the lemon. It has been killed in situations where the orange
and lemon have not been injured. Unless adequate protection is
thought worth the effort, there is little use in planting the lime,
except in a frostless situation. Such localities are found near the
ocean in southern California, and here and there at proper ele-
vation in the interior both north and south, still the growth of the
lime must be counted very hazardous. There is less inducement
to experiment with the fruit from the fact that the Pacific Coast
markets are well supplied with Mexican limes, usually at prices
which leave no opportunity for competitors.

Limes are grown from seed, the variety usually coming true
from seed. The trees are small and are frequently grown in hedge
form. The common variety is the Mexican. The Imperial, a
large, rather hardy variety is favorably reported by several growers.

THE BERGAMOT ^Q^j

THE CITRON

This fruit (Citrus mcdica cedra) is little grown in California,
although it is quite hardy and could be produced over a large area.
The only use for the fruit, which resembles a monstrous lemon,
is in its candied rind, and no one has deemed it worth while to
push competition with the imported candied citron, though very
fine experimental lots have been produced, and the interest of the
fruit-preserving establishments in the product recurs periodically.
There have been collections of citron trees imported from the
Mediterranean region by the United States Department of Agri-
culture planted at several points in southern California. As yet
no considerable product has been reached. There is, however, no
cessation of interest, and experimental planting continues, with a
prospect of satisfactor}^ attainment ere long. Samples of the can-
died article have been approved by experts as very satisfactory.

ORNAMENTAL CITRUS SPECIES

There are grown in this State for curiosity or ornament various
minor citrus species, including the Bergamot and the dwarf orna-
mental sorts from Asia. There are, of course, the ornamental
species grown by florists for their fragrant bloom.

CHAPTER XXXV
MINOR SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS IN CALIFORNIA

A number of interesting fruits are now grown in this State
which, for one reason or another, have not yet attained any great
commercial importance, although some of them are advancing in
popular esteem and likely to gain much higher place in the mar-
kets. Others will probably never be grown except for home use
and garden ornament.

THE BANANA

The banana has been a favorite plant for experimental culture
for many years, and though good fruit has been grown at various
points in the State, the culture is too hazardous to warrant large
investment, and if this danger was not present, the ab*undant sup-
plies available from the islands of the Pacific would probably
reduce the profits to a narrow margin. The banana can be trusted
only in protected situations and in small numbers which can be
given special attention. With these conditions the banana may
yield very acceptable fruit for home use and be an ornament to
the garden. Its beauty is, however, seriously impaired by winds,
which whip its tender leaves into shreds and give the plant an
unkempt appearance.

The largest number of bananas are seen in Los Angeles and
Santa Barbara, and one grower at an elevation near the latter place
reports his table supplied daily throughout the year with the fruit
of the Cavendish species, which is the most commonly grown
sort. The Yellow Martinique or Yellow Costa Rica, the Orenoco
the Hawaiian Lele, Hart's Choice, and a large-fruited variety
known in Los Angeles county as the Baldwin, are also approved
by growers. How to grow bananas in the garden, according to
the experience of the late S. H. Gerrish, of Sacramento, is as fol-
lows :

By experiment I have found that the banana will live — if in a proper soil —
without injury to the roots, at a temperature as low as sixteen degrees Fahr. ;
the stalk will stand a temperature of twenty-five degrees without injury, and
the leaves are not wilted until the air is chilled to thirty degrees. My method
has been to supply the richest food for this gigantic plant and force it to its
extreme growth. Every one has old chip dirt, ashes, boots, shoes, clothes, and
manure, which are often a nuisance. Dig a big hole, bury this up, in the center
of the mass place a pailful of sand, and plant the fresh bulb. This is to
preserve the dormant plant from the wire-worms and insects, which will not
attack the growing plant. As the plant grows, give it an abundance of water

468

I

CHERIMOYER AND CHOCHO

469

and all the slops of the house. Any kind of manure, fresh or old, ashes, leaves,
and vegetables will soon disappear and be absorbed by this gigantic king of
plants. As the rainy season approaches, pile all the leaves and twigs of trees
around the plants. It protects the bulbs and makes the soil rich for next season.

THE CHERIMOYER OR PERUVIAN CUSTARD APPLE

The oldest cherimoyer (Anoiia cherimolia) is growing in Santa
Barbara. The fruit was introduced about fifty years ago, and the
parent tree has for many years produced abundant fruit in such
perfection that the seeds have readily germinated, and the trees thus
propagated have been in successful bearing in several Santa Bar-
bara gardens. The leaves are oval and pointed at both ends ;
flowers solitary, very fragrant, and having a greenish color. Good
specimens of the fruit are three or four inches in diameter, often
heart-shaped, grayish brown or nearly black when fully ripe. The
tlesh, in which thirty or forty brown seeds are found, is soft, sweet,
and pleasant to the taste, being most palatable when near decay.
Mr. I. H. Cammack, of Whittier, describes the pulp as of the
consistency of ice cream or a custard flavored with a blending
of pineapples and bananas. If it has a fault it is too rich. Appar-
ently it has no particular season for ripening, yet the best speci-
mens seem to be found in Santa Barbara in April and May. The
cherimoyer is also found in gardens in San Diego and Los Angeles
counties. It needs a well-protected situation. The fruit has been
marketed on a limited scale in Los Angeles, and larger plantations
have been made, especially in the Cahuenga Valley, near Los An-
geles. The plant comes true from seed and the tree bears in its
fourth year, and should have as much room as an orange tree.
Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, points out the fact that much can be
gained by selection and propagation from the most satisfactory
trees, as follows :

Cherimoyers found in the gardens of southern California are almost always
seedlings, and generally shy bearers. There is but one named variety, so far
as I am aware, the Golden Russet. This is very prolific and frequently attains
large size. Specimens above one pound in weight are not uncommon. The
quality is as good as any, but is variable owing to the season and time of
ripening, much cold having a marked deteriorating effect. The normal shape
is like that of the strawberry, and the variations from the normal are equally
abundant; in fact, in this respect the cherimolia is quite extraordinary, as the
same tree will have on it fully matured fruit from less than an inch in diameter
up to six or eight inches. In size the tree averages about the same as the
peach. The market is a good one, large fruit commanding $3 per dozen or
more, while the smaller ones sell by the pound at a relatively lower price.

THE CHOCHO OR CHAYOTA

The chocho plant is fruiting in Santa Barbara county, for Mr.
Kinton Stevens, of Montecito, who ot)tained the seed from Samoa.
Sechium edule is the botanical name of this plant, but it is per-

470

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

haps better known as ''choco," "chocho," '"chayota," and "Portu-
guese squash." It belongs to the order cucurbitacae, and is a
perennial vine, resembling in growth and fruit our summer squash
or vegetable marrow. It is a very prolific bearer. Both the fruit
and the great yam-like tuber are used as food by man and beast
in the West Indies, where it is considered a wholesome article of
diet. The roots often weigh as much as twenty pounds. They
have a flavor similar to the yam, and are considered a greater deli-
cacy than the fruit, which in a raw state resembles the chestnut
in flavor, and under favorable conditions weighs over three pounds.
The proper way to grow them is to plant the whole fruit, as they
have but one seed, and they produce fruit in three months, under
favorable conditions.

THE GUAVA

Two species of guava have been quite widely tried in this
State — the strawberry guava {Psidium cattlcyanum) and the lemon
guava (Psidium guayava). The former is the hardier, and, in fact,
seems to be about as hardy as the orange, and it has fruited in
widely-separated parts of the State ; the latter is quite tender,
and is at present only grown in favorable places along our southern
coast, and even there it is found inferior in quality and usefulness
to the strawberry guava.

Mr. C. P. Taft of Orange has confidence in the lemon guava
through the selection of better varieties. It is far larger than the
Strawberry, and of quite attractive appearance. Sometimes the
color is almost white, sometimes quite green, and frequently of
a bright yellow, often with a red cheek. These variations are only
what is naturally to be expected from seedlings, and almost no
others have yet been planted. Mr. Taft has fruited quite a num-
ber, perhaps a hundred, and finds it to possess qualities which if
properly selected and developed will cause it to equal the Straw-
berry guava in hardiness and flavor and early ripening.

The guava grows quite readily from the seed, and grows from
cuttings under glass. In regions of generous rainfall and on reten-
tive soil it does not require irrigation, but it must have sufficient
moisture at command. A light loam seems best adapted to the
shrub.

THE FEIJOA

Along with the guava should be mentioned the Feijoa Sellow-
iana, a member also of the myrtle family. In habits of growth it is
much the same as the guava and while the foliage is not so hand-
some, being of a generally silver gray effect, the flower is very
showy. In May it sends forth a great profusion of blossoms,

I

THE LOQUAT 471

which may be called red, white and blue, unless one desires to be
perfectly accurate, in which case the blue would have to be
changed to purple. The petals are unusually thick and fleshy and
are very sweet to the taste. The highly perfumed fruit, about
one and one-half to two inches or more in length, comes in Novem-
ber. The flavor is delicious, like the strawberry but lacking the
acid. The seeds are very small, almost unnoticeable ; quite a con-
trast in this respect to the guava.

THE GRANADILLA

The granadilla is the term applied to the edible fruit of a species
of passion vine (Passiflora edulis) which is quite hardy, and is grow-
ing in different parts of the State. The fruit is about the size of a
small hen's egg, purple exterior when ripe, the thin, brittle shell
inclosing a mass of small seeds covered with a brilliant yellow
pulp, mildly acid, and of very agreeable flavor. Very good jelly
has been made of the fruit. Another passion vine with large pink
flowers is very widely distributed in California, and bears a large,
yellowish-brown fruit with edible pulp.

THE JUJUBE

The jujube {zyziphus jujube), from the fruit of which the deli-
cate paste of the confectioner is, or should be, made, was intro-
duced by G. P. Rixford in 1876, and is fruiting regularly and freely
in several parts of the State. The plant is easily grown from seed
or cuttings. The orange-red berries are produced three years from
planting, and ripen in November and December. They are edible
fresh or dried. As yet the fruit has not been turned to commercial
account.

THE LOQUAT

The loquat (Eriobotrya Japonica) is widely grown in California
as an ornamental plant, and a small amount of fruit is profitably
marketed each year. During the last twenty years a very marked
improvement in loquats has been achieved by painstaking effort
by Mr. C. P. Taft, of Orange, whose experience is freely drawn
upon in this chapter. Mr. Taft's work has demonstrated that this
fruit is susceptible of improvement in size, flavor, appearance, in
bearing habit of the tree, and in direction of early and late varieties,
and in all these directions not only in the line of better fruit, but
fruit which commands in the market several times the value of the
common types. Upon the basis of the new varieties the season for
the loquat is from February to June, the bulk of the crop coming

The Victor Loquat: a California variety.

472

THE PERSIMMON

473

in April and the first half of May. The Advance Loquat was the
first of the new varieties to attract attention. It is very prolific.
The fruit is often as much as three inches in length, and from one
inch to one and one-half inches in diameter; it being of a peculiar
pear shape. The clusters frequently contain twenty specimens.
Its color is a bright orange yellow when fully ripe, and it should
never be picked until it is so. The flavor is distinct and very sweet.
Many compare it to the cherry. If not bruised when handled it
will keep easily two weeks, growing sweeter by the process, and
will eventually shrivel up without decay, thus proving itself capable
of being shipped long distances. Mr. Taft has named the follow-
ing varieties :

Blush. — Very large, much like Advance resistant to diseases.

Advance. — Yellow, pear-shaped, from two to three inches in length, clusters
very large, very sweet when fully ripe.

Premier. — Salmon-colored, oval, large, but not as large as the Advance.
sweet, but peculiar flavor.

Victor. — Largest, color pink to red, probably the best for canning.

Pineapple. — Very large, round, immense clusters; flesh white, skin yellow.

Commercial. — Very large, pear shaped, yellow with white flesh.

THE PERSIMMON

The persimmon of the southern States {Diospyros Virginiana)
was introduced into California in early days some time ago, as
there are trees thirty to forty feet high growing on Rancho Chico.
The widely-distributed species, however, is the Japanese (Diospyros
Kaki), of which many varieties are now fruiting in different parts
of the State. The tree is quite hardy, and fruits freely both along
the coast region and in the interior. It easily takes the form of a
low standard, and with its large, glossy leaves during the summer,
and its immense, high-colored fruit clinging to the twigs after the
leaves have fallen, it is a striking object in the orchard or in the
house garden.

Persimmons grow readily from seed, but in most cases the im-
proved varieties must be reproduced by grafting on seedlings either
of the Japanese or American species. The tree seems to thrive
in any fair fruit soil, taking very kindly to close soils if well culti-
vated. The amounts of fruit now reaching our markets are increas-
ing and a dernand is found for certain amounts at fair prices, but
there is no object now apparent for large increase of production.
This fruit, so highly esteemed in the Orient and so highly praised
by travelers, has not become as popular as expected on this coast,
nor have the great markets at the East required more than a car-
load or two a year so far. Americans who wish persimmons at
all seem to prefer the smaller but more piquant Virginia species.

474 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Recently, however, the local demand has increased because of
the large numbers of Japanese who are now upon the Pacific
Coast and a shipping demand for the fruit from Seattle to the Ha-
waiian Islands and other Pacific ports, has arisen. The removal
of astringency while the fruit remains firm has been successfully
accomplished by Mr. George C. Roeding of Fresno, following a
Japanese method. It is simply to place the fruit in tubs, from
which saki, or Japanese " rice beer," has been lately removed. The
tubs are hermetically sealed, and the fruit left in them from eight
to ten days. When it is then removed, it is found to have alto-
gether lost the puckering power. Mr. Roeding says that he used
eight large saki tubs, each of which would hold twenty-five gallons,
and in those treated one thousand pounds of persimmons.

THE PINEAPPLE

Casual experiments with the pineapple in the open air in this
vState have been made for a number of years, the fruit being occa-
sionally produced. Most has been accomplished by Mr. J. B. Rapp,
of Hollywood, Los Angeles County. Mr. Rapp's place is in the
Cahuenga Valley, and in that part of the valley which is famed
as frostless, where even beans and tomatoes survive winter tem-
peratures. Mr. Rapp set out his first twenty-five plants in 1891,
and a number of his neighbors also set out groups of plants, but
two years finished up all but his. In 1893 the first of his plants
fruited, but they did not seem to take kindly to the situation at
first. They grew very slowly and the first fruit only weighed half
a pound. After setting out his own acclimated plants, they have
done better each year, and the fruit which Mr. Rapp has sold
recently has weighed from two to four pounds each. If the strong-
est offsets or suckers are planted they bear inside of a year, and
Mr. Rapp is endeavoring to have his fruit set from May to Novem-
ber, as the fruit setting at other times in the year is usually under-
sized on account of the slow growth during the winter and early
spring. It seems probable that the pineapple resents the dry air
of our summer as well as the lack of winter heat, and a lath cover-
ing and a summer spraying may be desirable. It is very doubtful
whether the fruit can be profitably grown in this State on a com-
mercial scale.

The pineapple thrives best on a fine sandy loam, but will grow
well on many soils if well drained and cultivated. The plants can
be set three by three or four by five feet, so as to allow cultivation
both ways while the plants are young. Plants are secured from
" suckers," which come from the root, from " slips," which grow on
the stem just below the ''apple," and from ''crowns" or the tufts
of leaves at the top of the fruit. Suckers are said to bear in one
year, and slips and crowns in two years. Strong suckers are best

POMEGRANATE AND PAWPAW

475

for planting, and they should be set out early in the spring as soon
as the danger of cold weather is over.

THE POMEGRANATE

This fruit (Pimica granatum)^ famed in literature and art, is
grown in various parts of the State, and certain amounts are profit-
ably sold. The shrub or low tree, in good soil, will reach the
height of twenty feet. It is a hardy plant, easy of propagation
from seed or cutting. The beauty of the tree, not taking the fruit
into account, has caused it to be planted in many gardens. Ex-
posed to the raw sea winds it does not bloom well nor set with
fruit, and is best adapted to the warmer regions of the interior,
where it is an early and abundant bearer. The variety chiefly cul-
tivated is a bright orange color, but there is found a large variety
of them, varying from almost pure white with a faint blush, to dark
red. The fruit ripens in the warmer parts of the State, north and
south, in October.

THE STRAWBERRY TREE

The Spanish madrono {Arbutus uncdo) is now quite widely
grown, chiefly as an ornamental shrub or tree. The growth is
exceedingly beautiful if kept free from scale insects, the fruit rang-
ing as it ripens through shades of yellow, orange, and deep red,
and contrasting beautifully with the glossy evergreen foliage. The
fruit is of pleasant flavor.

MELON SHRUB

This plant {Solarium Guatemalensc) is a small, half-herbaceous
shrub from the table-land of Guatemala. The fruit is yellow,
splashed with violet, somewhat of the shape of the egg-plant, but
is usually seedless, and is readily propagated from cuttings. There
are thriving plants in many protected places in the State, and some
fruit reaches the market, but few seem to like the flavor, which is
something like a tomato and melon mixed. Its greatest use will
probably be for salads.

THE MELON TREE

The melon pawpaw {Carica papaya) has been widely introduced
experimentally in this State, and many situations are found unfitted
for its growth, but satisfactory fruiting has been secured at several
places in southern California, especially if protected the first year
it will stand light frosts afterwards. With Mr. Cammack, at Whit-
tier, Los Angeles County, it ripens fruit the third year from the

476 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

seed — the fruit being pleasant to eat as one would a mushroom.
The large fig-like leaves and the peculiar markings of the trunk
make the tree a very striking object.

THE PRICKLY PEAR

The tuna, or fruit of the cactus {Opnntia vulgaris), is produced
in nearly all parts of the State except on the mountains. It was
one of the old mission fruits, and was enjoyed by the early mining
population until better fruits were available. It is about as large
as a medium-sized pear, and has a pleasant acid flavor if one suc-
ceeds in escaping the prickles in getting at the interior of the fruit.
The tuna is still a commercial article in a small way. Plants are
grown readily from cuttings of the fleshy leaves.

Quite a distinction must now be made between the foregoing
and the smooth or spineless fruits which are superior in quality as
well .as unarmed with prickles, and therefore readily handled and
eaten. Varieties more or less innocent in this respect were intro-
duced from the Mediterranean region many years ago, and prop-
agated to a limited extent. Recently Mr. Luther Burbank of Santa
Rosa has undertaken special work with the cactus, both for fruiting
and forage purposes, and has attained remarkable results which are
attracting wide attention, and upon which producing enterprises are
being undertaken.

THE ALLIGATOR PEAR

The avocado, or Aguacate of the Mexicans {Persca gratissima)
has proved hardy in several districts in the State, north and south.
It is not likely that it will be satisfactory without high summer heat
and freedom from heavy frosts. It is, however, one of the most
promising of its class of fruits, as it is known to epicures, and its
marketing at a high price reasonably assured. Mr. J. C. Harvey,
of Los Angeles, gives this interesting account of it:

It is a handsome evergreen tree, and, in the typical form, bears elliptical
leaveft; from two and one-half to three inches in width, narrow toward the
base, and about six inches long. In some varieties the new growth is of a
reddish brown, ultimately becoming deep green. The fruits are pear-shaped,
about the size of a Bartlett pear, and contain a single, rather large seed. When
ripe, the skin, which is much thinner than that of an orange, parts easily from
the pulp, which is of a moderately firm though buttery consistency, and forms,
with lime juice or pepper and salt, one of the most delicious salads known to
epicures. Indeed, the fruit is a perfect mayonnaise in itself. Few persons fail
to like it, even at first, and in countries where it is common, it is esteemed above
all other vegetable productions, both by natives and foreigners alike. The pulp
is quite rich in a bland and most agreeable oil, said to be very nutritious. The
tree attains a height of from twenty-five to thirty-five feet, and forms a hand-
some object when liberally cultivated. The tree is a gross feeder. Good-
sized trees carry a large crop, which, after attaining a certain size, can be picked
at intervals of a week or two extending over a period of two or three months,

THE WHITE SAPOTA

477

pthe fruits in each instance ripening in a week or ten days after gathering;
tand a very remarkable fact is that the quality or flavor of the last picking
seems just the same as the first.

The alligator pear must be considered as one of the most prom-
rising fruits included in this chapter; it may prove the most profit-
[able of the group. Efforts are in progress in California and else-
^where for improved varieties by selection and propagation by
budding with the ordinary shield-bud and a waxed cloth binding,
is easily done. The literature of the alligator pear is increasing and
should be consulted.* Of progress in its growth thus far in south-
ern California Mr. Taft writes:

It is hardly probable that here in California we can ever produce fruit
quite equal in size to the largest from the tropics, but there are smaller and
hardier varieties which are no whit inferior but rather better in flavor and
richness which have been found to do well. These are from local or Mexican
seeds whose ancestors for many generations have grown in a climate much
like our own. In southern California there are perhaps a hundred trees old
enough to bear. Of these about ten produce abundant and regular crops.
Fortunately they are so located as to indicate that there is a considerable area
adapted to Avocado. Of these first class trees one or two grow at Hollywood,
two or three in Los Angeles, one at Monrovia, one at Santa Ana, and I have
two or three at Orange. One of those at Hollywood is probably the most
prolific.

It is from these trees that we should establish our groves. Probably the
safest plan is to plant in orchard seedling trees, direct from the can or pot in
which they are started, for many have found the Avocado rather cranky about
transplanting. When balled, though, it moves readily enough. Trees which
do not fruit satisfactorily can be budded over as soon as this fact is shown.

As there is an uncommonly great variation in the time of blooming and
also in the period required for the fruit of different types of trees to come
to maturity, an orchard may be obtained by selection which will bear continu-
ously. This is of course very desirable to the consumer and immaterial to the
market grower, as there is plenty of demand at all times.

The tree at Monrovia was grown by W. Chappelow and has
been named for him by W. A. Taylor of the U. S.- Department of
Agriculture who imported the seed from Mexico.

THE WHITE SAPOTA

There are two old trees in Santa Barbara, one believed to have
survived from the mission planting in the early part of the last
century, the other half as old, of the white sapota (Casimiroa ediUHs).
Dr. Franceschi commends the tree for every garden. Mr. Harvey
of Los Angeles describes the sapota as growing with him from seed
from Vera Cruz as follows :

This tree endures slight frosts unharmed. It is indigenous in northwest Mex-
ico and is remarkable among the Aurantiacca, producing green colored flowers,
and superficially bears little resemblance to an otherwise well-marked order of
plants. The fruits are the size of apples, and are esteemed in that portion of

• The Avocado, by G. N. Collins. Bulletin 77, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S.
Dept, of Agr., 1907. Consult also Yearbooks of the U. S. Dept. of Agr. for 1905 and
1906.

478 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Mexico where it is common; according to some botanical authorities it is not
considered aUogether wholesome, possessing narcotic properties. The pulp is
described as possessing a delicious, melting, peach-like taste.

Mr. Taft reports the sapota as bearing well with him. The tree
is an exceedingly rapid grower, much after the habit of the walnut,
but evergreen. In August and September the peach-like fruit,
greenish yellow, with large seeds shaped like those of an orange,
matures well and is excellent, this being the normal season for
ripening. At other times fruit is often found, but is apt to be
worthless and even dangerous. As it will not ripen well ofif the
trees and must be quite soft when eaten, it will never be of much
market value.

THE TREE TOMATO

This plant (Cyphomandra hctacea) was brought to general notice
by Mr. Cammack of Whittier. It is a native of Central America
and is of shrubby habit, growing five or six feet high, with large,
shining leaves, often a foot long. The flowers are fragrant, of a
pale flesh color, with yellow stamens, and are followed by fruit the
shape and size of a duck's ^gg, at first of a purple tint, but gradually
assuming a warm, reddish color as it ripens. When ripe the fruit
may be used raw as a tomato is. If the skin is removed and the fruit
stewed with sugar, it has a slight sub-acid flavor which is very
refreshing. It makes a fine jelly. The plants bear the second year
from the seed and the fruit ripens continuously for several months.
The seeds should be started just as are those of the common tomato,
and the plants set out eight or ten feet apart.

THE KAI APPLE

This name is applied to the fruit of Aberia Caifra^ a native of
Natal and Kafifaria, a tall shrub, yielding an edible fruit of a golden
yellow color, about an inch in diameter. It is commended as a
hedge plant, as it is densely clothed with strong dry spines. The
leaves are small and of a rich green hue. The fruit, which is pro-
duced freely in the warmer parts of the State, is chiefly used for
making preserves.

OTHER FRUITS

The foregoing enumeration does not include all the exotic fruits
which have found a place on California soil. There are many more,
some of which are demonstrating their fitness to add to the graces
or the gains of our horticultural life. The caricas, carissas, eugenias,
hovenia, etc., are all gaining places in California gardens. Even the
more strictly tropical mango, the monstera, sapodilla and the like
are claiming the attention of amateurs.

PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS

CHAPTER XXXVI
BERRIES AND CURRENTS IN CALIFORNIA

In suitable soils and situations, and with proper care and cultiva-
tion, the small fruits sustain the general reputation of California
by the size and quality of the product, and by the long-continued
and abundant fruiting of the plants. Probably nowhere else in the
world do small fruits better repay generous treatment than in this
State, and probably nowhere do they suffer more from neglect.
There are parts of the State, of course, where some small fruits, left
to their own resources, thrive and bear abundantly, but, speaking of
the State as a whole, the price of success is intelligent devotion on
the part of the grower.

There are localities in California which favor almost continuous
growth and fruiting of some of the small fruits, and it is no fiction
to say that in such a place one may have raspberries and straw-
berries upon his table every month of the year. Such situations are
the thermal belts, which are practically frostless, and, by securing
favoring moisture conditions in the soil and proper varieties of the
fruits, the existing temperature conditions will produce the results
indicated. Though this be the case, the profitable growth of small
fruits is not, of course, restricted to such situations, but the largest
commercial enterprises are carried on in places where the summer-
crop rule prevails, but the bearing season is much larger than in the
eastern States.

Small fruits for family use may be grown on all fertile soils, and
therefore they should be produced on every farm. Growing for
market on a large scale involves considerations of suitability of soil
and climate, ease of cultivation, water supply, and facilities for
transportation, which will probably occur to any one who gives the
matter the thought and personal observation of existing small fruit
farms, which such an important commercial venture should
command.

It is often claimed that soil for small fruits should be deep and
rich of the types generally called garden soils. There is an advan-
tage in this because of amount of plant food and retention of moist-
ure when well cultivated, but at the same time shallow soils even
when overlying hardpan, which may not suit deep rooting trees or

479 ■ ♦ .

480

California fruits: how to grow them

garden roots, can be profitably used for small fruits if water and
fertilizers are intelligentJy used. This will be stated more fully in
the discussion of the strawberry, but the general fact is pertinent
to the growth of other small fruits also.

Preparation of soil for small fruits should be most thorough and
careful. Even more generous work than that commanded in Chap-
ter X for trees and vines should be done. It is the more necessary
to work deeply because subsequent culture of small fruits must be
shallow.

THE BLACKBERRY

The blackberry is a great favorite in California markets. It
thrives in all parts of the State, and the plant is best suited of all
small fruits to yield generously without irrigation, though it relishes
sufficient moisture and repays it with fruit. There is great differ-
ence in practice as to supplying water artificially. The growth of
cane, and the size and appearance of the fruit, will show the observ-
ing grower what should be the practice in his situation, and the gen-
eral suggestions as to irrigation in Chapter XV are applicable. There
ar^ regions in which blackberries are irrigated weekly throughout
the summer, and others in which the berries are gathered from June
to November without irrigation. Of course, with such wide local
variations there can be no general rule for practice. Let the grower
simply bear in mind that if he does not get good, plump, and glisten-
ing fruit and good strong growth of new canes at the same time, he
should give irrigation. The requirements of the plant during the
fruiting season are great, and they must be met. Many failures are
due to lack of irrigation when needed.

Propagation. — Blackberry plants are secured by digging up the
shoots from old stools, securing therewith a bunch of fibrous roots
with a portion of the main root. To propagate on a large scale dig
up the roots entirely, and, cutting them up with pruning shears into
pieces about two inches long, plant them in a well-prepared bed in
the garden or nursery. Place the root cuttings about two inches
apart and cover about three inches deep with well-pulverized soil,
the depth being regulated of course, according to the nature of the
soil, deeper in light than heavy soils. A light mulch will assist in
retaining moisture. The time for this work is at the dormant period
of the plant. One summer's growth gives good plants for setting
out.

Planting out Blackberries. — Blackberries should be planted in
rows far enough apart to admit of the use of the horse and culti-
vator. As the constant tendency of the plant is to extend itself in
the growth of new canes, the rows should not be less than six to
eight feet apart, and the plants about three feet apart in the row.

GROWING BLACKBERRIES

481

The plants sooti occupy the full space in the row, and cultivation is
only possible between the rows. Some growers plant blackberries
as they do grapevines, seven or eight feet apart both ways, and then
cultivate with the horse both ways. Planting in rows is better.
The number of plants to fill an acre at different distances can be
calculated as described in Chapter XXVI for grapevines.

D. Edson Smith, of Orange County, who had much experience
with small fruits, described his method of laying out and planting
on a large scale, with a view to irrigation, as follows :

Plow deeply and harrow thoroughly several times before setting out.
Lastly, open a trench with your plow where the row is to be, twenty inches
deep ; go along with a basket of plants, a four-foot lath and a shovel, and set
a plant in this trench every four feet and fill the dirt around it with the shovel.
If this trench is too deep in places for the length of the plant root, fill in with
a little dirt; if not quite deep enough in places, scoop out a shovelful. Aim, in
preparing the ground with plow and smoother, to leave it dishing each way
toward the row of young plants, so that irrigating water turned in at the
upper end will run along the row of plants as in a trough. Aim to have the
ground around the set plants a few inches below the general level of the land.
After the plants are all set in a row, go along with a rake if there are but a
few plants, or with a horse-hoe if there are many, and fill in the trench between
the plants. It is a pleasure to set out plants in this way, and such deep, rich
well-stirred soil delights the plant roots, so that they grow rapidly in every
direction, and the plants throw up their heads in a manner entirely satistac-
tory to all concerned. If the ground is dry, or there is no rain soon after
setting out the plants, irrigating water should be turned down the row or at
least a quart or two of water poured around each plant; then, before the soil
hardens, stir it well with cultivator and hoe. All future care resolves itself
into frequent waterings and frequent stirrings of the soil. Allow no weeds to
appear, and keep three inches of surface soil well loosened with the horse and
hoes. These small fruits require frequent waterings, especially when forming
fruit and during the fruiting season.

Cultivation. — Thorough cultivation of the surface soil is essen-
tial for retention of moisture. After the plants attain size, culti-
vation should be secured with as shallow-cutting tools as possible
so as to prevent injury to the roots, which not only weakens the
plant, but increases the growth of suckers between the rows. A
horse-hoe with a long knife running horizontally, or with duck-foot
teeth, well sharpened, answers well in keeping the ground clear of
weeds and suckers, and the surface loose. Due regard must, how-
ever, be paid to securing sufficient depth in this surface layer to
prevent the soil beneath baking hard and drying out, as discussed in
the chapter on cultivation.

Frequency of cultivation depends upon irrigation, for the cul-
tivator must always follow the application of water. The spaces in
the row which can not be reached with the cultivator must be kept
clean from weeds, and free from baking, by the use of the hoe.
It is advisable that the cultivation be the cleanest possible, for
moisture exhaustion by weeds can not be afforded.

The Mammoth Blackberry.

482

PRUNING BLACKBERRIES 4g3

Pruning aftd Training. — There is a little difference in the way
of training blackberries practiced in this State. Of course this does
not include the " let alone " system, which is not followed by any
good grower. The difference lies mainly in the use or disuse
of artificial supports for the canes — the prevailing practice being
to dispense with them. In either case the pruning of the canes is
similar in kind but different in degree, for if no supports are used,
the canes are headed lower.

At planting out, cut back the cane to near the surface of the
ground and mark the plant with a small stake. At first the top
growth should not be checked, but when new canes grow out
strongly they should be pinched at the tip to force out lateral
branches for fruiting the next year. Those who intend to tie
canes to a stake or trellis let them attain a height of five or six
feet before pinching off the terminal bud; those who intend to
teach the cane to stand alone pinch when it is from two to four
feet high. All agree to pinch off the ends of the lateral branches
at about twelve inches from the main stem. This pinching of
blackberry canes may be done by the watchful grower of a few
plants, with the thumb and finger, but thrifty blackberry plants
are such rapid cane growers that in large plantations cutting back
is often done with a sickle or corn hook or sharp butcher-knife,
several times in the course of the summer. It is also advisable to
thin out the suckers with the hoe while cutting out weeds, leaving
only about as many is it is desired to have for fruit the next season.
This method gives stout canes, with plenty of short side branches,
well supplied with buds, which will send out fruiting shoots the
following spring. If supports are used, the four to six canes which
are left to each stool are gathered within a loosely-drawn bale rope
and tied to the stake; or if a trellis is used, the branches are
brought up to the wire or slat so that the distance is about evenly
divided between the shoots.

Though these systematic methods of summer pruning are prac-
ticed and advocated by the most careful growers, it should be
stated that there are large plantations which are conducted upon a
more simple system. The pruning consists in cutting out old
canes in the winter, and the only summer pruning is slashing off
these canes which interfere with cultivation. The canes are some-
times held up by tying bunches of them together with ropes. Of
course this system costs less than the more careful one which has
been described, and yields profit enough to induce adherence to it.
No doubt quite as great weight of berries could be had from a
smaller area by a better system of growing.

After the leaves fall, the canes which have borne fruit during
the summer are all cut off even with the surface of the ground
with long-handled pruning shears or with a short hooked knife with
a long handle, and all debris removed from the rows.

4g4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Application of Manure. — The blackberry loves very rich ground,
and plenty of well-rotted stable manure or compost, as described
in Chapter XIV, should be applied. It is a good plan to apply in
a thick covering all over the ground and between the canes as
soon as the patch is cleaned up in the fall. The early rains carry
down the soluble parts of the manure, and later in the season the
whole is plowed in between the rows, leaving a foot or more next
the plants to be carefully forked in, as the digging fork does not
cut the roots like the spade.

Mulching. — The mulch, to keep the ground moist and to obviate
summer cultivation, is very satisfactory where it is thoroughly
done. Apply coarse manure or partially-rotted straw and the like,
after the last spring cultivation, and use the hoe to keep down
weeds and suckers which come up between the rows. Some grow-
ers use mulch close to the canes, cultivating the remainder of the
ground between the rows.

Bearing Age and Longevity. — If blackberry plants are well
treated the first year after planting out, there will be considerable
fruit the following summer. How long the plants will bear satis-
factorily depends, also, on situation and treatment. Sometimes the
plants fail early; even with good, generous treatment in good soil,
the old stool becomes weak, the shoots are thin, and the fruit
small. Some count about eight years as the profitable age of the
plant, and then cut out the plants and give the land a change. Of
course berry growers prepare for this by frequently making new
plantations.

Varieties of the Blackberry. — Comparatively few kinds are
largely grown. The Wilson Junior, Lawton, and Kittatinny were
formerly the prevailing kinds, ripening in the order named. The
Erie is favored by some as a middle season, variety. The " Early
Harvest has been favorably reported by a number of growers.
These have, however, been largely superseded by a renamed vari-
ety, Crandall's Early, which is the earliest of the improved vari-
eties, and has a very long fruiting season. The fruit was named
after Dr. J. R. Crandall, of Auburn, who first fruited the variety
from plants given him by a stranger hailing from Texas, and the
proper name of the variety is probably Texas Early. It is a strong,
vigorous, hardy plant, very productive, of firm, handsome berries;
resembles Lawton in canes, leaves, and flavor of fruit ; not given to
sprouting from running roots.

Another variety which has advanced in favor is the Oregon
Evergreen, introduced from Oregon but not native nor originated
in that State. The late John Rock described it as follows : "Origin
unknown ; beautiful ; cut-leaved foliage, which it retains during

BLACKBERRY-RASPBERRY HYBRIDS 485

the winter; berries large, black, sweet, rich, and delicious. It con
tinues to ripen from July to November, which makes it one of the
best berries for family use." It loses size and quality notably
on scant moisture.

Some effort has been made to secure improved varieties of our
native blackberry, and a most striking result has been secured by
Judge J. H. Logan, of Santa Cruz, by crossing the wild berry with
Crandall's Early, producing a fruit so large that it has been named
" Mammoth " by its originator. The canes of the Mammoth are
very peculiar, being very large and thickly covered with small,
short spines. The canes start early in March, grow thick and
stout until about five feet high. They then take on a running
habit and grow from twenty-five to thirty feet in a season. Late
in the fall the tips or stolons seek the ground and take root. The
Mammoth is not an evergreen like its Texas parent, although it
does not entirely lose its leaves in winter. It begins to grow and
flower very early in spring and ripens its fruit the last of May,
some weeks earlier than the Lawton. The fruit is more acid than
the Lawton, but, when perfectly ripe, is sweet and of superior
flavor. When cooked or canned the flavor is identical with the
wild berry of California. This variety is often wrongly called
*' Black Loganberry."

The Himalaya is a blackberry of wonderful growth and pro-
lificness, highly praised by amateurs but not yet fully made out
from a commercial point of view. It is magnificent on a garden
fence or trellis.

The Dewberry. — The improved varieties of the dewberry, or
trailing blackberry, are now quite widely known and highly praised.
Some growers use trellises ; others train the vines along rows on
the ground surface. The following is the method of Mr. A. M.
Munger, of Fresno, and includes irrigation arrangements :

For planting the Lucretia dewberry, prepare the ground by plowing deep
and cultivating until the dirt is thoroughly pulverized. Set the plants about
three inches deep and four feet apart, in rows, leaving a space of six feet
between the rows. Plant between February 15th and March 15th. Irrigate as
, often as once a month, always thoroughly cultivating after each irrigation. By
[SO doing a sufficient growth is secured to produce a good crop the second year,
[immediately after the first rainfall, generally in October, the vines should be
fpruned by cutting back within about sixteen inches of the base of the vine.

In February of the second year, plow between the rows with a small one-
horse plow, turning the furrows toward the vines, but using a shield so as not
to cover them. Follow immediately with a hoe, drawing the dirt up under
the vines and forming a ridge. This ridge should be high enough to keep the
vines up out of the water when irrigating. After this ridge is formed, water
should be run quite often, as the dewberry requires a great deal of water to
mature properly. The vines should be irrigated as often as three times at
least during the spring. The fruit begins to ripen in Fresno about May 25th,
and continues about one rnonth. The dewberry roots readily from the tips
without covering if the soil is loose and moist. If many plants are desired
it is -advisable to cover slightly, and the tips will root as soon as the soil is
moistened by the fall rains.

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The dewberry which has recently been most largely planted in
central and southern California is known as the Gardena because
of the prolificness and profitability of a patch grown by W. M.
Gray, of Gardena, Los Angeles county. Its qualities are vigorous
growth, hardiness, regular and profuse yield of large, early berries.

Pruning and Training Trailing Berries. — With reference to the
handling of trailing blackberries and the blackberry-raspberry hy-
brids which are continually becoming more popular, it may be said
that there is no one best way. There are several good ways, ac-
cording to the desires and convenience of the growers, and this
is the reason why there is an apparent conflict in which all con-
testants may be right, each from his own point of view. The vari-
eties are sufficiently alike to be discussed together. What seem
to us the essentials in pruning them are these.

First, they all bear on canes which grow the previous year, and
the fruit comes on laterals which break from them. In this mild
climate there is continuous break of laterals which may cover
quite a long period and the same wood may seem to be bearing
twice. This second bearing is of so little account that the general
rule to remove old wood after its main fruiting is a good one.

Second, the wood which grows this year will therefore bear
next year, and it will send out bearing laterals sufficiently with a
number of treatments. The new cane may be pinched at any time
during growth and it will then send wood laterals (not fruit later-
als) at once and each of these laterals will have the same character
that the main shoot would have had if it had not been pinched :
that is, it will send out fruiting laterals at the same date the fol-

Third, it does not matter whether you make the new growth
bunchy by laterals following pinching or whether you let it run
out and cut off part of it at the end of the growing season or
whether you shorten it in and at the same time cut away closely
all the laterals which it may have made on its own account when
it was running out. In all cases there will be dormant buds enough
to give fruiting shoots on whatever part of the cane you reserve.

Fourth, the way you prune, then, depends upon serving your
own convenience in the training of these shoots up to a post, along
on a wire or along on a ridge on the ground — whatever suits
you best to keep the fruit out of the dirt, and to promote such
cultivation as is desirable, etc., will be accepted by the plant as not
interfering with its starting fruiting shoots from whatever dor-
mant buds you have allowed it to retain on the wood which it
matured the previous season.

CRANBERRY AND CURRANT

487

Fifth, there is in addition the application of the principle that
good large fruit is the product of a plant which is not carrying too
much bearing wood; that is, is not endeavoring to perfect too much
fruit at the same time. For this reason, as well as for convenience,
it is desirable not to allow a plant to retain all the cane it grows,
but to shorten it or to remove the laterals or part of them or to
shorten the laterals or in any other way to require the plant to
direct its energy to the better development of fewer fruits.

Sixth, growers are, of course, influenced by different consider-
ations. Amateur growers delighting in running vines on fences
or trellises would not prune as would a commercial grower, who
I can not have canes running all over his fields. The amateur can
; pinch a main shoot and send the laterals up the arms of a fan-
shaped trellis if he likes and make an object of rare garden beauty,
and he can reduce the excess of bearing wood by cutting away the
parts of the laterals which run beyond his arms or extra ones be
yond those he can carry on his trellis. From the point of view ol
the plant, he does the same thing that the commercial grower
does when he comes along with his scythe or sickle and cuts away
indiscriminately all the growth which goes beyond the space where
it is convenient for him to have the fruit.

Seventh, do not be too particular about exact methods to imi-
I tate ; try rather to discern principles which may be served by
I many different methods. '

THE CRANBERRY

Though attention has been given to experiments with the
^^rowth of the Cranberry in California for many years, it has not
.; been demonstrated that the culture is successful or profitable. Cran-
I berries have been produced, and the fruit shown at fairs, but
beyond this nothing has yet been accomplished. It would seem
to be a fair conclusion that even in the most moist regions our sum-
mer air is too dry to suit the plant.

THE CURRANT

The Currant reaches perfection in size and quality in parts of
California adapted to its growth, but its area is comparatively

n small. The plant does not thrive in the dry, heated air of the inte-
rior either at the north or south. It does well near the coast,
especially in the upper half of the State, and is grown for market
chiefly, on lands adjacent to the bay of San Francisco. The com-

^ paratively cool and moist air of the ocean favors it, but even here
the sunburn, which is the bane of its existence in the interior val-

488

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

leys, occasionally injures the fruit. Away from the coast, cur-
rants are grown to a limited extent along the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers, near their confluence, but not in the hot valleys
whence they flow. On the foot-hills, too, where the plant has a
northerly slope, or other cooling influence, and sufficiently moist
soil, it will do moderately well. It is quite possible that the cur
rant may be satisfactorily grown for home use, or for local market
in parts of the State where at present one does not find it, pro-
viding the moderating effect of elevation and northerly exposure,
coupled with the shade of trees, be secured, but even then the
hot north wind of the early summer may often injure the fruit.
So far as the metropolitan market is concerned, it does not matter
that the currant area is limited, for existing plantations produce
all, and sometimes more, than can be profitably disposed of at
present. It is possible, however, that the future may show a
larger demand, for the pure food laws are likely to prevent the
further selling of apple jelly with a currant color and flavor under
the name of currant jelly.

Propagation. — The currant is readily grown from cuttings. As
soon as the bush drops its leaves, and the ground is in condition,
as to moisture, secure the cuttings a foot in length from straight
wood of the last growth, and place them in nursery or in permanent
place, in good sandy or garden loam, deeply spaded and well
broken up. Set the cutting firmly in the earth, six or seven inches
deep. If they are to be trained as small trees, every bud below
where the lowest limb is to start should be cut out — even to the
end of the cutting underground — otherwise they will be contin-
ually throwing up suckers. If they are to grow as bushes, the
natural and more productive form of the currant, set them as they
are taken from the parent bush.

Planting and Care. — Currants are usually grown in rows about
five or six feet apart, the plants standing two and a half or three
feet apart in the rows. Most of the currant plantations are between
orchard rows, the partial shade of the trees being considered desir-
able. It is claimed that currants do best when interplanted with
cherry, apricot, apple, and pear, not so well when associated with
plum and peach, and the almond is least desirable — possibly be-
cause the almond is often given less cultivation than the pulp}^
fruits or is grown on lighter, drier soils. The cultivation is such
as is usually given to the orchard, except that in heavy soil the
plow is not allowed to come near the cuttings the first season for
fear of tearing them from their rooting. After the first year the
plow is used in the winter and the cultivator in summer.

Currants will repay generous applications of well-rotted manure,
and relish sufficient moisture in the soil. Where this can not be

I

THE GOOSEBERRY ' 439

had from rainfall, and retained by cultivation and mulching, irri-
gation must be resorted to.

Pruning. — If the currant is to ^e grown in tree form, the
branches from the upper buds of the cutting should be shortened in
at the end of the first summer, and branches growing horizontally
should be removed. The weaker shoots in the head are thinned
out, but not so much as to leave the top too open. If the plant
is to grow as a bush, the only winter pruning will consist in remov-
ing dead wood, and thinning the new shoots as may seem desir-
able. Summer pinching of the new growth is desirable, as it causes
the fruit to set closely and tends to a thick growth of foliage also,
and this is necessary, for the bark is liable to sunburn, and the
best fruit is that which is well sheltered by the leaves. Another
advantage of the bush form is the less likelihood of killing by
borers, which is imminent when the growth depends upon a single
stem.

Bearing. — The currant bears a quantity of excellent fruit the
second year from the cutting, and reaches its fullest product about
the fifth to the eighth year, when the yield in the Haywards region
is said to range from one and a half to three tons to the acre.

Varieties. — The Cherry currant is the prevailing variety, al-
though the old sorts, the Red and White Dutch, the Red and White
Grape, etc., are grown in some localities, and Fay's Prolific is
approved by some growers. Pomona is one of the best of the
newer red varieties and the old Fertile de Palluau is reported as
doing better than others in hot, interior situations. Black cur-
rants are but little grown, the market demand for them being very
light.

THE GOOSEBERRY

The Gooseberry is another fruit with somewhat circumscribed
area in this State. In localities which favor it, the fruit is often
found very profitable, but the demand does not warrant any great
increase of product. Though the gooseberry thrives in some situa-
tions which do not suit the currant, they may both be described
as averse to the hot and dry parts of the State. Still, for home
use or local, sale one can grow certain varieties of gooseberries suc-
cessfully, by protecting them from too great exposure to the sun,
and by keeping the soil sufficiently rich and moist. The choice of
varieties is of the greatest importance, as will be mentioned pres-
ently. At present the chief supplies of the gooseberry, as of the
currant, are produced in the country adjacent to San Francisco
Bay, though thriving and profitable plantations are found elsewhere
near the coast, here and there in the interior, and at considerable
elevations on the slope of the Sierra Nevada.

490

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Propagation, Pruning, etc. — The gooseberry is grown from ct
tings, very much as already described for the currant. The coi
mon and the best method is to start the cuttings early in the win^
ter, though some have succeeded with cuttings taken in the spring
just as the new growth is starting out. Disbudding the lower part
of the cutting if it is desired to train in tree form is also practiced
with the gooseberry, but a smaller percentage of cuttings is found
to grow after disbudding.

Gooseberries are planted out and cultivated as already described
for currants, and the requirements of the plant in soil, moisture,
and manuring are much the same.

If the gooseberry is to be grown in tree form, constant attention
to removal of suckers is necessary; if in bush form, it will only be
necessary to remove too old wood and thin out the new shoots.
Suckers should be removed clean from the stem, so as to eradicate
the latent buds, and pulling off with a gloved hand, when the suck-
ers become woody enough to withstand breaking, is advised. As
with the currant, the borer is a constant menace to the life of a
gooseberry plant confined to a single stem.

Diseases and Pests. — ^The gooseberry is subject to insect depre-
dation both in wood and fruit and leaf. The prevailing trouble,
however, and that which causes the failure of so many foreign i
kinds, is the mildew. To escape this nothing is usually done ex-
cept to select varieties not subject to the disease, but susceptible
varieties can be protected by spraying just as the leaves are open-
ing and once a month afterwards with potassium sulphide half an
ounce to the gallon of water. This does not stain nor poison the
fruit. The cooler and moister the air the less the mildew.

Varieties of the Gooseberry. — The American varieties, Down-
ing and Houghton's Seedling, chiefly the latter, constituted for aP
long time the main varieties marketed in San Francisco. Early ex-'
periments vv^ith collections of English varieties showed that most
of them were failures because of mildew; still a few of the greer
and white sorts, notably the Whitesmith, have succeeded. Tht_
proportion of large berries now being marketed is much great
than formerly, and the superior price warrants especial effort
produce them.

A large English variety, which was brought to California maj
years ago by the late John W. Dwindle, is now the most wid(
distributed large kind. Its true name was lost and it has been pr<
agated under various names, viz., Dwindle, Kelsey, New Frencl
but the name Berkeley, adopted by W. P. Hammon, in his wid(
distribution of it in 1884, now prevails. It is large and handsome
very prolific, ripens early, and is usually free from mildew.

The Champion, an Oregon seedling grown by Seth Lewdling
is medium sized, very smooth, and thick fleshed, the seeds beini

THE RASPBERRY 49]^

few and small. They are entirely free from mildew, and are clean,
bright, and beautiful. The Columbus, a New York variety, is
^ large and of good quality and resists mildew well.

THE MULBERRY

Nearly all varieties of the mulberry have been introduced in
California and grown rapidly and thriftily. Most attention has
been paid to those varieties most suitable for feeding silk-worms,
but the fruiting varieties are also grown here, though the fruit
has assumed no commercial importance. The mulberry is grown
readily from cuttings. The fruiting varieties thus far chiefly dis-
tributed are the Downing Everbearing, the Persian, the New
American, the Russian, and the Black Mulberry of Spain. AH
these bear large and desirable fruit. The last named, introduced
by Felix Gillett, of Nevada City, is grown quite widely. The mul-
berry has a long season; the Persian ripens in Tulare the last of
May and continuously thereafter until October.

THE RASPBERRY

The raspberry is another of the great small fruits of California.
It thrives over a great area of the State ; in fact, there are few situ-
ations in which it cannot be grown with at least a measure of suc-
cess if proper attention is given to retention of moisture in the
surface soil, and to giving the plants partial shade in the heated
valleys, and the cooler exposures in the foot-hills. The raspberry,
skillfully pruned and generously fed and cared for, is almost a con-
stant bearer, as has already been intimated. It is a continual de-
light in the home garden, and always brings a high average rate
in local and metropolitan markets.

The culture of the raspberry is in the main like that of the black-
berry, as already described. The red varieties, which are the kinds
almost exclusively grown in this State, are propagated by suckers
and root cuttings like the blackberry, but the " black caps " are
propagated by layering the cane tips during the growing season,
and this method is also necessary with the Loganberry and other
blackberry-raspberry hybrids. Bending down a cane with its
branches and covering lightly with soil and with a light mulch to
retain moisture, will result in free rooting of the buried parts, and
one can sometimes secure a dozen plants by the layering of a single
cane with it laterals.

The pruning of the raspberry is also by the renewal system, as

advised for the blackberry. The topping ofif of new canes, when

they reach about three feet in height, the subsequent pinching of

the laterals which are thus forced out, the resolute thinning out

i of sprouts so that but three or four strong canes are allowed from

492 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

one root, the faithful repression of all weeds, the maintenance of a
loose surface layer of the soil by very shallow cultivation, the free
application of manure and of water unless a continually moist con-
dition near the surface can be secured by cultivation and mulching,
— all these are among the essentials of cultivation which will se-
cure abundant fruit and a long bearing season. However, as has
already been stated with regard to blackberries, there are large
plantations which pursue a less careful system of cultivation es-
pecially in the moderate heat and drouth of the coast district.

Continuous bearing of the raspberry may be secured in those
varieties which endure the treatment, by cutting out a cane as soon
as its fruit is gathered, the force of the plant being then devoted to
the fruiting of a second cane, which has previously been pinched,
and a third shoot is pinched and allowed to mature its wood to
carry over and bear the first crop of the following year. A suc-
cession of sprouts is gained by pinching off the tips of some as
soon as they have grown up a few inches, which results in the
growth of later shoots lower on the stems. In this way a succes-
sion of fruit is obtained.

The Cuthbert and other strong-growing varieties, after the
pinching at about three feet from the ground, will send out laterals
which will bear late in the fall, and the same cane will bear a crop
early in the following spring, when its career is ended and it should
be removed.

Raspberries are planted about three feet apart in rows, and the
rows about six feet apart. They can be well grown nearer together
than is required for blackberries.

Varieties of the Raspberry. — ^The old varieties have been largely
replaced by the Cuthbert, which is the universally popular and most
largely-planted sort, having been found trustworthy as a grower
and as a free and constant bearer. The good points of the Cuth-
bert, as representing the experience of many California growers,
include the following: A profuse grower, with healthy and rich
foliage, which protects fruit from sunburn; an excellent bearer
with the fruit well distributed through the bush; the fruit comes
off easily, and does not crumble, is of fine flavor, and ships well.
The Herstine, Franconia, King and Marlboro varieties are grown
to a limited extent; and the Barter, a renamed variety, the identity
of which is unknown, has always retained a degree of popularity
in the foothill region of Placer County, where it first appeared.

The Black Cap varieties thrive fairly in most parts of the State,
but do not sell well in the markets, and are only grown for home
use. The golden or yellow raspberries are also out of favor be-
cause they are shy bearers and cut no figure in the California
product.

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493

49^ CAl^lFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Blackberry-Raspberry Hybrids. — Two crosses of California ori-
gin have been widely distributed and have demonstrated great
value.

The Loganberry was originated by Judge J. H. Logan of Santa
Cruz, and is a cross between the California wild blackberry and a
red raspberry, thought to be the red Antwerp. It was a chance
hybrid developed by growing plants from the seed of the wild
blackberry in 1881. The plant was multiplied by its originator
and fruited for more than ten years, plants being meantime given
to Mr. James Waters, of Watsonville, who grew it on a commercial
scale and was gratified at the results of his marketing of the fruit.
The variety was first given to the public through the University
of California in 1893 and has since then been propagated by nur-
serymen and sold in large quantities. It has proved a most val-
uable fruit in all parts of California, and has commanded the at-
tention of pomologists and growers all over the world. The Logan-
berry is an exceedingly robust grower, and has unique foliage and
cane growth as well as fruit. The fruit is strikingly large and
handsome; sometimes an inch and a quarter long, with the shape
of a blackberry, and sometimes the hue of a dark red raspberry.
Its flavor is unique and peculiar, and gives to many tastes sugges-
tions of the combination of blackberry and raspberry flavors. The
culture of the Loganberry is like that of the dewberry — both in
growth and propagation, rooting readily from cane tips without
covering, unless many plants are desired and then a covered cane
will root at each joint.

The Phenomenal is a hybrid which has recently been largely
grown for a trade which prefers a less sharp acid than that of the
Loganberry. It is one of the notable achievements of Mr. Luther
Burbank, of Santa Rosa, and is a cross between the California
dewberry and a red raspberry. It is exceedingly large, bright
crimson, very productive and of delicious flavor. The fruit comes
in large clusters and single berries have weighed four to the ounce.
In shipping it holds shape and color well.

The Primus is another blackberry-raspberry hybrid, by Mr. Bur-
bank. It is described as like a raspberry in color and shape, though
much larger, many specimens attaining a length of an inch and
a half by three quarters of an inch in diameter. It has a larger and
softer pulp core or center than the blackberry, and does not come
off the stem like a cap as a raspberry, but it is a little more tart and
is best cooked. It ripens early and the plant yields well. It has
been widely distributed and is popular for home use, softness and
danger of crushing on the core in picking seem to be defects for
commercial growing. It is a little earlier than Phenomenal. It
has a trailing habit.

STRAWBERRY GROWING

THE STRAWBERRY

495

" Strawberries all the year round " is the trite expression by
which the charms of the California climate are characterized. It
is no fiction, for in the wonderfully-even climate of regions adja-
cent to the coast and in thermal belts in the interior, the straw-
berry plant blooms and bears almost continuously, providing proper
moisture conditions are maintained in the soil. There are, how-
ever, more or less well-defined crops, and " strawberries all the
year" does not mean a uniform supply ; nor does it mean that
everywhere in California can one expect such constant fruiting.
In the very hot interior situations the plant rebels against the at-
mospheric conditions of midsummer, even though the ground be
moist; and in frosty places the plant becomes dormant during the
wintry portion of the year. The conditions of constant growth
and bearing are moderation of temperature and of atmospheric and
soil moisture throughout the year.

SITUATIONS AND SOILS FOR THE STRAWBERRY

Bearing in mind the conditions described, the strawberry can be
grown anywhere in California. The native species, as mentioned
in Chapter V, flourish from the sand of the ocean beach to the rich
valleys of the Sierra, just below the line of perpetual snow, and the
deduction is that wherever fertile soil and sweet water can be
brought together in California, the strawberry will reward the
grower.

Strawberries do well on a variety of soils, but as a rule a deep,
moist, loamy soil will yield best results. Boggy or swampy spots
should be avoided unless drainage is provided, and in this wav
most excellent strawberry ground may sometimes be secured. Land
which will produce good potatoes or corn will generally yield good
results with strawberries, provided irrigation is furnished. In many
regions the plants will hardly survive the summer without irriga-
tion, and everywhere a succession of crops during the season de-
pends upon irrigation. It is the common experience that light,
warm soils yield the earliest and highest-flavored berries, and heavy
soils the later and larger ones ; but the size of the berry depends
more upon the supply of available moisture, and immense fruit
can be produced on loose, open soils by free irrigation. And yet
the heavier soil, both because of its usually superior fertility and
retention of moisture, is preferred for the strawberry. The largest
producing regions for the San Francisco market in the Santa Clara
and Pajaro Valleys are comprised mainly of low-lying, heavy val-
ley soils, naturally moist and rich, and furnished with abundant
water supply for irrigation. And yet in southern California the
chief market crops are produced upon light sandy loams with

496 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

water equal to the needs of the plants upon such a footing. It must
be remembered that the strawberry is a shallow-rooting l)lant and
must have moisture retained near the surface. Some loose soils,
especially on uplands, are almost out of the question for straw-
berry growing. They are so leachy that they will not hold mois-
ture near the surface though one should stand with a hose and
almost continually pour it on. The plants would also dry up
though the water were running near by in a ditch. To grow
strawberries it is often an advantage to have a shallow loam over
a clay or hardpan, for then the tight layer below will prevent the
escape of the water below the reach of the roots. If this can not be
had, the best way to grow strawberries on leachy soils for home use
is to mulch and sprinkle.

Propagation of the Strawberry. — Seedlings undertaken in the
hope of originating valuable new varieties are easily grown by
taking off the outside layer of the choicest berries, which carries
with it the small, yellow seeds. Wash these from the skin and
cover them slightly in a sandy soil partially shaded and kept moist
by sprinkling, or a light mulch, and the plants are readily grown.
As with seedlings of other fruits, few, if any, will be found superior
to the parent variety.

Plants for setting out are secured by taking off the small
growths rooted from runners. The strongest plants are those
nearest to the parent plant. When these are allowed to root in
small pots plunged into the soil, they are called " pot-grown," and
are superior for planting out, but they are not largely used in this
State. When plants of any variety are desired for new beds or
fields, a row or more are allowed to send out runners during the
summer, and these are fit for taking up and replanting the follow-
ing winter or spring.

Laying off Ground for Strawberries. — The essentials are deep
and thorough pulverization of the soil and grading of the surface
so that water will flow slowly in the ditches. Suggestions as to
location of grade lines may be found in Chapter XV. The inclina-
tion which answers for water distribution may be very slight ; about
two inches to the hundred feet answers on the level lands of the
Pajaro Valley, while in the foothills much greater fall is made use
of, and on hillsides rows are located on contour lines and not in
straight lines. A grade of three and three-quarters inches to the
hundred feet is sometimes used. The triangle described in Chapter
XV can be used to fix the grades.

Of course, in grading the field it is often necessary to give ad-
jacent blocks opposite inclinations to provide for the return of the
water. On hillsides, where the water is carried down a ridge to a
flume, it is usual to keep the water always running away from the
flume, and only enough is taken out to reach to the ends of the small

LAYING OFF FOR STRAWBERRIES

497

ditches. A grade of six inches to the rod is practicable for hillside
irrigation, but of course only a small flow of water is employed.

There are various ways of laying out strawberry beds and plan-
tations. Some give flat cultivation and lay out in single rows two
and a half to three and a half feet apart, and in some districts
flat culture is unquestionably the best. Others lay out in double

Strawberry Field laid off in double rows.

rows a foot and one-half or two feet apart, and between each pair
of rows the soil from the center is drawn up to each side, making a
low ridge or level a little higher than the surface on which the
plants are set. This levee serves as a walk between the beds and
holds back the water upon the bed when irrigated by flooding. An-
other, and the generally-adopted plan, is to have the plants in
double rows on a slight ridge, while between the beds is a furrow
which serves as a walk and for irrigation. This is accomplished
by throwing up the soil with the plow into ridges about two feet
wide, with a double furrow between. On the sides of these ridges
the plants are set, and often on the top of the ridge between the
rows of strawberries a single row of onions or lettuce, or some
other vegetable, is grown the first year. In irrigation the water
is drawn up from the trenches by the roots and by capillary attrac-
tion, and the upper surface does not bake as it would by flooding if
the soil be heavy. In hoeing out weeds and in fruit gathering, the
workman walks in the ditch and does not pack the soil around the
plant by tramping. This is the best method for laying out for large
plantations. The rows are a uniform distance apart across the
field, whether the space between be a ridge or a ditch. The method

498

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

of making the beds a little lower than the general surface of th
ground, answers best on free, open soils with perfect drainage.
Cultivation can be reduced by covering the depressed surface of
the bed with mulch of fine, clean litter, such as chafif, cut straw,
etc. This retains moisture and gives the berry a clean surface to
rest on. Such a bed is an excellent arrangement for the home gar-
den.

In all arrangements the plants are set at less distances in the
rows than the rows are from each other. Probably the prevailing
distance is one foot between the plants ; the range is from eight
to eighteen inches in the practice of different growers, and deter-
mined, of course, largely by the habit of the variety. A vine like
the Sharpless, with a spreading growth and long fruit stems needs,
perhaps, sixteen inches which some growers give it, while the
smaller more compact, Longworth Prolific, may do well with half
that distance.

Planting Strawberries. — Strawberry plants are set out either in
spring or fall, or at any time in the winter when the ground is warm
and in good condition. Fall planting usually gives a fuller spring
crop though planting as late as February has brought two crops the
following spring and summer, and planting in April has secured
fruit the same year, but it is better to prevent it and induce more
growth. Spring planting is in April and May. In the drier parts
of the State, early fall or winter planting is more essential than else-
where. If the ground is dry, water should always be used in plant-
ing. This may be given by thorough irrigation of the ground be-
fore planting, or a little water may be used in setting each plant.
At planting it is usually best to remove all leaves from the plant,
shorten the roots to three inches or less, and be sure the plants
do not dry while planting progresses. As with handling rooted
grape-vines, it is advisable to carry around the plants in a vessel
which has water in it. If the plants have been received by mail
they are invigorated by soaking in water a few hours before plant-
ing.

In setting the plants, scoop out a little excavation with the hand
or a trowel, spread the roots well, cover with fine soil, being sure
that the crown of the plant shall not be below the surface when the
soil is leveled. Too many strawberry plants are buried, not planted.
Some plant very rapidly by using a dibble to make a hole, into
which the roots are dropped and soil pressed around them by using
the dibble alongside ; others set the plants on the side of the fur-
row, trusting to the next furrow to complete the covering. Nearly
all ways succeed if the plant is not set too deeply and the ground
is moist at planting and not allowed to dry out afterwards — pro-
viding good, strong plants are used. In buying plants it is often
poor economy to buy the cheapest.

CARE OF THE STRAWBERRY 499

Staminate and Pistillate. — In associating varieties be sure the
pistillate varieties are not set by themselves. Some sorts have
perfect flowers and are self-fertilizing; others have only the pistil-
late element in the bloom and must have the staminate adjacent in
another variety. All the varieties largely grown in California have
perfect flowers, though some pistillate sorts have been locally ap-
proved.

Care of the Strawberry Plantation. — Herein lies the secret of
success with the strawberry. Neglect has led to disappointment and
condemnation of the strawberry, where intelligent care would have
rendered it a constant delight. The cheap elements of proper care
may be thus enumerated :

Retention of moisture very near the surface by careful, shallow
cultivation or by mulching, persistent destruction of weeds, and
compensation for summer evaporation by frequent irrigation. The
plants during the bearing season should never be allowed to show
any leaf-shriveling from drouth. Frequency of irrigation depends
upon local conditions. Irrigation at intervals of four to ten days,
according to the soil, are the outlines of prevailing practice.

Constant removal of runners from all plants except those it is
desired to multiply to furnish new plants or to fill the rows. Pinch-
ing of runners should always accompany picking or hoeing of
weeds, and on the garden bed there can be no excuse for neglect
in this respect. The young plants should be faithfully freed from
runners to strengthen them up for bearing.

Though, as already stated, strawberries may in some locations
be had all winter, it is better practice, as a general rule, to lay the
plants away for a rest. The market season in the regions supplying
the San Francisco market extends from April to December, and
fruit is continuously shipped during that period. At the approach
of winter in the last-named month, it is usual to go over the beds
with a sickle, cutting off the old crops of leaves close to the root
crown, carefully cleaning up the plantation for the heavy rains. In
most cases it will be a great advantage then to cover over all with
a light coat of good manure, which the winter rains will leach down
in to the soils. The result of the fall clipping and enriching will
be an early and strong start of the plant in the spring, and a most
abundant fruitage.

Duration of the Plantation. — Strawberry plants well cared for
and not visited by insect pests, have a long, productive, and profit-
able life in California. Twelve-year-old plants are sometimes re-
ported as still producing abundantly. It is customary to count from
five to eight years as the profitable life of a plant, though some
growers replant after two bearing years. The effective duration
depends directly upon preventing growth of plants and too close
matting of the rows.

500

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Varieties of the Strawberry. — Though all new varieties are tried
by California growers, and quite a number may be considered suc-
cessful either for market or for home use, only a very few may
be said to be widely grown. In the Watsonville district, which
largely supplies San Francisco, the Melinda, which some growers
hold to be indistinguishable from the Dollar, is chiefly grown, with
Brandywine as a distant second. In the Florin district, near Sac-
ramento, growing berries to ship all through the northern States of
the coast and eastward to Colorado, the Dollar is grown almost ex-
clusively, with a few Jessies for extra early. Excelsior is also
grown. In the districts near Los Angeles, the Brandywine pre-
vails. It is best for shipping and is held to be sweeter than at the
east and next to it, in the commercial fields at the south, is Klon-
dyke. The Arizona Everbearing is declining in popularity al-
though still favored by amateurs for home use.

Three old kinds which still hold favor for home use and local
sale are the Longworth Prolific, the Sharpless, and the Monarch
of the West. The Sharpless is the most widely grown ; the Mon-
arch shows better size and color in southern California and on the
vSierra foot-hills than in the regions adjacent to San Francisco, al-
though it is still grown therein to some extent. The Longworth
is an old favorite, early, productive, and hardy, and its style has
become very popular in the markets. Wilson's Albany also holds
favor.

It has been demonstrated that varieties show marked difference
in behavior in different soils and situations. In planting for mar-
ket or home use the planter will be safe in making his largest plan-
tations of the varieties commended by leading growers and well
informed nurserymen, and at the same time he should put out
experimental plants of other varieties.

The most notable work for new varieties in California is being
pursued by Albert F. Etter, of Briceland, Humboldt county. He
is crossing cultivated varieties with local wild species and is thus
introducing factors not employed hitherto with results which prom-
ise to be notable. His first named variety is Rose Ettersburg,
which is a cross of a third generation Sharpless x Parry with a
novel type of Fragaria Chiloensis. It has remarkable drouth resis-
tance and thrift on poor soils. The blossoms are often as large
as a silver dollar, the berries large, often 1^ inches in diameter, and
blush pink in color. Single stocks from sets 18 months out meas-
ured 22 inches high and over 10 feet in circumferance. Mr. Etter's
work is described in detail in the Pacific Rural Press for August 22
and 29 and September 5 and 19, 1908, and is very interesting.

PART SEVEN: NUTS

CHAPTER XXXVII
NUT GROWING IN CALIFORNIA

Two nuts have risen to large commercial importance in Cali-
fornia : The English walnut and the almond. Other nuts than
these, except peanuts, have never attained great acreage, although
several have succeeded and promise to become popular.

The commercial production of almonds and walnuts in Califor-
nia during the last thirteen years has been estimated by the trade
as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs. :

Year Almonds Walnuts

1895 825 2,310

1896 1,605 4,115

1897 2,375 3,985

1898 450 5,660

1899 2,320 5,530

1900 2,740 5,430

1901 ,1,560 6,910

1902 3,270 8,520

1903 3,200 5,500

1C04 800 7,590

1S05 2,125 5,750

1906 900 6,125^

1£07 750 6,500^

1908 2,900 8,500

1909 1,500 8,000

The walnuts are chiefly grown in Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los
Angeles and Orange counties in Southern California. The almonds
are from interior counties in the central regions of the State. Rea-
sons for the extreme fluctuations in production will be suggested
by the discussion of each nut which will follow.

THE ALMOND

The almond has an interesting history in California, but it can
be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best Euro-
pean varieties began very early, and a number of them had been
planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees
grew^ thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after

501

502

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

planting. The barren almond trees were largely grafted into
prunes or made into firewood and the conclusion was reached that
to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond
orchards must be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret
of success lay in the location. After that local seedlings seemecl
to demonstrate their value in regular crops, and in characteristics
and qualities superior to foreign kinds. Large planting was then
undertaken on the ground that the choice of soil and situation,
and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are both factors of suc-
cess, but that possibly more lay in the choice of variety than of
location. This belief led to wide planting in locations now seen
to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses were again encoun-
tered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated that no matter what
variety is planted, locations for the almond must be selected with
great care. It has also been demonstrated that association of
varieties promotes pollination and satisfactory bearing.

Situations and Soils for the Almond. — Almonds are now doing
best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro-
tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at
various points in the interior valleys and foot-hills. The general
proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and
bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands
directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large
interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are
successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea
level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds
are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is
explained by the discussion on page 15.

The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly-
drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture
enough to make good, thrifty growth they will produce good crops
on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apri-
cots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruit. The almond is, how-
ever, a very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply
for moisture rather than by denying itself, as some think. The
tree certainly suflfers and is barren from drouth in some cases.

Propagating, Planting, and Pruning. — The almond is propa-
gated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and
budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is preferred,
though the peach answers well. The apricot root should
be avoided.

For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if
given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best, and
usually those which have made a moderate instead of a very large
growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively

ALMOND HARVESTING

503

large tree and should have plenty of room — not less than twenty-
four feet apart (though some plantations are made at. twenty feet),
and thirty feet is better.

Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by
grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting
off large branches. Methods with the peach described on page
280 are applicable to the almond.

The pruning of the almond is very simple. The tree should
be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as de-
scribed in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After
the third year little pruning is required except to thin out objec-
tionable branches by winter pruning. There is danger of allowing
the trees to become too dense. Shortening in, as practiced with the
peach, is sometimes proposed for the almond, for the thrift of the
tree and the size of the nut, but growers have not had courage
enough to assume the increased cost of production which would
be involved.

The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as com-
mended for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in
naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to
retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain
locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light
rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given.

Gathering, Hulling, and Bleaching. — Almonds are gathered by
spreading canvas under the tree and shaking the branches sepa-
rately; the few nuts remaining can be displaced by striking with
a light stick. The gathering should be done after the hulls have
burst open, but should not be delayed until the nuts are badly
discolored. Discoloration of the nut depends upon local atmos-
pheric conditions and is worst in regions subject to moist winds
or fogs from the ocean, and they often extend considerable dis-
tances into the interior valleys. On dry plateaux adjacent to the
Mojave Desert perfectly bright almonds are produced naturally,
but at these elevations frost injuries are frequent and notable.

Hulling is done with machines devised for that purpose. There
are several in use and recently great capacity and cheapness of
operation have been attained.

For the greater part of the almond product bleaching is appar-
ently demanded by market requirements. Sulphur should not be
applied until the nut is thoroughly dry, or else the fumes will
penetrate it, and not only spoil its flavor, but will destroy its ger-
minating power. The nuts are dried by exposure to sun on plat-
forms or trays, and in dewy places should be covered during the
night. After being well dried, sprinkle the nuts sufficiently to
moisten the shell surface only and apply sulphur fumes. Various
home-made contrivances are used for bleaching, such as piling up

504 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: IIOW TO GROW THEM

several of tlie slat-bottom trays one upon another, placing around
them sides made of boards so as to hook to<;'ether at the corners,
cover the top with a damp canvas, and burn the sul])hur in a hole
in the ground below the bottom tray.

Webster Treat, formerly a large grower of almonds, describes
his sulphuring-house for almonds :

My bleaching-hoiise is about twenty-five feet by eight feet, and I generally
put in about four thousand pounds of almonds and expose them to sulphur
fumes for three or four hours. The house is boarded with tongue and groove
flooring, inside and out, and roofed with well-laid shingles, and has a flue
about two feet high on the apex, to help draft the sulphur smoke up. The floor-
is of one-by-three-inch stuff, set up edgewise, three-eighths of an in^j|^part,
or just wide enough to admit the fumes from the sulphur burning J^^^ and
narrow enough to prevent the nuts from falling through. The floJ^B^bout
two and one-half feet above the ground, and the lower space is baffded up
with tongue and groove also and fitted with small doors every five feet, so that
the sulphur pans can be placed underneath the floor.

Sulphur fumes are applied until the nuts are of a light yellow-
ish color; the proper shade is to he learned by securing approved
samples from some trustworthy dealer.

The following explicit account of handling almonds on a large
scale is by Mr. J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, San Joaquin county :

''When. the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shell, as will
be indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if
you wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet
them before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to
shell them then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to
begin until the nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and
they will be the last to ripen. When they are all ready you can
get all at one gathering. Have some sheets made of heavy un-
bleached sheeting or light duck or sail cloth.. Mine for large trees
are 15x30 feet, handled by two men to a sheet and two sheets to a
tree. Spread the sheets under the tree, one on each side, lapping
the edges where they join. Then the men take willow or bamboo
poles and by jarring the limbs cause the nuts to fall on the sheets.
Always strike the limb sideways, for if you strike a glancing blow
down the limb, you will reduce next year's crop. The object is to
get the nuts and disturb the foliage as little as possible. Of course,
you will get some nuts and twigs with the leaves anyway. When
the nuts are all off the tree, the men toss their poles to the next
tree and then gather up the sheets, one man at each end of each
sheet and, lifting them, carry them to the next tree where the pro-
cess is repeated. When enough nuts are in sheets to fill several
lug boxes, the boxes are placed on the ground side by side, and the
sheets are emptied of their burden. These boxes are then stacked
up so as to be easily seen, and the teamster gathers them up and
hauls them in to the shed where they are run through the huller
and then placed in the hoppers ready for the hand sorting. After

POLLINIZING THE ALMOND

505

sorting they are placed on trays or board platforms in the dry-
yard to cure. They should be cured until the kernel will break
without bending. Then they are ready for bleaching; but be sure
they are thoroughly cured before bleaching or the kernel will
absorb the sulphur and be spoiled. When properly cured, any
means may be employed which will thoroughly dampen the shell
but not penetrate to the kernel and then be subjected to the fumes
of burning sulphur for a period of 30 minutes to one or two hours
owing to the variety and condition of the nut. A yellowish white
color of the shell is demanded by the trade. Do not over-sulphur.
When sufficiently bleached they are removed and placed in the
sun f^: a few hours to dry, and then sacked up ready for market.
My ^^w'lt plan of bleaching, given me by Mr. Reed, of Suisun, is
as folHl : When cured we place the nuts about one inch thick
on fruit trays and run them into a division of the sulphur house
which has been connected with a steam boiler (five horse-power),
and low pressure steam (20 pounds), is turned into the house for a
half or three-quarters of an hour. Then they are removed and
quickly run in another division which has a sulphur charge ready
fired and bleached from 40 minutes to an hour, when they are re-
moved and immediately sacked. The same help will bleach twice
as many in a day with steam as without it. Be careful not to use
high pressure steam or you will cook the nuts."

Pollination and Late Blooming. — The advantage of cross pol-
lination between different varieties and the surer bearing of late
blooming varieties are related subjects which are worthy of close
attention. Mr. J. P. Dargitz, whose harvesting method has just
been given, has pointed out that, according to his observation as
a rule all the paper-shells are deficient in pollen, and will not
bear well if planted alqne and he concludes that the only two which
warrant planting in his section are the Nonpareil and the Ne Plus
Ultra. The latter is not a very good nut, and needs much more
moisture than the other. The Nonpareil will give good results if
planted with some other variety as pollenizer. It is one of the very
best of nuts and is well worth planting. Mr. Dargitz regards the
Texas Prolific the very best pollenizer, and when planted in alter-
nate double rows with the Nonpareil will cause it to set fruit freely
in spite of the fact that the Nonpareil begins blooming two weeks
earlier than the Texas but still has bloom to catch the Texas pol-
len when it is ready.

This late blooming of the Texas places it in the same class
for surety with Drake's Seedling. Both nuts are medium' soft
shell and small but are being largely chosen because of sure bear-,
ing and large product. As to the relative return per sack, Mr. Dar-
gitz says :

506

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Nonpareil at 14 cents per pound, the Drake Seedling at 11 cents per
pound, and the Texas Prolific at 10 cents per pound, will each bring about
$10.50 per standard sack the I XL at 13 cents per pound about $9 per sack, and
the Ne Plus Ultra at 12 cents per pound about $8.50 per sack.

Varieties of the Almond. — Almonds should bear well every
year, hull' easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright,
and plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are pre-
ferred in general to those which have double ones. These are the
characters which ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pio-
neer propagator of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, formerly of Sui-
sun. In 1878 Mr. Hatch planted out about two thousand five hun-
dred seedling almond trees grown from bitter almond seed. He
afterward budded all the seedlings but about three hundred, which
were left to bearing age unbudded. The fruit of these seedlings
was of all degrees of excellence. A few of the best of them were
selected for propagation and naming, and they constitute the chief
part of the acreage which is now bearing almonds, but other late
bloomers and surer bearers are being preferred in current planting.

Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other
growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown :

IXL. — Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts large
with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being needed, nor is any
bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded for shy bearing,
but desirable in some places.

Ne Plus Ultra. — Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bearer;
soft shell; hull free.

Nonpareil. — First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth; smaller foliage
than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily heavy and
regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type. Ripens early and
can be gathered before other varieties are ready.

Lewellings ProliUc. — Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; "tree a
great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull free." —
Leonard Coates.

Harriott's Seedling (or Commercial). — From Visalia, where it is a surer
cropper than elsewhere; shell softer than the Languedoc; nut long, of peculiar
shape, quite large; kernel sweet.

King's Soft Shell. — Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft; regular
and abundant bearer.

Princess. — The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel large, white
and sweet.

Languedoc. — Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irregular
bearing.

Paper Shell. — Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken between the
finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet.

Drake's Seedling. — Originated with Mr. Drake, of Suisun, of the Languedoc
class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming variety.

Golden State. — Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft-shell, somewhat
longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts from the
hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly.

Peerless. — Resembling IXL. Popular in Yolo county for regular and heavy
bearing.

THE CHESTNUT

507

Texas Prolific.— Brought from Texas by Robert Williamson, of W. R. Strong
& Co., of Sacramento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the
only almond which would bear there. Planted at Acampo by Robert Adams,
who had charge -of the company's nurseries at that place; fully discussed by
J. P. Dargitz, of Acampo, and described by the introducer as resembling Lan-
guedoc in tree and nut, but with softer shell, which is filled with very sweet
kernel. Blooms two weeks later than Drake. Mr. Dargitz reports fifteen
years without failure to bear and usually prolifically.

Jordan Almond. — This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long,
slim kernel for "salted almonds" and imported at high cost for that purpose, has
been introduced both through government distribution and private enterprise,
notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nursery Co., of Niles.
Too little has yet been seen to determine the value of the variety in local
production.

THE CHESTNUT

The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in Califor-
nia, and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the
American, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the
San Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the
Italian predominates, and the Japanese is more common than the
American, which is slow of growth and late in fruiting, as com-
pared with the other kinds. Judging the success of the Italian, it
may be said that a large area of California is well suited for the
growth of the chestnut, as there are bearing trees in nearly all
parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds on heavy, clayey soil,
even if it be quite rocky.

Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and thus grown
come into bearing in from six to eight years, though the Japanese
sometimes bears sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed
is described in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the im-
proved varieties, there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding
and grafting may be resorted to; and can be done by the methods
described in the chapter on the fig. The chestnut can also be
grafted with the ordinary cleft graft. Buds or scions should be
taken from trees which are fruiting satisfactorily, and in this way
seedlings which have a tendency to bear empty burs can be turned
to good account. Chestnuts can ..be grown in the nursery until
several years old, providing they are lifted at the end of the first
year, the taproot cut ofif, and the trees reset, giving them rather
more room than during their first year's growth. In permanent
plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as they ultimately
attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada county, when
about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of trunk, and
forty feet high, and reported to bear a barrel of nuts to the tree
regularly. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, has for many years made
a specialty of propagating a large collection of the improved French
varieties of the chestnut, known as Marrons, which were distrib-
uted to some extent. The chestnut chiefly grown is the Italian

508

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

but it has not attained any considerable product as yet. The chest-
nut, aside from its desirability as an orchard tree, can be com-
mended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for waysides or pas-
tures, and should be more widely planted in California. The chief
product is in the foothill district east of the San Joaquin valley.

THE FILBERT

The best English cob-nuts have been quite widely tried in Cal-
ifornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French
varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of
Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth
and bearing. A few other growers in foot-hill situations have re-
ported success, ^but as a rule disappointment has attended ven-
tures with the filbert. The most favorable regions lor farther ex-
periment are apparently the north slopes of the Coast Range, and
other cooler and moister situations, as well as at an elevation on
the Sierra foot-hills where Mr. Gillet found them satisfactory.

THE PEANUT

During the last few years the peanut product of California has
notably increased, and the crop is a popular one in some parts of
the San Joaquin Valley and southern California. The nuts are
considerably grown between the rows in young orchards and vine-
yards, as well as upon ground wholly given to them. The follow-
ing explicit directions are given by R. M, Hargrave, a grower in
Orange County. Some slight modifications in practice may be
needed, according to locality, as, for example, in time of planting,
which is usually a little earlier than the date given :

Planting. — The best time to plant peanuts is about the middle of May, say,
lOth to 15th, in rows about three to four feet apart and sixteen to twenty
inches the other way, and not cover too deep — three or four inches. Peanuts
planted the middle of May ripen evenly and are of uniform size. Very early
peanuts ripen unevenly, and the first nuts that set on get so ripe they turn
to a pink color, and if the land is a little §andy the stems get soft, lose their
strength, and will not lift the nuts from the ground.

It takes about thirty pounds of the California or White Virginia, and fifty
pounds of the Tennessee Reds to plant an acre. Tennessee peanuts can be
planted much closer in the rows. The California peanut is the best to plant, as
it yields three or four tivnts as much as the Tennessee Reds do, and has more
ready sale.

The Quality of Land. — Peanuts require a rich sandy soil loam that is known as
upland. Damp land gives the nuts a straw color, and they are not as good
probably as those raised on higher land. They require no irrigation, except
on very sandy land, where some have found it profitable ; but, as a usual thing,
when irrigated the ground is liable to get hard, making the nuts crooked,
ill-shaped, and many times coloring them.

Cultivation. — Peanuts should be cultivated about the same as corn, not
allowing any weeds to grow in them, keeping the ground loose and mellow,
and when the spikes begin to form, they should not be disturbed. If they are,

PEANUT AND PECAN

509

it causes the nuts to blight or not fill out. The blooms do not require to be
covered.

Harvesting. — Peanuts should be harvested when ripe, and not allowed to
stand too long, in hopes that the last ones set out will fill out and ripen, as
you lose more than you gain. The little ones spoil . the sale of the crop, and
many are left in the ground that get over-ripe. Peanuts should be cut or
plowed out and thrown into windrows, nuts down, and let lie a week or ten
days, and then sacked, as the best nuts are cured in that way, and they do not
mold so badly, and cure a better color. They must not be allowed to get wet.
The tops are good feed if stored away in a shed for winter use. All kinds of
stock like them, and small nuts can be left on the vines. The> make the best
chicken feed. An average yield is about twenty-five to thirty sacks to the acre,
forty pounds to a sack, but many have raised fifty sacks, with extra care and
good land well adapted to peanuts.

THE PECAN

The pecan, by rapid growth early fruiting, and <^eneral thrift,
seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for Cali-
fornia conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolf-
skill, on Putah Creek, in 1878 was, when twenty-five years old,
over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, grow-
ing luxuriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very sat-
isfactory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visa-
lia. The pecan, though grown for thirty years by different parties
around the bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the
nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The
wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the interior seem
to teach the tree better habits of growth, and rest and moist low-
lands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting. As yet,
California has no marketable product of pecans but the total num-
ber of trees in the state is insignificant.

Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Plant-
ers should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great dif-
ference in size and quality) direct from growers in the southern
States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if
conditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored
as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery
ground in rows as there suggested, and covered about two inches
or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain mois-
ture, will germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to
permanent place at the end of the first year and then usually the
taproot can be retained, as some growers deem very desirable ; if
the trees are to be put in permanent place later they should be
transplanted in the nursery and the taproot cut off. The nuts can,
of course, be planted at once in permanent place if one will take
the extra trouble necessary to properly care for them.

510 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE PISTACHIO

The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced a number of
years ago but no results have been reported. The species upon
its own root makes a low shrub and is slow of growth. We have
also imported the Pistachia terebinthus, from which is derived the
"chio turpentine," the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in
Europe and which is growing thriftily at several points in the
State. The pistachio needs more time to declare its California
career.

THE ENGLISH OR PERSIAN WALNUT

The nut which is signified in California when the term walnut
is used, is the English walnut or Madeira nut (Juglans regia) and
its many varieties. This tree makes a grand growth in California.
Specimens are seen here and there, which, at about twenty years
of age are from fifty to sixty feet in height, with a spread of
branches of forty to sixty feet, and in some cases bearing four to
eight hundred pounds of nuts. Much larger and older trees can
be found in the coast and interior valleys of central California
where the nut was first planted, although, as has already been
stated, the nut has thus far been produced in large quantities only
in regions adjacent to the coast in southern California. The equa-
ble temperature and rnoisture of the southern coast seems to speci-
ally favor the nut, but it must not be inferred that success can
only be attained in such situations. A number of French varieties,
which have been widely enough distributed to test their growth,
have been found to thrive in many situations where the old Los
Angeles variety is a failure, and there is at present quite a disposi-
tion to larger plantings of the walnut in all California valleys,
either as a sole occupant of the land or as border trees around fruit
orchards. At the South the walnut area has largely increased in
those situations where the tree shows most satisfactory bearing
qualities, and newer varieties of California origin, like the Im-
proved Soft Shell, constitute most of the present area. In all un-
tried places, or in all places where the old Los Angeles Walnut has
failed, trial should be made of the hardy French varieties, which
will be described farther on. Recently considerable planting has
been done in the coast and interior valleys and foot-hills of central
California upon the quite fully demonstrated success of these va-
rieties. It is, however, very desirable to secure satisfactory depth
and retentiveness, without excess of water, in the soil. The wal-
nut abhors drouth as well as standing water.

Soils for the Walnut. — The walnut makes most rapid growth
upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of
good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains
satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving

ROOTS FOR THE ENGLISH WALNUT

511

trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the
foot-hills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate mois-
ture must, however, be had, and the walnut can not be commended
for dry, neglected places nor for soils which overlie leachy subsoils
described on page 36.

Propagation. — The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated
as described in Chapter VIII. In the main the use of seedlings
has hitherto prevailed, and the nut has been looked upon as com-
ing sufficiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed
rapidly, and grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure
[ fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention.

Excellent results have been obtained by using the California
black as a stock for the English walnut, and in that case budding
or grafting must be resorted to. Many instances of the success
of the English walnut on our native stock might be cited, but the
most notable tree known to the writer is to be seen on the grounds
of John R. Wolfskin, on Putah Creek, in Solano County. He put
in a bud in 1875 and the tree has reached immense size and large
product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been
top-grafted with the English walnut with notable success, not only
in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has
been planted for shade and ornament.

Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to
stocks for the English walnut believes that the cross of the Cali-
fornia black and the Eastern black walnuts and the California black
walnut straight afford the best seedlings for roots for the English
walnut, but advises close selection to secure the best growth. This
is his prescription :

"The Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern
black walnut and the native California black walnut is called a
Royal hybrid), is, in my opinion, the most magnificent growing tree
in the walnut line, and I believe that in the future some Royal hy-
brids can, by persistent selection, be sufficiently fixed to furnish
the strongest possible roots of substantial uniformity on which to
graft. At present I know of only one tree, picked out from many
hundreds, which is sufficiently fixed to grow a fair percentage of
seedlings equal to itself. Only from one to two per cent of the
seedlings of most Royal hybrids is equal to the parent, and the per-
centage of even the best straight California is only from fifteen to
twenty per cent, and the poorest give less than one per cent.

At present, we, by a system of sprouting, are able to eliminate
four-fifths of the weakest growing nuts, and we plant the remaining
fifth in the nursery. Twenty-five per cent of such remaining nuts
from our selected trees of Royal hybrid blood, and fifteen to twenty
per cent from our selected California trees, grow three to four feet
the first year. The three to four foot seedlings in the nursery are

512

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Eleven Nuts on Two-Year Grafts on Three-
Year California Root.

grafted when one year old, and the remaining smaller trees are left
for another year; and for this reason a small per cent make a dis-
proportionately large growth of root compared to its moderate top
the first year, and make an immense growth of top the second year.
All Paradox hybrids (English walnut crossed with California
black) make a large root and but a moderate top the first year, as
do many seedlings from the Royal hybrid, and as do very, very few
from the straight California. These few trees, which make good
the second year, three or four per cent, possibly, of the trees left
to grow another year in the nursery, are grafted at the end of the
second year, and the balance thrown away as unworthy to be grafted

BUDDING WALNUTS

513

and given a chance in orchard form ; for a tree which is to have in
the orchard from sixteen hundred to thirty-six hundred square feet,
can not be too good, either as to root or top.

Budding the Walnut. — In working on the native California
seedling stocks, Mr. Clowes, of Stockton, buds by the common
method, removing the wood from the inside of the plate of bark, as
advised for the orange. Twig buds as used with the olive are also

Four months' growth of Walnut Grafts — J. B. Neff, Anaheim.

successful, and ring budding works well on shoots of a year's
growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the middle
finger. Mr. Gillet advises that the buds should be set at the base
of these shoots where the wood is perfectly round. The bandage
should pass above and below the bud so that the bark under it may
be pressed down close upon the stock, and this is more surely gained
by shaving ofif the base of the leaf stem, below the bud, about to the
point where it would separate when the leaf naturally falls ofif.
Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, has hit upon a very interesting

514

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Yearling seedling Black Walnuts grown on moist, subirrigated land.

method of preparing walnut buds. In taking a fresh bud from the
new growth of the walnut he found the large leaf stem a serious
impediment in firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of
the stock and binding it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too
much exposed tissue. If the leaf stem would drop oflF as it does
when mature and leave a healed-over scar, the result would be a
flat surface with only the bud protruding, and this could be easily
bound in place so as to exclude the air. He tried cutting off the

BUDDING WALNUTS 5J^5

compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch or so, and was delighted
to find that a stub thus left became dry and parted from the stem
just as a mature leaf does in the autumn. By cutting off the leaves
in this way about August 15, the stubs part readily before Septem-
ber 1, and then he takes ofif clean, flat buds and uses them just as
he does in budding the peach, except that he leaves no wood behind
the bud. He takes rather a large shield and puts it under the bark
of the stock through a "T" cut, then wraps well with a strip of
cheese cloth and waxes over the cloth with ordinary grafting wax.
The wrapping is applied so as to cover most of the bark slit, every-
thing beyond being waxed over. The bud is then allowed to remain
dormant until the following spring.

Mr. Pennington of Vacaville has been very successful in bud-
ding by cutting buds in the regular shield form, about 1^4 inches
long, cut from branches ^ to ^ inch in diameter, so as to get wide
buds with but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have
stocks large, and considers a stock 1^ inches in diameter not too
large. He uses ordinary budding twine for tying, but does not use
wax to cover the incisions. He says it is best to put off budding as
late as it is possible to get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is
likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing
season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in
place all winter, which he considers advisable.

Buds are more apt to succeed w^hen pushed upward from the
cross-cut than downward from it. The cuts w^ould then be an
inverted ''T." No preparation of the budding wood is made, except
that mature buds are taken. About 90 per cent of the buds placed
are said to grow.

Grafting the Walnut. — Grafting into black walnut seedling root
can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root
stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter
XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is
desirable.

Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or
grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter,
and in autumn following, buds are put in, as just described, on as
many of the new shoots as may be desired.

In grafting, the common cleft graft is used with a degree of
success particularly when the split is not made through the pitch,
but at one side ; the scion should be whittled so as to show as little
pith as possible. This is done by cutting down to a point at one
side and not in the center of the scion. Care should be taken to
cover all exposed surfaces.

Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety
of English walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into
an English variety, and as much attention is now being paid to

51g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

blight resistant, interest is sharpened in grafting methods. Mr.
J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has looked into the subject deeply and
worked over many old trees gives the following practical sugges-
tions on this work :

Walnut grafting by modified cleft graft.

If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut off
at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five
scions may be placed in one stock, or three or four of the branches may be cut
back to within lo to 24 inches of the trunk and two to three scions placed in
each. All the other branches should be removed from the trunk.

Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places
where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight
stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as
many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed before
the scions are put in place.

In sawing large branches it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being
some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the
trunk, when the severed part falls.

The scions should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as small
pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should
be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth
having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be used.

To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs,
placing the knife across the stub as if a chip one-half to five-eighths-inch thick
was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to
45 degrees and split the edge down to 2^ to 3 inches, allowing the knife to
reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the
stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge ^ to -yg-inch wide and thickest on one
edge, placing the thickest edge toward the outside.

GRAFTING WALNUTS

517

Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then
cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (tne cambium
layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove
the wedge and put hot .wax over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once.

The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap
wiped off, and the stub re-covered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow
of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can
not form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes
in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches deep
will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done
to the body of the tree, as the holes soon grow over.

Side graft made with a saw-cut.
Enlargement can be prevented by slitting the bark below it.

The last two wax formulas on page 85 are largely used in wal-
nut grafting. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the
smaller branches of young trees a side graft as described on page
87 is successfully used as are also several styles of cleft grafting.
One which is used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consist
in splitting a short stub of a small branch which has been cut about
four inches from its attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this
case the split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch
and the scion is pushed down strongly to the bottom of such a split
and it is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut
away but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between
them and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a
little to keep the stock from dying back. When the scion starts
well they are removed.

A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut
across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully,
practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seeds
lings and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighths

518

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

to ninety per cent successful in the nursery and even more on
branches of large trees. The following is a condensed description
of the method :

The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (page 87), cutting a
cross obliquely and making another cut right straight down with
the grain in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely
across like the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do
not cut into the pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two
together by pushing the tongue of the scion (made by the cut on
its shorter side) into the lip cut in the stock; tie with a string, and
wax over. The same method on larger trees is performed exactly
in the same way, except that the lip of course on the larger limbs,
which are three or four inches through, would be considerably
larger, and the scion instead of being placed directly in the middle
of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on the side so as to have

Split Grafting the Walnut by Mr. Geo. Payne, of Santa Clara.

PLANTING THE WALNUT

519

the cambium of the scion connecting with the cambium on the stock
at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes five scions are put
on a large limb, and in most cases three or four scions would grow.
After the scion has reached a certain stage of growth, this string will
commence to bind, and must be cut down right over where the
scion is. The wax on either side still tend to hold the string, but
as the wood gradually grows, the strings will draw apart, and it
will not bind it as it would if the string was not cut.

One-year Franquette Graft on one-year Selected
Hybrid Root.

Planting Walnut Orchards. — There is much difference in prac-
tice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advo-
cate the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as
much of the tap-root as possible ; others allow the tree to remain
in nursery until it throws out laterals, which is usually done the
fourth or fifth year. Two-year-old trees are generally preferred,
but walnut trees of many times that age can be successfully trans-
planted if the work is carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set
forty feet in squares, though some give the large-growing varieties
fifty feet. Planting in hexagonals at forty-five feet distance gives

520

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

A thrifty young English Walnut.

very satisfactory results. Some growers plant in squares at thirty
feet distance, intending to remove alternate trees as they crowd
each other, first cutting back, for a time, the trees which are finallv
to be removed.

Intercultures with the Walnuts. — In the southern walnut
regions it is common to grow beans, scjuashes, etc., between the
rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age ; root crops which
attract gophers should be avoided. Inter-planting of smaller, early-
fruiting trees is also practiced to a considerable extent.

Pruning the Walnut. — The walnut is usually headed higher than
ordinary orchard trees, but preference is now given to starting the
first branch at about four feet from the ground instead of six feet as
formerly. All the pruning needed is in shaping the tree as described
for the fig. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, some-
times by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes
by tying them up for a time to the central stem until they are stiff

HARVESTING WALNUTS 521

enough to retain this position. Placing branches on the stem
according to the principles advanced in Chapter XII, should be
borne in mind. The stem should be protected from sunburn until
the foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by
sunburn or by frost, they should be cut off cleanly below the black
mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is done,
the die-back down the branch is usually prevented.

Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut. — The walnut has its stam-
inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same
tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two
forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although
there seems to be quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing of
some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the catkins
disappear too long before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently de-
veloped to receive the pollen.

The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some
of the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in
nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms
were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The
practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State
may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees
grafted with scions from bearing trees fruit much sooner.

Harvesting Walnuts. — Gathering walnuts is done in different
ways ; some gather them from the ground at intervals during the
months of September and October; others use poles and clean the
trees at one operation ; some go over the ground three times ; first,
picking up what have fallen ; second, picking up what have fallen
and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest;
third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the
trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. Walnuts,
after gathering, are usually treated as described by F. E. Kellogg,
of Santa Barbara County :

As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by
six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken up once
or twice a day. If the weather is very hot, they should be dried in the shade.
When the nuts are dry they are passed through an inclined revolving grader,
making about twelve revolutions per minute, having a one-inch mesh wire
screen, and all that fall through this are called "seconds." The lower end of
the grader dips into a vat of water, thoroughly wetting the huts and washing
them to a certain extent — entirely sufficient for paper shells and soft shells,
and usually enough for hard shells. A system of buckets attached to the drum
of the grader then elevates the nuts to a chute, which discharges them into a
large box 4x4x8 feet high, with an inclined slat bottom two and one-half feet
above the ground. While in this box, they are subjected to the fumes of
sulphur for twenty to thirty minues for the purpose of improving the color.
The second grade walnuts are also put through the washing and sulphuring
process. The nuts are next drawn off from the bleachers into the drying trays,
piled one on top of the other, to prevent the sun from shining directly on
the nuts, and remain there for ten or twelve hours, until the nuts are thor-
oughly dried' off. The trays are then emptied into a hopper, from which the

522

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

nuts are drawn oflf into bags containing something over one hundred pounds
each; the bags are securely sewed up and stamped with the producer's brand,
and the nuts are ready for shipment.

Col. A. S. Heath, of Carpinteria, uses a moist bleach and a drier
afterward, as follows:

When the nuts leave the rotary washer they are entirely free of hulls and
clean. They are taken to the bleaching boxes, and here subjected to the very
minimum amount of sulphur necessary, and cold steam, being in the bleachers
about one hour. From the bleachers they are taken to the steam drier. In
the drier are lOO drawers, each capable of holding 40 to 50 pounds of walnuts.
These drawers have wire bottoms to allow the heat to pass through them. In
the basement beneath the drier Mr. Heath has some modern furnaces con-
structed, and during the course of the drying about 130 degrees of heat is
maintained. The nuts are kept under this heat for eight hours. During the
drying it is possible to watch the progress by pulling out drawers for inspection.

Dipping Instead of Sulphuring. — Sulphuring often injures the
flavor of the kernel and dipping is coming into wide use. The fol-
lowing formula has been furnished to growers by the University
Experiment Station:

Six pounds bleaching powder (also called chloride of lime), twelve pounds
sal-soda, fifty gallons water. Dissolve the bleaching powder in about four gal-
lons of water, stirring till dissolved. Dissolve the sal-soda in about four gallons
of water. Add one solution to the other and stir well; let the carbonate of
lime settle to the bottom and draw off the clear liquor and add water to make
a total of fifty gallons. Put the nuts in large dipping box or lath crate, immerse
in the fluid, and then add one and one-fourth pounds of fifty per cent sulphuric
acid and agitate by raising and lowering the dipping box. The bleach should
be reached in five to ten seconds, and the nuts are then washed in clear water
and put out to dry. Of course to employ this process cheaply, specially con-
trived dipping appliances are used. The same liquor can be used with new
batches of nuts so long as the proper effect is produced, and small additions
of acid will prolong the efficiency of the liquor.

Since the foregoing method was published certain California
courts have decided that the process is covered by a patent pre-
viously issued and controlled by the Anderson-Barngrover Co., of
San Jose, who demand a royalty for its use. The walnut growers
employed Prof. Stabler, of the University of Southern California, in
Los Angeles, to devise a new process in the public interest. His
early results indicate that by running an electric current through a
four per cent solution of common salt (four pounds of salt to one
hundred pounds of water) the chlorine is set free from the soda
and becomes available for bleaching. It is possible also that the
electric current may exert bleaching action of its own.

Varieties of the Walnut. — Of walnuts of California origin there
are two classes, which are called "hard" and ''soft" shell, but the
accepted commercial product is largel}^ composed of the soft-shell
class. Several varieties of French walnuts are now being widely
distributed. An attempt will be made to give some of the dis-
tinctive points of each variety mentioned:

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH WALNUT

523

Common English Walnut; Los Angeles Nut, etc. — This is the ordinary
EngHsh walnut of commerce. It was planted at an early day in Los Angeles
county, but is now largely replaced by the Improved Soft Shell.

Santa Barbara Soft Shell; Sexton's Soft Shell. — Originated by Joseph Sex-
tori, who gives this account of its origin and characteristics : "The winter of
1867 I bought in San Francisco a large sack of English walnuts. I raised about
one thousand trees that season, and planted two hundred of them the following
spring, in orchard form, at Goleta. Sixty of them proved to be the soft-shell
variety. The soft shell is a little later in starting in the spring than the com-
mon nut, and blooms about ten days later. It commences to fruit at six years
old from the seed, and some have been known to fruit as young as the fourth
year. The hard shell commences to fruit about the ninth year, and bears full
crops alternate years. The soft shell is not as strong a grower as the other
walnut; it being so prolific, retards its growth. It is a superior nut; the kernel
is white. The shell is thin, rendering them easily broken by the hand, at the
same time strong enough to bear transportation to any part of the United
States."

Ford's Improved Soft Shell. — G. W. Ford, of Santa Ana, propagated an "Im-
proved Soft Shell," gained by selection from the variety of Joseph Sexton,
which has been largely planted.

Santa Rosa. — A seedling by Luther Burbank, which has been distributed
quite widely; but by variation in its seedling, its character is somewhat ill-
defined and the name is applied to several types, some of which are less desirable
than the one receiving the name.

Proeparturiens. — Introduced in California in 1871, by the late Felix Gillet,
of Nevada City, and afterward by other parties, and widely distributed. Its
chief characteristic, as its name indicates, is early bearing. It blooms from two
to four weeks later than the common Los Angeles seedling; it shows both
kinds of bloom simultaneously, and has the characteristics of ripening its wood
well, and is a good nut, but it has* been little planted recently because of its
disposition to run to small sizes.

Mayette. — This variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble walnuts.
It is large, roundish, with a broad base, on which the nut will sit up; shell thin
and white; kernel full and rich; a good bearer and late bloomer; local Mayette
seedlings are being named; one is the "San Jose," by R. Wiltz, of San Jose — a
fine nut, believed to be blight resistant.

Concord. — Seedling of Cluster : of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs.
Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Intro-
duced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant.

Franquette. — This French variety has risen to great favor and has been
largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman, of
Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon Nursery
Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick
and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer, and escapes blight to a certain
extent.

Bijou Seedlings. — Several of these are being grown. Willson's Wonder,
introduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable nut,
and the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer.

Other French Varieties. — Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet
and others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name indi-
cates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch ; otherwise the
tree resembles the common English walnut. The Parisienne is a beautiful variety,
the nut large, broad, and shapely ; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing
varieties and the Franquette, Serotina, Barthere Mesange, Gant and Chaberte,
were introduced by Mr. Gillet in 1871.

Kaghazi. — A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for several
years by the late James Shinn, of Niles, who described it as follows: "Very

524

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

much larger than the ordinary kinds, and thinner shelled. The tree is late
in putting out leaves and blossoms, and is, therefore, especially good for places
that are in danger of late frosts."

Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana. — This species, native of the north
of Japan, was introduced to California about i860, and a tree grown from seed
planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta county.
Recently the good points of the tree have been more widely recognized. The
following excellent description is by Luther Burbank, of Santa Rosa : "This
species is found growing wild in the mountains of northern Japan, and is,
without doubt, as hardy as an oak. The leaves are of immense size, and a
charming shade of green. The nuts, which are produced in extreme abundance,
grow in clusters of fifteen or twenty, have a shell thicker than the English
walnut, but not as thick as the black walnut, very much resembling pecan nuts.
The meat is sweet, of the very best quality, flavor like butternut, but less oily,
and much superior. The trees grow with great vigor, assume a very handsome
form, need no pruning, mature early, bear young, and are more regular and
productive than the English walnut." The nut has an exceedingly hard shell and
does not rate commercially with the popular varieties of the English walnut.

NEW CALIFORNIA VARIETIES

Since the walnut blight invaded the commercial orchards and
resisted all remedies tried against it, great interest has arisen in
particular trees which bore well in spite of the disease. As Cali-
fornia has such a large acreage of seedling trees there was a full
opportunity for the full manifestation of such resistance and a wide
field in which to exercise the art of selection. The result is that
many trees were found which are profitable even when the blight is
worst, and such trees are being given distinct varietal names. The
progress of this work should be watched in the publications of the
University Experiment Station at Berkeley, for the experts at its
branch laboratory and trial grounds in the walnut region of Southern
California, at Whittier, Los Angeles county, are largely engaged in
this work. Individual growers are alert at selection within their
own orchards and the prospect is that a general escape from the
blight and the establishment in our local pomology of a group of
especially desirable varieties will ere long be attained.

I

PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION

CHAPTER XXXVIII
FRUIT CANNING, CRYSTALLIZING, AND DRYING

The preservation of fruit in various ways for home use and
distant shipment, is one of the leading industries of CaHfornia,
employing a large amount of capital and labor, and distributing a
vast amount of money among our people. These facts can be best
emphasized by statements of the product of 1906, in the leading
methods of preservation, by canning and drying.

Canned Fruit Product of 1908.

Cases.

Table fruits, 2V^-lb. cans, 24 per case 4,227,248

Pie fruits, 1 -gal. cans, 12 per case 507,215

Total, 11.3,631,512 2i^-lb. cans, or 4,734,

The relative use of different fruits is as follows :

Cases.

Apples 37,700

Apricots • 1,161,250

Cherries, black 40,725

Cherries, white 101,700

Figs 1,052

Grapes 45,545

Nectarines 1,673

Pears 640,550

Peaches, freestone 975,350

Peaches, clingstone 1,327,610

Plums 239,825

Quinces 65

Strawberries 5,780

Raspberries 5,950

Blackberries 87,550

Loganberries 2,380

Currants 138

Gooseberries 70

525

526 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

THE CANNING INDUSTRY

California stands first in the United States in the value of canned
and dried fruits produced and in the amount of money as wages paid
for labor in fruit canning and curing establishments. In point of
capital invested therein California is credited by the United States
census office in 1905 with a total of ten and one quarter million
dollars; thus standing second only to New York, which has ten
and one half millions. The style and capacity of the establishments
is characteristically Californian because California's ten millions
are invested in 184 concerns, while New York has 565 concerns;
only a quarter of a million more value in three times as many
outfits.

Fruit canning began in California about fifty years ago, but dur-
ing the last three decades has attained its greatness, and is still
promising much wider extension. The process is simple, and yet
is attended at every point, from the purchase of the fruit to the
sale of the product, with operations which require experience, wis-
dom, and good judgment. It will be obviously impossible to
give in print a guide to the pursuit of such an industry. The prin-
ciples involved in the process of commercial canning are, of course,
the same as rule in the old kitchen processes, but to secure uniform-
ity and cheapness of product a vast number of manipulations and
labor-saving appliances have been devised. These begin with the
manufacture of cans and attend the product to the end, and the
realization of the commercial and uniform production which they
assure involves the employment of large capital and the keenest
business ability. The canning interest has, therefore, segregated
itself more and more widely from the growing interest. Orchard
canning on a small scale which was once thought feasible has passed
out of sight except as it is seen to lie in the foundations of a few
of the smaller canneries which have been built upon it. It seems
clear now that as a rule the fruit grower's duty to the canning
interest ceases with the production of acceptable fruit unless indi-
viduals or associations can command capital enough to enter the
field on equal vantage with* the large commercial canneries.
Capital is flowing toward the business ; the field for the product
seems to be constantly expanding, and canning centers are multi-
plying throughout the State wherever ample supplies of good fruits
and vegetables are available.

Varieties for Canning. — The table previously given showing the
fruits which enter in various amounts into the canned product gives
a general idea of what fruits should be planted to minister to the
canner's demand. As to varieties, it is not easy to make a general
prescription, because the choice differs somewhat with different
localities. It is a good idea for the new planter to consult with
owners of adjacent bearing orchards and to secure from the nearest
canneries lists of varieties which are acceptable to them.

CANDIED OR GLACE FRUITS 527

CRYSTALLIZED FRUITS

Progress is being continually made in the production of candied,
crystallized, or glace fruits, but the product is not a large one.
Special establishments are now doing this work in Los Angeles,
San Jose, and San Francisco. They have processes which are the
result of considerable experimentation, and they do not make them
public. To others the way lies open to similar experimentation.
The general theory and an outline of practice as given by J. J.
Pratt, an experienced processor, is as follows :

The theory is to extract the juice from the fruit, and replace it with sugar
syrup, which, upon hardening, preserves the fruit from decay, and at the same
tirne retains the natural shape of the fruit. All kinds of fruit are capable of
being preserved under this process. Though the method is very simple, there is
a certain skill required that is acquired only by practice. The several successive
steps in the process are about as follows:

First, the same care in selecting and grading the fruit should be taken as
for canning; that is, the fruit should all be of one size, and as near the same
ripeness as possible. The exact degree of ripeness is of great importance,
which is at that stage when fruit is best for canning; peaches, pears, etc., are
pared and cut in halves, as for canning; plums, cherries, are., are pitted. The
fruit, having thus been carefully prepared, is put into a basket, or a bucket
with a perforated bottom, and immersed in boiling water. The object of this
is to dilute and extract the juice of the fruit. The length of time the fruit
is immersed is the most important part of the process. If left too long, it is
overcooked, and becomes soft; if not immersed long enough, the Juice is not
sufficiently extracted, which prevents a perfect absorption of the sugar.

After the fruit has been thus scalded and allowed to cool, it can again be
assorted as to softness. The next step is the syrup, which is made of white
sugar and water. The softer the fruit, the heavier the syrup required. Ordi-
narily about seventy degrees. Balling's saccharometer, is about the proper weight
for the syrup. .

The fruit is then placed in earthen pans, and covered with the syrup, where
it is left to remain about a week. The sugar enters the fruit and displaces
what juice remained after the scalding process.

The fruit now requires careful watching, as fermentation will soon take
place, and when this has reached a certain stage, the fruit and syrup are heated
to a boiling degree, which checks the fermentation. This heating process should
be repeated as often as necessary for about six weeks.

The fruit is then taken out of the syrup, and washed in clean water, and
it is then ready to be either glaced or crystallized, as the operator may wish.
If glaced, the fruit is dipped in thick sugar syrup and left to harden quickly in
the open air. If it is to be crystallized, dip in the same kind of syrup, but
allow to cool and harden slowly, thus causing the sugar which covers the fruit
to crystallize. The fruit is now ready for boxing and shipping. Fruit thus
prepared will keep in any climate and stand transportation.

Thus far the crystallized fruit produced in California has sold
well. There is a considerable importation of French fruit to the
United States, which may be displaced by the California product,
and the business commends itself to those who have ingenuity,
patience, and capital enough to enable them to experiment and wait
for future success. The California producer has the advantage of
an abundance of very fine fruit at a low price, but he carries a handi-
cap in the high cost of transportation and of labor.

528 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY

A special census of the fruit-preserving manufactures of
United States in 1905 shows not only that California stands first
in the dried fruit industry, but that the product (excluding raisins)
was in that year valued at about fourteen million dollars and was
over eighty-eight per cent of the whole national product. An
adjacent tabulation compiled from the records of the California
State Board of Trade gives interesting details of this product for a
number of years.

As suggested on page 21 it is the function of the sunshine and
dry air of California not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree
and vine and carry the fruit of both to fulness of size, beauty and
quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the fruit, which
is not required by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable
form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities
remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following
year's sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripe-
ness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown :
there are few where conditions producing such fruit continue to
accomplish its preservation, as they do in California, and this
climatic endowment of the State yields an annual income of some-
thing like twenty millions of dollars, as the years run.

Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons — 1900 to 1908.

Year Peaches Apricots Apples

Pears

Plums

Nec-

Grapes Figs

Prunes

Raisins

tarines

1900

17,170

14,000

3,150

7,275

1,950

435

240

2,000

87,000

47,167

1901

14,755

7,776

3,225

3,290

1.725

317

180

3,260

40,000

37,125

1902

25,210

18.762

4,875

2.625

1,280

455

188

3.625

98,500

54,375

1903

16,075

10,500

1,800

2,325

1,435

317

205

3.000

82,500

60,000

1904

11,500

88.500

1,500

1,750

1,150

210

170

2.850

67,500

37,500

1905

17,500

19,250

3,250

1,750

930

185

193

3,625

37,500

43,750

1906

11,250

3,250

2,750

3,500

1,100

170

200

3,375

90,000

47,500

1907

12.000

1,500

1,500

500

750

137

188

3,000

40,000

60,000

1908

22,500

19,000

3,000

1.200
24,215

1,000

350

2,576

286

1.500

3,064

341

3,000

25.000

60,000

Totals...

147,960

102.538

25,050

11,320

27,735

568.000

447,417

Averages

16.440

11,393

2.772

2,691

1,257

3,082

63,111

49,735

In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural' en-
dowment, certain facts of its utilization and its significance should
be clearly understood not only by those who actually employ it in
their business, but by those who desire to properly appreciate the
industrial resources of the State.

First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a second-
ary or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to

I)

CURED FRUIT NOT A BY-PRODUCT

529

a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are
not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it is true also that
the recourse to curing frees growers from helpless dependence upon
fresh fruit buyers. But this does not mean that curing is a way
of getting something from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes.
It should be taken as evidence that, for the most part, grades of
fruit which are cured are the same which are also available for
higher uses when prices are right. It is very important in many
ways to have it clearly understood that, except to an insignificant
extent, California fruit drying is not undertaken to save wastes or
to get something from fruit which is not suited to higher uses.

Second. As our cured fruits are a primary and not a by-product,
it becomes intelligible why such free investment is made in acres of
well-made trays ; in tramways and turntables for their movement
from the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading
houses; in capacious apartments and mechanical devices for giving
the cut fruit its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and
to prevent fermentation and insect invasion ; in the carefully pre-
pared drying floors ; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment
has reached millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of
cured fruits as primary products is the justification of such outlay.

Third. The provision of such equipment is not alone evidence
of the standing of the industry; it constitutes an obligation upon
producers to put out a product which shall be true to its opportunity
as a primary product, and not merely a makeshift to prevent loss or
waste. Thirty years ago California dried fruit was a makeshift, and
a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded
it was soon seen that style and quality alone could requite them.
Next it was discerned that fruit for curing, to command profitable
prices, must be as good as fruit for any other high purpose, as has
been suggested. It was then believed that to secure handsome
cured fruit which should only be relieved of its excess of water and
still retain color, flavor and winning beauty, could only be produced
in machine-evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were
given to invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except
as occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself.
When the demonstration came that with proper pre-treatment
California sunshine and dry air would produce notably fine evap-
orated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon
their career as primary products, and planting to produce them
began.

Fourth. The obligations upon producers, to make their output
worthy of such standing, extend to the whole process of growing
and curing. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing
should have size and quality which make it first class for other pur-

530 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

poses, with the added excellence of being somewhat more mature,
because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment. It should,
however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because discolora-
tions are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or
core, because trimness, neatness and shapeliness are all essential
to beauty. Before it reaches exposure to the protecting fumes of
sulphur, it must be often saved from darkening by handling in
water, when the nature of the fruit is such as to require it. It must
be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, especially if it be a
cut fruit, so that no interference can prevent each piece from reach-
ing its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and yet not ex-
cessive, for sulphuring is a protecting and not a resurrecting pro-
cess; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from
becoming bad. The fruit must be sufficiently dried and yet not
over-dried, and during the process must be protected from dust
by the situation and character of the ground used, even if such pro-
tection costs trouble and outlay.

Although the sun drying of fruit may be a simple process, so
many little arts, methods and appliances are continually being intro-
duced to facilitate work or improve the product, that one can learn
much by visiting the different fruit regions during the drying sea-
son. Such a course is commended to growers who contemplate
large drying operations, for suggestions of great economic import-
ance can be secured. The notes of practice which can be given in
this connection must be brief and general.

&

Trays for Drying. — The greater part of the fruit, including
raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great
variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made
of one-half-inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long,
the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on
each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow
piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus
stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section
of such a tray is shown at A.

A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet square,
and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a
half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross slats three-
eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed

ARRANGEMENTS FOR FRUIT DRYING 53j^

to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch
wide on the other side. A cross-section of this tray is shown at B.
Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and
trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays,
three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed
These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes
and thence to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it
possible to handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost.

Protecting Fruit from Dew. — In the interior there is seldom any
deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are early
rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected
by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick
cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at
night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus
reducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon
it.

Drying Floors. — For the most part the trays are laid directly on
the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to
support them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying
trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard,
thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others
clear off a large space outside the plantation and spread the trays
where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be
selected at a distance from traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of
dust on the fruit.

Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year and are
weed-covered and unsightly during the rainy season, or are culti-
vated for grain-hay which loosens the surface and deepens the dust.
When one has water for irrigation it is often practicable to reduce
dust and secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the
piece down in alfalfa. Mr. P. F. Gannon of Yolo county proceeded
in this way. He lowered the tramway tracks to the ground level,
and turned up a furrow on the sides to hold the water from flooding
the adjacent ground. In the fall, after the fruit-drying was over,
he flooded the space, which is a little over half an acre (125 by 225
feet). Then it was disked both ways and leveled and harrowed
and planted to alfalfa before the rains. The land was moist at the
time and the seed came up and the plants grew more or less through
the winter. In April he cut the first crop. Just before the space
is needed for a drying yard, make another cutting, about June 20,
cutting it down close and raking it clean. The yard is then ready
for the trays and fruit. When the drying season is over the yard
is cleared, and the space then is as clean as a clay floor, from being
used so much. In three weeks the top of the ground is green all
over, and before the rains come there is another cutting crop, mak-
ing three crops a year, a ton at each cutting. So something is made

coo CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

from the space and the dust problem is solved, which means clean
fruit and better prices.

Grading. — It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit
on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting
is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very
cheaply and quickly.*

Cutting-Sheds. — Shelter of some kind is always provided for the
fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of
poles and beams, upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch ;
sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof, and sometimes a
finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story open-
ing with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above,
where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale.
The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste
and purse of the producer will answer the purpose.

Sulphuring. — The regulations promulgated under the pure food
law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to
the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which
was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and
otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their pro-
test the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely postponed,
pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1908.

From the point of view of the California producer it must be
held that before the employment of the sulphur process, California
cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They
were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by con-
tent of insect life. They had no value which would induce produc-
tion and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit
in boxes or small ''houses," with the fumes of burning sulphur,
made it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the
evaporation of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry
air of the California summer. It also prevented souring, which
with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open air dry-
ing, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying
process. By the use of sulphur and by no other agency has it been
possible to lift the production of cured fruits of certain kinds from
a low-value haphazard by-product to a primary product for which
Californians have planted orchards, constructed packing houses and
made a name in the world's markets.

The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it
facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required
therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feas-
ibility of curing fruits in larger- pieces. The grand half-peaches,
half-apricots, half-pears of the California cured fruits are the direct

* See under "plums and prunes," page 538.

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533

^3^ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

result of the sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut in
small sections or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an
uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice
to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved
that they lie in cut glass dishes in suggestive semblance to the finest
product of the canners, and are secured at a fraction of the cost.
There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur
fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage
of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon
trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six
feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a
little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the
whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed
so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some
push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the
back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes
may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and
forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the
bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur
burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the
interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight
chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of
matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron
pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on
paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on
the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit
in the ground under the cabinet. The application of sulphur must
be watchfully and carefully made, and the exposure of the fruit
should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The
exposure required differs with different fruits, and with the same
fruits in different conditions, as must be learned by experience.

Grading and Cleaning. — After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and
it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized excepi
by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into large
boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it mto a
revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces
together and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through
the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a
large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading it according to size
and color, and at the same time the dust and small articles of foreign
matter fall through the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning
grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with
proper arrangement of metal screens.

Sweating. — All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes
moist. This action should take place before packing. To facili-
tate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and

k

DIPPING AND PACKING rqk

urned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in
boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another.
The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some
large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which pre-
serve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed before "go-
ing through the sweat." If this is not done, discoloration and in-
jury will result.

Dipping Before Packing. — All fruits except prunes can be packed
in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not over-
dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is
just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken
from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit
moth can not reach it there is little danger of worms. The high-
est grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit
has been overdried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water
to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable
for the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit
allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered,
for twenty-four hours before packing.

Packing. — To open well, packages of dried fruit should be
"faced." The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned
by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be
packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apri-
cots, peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes'
wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the
fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the package is to contain.
It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flat-
tened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill
the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then
apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box
and put on the label or brand ; the bottom then becomes the top.

Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is
made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fif-
teen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five
pounds of fruit.

METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS

As already intimated, it will be impossible to enter minutely
into the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale,
or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work
is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on a large
scale should personally visit leading regions and inform himself
by inquiry and observation. Such an education will save mistakes,
which may cost many times more than the expense of getting it.

536 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

California producers are usually quite willing to show visitors the]
methods they employ. Though this is the better way of proceed-
ing, a few general hints will be given of methods with differenl
fruits.

Apples. — There seems little use of drying apples unless a vei
light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can b<
done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun drying in a dry region,
or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmos-
pheric humidity. Recently the product has largely increased in
such large producing regions as the Pajaro valley, and new labor
saving devices are being continually introduced.

Apricots. — Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft
enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber-
colored, semitranslucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method
of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best
product is hand picked. * Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely
around in the suture; do not cut part way round and then tear
apart — a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the
skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sul-
phur, and then put in the sun. About three days of interior-valley
sunshine will finish the apricots. Apricots will yield on the aver-
age one pound of dried fruit to five pounds of fresh.

Berries and Cherries. — These fruits are only dried in the sun
in small quantities for local sale, and ordinary farm-house meth-
ods are employed.

Figs.* The fruit may be carefully picked from the tree so as
to secure the whole of the stem, when the fruit is fully ripe, as is
known by the seaming or slight shriveling of the skin. In drying
the common black fig from large trees, however, the fruit is gen-
erally gathered from the ground, which, is cleaned and smoothed
before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the fruit is placed on-
trays and in most cases exposed to the sun, but some foot-hill
growers maintain the advantage of drying in the shade. The figs
should not be allowed to dry hard. When sufficiently cured, put
in sweat-boxes for several days, and when ready to pack dip in
boiling salt water, or, as is the practice of some producers, dip in
a thin syrup, boiling hot. In either method a good, pliable condi-
tion and handsome color are obtained. In drying white figs many
sulphur the fruit from fifteen minutes to an hour before putting
out on the trays. Figs which dry slowly have to be turned several
times during the drying, and those which are apt to run juice are
placed so that the eye is raised a little until the juice is thickened.

*A special illustrated account of handling dried figs in California is given in "The
Smyrna Fig at Home and Abroad," by George C. Roeding-, Fresno, Cal.

CURING PEACHES AND PEARS

537

The white figs are also put in sweat-boxes and dipped in hot salt
water before packing. In packing, the figs are often flattened and
drawn out by the hand. Such manipulation gives the fig a lighter and
more translucent appearance. The time required in drying figs is
usually from five to eight or ten days, according to location and
weather. The fruit does not cure evenly, and those which are fin-
ished (as determined by sight and touch — to be learned by expe-
rience) are picked from the trays, and others given more time.

A California Sunshine Evaporator.

Pears. — The dried pear product is increasing, and, as with apples,
only a light-colored product is profitable. These are made by sul-
phuring and sun drying, or by the use of the machine drier. For
sun drying the fruit of medium size is halved, the large fruit being
quartered.

Peaches. — Peaches are sun dried in much the same way as apri-
cots, already described. Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but

I53g CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

not mushy; cut cleanly all around to ex^tract the pit and put on trays
cup side up ; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cut-
ting. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying with-
out peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is done with the small paring
machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally
abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing, al-
though it can be successfully done by frequently changing the lye
and using ample quantities of fresh water for rinsing after dipping.

Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives
and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives.
Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit dis-
tricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences.

The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a cer-
tain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some varieties
yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than
freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one
pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy
fruit may require six or seven pounds.

Nectarines. — Nectarines are handled like peaches; the produc-
tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful
use of sulphur.

Plums and Prunes. — Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit,
are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is in-
creasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot-power
"pitters." More rapid and capacious machines are being brought
out by inventors.

Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising products.
Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in
making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the pre-
vailing variety is the Prune d'Agen.

Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon
sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light- shak-
ings which cause only the ripe specimens to fall.

Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home-
made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of
adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than
prunes ; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom,
while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other
grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of different
sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the principle of a fanning
mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another, each wuth a
slight incline and a spout on the side where each grade
drops into a box. Some have a long riddle, say twelve
feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it.

THE CALIFORNIA WAY WITH PRUNES

539

This riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are
thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and
fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of
screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt through, and no
prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes
after drying. There are now several excellent manufactured fruit
graders on sale in this State. Their work is very satisfactory,
and they have largely displaced home-made contrivances.

The next step in the process ia dipping in lye to thin and crack
the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying pro-
cess. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of con-
centrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept boiling
hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with
perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for about
a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance, then the
basket is plunged into clean cold water to rinse off the lye. This
rinsing water must be frequently changed, for it soon becomes very
alkaline. Some begin with a stronger lye solution, one pound to
ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short dip in stronger lye
is better than long exposure in a weaker solution. After this dip-
ping, the prunes are placed on trays. In the sun the prune dries
sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the situation
and weather.

A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them
to roll over needle points has also been employed to some extent.
There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for contin-
uous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that
the fruit is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no
branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there been greater advance
in labor-saving devices than in prune handling.

When sufficiently dried the prunes are put through the "sweat,"
which takes from several days to two or three weeks, and then
are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grading, the
prunes are separated by the use of a grader, as already described,
into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and
so on, fifty, sixty, etc., to the smallest, which may run one hundred
or more to the pound. Finishing consists in exposing to steam,
in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in
boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or apples, etc. Although
there is a great variety of materials used for ''glossing" prunes by
different producers, the prevailing practice is to rely upon hot
water, to which pure glycerine is added at the rate of one pound
to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little brine (having
first dissolved the salt and skimmed off the impurities). This final
hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying off away from
the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes.

540 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based
upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara valley :

Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the
trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until
prunes are soft to the touch. These two rules are productive of nice black
prunes. They may not be black when gathered in the bins but will color with
age, without any foreign coloring matter.

Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and do
not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better
to let the prunes lie on the ground under the tree for several days than to
let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night.

The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in
unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot
is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip
is hot enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a
few days, become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes a few on a
tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point
all through the dip, two pounds of lye to the lOO gallons of water may be
sufficient. If the water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to the lOO gallons of
water may be required.

Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the tray.
Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hana
quickly, if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit
should be placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays.

When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them in a dry place where it will
not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the
wind have free access until the rains set in, then close doors and make the
house as snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and
the bins well above ground, or you will have trouble. Do not let prunes
get damaged by rain.

For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip — about five pounds of salt
to 100 gallons of water is about right. This salt dip can be used more safely
for prunes than for peaches or other pitted fruit, as in some instances it has
attracted moisture and caused mold. As to the respective results of a salt
solution and glycerine solution, the salt seems to be a cleansing process, which
leaves the skin of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue
bloom, which is desirable. The glycerine is more of a syrupy or glossy nature,
and on prunes that are inclined to be reddish this solution can be used to ad-
vantage. A common method of treating prunes is to use the small prunes and
suspend them in the steam-heated tank of the Anderson dipper, where they
can not come in contact with the steam (which causes the skin and meat ol
the prune to turn dark), dissolve out the juice, thus forming a dip liquor, and
this is quite extensively used.

Raisins. — The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described
in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such
an extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes
employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that
a description of them can not be attempted. Besides, an excellent
special treatise has been written on this subject.* However, in
beginning the commercial production of raisins, one should visit
the raisin farms and packing-houses during the harvest. The fol-
lowing description by T. C. White, of Fresno, gives an outline of
practise in the vineyard :

In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there
have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes

CURING RAISINS

541

under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There
are three ways by which to ascertain this fact : First, by the color, which
should be a light amber; second, by the taste; and third, by the saccharometer,
which is by far the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the
proper color, when grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should
contain at least twenty-five per cent saccharine, to, produce a good raisin.

The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground. The almost
entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays
are usually twenty-four by twenty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds
of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product
of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying
from two to nine tons of grapes per acre.

The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are
taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the
vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the
bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has
what is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the
stems exposed than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so
as to handle the bunches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact
with the hands, some of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the
appearance of the raisins. The trays are placed, after filling, between the vines,
one end being elevated so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays
of the sun.

Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until
about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be from six to eight days. They are
then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the
one filled with partially-dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take
off the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without han-
dling or damage. After turning, curing will proceed more rapidly, and fre-
quently is completed in four or five days. During this time they should be
carefully watched to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found
they are dry enough, the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as
high as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from the
sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should be attended to early in the
morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night
air, as they will retain this moisture after being transferred to the sweat-boxes,
and assist in quickening the sweating process.

As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the bunch
will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the
moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave them out
longer would shrivel the dry ones, hence the sweat-box. The moisture is dif-
fused through the box, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems
also taking their share are thus rendered tough and pliable and easily manipu-
lated when ready for packing.

Sorting and grading require great care and judgment, and although a tedious
process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger
than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred
and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat-
boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal
distance as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the
tangling of the stems and consequent breaking of the bunches when removed for
packing.

The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second and third quali-
ties, as the grade will justify. The bunches should be handled by the stem and
placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid breaking the stems, thereby de-
stroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are returned
to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit
is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it
gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem
end — if water, it requires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are
taken to the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air-
tight as possible, but provided with windows to allow ventilation when necessary.
The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes are placed

542 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

one exactly above another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten
to twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating
process. When the raisins are sufficiently equalized, the sweat-boxes are re-
moved to the packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc.

The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters.
Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities.
Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer
and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems,
and the grader, by separating according to size, determines the
grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has in-
creased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with very
ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins constitute
a considerable portion of the product.

A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the
Sultana and Thompson seedless grapes and of loose or inferior
Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to twelve gal-
lons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The
ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for
a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm,
dry weather in the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade b}'
leaving the trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails,
the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber
color.

An oil dip has been profitably used with Thompson's Seedless:

One quart olive oil; ^ pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts
water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gal-
lons water in the dipping tank, adding more soda to get lye-strength
enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time
to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this
solution and sulphured to the proper color.

GRAPE SYRUP

The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of con-
siderable prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has
recently received less attention because of low prices in competi-
tion with the vast amount of syrup available for the sugar refin-
eries.

MACHINE EVAPORATION

Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and
dry air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly
all our product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are
some parts of the State where artificial heat would be a safer re-
course and there are late fruits which sometimes collide with early
rains in a way to cause losses even in our best sun-curing regions.

5^4 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

It is interesting, therefore, to describe a machine evaporator con-
structed upon true principles and having a capacity sufficiently large
to encourage its use. Mr. L. W. Parsons of Campbell, Santa Clara
county, has given most of his life to the design and construction of
fruit evaporators, and secured patents thereupon which have ex-
pired and are now public property. In the Pacific Rural Press of
June 19 and 26, 1909, he gave his conclusions on the desirability
of machine evaporation and a design for the construction of an
evaporator which embodied all his best work in this line. The ac-
companying drawings and description are from Mr. Parson's writ-
ings :

A fruit drying chamber capable of holding about two tons is about as large
as one heater can well handle. Wire trays two feet wide by five feet long
are as large as one strong man can conveniently handle; he might prefer them
shorter; in fact, if the smaller tray would give a drier with sufficient capacity
to meet the demands of the owner, he could make the trays two by four feet,
with a narrower furnace, to correspond. Where two men are always avail-
able, trays three by six feet have been found to work well.

A drier five feet wide and twenty-four feet long, having ten trays in its
length and twelve trays high, holds 120 trays 2 by 5 feet, or a total drying
surface of 1,200 square feet, which at the rate of 3 pounds per foot give a
total of 3,600 pounds at one time : that is, it would take that much gross
weight of fruit before cutting to fill the trays. Large fruit would amount to
more, and small fruit or culls might not go above two pounds to the foot.

By making the drier one or two trays longer and higher, and a foot or so
wider, the capacity may be materially increased. But if much more capacity is
desired, it would be better to build another drier, or several of them, alongside
of it, which would work satisfactorily.

The fruit drying chamber rests on top of the hot air chamber, which is
surrounded by brick or cement walls about eight inches thick, and is as long
and wide as the fruit chamber above. The height of these walls depends on
the size and shape of the heater enclosed by them. The furnace is a very im-
portant factor: it must be strong, not easily burned out, smoke-tight in all
rts joints and flues, with caps or covers so placed to facilitate cleaning out
soot and ashes. There must be room between the sides of the furnace and
the. side walls to allow for circulation of the air to be heated.

Fresh air enters this hot air chamber through openings about a foot square .
at the bottom in front between the furnace and the side walls ; passes along
on the sides and top of furnace and flues until it reaches the back end of the
hot air chamber, where it passes up through an opening into the fruit chamber
above.

The next, and perhaps the most critical, part in the construction, is the
sheet iron floor which covers the furnace and flues and separates them from
the fruit chamber above. This iron floor is made of either black or galvanized
iron, not thinner than No. 24; thicker would be better. It rests on rods or
bars of angle or T iron stretched from wall to wall, with ends built into the
walls. These rods are spaced about two feet apart. The sheets of iron should
be riveted or bolted together. The edges of this iron floor should project into
and be imbedded in the brick walls in front and along the two side walls as
far back as the floor goes to the other end of the drier. Cover this floor
with an inch or so of sand or fine earth, so as to stop up all cracks. At the
back end of drier this iron floor is cut short one foot, allowing an opening of
one by about five feet to allow the hot air from the heater below the iron
floor to pass up into the fruit chamber above. This floor must be made tight
everywhere, so no hot air can possibly leak upward and scorch the fruit or the
woodwork above.

The brick walls should be built about eighteen incheg above the iron floor,
so that the wooden frame which rests on top will be safe from burning.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR BUILDING EVAPORATOR 545

The furnace may be about four feet high by three feet wide, with an ash
pit in the bottom part, and six or eight or more feet long. This will handle
four-foot cordwood conveniently and make a liberal combustion chamber for
the flames. It may be a cylinder or shaped like a boiler, or have brick walls,
with a cast iron arch on top. Or it may be a big wrought iron box made of
quarter-inch boiler iron, braced with angle iron to prevent warping.

A smoke pipe one foot in diameter connects with the back end of the fur-
nace, passes horizontally to near the back end of the drier, then by a short
elbow doubles back, coming to the front over the top of the furnace, and then,
by an elbow, to right or left through the side brick wall to connect with the
pipe inside of the ventilator shaft or flue.

If the furnace is four feet high and the pipe above it one foot thick, allow
six inches space between the top of the furnace and the pipe and between
the pipe and the sheet-iron floor above it; then add the eighteen inches of brick
wall above the iron floor ; we get a total height of seven and a half feet from
the ground to top of wall.

But only the furnace needs to be as deep as this, and it can be placed in a
pit at one end of the drier. The brick walls back of the furnace do not need
to go so far down by perhaps two feet. The smoke pipe leaving the furnace
close to its top can rest on a brick lying on top of the ground, so the part of
the heating chamber holding the long flues may be shallower, thus saving
some expense in masonry. The top of the brick wall should be level all the
way around and even with the floor of the house, so the operator can easily
handle the trays on the upper track. Do not insert woodwork of any kind into
the brickword.

Lay 2x4 inch sills on top of the brick walls all around the four sides. Cut
your upright studding of 2x4 joists six and a half feet high, spaced two feet
apart, and nail a 2:^4 plate on top. This is for the two long sides. The ends
of the drying chamber are to be supplied with close-fitting doors. Nail sur-
faced matched lumber on the inner face of the studding. These boards had
better be of redwood, so as not to gum up the trays with pitch.

These two side walls should be perfectly straight, plumb and level and at
equal distance apart at all points, so the trays will work true and not bind or
slip off the tracks. Nail to these walls tracks or slides made of strips one
and one-half inches square. Fasten to these tracks wheels, known to the hard-
ware men as "sash rollers," one inch in diameter and spaced ten inches apart
along the track. Cut a little notch in the edge of the track, so the wheel can
turn freely, with the big side of the wheel upward. Put twelve of these tracks
on each wall, spaced six inches apart, beginning six inches from the ceiling to
the top of the first track, then six inches to top of next track, etc. One strong
16 penny wire nail driven into each stud will hold these tracks securely. Fasten
the wheels with screws to the track on a work bench before nailing them to
the walls.

Nail matched lumber on top of the plates from side to side for a ceiling.
This wooden shell will have to be braced from the outside so it can stand
up firmly with its load of fruit.

The ventilator or exhaust flue should be about two by three feet inside
and extend about twenty feet above the top of the drier. Build it against the
side o"f the drier, resting on top of the brick wall, close to the front end of
the drier.

The smoke pipe must be carried by a suitable elbow from its position above
the furnace through the side brick wall to a point under the center of the
ventilator, thence up through it to the top. A sheet-iron weather cap on top
should protect the ventilator and smoke pipe. Make the bottom of the ven-
tilator where smoke pipe enters, air tight to ensure good draft. Provide caps
or covers at the elbows to facilitate cleaning out the soot.

On the side of the drying chamber, at the bottom, cut a hole into the ven-
tilator for the passage of the damp air from the fruit into the ventilator. This
opening should be the shape of a right angled triangle, in such position as
though the bottom cover of the side wall were being cut off. The bottom and
perpendicular side of opening are to be three feet long. The lower tracks go
past this opening to carry trays to the door. Some kind of a small guide
rail should be placed to prevent the corners of the trays from striking against
the edge of opening. The trays are to be one-half inch shorter than the drier

546 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is wide inside, so as to move freely without danger of being bound. Two
or three rods of half-inch iron provided with screws and nuts should pass
through from side to side of drying chamber about half way from top to
bottom, to prevent the walls of the drier from warping or bulging, or else
the trays will drop off the tracks.

Make four sides of the trays of stuff one and a half inches square, notched
r.t the corners of trays. Tack on No. 3 mesh galvanized wire cloth. Over
this nail strips one inch thick by one and a half inches wide for runners to
roll over the wheels. Nail a similar strip across the middle of the tray to
prevent the wire cloth from sagging. From twenty-five to fifty extra trays will
be found convenient in operating the drier. The wire cloth is two feet wide.
Make the tray frames two feet one inch wide. With average prices for labor
and material this drien can be built in a substantial manner for about $500.

To Operate the Drier. — Get started right by taking all day in grad-
ually filling the drier, so that by night time the first trays will be within a few
hours of being finished. Start a good fire before putting in the fruit, so as
to burn out the oily smells of the new ironwork. Use the eight lower tracks
for the fresh fruit. Put eight trays in at a time, one tray on each of the eight
lower tracks about every ^ty-five minutes, starting them at the front end
oyer the furnace and pushing along. After ten lots have been so placed the
eight lower tracks will be full. Then take out one tray from each track at the
back end and put them in on the upper four tracks, two trays on a track, to
be gradually pushed along from time to time, as often as fresh trays are put
in at the front, until the machine is full and the dryest trays will be at the
front end on the upper four tracks. The fresh, wet fruit will in this way have
its vapor drawn out through the ventilator close by, without wetting the fruit
which is partly dry.

As the fruit gets dryer it is moved into dryer and warmer air at the back
end. But this fresh air right from the heater below is 180 degrees hot and
unsafe for fruit to finish in, so it is started back on the upper tracks' to finish
in a milder temperature, with enough vapor in the air to allow tne iruit to
finish gradually without danger of scorching, turning out the fruit in a soft and
flexible condition, evenly cured and right in color. This process is peculiar to
this evaporator and yields the best results in quality of work done.

If fruit is rushed too fast through the drier it will get back to the front
and top too soon and will be too wet to dry readily in the lower temperature.

If the beginner gets caught this way, it will be better, after waiting a little,
to take it out, and, if still too wet, carry it back to the other end and put
in on the upper four tracks again to gradually go forward again. After a little
experience he will learn how and when to move the fruit.

As to variations of heat in different parts of the drier and the effects thereof,
it may be added that the thermometer hanging in the current of air just as it
strikes the fruit may register 190 degrees and do no harm, for the fruit at that
end of the drier has enough moisture to save it. The air cools rapidly, and
when it reaches the other end of the drier where the fruit on the top tracks
is nearly dry, the temperature will be about 40 degrees cooler. This is one
of the most valuable points in this evaporator, finishing the fruit in a lower
temperature and yet with but Httle moisture in the air.

Wood or coal fires will fluctuate in heat, and a careless operator might allow
the temperature to get to 200 or 210 degrees, but if^ it does not last more than
a few minutes, and as the fruit is not too near being finished at the exposed
end, no harm is done. A thermometer resting on the tray at the back end
lying between the fruit will show about 10 degrees lower temperature than when
hanging clear in the draft at that point.

While drying the trays should not touch the ends of the drier, but be pushed
back about a foot and a half from the doors to allow room for free circulation
of air at the back end of drier and down at the front end. It takes sixteen
to twenty-four hours to dry the fruit, according to kind and size. Apples are
dried in six to eight hours.

The furnace may be made to use any fuel. An oil burner is the best, because
the heat can be kept steadily at the maximum.

PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION

CHAPTER XXXIX
CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS

The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long,
mild, growing season also enables some insects to multiply much
more rapidly than they do in wintry climes; some having several
distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and
destruction of plants nearly the year round. The difficulties of the
problem of the control of injurious insects are constantly being
increased because new pests, in spite of the most careful efforts to
keep them outside our boundaries, occasionally find their way into
our orchards and vineyards. Furthermore native species, feeding,
unnoticed perhaps, upon wild growths have found, in certain in-
stances, that cultivated plants offer to them most satisfactory food
and then suddenly become a factor in the horticulturists' problem.

Undoubtedly parasitic and predaceous insects preying upon the
injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in
greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service
is being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from
other parts of the world. There are many of our native species of
insects, also syrphus and ichneumon flies, lady birds, etc., that arc
valuable in this regard. Other factors also, such as untoward weath-
er-conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases
of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his warfare against inju-
rious insects. It is also a fact that California conditions have de-
manded and favored the development of ways and means for the
suppression of orchard and vineyard pests, and methods and ap-
pliances have been invented which have demonstrated notable effi-
ciency and value.

While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California
is quite extensive, much of it is beyond the reach of the general
reader. Nevertheless there are a number of publications which
should be secured and studied by every fruit grower. These are
the bulletins and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of
the University of California, at Berkeley; of the State Board of

*I am indebted to Mr. W. T. Clarke, assistant professor of Horticulture of the
University of California, Berkeley, for careful revision and extension of this chapter,

547

548 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Horticulture, at Sacramento ; and of the Bureau of Entomology of
the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington. A
most useful addition to the horticulturist's library will be found in
Kellogg's "American Insects," published by Henry Holt and Com-
pany, New York. This excellent work of Professor Vernon Kel-
iog&» of Stanford University, is particularly valuable because of its
California observations and point of view. Furthermore as the
study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruc-
tion are continually progressing one can only keep himself up
to date and enable himself to profit by improvements, by diligent
reading of California periodicals devoted to practical horticulture.

CLASSES OF INSECTS

In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular
way, the grouping here will be based upon the character of the
work they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writ-
ers and is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which
prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom
restrict themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the group-
ing will be as follows :

(1) Insects destroying foliage;

.(2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit ;

(3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root;

(4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits.

INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE

Cut Worms and Army Worms.* — These are the larvae of Noc-
tuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and
do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms
are terms applied tO the same insects in California. In ordinary
years they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much con-
cern, and in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When
all conditions are favorable, however, certain species develop in
enormous numbers and having exhausted the food supply where
they breed, they begin to migrate or march, commonly in a definite
direction, as an army in search of new food. When they thus ap-
pear in such large numbers and take on the migrating habit they
are called army worms.

Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climbing up vines and
trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called
climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the

*Adapted from Bulletin 192, Agr. Exp. Station, University California, Berkeley.

CUT WORMS AND ARMY WORMS

549

ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are
more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently at-
tack cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the
previous year.

Army worm (Heliophila unipuncta).

Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms,
poisoned bait is probably the most common. This consists of bran
and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and
distributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as
follows : forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and
five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent
the mixture from drying. This will be eaten by the worms in prefer-
ence, usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect.

Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of
traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining
concealed during the day, pieces of boards may be placed on the
ground around the growth to be protected and these may be turned
over during the day and the worms killed.

In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and
successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the
orchard or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they
are discovered in time or if already in one portion they can be
kept from spreading over the rest of the property. They travel
in immense numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from
an adjoining or nearby grain field. If a furrow is plowed along
the side of the place to be protected it will effectively stop their
progress. This furrow should be plowed as deep as possible, with

550

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It can be further
trimmed with a spade, preferably cutting under slightly, making a
smooth surface, over which few if any, of the worms will make
their way. Above this shoulder fine pulverized earth should slope
as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in
climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will
be pretty sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an
attempt to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should
be dug on the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty

Moths of cut worms.

feet.

The worms in failing to scale the vertical side of the furrow

will crawl along in the bottom and fall into these holes. Here
they may be killed by pouring in a little crude oil, or by pouring in
a little distillate and dropping in a match, thus burning them, or
the holes filled in and others dug. They may also be killed in the
furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or by pouring a strip
of crude oil along the furrow.

Canker Worms. — These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars,
commonly known also as inch- worms, loopers or measuring worms,
because of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about.
The male moths are slender bodied and have broad thin wings,
while the females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures.

While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by
spraying with lead arsenate or Paris green, it is by far the best to

CANKER WORMS

551

use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the
trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact
that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in
the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and
places her eggs upon the twigs. By trapping the females on their
way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and
the caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps
are made thus: Take No. 16 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six
inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the
tree over a bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint
tight. The lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree
all around. This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the
moths are active.

Home and work of the tent caterpillar.

Tent Caterpillars. — Several species of hairy caterpillars called
"tent caterpillars," or "web worms," from their spinning covers of
cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large col-
onies; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though

552 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting
off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the
colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying
the foliage with lead arsenate or Paris green. The pest can be
reduced while pruning by carefully collecting and burning the egg
clusters, which encircle the twig.

Red-Humped Caterpillar. — Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but
having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in
clusters ; of reddish color with yellow and white lines ; a short dis-
tance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which
are four black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body,
but smaller than those on the back. Spray with lead arsenate or
Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies.

Caterpillar of Tussock Moth. — A conspicuous caterpillar with
four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes
at the front, and one at the rear of the body — see engraving. This
leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and sometimes on other
fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars are pecu-

The tussock-moth larva, the so-called horned caterpillar. (Somewhat

enlarged.)

liarly resistant to arsenical sprays and can not be successfully con-
trolled by these. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold
of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark,
or even on adjacent buildings or fences, and the female, after
emerging from the cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of
it. The engravings show caterpillars and their peculiar markings.
The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized in the egg form and
prevented from wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the
egg masses during pruning, as they are white and very conspic-
uous.*

•^See Bulletin 183, University of California, College of Agriculture.

SLUGS AND BEETLES 55g

Pear and Cherry Slug. — A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with
the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating
the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes
through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road
dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime
of the worm and destroys it. On a large scale an arsenate of lead
or Paris green spray is best.

Saw-Fly Worms. — There are several larvae of saw-flies which
do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole
leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not
slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half
an inch when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are
shown by the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsen-
ate of lead or Paris green spray.

Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines.f — The grape-vine is often
seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two
inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or
spine, sometimes without. They are larvae of several species of
Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can
be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The numbers
of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths which are
abundant at nightfall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers.
These worms are related to the other large caterpillars which feed
on tobacco, tomatoes, etc.

Leaf Eating Beetles. — There are many beetles, large and small,
which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of
arsenate of lead or Paris green, or those which drop to the ground
when disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread
below.

The most notable of these because of its evil work in the cen-
tral part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of
the vine causing it to be called the "grape root worm," and the
beetle riddles the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vitis and
a special study of it has been made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the
University Experiment Station, the results of which are published
in Bulletin 195 of the station and remedies suggested. Our pictures
will enable the reader to recognize the beetle and its work. The
beetle is about one-fifth of an inch in length and is black or brown.

tSee Bulletin 192, University of California, Agricultural Experiment Station.

554

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES
OR FRUIT

Leaf Lice. — Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple and plum,
are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different
colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings
and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are
the kerosene emulsions and other mixtures which will be given
later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which
sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves.
Very often these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and
other insects which devour them. The engraving shows the gen-
eral form of the aphis tribe.

Larvae of tussock-moth feeding on apple foliage and fruit.

Thrips. — Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and blos-
soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and
plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and
fall off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When
thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the
insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is
done by the insect and thorough investigation was pursued by the
Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture,
by Mr. Dudley F. Moulton, who in 1909 became Deputy Horticul-
tural Commissioner of California. Mr. Moulton's publication of

THRIPS AND VINE HOPPERS

555

his results* indicates that the insect is capable of control by spring
spraying by the use of a two per cent distillate emulsion to which
Black Leaf Tobacco Extract is added at the rate of one part of
extract to sixty parts of emulsion. This spray can be applied with
safety to opening buds, but should not be used on trees in full
bloom, and its use can be resumed immediately after the blossoms
have fallen, and later on the foliage for adults and larvae. The first
application should properly be made when the thrips are coming
from the ground in maximum numbers and before the cluster buds
are too far advanced. This period in the San Jose district is early
in March, but it of course diflfers for the several varieties of fruits.
An effort should be made to kill all adults in an orchard before
March 15, when practically all thrips are out of the ground and
when egg-laying on the stems of leaves or bloom begins.

M ■ /

Adult of the grape root-worm — greatly enlarged.

Vine Hoppers. — Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects in-
festing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rap-
idly. The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is
the most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the
grape insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious num-
bers, however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys.
It is also present in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient num-

"Bulletin 80, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture.

556

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

bers to do much injury. Another larger species (Tcttigonia atro-
punctata) occurs in these localities and sometimes does considerable
injury in the early part of the season. The principal injury caused
by this insect is due to the extraction of the plant juices. These
are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or proboscis, which is in-
serted into the plant tissues.

The most satisfactory method of control is in the use of a
hopper cage to be used in the early spring when the young shoots
of the vine are about four or five inches long.

The vine hopper cage.

The hopper cage, shown in an adjacent engraving, consists of a
framework of laths over which is tacked a double layer of mos-
quito wire netting or a single 20-mesh wire screen. The bottom
consists of a shallow pan or tray made by turning up about an inch
of the edges of a sheet of light galvanized iron. One entire side
of the cage is left open, and there is a V-shaped opening in the
tray at the bottom which allows the cage to be pushed over the
vine. The base of the V-shaped opening in the bottom is padded
with leather and the vine is bumped and the hoppers jarred oft,
at the same time that the cage is being swung into position. The
sides of the cage and the tray at the bottom are smeared with crude
oil, and the hoppers as they are jarred off are caught in the oil.

THE GRAPE ADOXUS

557

If there is a breeze blowing the cage can be operated with the
open side facing the wind and practically no hoppers will escape.
If, however, the day is calm and-warm and the hoppers are parti-
cularly active a curtain can readily be dropped over the open side
as the cage is pushed on to the vine, and it will prevent any from
escaping.

The V-shaped opening which might allow hoppers to drop to
the ground in front of the vine can be covered with canvas, as fol-
lows : Take two pieces of canvas about the shape of the opening
and a little wider. Double this once on itself and between the two
layers sew in pieces of three-fourths inch rubber tubing trans-
versely. These are then firmly tacked on the sides of the opening
as shown in the engraving. This will allow the cage to be pushed
in on the vine and the flexibility of the tubing will bring the can-
vas immediately into position again. This with the curtain in
front, shuts of¥ all possibility of escape.

False Chinch-Bugs. — Small, grayish-brown insects (about one-
eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine

Grape leaf showing characteristic work of the adoxus beetle.

558

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and
may be caught as just described for vine hoppers.

Grasshoppers. — These pests often invade orchard and vineyard,
and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating
them. This' plague has been successfully met by the use of the
arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows : Forty pounds of
bran, two gallons of cheap syrup, five pounds of arsenic, mixed soft
with water; a tablespoonful thrown by the side of each vine or
tree. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison
not eaten may be afterward gathered up and saved.*

Red Spider and Other Mites. — Very minute insects, usually dis-
cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the
leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads
upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are con-
spicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially
the almond, prune*, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby-
red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast
numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the
finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill,
and treatment is most effective when applied in the spring and
summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is
a thorough dusting of the trees with sulphur. On a large scale the
sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the
broad-cast barley sower or with the sulphur machines specially
made for this purpose. On a small scale it may be applied with -x
bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at
the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays have been found most effective
in controlling the red spider. The ingredients of the sulphur sprays
are as prepared as follows :

Flour Paste. — Take one pound of wheat flour to one gallon of
water. Place the flour in a box with a screen bottom (common
window screening), and pour the water through it, until all the
flour has been washed into the receiving vessel. It will then be
finely divided and free from lumps. The mixture should then be
brought to the boiling point, being stirred constantly, thus form-
ing a thin paste, without lumps.

The paste is conveniently made in 20-gallon lots, using the com-
mon 25-gallon kettles so often found on California ranches; if
large kettles are not available, the paste can be boiled in less water
and then diluted to the above proportions before cooling. The
paste should be strained before using.

♦For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary
to resort to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them
upon adjoining fields. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142, 170
and 192, University Experiment Station, Berkeley.

RED SPIDER SPRAYS

559

Sulfid of Potash Stock Solution. — Granulated, or powdered con-
centrated lye, 15 pounds; sulphur, 18 pounds; water to make 20
gallons. Stir the sulphur and lye together in a vessel which will

Hawk Moth larva. (Philampeles achemon Drury).

allow plenty of room for boiling. When well mixed, add about
one pint of water, placing it in a slight hollow in the mixture, and
stir in slowly. The mixture will soon begin to melt and boil, form-
ing a red fluid ; stir until the boiling ceases, and then add water to

Hawk moth (Philampeles achemon Drury).

5gQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

make 20 gallons. This stock solution will keep for awhile, or in-
definitely when protected from the air.

Preparation of the Spray Mixture with Sulfid of 'I'otash. — Place
10 to 15 pounds of sublimed sulphur, or 14 to 20 pounds of ground
sulphur in the spray tank with 4 gallons of flour paste and 1 to 2
gallons of the sulfid of potash stock solution ; add water to make
100 gallons. For summer or spring spraying after the danger of
rains is over, the minimum amount of sulphur is sufficient.

Winged male.

Wingless partheno-genetic female. Wingless female.

Forms of Aphids or Plant Lice.

Phylloxera. — This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to
the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this
State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No
remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using
roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The
insects are recognized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow
lice, chiefly on the rootlets. Full account of the insect is given in
Bulletin 192, University of California Experiment Station.

THE SAN JOSE SCALE

561

The Woolly Aphis. — A louse of dark red color, occurring in
groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the
bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest
of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are
practically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and
top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that
the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use
of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been benefi-
cial. Removing the 'earth from the root-crown and applying from
two to five pounds of tobacco dust — a refuse from cigar factories —
destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the effective life of
the tree. The insect on the branches and twigs can be reduced by
spraying with the summer washes soon to be given for scale in-
sects, or the clusters of the insect can be touched with a swab
dipped in gasoline or benzine, but the oil should not be allowed to
spread upon the bark. Lady-birds often clear away the woolly
aphis, after reproduction has fallen below the normal, from the tree
above ground. Some attention is being given to trial of resistant
roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used
here as in Australia. How such trees are grown is described on
page 226.

Scale Insects. — This is a large group of pests which occasion
greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests
combined. There* are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt
from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are
apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit
grower should study their life history and classification as laid
down in the works on entomology. It will only be possible in this
connection to introduce a few engravings, by which some of the
most prominent pests can be recognized, and to give some of the
remedies which are now being most successfully employed against
them.

San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus). — This was formerly one
of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying
on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the
energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has
become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disap-
peared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious.
The work of this species is generally readily distinguished from
other species of scale by the red blotches which are formed wher-
ever it stings any part of the tree — either, branch, leaf or fruit.
These red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in
others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes
a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. This
scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot
and certain varieties of cherries and plums are but little affected.

562

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Root injury by Phylloxera and forms of insect.

A healthy root; b, root on which the lice are working, representing the knots and
swellings caused by their punctures; c, root deserted by lice and beginning to decay;
d, d, d, show how the lice appear on the larger roots; e, the nymph; g, winged
female. After Riley.

The Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax). — This species affects many
kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one-
sixteenth of an inch in length; form, ovoid; color, drab; female,
bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast.
It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus perniciosus by its
whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter.
Generally this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as com-
pared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its
slow-breeding propensities.

Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lepidosaphes ulmi). — This scale af-
fects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing
to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the
scales to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved
form.

Rose and Berry Scale (Aulacaspis rosce). — This scale has such
striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white

VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS rgo

scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the
male. The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit bushes,
especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy : For raspberries
and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should
be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emul-
sion, recommended under the head of general remedies for scale
insects.

Oleander Scale. (Aspidiotus hederac.) — This scale is small, flat,
yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever-
greens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is some-
times completely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit
of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a
scale is found, a green blotch makes its appearance.

Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Chrysomphales aurantii). —
This scale affects citrus trees' in both the coast and interior regions.
The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in
diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of
trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resembling
those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf
presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale
contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are
but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely
covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale
gradually becomes sickly and languishes.

Other Citrus Tree Scales. — Two scales more recently brought
into this State from Florida are the "purple scale," Lepidosaphes
beskii, and the "long scale," Lepidosaphes gloverii. The red and pur-
ple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumiga-
tion with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treatment is an elaborate
one, requiring special appliances which are fully illustrated and
described in Bulletins 122, 152 and Circular 11, which can be had
free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at Ber-
keley.

The Black Scale (Saissetia olece). — This scale is almost a uni-
versal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it
has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley con-
ditions. It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as
well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut,
which renders tree and fruit unsightly; but this smut accompanies
other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially trouble-
some on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants
and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On
citrus trees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse.
On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying

564

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers
are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a
grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly.

The black scale (Saissetia oleae).

Black scale in mass form.

Soft Orange Scale {Coccus Hesperidum). — This scale is a pest
of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at
one end than the other; length, from one- twelfth to one-seventh of
an inch ; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown sur-
rounding margin ; it has two indentations on each side, and one on
posterior end. This scale prefers to collect on the under sides of
the leaves along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with
smut. It fortunately is usually held in check by natural agencies.

Brown Apricot Scale. — The apricot tree, though defying the
most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales.
The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The
brown apricot scale (Eulecaninm Armeniacum) is boat-shaped; when
reaching maturity, wrinkled ; the color is a shiny brown, darker in
the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length of
a quarter of an inch, and a width of one-eighth of an inch. This
scale attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the

VARIOUS SCALE INSECTS

565

prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about
the black scale apply to it also.

Brown apricot scale (Eulecanium armeniacum).

Other Lecaniums. — There are several other scales on fruit trees :
The filbert scale (hemisphericum) , which is common in greenhouses
and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees; the frosted scale
(pruinosum), very large, oval and convex, covered with dense,
whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees.

Hemispherical scale (Saissetia hemispherical).

Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale (Icerya purchasi). — This
promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its
rapid increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily
reduced by an Australian ladybird, Noviiis (Vedalia) cardinalis, in-
troduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens were
for a number of years rarely seen, but have recently become abun-
dant in some localities.

566

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Mealy Bugs. — Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs
(species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov-
ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common
species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the world, and in
California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and
has at various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by

Frosty scale (Eulecanium pruinosan).

natural enemies, the mealy bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass
themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black from
the fungus growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush presents
the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a
magnifier the appearance of the mealy bugs, as diflferent from scales
can be readily recognized.

Physokermes scale on cherry.

Remedies for Scale Insects. — Though most of the scale insects
are attacked by parasitic and predaceous insects, as already stated,
these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to
cope with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be
employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of
these washes, many of which will do good work if thoroughly
applied, which is usually the secret of success. A few which have
proved of special value will be given herewith :

REMEDIES FOR INSECTS 507

A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS

Lime Salt and Sulphur Remedy. — The following formula has been used with
great success throughout the State :

Lime 30 pounds

Sulphur 20 pounds

Salt 10 pounds

Water ; 60 gallons

For preparing the wash two vats or boilers are necessary, and if the spraying
is to be done on a large scale, one of these at least should hold a couple of
hundred gallons. If but a small number of trees are to be treated, ordinary
iron kettles will answer the purpose. Of course, the preferable way of cooking
the wash is by means of live steam.

First place two or three inches of water in the boiler, and to this add the
sulphur, which has previously been made into a paste by mixing with hot
water in order to remove the lumps, or sift the dry sulphur through a mos-
quito wire-netting and stir it thoroughly. Then add about one-fourth of the
lime, and when the violent boiling has ceased add another fourth, and so on
until the required amount of lime has been added. Hot water should be added
with the lime as needed, so as to make the mixture of a creamy consistency.
Too much water will "drown" the lime, while on the other hand too little will
cause incomplete slaking of the lime. In this way the heat generated by the
slaking of the lime is taken advantage of, and by adding the sulphur first plenty
of time is given for removing the lumps.

By the time the lime is thoroughly slaked the fire should continue the bon-
ing, so that the time of boiling begins with the addition of the lime. The salt
and about one-fourth of the water should now be added, and the whole boiled
from one to two hours, keeping it frequently stirred in the meantime. At the
end of this period screen into the spray tank and add the necessary amount
of hot water, and apply to the trees hot. The wash when properly made is a
heavy reddish-brown liquid, very caustic and having a strong sulphur odor.
The heavier materials settle upon standing, leaving a lighter liquid both in color
and weight. Stock solutions of lime-sulphur compound are now being furnished
ready for dilution by California manufacturers.

WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF

Kerosene Emulsion. — Take kerosene, two gallons ; common soap, or whale-oil
soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap in the water and
add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mixture by means of a force
pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms
a cream which thickens on cooling. Dilute before using, one part of the emul-
sion with nine parts of cold water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form
violent agitation is necessary, the time required depending upon the violence
of the agitation and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook's formula
is this: "Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by
heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir violently
from three to five minutes." This is best done by use of the force pump. This
mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never separate. Add seven pints
of water and the wash is ready for use.

Resin Soap. — Take ten pounds of resin, one and one-half pints of fish
oil, three pounds of caustic soda (76 per cent), and enough water to make
fifty gallons. Place all the ingredients together in the boiler with water enough
to cover them three or four inches. Boil one-half hour, or until the compound
resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water,
or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture
to be diluted to the full amount as used. When spraying, the mixture should
be perfectly fluid and without sediment. This mixture can be used twice or
three times as strong on deciduous trees when dormant.

568

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

A common outfit in California for cooking the lime, sulphur and salt.
INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT

Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm.* — This larva is probably
the most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has
had to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in
burrows in the crotches of the tree.

As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva be-
comes active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the
new growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later genera-
tions of the worm attack the fruit and from the two forms of attack
much loss may accrue to the orchardist.

Destruction of the larvae in their winter burrows overcomes all
damage from these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying
with the lime-sulphur compound in the late winter or very early
spring when the buds are expanding..

The Common Borer. — An insect which has done vast injury in
this State is the ''flat-headed apple borer" (chrysobothris femorata).
It affects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, etc., which have been
injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with a brown head,
the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured
beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the
under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by
sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works

*See Bulletin 144, University of California Experiment Station.

THE PEACH WORM

569

itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence.
The best remedy is prevention by protection from sunburn, as de-
scribed in Chapter XL Whenever a borer is removed, the debris
and dead wood should be entirely cleaned out and the smooth sur-

Peach twig showing winter burrow, naturaL size.

face left, taking care to preserve the bark as much as possible. Then
the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag
tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if
seriously attacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it.

Peach worm burrow laid open, showing how the worm begins its spring

work.

Sun-Scald Borer. — Another borer which delights in sunburned
trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin-
hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus xylographus).
The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark,
for this precedes the attack of the beetle.

570

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Olive Twig-Borer. — A reddish brown beetle boring into
twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils
of the leaves. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying
logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting .the fruit
trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree,
but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may
spoil the shape of a young tree. Remove the affected branches
below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to replace
a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the
hole stopped up — this to prevent decay and a weak branch follow-
ing. Spraying with ill-smelling solutions may prevent their attack,
but the insect has not been sufficiently abundant to invite serious
effort thus far.

Peach Crown-Borer. — A grub boring into peach trees just below
the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming.
The insect, which has become quite troublesome in Santa Clara
County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a
distinct species (Sanninoidea opalescens). The best methods of sup-
pressing this insect are three. A preventive treatment consists in
coating the base of the tree a few inches below the surface and a

A nearly full-grown larva of the Peach-tree Borer. Magnified four diameters.

foot above with a whitewash, with a pint of coal tar to each five
pounds of quicklime, put in while the lime is slacking. More
recently the application of asphaltum "grade D" has been made
with good results. This should be done in April. A killing treat-
ment which has proved effective and safe to the tree is carbon
bisulphide, when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these
precautions :

Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or just before
a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime and other pre-
ventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the tree. Procure a machine oiler
which will hold about eight ounces of carbon bisulphide, remove the soil around
the trunk of the tree about six inches wide and six inches deep, being sure
to detach all soil adhering to the trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill in
this space with loose soil to the level again. Now squirt the liquid a few times
from one to one and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and
cover immediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in from

VARIOUS BORERS 57j^

twenty hours to three days; after they are found to be dead, the soil should be
removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes of bisulphide can
be dissipated.

The method in most general use is known as the "worming process." This
consists essentially in carefully cutting out and killing the individual borers.
Special tools have been devised for this work. A full description of these
processes can be found in Bulletin 143, University of California, College of
Agriculture.

Strawberry Root-Borer. — The larva of another clear-winged
moth (Aegeria impropria), boring into the root of the strawberry
plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable
damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier
than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great
tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say
four or five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all
the larvae would be killed.

Currant and Gooseberry Borer. — A white worm eating out the
central pith of currant and gooseberry plants — the larva of another
clear-winged moth (Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale-
oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the
fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil.

The Raspberry Cane Borer. — This intruder is one of the family
Tenthredinideae, or saw flies. The very small maggot or larva will
be found by peeling the bark carefully. This larva can not crawl,
therefore if the tips be cut and the worm is taken out he will die.
A better way is to cut all tips, as fast as they show signs of wilting,
and burn them. Thorough work in topping is absolutely necessary,
so as to be sure that none of the worms remain to produce flies.
Topping causes the canes to throw out laterals, thus producing more
fruit. The canes are not aflfected after July.

INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS

The Apple Worm. — The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is
one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple
and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes in-
vaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossom-
ing of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or on
adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten
days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the
fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attained, and it goes out
through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret, reaches
the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it
usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding-
place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight
or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The egg

572

CALIFORNIA FHUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

is laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits
touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but some-
times three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the increase from the first
to the last is enormous. The worms escaping- from the fruit in the

The Codlin moth — natural size and greatly enlarged.

fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in store-
houses, or in any available dry place.

On the basis of long- experience in the Watsonville district Mr.
W. H. Volck, county entomologist, gives the following outline of
operations against the apple worm :

There are two broods in a season. The first develops from worms that
have wintered over in protected places both above and in the ground. The
moths of the first generation begin emerging in April, but very few eggs are
laid before the middle of May. In this locality egg-laying is then continuous
until the last of June.

The full-grown worms of the first generation after emerging from the apples
seek some hiding place where they may rest for a few days, transforming into
pupa and then into full-grown moths.

The moths of the second generation begin laying eggs early in August
and may continue to do so as late as October or November. It is the worms
of the second generation that do the greatest amount of damage.

The codling moth lays its eggs on the surface of the leaves and fruit. The
eggs are about the size of a small pin-head, circular and flat. The color varies
from white to pink and red. These eggs are easily seen when the observer
knows what to look for.

The young worms hatch from the eggs about ten days after laying, and
then begin crawling about in search of fruit to burrow into. This short period
between the hatching of the egg and the entrance into the apple is the only
time that spraying operations can prove effective. It is clearly impossible to
accomplish anything by the use of sprays that will only kill by contact, for
such sprays would have to be applied nearly every day. The spraying opera-
tion must then leave a deposit of some substance on the fruit that will kill
the worms when they attempt to burrow through the rind. The only substance
now known that answers these requirements are the compounds of arsenic.

SPRAYING FOR THE APPLE WORM c^O

Arsenic is, however, poisonous to plants and must be applied with caution.
The arsenic compound used must be entirely insoluble in water, and not subject
to weathering, in order that it shall be perfectly safe. The wet fogs of the
Pajaro valley summers give arsenical spray compounds a very severe test and
it has been found that only the best quality of arsenate of lead is able to stand
it. Arsenate of lead may do very severe burning, however, if it is not of the
proper quality.

It is a well known fact that a large percentage of the worms of the first
generation enter at the blossom ends of the apples. This part is protected or
more or less closed over by the leaves of the calyx.

The calyx cups close very shortly after the petals fall, and so it is advised
by the best authorities to spray as soon after the falling of the blossoms as
possible in order to leave a deposit of poison there. In the Pajaro valley and
adjoining sections weather conditions often prevent spraying at this time, but
where possible to apply, the calyx cup spraying is advised.

Good results have been obtained by spraying in the early part of May,
which is considerably after the calyx cups have closed. Spraying at this time
gives much the same efifect as the calyx cup appltTdLion, especially where it is
applied with proper thoroughness. This early spraying is applied before any
worms have appeared and is intended merely to have the poison in readiness for
the insects when they do come.

The first codling moth spraying should contain Bordeaux Mixture as a pre-
caution against the scab :

Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate 3 pounds, lime 4 pounds, water 50
gallons.

Arsenate of Lead — Use 2^/^ to 3 pounds of arsenate of lead to each 50 gallons
of Bordeaux.

The Bordeaux Mixture should be prepared first, and enough space left in
the tank to allow for the addition of the arsenate of lead and the water required
to mix it.

The second spraying should be applied from the last of May to the fir.st
ten days in June, and is intended to augment the effect of the first spraying
by further covering the rapidly expanding fruit.

For this spraying use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water.
No Bordeaux should be used with this spraying, for the previous sprayings
containing Bordeaux will have controlled the scab, and the further use of the
fungicide is likely to russet the apples.

Very few eggs are laid during July, so if the second spraying has been
applied about the first of June it should suffice to control the first generation
attack. The second generation worms begin to appear about the first of August,
so a spraying is due at this time.

For the third spraying, use 2 pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of
water.

If the apples are to remain on the trees through September they should
receive another spraying about the first of this month.

For the fourth spraying, if the other three have been applied according to
directions, use i^ pounds of arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water.

The schedule of sprayings above laid out should control the codling moth
under average conditions, and even where the insect is extremely abundant
should yield 95 per cent clean fruit.

The codling moth is much affected by weather conditions, and if there is a
large amount of cold fog during the summer the damage will be much reduced.

The Peach Worm. — As already stated, the larva of the peach
moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes
found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the im-
portance of saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating
worms which emerge as the blossom buds are opening.

^'74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

The Diabrotica. — A light green beetle with twelve spots on his
back (Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early fruit,
by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blos-
soms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it
is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Some-
times the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and
around the orchard.

The Dried Fruit Worm. — Dried fruit is often seriously injured
after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet determined.
The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in
the packing-house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of
the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing,
by dipping in boiling water, or by heating in an oven and after that
preventing the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated
by bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for
nursery stock below.

ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS

These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying.
Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes
in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple
of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow
jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and
they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in
gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are
troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling
species.

To destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feas-
ible. W. F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way :

Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add
a little sugar. Place the syrup dishes on the drying ground where the "jackets"
are thickest. When the top of the syrup is covered with drowned and drowning
"jackets," scoop them out with the hand, and crush them with the foot. They
won't sting unless you pinch them. As the syrup evaporates fill up the dishes
with water. If a day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the
traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever,
especially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the syrup in, cut kerosene
cans so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep.

Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also prac-
ticable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this
way:

I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several
pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man's fist,
I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bending the wire into
a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all
around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects

DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK

575

busily working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver
to their nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying
my fruit, the next generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so
complete was the destruction that there were not enough of the little pests in
that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treatment.
There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return
to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat.

DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK

Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from
insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of
carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any
tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect
life in forty minutes.

Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale may be done in
this way :

Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the
best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil to
make it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before it is rolled up, or it
is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion. To fumigate evergreen
stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one
fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to
one hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when
dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has
been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepafe the charge. Take-a three or
four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of
water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under-the canvas, the edges of
which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, with
the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount
of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, and
the tent is immediately closed, and remains so for one hour.

It is hoped that this chapter will convey useful hints in the war-
fare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met
thereby, appeal should be made to the University Experiment
Station at Berkeley. A condensed statement of useful insecticides
is issued by the Station, prepared by Professor H. J. Quayle, as
follows :

INSECTICIDES

1. Lime Sulphur:

Quicklime, S3 pounds; Sulphur, 66 pounds; Water, 200 gallons.

Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 50
gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. Stir fre-
quently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to make 200 gallons.
If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when spray is ready for use.

2. Commercial Lime Sulphur:

The standard strength corresponding to the above formula is obtained
when commercial solution is diluted i to 9.

Either of the above for San Jose and other armored scales to be applied
during dormant season, preferably in early winter or early spring. For Peacli
Moth as the buds are expanding in the spring.

^yg CAIJFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

3. Distillate:

Soap, I pound; Water, 6-12 gallons.

A 28 deg. gravity oil refined for tree use. Distillate, 12 gallons; Water 200
gallons.

For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is necessary to
make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water.

For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for Woolly
Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter.

4. Distillate-Potash:

Distillate, 10 gallons; Lye or Caustic Soda, 5 pounds; Water, 200 gallons.
Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of freeing tree
from moss.

5. Distillate Tobacco:

Distillate, 4 gallons ; Black leaf tobacco extract, 3 gallons ; Water, 200 gallons.
For thrips and plant lice, to be applied by power outfit only.

6. Kerosene Emulsion:

Soap, y2 pound; Kerosene, i gallon; Water, 10 to 25 gallons.

Dissolve soap in i gallon hot water. Add i gallon kerosene. Mix thor-
oughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mixture.

For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, dilute with
20 to 25 gallons of water.

For Scale insects. Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects during dormant
season, dilute with 10 gallons of water.

Kerosene emulsion can be used on small scale with hand sprayer.

7. Miscible Oils:

Commercial preparations to be used according to directions. Uses same
as 3, 4, 5, and 6. Power outfit for application not necessary.

8. Straight Kerosene:

Kerosene or Water White Oil, 20 gallons; Water, 200 gallons.
In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit. Occa-
sionally also 2 per cent distillate used for same pests.

9. Soap Solution:

For plant lice.

10. Tobacco:

Tobacco stems, i pound; Water, 4 gallons.

Steep tobacco in i gallon hot water. Dilute to 3 or 4 gallons. Or, Black
Leaf extract, i gallon; Water, 60-70 gallons.

For plant lice, thrips, and other sucking insects during growing season.

11. Sulphur:

Dry. — Thoroughly dust over foliage when wet with dew. Hydrated lime
sometimes used to increase adhesiveness.

^'Z' ray .—Sulphur, 30 pounds; Lime (as milk of lime), 15 pounds; Water,
200 gallons.

For red spiders and for silver mite.

12. Lead Arsenate:

Lead Arsenate, 6-10 pounds; Water, 200 gallons.

First mix arsenate of lead with two or three gallons of water.

For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects.

VARIOUS INSECTICIDES

577

13. Paris Green:

Lime, 5 pounds; Paris Green, i 1-3 pounds; Water, 200 gallons.
For Codling Moth, and all defoliating insects.

14. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas:

Potassium Cyanide, i part; Sulphuric Acid, i part; Water, 3 parts.

Place water and acid in earthenware vessel and add cyanide. To be used
under tents or in tight rooms or boxes.

For fumigating buildings and the like, i ounce of cyanide to each 100 cu-
ft. of space for one hour or more.

For use against scales on citrus trees. Ordinary dosage in ounces found
by multiplying distance around by distance over top of tented tree and pointing
off two places. Example :

Distance around bottom, 40 ft. X Distance over top, 20 ft. = 8.08 oz. cyanide.

15. Carbon Bisulphide:

For the fumigation of stored products and underground insects, and for
squirrels.

Usual dosage, i pint to 1,000 cu. ft. of space.

Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels near top of room if convenient.
Inflammable : avoid lights.

For underground insects, a tablespoonful placed in holes a few feet apart.

CHAPTER XL

DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES

A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which
arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies
may be helpful : First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi
and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are
not yet clear.

Effect of mildew on young growth of grape vine.

Powdery Mildews. — Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the
appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to
curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or dis-
coloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these
is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly
on the young growth, etc. The way to use sulphur for these fungi
is to throw finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage

578

LEAF SPOT FUNGI

579

at the first sign of the trouble, either by hand or with suitable
machinery which is fully discussed in Bulletin 186 of the California
Experiment Station.

Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi. — These classes
are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mil-
dew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and
growing fruit; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings
and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces

Effect of brown rot on fruit and twigs of apricots.

first a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black
scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs ; the slot-hole
fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes
in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the
foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark
red pustules on the fruit; the brown rot which attacks both twigs
and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, etc., produced eruptions on
plums and peaches ; the rust fungi of the under sides of the leaves,
first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark brown or black,

5gQ CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all,
checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the
use of copper solutions :

The Bordeaux Mixture. — Lime, four pounds; bluestone (sulphate of cop-
per), four pounds; water, forty gallons. Use part of the water to slake the
line and dissolve the bluestone, which should be done in separate vessels. The
bluestone should not be put in a metal vessel. If put into a bag and sus-
pended near the surface of the water, it will dissolve more readily, or hot
water may be used in making the solution. Both should be cold when mixed,
and the resultant mixture will be a beautiful blue wash. If mixed hot, a black
compound (copper oxide) is produced, which reduces the value of the wash.
After thorough mixing of the solutions, water should be added to bring the
bulk up to forty gallons. _^

This is safe to use on foliage. It may be used much stronger
when trees are dormant — as strong as ten pounds of lime and ten
pounds of bluestone to forty gallons of water to kill spores of fungi
on the bark, but the chief advantage of the stronger mixture is not
directly in spore-killing but in the longer resistance to removal by
rains. This winter treatment is a successful preventive of curl-leaf
on the peach, shot-hole on the apricot, scab on the apple and pear,
rust on the prune, etc. In the case of the peach blight, which is an
invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an autumn
spraying is imperative to protect the dormant twigs.* When the
fungus survives winter treatment or when it attacks the fruit, as in
case of the apricot particularly, or the leaf in the peach, there should
follow the weaker Bordeaux in the spring or summer, as early as
indications of the diseases may appear. In spraying for apple and
pear scab, the addition of five pounds of lead arsenate to each one
hundred gallons of the Bordeaux Mixture makes the application
answer also for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding
chapter.

When it is desirable to use a fungicide on fruit near the picking
season, or on ornamental plants, which would be disfigured with
the lime wash, the ammonical copper carbonate may be submitted
for the Bordeaux Mixture, viz. : Copper carbonate, four ounces ;
ammonia, forty ounces; water forty gallons.

The usual way of making this wash is to dissolve copper carbon-
ate in ammonia, and then dilute. If the carbonate is not fully dis-
solved before the water is added, it can not be further dissolved, and
not only is the carbonate wasted, but the fluid will not be up to
standard strength. It is well, therefore, to give the ammonia ample
time to act, say over night, before adding the water.

The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for
scale insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for

♦Consult Bulletin 191 of the University Experiment Station on "California Peach
Blight."

BLIGHTS AND DECAYS

581

winter use. It is sometimes a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive in the
interior valleys especially.

Toadstool Destruction. — Trees are often destroyed through in-
vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or w^ood w^ith
wrhich their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected
until the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. If only part
is affected, the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away
the diseased parts and disinfection of the exposed tissue with the
Bordeaux Mixture.

Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark. — It has been clearly shown by
investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth
of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided injury. All
trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is
accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture al-
ready prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter
spraying with caustic soda or potash, one pound to six gallons of
water.

Effect upon the nuts of the bacterial blight of walnuts.

Blights and Decays. — There are several blights which are trace-
able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as are
the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because
they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached
by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apri-

582

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

cot, the olive tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cutting back to
healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corrosive subli-
mate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burning all
removed parts is the best treatment which can at present be pre-
scribed.

The walnut blight, demonstrated by Newton B. Pierce, of Santa
Ana, to be caused by a bacterium, has so far resisted treatment. The
disease is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of the young
walnut; generally worst at the blossom end and usually first seen
there early in the season ; later the spots run together and encompass
considerable areas of the surface. As the disease progresses the nut
is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed.
The disease also affects the leaves and young wood. The recourse
seems to be toward resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on
the walnut.

Lemon Rot, a fungus disease destructive to the fruit in the
orchard and during curing or in transit, is fully expounded in Bul-
letin 190 of the University Experiment Station.

Crown knot on peach just below ground.

DIEBACK AND GUM DISEASE

583

DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO
PARASITIC GROWTHS

There are a number of prominent troubles which are ncft trace-
able to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in some cases
promoted by bacterial growth invited by preceding conditions.

Sour Sap. — There is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable
by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the
root to the topmost twigs ; sometimes in one part and not in another.
Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil,
and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make an effort to
grow and then the young growth shrivels. Severe cutting back of
the top to reduce evaporation until the roots can restore their feed-
ing fibers is the only treatment of the tree, and its success depends
upon the extent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in
the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has
actually started. Cutting back the diseased parts, as soon as dis-
covered, to sound wood, is the proper treatment.

Die-Back. — Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without
parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial failure. It may

Tuberculosis of the olive.

584

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which
will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The
treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil con-
ditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be
needed to advance vigorous growth in the tree.

Gummosis. — This is a convenient term to designate the gumming
which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back,
gumming may result from excess of water or of drouth in the soil.

i

The peach blight — twigs from sprayed and unsprayed trees.

ROOT KNOT 535

Gumming is, therefore, not considered in itself a disease, but rather
an indication of conditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth of the
tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in perfect
condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive,
are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this
statement does not wholly apply. There is very much in this con-
nection which is not fully demonstrated as yet and the University
Plant Disease Laboratory, at Whittier, is undertaking careful and
wide studies of which preliminary results appear in the University
Bulletin No. 200. When there is an outbreak of gum where it can
be treated it is desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark —
cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with paint or
wax to exclude the air.

Root Knots. — These are excrescences upon the roots or at the
root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been
a serious trouble in this State for a good many years. Some of the
knots have been studied by experts in plant pathology and the cause
of the trouble demonstrated to be a fungus and the disease infec-
tious. A satisfactory treatment has, however, been discovered. If
the knot has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere
with the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound
treated with the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reappear
at the same place. Success has also been had with boring a hole
into the knot and filling the hole with bluestone solution, but some
trees have been killed in this way. Bluestone can be used with least
danger when the tree is dormant.

CHAPTER XLI

SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS

The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes
such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection
has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this
evil work are mainly species of rodentia^ some of them burrowers,
as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface
dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury
done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon
patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hunters
and the dogs.

RABBITS

Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers.
This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving
them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into
a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. Dur-
ing the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way,
and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the
method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large
to vex the fruit planter, and he must protect himself against them.

Rabbit Fences. — The surest protection against rabbits is a fence
which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have
been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board
fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-proof
by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of but

H

A rabbit-proof fence in successful use in the San Joaquin Valley.

about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with bards about
two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running
it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent
scratching under.

586

RABBIT FENCE AND POISON 537

The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and
wire nettings, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire. Such
materials are sold in large quantities. A very effective combination
of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin
Valley, is described as follows :

The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones
are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting them into eight small
posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanized wire. No. 19 gauge,
and one and one-half inch mesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes
on the inside, or toward the field. This is of prime importance, as it will not
serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting
is to come down to the ground, and the ground must be left hard, and not
plowed to prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which
can be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to set
the netting below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires,
with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the
outside of the posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower
wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the ground. The middle wire
is one inch higher than the top of the netting, and the top wire, which is
intended only as against cattle, is at a height suitable for the purpose. The
rabbit-proof portion is comprised in the netting and the two lower wires.
Hence, if cattle are not feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can
be dispensed with, and the posts can be all short with a greater proportion
of stakes, having only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires.
The theory of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over
the top or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented
by the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or
climb over or to scratch under.

Smears Distasteful to Rabbits. — Where the expense of a fence
can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling
the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances dis-
tasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Com-
mercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on
leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels
rabbits. A tea made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce the
same effect. Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood,
have been approved as a daub for tree trunks, but the efficacy is
only of limited duration.

Rabbit Poison. — Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other
vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with
strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not
touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is
effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same re-
sults can be obtained by the following mixture : To one hundred
pounds of wheat take nine gallons of water and one pound of phos-
phorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce of oil of rhodium. Heat
the water to boiling point and let it stand all night. Next morning
stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it
with avidity if scattered about.

ggg CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strych-
nine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar.
Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board.
It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar
disguises the poison, which kills great numbers.

GROUND-SQUIRRELS

Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats
which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon,
or "smokers," which are arranged to force smoke into the holes. A
small quantity'of bisulphide of carbon poured into the hole, and the
hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective squirrel killer,
when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the burrow.
Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When the
ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The
following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which a few
grains should be placed in or near each hole :

Take strychnine, one ounce ; cyanide of potassium, one and one-half ounces ;
eggs, one dozen ; honey, one pint ; vinegar, one and one-half pints ; wheat or
barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar ; and you will have to
pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into a lump. See that it is all dis-
solved. Dissolve the cyanide of potassium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix
all the ingredients together thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand
twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if
put away wet.

To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and
getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree,
letting the paper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said
to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels attempt
to get over it will frighten them.

GOPHERS

Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat,
especially prepared with a little oil of rhodium, which seems to be
very attractive to all rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetable, or the
succulent stems of alfalfa, into which a few grains of strychnine
have been inserted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then
squeezing it together again, are also handy conveyors of death to
gophers. There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a
gopher runway. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the
poison as far as possible with a long-handled spoon; another is to
take a round, pointed stick and shove it into the ground near the
gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the
poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass ; level down
mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you will

DESTROYING GOPHERS

589

soon discover their new mounds. If there are many mounds, put the
poison in a number of places.

Bisulphide of carbon is also successfully used in killing gophers,
while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with
the poison to force the vapor through the long burrows.

Trapping Gophers. — Some are very successful in using gopher
traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the
surface in the night, and generally close their holes soon after day-
break. They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time
late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole ; still,
the holes may be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good pros-
pect of the gopher's return. Therefore, the trapper may make his
rounds three times a day, as above indicated. Care should be exer-
cised in preparing the hole for the insertion of the trap, a straight
hole for a distance of at least ten inches, with no lateral branches,
otherwise the gopher in pushing out the dirt will likely enough
thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or spring it, without being
exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be supplied with at least
two varieties of traps — one for the larger gophers, and the other
for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs
downward, is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which
springs upward, is generally successful with the later. The size of
the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should
be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down firmly,
and a little dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily
pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening
with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes require a little
enlarging, but care should be taken to make the fit as close as pos-
sible, that the body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and
thus more exposed to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place,
the trapper should have a small spade and a little gouge-shaped
instrument for trimming the hole.

Gopher Pitfalls. — If gophers are abundant, large numbers can
be captured in this way : Dig a trench around the orchard or vine-
yard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches
deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hundred feet apart, sink
five-gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom.
The gophers migrate in the night, and in attempting to come into
the inclosure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom
until they drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be
wider than the cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have been
found in one can. The cats soon learn to help themselves out of
the cans. The ditch must be kept clean, and if any roads cross
the tract, set up a board at night, to compel the gophers to tumble
in the ditch. This ditch should be constructed about the first of

590

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

June, when the outside feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for
the cultivated ground. With such protection from the outside, and
the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved.

DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS

Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivorous
birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in
disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit,
that protective measures have to be adopted against them. The
so-called ''California linnet," which is not a linnet, but a finch
(Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the Eng-
lish sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most
grievous pests, though there are other destructive birds, including
the beautiful California quail,, which is protected by law, and yet
must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must
be abandoned.

For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually employed,
and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one-
eighth ounce of strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in
shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely approved. Cutting
oranges in halves, spreading strychnine over the cut surface and
empaling the half oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has
destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some advocate the use of the shot-
gun. No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10
shot. As many as five hundred linnets have been killed in two days.
The advantage of this plan is that one kills linnets and not other
birds, while poison kills both friends and foes.

CHAPTER XLII
PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS

Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the pro-
tection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other
parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in secur-
ing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts.

The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect
of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit in-
dustries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers.
The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys
at right angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds,
has also been urged with great force. These greater enterprises
and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather
concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual possessions
that a few suggestions will be offered.

It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the
successful growth of fruit will sometimes be whally dependent upon
proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from
the ocean the topography may induce strong currents of air which
will illy aflfect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower
should plant windbreaks, and will find himself well repaid for the
ground they occupy, by the successful production on the protected
area.

In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occa-
sional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer
or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some
cases long lines of the sheltering trees have been cut down because
they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them,
and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater
than would have been incurred by retaining them.

What Kind of Trees to Plant. — This is a question concerning
which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the
growth of trees planted to test their suitability, and the future
planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now
available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which
are now most widely grown.

The most widely-planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus,
or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder,
and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly
abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for

591

^Q2 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will
be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is de-
sired, the planting of eucalyptus and Monterey cypress (Cupressus
macrocarpa) is a common practice. The latter also attains good
height, but its broad, thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems
of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with
the blue gum, to supply a thick, low growth, is the pepper tree
(Schinus molle). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a
dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. Trees
planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a
dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper
is not only a good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher.
Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not be-
come laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and
therefore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by
the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the
ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much
slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the
cypress. for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior
valleys, make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the year
round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, somewhat subject
to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places
is objected to on that account. A number of other species of
eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being found more hardy
than the blue gum. The rostrata, rudis, tereticornis, polyanthema,
amygdalina, viminalis and others are of this character.

The Monterey pine (Pinus insignis) is a rapid, high-growing tree,
and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to
the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is
dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A
native white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) has also been employed
as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as
a rapid grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand
drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers
of the seacoast. It stands well in the most exposed situations, as
its roots run very deep into the earth and it is claimed that it does
not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue
gum. It is also said to be less subject to frost injury than the
Monterey cypress and pine.

All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afiford pro-
tection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many
which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes
a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast,
and is largely used for roadside planting. The California broad-
leaved maple {Acer macrophylla) is very beautiful, rapid in growth,
and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder {Acer
negrundo), but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast

I

PROTECTION FROM FROST

598

regions. Of the poplars, the CaroHna (Populus monilifera) is best,
because of its breadth, density of foliage, and comparative freedom
from suckering. The locust (Robinia pseudacacia) is used to some
extent, but its suckering is very objectionable.

Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are
used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the pro-
tection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling
almonds, and apricots are especially commended for such use.

Growing Trees from Seed. — Much that has been said in Chapter
VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter
trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes,
and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do
best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put
at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply
worked and the young plant well planted and cared for.

Cultivation of Shelter Trees. — If one desires rapid growth of
shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thor-
oughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from allowing
roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such
treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated
orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the
roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the
same time the roadside will be prevented from producing vast quan-
tities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will
have a name for neatness, which is too rare even in California.

PROTECTION FROM FROSTS

Much attention has been given during recent years to the pro-
tection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous
fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of
the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been
shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a
temperature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the ex-
posure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved
by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the
same temperature. About the same result has been secured by
checking radiation of heat by covering the orchard or vineyard with
a cloud of smoke. Both these protective measures fail when the
temperature falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such
freezing temperature is continued several hours. During the last
fifteen years, at Riverside, systematic invention and trial of frost
prevention has proceeded, and the satisfactory results of one device
is thus described by Mr. E. W. Holmes :

594 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned in
wire baskets suspended under or between the trees. When twenty to forty of
these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the temperature from three
to five degrees. More has been claimed; but this is all that 1 am sure has
been achieved. However, in a section where the temperature would not go
below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees for a few hours, this method was
ample. The outfit costs about ten cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if
forty baskets are used, and the coal about two and one-half dollars an acre
per night. The objection is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of
their being used the second night, because even if kerosene is poured upon
the kindling, it is no easy task to light four hundred fires with a torch. Four
men will be required to do this in proper time. Still, this is the system more
generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have been
achieved through it'.

Other efifective devices are pots for burning crude oil, stoves for
burning briquettes of inflammable material, etc. The best accouiits
not only of the conditions favoring the occurrence of frosts, but the
details of frost-fending methods are given in the publications of
Professor A. G. McAdie, U. S. Weather Bureau, Mechanics' Ex-
change, San Francisco, which are available on application to him.
Appliances for use in these eflforts can be purchased from the Frost
Prevention Co., of Fresno.

These resources have been chiefly resorted to for the protectioti
of citrus fruits, the value of which as the crop is maturing will war-
rant the cost. With deciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam
clouds from burning piles of damp rubbish have been employed,
except in irrigated regions where, if frost threatens while the ground
is dry, the limited efilicacy of running water is resorted to. There is
ample field for further experiment in all lines of frost prevention.

Where there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees,
the trees may be kept dormant for a limited time by winter spraying
with whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents activity. Ex-
periment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts of the tree starts
the growth; it does not come from the roots as was formerly
supposed.

CHAPTER XLIII
UTILIZING OF FRUIT WASTES

Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of hor-
ticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is
a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees
of the wineries in central California. In Southern California citric
acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing,
and some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured in
small quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made
here as everywhere in fruit countries.

There has arisen also a profitable export demand for fruit pits
and apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now
selling profitably — machinery for cheap extraction of the kernels
having been contrived by California inventors. The kernels are
bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils and essences.
Apricot kernels are used by confectioners in place of almonds.

Comparative Value of Fruits, and Hay, Grains, Meals, etc.
100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of

FRESH FRUITS

Apples 34

Oranges 33

Pears 40

Plums 50

Prunes 46

Apricots 40

Nectarines 43

Figs 50

Grapes 50

Watermelons ... 22

Nutmeg Melons. 19

DRIED FRUITS

Dried prunes 175

Dried apricots. , . 194

Dried peaches. . . 190

Dried figs 186

Raisins 216

104
115
113
110
128

W d

125
138
135
132
153

^ ■)-)

15 15

85
100

97

108

■^ ^ pq

84
93
91
89
103

92
102
100

97
111

•« §
^

18 16

84
93
91
89
103

^5

The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however, always
lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless de-natured alcohol

595

596 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

enterprises should arise to consume it at prices to pay something
more than cost of handling. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and
especially refuse dried fruits have nutritive value which should not
be lost, A statement of the value of various fruits as compared
with various cattle foods has been prepared by Prof. M. E. Jaffa,
of the University Experiment Station, in the adjacent table.

A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by
prunes. Using the equivalents in the table below for computation,
it appears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would
be worth as a substitute $3 per ton; likewise, if cottonseed meal is
selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At
the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh prunes should be
nearly $3 per ton.

The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as
stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins
lead in food value ; containing one and one-fourth to one and one-
half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respec-
tively; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the same
quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds
respectively of rice bran and cottonseed meal.

Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they
contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a
feeding stuff with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much
as alfalfa hay, bran or middlings.

Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following state-
ments are made : ''With raisins selling at 2^ cents per pound
they are much cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins
give the hog a hard sweet meat and are much sought after by the
butchers. Care must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to
hogs, as they are full of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed
alone. They heat the animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and
will kill the little pigs of a farrowing sow. For fall and winter
feeding, pumpkins, citrons and alfalfa are the best feed to give the
hogs in conjunction with the raisins, but in the spring a change is
found very beneficial.

"Many people feeding raisins to hogs are not having the success
they should because they overfeed their porkers. A pound of
raisins a day is ample to start in with. After the system of the
hog has become accustomed to the raisins the amount can be in-
creased so that the last three weeks each hog should get about
four pounds of raisins a day. The last ten days, when the finishing
touches are being put on, the hogs should be allowed all they can
get."

Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the
ground and used to advantage for hog feed. One grower says
that in 1908 failing to get $6 per ton for his grapes, he dried them

A BLISSFUL CONCLUSION

597

and fed them to hogs. Having more than the hogs required,
grapes were fed to the horses : ''The horses soon got a taste for
them and seemed to thrive well on the new diet and in a short
time became fat and sleek, while they were being worked as hard
as ever, and we continued to feed them dried grapes and have
kept it up for a whole year. The effect seems to have made the
old horses five years younger, both in looks and in ability to work.
The hogs fattened up so quick that we thought the pork would be
soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better bacon
and ham than was produced from these grape-fed porkers. It was
not only solid, but sweet and tender."

Prune-fed and raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in
California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog,
what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this
treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of
Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees
near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and
rested in the shade until, he finally grew too fat to move about
to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so
much interested in the case as to carry him his regular figs three
times daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes closed entirely,
but still he ate figs in contentment and delight.

RECAPITULATION

'The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear,
And verdant olives flourish round the year;
The balmy spirit of the western gale
Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail ;
Each dropping pear a following pear supplies,
On apples, apples, figs on figs arise:
The same mild season gives the blooms to blow,
The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow."

Pope's Horn. Odys. Bk. VII.

INDEX

Page

Acorns, edible 44

Alkaline Soils . . . > 37

Alligator Pear 476

Almond, The 501

growing from seed 74

hulling and bleaching 503

pollination 505

propagation 502

pruning 502, 503

situations and soils 502

wild 44

varieties 505, 506

Animals, injurious 586

Ants, killing 574

Apple in California 223

aphis resistant 226

aphis woolly 559

drying . 536

exposures for 225

gathering 230

irrigation 230

localities for 224

mildew 578

mission 46

native crab 39

planting, distance 227

picking and packing 232

pollination 234

propagation 226

pruning 227

scab or smut 579

second crop 234

seedlings, growing 72

shipping 233

soils for 225

Southern California 240

storehouse for 231

summer and fall 233

table of . varieties 241

thinning 140, 229

varieties, most popular 221

when to pick 230

winter 233

worm 576

varieties .' 236 to 240

Apricot 243

climatic requirements 244

diseases of 251

distances for 247

drying .^ 536

exposures for 244

growing seedHngs y^f

irrigation 251

localities for 244

mission 46

Page
Apricot — continued

old trees 243

on almond root 246

planting 247

pruning 248,

shot-hole fungus 252, 579

stocks and soils for 246

table of varieties 252

thinning 137, 250

varieties 253 to 255

Army Worms 548

Atmospheric humidity 23

Banana, The 468

Barberry, native 43

Bear berry 7 43

Bergamot 467

Berries and currants 479

Berries, various wild 43

Birds, poisoning 590

Blackberry, The 480

cultivation 481

hybrids 494

distances for 480

longevity of 484

propagation 480

pruning 483, 486

wild 41

varieties 484

Blasting for planting 104

Borers 116, 568

Bones, treatment of 159

Bordeaux Mixture 579

Brush, cutting to kill 66

Budding, common method 81

June 89

over old trees 91

spring 83

Bud, cutting to a 135

Buds, dormant 90

Buffalo berry 43

Burbank's varieties 219, 317, 326

Cactus fruits 44, 476

Canned fruit product 525

Canning industry 526

Canker worms 550

Caterpillars ' 551

Chain for laying out 103

Chamisal and chaparral 61

Charcoal making 66

Cherimoyer '. 469

598

INDEX

599

Page

Cherry , 256

delayed fruiting of 2g

distances for 260

exposures for 259

gum disease 264

grafting, the 260, 263

localities for 257

moisture requirements 258

old trees 256

pests and diseases 264

pruning the 261

seedlings growing 72

slug 553

soils for the 257

stocks for the 260

table of varieties 266

wild 40

varieties 265 to 269

Chestnut, The 507

seedlings 74

wild 44

Choco or Chayota 469

Citron, The 467

Clearing land for fruit 61

brushy 64

cost of 62

grading 67

steam puller 64

stump puller 64

with powder 64

time to cut to kill 66

Climate, divisions of California n

of California, characteristics of. .10, 19

of California, why mild 10

foot-hill 16

mountain 16

coast 13

valley I5

value of 24

Cloudiness, east and west 22

Coast pests and diseases 11

Codlin moth 57i

Composting 161

Corner, to find true . . 99

Cover crops 166

Cranberries 487

wild 42

Crops between trees or vines 144

Crystallizing fruit 527

Cultivation 141

adequate I43

hillside 148

methods of I45

purposes of 141

shallow, results of I43

summer iS^^ 152

to retain moisture 141

without plowing 151

Page

Currants 487

culture of 487, 488

regions for 488

varieties grown 489

wild 42

Custard apple 469

Cutworms 548

Cuttings, fruit trees from 76

Dates ^^^

at the missions yjl

bearing age of 378

bearing in Solano County .... 378, 381

blooming of 378, 381

first fruit 378

from seed 379

from suckers 380

propagation of 379

requirements of 378

transplanting 380

Dewberry 485

'Diabroticas 574

Die-back 583

Dormant buds 90

Drainage desirable 7i> 216

Dried fruits (see fruits) 528

boxes for 535

covering 53^

cutting sheds 532

dipping 534, 542

drying floors 531

grading and cleaning 532, 534

packing 534

product of 528

sulphuring 532

sweating . 534

trays for 530

worm 535> 574

Elderberries 41

Evaporated Fruits 542

Evaporator, sunshine 537

Fertilizers in California 155

caution in use of 165

for trees and vines I57

methods of applying 164

value of green 166

when necessary 156

sources of nitrogen. . 160

sources of phosphoric acid 158

sources of potash I59

Feijoa Sellowiana 470

Fig 382

bearing age 388

budding 384

caprification 389

drying 536

foes of 390

from cuttings 384

from seeds 387

gQQ CALIP^ORNIA FRUITS:

Page
Fig — continued

grafting 385

mission 46

planting and pruning 387

regions for 382

. size of old trees 382

soils for 382

varieties 391 to 395

Filbert growing 508

wild 44

Frosts, protection from 591, 593

Fruit cultivation 141

Fruit gardens, early 51

Fruit industries, influence of 57

Fruit industries, outlook of 58

Fruit interest, extent of 54, 56

Fruit shipments 54

Fruit thinning 136

Fruit tree acreage 56

Fruit products, value of 56

Fruits, crystallizing 527

drying 528

drying floors 531

graders 534

grafted, first in California 49

locations for , 12

value as stock food 595

Fruit shipments, eastern 54

Fruit trees, dwarf 51

Fruits, commercial varieties 219

Fruits, locations for 12

Fruits, native 39

Goat nut, or jajoba 44

Gooseberry, The 489

culture of 490

requirements of 489

varieties 489

wild 42

Gophers, killing 588

pitfall for 589

trapping 589

Grafting 83

bark 87

cleft 86

root 88

side 86

time for 93

top 91

whip 88

wax for 85

waxed bands 85

Graft, time to 93

Grafts, planting out 88

Granadilla 471

Grape, area of 330

budding ^2>7

conditions of ripening 20

HOW TO GROW THEM

Page
Grape, area of — continued

cutting grafts 346

dibbles for planting 349

diseases of '366

distance 347

from cuttings ^^2>

from layers ^^T)

from seed 332

frost injuries 366

grafting 338

insects 553

industry 329

length of season 331

mildew 578

number per acre 348

planting devices 350

planting in rows 347

products 56

pruning 353

pruning, long 361

pruning, short 353

resistant 342

rooting in nursery 336

soils for 331

stakes, twine, etc 353

suckering 357

sulphuring 578

summer pruning 358, 364

syrup 542

trellising 364

varieties 368

wild 41

wine, varieties of 2>7Z

Grasshoppers, killing 556

Growing season, long 24

Guava, The 470

varieties :

strawberry 470

lemon 470

Gummosis 583

Gypsum, uses of 160

Hard-pan, breaking up 104

Heat, deficient on coast 13

importance of 19

summer, records of 20

Heeling in young trees 109

Hexagonal planting 97

Hillside, rows on 100

use of triangle on 103

Holes for trees 105

Huckleberries, wild 42

Humidity, atmospheric 23

deficient 26

east and west 23

excessive 23

Insects, injurious 108, 547

Insects, remedies 575

Irrigation 170

distributing manure by 165

ditches 204

INDEX

601

Page
Irrigation — continued

drainage and 216

evils of excessive 171

flooding 184

for citrus fruits 176

for deciduous fruits 174

flume building for 201

hillside 196

how much 172

implements for 186

in early days 52

in basins 184, 191

in checks 184, 190

in furrows 192

leveling for 67

locating contour lines 204

manure with irrigation water 165

manurial value of 166

measurement of water 210

methods of 182

nursery 78

objections answered 171

relation to cultivation. 180

relation to rainfall 174

relation to soil 177

relation to tillage 178

reservoirs, small 206

running ditches for 204

subirrigation 216

suggestions for 215

summer 182

taken from ditches 209

wells and pumps for 210

wheels for 209

when desirable 180

winter 181

Jajoba 44

Jujube of commerce 471

Jujube, native 43

Kai Apple 478

Laying out land for fruit 98

Leaf lice 554

Lemon, The 457

curing 462

packing 453

planting and pruning '. 459

propagation 459

situations and soils for 458

Varieties :

Eureka 466

Lisbon 466

Villa Franca 466

Lemon berry 43

Lice, leaf 560

Lime, The 466

Varieties :

Mexican 466

Imperial 466

Lime, uses of 160

Page

Loganberry 493. 494

Loquat, The 47i

Varieties :

Advance 473

Blush . 473

Commercial 473

Pineapple 473

Premier 473

Victor 472, 473

Manure, care of 161

green 166

sheep, use of 163

Manuring at planting 114

Manzanita berries 43

Map of orchard and vineyard 115

Marls 161

Mealy bugs 566

Measuring wire 98

Melon shrub 475

Melon tree 475

Mildew 578

Miner's inch 210

Mission fruits 45

Moisture lost by weed growth 143

retained by cultivation 143

Morning Glory, killing 153

Moss, removing 57^, 580

Mulberry, The 491

Mulching, after planting 114

Mulching as substitute for cultivation. 154

Nectarine 292

compared with peach 292

dried 293, 538

future of 294

varieties 293

Nitrogen for fruits 160, 166

Nursery 69

budding and grafting 80

classes of nursery stock 89

growing seedlings 71

imported seedlings 76

irrigation 78

laying out and planting TJ

pruning in 89

selection of site for 69, 70

soil, preparation of 70. 7i

soil, proper for 69

trees, ages of 89

trees, digging 109

trees, disinfecting 575

trees, selecting 107

when to plant • ijo

Nuts growing in California. . .

growing from seed ix^*'- • • 100

^ •... 43

wild

602

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW TIIIOM

Page

Olives . 396

at old missions 46

budding 401

canning 412

climate for 396

from cuttings 399

from seed 398

grafting 402

localities for 397

oil making 409

oil yield of varieties 419

planting 404

preferred varieties 413

pruning 405

pickling 408, 41 1

small cuttings 399

soils for 398

truncheons 400

twig borer 570

wild 43

varieties 413

Orchard land, preparation of 95

laying out in squares 98

alternating squares 97

measure and sight 98

measuring wire 99

quincunx planting 100

time for planting no

Orange 420

all the year from California 426

budding and grafting 439

California regions discussed 422

conditions for citrus fruits 430-

diseases 451

distances for 441

from cuttings 435

from layers 436

from seed 436

in central California 424

in southern California 422

mission 46

nursery 437

packing 453

planting in orchard 441

product 56, 423

pruning 445

ripening first at the north 431

seedlings, care of 436

situation and soils for 434

superiority of semi-tropical 421

transplanting 442

world's industry 420

varieties 452, 453

Orchard planting 104

Oregon grape 43

Oso berry 40

Popular fruit varieties 221

Palm nuts 44

Grape, ."--■: ^70

budding^.l^ntmg 275

conditions b\ts of 285

Page
Peach — continued

blight 579

blooming of varieties 284

curl-leaf 28r

diseases 281

distance in planting 275

dormant buds 276

drying 537

early bearing 271

grafting 280

growing season of 24

irrigation 280

localities for 272

longevity of ' 270

mildew 282

mission 46

moth 568 /

"peach almond" 275 ^

pitting clings 538

propagation 275

pruning 126, 277

ripening of varieties 284

root borer 570

seedlings 73

soils for 273

stocks for 275

table of varieties 283

thinning 140, 279

varieties 285 to 291

Peanut growing 508

Pear 295

Bartlett, why popular 296, 297

blight 302

characteristics in California 296

diseases 303

distances for the 299

drying 537

dwarf 299

for alkali soil 296

irrigation 301

largest on record 296

locaHties for 296

mission 46

on quince stock 299

pollination 304

propagation of 299

pruning 300

seedlings, growing 72

slug 553

soils for 298

storing and ripening 304

tables of varieties 308

thinning , 301

varieties 305 to 308

Pear, Alligator 476

Pecan, The 509

Persimmon, Japanese 473

Persimmon, Virginian 473

Persimmons, curing 474

Phenomenal berry 494

Phosphates 158

INDEX

Page

Phylloxera 559

Pioneers, planting by 46

Pineapple 474

Pine nuts 44

Pistachio, The 510

Planting, conditions favoring in

bar for setting 106

cutting back after 1 16, 124

depth of 114

digging holes for : 104

laying off for 98

mulching 115

operation of 112

preparing land for 95

speed in 114

time for no

triangular tree setter 107

use of manure 114

use of water 113

Plowing, devices for 146

orchard and vineyard 146

on hillside 148

to break hard-pan 95, 148

Plow, laying off with 98

Plums and prunes 3^9

California false 40

confusion in names 317

definition of a prune 309

drying 539

from the root ^312

in southern California "311

length of season 309

localities for 310

mission ^. 46

myrobalan 311

planting 3^3

pollination 319

propagation 311

pruning the 313

seedlings 73

stocks and soils 311

table of varieties 320

wild 40

varieties 321 to 326

Plumcot, The 317

Pomegranate, The 475

Pomelo 455

varieties 45^

packing 453

Potash 159

Prickly Pear > 44, 476

Prune curing 538

Pruning 117

Bearing Trees 127

California style 120

effects of 119

gathering brush 136

influenced by location 121

603

Page

Pruning — continued

low, advantages of 118 ,

nursery 89

prunings as fertilizer 163

purposes of 118

times for 130

tools 134

to renew old trees 127, 133

vase form, securing 120

wounds, covering I34

Quince 327

demand for 3^7

propagation 3^7

pruning 328

soils for 328

varieties 328

Quincunx planting 100

Rabbit, fences 586

Rabbits, destroying 587

poisons for 587

smears for 587

Rainfall, records of 12

Raisin making * • • • • 53. 540

Raspberry, The 49^

black-caps 492

hybrids 494

pruning 49i

varieties, popular 492

wild 41

Red Spider 557

Root rot 580

Root-knots 585

Russian introduction of fruits 48

Salal 43

Salmon berry 41

Scale Insects 560

black . 563

brown apricot 5^4

cottony cushion 565

pear .' 562

orange, red 563

orange, soft 564

oyster shell 562

rose and berry 562

San Jose 561

remedies for 567, 575

Sapota, white 477

Scions, care of 84

selection of 84

Sea Fig 43

Seed, growing trees from 74

SeedHngs, imported 71, 76

Septuple laying off 100

Service Berry 43

604

CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM

Page

Soils for fruits ^1

adobe 35

alkali Z1

alluvial ZZ

bed-rock or hard-pan 2>^

characteristics of California 27

classification of 30

clay . 34

defective 36

desert 32

examination of Zl

granitic 34

loams 30

mesa 32

plains 31

red 34

river bottom 34

sedimentary or silty 33.

shallow, blasting 104

Sour sap 582

Spider, red 557

Squares, laying off in 98

Squirrels, destroying 588

Strawberry '. 495

care of 499

continuous bearing 499

laying out for 496

planting 498

propagation 496

situations and soils 495

varieties, popular 500

wild 42, 500

Strawberry tree 475

Sunburn, protection from 116

Sunlight, value of direct 21

Sunshine, evaporating 528

Sunshine, records of 22

Temperature, lowest 20

Temperature, records of 21

Thinning fruit 136

Thrips 554

Page

Tomato tree 478

Toyon 43

Trees, activity and rest of 17

heeling in 109

selecting 107

Tree-setters 106, 107

Triangle for laying out 102

Tuna fruit 44, 476

Tussock moth 552

Vine hoppers 555

Walnut, black 44, 511

Walnut, English 510

bacteriosis or blight 581

bleaching 522

blossoms of 521

budding 513

culture and soils 510

gathering and drying 521

grafting 515

growing seedlings 74, 514

hybrids 511

propagation and planting 511, 5iy

pruning 520

varieties 523

Water measurements 210

Weed killing by cultivation 153

Weeds, evaporation by 143

Weir measurement 212

Whitewash against sunburn 116

Wild Fruits of California 39

Windbreaks 591

trees for 592

Wine grapes 260

Winery refuse as manure 164

Winter-killing, unknown 19

Wire, measuring 98

Woolly aphis 559

Wounds, covering 135

Yellow jackets, killing , . . 574 i

siA, .1^/

\

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

RENEWED BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO IMMEDIATE
RECALL

MAY 2 2 1981

LIBRARY, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS

Book SUp-20m-8,'61(Cl623s4)458

"California

^m^

524135

fraits

JM!L2_2J945

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3B359

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IVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA UBRARY