CALIFORNIAI
FISH-GAME

'CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE THROUGH EDUCATION"

ANNOUNCEMENT

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The Editor, California Fish and Game
State Fisheries Laboratory
Terminal Island Station
San Pedro, California

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STATE OF CALIFORNIA

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES

DIVISION OF FISH AND GAME
San Francisco, California

EARL WARREN
Governor

WARREN T. HANNUM
Director of Natural Resources

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

HARVEY E. HASTAIN, President
Brawley

PAUL DENNY, Commissioner LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner

Etna Los Angeles

WILLIAM J. SILVA, Commissioner CARL F. WENTE, Commissioner

Modesto San Francisco

E. L. MACAULAY

Executive Officer

San Francisco

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PHIL M. ROEDEL, Editor Terminal Island

Editorial Board

RICHARD S. CROKER San Francisco

WILLIAM A. DILL-_ Fresno

JOHN E. CHATTIN San Francisco

California Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conservation of wildlife
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California Fish and Game

"CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION"

Volume 3G ISSUED OCTOBER 20, 1950 No. 4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

The California Mule Deer in Chaparral Forests

Fred P. Cronemiller and Paul S. Bartholomew 343

A Prelimary Report on the Fishery and on the Biology of the Squid

Loligo opalescens W. Gordon Fields 366

Winter Injury to Young Fur Seals on the Northwest Coast

Victor B. Schepfer 378

Netting Bait and Cannery Fish with the Aid of Lights

Parke H. Young 380

A Check List of the Fresh-Water and Anadromous Fishes of Cali-
fornia Leo Shapovalov and William A. Dill 382

Perforated Plate Fish Screens

J. H. Wales, E. W. Murphey and John Handley 392

Upland Game Cooperative Hunting Areas

Harold T. Harper, George Metcalfe and John F. Davis 404

Swimming Speed of the Western Sucker, Catostomus Occident alis

Ayres J. H. Wales 433

Notes on Fishes Recently Introduced into Southern California

Willis A. Evans and Philip A. Douglas 435

Notes

Introduction of Kamloops Rainbow Trout into California

J. H. Wales 437

Some Lahontan Fishes in the Sacramento River Drainage,

California J. B. Kimsey 438

Pacific Cod off Northern California __J. B. Phillips 439

Reviews 440

Reports 448

Index to Volume 36 45]

< :ui> )

THE CALIFORNIA MULE DEER IN
CHAPARRAL FORESTS x

By Fred P. Ckonemiller and Paul S. Bartholomew
U. S. Forest Service

INTRODUCTION

The California mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus calif ornicus) ,
according to Cowan (1936), ranges wholly within California from
Orange County to Monterey County in the Coast Range and to El Dorado
County in the Sierra Nevada. It intergrades over a considerable distance
with the Columbian black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus colum-
bianus) in the north and with the southern mule deer (Odocoileus
hemionus fuliginatus) in Orange County. It winters in the chaparral
and intermingled oak- woodland at lower elevations. In the Sierra Nevada
it summers in the conifer timber belt. In the Coast Ranges and in
Southern California, because of the general absence of higher elevation
types, it summers mostly in the chaparral belt.

The life history and food habits of mule deer in California have been
covered by Dixon (1934) with particular attention to conditions in the
Sierra Nevada.

Johnson (1939) recognized a difference in size between the animals
of this race found in the Sierra Nevada as contrasted with those occupy-
ing the chaparral belt yearlong. In the latter area the animals breed
earlier, and coordinate life processes — fawning, antler development and
shedding, and pelage changes — occur at correspondingly early dates.
During the period 1935-1941 forest officers, with the cooperation of the
California Division of Pish and Game, measured and weighed a large
number of deer in each national forest in California. Figure 139 shows
the frequency distribution of weights of this species (hog dressed) on the
Angeles and Sierra National Forests, which provide good samples of deer
from the two different habitats.

In the chaparral belt which covers much of the deer territory of
Southern California, the primary value of these lands is as watersheds.
The maintenance of a regular flow of usable water, reduction of floods
and siltation is vital to the dependent agriculture and to the intensive
municipal and industrial development in the valleys.

In a number of areas highly developed agricultural lands adjoin
the chaparral-covered mountains occupied by deer, with the result that
some crop damage occurs. Of major importance, however, is the fact that
hunting seasons as established are traditionally at the height of the fire
season, which is most serious in these highly inflammable types. Because
of the extreme fire hazard a considerable area of public land within the
national forests is necessarily closed to public use. Large areas have been

1 Submitted for publication April, 1950.

(343)

344

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SIZE FREQUENCY OF CALIFORNIA MULE DEER
IN DIFFERENT HABITATS

Angeles National Forest
Sierra National Forest

50-79 80-99 100-119 120-139 140-159 160-179 180 +

WEIGHT GROUPS, POUNDS

Figure 139

set aside as game refuges through legislative procedures. Much of the
support for the legislation stemmed from a desire for the elimination of
the risk of fire resulting from occupation of these areas by hunters.
Finally, and for the same reason, much of the ranching area is closed to
hunters.

Because of these problems, involving both land use and the inherent
characteristics of the animals themselves, a study was inaugurated by
the second named author, under the direction of the first to secure facts
of value for managing the deer herds and for coordinating sport hunting
with other forms of land use. The deer harvest was studied for all of the
Angeles National Forest open to shooting. Life history of deer was
studied in detail on the San Dimas Experimental Forest.

Because of the nature of the road system and the presence of fire
crew stations, forest officers, fire wardens and game wardens at most
control points, it was possible to contact most of the hunters, measure
hunting effort and examine the kills. Splendid cooperation of the Los
Angeles County fire wardens and state game wardens was received. The
second named writer was employed continuously on the project from
February, 1940, to June, 1942, spending the greater part of his time on

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

345

life history and allied studies within the study area. As a result, many
individual deer became known and mothers and progeny recognized per-
mitting- conclusions not possible with casual observations.

DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST AND OF THE STUDY AREA

The Angeles National Forest covers about 640,000 acres (1,000
sq. mi.) in the Sierra Madre Mountains and lies mostly within Los
Angeles County, California. The topography is rugged, with elevations
of 500 feet to over 10,000 feet. A small area on the northeastern side may
be termed desert, while the bulk of the area is in the chaparral belt. A
limited area of high mountains, mostly above 6,000 feet, is coniferous
forest. Although most of the forest is covered with chaparral and wood-
land-chaparral, the vegetation ranges from desert cacti to timberline
trees and shrubs.

The life history study area is a natural unit including all of the
San Dimas Experimental Forest and some contiguous area. It is situ-

Newhall o

Location of
detail map

STUDY AREA

° Pomona

ANGELES NATIONAL FOREST

10 Miles

Figure 140

346 CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

ated north of the towns of San Dimas and Claremont and comprises
about 20,000 acres. Elevations vary from 700 feet to more than 5,600 feet.
The area is drained by Big Dalton and San Dimas Canyons. These have
deep-cut channels with frequent waterfalls, cascades, and box canyons.
Vegetative types are principally chaparral1 and woodland mixtures.
Chamise, the most abundant shrub on south-facing slopes below 4,600
feet altitude, is usually associated with hairy ceanothus but sometimes
also with bigberry manzanita or Eastwood manzanita. Oak chaparral on
northerly slopes is dominated by California scrub oak, usually associated
with hairy ceanothus. Slopes above 4,600 feet altitude, if facing to the
south, are clothed mainly with chamise, chaparral whitethorn, dwarf
interior live oak, and the two species of manzanita. At these higher alti-
tudes, the commonest dominants on north facing slopes are canyon live
oak and bigcone spruce. Open stands of sagebrush, composed principally
of California sagebrush, white sage, and California buckwheat, occur
commonly in the foothills and on the steep slopes higher in the moun-
tains. Riparian and oak woodland, composed of many species but chiefly
of white alder and coast live oak respectively, occur along stream
channels.

The Experimental Forest is fairly typical of the chaparral forests
in Southern California. It is within the Angeles National Forest and also
within a long-established state game refuge, 4B.

The Angeles National Forest and the San Dimas Experimental
Forest are accessible by a limited number of roads and foot trails. The
Experimental Forest also has a series of contour trails at altitudes of
2,100, 3,100, 4,100, and 5,100 feet. The latter area, with the exception of
the lower reaches of San Dimas Canyon, is closed to public travel year
long.

THE ENVIRONMENT
Climate

The annual precipitation in the study area averaged about 32 inches
during the period 1933 to 1942.

Only one to two inches of rain can be expected during the dry summer
season May 1st to October 31st. Over 90 percent of the precipitation
occurs during the remainder of the year. This is mostly in the form of
rain, although some snow occurs quite frequently above 4.000 feet ele-
vation.

The mean annual temperature on the Experimental Forest from
1933 to 1941 was 59 degrees F., with a monthly mean of 46 degrees in
January and 75 degrees in July and August. During the same period the
maximum temperature was 110 degrees; the minimum 14 degrees. A
daily range of 30 degrees or more is of frequent occurrence.

The wind velocities are generally quite low. The lower elevations are
subject to frequent fogs in the months of May and June.

Cover Types

The vegetative cover of the study area varies according to the
topography, elevation, and soil. The predominant woody species are hard
leaved and evergreen. Table 1 shows the percentage of the area occupied
by each of the recognized cover types.

1 See page 365 for scientific names.

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

347

Figure 141. Chaparral type in the San Dimas Experimental Forest showing charac-
teristic shrub density and topography. Chamise-buckthorn mixtures with the latter
predominating in the foreground. A service trail and contour trails at 3,100', 4,100' and

5,100' elevation are shown

TABLE 1
Composition of Vegetation in San Dimas Experimental Forest

Type

Percentage

Remarks

f'hamisp

54.4
24.2

5.3

With some Ceanothus crassifolius in mixture throughout.

Chaparral

Oak-woodland

Riparian _

Mixed hard leaved shrubs. At lower altitudes the characteristic species are scrub oak,
Ceanothus oliganthus, manzanita, quinine-bush, toyon, holly-leaf cherry, lemonade-
berry, and coffee-berry. At higher elevations Ceanothus divaricatus and manzanita
are prominent.

Canyon live oak. Only in San Dimas Canyon.

Two subtypes, alder and California live oak.

Bigcone spruce

Ponderosa pine

Grassland

3.8
.2
.1

1.2

Occurs only in San Dimas Canyon.
Occurs only in San Dimas Canyon.
Occurs only in San Dimas Canyon.

Plantation

Occurs only in San Dimas Canyon.

All of the types are occupied by deer. The chamise, chaparral, and
riparian types are the most attractive. The oak-woodland has little food
due to the lack of carpet vegetation but is traversed by deer enroute to
water. The extensive areas where chamise and Ceanothus crassifolius are
dominant provide excellent cover where not too dense. Chamise areas with
scrub oak are generally too dense for occupation by deer, except on the
edges. The lower foothills of the valley edge are commonly clothed with a
black sage-white sage type, affording ready passage to deer. The highest
slopes are often covered witli dense canyon live-oak woods with tangles
of fallen limbs, largely avoided by deer, although a few bucks maintained
trails to water through the tangles.

348

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fire

The protection of the area from fire has resulted in a reduction of the
available food supply for deer. Areas long unburned become almost
impenetrable, in addition to having relatively little palatable food within
reach. Burns with sprouting species of chaparral are quickly invaded by
deer for the abundant and palatable sprouts, although these are obtained
at considerable risk in inadequate escape cover. The chamise types appear
to lose their attractiveness to deer the third year following the fire. In
mixed brush types the effect is more lasting.

Figure 142. Detail of deer habitat on main canyon
slopes of the Arroyo Seco, Angeles National Forest,
showing canyon live oak patch, right center, used for
bedding and resting cover. Prominent trail leads
down point to water. Minor trails lead up ridge and
to the left into low shrub feeding areas

A very large part of the deer habitat in Southern California has been
swepl by fire at least once during the last century. Up to the advent of
rndderu fire fighting much of the area was probably burned several times
in a century. Chaparral vegetation developed as a "fire type." Extensive
fires are known to have occurred about 1823 and in 1869. Scarcely a year
lias passed without one fire or more burning areas of 100 to 5,000 acres,
and several fires of 10,000 to 75,000 acres have occurred since the fire
fighting organization began to function in 1897. Recovery of the vegeta-
tion from a large fire that occurred in the study area in 1919 is complete,

MXJIM DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS 349

with the exception of areas on poor or unstable soil which support only a
sparse growth of chamise or sage. Early photographs indicate that these
latter areas were in a similar condition prior to the 1919 fire. It is believed
significant that species yielding the greatest volume of forage taken would
be rated very low in desirability even on critical winter ranges in Northern
California.

Food

Of the 530 species of higher plants known to occur in the study area,
117 were found to be used for food by deer. It is probable that the majority
of the species are occasionally used during the growing season.

Leaves of scrub oak and toyon comprised 95 percent of the stomach
contents of carcasses examined in the summer and fall, while grassy
material, mixed with a wide variety of herbs, was more common at other
periods. Of the browse species, mountain mahogany and holly-leaf cherry
were favored foods being commonly overbrowsed but not abundant.
Chamise was preferred only in the spring and adventitious growth was
selected if available. Acorns of the California live oak were picked up as
they dropped in the fall and were much preferred to the acorns of scrub
oak and canyon live oak. However, a few of the latter were taken after
the rainy season was under way.

Certain species of plants are especially picked out by deer. The
shoots of lilies, soapplants, death camas, and rein-orchis are nipped off
close to the ground. The flower stalks of yucca are often eaten as soon as
they emerge from the basal crown of leaves. Almost all of the composites
with milky juice, the species of Phacelia, and the annual lupines are well
liked. Along the streams the leaves and stalks of Boyhinin rotudifolia
evening-primrose, monkeyflower, and hedge-nettle are quite acceptable.
Seedlings of pigweed and AmarantMis on silt deposits in the reservoirs
are eaten. Wild snapdragon is a food par excellence.

Other foods included flowers of wild buckwheat, leaves of poison oak
and of the thorny Ceanothus divaricatus, the tender shoots of thistles, and
mushrooms of the genus Russula.

Except for the most favored species, the foods taken are abundant.
Only two small areas of a few acres each show signs of general over-
browsing. On the other hand, the most favored species are commonly
overused. This is particularly true on the well populated areas on
portions of the forest open to hunting.

Water

Surface water was available in the majority of tin' draws during
winter. The upper sections of the draws gradually dry up as the seasons
change from winter to spring. Numerous scops arc well distributed and
some have yearlong flows. Stream pools generally fid with silt, into
which the water sinks by the end of the summer. Bedrock at the lower
end of a silted pool may force water to the surface. Flows over cascades
are temporarily impounded in the pools at the base of the falls. Even
the smallest draws have small depressions where water collects. Smaller
surface flows sometimes evaporate entirely during the day in summer
but there is usually a sufficient amount at night or in cloudy weather
to satisfy the thirst of at least a few deer. The range of individual
deer, especially those occupying a territory near the top of a divide,
varied seasonallv in relation to the availability of water. Very tew <\c>t

350 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

had to travel more than one-quarter mile to reach open water. A con-
siderable number of deer, mainly does and fawns, ranged close to the
reservoirs of canyon bottoms, where water was always available.

Associated Fauna

The most important species sharing the habitat with deer and bear-
ing a direct relation to them are the mountain lion and coyote.

At least two mountain lions ranged through the study area. In the
first year of the study (1940), their tracks were reported on two
occasions. In the second year (1941), sight records of mountain lions
were reported on six occasions in the lower canyons and on top of
divides. A number of deer kills were ascribed to mountain lions.

Coyotes were fairly common in most parts of the study area. Their
tracks were in evidence everywhere — on roads, trails, firebreaks, and
canyon bottoms. The known trapping effort from 1937 to 1941, inclusive,
averaged 4.6 man months per year and the total catch was 162. The
traplines were confined to the roads and varied in location from one
year to another. While the trapping effort appears to have removed
most of the coyotes which traveled the roads, it had little effect on those
individuals that ranged in the less accessible territory. Tracks appeared
on the roads a few days after trapping was discontinued.

Bobcats and foxes are abundant in the study area. There was no
evidence that the bobcat played an important role in deer management.
Roaming dogs are known to have ranged along the roads nearer the
valley and were reported to be chasing deer. There was no evidence that
they killed any deer.

Other

The mineral requirement of deer is met in part by visitations to
licks in lime accumulations. These usually occur in seep areas or on the
sides of semipermanent waterfalls. A number of large licks were found
in San Dimas Canyon. Some were grottoes extending 10 feet into the
canyon wall with stalactites and stalagmites of pinkish color. Narrow
shelves at different levels of a 100-foot-high bank were well packed with
small cavities in the lime. The pockets were invariably found freshly
tracked by deer which clambered along the steep bank to obtain the
mineral laden drip.

THE DEER HERDS

Numbers

Because of the dense cover and the absence of concentrations of
deer at any season of the year, censusing is extremely difficult,

The deer population was estimated on the basis of sight records
obtained mainly by systematically traversing foot trails during the
winter when the deer territory was restricted. For convenience, the
area was divided into sectors and a record kept of the deer seen in each,
individually and as family groups.

Peculiarities of antlers, color patterns of the tail, and distinguishing
marks such as cuts in the ear, pale coat, and the extent of the dark
pattern on the front of the head permitted reidentification of individuals.
The best census record was used as a base, with the addition of records
of recognizably different deer seen on other days. The deer seen in one
sector were then compared with those seen in an adjacent sector. Records

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

351

which seemed to be possible overlaps were taken from the sector of
least occurrence and credited solely to the sector having the larger
number of observations of the deer in question.

The number of deer seen during the first year in the study area
was 396 individuals. In the following year the total was 539. A popula-
tion of 12 to 15 deer per square mile was indicated and agrees with the
estimate for the forest as a whole.

The sector method of listing deer probably involves some duplication
of records which cannot be eliminated by comparison of records in
adjacent sectors; yet the total deer population is considerably higher
than the sight records. In fact, in the dense manzanita thickets and
canyon live oak woods in the higher country, evidence of tracks pointed
to a deer population several times larger than was indicated by sight
records.

It seemed that an increase in deer population occurred during the
second year of the study. This was also indicated by the larger loss of
deer struck by cars along the canyon roads. The heavier snows at higher
eleA^ations may have driven some extra-territorial deer into the census
areas, however, and the census work was concentrated in the best deer
territory during the second year. Therefore the population increase
may only have been slight.

Size and Sex Classification in Field Counts

Except for the period February to May identification as to size and
sex was readily accomplished in the areas where the deer were accus-
tomed to the presence of humans. Deer inhabiting the more remote areas
often slipped into cover before satisfactory identification could be made.
Categories were set up for all deer noted (Table 2).

TABLE 2
Size and Sex of Deer in the San Dimas Study Area

1940

1941

Does

Fawns

Yearling does

Spike bucks

Forked-horns

3-point bucks l '

4-point bucks '

5-point bucks '

6-point bucks '

Adults, not otherwise classified

Bucks not classified, but not including spike bucks or small forked-horns with short tines.
Unclassified

119

81

22

19

27

7

4

1

8
21

87

196

116

29

36

77
14
9
2
1
1

It
It

Totals-

396

.539

1 Western count : number of tines per antler.

Size Classification in Kill

Since 1935, information on the harvest of legally killed bucks has
been gathered on the Angeles National Forest, including weight hog
dressed, point numbers, antler spread and beam diameter, and notations
on location of the kill, body condition, and shedding of the pelage and
velvet. The present paper analyses data recorded from 2,681 bucks taken
from 1936 to 1941, inclusive, for which these data are complete.

352

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Classification of the data was made on the basis of weight and antler
beam diameter. Actual weights were secured of 52 percent of the bucks
taken by hunters. Point number and antler spread were found to bear
little correlation with body weight or antler beam diameter. Brow tines
were absent in all yearling deer. There was a progressive increase in the
percentage of bucks bearing brow tines as age and weight increased. The
distribution of antler beam diameter and weight classes is shown in Table
3. While the correlation is significant, a number of deer fall outside when
a classification is made on the basis of either weight or antler beam
diameter. This appears to be due mostly to the fact that fawns born in

TABLE 3

Classification of 2,681 An
and A

geles National Forest
ntler Beam Diameter

Buc

ks by W

eight

Beam diameter
in 1/10 in.

W

eight groups-

-pounds

50-
59

60-
69

70-
79

80-
89

90-
99

100-
109

110-
119

120-
129

130-
139

140-
149

150-
159

160-
169

170-

179

180-
189

200+

Totals

2 and 3

1

7
17

15

7
1

1
23
36

,

54
17

12

142

172

50

2

1
10

115

222

100

9

4

3

8

70

216

140

31

9

1

_ »

8

37

109
175
35

7
1
1
1

1

26

85

139

76

23

3

1

3

32
71
46
34

4

2

3

11
34
42
20
4

2

2

3
9
14
8
1
2
1

74

.6.

2

1
1

1

and

521

1
1
2

1

2

.8 and .9

1.0 and 1.1

913

10
10

7
2

1
2

1
2
2
2

1

748

1.2 and 1.3

269

1 4 and 1.5

117

1 6 and 1 7

18

1 8 and 1 9

2

1

/

2 0 nlns

1

2

3

11

Totals

5

47

182

378

463

475

374

354

193

119

42

33

8

6

2

2681

the early part of the fawning period enjoy a distinct advantage, for at
that time, feed is succulent, resulting in a plentiful supply of milk. When
the fawn begins to graze it still has some succulent feed to start on. The
latest born fawns are affected by a reduced milk supply, relatively earlier
weaning, and poor feed when they begin to graze. It was estimated that

1 his could result in a difference of 30 pounds or more between the earliest
and latest born fawns. It was definitely observed that the late born fawns
are much smaller and in poorer condition at the time of the change to
winter pelage.

Under the two factors of weight and antler beam diameter the kill
has been classified into four classes, two of which are subdivided. These
are shown in Table 4.

A detailed description of the classes follows :

Class I. Yearlings (as indicated by dentition ; temporary premolars
mostly present) to 90 pounds in weigbt (one exception) with an antler
beam diameter of less than 0.7 inch. Point classes predominantly 1x2 and

2 x 2 ; a few in the 2x3 class. Antler spread from 4 to 17 inches.

Class 2. Mostly two-year-old deer (with permanent premolars but
slightly worn) weighing at least 60 pounds (two exceptions) but less
than 130 pounds and with an antler beam diameter of at least 0.4 inch but
less than 1 .2 inches. All point classes from 1 x 2 to 4 x 4 represented, with
spreads of 4 to 25 inches. (One aberrant lxl buck weighed 120 pounds
and had an antler spread of 3 inches.)

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

TABLE 4

Scheme of Classification of 2,681 Legally Killed Bucks in the

Angeles National Forest

Weight in 10-pound groups on x axis

Antler beam diameter in tenth-inch units on y axis

353

50 60 70 SO 90

100

110

120

130 to 210

2 and 3 Class I Yearlings
100 deer

4 and

5

6

and

7

8 and

9

10 and 11

Class II
Mainly 2-year-olds.
9G7 deer

Class III

Mature Deer

of Less Than

Superior Rank

Subclass A. With normal
antler development
1,027 deer

12 and 13
14 and 15
16 and 17
18 and 19
20 and over

Subclass B. With superior
antler beam diameter
204 deer

Class IV
Superior Weight
Classes
Subclass A. Inferior
as to antler beam
diameter

187 deer

Subclass B. With
superior beam diameter
206 deer

Class 3. Mature deer of less than 130 pounds in weight and with an
antler beam diameter of at least 0.6 inch.

Subclass A. Antler deA'elopment moderate ; the beam diameter
less than 1.2 inches (two exceptions in the 80-pound group). All
point classes from 1 x 2 to 1 x 4 represented, with spreads ranging
from 4 to 25 inches.

Subclass B. Antlers of superior size, of trophy value, with a
beam diameter of 1.2 inches or more. Point classes from 1 x 2 to 4x4
(one odd, 3x5) with spreads from 8 to 25 inches.
Class 4. Superior deer of at least 130 pounds in weight.

Subclass A. Antlers less than 1.2 inches beam diameter, of
inferior trophy value. Point classes from 1 x 2 to 4 x 4 and odd (1x3
and 2x4). Spread 6 to 19 inches.

Subclass B. Antlers of high trophy value, with a beam diameter
of 1.2 or more inches. Point classes from 1 x 2 to 5 x 6 and odd (2 x 4
and 3x5). Spreads of 8 to 25 inches.

Antler Development

The first indication of antlers in buck fawns is a blunt bump at tbe
side of the front of the head. On this bump — the pedicel — the antler

354

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

proper develops. The rate of growth of the antler in yearling deer is slow,
and some deer attain spikes only two inches in length during a period
of five or six months. The rate of growth does not exceed 1.5 inches per
month in small fork-horns but in the largest bucks may exceed an average
of 2.5 inches per month.

Shedding of the "velvet" antler covering occurs principally in
August. The best evidence on this point is found in the records of the
deer kill presented in Table 5 and Figure 143.

TABLE 5

Loss of Velvet in 2,934 Legally Killed Bucks in Angeles National Forest

(By five-day periods — last period with only two days)

Antler condition

410
244

August

4

4
123

September

October

121
300

20

25

30

9

14

19

24

29

4

9

14

In velvet

19
130

7
53

13
106

1
50

10
505

1

86

3
120

0
178

0
104

4

234

0

Hard

108

PERCENTAGE OF DEER WITH HARD ANTLERS
AS HUNTING SEASON PROGRESSES

Angeles National Forest 1935-1941

IOO

80

60

Z
UJ

o

en

UJ

Q_ 40

20

© tf

'o

-@ — %r*>

/©

/
/

IO

20

30

IO

20

30

AUGUST

SEPTEMBER

Figuku 143

The open season in each of the six years for which data are avail-
able was one month. The opening date in 1936 was August 15th ; in 1937

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

355

and 1938 the season opened on September 15th ; and in 1939, 1940 and
1941 the opening date was August 10th.

Breeding

Bucks were seen with does by the middle of September. Rutting
activity is general during the last week in September and the first three
weeks of October. The earliest fawning date evident indicates that breed-
ing occurs as early as the first week in September. Rutting activity is
sporadic after late October, with the coming of cooler weather following
the first fall rains. An occasional buck and doe were seen in company as
late as December 15th. Breeding at that late date would explain an occa-
sional record of small spotted fawns seen late in the fall after the majority
of the fawns had attained winter pelage.

The census data in the study area for 1941 indicated a total of 117
bucks of forked-horn point class or better in comparison with 193 does of
breeding age. These figures give a buck-doe ratio of 60 :100 for this refuge
area.

A few old bucks were observed during the height of the rut in deep
canyons far from any known does. One of four spike bucks with long
antlers having a beam diameter larger than usual was seen engaged in
intense rutting activity.

The bulk of the fawn crop is dropped in May. However, the whole
period of fawning seems to extend over a period of three months, as a few
undersized fawns seen in late fall were thought to have been dropped
about July 1st. One fawn found on April 5th appeared to be less than a
week old.

The bicornuate type of uterus in deer leads one to expect twin births.
The smaller does seen in late spring were generally accompanied by single
fawns, while mature does seen during the same period usually had twins.

A low rate of survival is indicated. A comparison of the number of
does and fawns seen in the study area, month by month, is shown in Table
6. A part of the indicated loss of fawns in March and April may result

TABLE 6
Numbers of Does and Fawns Sighted by Months

May

June

July

Aug.

Sept.

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

Does

18
3

20
10

29
26

28
26

5.3
39

48
44

78
56

65

47

66
51

54
48

28
12

19

Fawns

9

from the dispersal of young males. Forty-four percent of the does with
fawns had twins in July and August as compared with 6 percent in
March and April.

Movements

Deer were generally active for a large part
winter when the days were short and the weather
members of a family group fed actively during the
of daylight. Individual deer would bed clown to
members of the group continued to feed. Feedin
tinued until midday with some deer in evidence
all members of a group rested from midday unfi
dusk, when feeding became general.

of the day during the
not too inclement. The
first two or three hours
ruminate, while other
g and ruminating con-
at all times. Generally
1 about an hour before

.°,.-)G CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Deer were not active at midday in the spring. Very few individuals
were observed between the hours of 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. on sunny days,
although deer wore seen in numbers up to midday on cloudy days with
cool temperatures. The tendency of the deer to feed during the cooler
hours increased as the weather grew warmer.

As winter approached, the activity of the deer gradually spread
over more hours of daylight. Deer were generally active on frosty morn-
ings until the sun warmed the air.

No definite migrations occur within the study area since all of the
territory is suitable for occupation at all seasons of the year.

Information on the movements of individual deer was obtained by
trapping and releasing them after ear-tagging or belling. An adult doe
was trapped near Dry Lake in the summer of 1941 and released after
belling and ear-tagging. During the remainder of the summer this animal
remained in a wooded cove of about 10 acres. She appeared to be the
leader of a small group of does and fawns which followed her lead when
she was flushed. The entire group of deer left the cove when it was
blanketed with six inches of snow, the heaviest storm of the year, and
moved a few hundred yards across a low saddle to a slope with southwest
exposure where the snow quickly melted. The group returned to the
wooded cove in about two weeks when it became free of snow. Following a
second snowfall the same behavior was noted. The entire group of deer
remained within a cpiarter of a mile of the cove during 10 months of
observation.

Through the cooperation of the California Division of Fish and
Game, a second doe, which had been trapped elsewhere, was released in
the center of the study area after belling. This doe was seen once in the
next two months, about a mile distant from the point of release. She was
found several months later at the edge of the foothills more than five
miles distant from the point of release. She remained in a restricted
territory of less than 10 acres during the next six months.

The introduction of other deer did not furnish useful information
on movements.

The limited data furnished by marked deer indicate that does in
this area spend the greater part of their lives on a few acres, with seasonal
movements just sufficient to escape adverse weather conditions. Within
the experimental area the distance of movement from the preferred terri-
tory during the two years of study did not exceed a quarter of a mile.
Elsewhere, higher elevations and more severe weather conditions force
some deer to move greater distances.

There is less information on the movements of bucks, yet there arc
definite indications that their movements are quite restricted. Some
individual bucks could be recognized, and these were found to remain in
definite and restricted territories. They move more freely during the
rut, Inn at other seasons of the year their movements do not greatly
exceed those of other classes.

Most antlers are dropped in February, but the period of shedding
extends over 10 to 12 weeks. The earliest record of loss of antlers was
thai of a spike buck seen on December 24th with one antler gone. A large
buck observed on January 2d had lost both antlers.

Quantitative data on the progress of shedding are furnished by two
censuses made in the best buck territory. ()f 27 bucks seen on January

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS 357

21st, six, or 22 percent, were bareheaded, three others (a spike buck, a
forked-horn, and a three-pointer) had each lost one antler, while the
remaining 18 bucks retained both antlers. On February 18th, in the same
area, eight bucks out of ten were bareheaded ; a three-pointer retained
one antler, and a forked-horn retained both. The latest date of a buck
observed retaining both antlers was March 5th.

Antlers may be lost accidentally at other times of the year. A buck
with one antler missing was seen in the study area on October 15th.

The deer kill records provided a wealth of material on the dimen-
sions of antlers. These records were confined to the legal kill of forked-
horn bucks or larger, with the addition of a few spike bucks illegally
taken.

Antler beam diameters varied from 0.3 inch to over 2.0 inches.
The antler spread of 2,681 bucks taken by hunters ranged from 3 to 25
inches. The degree of spread had very little correlation with the beam
diameter or body weight, the range of the spread being wide in deer of
every class of weight and antler beam diameter. The diversity of the
spread was due to two distinct types of antlers. The antlers of some deer
arched only slightly, with the tips slightly separated. Other bucks carried
antlers well arched, with the tips well separated.

The branching of antlers was diverse. In few cases were points
symmetrical in length and angle of divergence from the beam. About
80 percent of the bucks had the same number of points on both antlers,
about 19 percent had an extra point on one antler, while less than
1 percent had two extra points on one side.

Death Losses

Two mountain lions were known to be in the study area, and 162
coyotes were removed from it within a five-year period. However, rela-
tively few deer carcasses were found which could definitely be ascribed
to predators. The great majority had been cleaned by scavengers before
being found. Evidence as to the cause of death therefore was often lack-
ing. During the two years of field work, five kills were known to be from
mountain lions, and probably three others. Three deer were known to
be killed by coyotes, and probably three others.

Falls are the main cause of accidents. Deer were seen sliding back
down roadcuts on many occasions when their momentum just failed to
carry them to the top as they sought to escape. While deer generally
keep on their feet as they slide, this is not alwTays the case. A buck flushed
from his bed in a canyon bottom attempted to escape by scaling the
canyon wall. He paused after ascending 30 feet, then began sliding and
tumbled to the stream bed, nearly catching one foot behind a protruding
root. The carcass of a yearling was found with one leg bone which had
healed after being broken.

Sixteen deer are known to have perished from falls. Six of these
were old bucks which tumbled into canyons where the walls were nearly
perpendicular. In one case the cause of the accident was clear. Tracks
showed that the buck was attracted by succulent vegetation on a slippery
bank and in attempting to reach it slipped and plunged into the canyon
a hundred feet below.

Drowning is known to have accounted for the loss of two deer. A
newly born fawn fell into a pond, and a yearling drowned as it tried to
cross a narrow canyon during a freshet.

358 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Two deer apparently died from fright. One was frightened from
its bed by shouting and collapsed as it tried to escape. Another deer just
outside the study area wandered onto cultivated land, where it ran about
wildly, finally succumbing to fright and exhaustion.

Accessibility to a metropolitan area makes considerable poaching
probable. Three deer carcasses were found bearing signs of having been
illegally shot. Commercial killing of deer is known to have occurred in

1940. Several groups of poachers were suspected and one arrested. Poach-
ing is restricted to the edge of the study area, and the extent of loss on
this account can only be surmised.

No plants definitely known to be poisonous to deer were found in
the study area. Three species of larkspur of unknown toxic quality were
found, but in such quantity as to make it extremely doubtful if deer
could obtain a lethal quantity. Poisonous mushrooms of the genus
Amanita were found, but none had been disturbed by deer.

A number of deer were killed when struck by cars on the canyon
roads, particularly on the high-speed road into San Antonio Canyon.
The known loss on this road in 1940 was five, while in 1941 the loss
jumped to 24. In addition, eight other deer were struck by cars and
thought to be too badly injured to survive. The largest loss was at the
time of the rut when the deer were less cautious.

Nine deer were taken under permit by ranchers, on account of
crop damage, in 1940, and one in 1941. Previous to the study the number
so taken was larger.

Practically all of the study area is within a game refuge. In the lower
fringe open to shooting, the known hunter take was 14 in 1940 and 16
in 1941.

One buck was reported to have received a fatal wound while fight-
ing with another buck. Five adult bucks from a group of nine which
frequented the vicinity of a road camp at the edge of the study area
were each blind in one eye supposedly the result of fighting during the
rutting season.

The cause of death of 36 animals whose carcasses were cleaned by
scavengers could not be ascertained.

The known loss of deer in the study area was 68 in 1940 and 75 in

1941, but considering all factors this can represent only a fraction of
the actual loss.

There was no direct evidence of loss by disease during the study
which started in 1940. However, late in 1938 there was an outbreak of
disease in the western part of the refuge which resulted in the decima-
tion of the herds in the Arroyo Seco district over the next three years.
The disease was never definitely identified. It quickly spread over the
west end of the San Gabriel Mountains. There was some loss in the
Saugus district, but there it hardly reached epidemic proportions. The
focus of the loss was within the refuge which gives rise to the suspicion
that inviolate refugees may create conditions suitable for the develop-
ment of disastrous epidemics. According to returned tags received by
the California Division of Fish and Game, the deer kill was maintained
during the period throughout the remainder of Los Angeles County and
in adjoining counties indicating a nearly stable population elsewhere.

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

359

The Hunt

The record of hunter effort and success in the Angeles Forest is
available from 1935. Data from the Arroyo Seco and Saugus districts
(Table 7) illustrate the extremely heavy hunting effort in Southern
California where the number of hunters on favored areas may exceed
100 per square mile on opening day. Table 7 shows that the buck kill in
the Arroyo Seco districts held up well for three years until the deer
population broke as the result of disease. The take for the four succeeding
years was roughly one-half that of each preceding year. At the same
time hunting effort fell off as the degree of success dwindled, but there
was a lag and the ratio of effort to success grew steadily wider.

TABLE 7

Hunting Effort

and Success in Arroyo Seco

and Saugus Distncl

s

Year

Arroyo Seco District adjoining
refuge 4B

Saugus District remote from any
refuge

Number
deer killed

Number
hunters

Success
ratio

Number
deer killed

Number
hunters

Success
ratio

1935

189
152
160
79
48
22
13

3,634
4,974
4,755
3,763
3,314
2,570
1,940

1:19

1:33

1:30

1:48

1:72

1:107

1:138

344
427
■522
436
315
181
190

4,048
7,945
5,722
6,144

12,935
9,796

12,205

1:12

1936

1:19

1937

1:11

1938

1:14

1939

1:41

1940

1:54

1941

1:64

1 The opening of the Sawmill Mountain Road, seven miles long, gave hunters access to some territory long
closed.

In the Saugus district, the deer herd held up well from 1935 to 1938,
with a notable increase in the take in 1937 when the Sawmill Mountain
Road was opened to the public. In 1939 and 1940 there was some decrease
in the deer population and the total take dropped but then stabilized.
The ratio of effort to success widened not only because of the reduced
take but also because of an increase in hunting effort, a part of which
was a shift from the Arroyo Seco district where "luck" was poor.

The length of the hunting season loses its assumed importance when
the kill by periods is studied. The percentage of the kill by five-day periods
over the seven years is shown in Figure 144. The lack of the usual peak
for the final period is attributed to the fact that other portions of the
State opened for deer hunting the day following the close of this district.

With over 55 percent of the kill occurring during the first five days
of the season, the small, well spaced additional kill during the following
periods indicates that length of season here is of minor importance. How-
ever, spreading hunting effort over a long space of time makes for some-
what more skillful and safer hunting, and less crowding of public camps.

Refuges

A large refuge of 293,000 acres was established on the Angeles
National Forest in 1929. As previously indicated its purpose in part was
to reduce human use of the extremely valuable watersheds and thereby
remove a threat of fire. As a refuge it was expected to provide a reservoir
of bucks for breeding purposes or for an overflow of deer to stock the
surrounding area.

360

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PERCENTAGE OF KILL BY FIVE-DAY PERIODS
Angeles National Forest 1935-1941

60

50

40

UJ

O 30

tr

UJ
Q.

20

2 3

FIVE-DAY PERIODS

Figure 14 4

The units into which the kill is segregated in Table 7 are separate
topographic areas, one in the San Gabriel Mountains adjacent to the
refuge and the other on Sawmill-Liebre Mountain remote from refuge
influence. The former area has the highest capacity for deer, having a
higher average elevation, and is considerably better in food production
per unit of area. The difference in kill per square mile is not as great as
the difference in food production. There is no indication therefore that
the refuge has improved hunting within the area it might influence.
Instead it has reduced hunting opportunity and success to an extent
equivalent to the area it occupies.

A comparison of the quality of bucks on the study area which has
long been closed to shooting with those taken in an area adjacent to the
refuge and with those taken in an area remote from the refuge is shown
in Table 8. These include those censused in the study area in 1941 and
those taken in the areas open to hunting in 1941 in the Arroyo Seco and
Saugus districts. Under field conditions the classification of observed
bucks into the categories given in Table 4 lacks the precision made pos-
sible by measurement of killed bucks. An approximation is made by com-
bining Classes I, II, III-A as used in Table 4 to receive deer of small and
medium size and by lumping Classes III-B, IV-A and B to include deer
of superior size and antler development.

Only 22 percent of the deer taken either adjacent to or remote from
a refuge were superior animals, having escaped the hunter long enough

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS

361

TABLE 8

Quality of Bucks Taken in Open Territory and of Those Sighted

in the Refuge in 1941

Area

Number of
bucks

Percent in

Classes I, II

and IIIA

Percent in
Classes IIIB,
IVA and IVB

Saugus l (from kill record)

170
14
93

77.4
78.5
48.4

22.6

Arroyo Seco (from kill record). -

21.5

Refuge IB, Studv area (sight record)

51.6

1 North of the Santa .Maria River, remote from refuge.

to reach full maturity. Within the refuge, over one-half of the bucks seen
attained such size. It is not indicated that any appreciable number of
deer moved out of the refuge into open territory nearby to improve the
number or quality of deer taken.

Hunting has not reduced bucks sufficiently to affect breeding in the
area open to shooting. During the seven-year period that detailed records
of hunting effort and success were kept, the hunters' take declined
markedly within the area that might have been influenced by the refuge
but was maintained to a much greater degree elsewhere.

DISCUSSION
Limiting Factors

\Yeather rarely kills deer in the chaparral country. Storms that
might do so are very infrequent and deer can escape to lower elevations.
Such losses that might be attributed to storms would merely be the hurry-
ing of the demise of an otherwise weakened animal.

There is no indication that predatory animals are a major factor in
the deer population. The drain from this source can be but a very small
percentage of the breeding potential. Deer numbers increased beyond the
apparent habitat capacity with a near normal predator population and
reduced sharply with no obvious change in predator pressure.

Some areas are without deer for a portion of the year because of lack
of water. It is not known if this seasonal lack is a problem.

The legal hunting of bucks has not appeared to have prevented the
effective breeding of does, and the breeding potential may be expected
to operate normally.

Tt is concluded from the conditions observed that health is the limit-
ing factor. This can also be deduced from the evidence that other limit-
ing factors — weather, predation, and heavy hunting pressure — are inef-
fective.

The foods taken are adequate but of questionable nutritive quality,
the bulk of them being thorny, hard-leaved material.

it is believed that holding the population to a lower average level is
desirable, therein- increasing the level of nutrition, at least from the more
desirable species, mcreasimr resistance and reducing the opportunity for
contact and spread of disease. In that manner it should be possible to
harvest the maximum number of animals.

Possible Hunting Seasons

The extremely high value of the watershed lands in Southern Cali-
fornia, the high fire hazard, and the serious results in floods, siltation.

362

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

and reduced production of usable water make necessary an almost total
elimination of human use over a large area during the fire season.

This was a major factor in the creation of Refuge 1-B and others,
by legislative action. It has also caused the U. S. Forest Service to close
additional areas to public use and has resulted in restrictions in regard
to travel and use of other areas by county ordinance. For similar reasons
particularly that of fire hazard, hunters are excluded from a major por-
tion of the privately owned ranges in Southern California.

Only by placing the hunting season outside of the fire season (June
lst-November 30th) can there be a greatly increased opportunity for
deer hunters to enjoy their sport.

LIFE HISTORY OF DEER IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
IN RELATION TO POSSIBLE HUNTING SEASONS

Shedding Velvet

Hard Antlers

Dropping Antlers

Breeding

Fire Season

Possible Hunting Seasons

2S :-:-:-x«-:-xj-V

l[

June July Aug.

Sept. Oct. Nov.

Figure 145

Dec. Jan. Feb.

Such a season was opened in Southern California December 11, 1943.
Deer averaged eight pounds lighter than in previous years, due probably
to exertion during the rut and to a seasonal decline in forage quality.
A small sampling of hunter reaction by forest officers indicated that
about 30 percent of the successful hunters favored the winter season,
30 percent were rather violently opposed to it and the remainder indicated
no particular preference.

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS 363

As indicated in Figure 145, there are at least two possible seasons :
August 20th-September 20th, extending from the time most horns are
rubbed of velvet and are good trophies, to the beginning of the rut, after
which the sporting qualities of hunting are lower and Californians have
an unfounded aversion to deer meat. During this period only a limited
area is open to public use. Temperatures are high, hunting is confined
mostly to early morning hours and much meat spoils before it can be
gotten into refrigeration. The other period is between the end of the rut
and before antlers drop. During this period bucks are lower in quality,
having little fat, but are of good flavor (Cook and others, 1949). There
is no loss because of the weather. At this time the fire season is over, a
much larger area of both public and private land is open, some rain has
fallen and weather is normally excellent for hunting. However the reverse
was true in 1941 when the December season was tried. In many states the
hunt is either during or after the rut.

Bag Limit

Recently the limit was reduced from two bucks to one per hunter. A
one-buck limit has to a limited extent the effect of encouraging hunters
to try for the larger deer instead of killing the first deer seen. A one-buck
limit would have improved slightly the success ratio shown in Table 7.
Obviously, the success ratio does not entitle any hunter more than one
deer. On the other hand, bucks are not being overshot and the number
that would be taken as a second buck under a two-buck limit would be of
little moment. The use of such a management tool should be based on con-
ditions over a wider area.

The occurrence of epidemic disease indicated a population above
habitat capacity and would direct management to holding numbers at a
lower level. The take on these herds has not been adequate either from the
standpoint of efficiency of harvest or for the maintenance of a healthy
productive herd. The removal of specified numbers of does is strongly indi-
cated in order to secure a maximum harvest and keep the size of the herd
down to a safe, healthy level.

Habitat Management

The opportunities to manipulate cover in the interest of deer are
few. In some areas in Southern California, the development of additional
water supplies might be helpful. Firebreaks and roadsides provide
"edges" and are commonly used by deer. This indicates that breaking
up the brush fields that contain good forage species by tractor ways would
improve the habitat. Because of the high watershed values the manipula-
tion of the heavy brush cover is strictly limited.

CONCLUSIONS

1. A three-year study was made of a herd of California mule deer
and its chaparral habitat within a game refuge on the Angeles National
Forest, California. The five-year record of hunting effort and deer kill
was studied for the portion of the forest opened to deer hunting.

2. Census and classification of animals was made by sight records
over a two-year period. The breeding season was established, the periods
of antler development, rubbing and shedding were recorded. The buck
kill for the forest was classified as to size and antler development.

364 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

3. The California mule deer is markedly smaller in the chaparral
forests of Southern California than the same race in the higher, more
humid forests of the Sierra Nevada.

4. Forage, though abundant, is low in quality. The most desirable
species are not common. They are often overbrowsed.

5. Neither predation, hunting under the existing buck law, nor
weather appears to be an important factor in controlling the size of the
deer herd. It is deduced that health is the prime factor. This was borne
out by the occurrence of an epidemic that resulted in heavy losses in
deer on the forest.

6. A very heavy hunting pressure was noted with a normal hunting
success of less than one successful hunter in 15.

7. When hunter success was compared in areas adjoining and remote
from a large refuge, it was concluded that the refuge (under the existing
buck law) contributed nothing to the immediately surrounding area open
to shooting either in number of animals taken or in their trophy qualities.
Instead, the opportunity for successful hunting was apparently reduced
by the proportion the refuge deer numbers were to the total population.
In addition, the lack of mobility of females in this area would indicate
that the refuge is not a management tool under any form of harvesting.
Instead management must be applied in the areas open to shooting.

8. Placing the hunt after the rut would get it outside of the fire
season and permit the opening of considerable additional areas of
national forest and privately owned ranch land to hunting. Bucks are
less desirable at that time, having lost much of their fat, yet at present
much meat is lost by spoilage since the hunting season is in the hottest
period of the summer.

9. Possibilities for habitat management are limited. Manipulation of
the chaparral cover by fire or by other means will increase food produc-
tion for deer. However, the high watershed values in Southern California
preclude extensive use of such practices.

MULE DEER IN CHAPARRAL FORESTS 365

APPENDIX

Common and Scientific Names of Plants Used in Text

Alder Alnus rhombifolia

Big cone spruce Pseudotsuga macrocarpa

Buckthorn Ceanothus crassifolius and C. oliganthus

Buckwheat Eriogonum fasciculatum var. foliolosum

California sagebrush Artemesia calif ornica

Canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis

Chamise Adenostoma fasciculatum

Chaparral whitethorn Ceanothus leucodermis

Coast live oak Quercus agrifoliu

Death camas Zygadeneus fremontii

Dwarf interior live oak Quercus urizlizenii var. frutescens

Evening primrose Oenothera spp.

Hairy ceanothus Ceanothus oliganthus

Holly leaf cherry Primus ilicifolia

Manzanita Arctostaphylos spp.

Mountain mahogany Cerococarpus betuloides

Pigweed Chenopodium album

Poison oak Rhus diversiloba

Ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa

Quinine bush Garry a veachii

Rein -orchis Habeneria leucostachys

Scrub oak Quercus dumosa

Soap plant Chlorogalum pomeridianum

Sugar bush Rhus ovata

Toyon Photina arbutifolia

White sage Salvia alpina

Yucca Yucca whipplei

REFERENCES

Cook, Bessie B., Lois E. Witham, Marion Olmstead and Agnes Fay Morgan

1949. The influence of seasonal and other factors on the acceptability and food value
of the meat of two subspecies of California deer and of antelope. Hilgardia.
vol. 19, p. 265-284.

Cowan, Ian McTaggart

1936. Distribution and variation in deer (genus Odocoileus) of the Pacific coastal
region of North America. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 22, p. 155-246.
Dixon, Joseph S.

1934. A study of the life history and food habits of mule deer in California. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 20, p. 181-282 ; 315-354.
Johnson, F. W.

1939. Deer kill records — a guide to management of deer hunting. Calif. Fish and
Game, vol. 25, p. 96-165.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FISHERY

AND ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE SQUID,

LOLIGO OPALESCENS1

By W. Gordon Fields
Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove

INTRODUCTION

The fishery for the squid, Loligo opalescens Berry, is comparatively
old in California, dating at least to the establishment in 1863 of a Chinese
fishing village near the present site of the Hopkins Marine Station on the
southern shore of Monterey Bay. For many years this industry remained
of minor importance, but since 1942 it has become one of the major
fisheries of the Monterey Bay area. In 1946 squid landed at Monterey

Figure 146. A 12-inch squid, Loligo opalescens. Photograph by J. B. Phillips

exceeded even the sardine catch of the same region in value, and brought
the fishermen $1,214,091. Elsewhere there has been little development of
this fishery, although Loligo opalescens is found from Puget Sound to
Lower California, with the result that 99 percent of the squid caught
along the California coast during the past 14 years has been taken within
a very few miles of Monterey.

The present study of the fishery and of the biology of the animal
upon which it is based was undertaken to increase our previously frag-
mentary knowledge of this commercially valuable mollusk. This prelimi-
nary report summarizes observations on a few phases of the investigation ;
further work is being done on all parts of the problem.

1 Submitted for publication March, 1950.

(366)

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID

367

I wish to express my appreciation for advice and for assistance given
ine to Dr. Tage Skogsberg and Dr. Rolf L. Bolin of the Hopkins Marine
Station, to Mr. Julius B. Phillips of the California Division of Fish and
Game, to my colleagues at the Hopkins Marine Station, and to the men
in the fishing industry. My thanks go also to the Bureau of Marine
Fisheries of the California Division of Fish and Game, which has cooper-
ated in every way in addition to providing a fellowship to assist continua-
tion of this program.

HISTORY

Any understanding of the squid fishery requires the consideration
of several factors. Methods and intensity of fishing, means of preserva-
tion of the catch, domestic demand and availability of foreign markets —
not meagerness of squid population — seem to have been the most import-
ant factors regulating the amount taken in the past, although there
appear to be natural fluctuations in abundance as well.

The original fishing method, described by Collins (1892), was to
row a skiff with a blazing torch at the bow about the bay at night until a
school of squid had been attracted to it, whereupon two accompanying
skiffs would set a small purse seine, about 180 feet long and 18 feet deep,
around the school. Considerable numbers were taken in this primitive
and laborious manner, sun dried, and exported chiefly to China.

The same author reported that the total weight of cured fisheries
products shipped from Monterey during 1888 was 280,000 pounds. This
included "quantities" of small fish and abalone, but, as the monthly
variations presented by Collins conform closely to the present pattern

Figure 147. Squid being unloaded from large skiffs into the hopper of a cannery suc-
tion pump. Boats in the background are still on the squid fishing grounds. Photograph

by J. B. Phillips, Monterey, May 1946

368 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of squid catches, we may assume that much of this Avas squid — possibly
about 100 tons.

According to Wilcox (1907) the same fishing methods persisted with
little change through 1904. The squid catch in that year was about 125
tons. In 1905 the lampara net, capable of taking from 5 to 20 tons in a
single haul, was introduced by the Italian fishermen. Using this vastly
superior equipment they took complete control of the squid fishing,
although the Chinese and Japanese continued to dry and market the
catch. The lampara net has remained standard equipment on the smaller
boats to the present time, but in recent years many larger boats have been
using modern purse seines. When squid are scarce fishing is still done at
night because schools are easier to find and identify in darkness ; during
seasons when squid are congregated over exactly known spawning areas
the fishing activities shift to early daylight hours.

Scofield (1924) stated that the annual catch varied greatly, but
usually was from 100 to 150 tons a year. He ascribed the fluctuations to
changes in abundance, although he stated that catch alone is a poor cri-
terion of size of population. As no records were kept prior to 1916, the
catch in some years may have greatly exceeded the reported average.
For example, Heath (1917) stated "Five thousand odd tons were taken
in a single season, ' ' but he gave neither date nor source of information.

Figure 148. California sriuid landings, 1916-1948

From records of the Bureau of Marine Fisheries, data have been
drawn for Figure 148 which shows the annual squid landings in Cali-
fornia from 1916 to 1948, inclusive. The catch in 1916 was about 140
tons; until 1932 it fluctuated above this amount, the peak being 5,500
tons in 1930. The average annual catch for the 10-year period of 1923-32
was 2,100 tons. Most of this product was dried for shipment to China.
Phillips (1937) ascribed the varying catch during this period to the
instability of China's silver exchange and to competition from Japan's

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID 369

squid fishery. Owing to financial conditions the Oriental market was
closed in 1933. Since then no squid has been dried except for 70 tons in
1946. Apparently this venture was not successful, because it has not been
repeated.

Fortunately new methods of preserving the catch had been
developed, and new markets had become available. Records show that
196 cases of squid were canned in 1920, and that some squid has been
canned every year since then except in 1927 and 1932. During the 20-
year period 1923-1942 the annual pack was. on the average, 12,500 cases,
and exceeded 20,000 cases in seven of those years. Each case contained
48 cans ; the nine-ounce size was commonly packed, although one-pound,
half-pound and seven-ounce cans were used to a limited extent. A small
part of the canned product was sold in the United States and the
remainder was exported chiefly to Greece.

Classic (1929) reported that the freezing of squid for the domestic
market began about 1926. Freezing and canning maintained the fishery
at somewhat more than 400 tons annually from 1933 to 1942. Lately the
demand for the frozen product has increased so that it alone takes up this
amount each year.

Classic (1949) states that before 1935 the usual price for squid to be
dried for export was $8 to $15 per ton ; $25 a ton was received for catches
destined to be sold, fresh or frozen, in the domestic market. Lately
approximately $60 per ton has been paid by the canneries, and $80 by
the dealers in fresh and frozen squid. During the past 10 years the average
prices received by the fishermen for squid for all purposes were :

1935 $59 per ton 1944 $55perton

1939 42 per ton 1945 55 per ton

1940 33 per ton 1946 63 per ton

1941 37.50 per ton 1947 54 per ton

1942 66 per ton 1948 54 per ton

1943 58 per ton

Under lend-lease, and later for the United Nations Relief and Reha-
bilitation Administration, large quantities of canned squid were pur-
chased for export to Mediterranean countries and to the Philippine
Islands. With a profitable market for the whole catch assured, many large
purse seine boats and additional canneries entered the squid industry.
The catch rose to 19,000 tons in 1946. In that year 643,843 cases of squid
were canned ; the average annual pack for the five years 1943-1947 was
263,871 cases. Since 1942 the one-pound can has been used almost exclu-
sively, so each case represents 48 pounds. The annual catch continued at
about 10,000 tons through 1948 while the Philippine market was being
exploited.

Changes in other phases of the fishing industry affect the squid
fishery. During the period 1934-1945 the seasonal sardine catch at Mon-
terey varied between 100.000 and 250,000 tons. The addition of larger
and more efficient boats to the fishimr fleet greatlv increased its fishing
capacity; the number of canneries and reduction plants in the Monterey
district rose from 18 in 1941 to 41 in 1947. In 1946 the sardine catch fell
to 36,000 tons, in 1947 to 18,000 tons.

Thus we find in the Monterey Bay region a large investment in can-
neries and in fishing boats and equipment, and also a considerable popu-
lation which depends upon the fishing industry for its livelihood. "With

370 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

men and equipment idle half the year and no assurance of adequate
returns during the formerly lucrative sardine season, there is a tremen-
dous economic pressure to develop other oceanic crops. Of these, the
squid is potentially one of the most valuable because it appears in huge
numbers and because it may be captured and preserved by present
methods and with existing equipment.

The economic pressure caused by the waning sardine catch, combined
with the assurance of a profitable market brought many larger boats into
the squid fishery in 1946. If the domestic market were to react more favor-
ably to squid, or if economic conditions should permit export to proven
foreign markets, a greater portion of the capacity of the sardine fishing
industry might be turned against the squid.

In such a case, protective measures might be needed in order to main-
tain the species adequately and yet allow the highest possible annual
catch. To attain these objectives, any regulations adopted would need to
be based upon full understanding of the biology of the squid. The present
investigation was undertaken to obtain some of this essential information.
Findings to date in certain phases of this investigation are given in the
following pages, but work continues upon all parts of the problem.

COMPOSITION OF THE SPAWNING POPULATION

The squid fishery is based upon spawning individuals or upon schools
approaching the spawning area. Most of the catch is from schools con-
sisting entirely of squid, and is taken over the spawning grounds off the
southern shore of Monterey Bay between Pacific Grove and Seaside. In
almost every animal obtained there the stomach was empty. Many samples
were caught outside of this area, but were minority populations in schools
of fish. These were feeding instead of spawning and the digestive tracts
contained food. Almost all of the very small squid were taken in these
samples.

Because very few small squid were caught in the southern part of
Monterey Bay, and these only occasionally, and because no immature
squid except those newly hatched were ever found there, it is concluded
that this is strictly a spawning area into which the squid migrate in
schools for spawning, then leave.

Material

A series of 31 samples of squid was collected between September
1946 and July 1947. The length, weight and mantle thickness of each
animal, were measured, the reproductive systems were dissected and each
part was weighed. A second series, of four large random samples, was
taken in September and December 1948, and February and May 1949, and
similar measurements were made. It was believed that these data would
be adequate to show any changes in the condition of the reproductive sys-
tems if there were a distinct season during which no spawning took place.
Weight and mantle length were recorded for the specimens in ten other
random samples taken during the year from June 1948 to May 1949.
These and the four samples previously described included more than
1,300 animals. From these animals length frequencies were determined
and weight-length relationships, derived from earlier samples, were con-
firmed. Thirty-six additional samples, some random, some selected, were
taken between June 1948 and May 1949 ; from these supplementary data
were obtained.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID 371

Standard Length

The mantle length was taken as the basic measurement for compara-
tive purposes because this dimension is stable regardless of the cause of
death or subsequent treatment. The skeletal pen prevents any change in
the mantle length. Measurements were made from the tip of the rostrum
above the head to the posterior end of the mantle. This is the dimension
meant when the term length is used.

■- ■

Length Frequencies
Male

In 14 large random samples measured between June 1948 and May
1949 there were 598 male squid. Their frequency in each 5-millimeter
range of mantle length is shown, as a percentage of the total number of
individuals, in Figure 149. The mantle length of the smallest was 99 mm ;
that of the largest was 189 mm. A large proportion, 68.6 percent, was
found within a narrow range of 30 mm between 146 and 175 mm inclu-
sive. Only 5 percent were of greater size, while 26 percent were smaller.
The largest number of specimens within any 5 mm range was found
between 161 to 165 mm, inclusive. The smaller specimens increased quite
regularly in frequency with increasing size to the group of greatest
frequency.

S 10

Mantle Length in Millimeters

Figure 149. The frequency of males and of females in each 5 mm. range of mantle
length, shown as a percentage of the total number of individuals of the respective sex

Female

In 14 large random samples taken between June 1948 and May 1949
there were 725 female squid. Weight-length data are available for only
649 of these, however, because only 75 of the 151 females of the May 10
sample were measured. In Figure 149 their frequency in each 5 millimeter
range of mantle length is shown as a percentage of the total number of
females. The mantle length of the largest measured was 176 mm ; of the
smallest 89 mm. Ninety-one percent of the specimens were between 136
and 165 mm long. Only 2 percent were larger, while 7 percent were
smaller. The largest number of specimens within any 5 mm range was
found between 151 to 155 mm, inclusive.

372 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Comparison of Male and Female Populations

In these samples most of the individuals of each sex fell within a
comparatively narrow size range of approximately 30 mm. Very few
were larger. In spawning schools there are four times as many small
males as small females. Within the limits of the normal spawning sizes
the males of any sample are more widely distributed in size while the
females form a much more compact group. The average mantle length of
the male squid exceeds that of the female by about 10 mm.

Comparison With Other Years

These length frequencies are not typical of all years, because in April,
May and June of 1949, squid, usually abundant in those months, were
very scarce and the proportion of smaller animals in the population was
higher than normal. The latter trend was apparent from January onward
and affected more than half of the samples included. Therefore the lengths
shown must be considered lower than the average for other years.

In an earlier series, collected from September 1946 to July 1947,
29 samples from spawning schools included 73 male and 111 female squid.
These were selected for sex and therefore were not random samples. The
average lengths for males and for females exceeded those reported above
by approximately 10 mm in each sex. In other respects the two series are
comparable : the average male length exceeded that of the female by 10
mm ; 71 percent of the males and 88 percent of the females fell in com-
pact groups each with a range less than 30 mm ; the proportion of individ-
uals below these groups, and the continuous range of sizes were both
greater for the male than for the female animals in this series. Thus the
same general pattern is demonstrated; further sampling will show the
range of its annual variations.

Size at Which Maturity Occurs

Squid were considered to be sexually mature if spermatophores were
present in the spermatophoric sac of the male or if mature ova were found
in the oviduct of the female. All animals collected from schools composed
exclusively of squid were mature. Although not present in large numbers,
mature animals of either sex smaller than 110 mm may be found with the
schools during much of the year. Small males are more frequently pre-
cocious in their association with spawning schools than are small females.
In a group of samples made up of individuals less than 130 mm in length
there were 317 males and only 45 females.

Mature male squid ranging down to 72 mm in length have been
observed ; the smallest mature female examined was 81 mm long. How-
ever, male and female squid may remain immature to a length of 110 mm
and 120 mm, respectively. Such animals have been found in feeding
aggregations with schools of sardines caught elsewhere in Monterey Bay
while much smaller mature individuals were being caught over the spawn-
ing areas in schools of squid. Thus males may become mature when as
small as 72 mm, or may remain immature until more than 110 mm in
length ; comparable sizes for the female are 81 mm and 120 mm, respec-
tively.

Condition of Animals in Spawning Schools
Condition Before Spawning

The squid in spawning schools are in excellent condition when they
enter the spawning area. Each animal is fat and heavy, its skin is glossy

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID 373

and unmarked. The mantle is large in circumference, and thick and firm.
In most cases the stomach is empty.

In female squid the ovary and the egg-filled oviduct are very large
and completely fill the posterior third of the mantle cavity. The gland of
the oviduct and the nidamental gland are large, firm and white. The
accessory nidamental glands are orange-red in color, and may be seen
clearly through the translucent mantle. In mature specimens 80 to 110
mm long the whole reproductive system, including ova, may make up
more than 25 percent of each animal's weight; in animals of average
spawning size this system may account for 30 percent to 50 percent of
the total weight.

In male animals the testis is of medium size, the spermatophoric
organ is large and firm, and the spermatophoric sac, filled with neatly-
stored spermatophores, extends almost to the posterior end of the mantle
cavity. Once an animal becomes mature, spermatophores are present in
this sac during all seasons and throughout the animal's life. In mature
males 80 mm to 110 mm long the reproductive system may weigh 10-12
percent as much as the whole squid ; when the animal reaches average
spawning size this system makes up only 4|-7 percent of the total weight.

Changes Due to Spawning

Spawning brings about profound changes in the squid. In the female,
weight loss may be more than 50 percent of the animal's original weight.
The spent female squid is small in diameter and the mantle is thin and
limp. Few eggs in the ovary are approaching maturity ; few or no mature
eggs remain in the membranous oviduct. The gland of the oviduct and
the nidamental glands are small and flaccid ; the accessory nidamental
glands are faintly pink. The oviduct, and an area on the mantle adjacent
to it, bristle with spent spermatophores. Frequently, spent females (and
occasionally males) are found to be extensively mutilated.

The male squid show similar changes during spawning, but the pro-
portion of weight lost is smaller than in the female. The testis and sper-
matophoric sac become small and the spermatophores are reduced in
number, but the chief weight loss is from reserves in the mantle tissues.
The arms become scarred and the edge of the mantle may become ragged
from encounters with other animals.

The changes which occur during spawning make the squid less
acceptable to the industry, and when the proportion of spent animals in
the catch becomes too great, as it does occasionally in June and Septem-
ber, the packing of frozen squid ceases until fresh schools appear.

WEIGHT-LENGTH RELATIONSHIP

Weight-length relationships were determined from scatter diagrams
representing 495 male and 536 female squid. Groups of 5-millimeter
range of mantle length were set up, and the average weight in each group
was found for each sex. These data, and weight-length curves based upon
them, are shown in Figure 150. The weight differences are small between
male and female animals which are less than 120 mm in length ; in larger
specimens the average weight of the male is greater than that of the
female of comparable length. This difference increases regularly with
increasing mantle length.

2—29004

374 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Figure 150. Weight-length relationship

In general, the weights of the male squid are closer to their group
averages than the weights of the female are to theirs. The numbers of
specimens which deviate from their group average weight by more than
10 percent, 20 percent, etc., of that weight are shown below as a percent-
age of the total number of individuals of that sex :
Percentage of specimens which deviate from their group average weight

y ' More than More than More than More than More than

10 percent 20 percent 80 percent J/0 percent 50 percent

Males 53% 18% 4% 0.8% 0.2%

Females ..__ 62% 33% 13% 3% 0.4%

Among female squid the greatest degree of deviation from average
weight was found in animals 135 mm to 165 mm long, that is, within the
average spawning range. Among male squid the greatest deviation was
not found within the common spawning range but among the precocious
small animals 95 mm to 140 mm long.

SPAWNING SEASON

Information which might aid in defining the spawning season of
Loligo opalescens has been collected from many sources.

Condition of Reproductive Systems

It was believed initially that all segments of the squid population
living in Monterey Bay and vicinity ranged through the southern por-

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID 375

tion of the bay for feeding, as well as for spawning. It was thought, as a
consequence, that the squid caught there would be representative of all
ages and conditions of the population. Accordingly, samples were col-
lected and the animals were examined in the hope that consistent trends
in proportions or in the condition of organs or sex products would outline
periods of spawning and of its cessation, and, possibly, show the relative
numbers of animals participating at different times of the year.

No trends indicative of a spawning season were observed, nor was
any evidence obtained that physical condition precludes spawning at any
time of the year. Large reserves of spermatophores and mature ova are
found throughout the 3*ear and, except in freshly exhausted specimens,
the accessory organs are maintained in potential spawning condition at
all times. The schools captured by fishermen are not representative of the
general population. Instead, they consist exclusively of mature animals
which have migrated from their usual environment to the southern part
of Monterey Bay, where spawning occurs. The erratic differences in con-
dition observed were not seasonal, but depended upon whether the school
was taken before, during, or after spawning.

Times of Occurrence of Egg Masses

Egg masses in the water are tangible evidence that spawning has
occurred ; and the degree of development of the embryos permits accurate
estimation of the time at which they were laid. Varying quantities of egg
masses may be found in the vicinity of Monterey during any month in
which squid are caught over the spawning areas. Squid have spawned on
every occasion when they have been brought alive to the Hopkins Marine
Station aquarium.

Fishing Records of Previous Seasons

The average monthly catches during the three six-year periods,
1931-1936, 1937-1942, and 1943-1948, are compared in Figure 151. "Where
a general pattern is repeated through so many years, catch becomes
acceptable as a criterion of size of that portion of the whole population
which spawns in this area. The records for 1943 to 1948 are most valid,
because throughout those years there was constant demand and very
intensive fishing over the small area into which the schools migrate to
spawn. These figures should reflect quite accurately the fluctuations in
the numbers of squid temporarily inhabiting the spawning grounds, and
show also the variations in the intensity of spawning. The major spawning
season in this area, then, includes those months in which good catches
are made consistently; the months commonly barren are those which
intervene between seasons.

Figure 151 shows the average monthly catch as a percentage of the
average annual catch for each six-year period. Owing to the grouping of
the data the general pattern is apparent. In January, February and
March the catch is low; normally each of these months produces less
than 5 percent of the annual yield. In April the squid appear in larger
numbers and in this and the three ensuing months the great bulk of the
year's catch is taken (for example, 77 percent in 1943-48). The peak is
in May, but the average catch of this month exceeds that of June only
slightly. In August, September, October and December few squid are
caught ; in November they are found in somewhat greater numbers. All

376

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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each six-year period

three of the six-year groups conform closely to this pattern, but within
each the annual variations are considerable.

The season of most intense spawning is, therefore, in April, May,
June and July; a minor peak often occurs in November. In some years
spawning animals are taken in every month ; in others none may be found
for periods of a month or more.

A complete summary covering various phases in the biology of the
squid, still being studied, will be published at a later date.

PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE SQUID 377

REFERENCES
Classic, Ralph F.

1929. Monterey squid fishery. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 15, p. 317-820.
1949. Squid. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 74, p. 172-174.

Collins, J. W.

1892. Report on the fisheries of the Pacific Coast of the United States. U. S. Fish.
Com., Rept. for 1888, p. 3-269.

Heath, Harold

1917. Devilfish and squid. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 3, p. 103-108.

Phillips, Julius B.

1937. Squid. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 49, p. 113-117.

Scofield, W. L.

1924. Squid at Monterey. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 10, p. 176-182.

Wilcox, W. A.

1907. The commercial fisheries of the Pacific Coast states in 1904. U. S. Bur. Fish.,
Doc. 612, 74 p.

WINTER INJURY TO YOUNG FUR SEALS
ON THE NORTHWEST COAST1

By Victor B. Scheffek

U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Seattle, Washington

In January and February, 1950, the bodies of young fur seals (Callo-
rhinus ur sinus) washed ashore in great numbers along the seacoast of
Washington and Oregon. Twenty-nine of them bore metal tags which
biologist Karl W. Kenyon had attached to seal pups on the Pribilof
Islands, Alaska, in late summer of 1949. Since Mr. Kenyon had tagged
20,000 seals out of an estimated 500,000 born, one can deduce that the
total number of yearling seals, tagged as well as untagged, which washed
ashore in the winter of 1950 was over 700. From identical series of taggings
in 1947 and 1948 we recovered, respectively, three and two stranded
carcasses. Apparently then, the mortality in the winter of 1950 was
unusually high.

The tagged seals were recovered in various stages of preservation,
but mostly fresh, between December 31, 1949, and April 2, 1950. Fourteen
of the bodies were recovered between mid-January and mid-February.
Of all the bodies, 10 were from Washington and 19 from Oregon. The
southernmost was from Elk River, between Cape Blanco and Port Orford,
Oregon; the northernmost from Copalis, Washington. Most of the bodies
were picked up by beachcombers. A resident of Seaview, Washington,
had 30 skins in his possession when he was visited by a federal agent.
The metal tag used on fur seals in 1949 was applied to the left hind
flipper, was numbered individually, and carried the statement ''Notify
F & W Service, Washington, D. C. " As a consequence, most of the recov-
eries were reported first to our Washington office.

In March, Mr. Kenyon and I examined the bodies of nine male and
nine female seals brought to our laboratory. These were "yearlings,"
that is six to eight months old, and were greatly emaciated. One weighed
only 11$ pounds, the average weight of the newborn pup (Figure 152).
All of the stomachs were empty, or contained dark-colored mucus.

From each of the beachcombers we received a postcard or letter
describing the circumstances of the find. Three of the men thought that
oil on the water was an important cause of mortality. ' ' There was much
oil or tar in the surf water at the time we found the seal. Got it all over
our boots. ..." "This seal had some heavy oil on it which I believe
caused its death." "Some were covered with heavy crude-oil; some were
not." We do not believe that oil, sporadically observed on inshore waters
and beaches of the Pacific Coast, was a serious factor. One man reported
that "this seal evidently was shot as a hole was on each side just back
of the head, one hole much larger than other, no doubt that it was shot. ' '

1 Submitted for publication April, 1950.

(378)

WINTER INJURY TO YOUNG FUR SEALS

379

Commercial fishermen or bounty hunters after hair seals may have killed
this individual through oversight.

After examining the weather records for January and February we
concluded that severe and prolonged storms were responsible for the
unusual mortality. From the U. S. "Weather Bureau (Climatological Data,
Washington, v. 54, no. 1, p. 2) we quote: "January 1950 was outstand-
ingly the coldest, snowiest month in the 60 years of state climatic rec-
ord. . . . The month was marked by a severe cold storm on the 13th
followed by successive snows and steady cold in the latter half. . . .
The monthly average temperature, 15.5° [F.], was 15.8° below normal."
North Head, on the ocean at the mouth of the Columbia River, had the
highest monthly mean for the state, 33.6°. The severe weather of January
carried over into the first week of February.

Figure 152. Emaciated body of an

Alaska fur seal recovered from the

Washington coast in February 1950 ;

weight 11J pounds

The young fur seals were probably weaned in November and Decem-
ber on the Pribilof Islands, whence they moved into the North Pacific
Ocean. Here, during their first winter at sea, learning to feed for them-
selves, they encountered heavy seas and below-freezing temperatures. We
believe that many of them were unable to maintain their body heat and
eventually succumbed. How many carcasses were lost at sea it is difficult
to estimate. The extent of the loss may be calculable in the summer of
1952 when the survivors of the class of 1949 will have attained the age of
three years and will appear on the commercial killing fields of the Prib-
ilof Islands.

NETTING BAIT AND CANNERY FISH WITH
THE AID OF LIGHTS1

By Parke H. Young

Bureau of Marine Fisheries

California Division of Fish and Game

The demand for live bait by the Los Angeles Harbor sportfishing
fleet has been great enough to occupy six to ten bait boats during the
spring, summer and fall months. During part of 1948, fishing for anchovy,
sardine, queenfish and kingfish was carried on by bait fishermen much as
it had been for many years. Bait was customarily taken just at dawn. At
this time the schools of fish made known their presence by one or more
indications, but mostly by small splashes on the surface of the water. The
experienced bait fisherman is quick to detect these schools and to lay
out his net. Shortly after daybreak, the sportfishing boats began to make
their appearance, coming alongside of the waiting bait boat where the
necessary amount of bait was taken from the net and transferred to the
sport vessel.

Sportfishing during 1948 was not considered good locally, and, for
the latter half of the season, sport boat operators began to travel farther
and farther, making necessary a much earlier departure hour in order to
give a full day of fishing. Hauling bait at dawn no longer sufficed, nor
did holding bait in floating live cars serve to satisfy the demands of the
early hour customers. As bait men were obliged to fill their bait orders
without fail, many methods, hastily devised, were tried but found inade-
quate. However, it was discovered that under lights from moored ships
or wherever lights were to be found, bait could often be taken in quantity.
Following this idea, floating kerosene or gasoline lanterns were tried at
various locations in the outer harbor, and their ability to attract bait
aided materially in producing sufficient quantities for the sportfishing
fleet. Lights are not as effective, however, when operated in competition
with the moon.

For the remainder of 1948, nearly all of the harbor bait fishermen
used floating lanterns to aid them. The procedure to determine whether
or not the required amount of fish had collected under the lanterns varied
between boats. Most of the boats were by this time equipped with fathom-
eters, and by passing as near to the lanterns as space would allow, the
fishermen were able to gain an idea as to the extent and density of the
school. Boats without fathometers had to depend on vision alone. The
net was payed out in the usual manner, completely encircling the lantern
and the unsuspecting school of baitfish.

Shortly after the beginning of the sportfishing season in 1949, it
again became apparent that lights would be necessary if ample bait was
to be provided. Some bait boats appeared on the fishing grounds equipped
with small gasoline engines, which were used to generate electrical power

1 Submitted for publication March, 1950.

(380)

NETTING WITH AID OF LIGHTS 381

for 500-, 750-, or 1,000-watt incandescent light bulbs. Skillful use of this
powerful source of light resulted in large catches being made more easily
and more often. In typical use, either a 500-watt or a 750-watt bulb,
reflector, and portable gasoline engine generator were mounted in a
skiff and anchored on a chosen spot somewhere within the outer break-
water. As in the case when gasoline lanterns were used, some estimate of
the extent of the school was made by the fishermen. If satisfactory, the
net was payed out, and the skiff, with its light extinguished, rowed out
of the circle leaving the fish to their fate.

In Australia, a fishing method that is practically identical to the
light fishery of Southern California has been developed, also for captur-
ing sardines. Australian fishermen are using 1,000-candlepower electric
lamps which compare closely with 1,000-watt lamps.

At the beginning and during the greater part of the sardine season,
starting in October of 1949, the bait fishermen sold great quantities of
sardines for canning purposes. These relatively few boats were rapidly
joined by approximately 30 additional vessels that also operated within
the confines of Los Angeles Harbor. The new boats that entered the
fishery used, for the most part, time-proven fishing methods. Nearly all
of the operators soon discovered that, in order to compete with the bait
fishermen, they had to install an artificial light system on their craft.
At the close of the sardine season, it would have been difficult to find a
single boat that had not adopted night fishing with lights as the most
profitable method of operation within Los Angeles Harbor.

Daily tonnages of sardines delivered by individual harbor vessels
were small, usually ranging from one or two tons up to 15 tons. During
the frequent and extended inactivity of the purse seine fleet, caused by
disputes over price, the small boats composing the harbor fleet were able
to furnish enough sardines to keep part of the canners operating.

A CHECK LIST OF THE FRESH WATER AND
ANADROMOUS FISHES OF CALIFORNIA1

By Leo Shapovalov and William A. Dill

Bureau of Fish Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION
Purpose

Scientific workers and laymen alike have long felt the need for a com-
prehensive and accurate handbook of the fresh-water and anadromous
fishes of California. Much material on the subject has been written since
1854, when Dr. W. P. Gibbons published the first scientific description
of a California fresh-water fish. At first glance it might seem that the
accumulated body of information would make the compilation of such a
handbook an easy task. Unfortunately, this is not the case. As data have
accumulated, the realization of the complexity of the systematic status
and interrelationships of the fishes has grown. It is now clear that even
the compilation and integration of the published data will be a long-term,
laborious, and painstaking task.

The authors have prepared the present article in the belief that a
generally acceptable list of the known fishes constitutes an essential first
step in the compilation of the above handbook.

A second purpose is to fill the immediate need of the California
Division of Fish and Game for official common names for the fishes
found in the fresh waters of the State. With respect to the common
marine fishes of California, such a need was met first by Walford (1931)
and more recently and in revised form by Koedel (1948). Evermann
and Clark (1931) did publish a list of California fresh-water fishes, but
it was not as inclusive as the present one, contained many errors, and
the common names did not receive the sanction of the Division of Fish
and Game.

The selection of common names for California fresh-water fishes is
complicated by two somewhat paradoxical factors: the multiplicity of
names which have already been applied to certain species ; and — in the
case of certain other forms — by the dearth of common names. Thus,
members of the genus Cyprinodon have been called by such varied
names as "desert minnow," "desert killifish," "pursy minnow,"
"pygmy fish," and "pnpfish." Conversely, there are a large number
of native cyprinids which are so similar and undistinctive in appear-
ance that the layman has never recognized their specific differences nor
called them by any name other than the rather general "chub" or
' ' shiner. ' '

This list attempts to reconcile such difficulties by assigning one
"official common name" to each species and subspecies. In the future
these names will be used in all publications of the California Division

1 Submitted for publication June 1950.

( 382 )

FRESH-WATER AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 383

of Fish and Game. The general principles underlying our choice of
names are outlined in a later section.

Scope

The main list covers both native and successfully established exotic
species.

We have attempted to include all native forms whose occurrence
has been reported in the literature or verified through the examination
of collections. The existence of some of these as valid species or sub-
species (Salmo gairdnerii rosei, for example) has been questioned by
some workers. Our criterion for inclusion of such forms is very simple :
we have tried to include all forms whose taxonomic identity has not yet
been disproved in published literature. Possibly certain other records of
occurrence (such as those for S. clarkii pleuriticus) are based on mis-
identification. Possibly some of the native species are no longer a part
of our fauna. The inclusion of Plagopterus, for example, rests upon a
single collection made in 1890. However, it is practically impossible to
prove or disprove such suppositions. Hence, in the case of the native
species it has been thought best to err on the side of inclusiveness rather
than on the side of exclusion.

On the other hand, our main list, p. 385, includes only those exotic
or introduced species of which breeding populations are known to have
survived. Introduced forms which failed to become established or are
of uncertain status have been placed in a supplementary list, p. 388.

Fishes recorded only from outside California have not been included
even if the stream in question also flows into or out of this State, e.g., the
Klamath and Truckee Rivers. However, in the case of the Colorado
River, which is a boundary stream, fishes recorded from the Arizona
side of the stream, and even from the mouth of its tributary, the Gila
River, have been included.

Most of the fishes in the check list are strictly fluvial or anadromous.
For the sake of completeness we have also listed those marine and brackish
water species which are known to penetrate into fresh water. However,
strictly marine species which recently have been introduced into the
Salton Sea, an inland body of water with salinity approaching that of
ocean water, have been omitted.

Hybrids have also been omitted. Both interspecific and intergeneric
hybrids of a number of the species listed have been recorded from the
natural waters of California.

Choice of Names
In order that this list will not simply be another array of arbitrary
selections, the authors have — insofar as it has been possible — adhered
to a set of basic rules or criteria for the selection of common names, as
follows :

(1) Names should agree with those in actual common use; or —
when there is no common or vernacular use — with those in published
literature. Strictiy "book names" should he avoided.

(2) Names should agree with those on other authoritative lists,
especially those of the American Fisheries Society (1948), the Outdoor
Writers Association of America (T94S), and Roe'del (1948).

(3) Names should indicate relationship and not confuse it,

(4) Names should be descriptive.

384 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

(5) Preference should be given to names which are short, distinc-
tive, interesting, catchy, romantic, or euphonious.

Each of these qualifications has exceptions which make it useless
by itself. Therefore, each principle listed above should be read as though
it were prefaced by the words, ' ' Other considerations being equal. ..."
For example, the name ' ' Sacramento Perch ' ' does not meet either Rule 3
or 4 above, since this species (Archoplites interruptus) is not a true perch.
However, since it is so commonly used (Rule 1) and since it agrees
fully with the name used in the two primary references cited in Rule 2,
it would be foolish to select another name.

Aside from such considerations, an attempt has been made to pro-
mote the twin ideals of stability for individual names and the designation
of relationships through the selection of common names according to a
definite plan. Such aims have long been recognized by ornithologists
and are well exemplified by the names listed in "The Distribution of
the Birds of California," by Grinnell and Miller (1944). Thus, where-
ever possible the same basic common name has been given to all members
of a single genus, with prefixes added to that common name for each
full species of that genus. In the case of subspecies, additional prefixes
have been added to the specific name. For example, all members of the
genus Siphateles have been termed Chub ; members of the Siphateles
bicolor group have been termed Tui Chub ; each subspecies of this group
is further designated by an additional term such as Sacramento for
S. b. formosus, the Sacramento Tui Chub.

It should be noted that this method will permit the retention of at
least part of the common name even if the species or subspecies under-
goes a revision which will change the scientific name.

The authors are inclined to share Alden H. Miller's (op. cit.) opinion
that only full species deserve common names. Nevertheless, we have listed
common names for each subspecies, with full recognition that a number
of them may not endure. One reason prompting this decision is that
certain subspecies have been distinguished as entities almost from the
beginning, and it would seem unfortunate to obscure (through omission)
such names as "Kokanee" or "Piute."

It should also be noted that a number of systematists have disagreed
with certain of our groupings; e.g., that for the native trouts, in which
assignment to specific or subspecific status is, in some instances, original
with the authors. However, a firm nomenclature has never been developed
for some of these plastic groups. And — as we have stated before — even
after some decided changes in scientific nomenclature, most of our common
names can still be retained with enough recognizable parts to promote
stability.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Manuscript copies of this list have been thoroughly discussed with
the members of the biological staff of the Bureau of Fish Conservation.
In addition, semifinal drafts have been read by Carl L. Hubbs, W. I.
Follett, Robert R. Miller, George S. Myers, L. P. Schultz, W. M. Chap-
man, and R. S. Croker. We are most appreciative of the criticisms of
these men and many of their suggestions have been incorporated into
the final list. However, a number of differences of opinion have not been
reconciled, so it should not be considered that they are in full agreement
with our presentation.

ERESH- WATER AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 385

CHECK LIST

Native Species and Established Exotic Species

This list consists of 101 full species, which may be subdivided as
follows: 64 native fresh-water and anaclromous species, 11 native species
which occasionally penetrate into fresh water, and 26 introduced species.

Species which have been introduced into California waters are
denoted by an asterisk (*), and marine fishes which occur only occa-
sionally in fresh water by an " 0. "

Family Petromyzontidae. The Lamprey Family.

1. Entosphenus tridentatus (Gairdner). Pacific Lamprey.

2. Lampetra fluviatilis (Linne). River Lamprey.

3. Lampetra planeri (Bloch) . Brook Lamprey.

Family Acipenseridae. The Sturgeon Family.

4. Acipenser transmontanus Richardson. White Sturgeon.

5. Acipenser medirostris Ayres. Green Sturgeon.

Family Elopidae. The Ten-pounder Family.

6. Elops affinis Regan. Ten-pounder. O

Family Clupeidae. The Herring Family.

7. Clupea pallasii Cuvier and Valenciennes. Pacific Herring. O

8. Alosa sapidissima (Wilson). American Shad.*

Family Osmeridae. The Smelt Family.

9. Thaleichthys pacificus (Richardson). Eulachon.

10. Spirinchus thaleichthys (Ayres). Sacramento Smelt. O

11. Hypomesus pretiosus (Girard). Surf Smelt. O

12. Hypomesus olidus (Pallas). Fresh-water Smelt. O

Family Salmonidae. The Salmon and Trout Family.

13. Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum). Pink Salmon.

14. Oncorhynchus Jceta (Walbaum). Chum Salmon.

15. Oncorhynchus kisutch (Walbaum). Silver Salmon.

16. Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum). King Salmon.

17. Oncorhynchus nerka (Walbaum) . Red Salmon.

17a. Oncorhynchus nerka nerka (Walbaum). Red Salmon (anadromous form).
17b. Oncorhynchus nerka kennerlyi (Suckley). Kokanee Red Salmon (fresh-
water form) .*

18. Salmo trutta Linne. Brown Trout.*

19. Salmo clarkii Richardson. Cutthroat Trout.

19a. Salmo clarkii clarkii Richardson. Coast Cutthroat Trout.

19b. Salmo clarkii henshawi Gill and Jordan. Lahontan Cutthroat Trout.

19c. Salmo clarkii seleniris Snyder. Piute Cutthroat Trout.

19d. Salmo clarkii pleuriticus Cope. Colorado River Cutthroat Trout.

20. Salmo gairdnerii Richardson. Rainbow Trout.

20a. Salmo gairdnerii gairdnerii Richardson. Steelhead Rainbow Trout.

20b. Salmo gairdnerii stonei Jordan. Shasta Rainbow Trout.

20c. Salmo gairdnerii gilberti Jordan. Kern River Rainbow Trout.

20d. Salmo gairdnerii rosei Jordan and McGregor. Lake Culver Rainbow Trout.

20e. Salmo gairdnerii evermanni Jordan and Grinnell. San Gorgonio Rainbow

Trout.
20f. Salmo gairdnerii aquilarum Snyder. Eagle Lake Rainbow Trout.
20g. Salmo gairdnerii regalis Snyder. Royal Silver Rainbow Trout.

21. Salmo agua-bonita Jordan. Golden Trout.

21a. Salmo agua-bonita agua-bonita Jordan. South Fork of Kern Golden Trout.
21b. Salmo agua-bonita whitei Evermann. Little Kern Golden Trout.

22. Salvelinus fontinalis (MitchiH). Eastern Brook Trout.*

23. Salvelinus malma (Walbaum). Dolly Varden Trout.

24. Cristivomer namaycush (Walbaum) . Lake Trout.*

24a. Cristivomer namaycush namaycush (Walbaum). Common Lake Trout.*

25. Coregonus williamsoni Girard. Mountain Whitefish.
Family Catostomidae. The Sucker and Buffalofish Family.

20. Megustomatobus cyprinella (Valenciennes). Bigmouth Buffalo.*

27. Pantostcus santa-anae Snyder. Santa Ana Mountain-sucker.

28. Pantostcus lahontan Rutter. Lahontan Mountain-sucker.

386 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

29. Catostomus occidentalis Ayres. Western Sucker.

29a. Catostomus occidentalis occidentalis Ayres. Sacramento Western Sucker.
29b. Catostomus occidentalis lacus-anserinus Fowler. Goose Lake Western
Sucker.

30. Catostomus mniotiltus Snyder. Monterey Sucker.

31. Catostomus microps Rutter. Sacramento Small-scaled Sucker.

32. Catostomus tahoensis Gill and Jordan. Tahoe Sucker.

33. Catostomus arenarius Snyder. Sand-bar Sucker.

34. Catostomus latipinnis Baird and Girard. Flannelmouth Sucker.

35. Catostomus rimiculus Gilbert and Snyder. Klamath Small-scaled Sucker.

36. Catostomus snyderi Gilbert. Klamath Large-scaled Sucker.

37. Catostomus humboldtianus Snyder. Humboldt Sucker.

38. Xyrauchen tewanus (Abbott). Razorback Sucker.

Family Cyprinidae. The Carp or Minnow Family.

39. Cyprinus carpio Linne. Carp.*

40. Carassius auratus (Linne) . Goldfish.*

41. Tinea tinea (Linne). Tench.*

42. Notemigoniis crysoleucas (Mitchill). Golden Shiner.*

42a. Notemigoniis crysoleucas auratus Rafinesque. Western Golden Shiner.*

43. Orthodon microlepidotus (Ayres). Greaser Blackfish.

44. Mylopharodon conocephalus (Baird and Girard). Hardhead.

45. Lavinia exilicauda Baird and Girard. Hitch.

45a. Lavinia exilicauda exilicauda Baird and Girard. Sacramento Hitch.
45b. Lavinia exilicauda harengus Girard. Monterey Hitch.

46. Ptychocheilus grandis (Ayres). Sacramento Squawfish.

47. Ptychocheilus lucius Girard. Colorado River Squawfish.

48. Gila robusta Baird and Girard. Bonytail Chub.

48a. Gila robusta elegans Baird and Girard. Colorado River Bonytail Chub.

49. Gila orcuttii (Eigenmann and Eigenmann). Southern California Chub.

50. Gila coerulea (Girard). Klamath Chub.

51. Gila crassicauda (Baird and Girard). Thicktail Chub.

52. Pogonichthys macrolepidotus (Ayres). Splittail.

53. Richardsonius egregius (Girard). Lahontan Red-sided Shiner.

54. Hesperoleucus symmetricus (Baird and Girard). Western Roach.

54a. Hesperoleucus symmetricus symmetricus (Baird and Girard). Sacramento

Western Roach.
54b. Hesperoleucus symmetricus subditus Snyder. Monterey Western Roach.

55. Hesperoleucus navarroensis Snyder. Navarro Roach.

56. Hesperoleucus parvipinnis Snyder. Short-finned Roach.

57. Hesperoleucus venustus Snyder. Venus Roach.

58. Hesperoleucus mitrulus Snyder. Northern Roach.

59. Siphateles bicolor (Girard). Tui Chub.

59a. Siphateles bicolor bicolor (Girard). Klamath Tui Chub.
59b. Siphateles bicolor obesus (Girard). Coarse-rakered Tui Chub.
59c. Siphateles bicolor pectinifer (Snyder). Fine-rakered Tui Chub.
59d. Siphateles bicolor formosus (Girard). Sacramento Tui Chub.

60. Siphateles mohavensis Snyder. Mohave Chub.

61. Rhinichthys osculus (Girard). Speckled Dace.

61a. Rhinichthys osculus robustus (Rutter). Lahontan Speckled Dace.
61b. Rhinichthys osculus carringtonu (Cope). Pacific Speckled Dace.
61c. Rhinichthys osculus klamathensis (Evermann and Meek). Klamath

Speckled Dace.
61d. Rhinichthys osculus nevadensis Gilbert. Nevada Speckled Dace.

62. Plagopterus argentissimus Cope. Woundfin.

Family Ameiuridae. The Catfish Family.

(>'■'>. Ictalurus lacustris (Walbaum). Channel Catfish.*

63a. Ictalurus lacustris punctatus (Rafinesque) . Southern Channel Catfish.*

64. Ictalurus cat us (Linne). White Catfish.*

65. Ameiurus nebulosus (Le Sueur) . .Brown Bullhead.*

65a. Ameiurus nebulosus nebulosus (Le Sueur). Northern Brown Bullhead.*

66. Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque). Black Bullhead.*

66a. Ameiurus melas melas (Rafinesque). Northern Black Bullhead.*

67. Ameiurus natalis (Le Sueur). Yellow Bullhead.*

67a. Ameiurus natalis natalis (Le Sueur). Northern Yellow Bullhead.*

FRESH-WATER AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 387

Family Cyprinodontidae. The Killifish Family.

68. Fundulus parvipinnis Girard. California Killifish.

68a. Fundulus parvipinnis parvipinnis Girard. Southern California Killifish.

69. Cyprinodon macularius Baird and Girard. Desert Pupfish.

70. Cyprinodon nevadensis Eigenmann and Eigenmann. Nevada Pupfish.

70a. Cyprinodon nevadensis nevadensis Eigenmann and Eigenmann. Saratoga

Nevada Pupfish.
70b. Cyprinodon nevadensis amargosae Miller. Amargosa Nevada Pupfish.
70e. Cyprinodon nevadensis calidae Miller. Tecopa Nevada Pupfish.
70d. Cyprinodon nevadensis shoshone Miller. Shoshone Nevada Pupfish.

71. Cyprinodon salinus Miller. Salt Creek Pupfish.

72. Cyprinodon radio sus Miller. Owens Valley Pupfish.

Family Poeciliidae. The Top-minnow Family.

73. Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard). Mosquitofish.*

73a. Gambusia affinis affinis (Baird and Girard). Western Mosquitofish.*
Family Pleuronectidae. The Right-handed Flounder Family.

74. Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Starry Flounder. O

Family Serranidae. The Sea Bass Family.

75. Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). Striped Bass.*

Family Percidae. The Perch Family.

76. Perca flavescens (Mitchill). Yellow Perch.*
Family Centrarchidae. The Sunfish Family.

77. Micropterus dolomieu Lacepede. Smallmouth Black Bass.*

77a. Micropterus dolomieu dolomieu Lacepede. Northern Smallmouth Black
Bass.*

78. Micropterus punctulatus (Rafinesque). Spotted Black Bass.*

78a. Micropterus punctulatus punctulatus (Rafinesque). Northern Spotted
Black Bass.*

79. Micropterus salmoides (Lacepede). Largemouth Black Bass.*

80. Chaenobryttus coronarius ( Bar tram ) . Warmouth.*

81. Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque. Green Sunfish.*

82. Lepomis gibbosus (Linne). Pumpkinseed.*

83. Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque. Bluegill.*

83a. Lepomis macrochirus macrochirus Rafinesque. Common Bluegill.*

84. Archoplites interruptus (Girard). Sacramento Perch.

85. Pomoais annularis Rafinesque. White Crappie.*

86. Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (Le Sueur). Black Crappie.*
Family Mugilidae. The Mullet Family.

87. Mugil cephalus Linne. Striped Mullet. O
Family Embiotocidae. The Viviparous Perch Family.

88. Cymatoyaster aggregata Gibbons. Shiner Perch. O

89. Hysterocarpjis tj-askii Gibbons. Fresh-water Viviparous Perch.
Family Cottidae. The Sculpin Family.

90. Coitus gulosus (Girard). Riffle Sculpin.

91. Cottus asperrimus Rutter. Rough Sculpin.

92. Cottus ma crops Rutter. Bigeye Sculpin.

93. Cottus asper Richardson. Prickly Sculpin.

94. Cottus bairdii Girard. Baird Sculpin.

94a. Cottus bairdii beldingii Eigenmann and Eigenmann. Mountain Baird

Sculpin.
94b. Cottus bairdii shasta Jordan and Starks. Shasta Baird Sculpin.

95. Cottus klamathensis Gilbert. Klamath Sculpin.

96. Cottus aleuticus Gilbert. Aleutian Sculpin.

97. Leptocottus armatus Girard. Staghorn Sculpin. O
Family Gasterosteidae. The Stickleback Family.

98. Gasterosteus aculeatus Linne. Three-spined Stickleback.
Family Gobiidae. The Goby Family.

99. Eucyclogobius newberryi (Girard). Tidewater Goby.

100. Gillichthys mirabilis Cooper. Longjaw Mudsucker. O

101. Clevelandia ios (Jordan and Gilbert). Arrow Goby. O

^88 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SUPPLEMENTARY LIST
Exotic Species— Unsuccessfully Introduced or of Uncertain Occurrence

The exotic fishes listed below fall into several groups :

(1) Fishes known to have been introduced but which have not sur-
vived ; e.g., No. 16.

(2) Fishes reported— possibly erroneously— to have been intro-
duced, but which have not survived ; e.g., No. 8.

(3) Fishes introduced so recently that their survival is uncertain
(e.g., No. 4a) , or which are not known to have established breed-
ing populations (e.g., No. 22).

(4) Fishes which have been reported from this State but whose
identification is questioned by the authors; e.g., No. 13.

(5) Fishes which have not been recorded from the State for many
years ; e.g., No. 15a.

As will be seen by our annotations, we know of no demonstrable evi-
dence that any of them are successfully established in the fresh waters
of California today.

The general sources for the history and lack of success of most of
these introductions are fairly well known. Therefore, there is little point
in listing all the references concerning the status of these fishes. We have
alluded to specific literature only when our opinion differs from that of
the authors cited, or when such inclusion serves to clarify the exact status
of the species.

Family Chanidae. The Milkfish Family.

1. Chanos chanos (Forskal). Milkfish.*

rnilnt^i^fi1ssh77fr°IP^he Hawaiian Islands were planted in a stream in Solano
£?"" *y 'n ].s.77- There are no records of their survival there. The species is an
ocean fish which occasionally enters fresh water.

Family Salmonidae. The Salmon and Trout Family.

2. Salmo salar Linne\ Atlantic Salmon.*

2a. Salmo salar salar Linne\ Atlantic Salmon (anadromous form).*
2b. Salmo salar sebago Girard. Landlocked Atlantic Salmon (fresh-water
form).*

Both subspecies have been planted several times. The old records of their
survival may be dubious ; there are no authentic recent records.

3. Salmo chtrkii Richardson. Cutthroat Trout.

3a. Salmo clarkii lewisi (Girard). Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout.*

ot . Several shipments of Cutthroat Trout eggs have been brought in from other
states and plants made in California waters. It is probable that most of these

v\ etc o . C IGIV'IS'1.

4. Salmo gairdnerii Richardson. Rainbow Trout.

4a. Salmo gairdnerii kamloops (Jordan). Kamloops Rainbow Trout.*

,„i, ThA6AnnIy P,1.ant of Kamloops in California waters was made in June 1950,
uh.ri i 000 yearlings were released in tributaries of Shasta Lake, Shasta County,
feee Wales (1950).

5. Ooregonus clupeaformis (Mitchill). Lake Whitefish.*

5a. Coregonus clupeaformis clupeaformis (Mitchill). Great Lakes Whitefish.*

r.ann fAU p'ants w„ere made during the last century. Even the few old reports of
recapture (.circa 1880) are considered highly dubious.

Family Thymallidae. The Grayling Family.

6. Thymallus signifer (Richardson). Arctic Grayling.*

6a. Thymallus signifer tricolor Cope. American Arctic Grayling.*

a™ai!Syieral rJ.e?S,fJed attempts have been made to introduce this form, and it
mart^ rtnr^^fh W1'oona1^1oef su.ccess *" Yosemite National Park following plants
nnrr,ving rhe. 1?29"1933 Period. The last authentic report of its survival there
d ubtf Is Lake) appears to have been in 1934. Its present occurrence is highly

FRESH-WATER AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 389

Family Esocidae. The Pike Family.

7. Esox masquinongy Mitehill. Muskellunge.*

7a. Esox masquinongy ohioensis Kirtland. Chautauqua Muskellunge.*

Introduced into Lake Merced, San Francisco County, in 1893. None sur-
vived.

8. Esox hicius Linne\ Pike.*

9. Esox vermiculatus Le Sueur. Grass Pickerel.*

E. lucius was supposedly introduced in 1891, but one of the fish resulting
from this shipment was identified in 1896 as E. vermiculatus. Possibly both
species were included. There are no records of capture of either species after 1896.

Family Characidae. The Characid Family.

10. Astyanax fasciatus (Cuvier). Banded Tetra.*

10a. Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus (Filippi). Texas Banded Tetra.*

According to Evans and Douglas (1950) this species as well as Agosia chry-
sogaster, Pimephales promelas confertus and Fundulus zebrinus have been sold
as live bait along the Arizona-California boundary in recent years. Since they
have been used in the Colorado River it is possible that some have escaped into
this water. None has actually been observed in the river itself.

Family Cyprinidae. The Carp or Minnow Family.

11. Agosia chrysogaster Girard. Longfin Dace.*

See No. 10a.

12. Pimephales promelas Rafinesque. Fathead Minnow.*

12a. Pimephales promelas confertus (Girard). Southwestern Fathead Minnow.*
See No. 10a.

Family Ameiuridae. The Catfish Family.

13. Ictalurus furcatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Blue Catfish.*

14. Ameiurus platycephalus Girard. Flat Bullhead.*

On the basis of a survey made in 1925, Coleman (1930) records "The Great
Blue, or Forked-Tail Cat — Ictalurus furcatus, Cuv. and Vincen.," and "The
Brown-spotted Cat — Ameirus (.sic.) platycephalus, Girard," from Clear Lake,
Lake County. Neither has been recorded from the lake since that time, despite
extensive collecting. Hence Coleman's paper is the sole evidence for the existence
of these species in California. We believe that he confused Ictalurus catus (which
is found in Clear Lake and wrhich is often called "forked-tail catfish" or "blue
cat") with his "furcatus." We suspect that his record of A. platycephalus is based
upon his erroneous interpretation of fishermen's reports.

15. Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque). Black Bullhead.*

15a. Ameiurus melas catulus (Girard). Southern Black Bullhead.*

A collection from the Colorado River at the mouth of the Gila River in 1904
included this subspecies, according to Robert R. Miller. We know of no later rec-
ords from California.

Family Anguillidae. The Fresh-water Eel Family.

16. Anguilla bostoniensis (Le Sueur). American Eel.*

Introduced in 1S74, 1879, and 1882. There are no authentic records of
survival.

Family Cyprinodontidae. The Killifish Family.

17. Oryzias latipes (Temminck and Schlegel). Medaka.*

The statement by Snyder (1935), "It has been found in San Francisquito
Creek," and Coates (1942, p. 185), ". . . this fish has been turned loose in . . .
parts of California, where it is reported to be thriving," are the sole bases for
its admission to this list. In a conversation with Snyder on March 21, 1943, he
told us (W. A. D. ) that some of his students had collected this form in San
Francisquito Creek, Santa Clara County. He did not recall the date or other
circumstances.

18. Fundulus zebrinus (Jordan and Gilbert) . Southern Plains Killifish.*

See No. 10a.

Family Percidae. The Perch Family.

19. Stizostedion vitreum (Mitehill) . Walleye.*

19a. Stizostedion vitreum vitreum (Mitehill). Yellow Walleye.*

Introduced in 1874. No records of continued survival.

•'!!)() CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Family Centra rchidae. The Sunfish Family.1

20. Enneacanthus gloriosus (Holbrook). Blue-spotted Sunfish.*

This species is listed in the accession list for Steinhart Aquarium as having
been collected in March 1931, in the vicinity of Willows, California. The identifi-
cation was made by Alvin Seale, but the specimens were not saved. We believe
this to be a misidentification.

21. Ambloplites rupestris (Rafinesque). Rook Bass.*

21a. Ambloplites rupestris rupestris (Rafinesque). Northern Rock Bass.*

It is recorded in literature as having- been introduced in 1874 and again in
1891, and another record of a plant of "Rock bass" in 1917 was furnished W. A.
D. by E. H. Glidden. Brief statements by Neale (1931, p. 12) and Anon. (1934)
as to its limited success in California, and its occasional listing in State fish rescue
records up to 1939, are the only bases for belief that this fish ever endured. The
terminology used in these rescue records (published in the Biennial Reports of
the California Division of Fish and Game) has often been inexact. We have been
unable to find a single verifiable record of the occurrence of the Rock bass in
California.

Family Gobiidae. The Goby Family.

22. Gillichthys detrusus Gilbert and Scofield. Gulf Mudsucker.*

Evans and Douglas (1950) give several recent records of this form from the
Salton Sea and state that it has been sold at Winterhaven, California, and
Topock, Arizona, for use as bait. As yet there is no conclusive evidence that it
has established itself in California waters.

1"Lepomis euryorus McKay." Seale (1930) lists "Sunfish. Eupomotis euryoris"
in an article entitled, "List of twenty fresh water fishes found in California that may be
used in small aquariums or garden pools." The Steinhart Aquarium accession list for
1931 records "Apomotis euryorus" as collected near Willows, California. The identifica-
tion was made by Alvin Seale ; the specimens were not saved. Hubbs and Hubbs (1932)
have proved that the nominal species "Lepomis euryorus" is a hybrid between Lepomis
c gemellus and Lepomis gibbosus. Both of these species are known to be present in Cali-
fornia but L. gibbosus has not yet been recorded from near Willows, nor do we have any
records of its presence in the State as early as 1930 or 1931.

FRESH-WATER AND ANADROMOUS FISHES 391

REFERENCES

American Fisheries Society

1948. A list of common and scientific names of the better known fishes of the

United States and Canada. American Fisheries Society, Special Publication

no. 1. 45 pp.
Anon.

1934. The rock bass (Ambloplites rupestrisj. The Aquarium Journal, vol. 7, no.
10, p. 192.

Coates, Christopher W.

1942. Tropical fishes for a private aquarium. The World Publishing Co.. Cleveland
and New York, xi -f- 226 pp.

Coleman, George A.

1930. A biological survev of Clear Lake, Lake Countv. California Fish and Game,
vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 221-227.

Evans, Willis A. and Philip A. Douglas

1950. Notes on fishes recently introduced into Southern California. California Fish
and Game, vol. 36, no.*4, pp. 435-436.

Evermann, Barton Warren and Howard AValton Clark

1931. A distributional list of the species of freshwater fishes known to occur in
California. California Division of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 35. 67 pp.

Grinuell, Joseph and Alden H. Miller

1944. The distribution of the birds of California. Cooper Ornithological Club.
Pacific Coast Avifauna, no. 27. Berkeley, California. 608 pp.

Hubbs, Carl L. and' Laura C. Hubbs

1932. Experimental verification of natural hybridization between distinct genera
of sunfishes. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters,
vol. XAr, 1931, pp. 427-437.

Neale, George

1931. The spiny-rayed game fishes of the California inland waters. California Fish
and Game, vol. 17. no. 1, pp. 1-17.

Outdoor Writers Association of America

1948. Standard check list of common names for principal American sport fishes.
24 pp.

Roedel, Phil M.

1948. Common marine fishes of California. California Division of Fish and Game,
Fish Bulletin 68. 150 pp.

Seale, Alvin

1930. List of twenty fresh water fishes found in California that may be used in small
aquariums or garden pools. The Aquarium Journal, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 38-39.

Snyder, J. O.

1935. California fresh water fish. The Aquarium Journal, vol. 8, no. 9, p. 146.
Wales, J. H. .

1950. Introduction of Kaniloops Rainbow Trout into California. California Fish
and Game, vol. 36, no. 4, p. 437.
Walford, Lionel A.

1931. Handbook of common commercial and game fishes of California. California
Division of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 28. IS! pp.

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS1

By J. H. Wales, E. W. Murphey, and John Handley

Bureau of Fish Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

The screening of irrigation ditches and mining and power conduits
to prevent the loss of fish has been a serious problem since the time water
was first diverted from the rivers and streams of California. With the
ever increasing use of water in this State the screening of these diversions
for the protection of fish has become a major concern of conservationists.
In 1945, the Bureau of Fish Conservation of the California Division of
Fish and Game was given charge of fish screen installation and mainte-
nance except in the Central Valley area. The improvement of existing
fish screen designs was one of the primary objectives of the new Fish
Screen and Stream Improvement Detail. In 1947 a new type of screen,
consisting basically of a perforated metal plate, was designed by E. W.
Murphey, and it is with this recent design that this paper deals.

It is evident that a screen in a diversion ditch will quickly plug up
with debris and prevent water from passing through. Consequently, a
self-cleaning device must be provided. Before the development of the
perforated plate screen, there were two types of self -cleaning screens in
common use in California: a stationary or "parallel bar" screen, and a
revolving or "rotary" screen. The first type, a frame of closely spaced
parallel bars resting at an angle in the ditch, is equipped with cleaner bars
attached to endless chains. These are drawn up the face of the screen,
over the top, down the back side, and then under the bottom of the screen
through a rubber seal. The rotary screen is simply a drum covered with
wire mesh. Debris which collects on it is carried up and over the top as
it revolves. Rubber seals are provided at the bottom of the drum and at
each end to make it fish-tight. Both types of screens are almost identical
in their mechanical drive parts, which consist of a paddle wheel to furnish
driving power, and chains and sprockets, or shaft and bevel gears, to
transmit the power which rotates the round screen or operates the cleaners
on the bar type.

Serious mechanical defects have been apparent in both screens. The
openings in the parallel bar screens are too large to exclude small fish,
and neither the bottom seal nor the cleaning method is satisfactory. The
newer California rotary screens are a distinct improvement in that much
smaller openings (£" x \" mesh), which stop most fish, can be used.
However, the rubber seals are difficult to keep fish-light. They cannot be
examined without lifting the entire screen, and because the screens are
very heavy the seals have not ordinarily been checked more than once
a year. Considerable power is required to turn the heavy rotary screens,

1 Submitted for publication June 1950.

(392 )

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS 393

and their gears or chains lose power through friction. Variation in water
flow also disturbs the efficiency of the rotary screen ; the flow must remain
almost constant if the screen is to be kept clean and still not overflow.
In both rotary and bar screens part of the mechanical drive operates
under water, where the gears and bearings are quickly worn out by sand
and fouled by rust.

Summing it up, we can say that an adequate screen requires :

(1) Smaller openings than those used in the bar type.

(2) Elimination of side and bottom rubber seals.

(3) A minimum of water power to move the cleaning device.

(4) The ability to operate at variable flows.

(5) Bearings and working parts above water level.

The new perforated plate screen not only meets these requirements
far better than the older types, but is also cheaper and easier to build
and maintain.

DESCRIPTION OF THE NEW PERFORATED PLATE SCREEN

The Automatic Cleaning Device

Basically the new fish screen consists of a perforated metal plate,
with circular openings of 3% inch diameter, which is placed in the ditch
at an angle of approximately 32 degrees. Directly behind it, as shown
in Figure 153, there is an improved paddle wheel which provides the
power to operate a wiper bar which travels up and down over the surface
of the plate.

The wiper bar is the most revolutionary feature of this new screen.
There are many possible designs and materials of which it can be con-
structed. One successful bar used on a direct drive model is illustrated
in Figure 153. It is a length of TV' bar steel 3I" wide and bent longi-
tudinally so that its beveled edges will cut underneath the debris on both
the up stroke and the down stroke. A soft rubber wiper is not as desirable
as a thin, hard edge of wood, metal, or some synthetic material. The two
edges of the wiper blade should be fairly sharp, so that they will cut
under the debris— not crush and roll over it. Also, the bearing surfaces
of the wiper blade should be hard, to minimize friction and wear.

Because of this radically different type of cleaner it is possible to
seal the bottom edge as well as the sides of the plate so that no fish are
able to get under or around these edges. In developing the wiping bar,
Murphey found that a scraper pushed down across the face of the plate
carried all the debris ahead of it until it reached the unperforated
(selvage) margin along the lower edge of the plate. There is no current
of water through this unperforated edge and the flowing water strikes
it and sweeps up and over the cleaner bar, carrying the debris with it.
The material is thus automatically swept onto the upper edge of the
cleaner bar, and when the bar is pulled back up again it takes the debris
up with it. It is a very simple matter to arrange the cleaner and the plate
so that the debris can either be dropped over the edge of the plate into
the water below the screen or deposited on the perforated plate just
short of the edge. Where this latter method is used small fish have a
chance to flip back into the water. If a by-pass flow is provided the small
fish usually can escape by that route and will not lie on the plate.

3.94

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Several different types of driving mechanisms have been developed
for Hi is wiping arm. The first one devised by Murphey, shown in Figures
153 jind 154, has a direct drive. It is the most practical type for small
irrigation ditches with a moderately swift flow of water. The "direct
drive" has no gears to slow it down or to increase its power. The paddle
wheel is made quite large, and this tends to serve the same purpose.
Some variation in the length and power of the stroke of the cleaner can
be achieved by changing the location of the pivot point between cleaner
arm and crank arm. The "direct drive" screen is inexpensive and simple
to build. A perforated plate 40 inches x 6 feet appears to be the optimum
si/.c for use with this type of cleaner. The estimated cost for construction
and installation of a 3' x 4' screen of the direct drive type is $243.

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS

395

Figure 154. Direct drive model, perforated plate fish screen. Dimensions of plate 3
feet by 4 feet. Flow capacity of this screen from 1 to 4.5 c. f. s. Installed on Indian Creek,
a tributary of the Trinity River, Trinity County, California. This screen has been
installed in a part of the foundation chamber formerly occupied by a rotary screen

Figure 155. Geared model, perforated plate fish screen. Dimensions of plate 4 feet by
8 feet. Flow capacity of this screen from 2 to 9 c. f. s. Installed on Fall Creek, a tribu-
tary of the Klamath River, Siskiyou County, California. Trap at outlet of by-pass
chamber permits count of fish stopped by screen

396

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

A second type of driving mechanism, which utilizes a reducing gear
to increase its power and dependability in slowly flowing water has also
been developed. In this type, shown in Figures 155 and 156, a small
paddle wheel can be used even with a large perforated plate. If a paddle
wheel with large blades is provided, a single wheel will generate enough
power to turn a long jack shaft driving two or more cleaner bars. The
estimated cost of construction and installation of a 3' x 4' screen with
geared drive is $343.

For large irrigation ditches the size of the perforated plate required
to pass large volumes of water may be too great to permit use of the
cleaner assemblies just described. A further development, using a
hydraulic drive of the sort illustrated in Figure 157, has proved quite
satisfactory in a 45-c.f .s. diversion in the Klamath River drainage. There

PERFORATED PLATE PISH SCREENS

397

are three plates, each 5-| feet wide and 12 feet long. The derrick arms are
lifted by an oil pump and double action hydraulic cylinder. When the
cleaner bars have been lifted to the top edge of the plate and the debris
deposited, a valve is reversed in the cylinder and oil is forced in the
opposite direction and the cleaners are pushed back to the bottom of
the plate. The valve is then reversed again and the pump forces the oil
back into the cylinder and raises the piston and the connected derrick
arms. The pump which operates this hydraulic drive is powered by a
|-h.p. motor at a cost of about 7 cents a day.

A paddle wheel is ordinarily used to drive the cleaning mechanism,
although electric motors can often be substituted to advantage, particu-
larly on large diversions of the type just mentioned.

In small irrigation ditches the paddle wheel blades are set with very
little clearance. This permits the use of a large part of the available
water power, but also increases the chances of stopping the wheel by
having small bits of debris wedge between blades and foundation sides.
In order to obviate this difficulty a wooden grill should be placed above

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398 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the screen, as shown in Figure 156. Either a stationary grill with bars
extending from water surface to ditch bed or the floating grill, shown
in Figure 156, will stop the larger pieces of debris. This is highly desirable
in locations where there are many tree branches. Such branches can
interfere with the cleaner and cleaner arms and should be stopped by
a rack or grill. The floating grill shown in Figure 156 is not a complete
barrier ; therefore it cannot block the entire ditch and back up the water.
However, it does stop the floating objects and it will rise and fall as the
water level varies.

Even with a debris rack above the screen there are many sticks that
get onto the screen and are carried over by the wiper. These sticks can
become wedged under the paddle blades and stop the wheel. In order
to prevent this the direct drive screen can be equipped with a plate to
divert the debris to one side or the other of the paddle wheel. In the
gear-driven screen the paddle wheel is set at one side and shielded to
exclude the debris.

The paddle blades illustrated in Figure 156 are curved to catch the
water and develop more power. The gears are a standard make of
machined cast iron with a ratio of 3| to 1. The remainder of the drive
assembly is quite simple and need not be described in detail.

The Perforated Plate

Plate with holes 55^ inch in diameter centered i% inch is now being
used in California. However, these specifications should not be accepted
as the final choice, since the tests of various combinations of hole size
and spacing have not been exhaustive. Obviously, the holes should be
as large as possible and yet too small for the smallest fish to pass through.
Also, the holes should be as close together as is consistent with strength.

The gauge of thickness of metal plate used for the screen is a matter
of some concern. Debris will not become stuck in the holes as readily
when the plate is thin, but light gauge plate will not be as flat nor will
it wear as long as the heavy gauge material. The use of 12- and 14-gauge
steel plate has been favored, but this is not invariable. Possibly if some
metal other than steel were used the gauge would have to be changed.
Aluminum plate has been tried and found too soft. It is quite possible
that something else can be found which will prove more resistant to rust
and algae than steel and still not be unreasonably expensive. The per-
forated plates are obtained from firms making a specialty of such mate-
rials regularly used for many other purposes.

Anyone familiar with previous types of fish screens will immediately
see the good points in the perforated plate, but the ever-present question
of water capacity arises. How large must the plate be for a given flow
of water? This problem is somewhat involved and some of the factors
which must be considered will now be discussed.

The area of openings in a perforated plate can be computed quite
easily. For example, the plates which are being used at present are about
46 percent open. However, this does not mean that 46 percent as much
water ran pass as would get by without any screen at all. Water does
not flow freely through a circular hole and the volume is reduced. Also,
a small head of water developed on the upstream side of the screen will
increase the velocity of the water flowing through the perforations. For
these reasons the calculations of volume which will pass a plate of certain

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS 399

dimensions become involved. However, the area of the plate screen should
be at least twice the cross-sectional area of the conduit and three times
the area is not out of reason. Ordinarily the water in the ditch can be
backed up slightly without overflowing the ditch bank, but in some cases
the ditch banks are so low that backing up cannot be permitted. Also, it
must be remembered that debris and rust will reduce the open area in
the plate somewhat and allowance for this must be made in the calcu-
lations.

The next consideration is of greatest importance. Tests made by
Wales (unpublished) indicate that the swimming speed of fingerling
trout is in proportion to their length and that a fish one inch long can
swim about one foot per second, a fish two inches long can swim about
two feet per second, etc. For trout a foot long or less the length of the
fish in inches is roughly the same as the swimming speed in feet per
second. A great many trout and salmon entering irrigation ditches in
California are about one and one-half inches in length, so attempts to
reduce the velocity of the water flowing through the screen to one and
one-half feet yer second or less have been made. Commonly the velocity
of the ditch flow is greater than this and in order to slow it down it is
necessary to widen the screen. A young trout or salmon about one and
one-half inches in length may be carried down the ditch by water which
is too swift for it to swim against but on reaching the screen it comes
into water which has been slowed down. Here it can swim about and
eventually find its way to the by-pass. If the perforated plate had been
smaller the velocity of the water passing through it would have been
greater, possibly so great that the small fish would have been drawn
onto the plate and held there, unable to escape.

It will be noted in Figures 158 and 159 that a heavy horizontal line
has been drawn across the graphs at the velocity point of 1.5 feet per
second. For example, from Figure 159 it can be seen that a single panel
will pass 4.5 c.f .s. at a velocity of 1.5 feet per second.

The By-pass

With mechanical difficulties minimized, there is still the problem of
getting the small fish back into the stream after the screen has stopped
them from going down the irrigation ditch. This problem is overcome
if a small by-pass flow of water back to the stream is provided imme-
diately above the screen.

The by-pass channel is cut through the ditch bank to the stream
from which the water was first diverted. Figures 153 and 156 show a
special chamber built in the side of the screen form just upstream from
the perforated plate. Small fish upon reaching the perforated plate work
across it into this by-pass chamber, where they tend to rest and take
shelter. The by-pass gate is provided with check slots into which check
boards can be dropped, thus raising the water in the chamber to the
desired level. In the top check board of the gate either a hole or a notch
may be cut in the upper edge. The size of this opening will vary with
the total flow in the irrigation ditch or with the demands of the water
owner. For the small and medium size screens it has been found that
the by-pass flow can be quite small. In screens using a 3' x 4' plate and
passing a flow of 1 to 4 c.f .s. a 2" x 4" opening in the top check board will
pass enough water to attract and allow the passage of the fish and still

400

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

2.0

WATER HEIGHT = 20"
SCREEN ANGLE =32*
FREEBOARD (VERTICAL)' 5l"

(ON SCREEN) = IOi"

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Figure 158. Capacity-velocity chart for perforated plates 4 feet high but of different
widths. In reading these curves take, for example, the panel 4 feet wide and note that
with a water velocity of 1.5 ft. per sec. the volume of water which it will pass is

about 6 c. f. s.

not take enough by-pass water to interfere with most irrigation needs.
It has not been found necessary to have a submerged opening in the
by-pass gate to attract the fish. However, such an opening will function
in spite of variations in the water level, whereas a notch in the top edge
of the by-pass gate would become useless if the water level dropped
appreciably.

Small by-pass holes have one serious disadvantage in that they
can become clogged by a twig, a few leaves, or a pine cone. Larger open-
ings will become clogged much less frequently. In order to avoid obstruc-
tion of the by-pass hole a grill can be dropped into slots at the entrance

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS

401

2.0

NJ/ATER HEIGHT = 15"
SCREEN ANGLE = 32*
FREEBOARD (VERTICAL) --4?

(ON SCREEN) = 8i"

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Figure 159. Capacity-velocity chart for perforated plates 3 feet high but of different
widths. In reading these curves take, for example, the panel 4 feet wide and note that
with a water velocity of 1.5 ft. per sec. the volume of water which it will pass is

about 4.5 c. f. s.

to the by-pass chamber. This grill will catch a great deal of debris before
it becomes so clogged that fish cannot get by. Even though the service-
man may visit the screen once a week it is always possible that the by-pass
opening will become clogged a few minutes after he has left and no fisb
will be able to escape for days.

TESTING THE NEW SCREEN

Tests were made in 1949 to determine the effectiveness of a newly
installed perforated plate screen with a direct drive cleaner. This screen
was located in a small Trinity County ditch with an average flow of

402 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

about 2 c.f.s. A trap was placed in the by-pass and in addition a trough
was arranged to catch any fish which might be carried over the plate
by the wiper bar. In five tests of 24 hours each a total of 555 fish was
trapped in the by-pass and only one fish was carried over by the wiper
bar. It can be seen that in three months possibly 10,212 fish were saved
by this one small screen. Tests similar to this are being conducted each
season in other ditches scattered through Trinity and Siskiyou Counties.
Some of these tests indicate a much greater saving of small salmonids, and
a special report on these experiments will be made at a later date.

POSSIBLE USES OF PERFORATED PLATE SCREENS

In California the perforated plate screens will be used primarily
in irrigation ditches. Some will be used in hydroelectric conduits and
possibly some will find places in other commercial conduits. They are
now also being used in fish hatcheries to keep debris out of ponds and
troughs, and to prevent the movement of fish from pond to pond. These
screens are also highly suitable for experimental installations of various
types.

There would seem to be no limit to the amount of water which could
be screened by perforated plate. A small direct drive model which can
operate on a minimum of i c.f.s. has been constructed, but, of course,
much smaller plate screens can be made if needed. From this minimum
the plate screens can be increased by setting small plates side by side
or by increasing the depth as well as the width of the plate.

It is believed advisable to clean screen plates over four feet deep
by some system other than the paddle Avheel assemblies described herein.
One such cleaner system is illustrated in Figure 157. Ordinarily the
depth of a fish screen will be limited to about 15 feet. This limitation is
imposed by factors other than screen mechanics. After the depth limit
has been reached there is, theoretically, no limit to the width of a screen,
and so we may assume that there is no limit to the amount of water
which can be passed.

The perforated plate screen, like the rotary, can be made impassable
for most young fish simply by using sufficiently small perforations or
screen mesh which is fine enough. However, the plate screen, unlike the
rotary, is fish tight at sides and bottom. For young trout and salmon
the 3y hole is small enough to effect 100 percent exclusion. Therefore,
i f precautions are taken to avoid drawing the fish over with the cleaner
bar, 100 percent stoppage of these fish can be expected.

The cost of the perforated plate screen is far less than that of any
other self -cleaning fish screen. Some idea of the costs of small models
can be obtained from the figures given earlier in this paper. Naturally,
the cost of a fish screen would be of limited importance if its other fea-
tures were inferior to the earlier types of screens, but since the perforated
plate screen is superior in all important respects to other mechanical
screens, the smaller cost is an added inducement for its use.

It has been found that this fish screen is valuable in obtaining an
estimate of the number and species of fish descending any ditch. Traps
can be placed in the by-pass flow and, in addition, a trough may be placed
beneath the upper edge of the screen plate to catch everything which
the wiper bar carries over. It has been found that some species, such as
young lampreys, will lie on the plate and allow themselves to be carried

PERFORATED PLATE FISH SCREENS 403

over. Similarly, dead or dying fish will be deposited in this debris trough.
By using this debris trough and a by-pass trap all tlfe downditch migrants
can be captured for enumeration or study. This system has been adapted
to the enumeration of king salmon fmgerling migrants.

Despite our satisfaction with the perforated plate screen, we do
not intend to be blinded to the possibility of discovering other even more
satisfactory means of screening water diversions.

Working plans of both the "direct drive" and the geared model
screens can be obtained from the Bureau of Fish Conservation, California
Division of Fish and Game, Ferry Building. San Francisco 11, California.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE
HUNTING AREAS x

By Harold T. Harper, George Metcalfe, and John F. Davis

Bureau of Game Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

Each year California's unattached hunters are finding fewer areas
on which to hunt. Most of the State's pheasant population is found in the
rice growing region of the Sacramento Valley, which is extensive in size
and provides excellent pheasant hunting. Trespass and damage to crops,
livestock, fences, and other property by a minority of unsportsmanlike
hunters have created an unfriendly situation between sportsmen and
landowners. Consequently, available hunting areas have decreased rap-
idly in the past few years. Opening these areas to controlled pheasant
hunting has been one of the most urgent problems confronting the Cali-
fornia Division of Fish and Game.

An experimental pheasant study area, the Sartain Ranch, initiated
by division game biologists, was instrumental in the development of
regulated hunting on private lands in California. Hunting on this ranch
was successfully controlled in 1947 and 1948 by the division in coopera-
tion with the landowner. The experience gained in these two years led
to the development of a cooperative hunting plan in 1949. In this year
Senate Bill No. 677 2 establishing cooperative hunting areas, was passed
by the State Legislature. Rules and regulations for the management and
control of these areas were then drawn up by division employees.

In order to minimize the problem of supervision and control, and at
the same time to accommodate a large number of hunters, it was required
that on any prospective area there be at least 5,000 acres in a continuous
tract open to public hunting. A provision was made to allow the land-
owner to collect a daily fee not to exceed two dollars per hunter if he so
desired, with the stipulation that 25 percent of the total collected was
to be used for wild life maintenance and habitat improvement. Three
types of zones were provided for in 1949: closed zones (for protection
of crops, buildings, and livestock) on which no hunting was permitted ;
restricted zones, on which permission to hunt was granted solely by land-
owners ; and open zones, which were open to public hunting by permit.
Restricted zones were limited in size to 20 percent of the total area, while
open zones had to be either a 5,000-acre tract or 50 percent of the entire
cooperative hunting area, whichever was larger. The maximum number

1 Submitted for publication June, 1950. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act,
California Project 22-R. The authors wish to express their appreciation for important
contributions made by Project 22-R Assistants Dale Shaffer, Chester Hart and Fred
Jones. Also, the efforts made by the Bureau of Patrol and Bureau of Game Conser-
vation members to make the cooperative hunting areas a success is gratefully acknowl-
edged.

2 Senate Bill No. 677 and rules and regulations governing cooperative hunting
areas are presented in Appendix A, Items 1 and 2, respectively.

(404)

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

405

of hunters allowed at any one time was one per five acres of open land,
with the stipulation that this could be decreased as conditions warranted.

In preparation for the 1949 pheasant hunting season six cooperative
hunting areas were established by the division. Five of these did not
charge for hunting privileges, while one did. Included in this one area
was a 1,680-acre tract that was open to hunting under the pheasant
planting policy and on which no fee was charged.

Each area was posted by the Division of Fish and Game at no
expense to the landowner. Posting was done about one week prior to the
season and signs were removed immediately after the season. Each type
of zone was posted at least every one-fifth mile, the signs designating the
type of zone by both wording and color. Table 1 shows the acreage of each
type of zone on each cooperative hunting area with the number of hunters
allowed on the area at any one time. Figures 160 and 161 show the signs
used on the cooperative hunting areas in 1949.

TABLE 1

Size of Each Zone in Cooperative Hunting Areas and Maximum
Number of Hunters Permitted on Open Zones

Area

Open zone

Hunters allowed

at any one time

per day

Restricted
zone

Closed zone

Total acres

Staten Island

7,500

5,000
8,900

8,800
15,800
12,450

600

500
900

1,600
1,600
2,300

0

1,300
450

1,400
3,080
1,500

1,700
1,000 open on
last day

500
2,950
850 open on
fourth day

400

320

50

9,200

Williams . _-

6,800

Sutter Basin

12,300

Natomas - -

10,600

19,200

Sartain

14,000

Totals

58,450

7,500

7,730

5,920

1,850 opened

during season

72,100

3—29004

406

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Figure 160. Signs used on cooperative hunting areas

SUf***"*^

FIGURE 161. Map and checking station sign for Sartain area

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS 407

Checking- and permit stations were set up on easily accessible roads
in conspicuous locations. These were operated by division employees
where the landowner permitted hunting without charge ; however, if a
charge was made the landowner was responsible for collecting the fees,
but division personnel checked the hunters off the area. Before hunting,
each hunter was required to obtain a permit and an arm band, colored to
correspond to the signs on the zone for which issued. After the clay's
hunt, permits and arm bands were returned to the checking stations. To
obtain desired information it was required that the questionnaire part
of each permit be filled out.

CHECKING METHODS

Permit stations were operated the full 10 days of the season. Each
hunter was issued a permit and an arm band with the number of the
area on it. Permits and arm bands issued for one particular area were
not valid on other areas. Each hunter was given a sheet of instructions
and a map showing the boundaries of the area he was on and location of
the various zones. Figures 162, 163, and 164 show the type of arm band
and permit used.

Hunters were briefed on types of signs enclosing designated zones
and were instructed to hunt only in areas posted with signs corresponding
to the color of their arm bands.

COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA

ARM BAND N? 28

1. Return arm band and permit to checking station when you leave area.

2. Good only on day issued and not transferable.

3. Valid only in restricted zone.

Property of the State'bf California. Possession off this area constitutes a MISDEMEANOR.

Figure 162. Arm band used on cooperative hunting areas

408

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Permit |S|0 38198

Area No

Arm band No _ _

Fee $

I hereby agree to abide by the Cooperative Hunting Area rules and regulations.

Name _

Address. _

Date

Month

Day

Street No.

City

Year

COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA PERMIT

Area No Arm Band No *""* N2 38198

I hereby agree to abide by the Cooperative Hunting Area rules and regulations as shown on
the reverse side of this permit.

Name of Permittee
the bearer, is hereby granted permission to hunt upon.

Ranch

or Property

For this day only.

Month

Day

Year

Signature of Grantor

RETURN FILLED OUT PERMIT BEFORE LEAVING AREA

KILL RECORD

PHEASANTS

QUAIL

OTHER (fill in)

Cock

Hen

No. Bagged

No. Crippled
and Lost

Band Nos.
(look for leg
and wing bands)

Number of hours hunted on this area

Did you use a dog? Yes No

(check one)

Remarks and Suggestions —

Use of this area shall be at the sole risk of the permittee, and neither the Division of Fish and Game nor the
landowner shall be liable in damages to any permittee.

Figure 163. Cooperative hunting area permit form

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

409

COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA
RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR HUNTERS

1. All hunters must obtain valid permits before hunting on the area and return filled out permits before
leaving the area or at the end of the day's hunt. Possession of a firearm while on the area without a valid
permit shall be considered prima facie evidence of hunting.

2. Permits are valid only for day and area issued.

3. Hunters on cooperative hunting areas must wear an appropriate arm band. Arm bands must be returned to
checking station before leaving the area or at the end of the day's hunt.

4. The provisions of the Fish and Game Code apply on these areas. Any person who has had a permit revoked
may not obtain a permit to hunt an open cooperative hunting area doring the current upland game season.

5. On open areas the Division of Fish and Game reserves the right to refuse to issue a permit to anyone, and to
revoke any permit and eject the holder forthwith from the area for unsportsmanlike conduct, or for any
reason when it appears that the safety and welfare of the area or that of other permittees is endangered.
Decision of the authorized employee of the Division of Fish and Game in this respect shall be final.

6. The Division of Fish and Game will enforce the trespass provisions of the Penal Code and the provisions of
the Fish and Game Code within such areas during the upland game season.

7. Use of the area shall be at the sole risk of the permittee, and neither the Division of Fish and Game nor the
landowner shall be liable in damages to any permittee.

Figure 164. Reverse side, cooperative hunting area permit form

Checking stations opened at 5 a.m. on the first three days and at
7 a.m. on the remaining days of the season. After receiving permits,
hunters were directed to designated parking areas posted with "Park
signs.

TABLE 2

Numbers of Checking Stations and Personnel on Cooperative
Hunting Areas for 1949 Hunting Season

Here"

Day of

season

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Permit and checking stations

2
3
4

4
5
4

2
3
4

4
5

4

2
3
4
4
5
4

2

2
2
4
4
4

2

2
2
4
4
3

2
2
2
4
4
3

2
2
2
4
4
3

2
2
2
4
4
3

2
2
2
4
4
3

2

Williams

2

Sutter Basin

2

4

4

3

Totals

22

8

8

8

10

21

12

22

8

8

8

10

21

12

22

8

7

8

10

21

12

18

4
5
8
6
11
8

17

4
5
6
6
11
8

17

4
5
6
6
11
8

17

7
5
6
6
11
8

17

4
5
8
6
11
8

17

8
5

6

6

10

9

17

Checkers >

8

5

6

Natomas

6

10

9

Totals

67

4
4
2
6
4
4

67

4
4
2
6
4
4

66

4
4
3
6

10
4

42

4
2
3
6
4
3

40

4
2
4
6
4
3

40

4
2
3
6
4
3

43

4
2
3
2
4
1

42

2
2
6
6
4
3

44

4

44

Wardens

4

Sutter Basin

2
6
4
4

2

1

4

4

Totals

24

24

31

22

23

22

16

23

20

15

1 On four areas 19 sportsmen assisted in writing permits and directing traffic. These worked mainly during the
first three days of the season.

410

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Table 2 shows the number of stations and personnel used on each of
the six cooperative hunting areas. Local sportsmen assisted division
employees on four areas the first three days of the season, and many
landowners assisted with the issuing of permits. This cooperation was
gratefully received and was much needed by the division.

Division wardens were present on all areas to enforce trespass rules
and game laws. Violations were few and consisted mainly of trespass
on restricted zones. This was probably due to inability of hunters to
recognize the signs bounding such zones.

DESCRIPTION OF AREAS

The cooperative hunting areas were selected on the basis of capacity
to support a maximum number of hunters, heavy pheasant populations,
availability to hunters, and willingness of landowners to open their land
to controlled hunting. Five areas were located in the Sacramento Valley
and one in the Delta region (Figure 165). Table 3 gives the crops and
crop acreages for each area. Rice and barley were the principal crops

TABLE 3

Approximate Acreages of Crops on Cooperative Hunting Areas, 1949

Staten
Island

Williams

Sutter
Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain

Alfalfa

80

Asparagus

1,400
500
200

Barley stubble

1,050

160

Celery

Fallow rice

300

695

Field corn

6,100

Irrigated pasture

380

1,880

285

Orchard

160

20

Pasture

70

Plowed

450

2,340

3,500

200

7,230
2,140

4,535

5,780

11,815
6,490

9,020

Rice stubble

4,620

Sorghum

Sugar beets

300

110

Sunflowers

40

Tomatoes .

250

grown in 1949 on all areas except Staten Island, where truck crops were
important.

All areas were traversed by roads and were easily found by hunters
from descriptions and directions given in leading newspapers. On Staten
Island only one road passed through the area, which simplified the check-
ing problem.

Control of the hunting rights on four of the cooperative areas was
divided among several landowners. In these cases one was selected as
spokesman for the group. On two areas, Sartain and Staten Island, con-
trol of the hunting rights was under one person.

Game farm cocks were released prior to and during the season on all
cooperative hunting areas except the Sartain, where birds were liberated
only on the pheasant planting policy area.

HUNTING SEASON RESULTS

The following information was obtained from the filled out permits
for each day for each area : number of cocks bagged, number crippled

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

411

SARTAIN

TO GRASS VALLEY

' TO STOCKTON

-o — 1

Figure 105. Location of cooperative hunting areas

and lost, band numbers, number of hours hunted, whether or not a dog
was used, and remarks and suggestions. The permits issued on the
pheasant planting policy area on Sartain's did not contain space for
these questions. However, hunter questionnaire cards were filled out for
2,848 hunters who hunted on the part of the ranch which included that
area. The data obtained from these questionnaire cards were felt to be

412

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

more representative of the entire Sartain Cooperative Hunting Area
than the data from the permit returns, and were therefore used in com-
piling most of the report for that area.

The cooperative hunting plan was readily accepted by hunters, as
shown by the 41,166 man-days hunted on the six areas. Table 4 gives
the number of permits issued on each area and the percentage of volun-
teer returns upon which this report is based.

TABLE 4

Number of Permits Issued and Returned on Each Cooperative

Hunting Area, 1949

Area

Permits
issued

Percent
returned

5,717
3,906
6,726

10,922
9,377

t4,518

97.9

95.5

Sutter Basin _

97.6

Natomas .-

94.9

97.8

*82.1

t Total pheasant planting policy and cooperative area permits issued, less duplications.
* Percent return of cooperative area permits only.

TABLE 5
Hunter Days and Birds Killed

Area

Checked
hunter days

Total hunter

days

Checked
kill J

Calculated
kilH

Staten Island

5,597
3,731
6,564

10,362
9,171

i 2,848

5,717
3,906
6,726

10,922
9,377

2 4,518

1,523
1,140
2,274
2,013
3,441
i 1,723

1,556

Williams

1,193

Sutter Basin

2,330

2,122

3,518

Sartain

2,733

Totals

38,273

41,166

12,114

13,452

1 Study area figures.

2 Total pheasant planting policy and cooperative area permits issued, less duplications.

3 Includes game faim birds taken on or off areas.

4 Calculated hy figuring nonreturning permittees had the same success as those returning permits.

Kill and Hunter Days

Total checked kill and hunter days tabulated for the 10-day season
for all cooperative hunting areas are presented in Table 5. Figures for
the Sartain area include hunter days and kill from the 1,680 acres
operated under the pheasant planting policy.

All areas except the Sartain had the maximum allowable number
of hunters on opening day. The two dollar fee on the Sartain Ranch
turned a few hunters away, and also the other five areas were closer to
the large cities and attracted more hunters.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

413

Birds Killed per 1,000 Acres

Table 6 compares the combined kill of game farm and wild birds per
1,000 acres with the kill of wild birds alone. Game farm birds released
on the areas but reported as killed elsewhere are included, as the returns
of these were not separated from those killed on the areas. However,
the returns from off the areas were less than 5 percent.

Daily Percent of Kill

Table 7 shows the daily percent of the checked kill for all areas.
Table 8 shows the seasonal kill of wild and game farm birds.

More than two-thirds of the total checked kill was taken during the
first three days on all areas except Staten Island, where 56 percent was
taken.

TABLE 6
Kill per 1,000 Acres

Area

Calculated kill

per 1,000 acres

(Game farm and

wild)

Calculated wild

kill per 1,000

acres

Staten Island •.

183
189
228
208
186
199

97

Williams

94

Sutter Basin

171

Natomas

152

Grimes

145

Sartain

151

Over-all average

198

141

TABLE 7

Daily Percents of Total Seasonal Kill

Staten
Island

Williams

Sutter
Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain

Totals and averages

Daily

Cumulative

Total kDOwn bag

1,523

40.6
10.3
4.8
6.5
6.2
6.9
4.6
2.0
5.8
12.3

1,140

38.6
13.9
8.6
3.5
9.0
13.6
4.8
2.4
3.2
2.4

2,274

46.6

19.8

12.4

4.4

2.9

1.6

6.6

2.5

2.5

.7

2,013

36.7
20.5
10.9
2.4
7.6
5.9
6.3
3.5
3.8
2.4

3,441

51.0

19.9
12.6
2.7
2.1
4.7
2.6
2.0
1.4
1.0

1,723

48.5
13.6
10.6
2.7
6.8
4.2
2.4
1.9
2.0
7.3

12,114

44.9
17.3
10.7
3.5
5.0
5.4
4.4
2.4
2.8
3.6

Day of season:
1

44.9

2

62.2

3

72.9

4

76 4

5

81.4

6

86.8

7..

91.2

8

93.6

9

96 4

10..

100 0

414

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

10

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UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

415

TABLE 9
Percent of Kill Made Up of Game Farm Birds

Sartain

Grimes

Natomas

Sutter
Basin

Williams

Staten
Island

Average

Day of season:
1.

23.5
11.6
10.4
17.4
78.6
41.7
45.2

6.1
11.4

5.6

21.6
15.9
13.4
16.1
21.6
59.6
30.8
11.6
8.5
6.1

20.9
15.3
16.4
25.0
50.6
52.9
57.1
35.7
34.2
36.7

20.6
12.0
9.2
9.1
12.3
13.5
75.8
75.9
54.4
35.3

40.9
29.7
21.4
42.5
83.5
81.9
80.0
64.3
36.1
37.0

42.2
27.4
19.3
67.7
77.7
71.7
68.0
58.1
73.9
30.5

25.5

2

16.3

3

13.4

4

30.1

5

58.1

6

61.0

7.

55.5

8

55.3

9

29.7

10

21.6

Season totals

23.5

22.4

28.5

25.7

52.6

47.8

30.2

416

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

417

Kill of Game Farm Birds

Game farm birds made up approximately 30 percent of the total
checked kill on all areas (Table 9). On the Staten Island and Williams
areas about half of the kill consisted of game farm birds, while on other
areas they made up between 20 and 30 percent of the bag.

Table 10 presents a summary of releases and kill of game farm birds
for all areas, and Table 11 gives similar data for each area. An over-all
return of 47 percent was received from 7,797 birds stocked on the areas.
Returns were greatest from birds released during the season, averaging
65 percent. Releases made before the season yielded an average return of
42 percent, with very low returns generally resulting from liberations
made prior to September. Figure 166 gives band returns by date of
release. A few releases of game farm birds gave returns considerably

z

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Figure 166. Band returns by date of release from all liberations of game farm birds

on cooperative hunting areas, 19 49

below average. On the Grimes area, a release of 555 birds on Novem-
ber 14th yielded a return of only 33 percent, which was slightly greater
than half the average return from birds released near this date. Libera-
tions totaling 325 birds made on November 7 and 10 on the Williams area
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tors or died from unknown reasons before the season or perhaps many
of them found refuge from hunters in closed zones.

Game farm birds released during the season were quickly harvested,
as shown in Table 12. The effectiveness of these releases in increasing
the bag or hunter success was limited to the first two or three days follow-
ing the release.

418

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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420

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Hunting Pressure

Approximately 63 percent of the hunter days were expended during
the first three days of the season (Figure 167) . Hunting pressure was low
on the following week days and increased slightly on the final weekend.
Table 13 gives the daily percent of hunter days for each area.

The daily percentage of gun hours (Table 14) is parallel to the daily
percentage of hunters but shows that, in general, hunters were in the
field slightly longer during the early part of the season.

Daily and seasonal hunter days per 1,000 acres for each area are
given in Table 15. Hunter days per unit area were considerably greater

TABLE 12

Rate of Kill of Game Farm Birds Released In-season,
by Percents of Total Return

Days after release

Later or

0

1

2

3

4

unknown

Daily

10.7
10.7

50.4
61.1

18.1
79.2

9.4
88.6

2.9
91.5

8.5

Cumulative

100.0

TABLE 13
Daily Percent of Hunters

Day

Staten Island

Williams

Sutter Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain

1

16.8

17.2

15.5

5.0

5.5

5.0

9.1

6.1

10.8

9.0

24.2
24.2
15.0
3.7
4.5
5.2
5.9
4.6
7.4
5.3

22.2
23.2
16.8
4.1
4.5
3.1
6.8
4.6
9.1
5.6

23.5
22.3
14.6
3.2
5.8
5.5
9.4
3.8
6.8
5.1

25.4
25.5
18.9
2.8
3.4
3.3
5.4
3.8
7.3
4.2

33.0

2

25.8

3

15.1

4

2.9

5

6

3.9
3.5

7

2.9

8

3.6

9

4.3

10..-.

5.0

TABLE 14
Daily Percent of Gun

Hours

Day

Staten Island

Williams

Sutter Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain '

1.

19.1

16.9

14.0

4.8

5.8

4.9

7.9

6.1

10.3

10.2

27.2
24.5
13.9
3.5
4.7
4.7
5.0
4.6
7.1
4.8

21.5
24.0
17.5
4.1
4.6
2.7
5.9
4.3
9.8
5.6

26.7
22.7
14.1
3.3
5.8
5.1
7.7
3.7
6.0
4.9

27.0
25.9
17.2
3.0
3.0
2.9
4.9
3.5
7.3
5.3

35 3

2....

23.4

3

17.2

4

2.7

5

3 8

6

3 3

7

2.8

8

2.6

9

3.8

10

5.1

.Study area figures.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

TABLE 15
Hunter Days per 1,000 Acres

421

Day

Staten Island

Williams

Sutter Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain 1

l.„.

113
116
104
33
37
33
61
42
73
61

150
150
93
23
28
32
37
28
46
33

146
153
111
27
29
20
45
30
60
37

249
236
155
34
61
58
99
40
72
54

126
126
94
14
17
16
27
19
36
21

123

2

100

3

73

4

14

5

17

6

16

7

16

8

13

9-

18

10

22

Totals

673

620

658

1,058

496

412

Study area figures.

TABLE 16
Gun Hours per 1,000 Acres

Day

Staten Island

Williams

Sutter Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain 1

1....

443

392
325
111
136
114
183
142
239
237

563

507

288

72

97

97

103

95

147

99

543

606
442
103
116
68
149
109
247
141

823
700
435
102
179
157
237
114
185
151

552

530

352

61

61

59

100

72

149

109

593

2

404

3

298

4

48

5

67

6

58

7

51

8

47

9

10

68
88

Totals

2,322

2,068

2,524

3,083

2,045

1,723

1 Study area figures.

TABLE 17

Average Hours Hunted Daily per Hunter on Each Cooperative Hunting Area

Area

Average hours
hunted

Staten Island

3.4

Williams

3.3

Sutter Basin ..

3.8

Natomas

2.9

Grimes

4.1

Sartain .

4.2

Over-all average •

3.6

on the Natomas than on any other, doubtless due to the close proximity
to Sacramento. Sartain supported the least hunting per unit area because
of the location and charge for hunting.

Gun hours per 1,000 acres is given by days for each area in Table 16.
Heaviest pressure occurred on the first day on all areas except Sutter
Basin, where pressure was greatest on the second day.

Table 17 gives the average hours per hunter day for each area. The
higher number of hours on the Sartain area is probably due to the fee
charged which created an incentive to hunt longer. The lower average
on Natomas was again due to the close proximity to Sacramento, which
made it convenient for hunters with limited time to hunt. A total of
147,587 hours was expended in 41,166 hunter daj-s on all six areas.

4—29004

422

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

25 r

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DAY OF SEASON

Figure 167. Daily percent of hunters (all areas)

8

12 3 4 5 6 7 8
DAY OF SEASON

Figure 168. Hunter success (birds per hunter, all areas)

10

Hunter Success

Hunter success by day for all areas combined is given in Figure 168,
and similar data for each area are given in Table 18. The Sartain area
maintained a higher success for each day of the season than any other
area. This was due mainly to less hunting pressure than on the other
areas. Hunting success increased on all areas during the week days fol-
lowing releases of game farm cocks. However success dropped rapidly

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

423

TABLE 18

Hunter Success by Day
(Birds per Man)

Day

Staten Island

Williams

Sutter Basin

Natomas

Grimes

Sartain l

1„„

.66
.16
.08
.35
.31
.38
.13
.09
.14
.37

.26

.48
.17
.17
.28
.60
.78
.24
.16
.13
.13

.31

.73
.30
.25
.37
.22
.18
.33
.19
.09
.04

.34

.30
.17
.14
.14
.25
.21
.13
.17
.10
.09

.19

.75
.29
.24
.35
.23
.54
.18
.19
.07
.08

.38

.96

2

.32

3

.36

4

.49

5

.98

6

.63

7

.38

8

.36

9.

.27

10

.84

Seasonal average

.60

Study area figures.

TABLE 19
Hunter Days Getting Bag on All Areas

Two birds

One bird

No birds

Hunter days

2,597

24%

6,349

28,640

76%

TABLE 20
Use and Effect of Dogs on Ki

Area

Staten Island

With dog.

Without dog

Not specified

Williams

With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Sutter Basin

With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Natomas

With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Grimes
With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Sartain
With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Totals
With dog...
Without dog
Not specified

Percent
hunter days

48
41
11

Percent
total bag

28

40

26

61

55

73

11

5

1

43

55

46

43

33

46

14

12

8

42

54

51

35

32

41

23

14

8

57

72

65

40

25

35

3

3

—

48

59

52

44

36

47

8

5

1

37

52

55

28

30

36

35

18

9

57
35

Percent total
crippling loss

49

46

5

424

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 21
Effect of Dogs on Success and Crippling Loss

Area

Percent hunters
with two birds

Percent hunters
with one bird

Percent hunters
with no birds

Percent '
crippling loss

Staten Island

With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Williams
With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Sutter Basin
With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Natomas
With dog ...

Without dog

Not specified

Grimes

With dog.

Without dog

Not specified

Sartain

With dog

Without dog

Not specified

Totals
With dog....
Without dog.
Not specified

10
5
3

11

7
4

11

7
5

19

13

9

20
14

21
13
10

22
19
10

16

9

10

24
18
10

32

27

8

70
81
91

70
82
82

67
74
86

80
90
87

65
75
85

49
60
83

10

20

9

10

17

9

13

10

5

10

15

2

9

13
7

21
23
10

21

15

9

70
80
86

10
15

7

1 Given as percent of the bag made by each group.

again after the game farm birds were taken. Twenty-four percent of the
hunter days accounted for all birds taken on the areas, i.e., one bird was
taken for every four hunter days.

Use of Dogs

Hunter success was uniformly higher when dogs were used, also
crippling loss was somewhat lessened. Table 20 gives the total percentage
of kill and crippling loss by hunters with and without dogs. Hunters
using dogs were considerably more successful in bagging two birds than
those without dogs. Table 21 shows the percentage of successful hunters
with one and two birds with and without dogs for each area. Crippling
loss varied from 9 to 21 percent of the total kill for hunters using dogs
and from 10 to 23 percent for those without dogs.

Home Counties of Hunters

The percentage of hunters by region of residence is given in sepa-
rate tables for each cooperative hunting area. The Natomas area was the
only one where local hunters predominated, as the city of Sacramento
was in the local area. On all other areas San Francisco Bay region hunters
made up the largest percent. San Joaquin Valley and Los Angeles area
hunters together made up less than 10 percent of the total hunters on all
cooperative hunting areas. Tables 22 through 27 give the breakdown of
residence of hunters on the six areas.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

425

TABLE 22

Residence of Hunters by Region on Staten Island Cooperative

Hunting Area No. 1

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

34.5
51.6
1.5
1.3
.4
3.1
7.6

40.1
46.5
1.1
2.2
.5
1.7
7.9

30.3

58.8

.7

.5

.1

1.2

8.4

Local: San Joaquin, Sacramento, Yolo, eastern half Solano and Contra Costa Counties.

S. F. Bay Region: Marin, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa, western half of Solano

and Contra Costa Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
Upper Sacramento Valley: Sutter, Yuba, Colusa, Glenn, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Plumas, Butte, Nevada Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne Counties.
Others: All other counties.
Unknown : Residence not stated on permit.

TABLE 23

Residence of Hunters by Region on Williams Cooperative Hunting Area No. 2

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

9.8
64.1
6.2
1.9
3.2
9.0
5.8

20.8
14.3
9.6
5.7
3.8
7.1
8.7

12.1

63.0

1.1

1.2

Other Sacramento Valley and mountain counties -

3.1

8.1

11.4

Local: Glenn, Colusa, Lake, Butte, Yolo, Sutter, Yuba Counties.

S. F. Bay Region: Marin, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa

Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne, San Joaquin

Counties.
Other Sacramento Valley and Mountain Counties: Sacramento, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Plumas, Nevada, Tehama

Counties.
Others : All other counties.
Unknown: Residence not stated on permits.

5—29004

426

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 24

Residence of Hunters by Region on Sutter Basin Cooperative
Hunting Area No. 3

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

Local

18.8
57.9
2.6
2.6
6.0
3.0
9.1

31.1
45.7
3.7
1.7
4.9
2.4
10.5

23.1

San Francisco Bay region

61.7

Southern California

1.2

San Joaquin Valley

.7

Upper Sacramento Valley and mountain counties

3.0

Others

1.4

Unknown

8.9

Local: Sutter, Sacramento, Yolo, Placer, Nevada, Yuba, Butte, Colusa Counties.

S. F. Bay Region: Marin, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa

Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne

Counties.
Upper Sacramento Valley and Mountain Counties: Tehama, Glenn, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Plumas Counties.
Others: All other counties.
Unknown: Residence not stated.

TABLE 25

Residence of Hunters by Regions on Grimes Cooperative Hunting Area No. 5

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

7.6
65.4
3.2
2.8
8.3
4.7
8.0

17.8
54.7
2.3
1.6
11.8
3.9
7.9

8.8

San Francisco Bay region

68.8

Southern California

1.1

1.3

Other Sacramento Valley and mountain counties

8.3

Others

3.0

8.7

Local: Glenn, Colusa, Lake, Yolo, Sutter, Yuba, Butte Counties.

S. F. Bay Region: Marin, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa

Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne

Counties.
Other Sacramento Valley and Mountain Counties : Sacramento, Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Nevada, Tehama Counties.
Others: All other counties.
Unknown: Residence not stated on permit.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

427

TABLE 26
Residence of Hunters by Region on Natomas Cooperative Hunting Area No. 4

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

66.8
9.4
2.9
1.7
3.2
2.1

13.9

67.3
4.8
2.2
1.3
3.6
1.5

19.3

69.7

9.0

1.1

1.0

4.3

.7

Unknown - -

14.2

Local: Sacramento, Yolo, Yuba, Colusa, Placer Counties.

S. P. Bay Region: Marin, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa

Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne

Counties.
Other Sacramento Valley and Mountain Counties: Tehama, Glenn, Butte, El Dorado, Amador, Plumas, Nevada,

Counties.
Others: All other counties.
Unknown: Residence not stated on permit.

TABLE 27

Residence of Hunters by Region on Sartain Cooperative Hunting Area No. 6

Percent

Region of residence

Opening three
days

Weekdays

Final weekend

21.6

47.4

11.2

6.0

6.2

7.6

26.2
39.2
13.8
4.7
4.7
11.4

34.0

S^n Franoiscn Ray region

47.6

Southern California

1.1

3.7

Other SaeraTient.n Valley Cnnntir-

7.0

Other

6.6

Local: Plumas, Butte, Colusa, Glenn, Sutter, Yuba, Nevada Counties.

S. F. Bay Region: Marin, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda, San Francisco, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Sonoma, Napa

Counties.
Southern California: Santa Barbara, Orange, Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego, Ventura, Imperial

Counties.
San Joaquin Valley: San Joaquin, Stanislaus, Merced, Madera, Fresno, Kings, Kern, Tulare, Mariposa, Tuolumne

Counties.
Other Sacramento Valley Counties: Placer, El Dorado, Amador, Sacramento Counties.
Other: All other counties and out of state.

REACTIONS OF HUNTERS TO COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS

Comments of hunters on cooperative areas were recorded on returned
permit forms. Favorable reactions to this type of controlled shooting far
exceeded unfavorable remarks. As could be expected hunters bagging
one or more birds were better satisfied than those who were unsuccessful.
On the Sartain area criticism was directed toward the fee for hunting
privileges ; however, most of this was from unsuccessful hunters.

A vast number of hunters expressed their wishes toward increasing
the number of cooperative hunting areas where they could hunt without
fear of being rejected. Table 28 shows the percentage of favorable and
unfavorable comments by successful and unsuccessful hunters for each
area.

428

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 28
Reaction of Hunters to Cooperative Hunting Areas

Number

Successful

Unsuccessful

Total

Area

Percent

Percent

Percent

Favorable

Unfavorable

Favorable

Unfavorable

Favorable

Unfavorable

Staten Island

Williams

1

2
3
4
5
6

95.9
98.8
98.9
98.8
95.3
85.2

4.1
1.2
1.1
1.2
4.7
14.8

93.5
95.0
95.8
94.2
87.7
61.3

6.5
5.0
4.2
5.8
12.3
38.7

94.2
96.2
97.4
95.7
92.5
76.4

5.8

3.8

Sutter Basin

Natomas

2.6
4.3

7.5

pertain 1.

23.6

Totals

96.2

3.8

93.4

6.6

94.5

5.5

1 Fee of $2 per day per hunter.

REACTION OF LANDOWNERS COOPERATING

Questionnaires were sent to each cooperating landowner or agent
two days before the close of the season requesting their comments. Of
24 questionnaires returned, 18 expressed their wishes to continue with
the cooperative plan under the present system or with minor improve-
ments. Six did not state their desires, but when contacted personally all
were highly favorable toward this method of controlled hunting.

Three landowners or lessees were in favor of charging a small fee for
hunting. One such landowner purchased the shooting rights in 1949 on
land which he leased for farming to prevent commercial hunting club
operators from obtaining the hunting rights.

Hunter damage to cooperating landowner 's property was negligible
during the season. Only three reported any damage and this was mainly
restricted to fence breakage. The remainder reported no destruction to
livestock, crops, fences, gates or miscellaneous property. Many stated
they had damage in past years and that controlled hunting on their land
in 1949 was the primary reason for no destruction of property.

Of the total number of questionnaires returned, nine landowners
reported more hunters than in previous years, but only five stated they
had too many hunters at any one time. Two landowners reported they
had fewer hunters than in past years. The remainder said they had about
the same number.

Constructive suggestions were received from landowners in regards
to type of signs used for each zone, number and placement of signs,
method of posting, and methods of issuing permits.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1. To open land closed to pheasant hunting, Senate Bill No. 677,
establishing cooperative hunting areas, was passed by the State Legisla-
ture in 1949.

2. Six cooperative areas were operated by the California Division
of Fish and Game during the 1949 hunting season.

3. A total of 72,100 acres was under controlled hunting with a
maximum of 7,500 hunters permitted at any one time.

4. A total of 41,166 man-days of hunting was expended on the areas
and a checked kill of 12,114 birds was taken.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS 429

5. An over-all average of 198 cocks per 1,000 acres was taken on all
the areas with a wild kill of 141 birds per 1,000 acres.

6. More than two-thirds of the total kill was made during the first
three days on all areas except Staten Island where 56 percent was taken.

7. Game farm birds were released on all areas.

8. Game farm birds made up about half of the kill on the Staten
Island and Williams areas. On the other four areas approximately 30 per-
cent of the kill was from game farm birds.

9. Returns from 7,797 stocked birds amounted to 47 percent. Birds
released in-season gave a 65 percent return while those liberated prior
to the season yielded a return of 42 percent. In-season released birds were
mostly harvested by the second and third day after release. This indi-
cates that game farm releases in-season should be made the day before
hunting pressure is expected to be high.

10. Approximately 63 percent of the hunter days was expended
during the first three days of the season. Pressure lowered during the
week days and increased slightly on the final week end. Hunter days
per unit area were considerably greater on the Natomas than on any
other, doubtless due to the close proximity of Sacramento ; Sartain sup-
ported the least hunting per unit area because of location and charge for
hunting.

The Sartain area supported the highest average number of hours
hunted per day, probably due to the fee charged which created an incen-
tive to hunt longer. Natomas had, by far, the lowest average which was
again due to the close proximity of Sacramento, which made it con-
venient for hunters with limited time to hunt. A total of 147,587 hours
was expended in 41,166 hunter days on all six areas. Gun hours per 1,000
acres were greatest on all areas the first day except the Sutter Basin
where pressure was greatest on the second day.

11. The Sartain area maintained a higher hunter success for each
day of the season than any other area due to having the lowest hunting
pressure. Game farm birds released in-season increased success on all
areas during the week days. One bird was taken for each four hunter days
on all areas.

12. Hunter success was uniformly higher when dogs were used, also
crippling loss was somewhat lessened. Hunters using dogs were con-
siderably more successful in bagging two birds than those without dogs.

13. The largest percentage of hunters on all areas except the
Natomas were from the San Francisco Bay region. Local hunters were
most numerous on the Natomas.

14. Reactions to this hunting plan were recorded and favorable
reactions to this type of controlled shooting far exceeded unfavorable
remarks. On the one area which charged, some criticism was directed
toward the fee for hunting. However, most of this was from unsuccessful
hunters. Most hunters expressed wishes for more cooperative hunting
areas.

15. The most impressive point of the plan was that the 24 coop-
erating landowners, when contacted by printed questionnaires or in per-
son, were all in favor of this method of controlled hunting. Hunter
damage to cooperating landowners' property was negligible during the
entire season.

430 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

16. This cooperative hunting area plan will do much to alleviate
the largest problem confronting the California Division of Fish and
Game in pheasant management — that of opening land to hunter access
where wild ring-necked pheasants are plentiful.

APPENDIX A

ITEM NO. 1
Senate Bill No. 677

Section 1. Section 1159 is added to the Fish and Game Code,
to read:

1159. To provide added protection for landowners and lessees
from depredations of trespassers and to provide greater access for the
public to hunt on privately owned or controlled lands, the commission
may contract with the owners or lessees of lands where upland game
birds exist for the establishment of cooperative hunting areas upon such
terms as the respective parties may agree subject to the following
conditions.

Each cooperative hunting area shall be at least five thousand acres
in size and may consist of the adjoining lands of one or more owners.
The boundaries of such areas shall be posted by the Fish and Game
Commission with a sign stating that legal hunting will be allowed in the
area if written permission is obtained from the owner or lessee or his
duly authorized agent. The Fish and Game Commission shall enforce the
trespass provisions of the Penal Code and the provisions of this code
within such areas.

The commission may establish rules and regulations for the man-
agement and control of such areas during the regular open seasons on
upland game birds ; provided, that such rules and regulations shall not
conflict with or modify the provisions of this code or its orders of the
commission made pursuant to Sections 14 to 19.6 thereof. The owners
or owner or lessees or lessee of a cooperative hunting area may collect
a daily fee not to exceed two dollars ($2) per day per area from each
permit hunter.

As used in this section, the words "upland game birds" mean the
order of Gallinae as enumerated in Section 1174 of this code.

UPLAND GAME COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREAS 431

APPENDIX A

ITEM NO. 2

Rules and Regulations for the Management and Control
of Cooperative Hunting Areas

(Adopted by the Fish and Game Commission in meeting July 22, 1949, pursuant to
Section 1159 (Ch. 529, Stats. 1949) Fish and Game Code.)

1. The word "landowner" as used herein refers to the owner or lessee
of lands used by agreement with the Fish and Game Commission
for a cooperative hunting area, or the duly authorized agent of such
owner or lessee or their successors in interest.

2. With the consent of the Fish and Game Commission, the landowner
may be allowed to designate "closed zones" or "restricted zones"
within any, or that portion of any, cooperative hunting area estab-
lished on his property. The balance of the property covered by the
agreement shall be known as the ' ' open zone, ' ' available for public
hunting under the conditions hereinafter stipulated.

3. If a fee is to be charged for hunting privileges on a cooperative
hunting area, the amount thereof must be designated in the agree-
ment between the Fish and Game Commission and the landowner
or landowners concerned. Any such fees shall be collected by the
landowner but may not exceed $2 per day per hunter. At least 25
percent of the income derived from such fees shall be devoted to
habitat maintenance and improvement, subject to evaluation and
approval by the Division of Fish and Game.

4. Closed zones shall not be open to hunting at any time by any person,
including landowners, lessees or their duly authorized agents.

5. Restricted zones shall not exceed 20 percent of the total of coopera-
tive hunting area. The boundary thereof shall be shown on the map
of the area and approved by the Fish and Game Commission when
the project is accepted. The boundaries of such restricted areas shall
be posted accordingly, and hunting therein shall be at the pleasure
of the landowner. All hunters shall obtain permits and arm bands
before hunting on restricted zones.

6. Open zones:

(a) At least 5,000 acres, or a minimum of 50 percent of the entire
cooperative hunting area, whichever is greater, shall be included
in open zones.

(b) All hunters shall obtain permits and arm bands, at a designated
checking station, before hunting in open zones, and shall return
permits and arm bands, with all required information, before
leaving the area or at the end of the day's hunt.

(c) Permits to hunt in an open zone shall be issued under the direc-
tion of the Division of Fish and Game, on a first-come, first-
served basis.

(d) Permits shall be valid only for the day and area issued.

(e) The total number of hunters shall not exceed one hunter per
five acres of open zone at any one time.

(f) The representative of the Division of Fish and Game may, at
his discretion, further restrict the number of hunters in any
way in order to protect game or property.

432 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

(g) The representative of the Division of Fish and Game may refuse
to issue a permit to anyone.

(h) Prior to the acceptance or issuance of a permit, all permittees
shall consent in writing to the terms and. conditions of these
rules and regulations and to the terms and conditions set forth
on the permits.

(i) The Division of Fish and Game, upon request of the landowner,
shall furnish an employee to issue permits to hunt in open zones
where no fees are charged. (The landowners shall be responsible
for the issuance of permits where fees are to be charged. )

7. The authorized representative of the Division of Fish and Game may
forthwith seize and revoke the permit of any person authorized to
hunt on any cooperative hunting area, and eject him or her forthwith
from the area, for any one or all of the following reasons :

(a) Any act, or threatened act, on the part of a permittee which
appears to said representative to be a violation of any of the pro-
visions of the Fish and Game Code, the regulations of the com-
mission made pursuant thereto, or of these regulations.

(b) Any act, or threatened act, on the part of the permittee which
appears to said representative to endanger the person or prop-
erty of others.

The decision of the authorized representative of the Division of Fish
and Game in such respects shall be final and binding upon permittees.

8. The provisions of the Fish and Game Code, and the regulations of
the commission made pursuant thereto, shall apply to the entire
cooperative hunting area, irrespective of zone. Any person whose
permit has been revoked shall not be entitled to another permit to
hunt on any cooperative hunting area during the current upland
game bird season.

9. All permits shall state on their face that the use of the area is at the
sole risk of the holder thereof, and that neither the State of California
nor any agency thereof, nor the landowner, shall be liable in damages
or otherwise to the permittee on account of any reason whatsoever.
Said permittee shall hold the State of California and its agencies and
the landowner free and harmless for all claim and demand whatso-
ever which may arise out of or incidental to his use of the cooperative
hunting area.

10. If the lands used for a cooperative hunting area are owned or con-
trolled by several persons they shall appoint one person to act as
their agent for the entire area.

11. Lands designated and set aside for "closed zones" and "restricted
zones" shall be patrolled by the employees of the Division of Fish and
Game in the same manner as other portions of the cooperative hunt-
ing area during the open season for the upland game birds for which
the area is primarily established.

The Fish and Game Commission further finds that the adoption of
this regulation is necessary for the preservation of the public peace and
general welfare. 14 C. A. C. Sec. 273. Authority, Ch. 529, Stats. 1949.
Passed unanimously.

SWIMMING SPEED OF THE WESTERN SUCKER,
CATOSTOMUS OCCIDENT ALIS AYRES l

By J. H. Wales

Bureau of Fish Conservation
California Division of Fish and Game

On April 13, 1950, the writer had an unusually good opportunity to
observe the maximum swimming speed of the Western Sucker (Catosto-
mas occidentalis Ayres). Such observations are rare and a report on
this seems worthwhile.

Salt Creek is a tributary of the Sacramento River arm of Shasta Lake
in Shasta County, California. Near the point where it enters the reservoir
the stream flows through a large concrete culvert under U. S. Highway
99 and it was here that the observations were made.

Shasta Lake was filling with water and on April 13th its level
extended up to the lower lip of the culvert in such a way that the suckers
could swim directly from the reservoir up into the stream flow.

VELOCITY OF THE WATER

The concrete culvert is approximately half-round with a floor 12
feet wide and 187 feet long. The floor slopes from both sides toward the
middle with a longitudinal slope of 1.2 percent. On the date of observa-
tion the flow in the stream was computed to be 36 c.f .s. and at the lower
end of the culvert the depth of the water varied from zero at the sides of
the floor to 7.5 inches in the middle. At the upper end of the culvert the
depth at sides and middle was about 2 inches and 9.5 inches, respectively.
The floor of the culvert was quite smooth, so there was a correspondingly
smooth flow of water. The velocities were computed with a Price current
meter and found to be :

Lower end of culvert 8.6 ft. per second

Upper end of culvert 7.2 ft. per second

SWIMMING ABILITY OF THE FISH

About 10 adult suckers were trying to ascend the culvert to spawn
in the stream above. Their lengths were estimated to be 12 to 14 inches
but none could be caught for actual measurement. They would dart out
of the deep water where stream and reservoir met and swim up the cul-
vert until exhausted and forced to drop back. Several fish would try
the ascent at once, then drop back, wait a moment, and try again (pos-
sibly different groups of fish were involved). These fish were able to swim
from 15 to 25 feet up the swift water in the section where the velocity was
approximately 8.6 ft. per second.

1 Submitted for publication May, 1950.

(433)

434 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

APPLICATION OF DATA

From time to time fish managers have become interested in the
possibility of excluding rough fish from trout streams by the use of
barriers. A difference in the swimming speed of the two groups of fishes
might make certain types of barriers effective.

Since the writer has not made observations on the swimming speed
of adult trout it will be necessary to quote pertinent data from a paper
by Denil (1938).

"Trout 35 cm. [13f in.] expended effort of 390 grams correspond-
ing to a velocity in reasonably horizontal water of approximately 3.5 m.
per second [11.4 ft. per sec.].

"These limits for a trout, in sudden efforts, would be 1.4 times its
weight; for a salmon, 1.2 times its weight. These coefficients should be
reduced by I when the effort is for 50 to 60 seconds. ' '

Denil (op. cit.) states, also, that cyprinids [species?] are able to
develop a force of 0.5 times their weight for about 50 to 60 seconds and
assumes that for sudden short exertions they could develop a force equal
to their body weight. Obviously, this is slightly less than for Atlantic
salmon (Salmo salar) and considerably less than for trout (presumably
Salmo trutta).

It should be pointed out that the suckers observed in lower Salt
Creek advanced up the stream about 2 feet per second while overcoming
the flow velocity of 8.6 feet per second. Thus, for very short exertions
they attained a swimming speed of about 10 feet per second. Obviously,
a stream flow of 10.6 feet per second would make it impossible for these
adult suckers to do more than hold their place in the current for perhaps
5 seconds. This is a figure comparable to the 11.4 feet per second
recorded for 13f-inch trout by Denil. It is not surprising that trout should
be able to swim faster than suckers, but it is surprising that the difference
is no greater.

In the practical application of these data we see that as the stream
flow becomes slower than the maxima of 10.6 feet per second for the
12-inch sucker and 11.4 for the 13f-inch trout, the fish are able to gain
headway in the water. For example, if the velocity of the stream were
5.6 feet per second the sucker could advance 5 feet per second and a
distance of 25 feet in 5 seconds. The writer does not know how long
either the trout or suckers can sustain high swimming velocities, but it
seems obvious that water velocity alone would be a poor basis on which
to separate trout and rough fish.

REFERENCE
Denil, G.

193N. Lit nnVanique du poisson de riviere: qualites nautiques du poisson ; ses
methodes locomotrices ; ses capacity's ; ses limites ; resistances du fluide ;
effet de la vitesse de la pente ; resistance de seuil. Bruxelles, 395 p., 118 figs.
(Reprinted from Annales des travaux publics de Belgique, vol. 37, 1936;
vol. 38, 1937; vol. 39, 1938.)

NOTES ON FISHES RECENTLY INTRODUCED
INTO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA1

By Willis A. Evans and Philip A. Douglas

Bureau of Fish Conservation

California Division of Fish and Game

During the past two years several species of exotic fishes have been
brought into California as bait fishes and may now be established in
natural waters of the State. For purposes of record, these species are
listed below.

Agosia chrysogaster Girard. Longfin Dace.

This species is a member of the family Cyprinidae. Specimens were
obtained on April 2, 1948 by Warden Leo Rossier at Shorty's Bait Shop,
Topoek, Arizona. Fishing concession operators along the Colorado River
in the Parker area are also handling it for live bait use.

Reliability of information cannot be vouched for, but reported
sources of fish shipments containing this species were the following :

(1) Upper Bill Williams River, Arizona;

(2) A creek tributary to the Virgin River, Utah (an obvious error) ;

(3) Hassayampa River, just below Wickenburg, Arizona.

Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, who identified one of the fish obtained on April
2, 1948, believes that they may have been obtained from the Bill Williams
River or possibly from the Gila River in Arizona, where this species is
abundant. Regarding this, Dr. Hubbs states, "It is certain that the
species was not introduced, at least not directly, from Utah, since the
species is one of the lower Colorado River system and surely does not
occur as far upstream as Utah. ' '

Many of the specimens were heavily parasitized by a large tapeworm.

Pimephales promelas confertus (Girard). Southwestern Fathead
Minnow.

On March 23, 1950, specimens of this cyprinid, together with those
of the two species listed below, were examined at Bob Williams' Bait
Shop, Yuma, Arizona, by Carl L. Hubbs and Robert R. Miller. These
three bait fishes were being imported from Truth or Consequences
(formerly Hot Springs), New Mexico, where they were being reared in
bait tanks adjacent to the Rio Grande below Elephant Butte Dam. They
have been used as bait along the lower Colorado River and it is not
improbable that individuals have escaped alive into the stream. How-
ever, no specimens have as yet been taken directly from the Colorado
River or other California waters.

Dr. Hubbs considers the Fathead Minnow to be the most valuable
forage fish of the three, and believes that the tetra may be rather
dangerous because of its carnivorous nature.

1 Submitted for publication June, 1950.

(435)

436 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus (Filippi). Texas Banded Tetra.

The Texas Banded Tetra is the only representative of the family
Characinidae found in the United States. Its possible presence in the
natural waters of California has been described above.

Fundulus zehrinus Jordan and Gilbert. Southern Plains Killifish.

This species is a member of the family Cyprinodontidae. Notes on
its possible presence in the natural waters of California have been given
above.

Gillichthys detrusus Gilbert and Scofield. Gulf Mudsucker.

The Gulf Mudsucker, a member of the family Gobiidae, is a close
relative of the Long-jawed Mudsucker, G. mirabilis, which for many
years has been a popular bait fish in Southern California, especially in
the San Diego region. Several records are now at hand of its sale by live
bait dealers in the lower Colorado River area of Arizona and California
and there is some evidence that the species has become established in the
Salton Sea.

(1) On May 17, 1949 one of the writers (P.A.D.) obtained a dried
specimen of Gillichthys detrusus (identification by Carl L. Hubbs) from
C. Roy Hunter, resort owner at Desert Beach, at the northeast end of
the Salton Sea. It had been picked up along the beach and reportedly
was alive at the time.

(2) On June 13, 1949 six specimens were obtained from Brownie's
Bait Shop, Winterhaven, California, and one from Shorty's Landing,
Topock, Arizona. These specimens were also identified by Dr. Hubbs.

(3) On July 23, 1949 Kirby H. Walker obtained dried specimens
from islands inhabited by pelicans in the southwest end of the Salton
Sea. Identification was made by Dr. Hubbs.

No specific information regarding introductions of this species into
the Salton Sea is available, but several possibilities have been suggested.

(a) The possibility of natural introduction through the irrigation
system from the lower Colorado River received early consideration by
Hubbs and others but may now be discounted, since recent collecting
in the Salton Sea and from Laguna Dam to tidewater failed to secure
specimens, other than a series from near the head of tidewater, below
the mouth of Hardy River.

(b) An introduction may have resulted from escaped or dumped
bait. Brownie's Bait Shop reports selling mudsuckers to several persons
for bait use in the Salton Sea.

(c) It may have escaped from rearing ponds reportedly operated
on the shore of the Salton Sea.

(d) A pelican fly way exists between the Salton Sea and the tidal
flats in the Gulf of California, where the species is native, a distance of
about 100 miles. It is possible, but not probable, that pelicans have carried
live specimens into the Salton Sea from this source.

NOTES

INTRODUCTION OF KAMLOOPS RAINBOW TROUT

INTO CALIFORNIA

The first known introduction of Kamloops rainbow trout, Salmo
gairdnerii kamloops (Jordan), into California waters was made on
June 17, 1950. At that time 1,000 fish were liberated in certain tribu-
taries to Shasta Lake, Shasta County, California.

This introduction of Kamloops was made by the sportsmen of the
City of Redding with the aid of the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
and the California Division of Fish and Game. The sportsmen believed
that this subspecies of rainbow would grow faster and be a better game
fish than the native rainbows. This sportsmen's group imported 2,500
eggs from Idaho and these were hatched and reared for them by the
Coleman Hatchery of the Fish and Wildlife Service. At the time of
liberation these fish were 11 months old and averaged 12 per pound.
Following is a list of the waters planted :

Number of fish

Squaw Creek 100

McCloud River 300

Sacramento River 200

Sugarloaf Creek 50

Middle Salt Creek 50

Big Backbone Creek 100

Shasta Lake at Bridge Bay 100

Shasta Lake at dam 100

Total 1,000

The fish were scattered in these streams directly above the con-
fluence of each with Shasta Lake, in the hope that they will drop down
into the lake soon after they have become acclimated.

It is realized that plants of fish as small as these may not establish
spawning runs, even with reasonably good survival. However, since it
is not known which tributaries will be best suited to their needs, it
seemed wise to scatter them throughout six of the better streams.

All of these Kamloops trout were marked by removal of the left
ventral and adipose fins, so that they may be distinguished from native
rainbows. If any of these fish are caught and if their growth is sufficiently
greater than that of the native trout, possibly larger plants at a later
date will be justified.

The Redding sportsmen have given considerable publicity to this
introduction and it is hoped and expected that all fishermen in Shasta
Lake will watch for and report any rainbow trout with left ventral and
adipose fins missing. The absence of these fins will be the only conclu-
sive proof that a fish is a Kamloops trout. Marked fish should be brought
to the Redding office or local representatives of the Division of Fish and
Game for official examination and recording. — J. H. Wales, Bureau of
Fish Conservation, California Division of Fish and Game, June 1950.

( 437 )

438 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SOME LAHONTAN FISHES IN THE SACRAMENTO
RIVER DRAINAGE, CALIFORNIA

An instance of the introduction en masse of four species indigenous
to the Lahontan Basin into the Sacramento River drainage was noted
on August 20 and 21, 1949, when Miller Lake, Placer County, and
Richardson Lake, El Dorado County, were chemically treated by the
California Division of Fish and Game to eradicate rough fish popula-
tions prior to restocking with rainbow and eastern brook trout.

The species obtained were three cyprinids, Siphateles bicolor obesus,
Richardsonius egregius, and Rhinichthys oscidus robustus, and a sucker,
Catostomus tahoensis. Although all of the fish in the two lakes are assumed
to have been killed, substantial populations of the above species occur
in a small pond at the head of Miller Creek and in Miller Creek itself.
This stream drains into the Rubicon River. Barrier dams were con-
structed at the outlets of the treated lakes to prevent re-entry of the
unwanted species.

It has been assumed that the four Lahontan species were introduced
by bait fishermen. This is probably true, as the overpopulation of rough
fish, particularly the Siphateles, appears to have been a fairly recent
thing.

The population of Richardson Lake was made up primarily of S. b.
obesus, although substantial numbers of each of the other species were
found. The population of Miller Lake consisted primarily of C. tahoensis
and a few very large brown trout, although here, too, the other species
were present.

Miller Lake at present drains into Miller Creek, but it appears
entirely possible that this is a recent thing and that it once drained into
Lake Tahoe via McKinney Creek. The grade separation between Miller
Lake and McKinney Creek is slight and the character of the terrain is
somewhat suggestive of an old landslide. The possibility of such an occur-
rence is further indicated by Rutter's (Bull. U. S. Bur. Fish., XXVII,
1907 (1908), pp. 103-152) report of Catostomus tahoensis from Miller
Creek in Miller Pass. The pass where Miller Lake lies has been called
Miller Pass, and as Rutter does not definitely locate his stream as to
county, this pass may be the one he reported. If this is so, it seems likely
that C. tahoensis and possibly two of the other species were not intro-
duced by bait fishermen but occurred here naturally as the result of a
landslide forcing Miller Lake into the Sacramento drainage. S. b. obesus
was almost certainly introduced by bait fishermen, as it appeared only
recently and immediately became a nuisance. R. egregius and R. o.
robustus may or may not have occurred in the drainage naturally, since
they are not as prominent a nuisance as is the Siphateles and therefore
would not necessarily have been noticed, although it seems probable
Rutter would have collected them if they had been present in 1907. —
J. B. Kimsey, Bureau of Fish Conservation. California Division of Fish
and Game, May 1950.

NOTES

PACIFIC COD OFF NORTHERN CALIFORNIA

439

On October 21, 1949, the California Fish and Game research vessel,
"N. B. Scofield, " caught a Pacific cod, also known as Alaska codfish,
Gadus macroceplialus, while engaged in experimental drag-net opera-
tions in the Eureka region. This specimen, 21f inches, total length, 5^
pounds gross weight, was taken in 43 fathoms of water about 12 miles
northerly of the entrance to Humboldt Bay and seven miles off shore.

Figure 16 9. Pacific cod, Gadus macrocephalus. Photograph by J. B. Phillips

In a note in California Fish and Game, July, 1946, the author
reported two other specimens caught in the Eureka region. These were
taken by boats trawling between Trinidad Head and Humboldt Bay.
Although the occurrence of the Pacific cod as far south as Eureka is
uncommon, it is not rare. In one of the above cases, six specimens were
reported as taken in a drag net but only the largest one was brought in
for identification. Other drag boat operators tell of getting occasional
specimens of the Pacific cod in their trawls during a season, but these
are not always brought ashore. J. B. Phillips, Bureau of Marine Fish-
eries, California Division of Fish and Game, May, 1950.

440 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

REVIEWS

THE NATURE OF NATURAL HISTORY

By Marston Bates. Charles Scribner 's Sons, New York, 1950, 309 p. $3.50.

Marston Bates set out to write this book with the avowed purpose of
explaining the attitude and the method of modern science to the non-
scientist. He attains his goal. His medium is natural history, his field, as
an example of a science and as a framework on which to build his story.
To Dr. Bates, natural history does not mean, as he puts it, the ' ' oh my ! ' '
school of nature lovers. It means the study of plants and animals as
individuals and as groups of individuals. The book carries the reader
through the whys and the wherefores of natural science from an exposi-
tion on how living things are classified, and why a system is needed, to
a final summing-up of what Dr. Bates feels science to mean in terms of
objective and of purpose. Along the way there are sections on the geo-
logical history of life, its development and spread, on concepts of evolu-
tion, adaptation, and environment, on relationships for good or bad
between organisms, on the organization of individuals into communities
and populations. There is a fascinating chapter on the natural history of
naturalists. The book is indexed and includes a good list of references.

A refreshing sense of humor prevails throughout the book. No more
is presumed of the reader than intelligence and an interest, no matter how
latent, in the subject, though at least a vague memory of high school
biology would be helpful. The language is clear. There are technical
terms, for these cannot be avoided in a book of this sort, but they are
introduced with reason and are with few exceptions defined with care.

The reader will get a good groundwork in natural history and a pic-
ture of many of the theories and hypotheses upon which this science is
or has been based. He will gain an appreciation of the workings of the
"scientific mind," of how the scientist goes about his job and what he
hopes for. This is a book to be read with profit and enjoyment by scientist
and nonscientist alike. — Phil M. Roedel, California Division of Fish and
Game.

THE FISHERMAN'S ENCYCLOPEDIA

Ira N. Gabrielson, editor ; Francesca La Monte, associate editor ; Stack-
pole and Heck, Inc., Harrisburg, Pa., 1950, xxix + 698 p., pro-
fusely illustrated, 17 color plates. $12.50.

This is a tremendous volume, both in content and size. With the
whole of North America and the adjacent oceans as its field, it is a huge
undertaking. No less than 64 persons, in addition to the editors, are listed
as contributors, and the result is truly encyclopedic. Every topic likely
to be of interest to the sportsman is covered in some degree, usually a
large one. Probably the section titles best illustrate the scope : Game
Fishes; Fishing Equipment and Fishing Methods; Craft for Fishing;
Fishery Management Methods ; Where to Fish ; When and How to Fish ;
and Miscellaneous Topics. This latter potpourri includes essays on sucb

REVIEWS 441

diverse topics as sportsmanship, fly tying, cookery, camping and canoe-
ing, the Fish and Wildlife Service, the International Game Fish Asso-
ciation— to name a few. There is a glossary and an index.

The editors have struck an excellent balance. In general no one area,
no one point of view, no particular technique is seen in faulty perspec-
tive. Naturally, in a compendium such as this, any reader is sure to find
something to which he takes exception. This reviewer, no doubt because
he works with marine fishes for a state agency, would have liked to find
more of marine research — the section on fishery management is devoted
to fresh water work — and something of the programs being carried on
by the states. But this does not alter the basic fact that here is a fine
collection of fishing data and fishing lore, assembled with care and
presented in a manner which cannot fail to please.

What about details ? There are, to be sure, errors of commission and
of omission, and there are some inconsistencies. An occasional typo-
graphical error comes to light and at least two pictures are printed upside
down. To save potential seekers or doubters a perhaps lengthy search,
these are of the sawfish on page 12 and one of the two pictures of the
starry flounder on page 68. Both the starry flounder and the halfmoon
are illustrated twice. The over-all impression more than offsets these
imperfections, which, by and large, are not serious and do not impair
the general usefulness of the volume. The photographs are as a group
far above average and the color plates unusually good. The general
physical makeup and typography leave little to be desired.

Here, then, is a well-written book which more than lives up to its
title. It is too bad that it is necessary to set so high a price on books of
quality, for this is one which every sportsman will want to own. I am
sure that all who purchase it will find themselves more than repaid in
pleasure and information. — Phil M. Roedel, California Division of Fish
and Game.

THE SEA AND ITS MYSTERIES

By John S. Colman ; The British Book Centre, New York, 1950, 285 p.,
36 figs., 1 fold-in map, 17 plates, 1 in color. $3.

"The Sea and its Mysteries" is more properly, if prosaically, "An
Introduction to the Science of the Sea, ' ' and that is how its subtitle reads.
This does not imply any lack of mysteries, for it is to solve them that
the relatively young science of the sea exists. Many things about the sea
are understood, and many questions relating to these things are answered
in this book. Many other things are not understood or are only partly
and perhaps incorrectly understood. These are the mysteries, and they
form their part of the story.

Essentially, the book tells of oceanography and marine biology and
of what these sciences involve. Not everything can be presented in one
book of this size, as the author is very well aware, and doubtless no two
people in the field would agree on just what topics should be emphasized.
However, Mr. Colman has chosen his material with care and has not
missed any essentials. He speaks distinctly so that no one need fear a
text comprehensible only to another student of the sea. He has written

442 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

for the nonprofessional and done a good job — which by no means implies
that the professional will not find the book useful.

The book starts with discussions of the physical makeup of the sea :
its shape, constituents, currents and tides. This leads to a survey of life
in the sea, both plant and animal, large and small, and the relationship
of these living things to their environment and to each other. A separate
chapter considers coral reefs, particularly the Great Barrier Reef of
Australia which the author knows intimately. Another deals with the
intertidal zone. The history of oceanography and fisheries research and
something of their tools and techniques occupy all too short a space just
before the final chapter, which tells of what the amateur naturalist might
hope to see while passenger aboard a small cargo liner.

As is to be anticipated in a British book, most of the examples relate
to the Atlantic in general and England in particular. Readers
unacquainted with either will not find this a drawback, and those whose
experience is in the Pacific should find their interest enhanced by the
change of scene.

This book is recommended to anyone who wishes a general back-
ground in the science of the sea. The selected bibliography provides ample
reference for those wanting to delve deeper into the subject. — Phil M.
Roedel, California Division of Fish and Game.

THE AMERICAN WILD TURKEY

By Henry E. Davis; Small-Arms Technical Publishing Co., Georgetown,
S. C, 1949, viii + 319 p., 21 figs. $5.

Mr. Davis, who is a lawyer, has based this book on experiences
gained in his lifetime of hunting wild turkeys. He has divided space
about equally between hunting methods and various aspects of life his-
tory and management. Anecdotes are heavily relied upon. Many of the
plates are artistically excellent, though their value to the text is limited
by the lack of numeration.

The author makes it clear that such first-hand information as he
presents concerning behavior, life history, and population dynamics were
acquired secondarily in the course of hunting turkeys. For such data
he relies almost exclusively on Mosby and Handley 's ' ' The Wild Turkey
in Virginia."

Several suggestions for turkey management are offered, including
restocking with pure wild stock, predator control, revised open seasons,
more stringent law enforcement and maintenance of required habitat.
In this discussion the findings of research workers are in general con-
curred with, though particulars are somewhat adjusted to the personal
views of the author.

A wealth of expert information on techniques and on various types
of firearms, callers, etc., used in hunting turkeys is given in an easily
read style. These sections should prove to be of interest to all sportsmen —
whether turkey hunters or not. The scientific reader, however, will do
well to look elsewhere for his information. — Fred L. Jones, California
Division of Fish and Game.

KEVIEWS 443

TAKING LARGER TROUT

By Lawrence R. Roller ; Little, Brown and Company, Boston, 1950 ; xvi +
273 p. $5.

This is not a book for the beginning angler. Koller points out that
most such books treat the taking of trout in a general way only, i.e., how
to catch trout, regardless of their size. He concentrates exclusively on
the taking "... of trout that normally do not find their way into the
casual fly caster's creel except by chance." By his own definition these
"larger trout" appear to be those exceeding 12 inches in length — the
' ' lunkers ' ' whose size is reckoned in pounds rather than in inches.

Dry fly methods, the use of bait, and spinning are all discussed,
but the greatest emphasis is laid on the use of wet flies, bucktails and
streamers. Little attention is given to downstream casting methods.
Instead, the across-stream cast and retrieve, the natural drift, and the
upstream sunken fly are considered to be the most productive methods,
and these are thoroughly described.

There is a good discussion of lures. The author's most unique con-
tribution in this field is his detailed description of five different designs
of a single wet fly pattern to meet changing conditions in water level,
season, and type of stream.

Lake or pond fishing is not treated ; this is a book on stream fishing
alone. The accounts are drawn from the fabled streams of the Eastern
states, but the western angler will recognize the applicability of the
methods to our own waters.

Koller points out that with new developments in tackle, and the
increase in number of fishermen, "Increasing emphasis must be placed
on taking fewer fish for the creel so that each angler may have his
chance ..." He believes that today's angler should be content to take
a few fish of worthy size, and his well written chapters should enable
his readers to realize this aim. Forty line drawings and photographs,
including two color plates of artifical flies, plus a colored frontispiece
add to the attractiveness of the volume. — William A. Dill, California
Division of Fish and Game.

FISHING IS FUN

By Arthur H. Carhart; The Macmillan Company, New York, 1950; 122
p. $1.95

The title of this book is aptly chosen because a large part of this
fun is found in knowing the why's and wherefore's. Carhart stresses this
basic understanding of fish, tackle and water throughout his account.

The book is designed primarily for the beginning angler and the
occasional fisherman. It treats fresh water fishing from carp to trout,
from cane pole to fly rod and from muddy slough to mountain stream —
but always with the basic precept that fishing is fun.

One of the fascinations in fishing is the fitting together of skill in
handling tackle with lore of fish and water. The author does an admir-
able job of covering these basic fundamentals in a thorough fashion.
Any beginner who reads and studies this book will have a sound back-
ground in the art of angling and if coupled with understanding and
practice can not help becoming a better fisherman. The expert is not

444 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

likely to find anything new in Carhart's explanations but he will find
the book well worth reading — for the very same reason it behooves a
practicing biologist to review occasionally an elementary textbook on
biology — because the fundamentals, although all-important, are apt to
be taken for granted while the reasons for them are lost.

The last chapter, "Your Future Fishing," discusses conservation
in terms that everyone can understand and appreciate. For example, the
author shows the futility and expense of raising fish in hatcheries as a
cure-all for man 's mismanagement of soil and water. As he puts it, ' ' If
the spawning conditions are right, natural production, at no cost, will
surpass anything possible in the way of hatcheries. ' '

Carhart's definition of sportsmanship in angling is worthy of the
attention of every fisherman. ' ' True sportsmanship is found in the way
the fisherman goes about catching fish. He looks on it as a contest and
the number of fish caught is not so important as skill in catching a few.
A man casting a dry fly with highest skill can be just as poor a sport
as anyone who baits a hook with a worm and drops it into a likely pool
where catfish lurk. Any fishing should be a top-rate sport, and anyone
who goes fishing may be a sportsman regardless of his tackle or the fish
he catches. If he has the right attitude, plays the game fair, he is a good
sportsman."- — Scott M. Soule, California Division of Fish and Game.

THE SHELL COLLECTOR'S HANDBOOK

By A. Hyatt Verrill; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1950, xv + 228
p., 16 plates, 89 figs. $4.

Did you know that the paper nautilus is an octopus and that during
the spawning season the female forms a shell to hold her eggs until the
young are hatched, after which she sheds the shell? That a soft golden
cloth, perhaps the most expensive of all textiles, is made from the thread-
like byssus of a pen shell ? That india ink and cuttlefish bone both come
from the same species of squid ? That one type of shell from China was
so rare that counterfeits were made by the Chinese from rice paste and
sold to collectors 1

These facts and many other interesting notes on the natural history
of mollusks are to be found in the pages of this book. In addition there
are chapters containing advice on how to collect, clean, prepare and care
for shells, and how to classify and identify them, as well as much other
valuable information. Its beauty would have been enhanced by color
plates of some of the exotic species, but the black and white photographs
supplemented by nearly a hundred line drawings do a noble job of illus-
trating the text. The title is misleading as it is far more than just a guide
book or manual. The book is definitely not a key and should not be pur-
chased to identify shells from any particular geographical locality. It
is a volume worth having on your shelves as a general reference, and it
would be difficult to improve upon it for interesting reading. — John E.
Fitch, California Division of Fish and Game.

REVIEWS 445

THE EASTERN BROOK TROUT

By Bob Elliot ; W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., New York, 1950 ; 242 p. $5.

"With admirable singlemindedness, the author, Bob Elliot, has
restricted himself to a discussion of but one fish — Salvelinns fontinalis.
As an expert fisherman and a competent writer, he is able to communicate
his enthusiasm and to share his enviable experiences in catching giant
brookies in the few remaining wilderness areas of the east. In fact, one
might suspect this volume to be a deliberate piece of high class advertising
for New England in general and the State of Maine in particular. The
apparent provincialism is justifiable, however, for Maine is one of the
very last strongholds for truly large brook trout.

The history, identification and coloration of the brook trout are
reviewed briefly in the first chapter. Other chapters are devoted to a
discussion of the role of hatcheries, the future of the species and a few
choice recipes for the fish gourmet. It is quite obvious, however, that this
book is primarily intended for the fisherman, especially the trout angler
with purist inclinations and an inherent love for the "square-tail."
Appropriately, therefore, the remainder of the chapters make up a
detailed guide for the brook trout angler. Here are presented methods
of fishing, proper tackle and a short history of both. There are authentic
lists of huge brook trout over six pounds, giving location, date caught,
name of angler, size of fish and type of tackle used. Also listed are most
of the better brook trout waters of United States and Canada. Some
western states are included, but the California reader will be chagrined
to find his state omitted. Even so, he will soon find himself back fishing
again with the author, learning of new waters and perhaps new tech-
niques. There is a bewildering list of favorite flies chosen by various
experts. The author intimates, however, that the lack of agreement among
them merely indicates that one should have confidence in the fly he is
using, and should know how to use it properly, whether it is a Koyal
Coachman or a Parmachenee Belle.

Although this book has primarily a "popular" appeal, the fishery
biologist and the fish culturist will find that the information which it
contains regarding fish conservation is accurate. It is especially pleasing
to see expressed in public the idea of fishing for sport rather than for
meat or for the satisfaction of one's ego. Like many of us, Mr. Elliot
feels that with the ever-increasing pressure upon our fisheries, this
approach is mandatory.

With excellent format, sound references and 17 fine photographs
by the author, this volume is quite worthy of a place upon the serious
fisherman's book shelf. — Herbert E. Pintler, California Division of Fish
and Game.

446 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

THE WAY TO GAME ABUNDANCE, AN EXPLANATION

OF GAME CYCLES

By Wallace Byron Grange; Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1949;
365 p. $6.

The basic ecological principles governing game populations are pre-
sented as completely as possible in a style easily digested by the non-
technical reader. Discussions of the various factors, such as the nature of
behavior patterns, food dependencies, breeding potentials, and theories
of predation and disease, are tied to a central theme which stresses species
adaptation to particular plant succession stages. Upon this dependency
is based Grange's theory of the causes and mechanics of game cycles.

In brief he has determined that set-backs in vegetational forms to
subclimax stages are followed by peaks of abundance of game species
finding optimum food and cover in those stages. In a short span of years,
as the vegetation advances, the quality of the habitat decreases and the
high density population experiences a "crash." The simultaneous occur-
rences of these highs and lows within a species over the entire continent
is attributed to cyclic weather phenomena, which initiate the original
vegetational set-back. The particular cyclic weather factor stated as
being responsible is drought, which in turn favors extensive and frequent
fires — the actual denuding agent, according to the author. ■

Grange goes on to discuss management techniques for game in gen-
eral and for several species of farm game in particular. The use of fire
is particularly stressed.

The chief example that is used to illustrate the working of the
climatic-plant succession theory of game cycles is the snowshoe rabbit.
The case here, as given, appears to be clear-cut. However, the evidence
for similar causatives of "cycles" in some of the other species, particu-
larly white-tailed deer and bobwhite quail, and those of the arctic, is
not so clear.

The book has stimulated a good deal of thought above and beyond
its bounds. The principles proposed may be contested from numerous
points and at various levels, but the originality of thought and the con-
tribution made toward the understanding of game cycles stands as a
work of importance and of definite value. — Fred L. Jones, California
Division of Fish and Game.

BOBWHITES ON THE RISE

By Verne E. Davison; Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1949; 150 p.
$3.75.

This readable book summarizes much of the research and manage-
ment work in respect to bobwhite quail. The section dealing with tradi-
tions to forget is unquestionably the most appealing to game and land
managers and sportsmen alike. There is no doubt but that the discussions
of traditions will be used as points of debate for years to come. The
author could have driven his points home better if he had quoted the
results of the work of the researchers at greater length, rather than
depending so heavily on his bibliography. The book in itself does not
serve as an all-inclusive guide to the game manager but it does tell where
the information may be procured relating to bobwhite quail habitat
management.

REVIEWS 447

The final chapter on farmer-sportsman relationship recognizes the
state ownership of game species but it also stresses the custodianship of
the game by the landowner. Too little credit has been given to the person
who raises game for the hunters and, as a palliative, the author proposes
that hunting licenses be null and void until permission to hunt is secured
from the landowner. Although the book is written particularly about
bobwhite quail, portions are applicable to several game species. — Henry
A. Hjersman, California Division of Fish and Game.

NORTH AMERICAN FRESH WATER SPORT FISH

By Lou S. Caine ; A. S. Barnes and Company, New York, 1949 ; xii -f-
212 p. $5.

This book fulfills a definite need in the library of both angler and
fisheries biologists for an up-to-date handbook covering all of our fresh-
water sport fish, i.e., those which are "... fished for with hook and line
and caught for sport or pleasure, regardless of . . . [their] . . . edible
or game qualities."

It begins with a chapter on "Fish Facts" : elementary notes on such
subjects as color vision in fishes, fish anatomy, and ecology. This is fol-
lowed by chapters covering each of twelve families : the sunfishes, the
salmons and trouts, graylings, pikes, perches, basses, bowfins, drums,
catfishes, minnows, suckers, and whitefishes. There is a section on tackle
and a final chapter on angling methods. A bibliography comprised pri-
marily of angling titles, but including some standard references, and an
index completes the book. There are a few color plates and photographs ;
the frontispiece is from a painting of a brook trout by "William J.
Schaldach.

While the sections on tackle and fishing methods are of interest, the
real value of the book lies in its descriptions of the fishes. These follow
a standard form for each species : black and white drawing ; common
and scientific names; colloquial names; coloration; characteristics (for
identification); range; habitat; size (including the world's record);
natural foods ; artificial lures ; fishing methods ; biological facts. Dr. Karl
F. Lagler of the University of Michigan is responsible for these biological
notes covering spawning habits, growth, etc. The descriptions are not
always complete enough to enable the reader to distinguish between
some of the closely related species, e.g., the Pacific salmons. However,
it will facilitate the recognition of most of the species caught by anglers.

The scientific names are up-to-date. The official common names are
those which were recently selected by the Outdoor Writers of America
and should promote a stability in vernacular nomenclature. — William A.
Dill, California Division of Fish and Game.

448

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

REPORTS

FISH CASES

April, May, June, 1950

Offense

Number
arrests

Fines
imposed

Jail

sentences
(days)

Abalone: Undersize; overlimit; no license; out of shell; closed season; diving gear
in closed district; failure to show license; using another person's license; taking

abalone in marine life preserve

Angling: No license; late angling; failure to show angling license on demand;
possession of gaff; using artificial light; night fishing; using a license not issued
to him; transferring license; using set lines; illegal spearing; angling with more
than one line; fishing within 150 feet of lower side of a dam; angling in waters
closed to fishing; closed season; taking fish other than by angling, i. e., by use
of firearms; more than 2 attractor blades; possession of fishing equipment in
fish refuge; false statement in obtaining citizen fishing license; making a false

statement on angling license

Barracuda: Selling fish from sport boat .

Black bass: Out of season; possession undersize; angling with too many poles.-.

Rock bass: Possession overlimit; no license; using another's license

Striped bass: Angling, nolicense; overlimit; 2 lines; angling with more than 1 line;

undersize

Carp: Night fishing; no license

Catfish: Possession undersize; overlimit; no license; night fishing; taking catfish
other than by angling; possession for sale untagged catfish; taking undersize

channel catfish in District 22; angling with more than one line

Big neck clams: Overlimit; no license ----

Cockle clams: Overlimit; no angling license; taking in closed season; undersize .

Gaper clams: No license; possession overlimit .

Pismo clams: Undersize; overlimit; no license; failure to return undersize to
water; possession undersize in closed area; taking in state clam preserve;

possession clam forks in clam preserve; possession clams out of shell

Razor clams: Overlimit

Commercial: No license; no registration; dragging in less than 25 fathoms; no
boat plates; failure to make fish purchase records; no party boat permit or

records; false statement; no alien license; gill nets on boat in District 19A

Crabs: Undersize; possession of over 500 lbs. on drag boat.__ _

Crappie: Possession in closed season; taking in closed season; night fishing; failure

to show license; no license T

Frogs: Closed season; possession spears within 300 feet of prohibited stream;

undersize .

Halibut: Failure to show angling license

Lobsters: Possession in closed season; possession of lobsters taken illegally; fish-
ing in closed area; taking in closed season; undersize

Mussels: No angling license

Pollution: Use of bluestone; permitting petroleum product to enter state waters;

by petroleum oil

Rockfish: No angling license.

Salmon: Undersize; fishing within 250 feet of fishway; mutilation of fish; no

license.

Sea urchins: Taking from Pt. Lobos State Park --- - ---

Shad: No license.. -

Sturgeon: Possession of sturgeon taken in gill net ....

Sunfish: Possession in closed season; overlimit^ out of season; no license; using
another's license; predating license; fishing without license

Trout: Fishing in closed waters; angling with more than 1 rod; overlimit; closed
season; no license; fishing in closed stream; taking steelhead with spear; fish-
ing within 150 feet of lower side of darn; night fishing; taking trout from waters
of District 103.6; set line; 2 poles; using more than 2 attractor blades; fishing
within 300 feet of inlet of lake; failure to tag domestic fish sold; possession
steelhead taken with gaff . -

Tuna: Possession of undersize tuna and offering for sale

Yellowfin croaker: Possession of overlimit

Totals.

188

449
1

36

14

27

5

104
1

51
6

10

14
1

11
3

7

1

2
2
2

30

134

1
1

1,218

$4,987 50

6,002 00

10 00

145 00

45 00

2,000 00
35 00

905 00

305 00

570 00

45 00

2,512 00
25 00

1,512 50
375 00

305 00

430 00

fine susp.

395 00
25 00

625 00
10 00

520 00
20 00
20 00
50 00

040 00

3,607 00
00 00
25 00

12^

5+5 susp.

50

120

$26,206 00

27H

215

REPORTS

449

GAME CASES
April, May, June, 1950

Offense

Number
arrests

Fines
imposed

Jail
sentences

(days)

Deer: Doe; possession parts of spike buck; using .22 rifle; out of season; pos-
session of skin of female deer; transporting illegal deer into California; using
spotlight; killing forked horn in District \%; failure to fill out tags; killing doe;
taking deer in violation of fish and game regulations; possession of fawn;
closed season; possession of light and gun in deer area. _

Deer meat: Possession in closed season; illegal possession; possession of un-
stamped deer meat; possession of illegally taken game, i. e., deer meat; pos-
session more than 15 days after legal season

Doves: Closed season; possession in closed season; taking out of season and by
using air pistol '- ---

Ducks: Bringing illegal ducks into California; making false statement on hunting
license; closed season; using live decoys; possession of wooden duck in closed
area; shooting with .22 rifle in game refuge; overlimit _ _.-

Geese: Hunting in closed season; on closed area; overlimit; possession of cackling
goose and firearm on refuge

Hunting: Taking game animals by use of artificial light and gun; possession of
gun in refuge; using unplugged shotgun; shooting protected nongame birds;
hunting in closed area; shooting from power boat; late shooting; no license. .

Migratory waterfowl: Late shooting

Nongame birds: Taking nongame birds; meadowlark; shooting seagulls

Pheasants: Hen pheasants; possession of untagged pheasant; closed season;
hunting on cooperative pheasant area; no permit; shooting out of season;
hunting with .22 rifle

Quail: Possession in closed season; taking in game refuge; taking out of season

Rabbits: Taking cottontail rabbits in closed season; no license; night hunting;
possession of cottontails in closed season; hunting rabbits without license;
taking cottontails without license

Shore birds: Taking protected shore birds

Squirrels: Possession of tree squirrel

Totals

24

20

4

11
2

24

1
4

1!
7

73
1

1

$2,050 00

2,231 00
295 00

597 50
125 00

655 00
20 00
95 00

637 50
155 00

3,092 00
25 00
25 00

180
90

75
10

186

510,003 00

355

SEIZURES OF FISH AND GAME

April, May, June, 1950

Fish:

Abalone 2,106

Barracuda, pounds 207

Black bass 9

Rock bass 17

Striped bass 176

Carp 7

Catfish 202

Big neck clams 273

Cockle clams 4,575

Gaper clams 47

Pismo clams 1,320

Razor clams 38

Crabs -- 22

Crappie --- 70

Fiogs — 31

Lobsters 246

Octopus --- 1

Salmon 25

Sea urchins 3

Sturgeon 1

Bluegill sunfish 400

Trout - 875

Tuna, pounds 3,345

Yellowfin croaker - 24

Game:

Deer -. 4H

Doves 16

Ducks .- — 42

Geese 4

Nongame birds

Pheasant 10

Quail 14

Rabbits .- 82

Shore birds 2

Squirrels - 1

INDEX TO VOLUME 36

Agosia chrysogaster; 435

Albula vulpes; 3-6

Alosa sapidissima ; 72

Anderson, Elvin C. ; retirement of, 167

Angling catch records, 1936-1948; 177-

234
Antelope, prong-horn ; food habits, 21-

26 ; reproduction, 328-329
Antilocapra americana; 21-26, 328-329
Argentina stalls; 68-70
Arnold, General H. H. ; in menioriam,

170
Astyanax fasciatus mexicanus ; 436

B

Bartholomew, Paul S. ; see Cronemiller,

Fred P. and Paul S. Bartholomew
Bass, striped ; angling trends, 192-196 ;

reproduction, 135-145
Bauder, Charles S. ; in memoriam, 56
Bischoff, Arthur I. ; see Herman, Carlton

M. and Arthur I. Bischoff
Blackfish, greaser ; life history, 119-133
Bonefish ; life history ; 3-6
Bonnot, Paul ; United States mollusca

(review), 57
Br am a brama; 68
Buffalo, bigmouth ; 332-333

C

Calhoun, A. J. ; California angling catch
records from postal card surveys :
1936-1948 ; with an evaluation of
postal card nonresponse, 177-234

Calhoun, A. J., C. A. Woodhull and Wm.
C. Johnson ; Striped bass repro-
duction in the Sacramento River
system in 1948, 135-145

C'fiHorhinus ur sinus ; 378-379

Carcharhinus velox ; 330-331

Catostomus occidcntalis ; 433-434

Catostomus tahoensis ; 438

Chattin, John E., and Robert Lassen ;
California antelope reproductive
potentials, 328-329

Citellus beecheyi; 323-327

Clam, Pismo ; 285-312

Cod, Pacific ; 439

Conger ; 71

Cooperative hunting areas ; 404-432

Cronemiller, Fred P. and Paul S. Bar-
tholomew ; The California mule
deer in chaparral forests, 343-365

Cusk eel, California ; 71

D

Dace, longfin ; 435

Dasmann, William P. ; Basic deer man-
agement, 251-284 ; A conservation
handbook (review), 168

Daugherty, Anita E., see Felin, Francos
E., Anita E. Daugherty and Leo
Pinkas

Davis, John F., see Harper, Harold T.,
George Metcalfe and John F.
Davis

Deer ; interstate herd, 27-52 ; manage-
ment, 251-284 ; papilloma in,
19-20

Deer, mule ; in chaparral forests, 343-
365 ; food habits, 235-240

Dill, William A. ; North American fresh
water sport fish (review), 447;
Taking larger trout (review),
443 ; see Shapovalov, Leo, and
William A. Dill

Douglas, Philip A. ; see Evans, Willis A.
and Philip A. Douglas

Duck banding, 75-117

Embassichthys bathybius ; 165-166
Evans, Willis A. ; Notes on the occur-
rence of the bigmouth buffalo in
Southern California, 332-333
Evans, Willis A. and Philip A. Douglas ;
Notes on fishes recently intro-
duced into Southern California,
435-436

Felin, Frances E., Anita E. Daugherty
and Leo Pinkas ; Age and length
composition of the sardine catch
off the Pacific Coast of the United
States and Canada in 1949-50,
241-249

Ferrel, Carol M. ; The game birds of
Hawaii (review), 169

Ferrel, Carol M. and Howard R. Leach ;
Food Habits of a California deer
herd, 235-240 ; Food habits of the
prong-horn antelope of California,
21-26

Fields, W. Gordon ; A preliminary report
on the fishery and on the biology
of the squid, Loligo opalescens,
366-377

Fishes; angling trends, 177-234; Cali-
fornia fresh-water and anadro-
mous, check list, 382-391 ; intro-
duced into Southern California,
435-436 ; Lahotan in Sacramento
drainage, 438 ; notes on some Pa-
cific, 65-73 ; swimming speed, 433-
434

Fishing, commercial; Netting with aid
of lights, 380-381

Fish screens ; perforated plate, 392-403

Fitch, John E. ; Life history notes and
the early development of the bone-
fish, Albula vulpes (Linnaeus),
3-6 ; Notes on some Pacific fishes,
65-73 ; The Pismo Clam, 285-312 ;
The Shell collector's handbook
(review). 444

(451)

452

CALIFORNIA FISU AND GAME

Flounder, deep sea ; 165-166
Fundulus zebrinus; 436

Gadus macrocephalus j 439

Game, upland ; cooperative hunting

areas, 404-432
Gapeworm ; control of, 13-17
Gerhardt, Rudolph ; in memoriam, 334
Gillichthys detrusus ; 436
Greaser blackfish ; life history, 119-133
Grunion ; 323-327
Gudger, E. W. ; A second record of the

whale shark, Rhineodon typus, in

Panama Bay, 313-315
Gulo luscus luteus ; 320-322

H

Hagen, Herbert L. ; An illustrated key to
the lizards, snakes and turtles of
the West (review), 336

Hagerman, Frederick B. ; The extension
of the range of the deep sea
flounder, Embassichthys bathyb-
ius (Gilbert), 165-166

Handley, John ; see Wales, J. H., E. W.
Murphey and John Handley

Harper. Harold T., George Metcalfe and
John F. Davis ; Upland game co-
operative hunting areas, 404-432

Hecker, Fred W. ; in memoriam, 334

Herman, Carlton M. and Arthur I.
Bischoff, Papilloma, skin tumors
in deer, 19-20

Herman, Carlton M. and Richard Kra-
mer ; Control of gapeworm infec-
tion in game farm birds, 13-17

Hightower, A. A.; The voice of the
coyote (review), 168

Hiscox, Earl I. ; in memoriam, 334

Hjersman, Henry A. ; Bobwhites on the
rise (review), 446-447

Hubbs, Curl L. and J. L. McHugh ; Pa-
cific sharpnose shark (Scoliodon
longurio) in California and Baja
California, 7-11

I
Interstate Deer Herd Committee;
Fourth progress report on the co-
operative study of the interstate
door herd and its range, 27-52

Johnson, Win. C. ; see Calhoun, A. J.,
C. A. Woodhull and Wm. C. John-
son

Jones, Fred L. ; The American wild tur-
key (review), 442; Recent rec-
ords of the wolverine (Gulo lus-
cus luteus) in California, 320-
322 ; The way to game abundance,
;ni explanation of game cycles
(review), 446

K

Killifish, southern plains ; 436
Kimsey, J. B. ; Some Lahontan fishes in

the Sacramento River drainage,

California, 438
Kramer, Richard ; see Herman, Carlton

M. and Richard Kramer

Lark, horned ; 323-327

Lassen, Robert; see Chattin, John E.

and Robert Lassen
Leach, Howard R. ; see Ferrel, Carol M.

and Howard R. Leach
Leuresthes tenuis; 323-327
Loligo opalescens ; 366-377

M
MacGregor, Wallace G. ; The artificial

roost — a new management tool

for California quail, 316-319
Mackerel, Monterey Spanish ; 70
Masturus lanceolatus : 65
McHugh, J. L. ; see Hubbs, Carl L. and

J. L. McHugh
McLean, Donald D. ; Duck banding at

Tulare Lake, 75-117
Megastomatobus cyprinella ; 332-333
Metcalfe, George; see Harper, Harold

T., George Metcalfe and John F.

Davis
Minnow, southwestern fathead ; 435
Mudsucker. gulf ; 436
Murphey, E. W. ; see Wales, J. H., E. W.

Murphey and John Handley
Murphy, Garth I.; The life history of

the greaser blackfish (Orthodon

microlepidotus) of Clear Lake,

Lake County, California, 119-133 ;

see Taft, Alan C. and Garth I.

Murphy

O

Ocker, Henry ; in memoriam, 335

Odocoileus hemionus calif or nicus ; 235-
240, 343-365

Olson, Andrew C, Jr. ; Ground squirrels
and horned larks as predators
upon grunion eggs, 323-327

Ophichthus triserialis ; 70

Orthodon microlepidotus ; 119-133

Otocoris alpestris; 323-327

Otophidium scrippsi; 71

"Pegasus sp. ; 65

Pheasant ; cooperative hunting areas,

404-432
Phillips, J. B. ; Pacific cod off Northern

California, 439
Pimephales promelas confertus; 435
Pinkas, Leo; see Felin, Frances E.,

Anita E. Daugherty and Leo

Pinkas

INDEX TO VOLUME 36

453

Pintler, Herbert E. ; The eastern brook

trout (review), 445
Platyrhinoidis triseriata; 65
Pomf ret ; 68

Prionotus stephanophrys; 66-67
Ptychocheilus grandis; 147-164

Q

Quail, California; artificial roost, 316-
319

R

Rathbunella sp. ; 71

Reviews; The American wild turkey,
442; Bobwhites on the rise, 446-
447 ; A conservation handbook,
168; The eastern brook trout,
445 ; The fisherman's encylopedia,
440-441 ; Fishing is fun, 443-444 ;
The game birds of Hawaii, 169;
Illustrated key to the lizards,
snakes and turtles of the West,
336; The nature of natural his-
tory, 440 ; North American fresh
water sport fish, 447; The sea
and its mysteries, 441-442; The
shell collector's handbook, 444;
Taking larger trout, 443 ; United
States mollusca, 57 ; The voice of
the coyote, 168 ; The way to game
abundance, an explanation of
game cycles, 446
Rhineodon typus; 313-315
Rhinichthys osculus robustus; 438
Rhynchocymba catalinensis ; 71
Ribbonfish, California ; 72
Richardsonius egregius; 438
Roccus saxatilis; 135-145, 192-196
Roedel, Phil M. ; The fisherman's ency-
clopedia (review), 440-441; The
nature of natural history (re-
view), 440; Notes on two species
of sharks from Baja California,
330-332; The sea and its mys-
teries (review), 441-442
Ronquil ; 71

S

Salmo gairdnerii kamloops; 437
Salmon ; angling trends, 207-209
Sardine, Pacific ; 241-249
Sardinops caerulea; 241-249
Saunders, Benjamin R. ; retirement of,

333
Scheffer, Victor B. ; Winter injury to

young fur seals on the northwest

coast, 378-379
Scofield, W. L. ; Small boat stabilizers,

53-54
Scoliodon longurio; 7-11, 331-332

Scomberomorus concolor; 70
Scomberomorus sierra; 70
. Seals, fur ; 378-379
Seamoth ; 65
Searobin ; 66-67
Shad ; 72
Shapovalov, Leo and William A. Dill ; A

check-list of the fresh-water and

anadromous fishes of California,

382-391
Shark ; sharpnose, 7-11, 331-332 ; whale,

313-315
Siphateles bicolor obesus; 438
Snake eel, spotted ; 70
Soule, Scott M. ; Fishing is fun (review) ,

443-444
Squawfish, Sacramento ; life history, 147-

164
Squid ; fishery and biology, 366-377
Squirrel, ground ; 323-327
Sucker, western ; swimming speed, 433-

434
Sunfish, pointed-tailed ocean ; 65
Syngamus trachea; 13-17

T
Taft, Alan C. and Garth I. Murphy ; The
life history of the Sacramento
squawfish {Ptychocheilus gran-
dis), 147-164
Tetra, Texas banded ; 436
Thornback ; 65
Tivela stultorum; 285-312
Trachipterus rex-salmonorum; 72
Trout ; angling trends, 182-192, 228-230 ;
introduction of kamloops into
California, 437

W

Wales, J. H. ; Introduction of kamloops
rainbow trout into California,
437 ; Swimming speed of the west-
ern sucker, Catostomus occidenta-
lis Ayres, 433-434

Wales, J. H., E. W. Murphey and John
Handley ; Perforated plate fish
screens, 392-403

Warm water fishes ; angling trends, 196-
206

Wolverine ; in California, 320-322

Woodard, Abe; in memoriam, ;"5

Woodhull, C. A.; see Calhoun, A. J.,
C. A. Woodhull and Wm. C. John-
son

Y

Young, Parke H. ; Netting bait and can-
nery fish with the aid of lights,
380'-381

29004 6-50 7500