CAUFORNIAl FISH AND GAME 'CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION' California Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conservation of wild- life. Its contents are not copyrighted and may be produced elsewhere provided credit is given the authors and the California Department of Fish and Game. Interested persons may have their names placed on the mailing list by writ- ing to the editor. There is no charge, but subscriptions must be renewed annu- ally by returning the postcard enclosed with each October issue. Subscribers are asked to report changes in address without delay. Please direct correspondence to: AAr. Phil M. Roedel, Editor California State Fisheries Laboratory Terminal Island Station San Pedro, California 1 J 1 ] VOLUME 38 OCTOBER, 1952 NUMBER 4 53 I yi \ lang Published Quarferiy by fbe CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME SAN FRANCISCO STATE OF CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME EARL WARREN Governor FISH AND GAME COMMISSION PAUL DENNY, President Etna LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner HARVEY E. HASTAIN, Commissioner Los Angeles Browley WILLIAM J. SILVA, Commissioner CARL F. WENTE, Commissioner Modesto Son Francisco SETH GORDON Director of Fish and Gome CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME PHIL M. ROEDEL, Editor Terminal Island Editorial Board RICHARD S. CROKER San Francisco FRANK KOZLIK San Francisco LEO SHAPOVALOV San Francisco TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Management of Chamise Brushlands for Game in the North Coast Kegion of California H. H. Biswell, R. D. Taber, D. AV. Hedrick, and A. M. Schultz 453 Life History of the Blue Roekfish, Sehastodes mystinus Joseph II. Wales 485 The Tomales Bav Herrino^ Fishery W. L. Scofield 499 Life History and Productivity of a Population of Western ]\Iourn- ing Doves in California Joiix B. Cowan 505 Tooth Development of the Nelson Bigliorn Sheep 0. V. Demixg 523 Food Habits of California Striped Bass W. C. JoHxsox and A. J. Calhoun 531 A Sampling Program for Recovery of ]\Iarked King and Silver Salmon Doxald H. Fry, Jr. and Eldox P. Hughes 535 The Pismo Clam in 1951 Johx E. Fitch 341 Notes on the Embryology and Behavior of the Flyingfishes {Cyp- selurus) Off the Coast of Southern and Baja California Daxiel J. Miller 549 Distributional Notes on Some Pacific Coast Marine Fishes John' E. Fitch 557 The Fanfish, Pteraclis velifera, Found in California Glenx' a. Noble and Charles 0. Blodgett 565 Variations in the Wolf Eel, Anarrliichthys oceUatiis Ayres, a Fish Inhabiting the Eastern North Pacific Ocean Robert II. Kanazawa 567 Food of the Pacific Sardine, Sardi72ops caeruha, from Central Baja California and Southern California John Radovich 575 Development through the Prolarval Stage of Artificially Fertilized Eggs of the Pacific Sardine {Sardinops caendea) Daxiel J. ]\Iiller 587 Pheasant Cooperative Hunting Area Results, 1951 Chester M. Hart, Johx F. Davis, and Wilbur F. Meyers 597 Reviews 605 Reports 609 Index to Volume 38 611 (451) MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS FOR GAME IN THE NORTH COAST REGION OF CALIFORNIA' By H. H. BISWELL, R. D. TABER, D. W. HEDRICK, and A. M. SCHULTZ School of Forestry, University of California, Berkeley INTRODUCTION This stud}^ was begun in the spring of 1948 to investigate the possibility of managing chamise brushlands for game, the primary purpose being to determine whether game populations will build up under brushland man- agement, and, if so, the most satisfactory way of manipulating the cover to increase game production. The investigations have centered mainly in Lake County, but have not been entirely limited to that area. In Califor- nia, there are about 7,300,000 acres of chamise brushlands (Sampson, 1944). They are important in the interior Coast Range from Trinity and Shasta Counties south to San Francisco Bay. The chief center of their distribution, however, is in the southern Coast Range; smaller isolated units are found in the Sierra Nevada foothills. The chamise brushlands have been looked upon chiefly as valuable for game and watershed but little has been done in the way of management for either purpose. The rapid increase in population of the State, producing a corresponding in- crease in water demands, results in a greater need for good watershed management. Also more productive game areas are needed because there are more hunters and a greater need for meat, and as well a greater amount of time to be spent in recreation. This paper should be looked upon as a progress report since the study is still under way and the results may change with a greater accumulation of data. It is recognized that more data are needed on nearly every phase of the project. The investigations are being carried on cooperatively be- tween the University of California and the California Department of Fish and Game with funds provided by federal aid in Wildlife Restora- tion Act, Project California 31-R. Most of the wild life studies were made by R. D. Taber, the plant studies by the other investigators. The authors express gratitude to the many persons who assisted in various wa^^s on the project. The studies were suggested by Ben Glading, Chief of the Bureau of Game Conservation, California Department of Fish and Game. He foresaw a need for information of this sort in develop- ing sound game management policies for the Bureau of Game Conserva- tion. Dan Tillotson, also of the California Department of Fish and Game, has been in general charge of Pittman-Robertson projects and helped in many ways. Mam^ students in the Imiversity of California helped at var- ious times. Professor R. E. Storie of the universit}' examined the soils, and Dr. J. Vlamis made the soil fertility tests. The food analyses of deer stom- achs were made by Carol Ferrel and Howard Leach of the fish and game 1 Submitted for publication April, 1952. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act Project California 31-R. ( 453 ) 454 i CALlF'3RNIA FISH AND GAME laboratory in Berkeley. Merton Rosen, Arthur Bischoff, John Azevedo, and Alvin Hightower assisted in collecting the deer and making parasite examinations. Gratitude is expressed also to ranchers in the area for their generous cooperation, and especially to Glen Keithly for the benefit of his keen observation and the information he gave on brushland manage- ment. He is a pioneer in this work, having started a program of brush control for sheep and deer years earlier. Much of the work presented here was done on Keithly 's ranch. Appreciation is expressed to the folloAving who critically read the manuscript: Keith Arnold, H. F. Heady, AV. E. Howard, A. S. Leopold, AV. M. Longhurst, R. M. Love, A. AV. Sampson, K. AY. AVagnon, University of California ; AV. P. Dasmann, Ben Glading, Dan Tillotson, Department of Fish and Game ; L. T. Burcham, State Division of Forestrv ; F. P. Cronemiller, Al. AA\ Talbot, U. S. Forest Service ; R. AI. Bond, Soil Con- servation Service; G. H. Sharrer, Bureau of Land Alanagement; E. N. Dye, Ralph Leavers, California Farm Bureau ; X. AI. Hughes, Associated Si)ortsmen ; Glen Keithly, rancher. DESCRIPTION OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS The brushlands studied are typical of western Lake County and much of the North Coast ranges. Data on vegetation, soils, and climate are taken from the study areas, or nearby, but are applicable to a much greater range. Vegetation In general the chamise brushlands in Lake County comprise two cover types, those in which chamise (Adenostema fasciculatum) predominates and those which contain a mixture of broad-sclerophyll shrubs and small wm,-. FIGURE 1. Close view of chamise brushland in Lake County. Chamise predominates on the south- facing (S) exposures while a mixture of taller broad-sclerophyll shrubs and small trees ore found on the north-facing (N) slopes. Lake County brushlands hove long been famous deer hunting grounds. Water from springs is well distributed in the ravines. MAXAGEMEXT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLAXDS 455 trees. The chamise occurs mainly on sonth-facing slopes and drier sites while the mixed chaparral is found on the more mesic north exposures and in ravines (Figure 1). This intermixture of chamise and mixed chaparral is especially favorable for deer. A majority of the shrubs and small trees are good or excellent browse species. The intermixture of browse plants in Lake County is probably as favorable for deer as most chamise brushlands in other portions of the State. Some brushlands are so nearly pure chamise that they furnish relatively poor browse. On south exposures in Lake County chamise often occurs in relatively pure stands, depending primarily upon the age of the stand and fire history, but usuall}' it occurs with admixtures of lesser amounts of wedge- leaf ceanothus (Ceanothus cnneatus), wavyleaf ceanothus (C. foUosus), Stanford manzanita (Arctosfaphylos sianforcliana) , poison oak (Rhus diversiloha) , yerba santa (Eriodicti/on calif o mi cum) , and others. The ceanothus species above, which are nonsprouters, are in greater abund- ance in young or recently burned chamise stands that have not been repeatedly burned in close succession. The north-facing slopes are vegetated chiefly by interior live oak {Quercus ivislizenii), scrub oak (Q. dumosa), Eastwood manzanita {Arctostaphylos glandidosa), California laurel {VmhelUdaria cali- fornica), toyon {Photinia arhuti folia), birchleaf mahogany (Cerco- carpus hettdoides) , deerbrush {Ceanothus iniegerrimus) , chamise, and others, roughly in that order of abundance. Interior live oak frequently makes up half of the cover. Other species may predominate or become more important in special sites. In wetter situations, madrone {Arl^uius menziesii) and canyon live oak {Quercus chrysolepis) are common. Knob-cone pine {Pinus tuhercu- lata) is frequent on certain soil types. On ridgetops chaparral pea ' {Pickeringia montana) is more abundant than on either north- or south- facing slopes. The brush canopy on all sites is usually so complete as to preclude much herbaceous vegetation as understory. Soils The soils on south exposures where chamise occurs in the study areas are derived from consolidated sedimentarv rocks. The shallower and least ft/ productive ones have developed on parent materials which have under- gone the least metamorphosis. The Maymen series is typical of this group and occurs most extensively. These soils are less than 12 inches deep and are light brown in color, moderately acid, and vary from clay to clay loam in texture. Thev are relativelv low in fertilitv. Soils of the Dorado ft- «, «. series, which usually occupy the lower edge of the chamise slopes, are formed on sediments having undergone an intermediate amount of metamorphosis. They are deeper than the Maymen, 12 to 18 inches, less acid, and light reddish-brown in color. On north exposures the soils are generally deeper and darker in color than those on south exposures. Some are a deeper phase of Ma^^men, ranging in depth from 12 to 24 inches. The Los Gatos series, inter- mingled with the Maymen and usually supporting a mixed stand of brush with occasional knob-cone pine trees, are soils developed on the more highly metamorphosed sediments and are general underlain by more 456 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME massive rocks. The}^ are 18 to 24 inches in depth, moderately acid on the surface, and are reddish-brown in coh)r. Laughlin soils may occur where chamise contacts or invades into Avoodland-grass. This series is charac- terized by depths of 24 to 30 inches, medium to fine texture, and slight acidity. The soils are light brown to light reddish-brown in color and are formed on residual parent material. They are relatively fertile soils and support fairly heavy stands of herbaceous vegetation where the brush is removed or thinned out. Soils from the study areas were tested for fertility by using pot tests conducted in the greenhouse by the Soils Division of the University of FIGURE 2. Chamise brushlands in Lake County. Some are not excessively steep while others are rugged and somewhat inaccessible. MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 457 California at Berkeley. Results of these tests indicate that chamise- covered soils are generally low in nitrogen even when the woody vegeta- tion has not been disturbed over a long period of time. It is generally recognized that a majority of chamise brushland soils are low in fertility. On the study areas the Maymen soil was the most extensive and least productive ; perhaps it forms a larger area than any other chamise brushland soil in California. Probably the second most extensive chamise brushland soil in California is Los Gatos. This is con- sidered more productive than Maymen. Another frequently occurring chamise soil, perhaps the third in rank, has not yet been named but con- tains a large amount of granitic material. The fertility of the latter soil is considered about the same as that of Maymen. Serpentine soils are about the poorest of all. Chamise also occurs on several other soils, a majority of which are more fertile than those named above. Some are relatively deep and have been cleared for agricultural crops. Slopes where chamise occurs are generally rather steep (Figure 2). On the study areas in Lake County they averaged about 20 to 25 degrees. In some chamise brushlands the average slope is greater, Climate The weather station nearest to the study areas is at Lakeport, on the west shore of Clear Lake, about three to eight miles away. The mean annual temperature recorded there is 57 degrees F., the extremes varying generally from about 20 degrees to 110 degrees. Mean annual precipitation, based on a 30-year average, is 28 inches. Practically all of this comes as rain between late September and April, inclusive; consequently, the summer months are extremely dry. Since the vegetation becomes very dry during summer, the possibility of large acreages of brush being destroyed by fire is high. Water becomes less abundant along drainage ways as the dry season advances but many of the springs maintain their flow throughout the summer. The same general pattern of temperatures and rainfall characterizes all chamise brushlands in California. The brushlands usually occur where the precipitation is between 14 and 40 inches. Where rainfall is 14 inches and below the chamise becomes open and desert-like in appearance and above 40 inches it generally gives way to forest growth. In areas receiving between 14 and 40 inches of rainfall the soil is apparentl}^ more impor- tant than climate in delimiting chamise brushlands. PRESENT LAND MANAGEMENT PATTERN Chamise brushlands have been generally looked upon as valuable for game and as watersheds. Some are used in sheep production. They are more suitable for sheep than cattle because of steepness of slopes and the predominance of browse. Poisonous plants occur on many chamise brushlands. Little effort has been made to manage these lands. Usually the intention of public agencies has been to protect chamise brushlands from fire, but, in spite of this, wildfires occur frequently (Figure 3) . Some of the wildfires have been large and destructive (Figure 4). Some people wonder if large fires are not to be expected where total protection is attempted. As a result of protection the brush is permitted 458 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME LAKE COUNTY (SOUTHERN HALF) FIGURE 3. The shaded portions Indicate areas burned by wildfires. Much of the unshaded por- tion is agricultural land. It appears that a majority of the brushlands in the southern half of Lake County burn at least one time in each 20 years. Fire records were furnished by the State Division of Forestry. The map does not show all of the fires but attempts to show all the area burned at least once by wildfires in each of the 10-year periods. to grow lip uniformly and within about 25 years much of it becomes dead fuel; this material greatly increases the fire hazard. AVlien fires are started in this kind of cover they are difficult to control and are likely to be large and destructive. Limited "spot burning" in the spring months has been suggested as a means of reducing the hazard of such fires. In fact, burning of this nature was initiated in Lake County in 1950- 1951 by personnel of the county board of supervisors, State Division of Forestry, county farm advisor. Fish and Game, and private landowners. Plans call for limited burning in the spring to reduce fire hazard around cultural developments and also to decrease the possibility that large wildfires will occur during summer. Another purpose of spot burning is to improve conditions for game. Areas burned by wildfires are usually not reseeded and the soil is nearly bare the following winter. Tn the second Avinter the soil is fairly Avell covered with sprouts and brush seedlings. Then within 8 to 12 years the brush stand is well developed and becomes nearly impenetrable. During these years little dead wood or litter is produced and fire presents no particular problem (Buck, 1951). If it were not for this period of MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 459 FIGURE 4. Wildfire burned area of 6,000 acres in Lake County. Wildfires are frequent and often large and destructive. In this case the fire burned so intensely that insufficient unburned brush remained as cover for game. reduced fuel following wildfire burns in dense brush, fires would probably occur more frequently than at present and would also be larger and more uniform in intensity. Game populations in or around wildfire burns usually build up while the brush is young and palatable but then decrease or move out when the brush grows up. Of recent date controlled burning and other manipula- tion of brush to improve conditions for game has gained popularity. Some areas are reseeded to herbaceous plants and managed following brush removal ; some are not. There has been some question as to watershed conditions under chamise brush and the effects of fire on erosion. Investigations by Yeihmeyer (1951) have shown that small plots burned annually convert largely to grass and in this condition there is less erosion than from undisturbed areas of chamise. Studies by Colman (1951) and others have shown that erosion accelerates following occasional brush fires in chamise and may continue for at least eight years. The latter studies were in areas not reseeded to grasses, where little herbaceous vegetation occurred. Both sets of studies would indicate that chamise is a relatively poor watershed cover, especially since such brushlfinds burn frequently. More studies are needed on the feasibility of converting chamise brushlands to a cover better adapted to prevent erosion. Both grass and trees offer considerable promise for this purpose but studies on the possibilities of manipulating vegetation to improve watershed conditions have scarcely begun in California. It has been observed many times that the surface soil is loose following fires in dense brush and is easily moved downhill by deer feeding over slopes. On steep slopes considerable soil may gradually be moved to the bottoms of drainagewavs. This is washed awav during winter storms. On the other hand, the soil is usually firm in areas of burned grass and little movement takes place. Again, the observations indicate that grass shows 460 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME promise of lessening soil erosion in the presence of fires. Differences be- tween grass and brush covers may be summarized as follows: Fires in grass are less intense than those in brush ; the grass seeds and residue are not all destroyed ; the grass begins growth following fall rains and soon covers the soil ; the soil is firm following fire. In dense brush, on the other hand, the fires are intense ; the soil is loose and bare the following winter ; the shrubby vegetation recovers slowly. GAME POPULATIONS AS RELATED TO BRUSHLAND MANAGEMENT Game populations were studied in Lake County under three different conditions of chamise brushland : (1) HeaYj brush cover protected from fire ; (2) Wildfire burn, in which there were a few unburned islands the first winter, followed by the presence of brush sprouts, seedlings, and a small quantity of herbaceous cover the second year; (3) Opened brush, consisting of small burned patches within dense brush seeded to suitable herbaceous plants (Figure 5). Area of each condition was about 1,000 acres. Detailed investigations were made on the Columbian blacktailed deer {Odocoileus hemioniis colum'hianus) . During the course of this work ob- servations were made of the California jackrabbit {Lepus calif ornicus), brush rabbit (Sylvilagus hachmani) , mountain quail {Oreortryx picta), valley quail {Lophortyx calif ornica) , and mourning dove {Zenaidura macroura). Deer Populations The deer of this region are resident rather than migratory, but they do make short seasonal movements which depend on weather conditions and food supplies. Population densities were determined by pellet censuses checked by sight records. The number of deer on the study areas in heavy brush ranged from averages of 10 to 30 to the square mile, in the wildfire burns from 5 to 160, and in the opened brush from 40 to 110. AVhere surrounding food conditions are poor, a wildfire burn of newly sprouting brush will attract large numbers of deer. However, all of these deer may move to better cover in bad weather ; also, the burned area loses its attractiveness very rapidly as the sprouts grow up and become less palatable. Over a period of years extensive wildfire burns support lower average deer populations than opened brush because there may not be enough deer to keep the sprout growth in a palatable stage. Search for basic factors governing deer population densities in the different brush covers included the investigation of ia^vn production, the weights or relative condition of individual deer on the three study areas, and food habits and comparative nutrition. Fawn Production Studies on collected does indicate that fawn production is governed largely by ovulation rate. 0\Tilation rates in adult does (18 months and older) were approximately as follows: In hea^y brush, 84 percent; on wildfire burn. 116 percent; in opened brush, 147 percent (Taber, 1953). Although the doe collection consisted of only 42 individuals, reliance on these figures is strengthened by the fact that they correspond closely to MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLAXDS 461 FIGURE 5. Areas of opened brush produced by spot burning. The interspersion of grass and brush forms a favorable habitat for deer. During late winter and early spring the deer graze heavily on the grasses. The spots of dense brush form necessary cover. the ratio of fawns to 100 adult does following the riit. This ratio varies somewhat from year to year, but the following values seem to be repre- sentative for the areas under studv : in heavv brush, about 60 to 85 fawns per 100 adult does; on the wildfire burn about 100 to 110 fawns per 100 adult does ; in opened brush, about 115 to 140 fawns per 100 adult does. A change in the f aAvn : doe ratio between the fawn drop and the rut obvi- ously may be brought about by either fa^^1l or doe mortality. Therefore the ratios do not necessarily represent an extremely high fawn survival. Actually there is evidence of some mortality among both does and fawns during the summer. 462 CALTFORXIA FISH AND GAME Deer Weights Skeletal size differences between deer of the same age for the different brush cover conditions seem to be either small or absent. Therefore, com- paring weights of deer of the same age gives an indication of relative condition rather than comparative size. The weights of 23 bucks taken from the heavy brush and the opened brush during the hunting season are compared in Table 1. The bucks are grouped by antler beam diameter, the first class (15-19 mm.) containing mostly young bucks and the second class (19.1-23 mm.) containing those of medium age. AVeights were obtained with the paunch out but all other organs present. TABLE 1 Field-dressed Weights of 23 Bucks From Two Conditions of Brusli Cover, 1949 (.2 Level of Significance) Heavy brush Opened brush Beam diameter Weight, pounds Number of deer Weight, pounds Number of deer 15-19 mm. _ - _ 66.0±3.73 81.0±7.7 9 5 7.5.. 5 ±4. 99 86.5±6.66 6 19. 1-23 mm. 3 Bucks from opened brush tend to be heavier than those from heavy brush with this tendency being greater in young than in medium-aged deer. The bucks from a recent wildfire burn tend to be about as heavy as those of similar age from opened bT-nsh. The}^ also tend to have more massive antlers. A sample of does taken in late winter and earh^ spring indicates that those from opened brush tend to be in the best condition, those from the wildfire burn intermediate, and those from heavy brush poorest. This difference is most distinct in yearling and very old does and less so in those of medium age. Food Hobifs and Nutrition The deer in opened brush have access to much more herbaceous forage than those in the wildfire burns or those in the heavy brush, and their diet consists largely of herbs in the late winter and early spring. In the interpretation of results, it should be remembered that the browse species start rapid spring growth in April, putting forth many succulent sprouts. In the opened brush it may be seen that herbaceous forage was preferred during February and March, and that browse con- sumption rose during April and herbaceous species were taken heavily again in May. Thus where the deer had both woody and herbaceous plants available they seemed to prefer the more succulent forage. In the wildfire burn, where there was much less herbaceous forage, the deer tended to take herbs whenever available except in April when the tender brush sprouts were emerging. In the heavy brush, herbaceous material was practically absent and the deer had to subsist on browse, regardless of preference. These findings illustrate that herbaceous plants are heavily MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 463 TABLE 2 Summary of the Food Habits on Each Area for the Late Winter and Early Spring Months Brush type Heav'y brush 18-month-old wildfire burn Opened brush Month Feb. Mar. Apr. May Feb. Mar. Apr. May Feb. Mar. Apr. May Number of deer 3 3 3 10 5 4 6 1 5 4 5 3 Percent volume Herbaceous Browse* 2 98 3 97 1 99 5 95 1 99 41 59 1 99 65 35 70 30 97 3 50 50 86 14 * Including acorns. utilized during late winter and sprinor when most succulent. The nutri- tional intake of deer which have abundant herbaceous forage appears to be highest. ^Mature browse is of low nutrient value compared to growing herbs, except for a short spring period of rapid growth (Gordon and Sampson, 1939). This is especialh' true of nondeciduous browse species such as chamise, interior live oak and wedgeleaf ceanothus, which were among the staple browse plants in the study areas. During late summer and fall the deer on all areas subsist laro-elv on browse. Analvses have shown that cro^^'n-sprouts of chamise on burns have a higher nutritional content than older groAvth stages of the same plants (Revnolds and Sampson, 1943). AVhile the whole question of nutrition has not yet been thoroughly explored, there is evidence to indicate that the opened brush and the heavy brush may be compared for annual diet in the following manner : In the opened brush, the deer have available an excellent diet during four months of the year, foraging on abundant herbs and new sprouts (February-May), a good diet for another four months (November, December, January, June) when some green herbs are available and sprouts are still growing in the spring and early summer, and a poor diet during the remaining four months (July-October) when the herbs are dry and the browse plants are more or less dormant. In the heavy brush the deer have access to an excellent diet only two months of the year (April, May) when the brush is growing rapidly, a good diet during two months (March and June) when there is some shrub growth, and a poor diet for eight months (July-February) when there is little growth and the shrubs are largely dormant. In a wildfire burn the amount of succulent browse available in winter depends on when the area burned. If the fire is very late in the season there will be practically no crown sprouting until the following spring. The difference in nutritional planes is probably based on adequacy of assimilable protein and phosphorous in the opened brush and a lack of these elements in the heavv brush. The basis for the diiferences in population density, fawn production, and condition of individual deer among the various brush cover conditions is probably to be found in differences in nutrition of these cover types. 464 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Resident Small Game Populations The small game population density estimates given below are based on strip-counts and observations for the quail, pellet counts for the jack- rabbit, and general observations for the other species. Valley Quail. In the heavy brush and in wildfire burns the valley quail population density in late summer seems to be about 100 birds per square mile at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 feet. At higher altitudes (2,000- 2,500 feet) the population density is lower, perhaps as low as 40 per square mile. In the opened brush (1,500-2,000 feet) late summer popu- lations of 250 per square mile have been observed. Opening the brush definitely encourages valley quail. Mountain Quail. In heavy brush and in wildfire burns the mountain quail population densitv in late summer appears to be between 50 and 80 birds per square mile at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 feet. At 2,000-2,500 feet the late summer densit}^ is higher, perhaps 160 birds per square mile. In the opened brush at altitudes of 1,500-2,000 feet as many as 140 to 150 birds per square mile have been observed in late summer. "While these findings seem to indicate that opening the brush encourages mountain quail, the secretive habits of these birds may lead to error. It is possible that the apparent higher densities in open brush are due to the better visibility there. This is supported by the opinion of Mr. Keithly, who believes that during the decade that he has been opening his brush the mountain quail population has not increased at all, even under complete protection. California Jackrahhit. In the heavy brush the density is very low, about one jackrabbit per square mile. In the wildfire burns it is from 5 to 10 per square mile. In the opened brush the jackrabbits reached the greatest density found, fluctuating between 10 and 45 per square mile. The highest counts were made in summer. Brush Rabbit. Brush rabbits are numerous in the heavy brush and in and around islands of heavy brush in wildfire or opened brush areas. Mourning Dove. Dove populations in the heavy brush are low. They are higher in the wildfire burns and highest in the opened brush. This refers to breeding density. It seems evident that the generous amounts of herbaceous vegetation, along with the edge-effect supplied by the scattered clumps of brush encourage the build-up of most resident small game species (cf. Burcham, 1950). In the opened brush are found not only the densest populations of most small game, but also cover which is most suitable for upland hunting. Even species such as the brush rabbit and mountain quail, which seem to be more numerous in the heavy brush than in the opened brush, mav be hunted more successfullv in the latter areas. It is almost impossible to hunt small game in heavy brush, especially after the first fall rains. STUDIES ON METHODS OF OPENING CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS Based on the foregoing results it would seem that the general objective in management of chamise brushlands for game should be to reduce the brush cover in spots, introduce herbaceous species where needed, and keep the browse plants in a productive condition. Opening dense chamise brushland provides a desirable interspersion of food and cover. If her- baceous species that are naturally or artifically seeded become abundant MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 465 m opened brushlands they help to stabilize the soil and markedly im- prove the forage for game animals. When grazed properly the good browse plants can be maintained in a productive condition over a long period of time. Once chamise brushlands are properly opened and the growth of herbaceous species is encouraged, good management should keep them productive with a minimum of further disturbance. Methods studied in opening chamise brushlands are burning and grazing, mechanical means, and chemical treatment. Seeding of desirable forage plants should generally be combined with any of these methods to increase chances of establishment of a suitable cover of herbaceous species soon after the brush is removed. Most of the chamise brushlands opened thus far have been by a combination of burning and grazing. Although grazing is of little importance by itself, it can be a powerful tool for controlling chamise brush when used in combination with burn- ing or mechanical means. Burning and Grazing Season of Burning From the standpoint of game management, either spring or late fall burning has proven satisfactory in opening chamise. Spring burning, before the grasses outside of the brush areas become dry, has been rela- tively easy with reasonably good success in fire control. Any time that the humidity is around 25 to 30 percent and the wind is calm it is usually possible to light a fire at the bottom of a slope with the result that it will burn uphill (Figure 6). Usually the fire will not spread to the sides and will go out at the top of the slope. Areas of decadent brush, containing considerable dead material, will burn easiest and here firing should be started when the humidity is relatively high. Late fall burning is slightly more hazardous than spring burning. Usually more elaborate preparations are needed for fall burning than for spring burning. Information on techniques in burning may be obtained by reading Use of Fire in Land Clearing by Arnold, et al. (1951). Flame throwers are effective in setting fire in spring and late fall burning. The best way to learn about the use of fire is through experience in the field. The inex- perienced should start under the instruction of someone competent in the proper use of fire. Manipulating brush by fire is not easy. It requires considerable planning, care, effort, and patience to do a good job. Summer burning in chamise brushlands for game is not recommended because of the difficulty and expense in fire control. Studies have not yet gone far enough to determine precisely whether most of the burning for game in chamise brush should be in the spring or late fall, or whether a combination of the two seasons of burning should be used. After spring burning, sprouts will appear within 3 or 4 weeks and supply a highly nutritious forage for deer during the dry summer months. However, studies thus far indicate that few brush seedlings appear on spring burns. This would mean that sprouting species, such as chamise, are favored over nonsprouters, such as weclgeleaf ceanothus. If this is borne out by further studies on burns made before seed maturity, the composition of the brush cover for deer may be adversely affected by spring burning. Some fall burning may be necessary then to provide 466 CALIFORXTA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 6. Controlled "spot" burning in May in chamise. The fire was lit at the base of the slope with the result that it burned uphill. It did not spread to the sides and went out at the top of the slope. The burning was done on a clear day when the humidity was about 27 percent. Grasses outside of the brush area were still green. young plants of wavyleaf ceanotlius, wedgeleaf ceanothus, and other valuable nonsprouting browse plants. Further studies are needed on this phase of brushland management. Control of Sprouts Control of sprouts after burning is an essential step in the opening of dense chamise bruslilands. Both measurements and observations indi- cate that deer Avill probably be one of the most effective tools for this pur- pose in suppressing sprouts through browsing. Sheep can also be used in some places to good advantage, especially in large burns where the deer population is inadequate to suppress the browse plants. Without utiliza- tion, chamise sprouts will attain an average height of nearly 20 inches the first summer after fall burning, interior live oak 30 to 40 inches (Fig- ure 7). Thus, unless the sprouts are browsed they soon become so large as to be more or less useless as food for game. Deer and sheep are effective in controlling sprouts by suppressing height growth and by killing some of the plants the first season following burning (Figures 8, 9, 10). Fail- ures in brush control and reseeding in chamise brushlands occur often due to lack of sprout control. The sprouts must be suppressed if brush control and reseeding are to be successful in such brushlands. Not enough attention has been given to this phase of management. MAXAGEMEXT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLAXDS 467 Scru book nterior live oak Chaparral pea Chamibe CUMULATIVE GROWTH CURVES FOR FIVE SPROUTING SPECIES DURING THE FIRST YEAR FOLLOWING FIRE 1 Apri May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. FIGURE 7. Sprout growth control is on essential step in opening chamise brushlands. Without utilization the sprouts grow rapidly, soon become unpalatable and of little use as food to deer. Curves represent growth in one year of several important browse species in the absence of grazing. 468 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 8. On this south-facing slope, burned in 1945, a large population of deer has kept the sprouts (large plants) and seedlings (small plants) browsed down and in productive condition. The deer also made good use of the grass. Photo taken in 1951. FIGURE 9. This north-facing exposure of mixed chaparral was burned in 1945. Heavy browsing by deer has kept the brush low and productive. Photo taken in summer, 1951. MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 469 FIGURE 10. Very heavy browsing by deer the first year after burning killed most of the sprouts, but seedlings survived and will continue to furnish browse. Grassy spots in brush furnish valuable forage for deer In late winter and early spring when the herbage is green and succulent. The extent to which deer and sheep may suppress sprout growth is indicated by measurements of chamise sprouts under various conditions of grazing use and in protected areas on two-year-old burns (Figure 11). Even light browsing by deer considerably suppresses the growth of sprouts. A majority of the sprouts browsed lightly by deer averaged about 18 inches in height while those protected by fenced exclosures averaged between 22 and 32 inches. Hea\y utilization from year to year will continue to suppress sprout growth (Figure 12). A majority of plants browsed heavily for five years averaged only 17 inches in height while plants protected from browsing averaged between 22 and 32 inches in only two years. Sprouts protected entirely from browsing for five years were not available for comparison. Close utilization bv deer mav kill manv of the sprouts the first vear following fire. This results in opening the brush. Some sprouts may be killed the second year, but few, if any. are killed after the sprouts are five years or more old. After the chamise plants are six to eight inches tall the stiff stems prevent the deer from grazing so close as to kill the plants. On a seven-year-old burn no plants of chamise were killed by hea^'y browsing in the past two years. In August, 1948, about 25 acres of old brush burned along with some 300 acres that had burned in 1945. This area supported an estimated 100 470 100 90 80 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME ■o 70 a> k. 3 U> o V HO t u> a a 5 0 a. **— o c 40 O) o w a; a. 60 20 HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS OF CHAMISE SPROUTS (1950, otter 2 years of growth, burned 1948) Heavy Sheep plus moderate deer use Light deer use Protected by fence 10 20 30 35 40 45 50 25 Inches FIGURE 1 1 . Curves showing the effect of browsing in retarding sprout growth. Most of the plants heavily browsed by sheep plus deer measured 14 inches while most of those protected from deer and sheep average between 22 and 32 inches. Light use by deer also considerably retarded height growth of sprouts. 100 HEIGHT MEASUREMENTS OF CHAMISE SPROUTS (1950) Browsed heavily by deer Protected by fence Burned 1945 Burned 1948 34 38 42 46 50 54 26 30 I nches FIGURE 12. This graph indicates the efFect of heavy deer browsing in retarding sprout growth. The sprouts browsed closely by deer averaged about 17 inches in height after five years while most of those protected from deer and sheep were between 22 and 32 inches in only two years. MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 471 or more mature deer per square mile. On the 25 acres of new burn, close browsing' by the large deer population took place as soon as sprouting began. As no additional burns had been made here since 1948, sampling in 19.50 furnished a measure of the effectiveness of two seasons of heavv deer browsing in opening dense chamise. Both northwest and southeast exposures were represented in the 25-acre area ; these were sampled sep- arately to determine the correlation between composition of the plant cover and the effect of deer browsing on brush recovery. The northwest exposure had chamise mixed with toyon, Eastwood manzanita, scrub oak, and poison oak; the southeast exposure was principally chamise with some wedgeleaf ceanothus. Figures were obtained on number of brush plants alive, number killed by fire, number killed by browsing, and the average height of the brush sprouts from browsed and unbrowsed plants (Table 3). TABLE 3 The Results of Close Browsing by Deer Following Fire. The Effect of Close Deer Browsing Was to Open the Dense Stand of Brush by Killing Many of the Sprouts Species Number of plots Plants alive (percent) Plants killed Average height of sprouts Exposure By fire (percent) By grazing (percent) Browsed (inches) Un- browsed (inches) NW Chamise Eastwood manzanita Toyon . 24 12 9 3 30 3 19.7 50.0 88.4 100.0 30.7 100.0 26.0 25.0 0.0 0.0 31.9 0.0 54.3 25.0 11.6 0.0 37.4 0.0 4.8 6.8 7.7 4.0 4.8 7.3 20.1 23.0 36.8 SE. Scrub oak Chamise _ Toyon 32.1 20.1 36.8 On the northwest exposure over one-half of the sprouting chamise plants were killed by deer browsing. It is significant that 25 percent of the Eastwood manzanita plants were also killed by browsing for these sprouts are usually eaten only lightly by deer. Among the sprouting species, scrub oak seemed most resistant to the effects of heavA' browsing even though the sprouts on it were eaten to a lower average height than on any of the other species. Observations indicated that the weakened plants usually died in winter following heavy browsing in summer. On the southeast exposure fewer sprouted plants were killed by deer browsing than on the northwest exposure, probably because of lighter use there in the winter and early spring months. In both areas, however, the effect of close deer browsing was to open the dense stand of brush by killing many of the sprouts. It was found also that close grazing by sheep in addition to light deer use is an effective way of opening areas of dense chamise brush following fire. Results of sampling on an area browsed heavily by sheep in addition to light use by deer are summarized in Table 4. 472 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 4 Results of Light Utilization by Deer Compared to Heavy Utilization byStieep Plus Deer in Opening Chamise Brush Following Fire Date of sampling Area utilized lightly by deer only 7/20/48 12/21/48 6/29/49 Area used heavily by sheep from March to July 10, 1948, and lightly by deer 7/21/48 12/21/48 6/14/49 Number of plots (mil-acre) 64 45 45 40 50 45 Mature chamise plants killed By fire (percent) 25.0 27.0 By grazing (percent) 0.7 0.0 22.0 42.0 In both areas approximately one-fourth of the mature plants were killed by fairly intense fire, which is about normal as indicated by sampling in many places. In the area where deer utilization was light, less than 1 percent of the plants died the first year after the fire and none in the second vear. However, in the other area, heavy use from a combination of sheep and deer killed 64 percent of the plants in addition to the 27 percent killed b}^ the fire. Opening to this extent might not always be desirable. But in suitable places where burned areas are so large that deer cannot effectively suppress sprout growth, sheep can be used to good advantage in opening the brush and prolonging use by deer. Size and Amount of Area io Burn Burned spots should usually be small, 5 to 10 acres or so in size, in order to form as much edge as possible. The acreage to be burned should be decided before burning is started. If the deer population is dense or if a band of sheep is available to control sprout growth the first year, the acreage burned may be fairly large. In general, however, deer popula- tions in heavy brush areas are fairly low and the burns should be kept small. Spot burns of about five acres scattered here and there are prob- ably sufficient for initiating a program of managing chamise brushlands. The spots should be scattered evenly over the whole area rather than clumped. It is wise to proceed in stages, so that the deer can keep on top of the brush sprouts. In the second or third year it might be desirable to make new burns in the region where deer use has been hea^y. If the deer are effectively opening the brush, it mipht be well to go rather fast; but if not, it would be desirable to proceed slowly. This procedure should continue until the desired amount of opening has been accomplished. Mechanical Control of Brush In suitable areas chamise brushlands may be opened by mechanical means such as heaw disking or by pushing the brush over with a bull- dozer, holding the blade about six inches above the soil (Figure 13). MANAGEMEXT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 473 FIGURE 13. Chamise brush pushed over with bulldozer blade about six inches above the soil. The plants that are not totally destroyed grow sprouts and furnish abundant browse for deer. FIGURE 14. Pattern of opened brush obtained by using heavy disk. The grassy areas were disked, the brush strips were not. This work was done by the U. S. Forest Service on the Mendocino Notional Forest. Photo taken May 28, 1951. 474 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Pushed-over brush need not be bnrned. There are several advantages in mechanically opening chaniise brushlands. In the first place, a residue is left on the soil which is helpful in erosion control. The residue also gives reseeded grasses protection against frost heaving and intense heat and drying from the sun. If pushing over brush along ridge tops enables one to start herbaceous vegetation more easily than otherwise, the practice may provide an added seed source for revegetation when slopes below are burned. This is an important point, for seeding failures are common in burned chamise brushlands and any insurance of a continuing seed supply is invaluable. There is evidence that a more favorable composi- tion of brush cover for deer can be maintained bv mechanical means than by using fire. Mechanical means can be used in areas where it is too dangerous to attempt burning. Another advantage in mechanical con- trol is that patterns of interspersion of brush and grass can be obtained without difficulty (Figure 14). The chief disadvantages of mechanical removal are that the cost may be greater than strip burning in the spring, and that many areas are relatively inaccessible to mechanical equipment. Pushed-over brush cre- ates quite a fire hazard because much of the brush is killed. On the other hand, heavy disking tends to incorporate the residue in the soil and the fire hazard is not high from this practice. The U. S. Forest Service has pioneered in the use of the heavy disk in chamise brushlands. Chemical Control of Brush • Studies on the use of hormone sprays in opening brush for game were limited to treatment of seedlings and sprouts following burning and grazing. The effectiveness of the method seems to be correlated with the vigor of plants which, in turn, is affected by grass competition and in- tensity of grazing. In view of the expense of hormone sprays, other methods of opening the brush for game appear more practical at this time. Further studies are needed to determine how chemicals can be used to control composition of the stand to reduce the nondesirable species and favor the more desirable ones. RESEEDING OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS Where chamise brush has been removed, it is desirable to reseed to suitable forage species in order to establish a plant cover as quickly as possible. Three years of study on reseeding of such brushlands in Lake County have indicated the importance of several factors affecting successful revegetation. These are : species used, dates and rates of reseeding, frost heaving, grazing preference by game animals, and competitive rela- tionship between reseeded grasses and brush plants. Species Used Several annual and perennial species were used in the reseeding trials. Annuals included soft chess, red brome, domestic ryegrass, rose clover and bur clover ; perennials included hardinggrass, orchardgrass, peren- nial ryegrass, smilo, tall fescue, burnet, and sweet clover. MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 475 FIGURE 15. Area of chamise brush reseeded to soft chess after controlled burning. This species is well adapted to reseeding of poor chamise brushlands. It is well liked by deer in spring when green but is not liked after it is dry. Photo taken in July after the grass was dry. FIGURE 16. Area of chamise brushland reseeded to domestic rye-grass following controlled burning. This grass has done moderately well on chamise brushlands. Photo taken in July after the grass was dry. 476 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Over a period of three years, which included both good and poor cli- matic conditions for establishment of herbaceous vegetation, soft chess proved to be the most satisfactory of the annuals (Figure 15) . Although seed of this species is not easily available at present it can be recom- mended for reseeding of relatively poor chamise brushlands. Red brome did as well as soft chess but is inferior as a forage plant. Domestic rye- grass did fairly well in most instances when planted before the start of fall rains (Figure 16). Rose clover appears to be a promising legume for reseeding chamise brushlands (Love and Jones, 1952). It is a new intro- duction and was tested in these studies only one year. Bur clover did not give satisfactory results. Perennials generally did better at about 2,400 feet elevation than they did at about 1,500 feet. At the lower elevation, annuals were generally more satisfactory. Perennials that did fairly well include hardinggrass, orchardgrass, smilo, burnet and tall fescue. Date and Rate of Reseeding In general, seedings made about the middle or latter part of September shortly before the start of fall rains, have been the most successful. Seed- ings made in the spring or summer after spring burns have not been as successful as those made in late summer or early fall. December plant- ings did fairly well but did not make as much growth as the early fall seedings. Seedings made in February were complete failures. Results ^Yith rates of reseeding varied somewhat with weather condi- tions. In favorable years fewer pounds of seed were needed for a satis- factory stand than in poor years, perhaps due to better germination. About two pounds of soft chess per acre appeared to be nearly as satis- factory as four pounds. Stands of domestic ryegrass improved regu- larly with increase in the seeding rate up to 10 pounds per acre. Hard- inggrass and tall fescue gave satisfactory germination with four pounds per acre. Smilo, a small-seeded species, required two pounds. However, the heavier seedings of all species produced stands more effective in competing with brush seedlings. Frost Heaving Frost heaving was the most adverse factor affecting the establishment of reseeded species in burned chamise brushlands in Lake County, especially at elevations around 1,500 to 2,400 feet. In each of three seasons of study, 1948 to 1951, frost heaving has been appreciable. In the winter of 1948-1949 severe cold in December heaved out 99 percent of the newly germinated seedlings of domestic ryegrass, hardinggrass and orchardgrass. In 1949-1950 approximately 80 percent of the seedlings of several species on north exposures were heaved out, and about 15 percent of those on south exposures. In the winter of 1950-1951, which was mild, about 35 percent of the smilo seedlings on a southeast exposure were lost and about 65 percent of those on a northwest slope. Harding- grass and annual species, however, were not so adversely affected in 1950-51. From observations of excavated root systems those species with many fine roots, such as smilo, were more susceptible to frost heaving MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 477 than those with fewer, coarser ones, such as hardingg-rass. Once domestic ryegrass roots penetrate below the frost line there is little danger from heaving. In the winter of 1950-1951 the annnal species, especially resi- dent ones, were not noticeably damaged by the action of frosts. This is one reason why resident annnals have done better in seeding chamise brushlands in this area than many of the introduced species. Frost heaving appeared to be more severe around 1,500 to 2,400 feet than higher where there was less daily freezing and thawing. Also, frost heav- ing was more severe in loose soils than in those tending to have a tight structure. Preference by Grazing Animals Deer make their greatest use of reseecled grasses in the early spring before brush sprouts become available on newly burned areas. In studies of comparative grazing use in the spring, domestic ryegrass and soft chess were heavilv grazed bv deer while hardingc'rass and smilo were only lightly used. After the annuals are dry, the hardinggrass and smilo are heavily used. All of the grasses seeded have been grazed to some extent and are an important source of feed on burned areas. In some instances deer did damage to newly seeded stands by close grazing and trampling. Damage was greatest in small plots where less than 10 acres were seeded and the concentration of deer was high. In large seedings or a number of small ones, deer were responsible for little or no damage. Moderate grazing of domestic ryegrass and soft chess by deer might be helpful in causing the grasses to tiller and increase in density. California jackrabbits made much use of reseeded species. They were next to frost heaving in causing damage. All of the perennial species and also domestic rvegrass were heavilv used. The latter was heavilv grazed after it was dry, but soft chess nearby was little used. In areas where there is no ryegrass, stomach analyses show that soft chess seeds are readily taken during the summer. Perennial species were heavily used by jackrabbits during summer and severely damaged in many cases. Competition Between Reseeded Species and Brush Seedlings The importance of a good stand of grass in suppressing the growth and establishment of brush seedlings was noted soon after the studies were started in 1948. Sampling over a three-year period shows a very high negative correlation between the density of herbaceous cover and number of brush seedlings on seeded chamise brushlands in Lake County (Figure 17). In very dense stands of domestic ryegrass, few brush seedlings emerged and none survived. Brush seedlings appeared in thin stands of domestic ryegrass and in perennial stands but many of these died during the summer. The close relation between density of herbaceous cover and number of brush seedlings increases the need for a fairly dense cover of grasses the first year after burning. Dense stands of domestic ryegrass had only little retarding effect on the sprouts from chamise root crowns. Some grasses offer more competition than others ; for example, domestic ryegrass is stronger than the perennials (Schultz and Biswell, 1952). 478 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME REGRESSION OF NUMBER OF BRUSH SEEDLINGS UJ a: ON DENSITY OF HERBACEOUS COVER te. bJ Q. (A O O UJ llJ z 3 tr. ffi a: tij ffi Z Z PER CENT DENSITY OF HERBACEOUS COVER FIGURE 17. The line shows the negative correlation between number of brush seedlings and density of herbaceous cover. The plotted points are based on figures from four replications for each density class. As the grass density increased the number of brush seedlings decreased. The measurements were made late in the summer. The close relationship between grass density and brush seedlings increases the need for a fairly dense cover of grasses the first year in opening chamise brush. STEPS IN OPENING CHAMISE BRUSHLAND Several steps in the operation of opening chamise brushland are now well understood on the basis of experiments and are outlined below. It is logical to assume that the more nearly the areas in question resemble the general area studied in Lake County, the more closely these steps will apply. Knowledge of both the game population and the plant popu- lation in the brush area to be manipulated and managed is essential. 1. Location of Deer and Their Approximate Density. The success of opening chamise brushlands is dependent upon the presence of at least a few deer in the general locality. There is small possibility of luring deer long distances to areas of low concentration simply by opening the brush. A total absence of deer may indicate a lack of water or some other limiting factor ; in this case opening of the brush may be of little or no benefit. Information about the number of deer and their location may be gained accurately enough by reconnaissance through the area, or by noting kill of bucks during past hunting seasons, or by testimony of local residents and sportsmen. 2. Selection of Areas. Chamise brushlands vary widely in such fea- tures as soils and topography. Some are better adapted to growing grasses than others. In beginning a program of managing brush, the more pro- ductive areas should be selected first, areas where there is reasonable MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 479 assurance that grasses will grow abundantly. Usually this can be deter- mined by observation of abundance of grasses in such places as wildfire burns and in clearings along power lines. Soil examination and surveys should prove helpful, and luxuriance of the brush often indicates the quality of the site. Scattered grasses in brush are a good indication that they will increase if the brush is opened and competition decreased. 3. Methods of Opening the Area. Whether fire or mechanical means are used in opening the brush depends largely on the risk of using fire, brush cover conditions, and type of terrain (Figure 18). Where the FIGURE 18. Views of an area in Lake County before and after the chamise brushland was opened by controlled burning and reseeding. Upper photo taken in 1949; lower, 1951. 480 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME vegetation is predominantly chamise on south exposures and mixed chaparral on north exposures, spring burning may be done without very high risk. The south-facing chamise slopes can be burned on days of relatively low humidity and with proper wind velocity and direction, from Februar}' through ^laLV, for then the north-facing slopes of mixed chaparral are not very likely to burn. On quiet days, fires lit at the bottom of the chamise slopes usually go out at the ridge top and ordinarily no more area will be burned than the length of the slope by the distance fired along the bottom. One or two men equipped with flame throwers can usually do the burning. Throughout the period from February through May, there will be many days when it is too moist to burn and others when it is too dry to use fire safely. Where chamise brush occupies all exposures, and is of uniform density, the risk of using fire is greater than where the type of brush varies with exposure. With a uniform brush cover, the fire is more likely l:o spread because conditions for burning are more uniform also. Where grass borders the brush, burning when the grass is green adds an element of control. However, it may be dangerous to burn at any time when the wind is high and the humidit}^ below 25 percent. One should be familiar with the state fire laws and obtain a fire permit from the local forest ranger during the fire season. Where conditions for burning are too hazardous, and the terrain is not too steep, mechanical means may be used to open the brush. 4. Extent to Which Area IShould Be Opened. The extent to which a brush area should be opened depends almost entirelj^ on the deer popu- lation present. Where a square mile has less than 10 deer, a half dozen scattered, opened areas, each of about five acres may be sufficient. Where the deer poj^ulation is greater than 10 per square mile, a correspondingly larger number of areas should be opened. If the new sprouts are browsed so heavih' that a majority of them are killed the first season then a larger number of spots should be opened the next year. On the other hand, if browsing is light, it is desirable to wait two or three years before additional spots are opened. Approximately 30 percent of the area should be left in well distributed dense brush as cover for game. In a few years the deer population will build up to the carrying capacity of the range. When this point is reached it'^vill be necessary to control the deer popu- lation to maintain this balance. 5. Beseeding to Adapted Forage Species. All areas cleared of brush should be reseeded to adapted forage plants before the first fall rains. If the reseeding is not done by this time, however, it is still not too late to seed soon after the first rains, but with less satisfactory results. Insofar as possible species valuable for forage and watershed cover should be used. These are not known for all cases and will vary with locality; some testing should be done in all areas. 6. Rehurning . Where too much area is covered in the initial burn for deer to suppress sprout growth, it may be necessary to reburn in spots to retard sprouts. This should be done tAvo to four years after the first burn, where reseeded grasses will carrj^ the fire. In general, however, as little reburning as possible should be done for this tends to eliminate certain of the valuable nonsprouting species, and may also result in MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 481 opening the brush too much. Insofar as possible, sprout growth should be retarded by deer browsing and areas maintained in open condition this way. When areas are properly opened every care should be taken to avoid wildfires for these are likely to upset the proper interspersion of brush and herbaceous plants and may not leave enough dense brush cover for deer. After an area is opened and the- proper balance between dense brush and opened area is attained, it may prove more desirable, where feasible, to maintain this condition by mechanical means than by fire. 7. Grazing Management. Attention should be given to grazing man- agement, especially where animals other than deer use the range. The general objective should be to leave enough grass residue on the ground for an effective watershed cover, and to maintain a high level of fawn production without depletion of range carrying capacity. Where the browse species are properl}" utilized the grasses are likely to be properly grazed, too (Figure 19). Areas fully stocked with deer will scarcely support any cattle or horses because the additional animals would result in too close grazing. Utilization by sheep is quite similar to that by deer ; where both kinds of animals use the range, proper allowance must be made for each. In some cases, jackrabbits may become sufficiently abun- dant to justify reducing their number. FIGURE 19. View of area burned in 1945 and used only by deer for six years. Both the browse and grass show about proper utilization. Photo was taken September 13, 1951, near the end of the dry forage period. If used also by other kinds of animals adjustments should be made for proper utilization of the grass, always leaving enough for an effective watershed cover. 2—64158 482 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME SUMMARY 1. Studies on the management of chamise brushlands for game were made in Lake Count}^ California, from 1948 to 1951. Brushlands on the study areas comprise two types : those in which chamise predominates on south exposures and those where broad-sclerophyll shrubs and trees predominate on north-facing exposures. The dominant shrubs and trees are chamise, interior live oak, Eastwood manzanita, scrub oak, California laurel, toy on, wedgeleaf ceanothus, wavyleaf ceanothus, deerbrush, Stanford manzanita, yerba santa, poison oak, birchleaf mahogany and chaparral pea, approximately in that order of abun- dance. 2. Chamise occurs on a variety of soils in this area. The Maymen series is the most extensive. These soils are less than 12 inches deep. The more productive soils belong to the Dorado, Los Gatos, and Laughlin series. Chamise-covered soils are generally low in nitrogen even where the woody vegetation has not been disturbed over a long period of time. 3. Chamise brushlands have been generally looked upon as valuable for game and watersheds. However, little has been done to manage them for either except to attempt total fire exclusion. This has not been entirely successful since wildfires occur frequently; some are very large and destructive. 4. The primary purpose of this study was to determine whether game populations will build up under brushland management, and, if so, the most satisfactory way of managing chamise brushlands for game pro- duction. 5. Black-tailed deer populations were studied under three different con- ditions of chamise brushland : (1) Heavy brush cover, protected from fire; (2) Wildfire burn; (3) Opened brush, consisting of an inter- spersion of grass with patches of dense brush. Observations and less detailed studies were made of the valley quail, California jackrabbit, brush rabbit, mountain quail, and mourning dove. a. Number of deer in the heavy brush averaged 10 to 30 to the square mile ; in the wildfire burn 5 to 160 ; and in the opened brush about 40 to 110. Populations in the heavy brush and opened brush were rather stable; but in the wildfire burn large numbers of deer moved in when the sprouts were young and tender and out during cold weather. b. In adult does the ovulation rates were : Heavy brush 84 percent ; wildfire burn 116 percent; opened brush 147 percent. Katios of fawns to 100 does following the rut were : Heavy brush about 60 to 85 ; wildfire burn 100 to 110 ; opened brush 115 to 140. c. Bucks from ojiened brush were heavier than those from heavy brush ; this tendency was stronger in young deer than in medium- aged ones. Bucks from the wildfire burns tended to be as heavy as those from opened brush. d. Herbaceous plants when available and green are utilized heavily by deer. From February to May the deer in opened brush foraged largely on herbaceous plants, whereas those in the hea\y brush foraged almost entirely on shrubs. In the wildfire burns herbaceous plants comprised about half of the forage in March and April. MANAGEMENT OF CHAMISE BRUSHLANDS 483 e. Valley quail populations in late summer were about two and one- half times as great in opened brush as in hea^y brush or in Avildfire burns. Mountain quail were difficult to census but more were counted in opened brush than dense brush. Jackrabbits fluctuated from 10 to 45 per square mile in the opened brush but in heavy brush only about one was found per square mile. In wildfire burns they reached densities of 5 to 10 per square mile. Brush rabbits were numerous in the heavy brush. In wildfire burns and opened areas they existed largely in the remaining spots of heavy brush. ^lourn- ing doves were the most abundant in opened brush. They were found occasionally in wildfire burns but seldom in the heavy brush. 6. Methods studied in opening chamise brushlands to improve conditions for game were burning, grazing, mechanical means, and chemical treatment. a. Both spring and late fall burning proved satisfactory in opening chamise brush. Summer burning in chamise brushlands for game is not recommended because of difficulties and expense in fire con- trol and the possibility that the area burned will be too large. b. Control of sprouts through browsing following initial brush removal is an essential step in the opening of dense chamise brush- lands. c. Spot burns of about five acres evenly scattered are probably suffi- cient for initiating a program of managing chamise brushlands. Ultimately not more than 70 percent of a brush area should be treated and the remainder left in dense brush as cover for game. cl. Some areas of chamise brushlands may be opened by mechanical means such as bulldozing or disking. e. Use of hormone sprays were limited to treatment of seedlings and sprouts. Other means of opening the brush for game appear more practical at this time. 7. Chamise lands should be seeded following brush removal to increase forage production, to lessen erosion, to offer competition to a poten- tially overclense stand of brush seedlings, and to furnish fuel for a reburn if necessarv. a. The most promising species tested were soft chess, domestic rye- grass, hardinggrass, smilo, tall fescue, orchardgrass, rose clover and burnet. Seedings made shortly before the start of fall rains did best. However, those made shortlv after the first rains have been successful. Most failures in reseecling were clue to frost heav- ing and heavy use by jackrabbits. b. Deer make their greatest use of reseeded grasses in the early spring. At this season, soft chess and domestic ryegrass were more heavily grazed than others. But all reseeded species were used and can make up an important part of the deer diet. c. A negative correlation was found between density of reseeded grasses and survival of brush seedlings. 8. In opening new areas of chamise brushlands, steps to be considered are : Location of deer and their approximate density, selection of area, methods of opening the area, extent to which area should be opened, reseecling to adaj^tecl forage species, reburning, and grazing manage- ment. 484 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME REFERENCES Arnold, Keith, L. T. Burcham, R. L. Fenner and R. F. Grab 1951. Use of fire in land clearing. Calif. Agric, vol. 5, no. 3, p. 9-11 ; no. 4, p. 7-8, 13, 15 ; no. 5, p. 11-12 ; no. 6, p. 13-15 ; no. 7, p. 6, 15. Buck, C. C. 1951. Inflammability of chaparral depends on how it grows. U. S. Dept. Agric, Calif. Forest and Range Expt. Sta., Misc. Paper no. 2. Burcham, L. T. 1950. Suggestions for improving wildlife habitat on California brush ranges. Calif. Div. Forestry, 14 p. Coleman, E. A. 1951. Fire and water in southern California's mountains. U. S. Dept. Agric, Calif. Forest and Range Expt. Sta., Misc. Paper no. 3. Gordon, A., and A. W. Sampson 1939. Composition of common California foothill plants as a factor in range man- agement. Univ. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta., Bull. 627, 95 p. Love, R. M., and B. .T. Jones 1952. Improving California brush ranges. Univ. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta., Circ. 371, 38 p. Reynolds, Hudson G., and A. W. Sampson 1943. Chaparral crown sprouts as browse for deer. Jour. Wildl. Mangt., vol. 7, no. 1, p. 119-122. Sampson, A. W. 1944. Plant succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Univ. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta., Bull. 685, 144 p. Schultz, A. M., and H. H. Biswell 1952. Competition between grasses reseeded on burned brushlands in California. Jour. Range Mangt. (In press.) Taber, R. D. 1953. Studies of black-tailed deer reproduction in tliree Lake County brush range types. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39. (In press.) Veihmeyer, F. J. 1951. Elimination of wasteful uses of water and salvage of uneconomic water consumption. Mimeograph paper. Univ. Calif. Agric. Expt. Sta. LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH SEBASTODES MYSTINUS' By JOSEPH H. WALES Bureau of Fish Conservation, California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION As a preliminary step toward a general survey of the rockfish of the genus Sehastodes, the writer undertook the problem of outlining the life history of Sehastodes mystinus Jordan and Gilbert, commonly called bluefish or blue rockcod. Although this species is not as important com- mercially as many others of the genus, it is easily available in sufficient numbers to permit an outline of its life history. This study was carried out at the Hopkins Marine Station of Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California. Work began in the summer of 1929, at which time 280 fish were tagged. Nothing more was done until June, 1930, when tagging was resumed for a few months along with regular sampling, which was continued for an entire year. When the investigation was started, no work had been carried out on the life histories of the fishes of the Monterey Bay region and there was little or no knowledge of the seasonal changes in the phj^sicochemical conditions of the waters. As a consequence we had no ideas in regard to the difficulties inherent in the problem. As the work progressed and as FIGURE 1. Blue rockfish from Monterey Bay, April 1, 1931 . Phoiograph by J. H. Wales and Wm. A.Dili, April, 1931. 1 Submitted for publication May, 1952. Modified from a typewritten thesis submitted to Stanford University, June, 1932, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. The common name "blue roclvfish" replaces the depart- ment's old official name of "priestfish." It is believed that the new name more nearly conforms with popular usage. (485) 486 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME the data of the hyclrobiological survey of Hopkins Marine Station in- creased in number, the true problem began to be realized. The hydographical work (Skogsberg, 1936) disclosed that while the deeper waters of this region were characterized by a very distinct rhythm, the superficial waters were distinguished by the apparent lack of regu- larity in their changes, in other words b}' irregular fluctuations. Figure 2 illustrates the fact that there is less similarity in surface temperatures from one year to another than between deep temperatures of different years. It seems altogether possible that this fact accounts for the remark- able differences in scale features and in the growth of blue rockfish of different year classes. Because this is a shallow water species, its growth mirrored very closely the lack of regularity in its environment. Those features which usually express the rhythm of growth in fishes were found to be very poorly developed. The writer wishes to express his appreciation for the help and encour- agement of the late Dr. Tage Skogsberg of Stanford University, at whose suggestion this investigation was undertaken. 15 14 u Q < a:i3 O i^l2 u .2 ♦6.4 JAM FIGURE 2. FEB. MAR. APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. DEC. Water temperatures of Monterey Bay in 1929 and 1930. Surface temperatures are represented by solid lines; temperatures at 50 meters by broken lines. METHODS ]\Iost of the specimens were secured by hook and line from a skiff just off the rocks at Hopkins ^larine Station, which is situated on ]\Iussel Point, one and one-fifth miles west of Monterey, California. Nets and rock- cod lines, consisting of many hooks, were tried, Avithout reasonable suc- cess. The best gear for catching the fish was found to be a short pole with a line of equal length and one or two hooks. The bait was squid, blue rockfish, Oxyjulis (the senorita, a common shore fish) or sardine. The method is not only extremely time consuming but undoubtedly tends to be strongly selective. As a consequence, the material collected was largely of one year class and even this was so poorly represented that a good length frequencj^ analysis was impossible. LITE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 487 Some samples of the commercial catch were taken at the Monterey fresh fish markets. Since these fish were known to have been caught close to the main sampling area, the writer did not hesitate to include them with the rest of the specimens. Scale samples were taken from all fish handled. In the younger age classes about 98 percent of the samples could be read. On the other hand, many of the scales of the older, market-caught fish could not be read. In *S*. mysfinns the scales seemed to be more easily read than the otoliths and opercular bones but in some of the other commercially important species of this genus well-defined rings could be found in the otoliths. This peculiarity is apparently correlated with the circumstance that the more important commercial species occur in deep Avater. where there is a distinct seasonal rhythm in the temperature during the year. >S'. mystinus, on the contrary, spends all or most of its life in shallow water, which in Monterev Bav is not characterized bv such regular changes, but by irregular fluctuations (Figure 2). If, as is generally assumed, the rhythm expressed by the bony structures actually is the material record of a metabolic rhvthm. then this differential behavior of the bony structures of these species must be considered as very strong evidence that the temperature is at least the fundamental factor in bring- ing about this rhythm. It should be noted that no season of the year is characterized bv searcitv of food in the Monterev region. In an effort to find out something about the rate of growth, the rate of addition of scale circuli was determined simply by counting the num- ber of circuli on each scale beyond a certain point which Avas established for each year class separately. For the zero class, all the circuli were counted (Figure 6) ; for class l-\-. all beyond ''secondary ring" C (Figure 7) ; for class 2+, all beyond annulus D (Figure 8) ; and for class 3+, those beyond annulus F (Figure 9). As has already been noted, 280 fish were tagged in September 1929, and 770 in the summer and fall of 1930. The fish were caught bv hook and line, the fork length obtained, a sample of scales taken, a tag ^ attached to the operculum and the fish liberated. In the recaptured fish the tag had worn the hole in the opercle slightly larger and in some cases evidently had irritated the skin. The tags themselves often became cov- ered with a fine growth of algae. The loss of tags is not believed to have been great. A number of fish were retaken after having been tagged a week or two but only those which had been out for at least a month were con- sidered in the following analysis. Seven fish tagged in 1929 were retaken by staff members of the Hopkins ^Marine Station from one month to nine months and twenty-five days after liberation. Ten fish tagged in 1930 were retaken by the writer within the following five months. Xone of these fish were out during the period of annulus formation. In other words, out of 1,050 tagged fish only 17 were recaptured and examined. Not onh^ was this a very small number but its significance was further decreased by the facts that the specimens belonged to three different year classes and that they were recaptured during different seasons of the year and after varying periods following their liberation. However, the data obtained from the tagged fish were valuable in checking the general scale and length frequencj^ studies. 2 The tags were No. 3, noncorrosive metal fish tags made by the Salt Lake Stamp Com- pany, Salt Lake City, Utah. 488 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The average monthh^ growth of the tagged specimens was 2.46 mm. Assuming that there is no differential seasonal growth, this would cor- respond to an average yearly increment of 29.52 mm. (Ig^ inches) within the first three year classes. The supposition of uniform growth is not unreasonable. The fact that the annuli are very poorly marked indicates but a slight decrease in growth during the time of their for- mation. The average increase in the number of scale circuli was 4.34 each month or 52.08 a year. The first three year classes showed no significant differ- ence in this regard. Class 1+ added 5.7 circuli; class 2-\-, 4 circuli; and class 3+, 4.9 circuli per month. These latter values probably do not represent the average trend, since it would be most unusual to find a greater growth rate in class 3-(- than in class 2-\-. Despite this apparent aberration, a comparison with the results pre- sented in the f olloAving pages will reveal a fair agreement between tagging and scale studies, thus showing that the former strongly substantiate the general results and conclusions of the report. No definite information concerning the movements of this species was gained b}^ the use of tags. This subject will be mentioned later. A few fish, both with and without tags, were kept in an aquarium for some months, but it Avas believed unwise to include observations made under such con- ditions. GROWTH OF SCALES AND BODY The form of the blue rockfish scale can be seen in the photographs. The most noticeable and bv far the most noteworthv variations in the distance between circuli occur at the "annuli," which usually appear as more or less definite bands across the scale. As will be seen from Figure 3, the relative depth of the body in this species gradually decreases with age. Since the number of scales is the same throughout life, it follows that the growth of these structures must conform to this change in body pro- portions. In other words, as the scales grow larger they must assume a somewhat more elongate shape. In Figure 10 we can see what is accom- plished by noticing the distance between side checks No. 1 and No. 2 as compared with the distance between annuli G and X. 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 14-0 150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230 240 TOTAL LENGTH IN MM. FIGURE 3. Length-depth relationship of Sebosfoc/es mystinus LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 489 After the first annulus has been completed, there is a tendency for the succeeding* annuli to occur as pairs of rings. The first member of each pair is the more constant ( Table 1 ) , and the more conspicuous laterally. In general, the two rings of late pairs are more widely separated than those formed earlier. Indeed, in classes 4+, 5+, and 6-\- it is often impossible to tell whether two successive rings are members of a pair or true annuli of different years. I cannot explain why there are two rings in some annuli and but one in others. As a matter of fact, the cause or causes of annulus formation in mystimis admittedly are unknown. TABLE 1 Occurrence of Scale Rings in tlie Year Classes Year class Ring 1 + 1927 2 + 1926 3+ 1925 A__ 98% 67% 93% 94% 0% 25% 97% 81% 96% B_ 0% C 21% D 100% E__ 17% F _ ... 100% G 69% The first member of a pair is considered as a " true ' ' annulus because of its more frequent occurrence. The others are termed "secondary" because of their irregularity. Where A or B alone was present it was impossible to tell them apart. It was noted earlier in this discussion that there are other variations in the regular sequence of circuli besides the annuli. These irregularities may be in the form of bands (B in Figure 7) almost indistinguishable from true annuli except that they seldom have side checks ; or they may occur as abrupt changes from areas of closely set circuli to areas of widely placed circuli. No difference was found between scales of males and females. The photographs are of selected scales and therefore give a somewhat idealized picture. However, they do not present any characters not found in the majority of these structures. The fact that the various rings were designated by letters suggests that they could always be homologized with certainty, but this was not en- tirely the case. Thus in class 2-{- it was very questionable whether ring A was the homologue of A, B, or C in class 1+. However, there w^as seldom any doubt about the years in which the annuli were formed, thus making it possible to age fish of the first four classes with very little hesitation, once the positions of the annuli were well established. This assurance in the recognition of classes 0+, 1+, 2-|-, and 3+ does not apply to the older groups. There are a number of reasons for this. One has already been given, i.e., the difficulty in telling whether two successive rings represent two annuli or whether they are simply members of a paired annulus. Another reason is that beyond class 3-|- the annuli 490 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME often fail to appear altogether, or they may be so poorly defined that their presence becomes a matter of conjecture. Soon after the writer began the study of mystinus scales, he became aware that the establishment of similarities rather than difference was the first and most important thing. Every scale seemed to be different. Then slowly, one by one, points in common became apparent ; and as the writer grew more and more familiar with the set of characters indicative of the various classes, it became easier to sort the scales, even though many cases always remained highly perplexing. Some work was done in the matter of measuring scales from the nucleus to the various annuli. However, there was so much variation in the size of the scales that the results were nearly useless, even when a correction was made by plotting an average scale length — body length curve and then interpolating from this in the equation : distance to margin average distance to margin distance to check X The scale's length was measured from the center of the nucleus to the middle of the anterior margin. After having classified the fish into preliminary age groups, the next step taken was to determine the age of the smallest class, the value thus established to be used as a basis of age computation. Of the specimens taken during June through September, 1930, the great majority formed a very pronounced size and scale group, the mode of the length frequency curve being located at 135 mm. (5^% inches) and the extremes at 113 mm. and 148 mm. Below 113 mm. there was a very decided gap in the frequency, the next largest specimen being only 76 mm. This fish according to the scales evidently belonged to another group, of which only six fish were taken, the smallest being 68 mm. These six fish were taken in July, 1929, and others presumably of this class were observed in tidepools in ^lay, 1931. In other words, this smaller class occurred at the same time as the larger. The difference in age is almost certainly one year, since this species is known to spawn but once a year and the spawning season is quite short. Absolute proof that their age difference is one year is lacking, however. According to actual obser- vations the larger group increased 40 mm. in one year. By subtracting this length from the moclal length of 135 mm., we arrive at a modal length of 95 mm. for the smaller group, thus decidedly higher than the one actu- allv observed. Tn regard to the number of circuli on the scales, the smaller class exhibited an average of 24. the larger, of 80. As a matter of com- parison, it may be noted that the larger group added 67 circuli in one year, an unexpectedly large addition when the difference between these two length classes is taken into account. As a matter of convenience the smaller group was called class O-j- ; the larger one, class l-j-. In regard to the age of class 0+, we have no direct evidence. Assuming that the growth of this class was greatest during the early part of its development, we reached the conclusion that it was derived from the previous spawning season. In other words, this class would be slightly more than six months old. Besides the two classes just considered there were two others which could easilv be distinguished on the basis of scale and size differences. LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 491 In June, 1930, the average lengths of these classes were 175 mm. (6|- inches) and 200 mm. (l-%2 inches), respectively. The nnmber of scale rings in the first class was 95. while that in the larger class was 150. Undoubtedly they were older than classes O-f- and 1^. but just how much ■? It has already been said that the methods of sampling for a length frequency analysis were highly selective ; but even though the various age groups were not sampled in a manner which would show their relative abundance, it is the writer's belief that representatives of the first four year classes were collected. From the length modes, such as they are. and from a consideration of the scales this belief seems correct beyond doubt. As no sexual differences were found in the scales and as there seems to be just one breeding season a year, we are forced to call these year classes 2+ and 3+, in other words to consider them as one and two years older than class 1+. It has been said previously that age determina- tion at the present time cannot be carried beyond class 3+ because of lack of data and the increasingly numerous scale difficulties. Figure 4 shows the dominant class of the 1929 collecting season falling midway between class 2-\- and class 3+ of the 1930 season. Upon exam- ination of the scales it is seen that this class is also age 2+, but it has grown faster than class 2-1- of 1930. 30- 27- 24 > u u 21 D o cr I 8 u. _j o 30 c 20 10 JULY AUG^ ScPT OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB. MAR APRIL MAY JUNE FIGURE 5. Increase in length of fish and in number of scale circuli for class 1 + during 1930-31 When regular sampling began in June, 1930, class 1+ was the young- est to be found (Figure 4). Class 1+ continued in the same relative abundance for the ensuing 13 months. In April, 1931, fish which were a year younger than this dominant class made their appearance in the area but in very small numbers. This group had very probably been present all of the time but the fish were too small to be caught. It is re- markable how much less numerous this class was than the class of the same age a year before. From this fact, it may be concluded that there is great variation in the mortality of the different year classes. When the writer began examination of the scales of the blue rockfish in June, 1930, ''annulus" C of class 1+ was forming or had recently been completed. During the ensuing year, circuli were apparently added in a very regular manner. However, at the end of the collecting in June, 1931, the scales of class 1+ taken in May and June were examined criti- cally for irregularities, and although the irregularities found were very poorly defined, the examination shoAved that 31 percent had previously formed ' * annuli. ' ' A little more than half of these annuli were of the single type, the rest were paired. The average number of circuli added since the completion of these annuli was seven, indicating that the annulus forming period for the fish of class 1-|- which had annuli present was in March, April, and May. Contrasted with the year during which most of the fish failed to form annuli, we have the previous year and a half's growth of the same group of fish, when there were typically three "annuli" (Figure 8) . Looking at the other scale photographs we can establish that the scale configurations of each year class are so unlike that we must conclude that LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 493 each year class has its own characteristic peculiarities of growth, but only in a very general way can it be said that an ' ' annulus ' ' is added once a year and that by counting the annuli can the age of the fish be deter- mined. Figure 8 is an exceptional case, since it appears that each of the heavy bands is a true annulus. This situation has alreadv been considered, and it need scarcelv be said again that we believe the irregularities in the environment of this species produce very undependable scale features for use in age determination. SCALE CHARACTERISTICS Realizing that the scale features in this species are somewhat confus- ing and that an understanding of age determination in the blue rockfish may assist in "aging" other species of this genus, it appears desirable to describe the scale photographs used in this paper more fully. After a thorough study of the scales collected from all of the age groups found off the Hopkins Marine Station in 1929-30 it was apparent that in most cases fish of the same year class had similar scale characteristics, so that the observer could group his scales. However, it was not always possible to assign an age to these groups. Some were characterized by scales which seemed to have annular rings, but other groups did not. In Figure 6 (1928 class 0-|-) the first annular ring or band started to form about twelve circuli out from the nucleus. The corresponding an- nulus A can be seen in Figure 7. Also in Figure 7 can be seen a "secon- dary" ring B, the cause of which is unknown. Frequently this so-called secondary ring is not present. In Table 1 it will be noted that in the 1927 year class this secondary ring B was present in 67 percent of the scales examined, while in the 1926 and 1925 classes this ring was altogether absent. In general it was found that when one member of such a pair was absent it was the second one formed. Therefore, I have referred to the first ring of a pair as the true annulus. Looking again at Figure 7 it can be seen that both rings of the pair A, B were formed in the first year following the birth of the fish. The Ring C was formed in the second year. It was not followed by a secondary ring. Now let us examine Figure 8. This is a scale from a 1926 class 2+ fish. In that year 94 percent of the fish showed the true annulus A but not the secondary ring B. Only 25 percent showed an annulus in the second year C. In its third year this class developed a pair of rings in most instances. Figure 8 shows the first of the pair D and the secondary ring E can be seen in Figure 9. Referring to Figure 9, we see a scale from a 1925 class 3+ fish. Nat- urally this is a far better than average scale, selected to show all of the characters useful in aging this class. Ring A was the first of the pair com- monly formed in the first year. Ring C was the annulus formed by some fish in the second year. Rings D and E make the pair formed in the third year (2-|-). Of this pair ring D was formed in 100 percent of the scales, while E was formed in only 17 percent of the scales. Ring F was the first or true annulus formed in 69 percent of the scales. Figure 10 is given to show the growth between time of tagging and recapture. 494 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME F1G.8 FIG. 9 FIG. 10 FIG. LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 495 Figure 11 shows a scale from a 1925 class 5+ taken in February, 1931. This is an exceptional scale. Rarely are the annuli shown this clearly. However, even in this scale the annulus for the first year is not present. However, a single broad annulus was formed in each succeeding year. It is only in rare cases that blue rockfish of this age show the annuli as clearly as does this particular specimen and even here the age determi- nation would have been a vear less than it should have been if all the younger age classes had not been studied. In conclusion, we may say that age determination from scale reading is not impossible in this species but that it is very difficult and must be accompanied by a length-fre- quency analysis. EMBRYOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND HABITS Some three-year-old males produce sperm, and it is probable that when four vears old, most males are sexuallv mature. Fish with running sperm were observed as early as the last daj^ of October. It is probable that no females mature before they are four years old and in most cases not before the fifth year. The spawning period was found to extend through November, December, and January. In October, eggs can be found which resemble those in Figure 12A, B. These eggs are from .03 to .24 mm. in diameter and their oil globules are colorless. In Figure 12C, the globules have become better developed and are pale yellow. These stages are found in fish of two and three years. The globules in Figure 12D are slightly yellow but those in Figure 12E are colorless. The stage represented by Figure 12E constitutes about one tenth of the eggs in an ovary which is nearing maturity. They are then about .35 mm. in diameter and probably break from the follicle when in this condition. Figure 12A-E shows the thick follicle which Eigenmann (1892) believed to be ruptured at fertilization. Copulation seems never to have been observed in this or any other species of Sehastodes, but it is probably effected by a momentary contact of the genital openings. Living embryos found in females which had been dead for hours were taken from the OA^aries and kept in a few drops of sea water for four hours. Figure 12F shows an embryo from a 405 mm. female taken on November 28, 1930. It was estimated that there were 524,000 such embryos in this fish. Somewhat older than the specimen of Figure 12F are the embryos in Figures 12G,H, which are from the same female. The only difference is the absence of the membrane in Figure 12H. Eigenmann (1892) believed the membrane to be broken some time before extrusion. FIGURE 6. Scale from a 71 mm. fish of Class 0 + . Caught July, 1929. FIGURE 7. Scale from a 157 mm. fish of class 1 +. Caught April 25, 1930. FIGURE 8. Scale from a 1 40 mm. fish of class 2 + . Caught October 7, 1 930. FIGURE 9. Scale from a 186 mm. fish of class 3 + . Caught April 24, 1931. FIGURE 10. Scale from a 202 mm. fish of class 3 + . The letter Z indicates scale growth from the time the f^sh was tagged on September 10, 1929, when it was 187 mm. long, to the time it was recaptured on March 9, 1930, six months later. FIGURE 11. Scale from a 230 mm. fish of class 5 + . Caught on February 5, 1931 . Photographs by J. H. Wales and Wm. A. Dill 496 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 12. Development of blue rockfish. A. Oil globules colorless. B. Sphere of colorless glob- ules starting to form. C. Globules pole yellow. D. Sphere of pale yellow globules growing. E. Nearly mature. Globules colorless. F. Embryo with large yolk sac. G^ Embryo just prior to hatching. H. Larva just hatched. As has already been stated, fish of the year have been seen in tidepools in May and liave been taken from tidepools in July. The great scarcity of the young in the tidepools indicates that the majority are in the rock^^ subtidal region where it is extremely difficult to obtain them with hook LIFE HISTORY OF THE BLUE ROCKFISH 497 and line. The four- and six-month-old fish have a brick-red color Tvhich almost excludes the slaty black of the older fish. This red does not dis- appear entirely until the fish are 135 to 140 mm. long. The young fish probably eat about the same food as the adults, that is, almost anything that they can catch in the water or nibble from the rocks. This food includes small crustaceans, crabs, and fine algae, both red and green. The species is gregarious but the individuals do not form compact schools. At times all ages may be found in 30 to 40 feet of water, but as a rule the older fish from two years on occur in deeper water, sometimes at the surface and sometimes down to 50 fathoms. They can be caught by hook and line, but at Monterey they are taken more by the pleasure fishermen than for the markets. The reason this species is of little com- mercial importance is that its color is unattractive. The flesh, however, is white and has good flavor. Those which do enter the commercial catch are mostly over four years, with an average size of about 300 mm. It is not known definitely where spawning takes place but there is no evidence that the fish move from shore at this time. SUMMARY 1. The fish used in this stuclv were secured near Monterev, California. 2. Scale study and length frequencies were the methods employed in age determination, although the inadequacies of sampling made length frequencies undependable. 3. The rate of increase of scale circuli was found to be a valuable adjunct to simple periodic length measurements. 4. The tagging of mysiiinis was found to be a reasonably effective check in age determination. ScATuteen fish were retaken of the 1,050 tagged (1.6 percent) within 10 months of the time of liberation. In these fish there was an average monthly growth of 2.46 mm. and a monthly increase of 4.34 circuli. These values proved to be fairly close to those computed by other means. 5. Seven year classes were examined, of which the first four could easilv be recognized. 6. It is probably the normal condition for one annulus to be formed each year, but sometimes three appear and in some scales none is formed. 7. The annulus may be a single ring or a pair of rings. 8. Besides the ''annuli" there may be secondary rings, which tend to confuse age determination. 9. The causes of annulus formation were not determined. 10. First maturity in male fish of this species occurs in the third and fourth vears, while in the females it occurs in the fourth and fifth vears. * 7 ^ 11. Fertilization is internal. An old fish may contain as many as 524,- 000 equally developed embryos. 12. In the year of observation the spawning began in November and extended into January. 13. The planktonic life of the young fish was not observed. Fish about five months old w^ere the youngest seen. 14. The commercial catch consists largely of the fifth, sixth, and seventh year groups. 498 CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GAME TABLE 2 Samples Taken During 1930-31 Date June 25, 1930_-. June 30 August 30 September 4 September 11 September 15 September 20 September 26 October 6 October 18 November 6 November 16 November 26 November 28 December 7 December 10 December 18 December 26 Januarj' 10, 1931 Januan.* 27 February' 6 Februarj^ 25 March 5 April 25 May 10 May 15 May 25 June 22 Totals Class 1 + 7 65 116 36 128 14 17 17 14 33 62 13 20 44 25 22 26 667 Class 2 + 13 13 23 6 70 Class 3 + 29 10 3 8 60 15 34 6 6 10 10 11 2 2 4 18 12 10 250 111* In the group of larger fish there were 111 specimens, of which the largest was 415 mm. LITERATURE CITED Eigenmann, Carl H. 1892. On the viviparous fishes of the Pacific coast of North America. U. S. Fish Comm., Bull., vol. 12, p. 381-478. Skogsberg, Tage 1936. Hydrography of Monterey Bav, California. Thermal conditions, 1929-1933. Am. Phil. Soc, Trans., vol. 29, p. 1-149. THE TOMALES BAY HERRING FISHERY' By W. L. SCOFIELD Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Department of Fish and Game About 30 miles northwest of San Francisco in Marin Countv lies the interesting- body of water known as Tomales Bay. The name is a Spanish corruption of the Coast Miwok Indian word "tamal" meaning "bay." This shalloAv bav averages onlv a little over one mile wide but from its ocean mouth it extends about 15 miles southeast along the famed San Andreas fault. In the davs of the buggv and surrv this was a resort area. It was a one-dav drive from "the eitv" and manv San Francisco families maintained summer homes among the hills on the west side of the bay near the town of Inverness. The bay was known also as a producer of oysters and herring. In addition, it contributed small amounts of smelt, perch, white sea bass and halibut. Through the vears. herring have been caught at Tomales Bav bv gill nets laved out in a circle but the bulk of the catch has been taken in beach seines when the fish were in shallow water spawning. At such times the fish were not as fat as they had been earlier in the season and this led to the belief that the gill netted fish were better for salting, smoking and "Scotch cure." For many years past, herring have been trucked to San Francisco for the fresh fish trade, as bait, for smoking and for canning. Some were trucked to Petaluma to be used as chicken feed. The Pacific herring (Clupea fjallasi) belongs to the herring family (CTupeidae) as do our native sardine and the introduced shad. From December through June, but mostlv during Januarv, Februarv and March, herring enter bays at spawning time where they deposit clusters of sticky eggs on eel grass, other seaweeds or on the rocks in shallow water. For the past half century these fish have been harvested in San Francisco and Tomales Bays and more recently in Humboldt, Bodega, Monterev and San Diego Bavs. Old timers in San Francisco tell of word passing from house to house that a herring boat was in and the fishermen disposed of their catch directly to the housewives at "two bits" a bucket- ful. In the past, most of the herring were consumed fresh but there was some salting and smoking, and at Tomales Bay there were small scale packs of "Scotch cure" herring, lightly brined and packed in tubs. As ocean sport fishing increased more and more herring were used for bait. In normal years the herring catch of the State has been a little under 1,000,000 pounds but during the four years 1916-1919 larger quantities of this fish were used for canning and for reduction into oil and meal. In the peak year 1918 the catch was about 8,000,000 pounds. Much of this poundage came from Tomales Bay. Canning operations could utilize fish in bulk, and during the big can- ning years (1916-1919) most of the Tomales Bay catch was shipped out 1 Submitted for publication March, 1952. ( 499 ) 500 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME over the little narrow gauge line with the big title ''The North Pacific Coast Railroad" which ran from the Russian River area along the coast to Sausalito. At the port of Sausalito the fish were loaded in fish boxes aboard a transport boat for delivery to the F. E. Booth cannery at Pittsburg (Contra Costa County). The Tomales Bay herring canning was responsible for a peculiar quirk in our state laws. The then State Bureau of Commercial Fisheries w^as FIGURE 1 Herring gill netter at San Francisco Bay (Richardson's Bay). Photograph by N. 8. Scofield, January, 1918. FIGURE 2 Herring gill netters at San Francisco Bay (Belvedere Cove). Photograph by N. 6. Scofteld, January, 1918. ^mUk '— — - • — -"■ FIGURE 3 Hauling beach seine for herring at San Francisco Bay (Richardson's Bay). Photograph by N. B. Scofield, January, 1918. THE TOMALES BAY HERRING FISHERY 501 dependent, for operating funds, upon the $10 license required of com- mercial fishermen and a nominal packers license. It was evident that a tonnage processing tax was needed to finance the law enforcement and research so badly needed in our leading fisheries. Such a law was discussed in 1916 and seemed to meet with general agreement but in the 1917 legislative session Mr. Frank Booth objected "■*>»•"»*.«*«*->*.«*,»*., .-.W,„..,i«,„,.,„.,..,..ailia.^:;i.;.i.^;ai^.|,j„^ .^^^.,,y ,. FIGURE 4 Broiling herring from beach seine to lighter. Son Francisco Boy (Richardson's Bay). Phofograph by N. 6. Scofield, January, 1918. FIGURE 5 Iced herring boxed for shipment over the narrow gauge rood from Hamlet on Tomales Boy to Sausolito. Photograph by N. B. Scofield, January, 1918. FIGURE 6 Boxed herring being shipped to a Pittsburg cannery. Phofograph by N. B. Scofield, January, 1918. 502 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME to the proposed 50 cents per ton tax as applying; to his processing of herring and male shad. His objection threatened the life of this needed bill so a compromise was reached in which the Booth plant was excluded by making an exception in the case of herring and buck shad. The law then read all fish other than used as fresh fish and excepting herring and buck shad. The amended bill became law and went into effect in Julv, 1917. It remained on the books 14 vears, to the mystification of many legislators, fishermen and wardens who could not understand why herring and male shad were any different than other fish. The herring- buck shad exception was dropped from the 1931-33 code. During the 26-year interval from 1920 through 1946 there was little or no canning of Tomales Bay herring but moderate quantities continued to be sold for fresh consumption, as bait and for smoking and salting. B}^ 1947 and 1948 the scarcity of sardines at San Francisco and Monterey stimulated interest in herring canning and these fish were being trucked to packing plants of Central California, the narrow gauge railroad having quietly expired in the meantime. R. I. P. 1874-1930. Local fishermen operating gill nets and beach seines were enjoying a more prosperous period. Beginning in January, 1952, something new was added — the use of lampara nets for taking herring in Tomales Bay. The lampara is a roundhaul net layed out in a circle around a school of fish and pulled aboard from both ends simultaneoush^ They have no purse rings or other device for closing the bottom of the net other than pulling the leadline in advance of the corkline. Skill in lampara netting had been developed in the sardine fishery in the 36-year period, 1905-1940, and at Monterey a few such nets have continued in the squid fishery of that port. Also small lamparas have persisted throughout the State for catching small fish for use as bait. The typical lampara operation at Monterey, known as the launch and lighter type, includes a small power boat which carries the net and also tows a small lighter into which the catch is brailed from the net. A half dozen lampara launch and lighter rigs from Monterey Ba}^ went north to Tomales in January, 1952, and by mid-February there were nine such crews. They were successful in catching herring on a larger scale than was being delivered by the gill nets and beach seines. History repeated itself and the ' ' outsiders ' ' with their larger and more efficient gear were the targets of criticism from the local small scale fishermen. The large gear was wasteful, destructive, would ruin the fishery and would deprive local men of a livelihood. This pattern of criticism aimed at the introduction of new types of gear was established so long ago that its origin is lost in unrecorded histor3\ Not only were the lampara nets larger and capable of landing larger catches but the lampara boats were equipped with gurdies or powered drums over which the net wings could be pulled by power from the launch engines. A still greater advantage was that the launches were equipped with sonic depth finders that could be used in locating fish schools that gave no surface indication of their presence. The herring seemed to seek deep holes waiting for actual spawning time and the lampara crews were able to find them and make catches at times when gill and beach nets could not operate. THE TOMALES BAY IIERRIXG FISHERY 503 The lampara launches used at Tomales averaged 36 feet long and each carried a five-man crew. The lighters had a capacity of 20 to 30 tons of fish and the usual lampara catch was from 10 to 30 tons with an average of about 15 tons. After locating a herring school the nets were laid out in the usual counter clockwise direction, hauled alongside the launch and the catch was brailed into the lighter. The lampara nets were bait or squid nets already possessed by these crews and averaged considerably smaller than the typical 200 fathom sardine lampara. These nets used for herring averaged about 110 fathoms around the eorkline. A typical net measured 30 fathoms over the bag with each wing 40 fathoms (total 110) . The mesh size of the bag was seven-eighths or one inch and twine weight was No. 20/6, which means six threads of 20-gauge cotton fibers. This is smaller than the standard 10-gauge fiber. The apron or floor of the bag was No. 6 twine of four-inch mesh. Mesh size of the lampara wings was not graduated from base to tip but was uniformly six-inch mesh through- out and made up of six-thread twine. One "outside" boat fishing herring at Tomales (February 12, 1952) was using a ' ' baby ' ' purse seine only 80 fathoms long. There was no turn- table and the wing was pulled in by gurdy. This net was not successful for herring and the skipper discarded it for a lampara. This miniature purse seine was operated by a four-man crew. The herring beach seiners (1952) at Tomales employed a small launch to tow the seine skiff and a flat-bottomed barge about 12 by 30 feet in size and capable of holding 16 to 18 tons of fish. The net was stacked on and shot from a skiff and when the beach haul was made the launch towed the barge to the net and the catch was brailed from the net to the barge. The barge was then towed to a shoreside hoist where the catch was loaded into trucks for delivery to San Francisco or Monterey Bay ports. The net was hauled by a four-man crew without windlass or other mechanical power. Normally there were four to seven herring beach seine crews at Tomales. These herring seines ranged in size from 70 to 100 fathoms of eorkline with 85 to 90 fathoms as average size. Like the Italian "chin- chola," these seines had a deep bag. Mesh size in the bag was 1^-inch and the bunt was 400 meshes deep by 275 long (fore and aft). The wings were of four-inch mesh tapering at the ends to an 18-inch spreader called "the stick." The average seine was made up of nine-thread cotton twine throughout the net. Some seines were hung with a strip of heavier selv- age, four or five inches wide, along the leadline but not at the eorkline. However, most herring beach seines were hung without selvage on either cork or leadlines. At Tomales there has been some beach seining for salt water perch. The nets are similar to the herring seines in length but only about one- half as deep with 2^-inch mesh in the bag and four-inch in the wings. Only occasional beach seine hauls were made for smelt. These fish were caught in gill nets laid out in a circle using 2-inch or 2i-inch mesh. Two 30- to 35-fathom pieces, locally called "shakles" were fished as a string and sometimes one boat ran two strings of shackles. These gill nets were not left overnight but were worked continuously. Some perch were taken in drift, three-wall, trammel nets whose inner walls were 20/'9-thread with 18-inch No. 9 outer guards. 504 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME In the last five or six years local fishermen at Tomales have not found white sea bass but they used to fish for them with eight-inch mesh drift gill nets made up with Italian hemp webbing. These nets were allowed to drift all night and were worked the following day. The shackles were 30 to 35 fathoms and three to six were fished as a string. The halibut tram- mel nets fished locally were eight-inch No. 9 inner wall with 32-inch mesh No. 9 guards. These usually were fished outside the bay in which case they were anchored overnight. The law prohibits set nets in the bay. Bodega Bay is about 10 miles north of Tomales and in January, 1948, herring beach seining was similar to that conducted at Tomales Bay. A launch towed the seine skiff and flat-bottomed barge. Seining was done almost entirely at night with a two-man crew pulling a net 70 fathoms long by 3J fathoms deep. Catches were trucked to San Francisco. The seine bag was of li- or 2-inch mesh. The body of the seine was 2-|- or 3-inch and the wings were of 4J-inch mesh. REFERENCES Fraser, C. McLean 1922. The Pacific herring. Canada Biol. Bd., Contributions Canadian Biol., 1921, no. 4, p. 103-111. Hughes, Eldon P. 1949. Pacific herring. Calif. Div. Fish and Gamo, Fish Bull. 74, p. 101-102, 1 fig. Rounsefel, George A. 1930. Contribution to the h'uAw^y of the Pacific herring, Clupea pallasii, and the condition of the fishery in Alaska. U. S. Bur. Fish., Bull., vol. 45, 1929, p. 227-320, 53 figs. Scofield, N. B. 1918. The herring and the development of the herring industry in California. Calif. Fish and Gamf. vol. 4, no. 2, p. 65-70, 0 figs. 1920. Low rivers influence spawning habits of herring. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 6, no. 2, p. 81. Starks, E. C. 1918. The herring and herring-like fishes of California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 58-65, 9 figs. Thompson, William F. 1917. A contribution to the life-history of tbe Pacific herring: its bearing on the conditions and future of the fishery. British Columbia, Kept, of the Comm., 1916, p. 39-87, 16 figs. Wilson, Dorothy 1937. Herring. California Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 49, p. 16-18, 1 fig. LIFE HISTORY AND PRODUCTIVITY OF A POPULATION OF WESTERN MOURNING DOVES IN CALIFORNIA' By JOHN B. COWAN Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, and Bureau of Game Conservation, California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION The western mourning dove (Zenaidura macroura marginella) is Cali- fornia's most widely distributed game bird. Its range extends throughout the State and on all southern coastal islands. Breeding has been observed altitudinallv from sea level to 10.300 feet (Grinnell, Brvant and Storer. 1918). Most nesting, however, occurs in the bottomlands, orchards and sparse chaparral areas of the Lower and Upper Sonoran life-zones. To evaluate brieflv the dove's wildlife resource value in California, one need onlv to check the number of doves taken each vear in the hunters ' bag. Hjersman (1951) has sho^\'n that the state-wide dove kill in 1948, computed from a post card hunter survey, approximated 2,378,000 birds taken by about 161,000 hunters. This may be high, however, as subsequent annual figures approximate 2,000,000 birds. This places the mourning dove as the leading upland game bird in California, in terms of numbers killed. Little has been reported on the life histor^^ and productivity of this dove in California. The present study records data on these subjects which were obtained from May 1, 1948, through April, 1952, at Gray Lodge State Game Kefuge, Butte County, California. Supplementary information has been obtained from a review of pertinent literature and from general observations made in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys as opportunity permitted. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study was conducted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the ^I.A. degree at the L^niversity of California. Acknowledgment is gratefully made to my friend, Dr. A. Starker Leopold, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, I^niversity of California, for encouragement and suggestions, and to Drs. Alden IL ^Miller and Lewis AV. Taylor, also of the University of California, for a critical review of the manuscript. A^ns Cowan, the writer's wife, assisted in gathering field notes and in compil- ing the written data. Acknowledgment is also made to Cliffa Corson for drawing the figures and to Don Beauchamp, Charles IMoon, Elmer P. Reynolds and Ken Parrish, Department of Fish and Game personnel at Gray Lodge, for reporting new nests and checking others at various times throughout the study. 1 Submitted for publication May, 1952. ( 505 ) 506 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME THE STUDY AREA Gray I^odge State Refuge, where the study was conducted, is an area of approximately 2,500 acres situated in the north-central Sacramento Vallev, 10 miles southwest of the town of Gridlev. The elevation is from 58 to 68 feet above sea level. The refuge has been developed primarily for waterfowl with nearh' 1,800 acres of pond and marshland. It con- tains 22 miles of roads and approximately 18 miles of ditches. Scattered fields of millet, rice, wheat, barley and milo are g-rown, interspersed with edgeland and ungrazed open fields. Pasture lands, cereal crops and private duck clubs adjoin the state property. Most rainfall occurs from October through March, with an average precipitation of 22 inches. ^Maximum summer temperatures often go above 100 degrees F. but winter temperatures seldom fall below 26 degrees F. The principal trees in the area are the white Avillow (Salix sp.) and the Fremont cottonwood (Poj^uhis fremonti) . Within the studv area, two small units were closelv observed for in- formation on productivity and general life history of the doves. One of these, the AVillow Pond Area, consisted of approximately two acres of willows surrounding a small pond. This area is shown in Figure 1. The other unit, here called the Headquarters Area, constituted the trees and buildings of the Gray Lodge Refuge Headquarters, an area of approxi- matelv three acres. The term "refuge area" refers to all that area of Gray Lodge Refuge excluding the Willow Pond and Headquarters areas. FIGURE 1. The Willow Pond Area at Gray Lodge Refuge, Butte County, a preferred nesting location. Photograph by author, March 14, 1951 . WESTERN MOURNING DOVES 507 The writer, as manager of the refuge, lived within the Headquarters Area and consequently many observations were made while performing general refuge activities. Nesting checks were normally made weekly, but inspections of individual nests often were more frequent, sometimes daily. In addition to routine nest checks, 200 fledglings were banded prior to their departure from the nest. LIFE HISTORY AND PRODUCTIVITY Pre-nesting Status During the winter, resident (1(j\l^>. <)n and adjacent to the study area build up sizable flocks, ranging from 24 to 72 birds. AVinter flocks con- tinue through December and may reach their peak in numbers before the month is over. The largest winter flock seen was on December 16, 1951. when 72 were counted. These birds were spading much of their time loafing and feeding in a rice stubble field adjoining the refuge. Most of these doves were seemingly paired as indicated by the individual pair association within the flock. This supposition was strengthened during November and late December, 1951, when several pairs were collected from this group. An interesting sidelight is that the female of one of these pairs had been banded 16 months earlier within 300 feet of the spot where it was taken. Courtship behavior of doves is uncommon in winter. No display was observed in the winter months, through February. Although this evi- dence is limited, it is my belief that the wintering dove population in general is composed of local adults, already paired. Wintering flocks continue until late Januarj^ A shift in the feeding and loafing area is made when the food supply diminishes. About January 26th, small groups and individual pairs begin to move out from the winter concentrations and consequently the population is more irregu- larly distributed. These same small loose groups, along with several single birds, were observed earlv in Februarv. Bv mid-Februarv, however, most wintering doves are seen in pairs and though they may be associating with others, they show little inclination to stay together as a group. In late Februarv and earlv March few doves are seen. Thev are moving about more in the late winter period than at any other time. Cooing is usually begun on the first spring-like days in late February. The earliest cooing date was Februarv 25, 1952. In 1949, it was Februarv 26th. IMarch 11, 1951, was the latest date on which the first cooing of the season was heard. Feeding, Watering and Roosting Habits of Adult Doves Doves are seed eaters. Thev consume a wide assortment of both wild and waste grain seeds (Rosene, 1939; Leopold, 1943), which are taken throughout all seasons of the year and constitute at least 99 percent of their diet. Only rarely are parts of insects found in dove crops and these are believed to have been taken accidentally. Most feeding activity occurs during early morning hours and in late afternoon. Some doves, usually single individuals, may be observed feeding intermittently throughout the day. 508 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME During the months of November and December, 1951, 22 doves were collected adjacent to the study area and the principal seeds found in their crops are shown in Table 1. Waste rice and milo were the major TABLE 1 Principal Contents of tlie Crops of 22 Wintering Dove Taken During 1 95 1 Adjacent to Grey Lodge Refuge, Butte County, California Date collected Number of birds Principal crop contents November 13, 1951. - 3 2 2 2 7 2 4 Milo (mostly) and Rice November 15, 1951 __ Rice (mostly) and Milo November 16, 1951 Milo (mostly), Star Thistle (Centaurea solstitialis) and November 27, 1951 . . Smartweed (Polygonum sp.) Rice (mostly) and miscellaneous December 29, 1951 .. . _ Rice and Watergrass (Echinochloa crusgalli) December 30, 1951 Watergrass and Rice December 31, 1951 Rice (mostly) and Watergrass food items taken, followed by watergrass {Echinochloa crusgalli) and yellow star thistle {Centaurea solstitialis) . Other important seeds taken throughout the year as noted from various crop contents and field observations were seeds of Turke}" mullein (Eremocarpus setigerus), waste wheat, Canary grass {Phalaris paradoxa) , Safflower (Carthamus tinctorious) and Johnson grass {Sorghum halepense) . For watering, doves were observed to prefer areas along shallow edges of ponds or streams which were devoid of vegetation and where sand and grit were available. The Willow Pond Area had these requirements which may have increased its desirability as a nesting area. Doves were observed drinking at odd times throughout the day but water is nor- mally taken following their feeding periods. This habit is well known to dove hunters who seek out watering holes and hide nearby, waiting for the doves to come in for water. In drinking, the desired quantity is taken at a single draught, as the beak is kept in the water until drinking is completed. Little has been reported on the roosting habits of the mourning dove. Grinnell, Bryant and Storer (1918) and many others report that doves customarily roost in trees, but they also are known to roost on the ground. No doves were found roosting in trees on my study area. Most roosting occurred in open fields of sparse vegetation, usually pasture land grazed over by cattle or stubble hay fields adjacent to nesting or feeding area. On the night of August 25, 1949, 42 doves were flushed from their roost in an open pasture of 60 acres. These birds ranged from single individuals to loose groups numbering up to 12. During winter months it is not uncommon to observe doves roosting along old dirt roads. Even among nesting pairs, only birds that were incubating or brooding were found in the nest trees on at least eight occasions when I observed with the aid of a light. Presumably the mates were among the ground-roosting birds. WESTERN MOURXIXG DOVES 509 When flushed from the ground at night, doves seem to be blinded by a strong light. They commonly fly almost vertically to around 40 feet and then gradually descend with wings fluttering rapidly, in a hovering attitude. The legs are extended as though reaching for the ground, reminding one of a helicopter coming in to land. Nesting Sites and Nest Construction Over 75 percent of the trees on the refuge are white willow. They range in size from young saplings to 30 feet or more in height with trunk diameters up to two feet. These trees provided most of the nesting sites. Other trees used for nesting were cottonwood, Chinese elm and black locust. The willow grove environment was preferred, as most nests were found in this habitat. The average height of all nests for the years of study was 11 feet. The highest was 32 feet. Only one ground nest was found and that during August in a fallow millet field. In California, it seems that as one proceeds south ground nesting by doves increases. In Kings County, six miles northwest of Lemoore, John D. Childers for several years has observed nearly 50 percent of the dove population nesting on the ground. In surveying the boundaries of three of Childers ' cotton fields it was interesting' to note that adequate nesting sites in willow groves about ponds, mucli like those preferred at Gray Lodge, were available. Doves move into the cotton fields during June and Julv before the cotton has reached its maturitv. Nesting losses FIGURE 2. Mourning dove brooding young. Gray Lodge Refuge, Butte County. This occurs almost continuously until nestlings depart from the nest at approximately 12 days of age. Phofo- graph by author, April 6, 1952. 510 CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GAME must be high as few nests can survive the cultivation practices employed in the production of this crop. After July, Avhen the cotton plants are well established, dove nests are seldom found in cotton fields. Farther south in California, through Riverside and Imperial counties, John Laughlin, Game Manager, Department of Fish and Game, estimates that in some areas approximately 70 percent of all nests constructed are ground nests. His observations were corroborated bv other wildlife technicians with experience in California's southern counties. However in areas Avhere adequate tree sites are available the percentage of ground nests mav be lower. After the nesting site has been chosen, the nest may be constructed in one to six days, but most are completed after two or three days. Nest building takes place in the morning and lasts about two hours. There- after the birds usually leave the nesting site for the remainder of the daj^ It appears to be the male dove which gathers the nesting material from the nearby ground and carries it to his mate at the nest. She takes it and does the arranging while the male is off, obtaining another twig. One piece is carried each trip and if it is dropped the journey is con- tinued as though the mission was to be accomplished. One pair, seem- ingly in a hurry, was watched for 53 consecutive minutes during which 48 trips were made. This is an average of one every 66 seconds. One journey required only 3-1: seconds. While seeking suitable material, the male mav consume seeds encountered in the search. The selection of a FIGURE 3. Mourning dove nest containing three eggs, Gray Lodge Refuge, Butte County. Less than 2 percent of all nests examined contained clutches of three eggs. Photograph by author, March 30, 1951. WESTERN MOURXIXG DO^^ES 511 nesting" site may be determined by the immediate availability of nesting material. All material I saw o-athered was taken within 20 vards of the nest. Individual nests are usually loosely constructed platforms with very little elevation along the edges to keep the eggs from rolling out. Most are placed along horizontal branches or in crotches of limbs, where ease of approach and departure is provided. Old dry star thistle {Centaur ea solstitialis) is the preferred nesting material throughout the refuge. Few nests are constructed without this material. Other nest materials consisted of weed stalks, fibers and twigs from willow trees, stems of dry oats or other similar plant materials. After the nest is constructed and the first nesting has been carried to completion, additional nest material is almost always added to the nest before new eggs are laid. Some nest material may be added at times while incubation is in progress. Doves often use abandoned nests of other birds. Most commonly used here were those of the loggerhead shrike and western kingbird. ]\IcC'lure (1943) records doves also using nests of the robin, bronze grackle, bluejay, catbird, brown thrasher, yellow and blaek-l)illed cuckoos, English spai'row and domestic pigeon. The Eggs and Incubation Doves almost always lay two eggs at each nesting. In 303 recorded clutches, only six contained three eggs and seven were brooded with only one egg. Thus, 96 percent of the clutches were made up of two eggs. "Dropped eggs" are not uncommon in the mourning' dove. Several were found around the Willow Pond area — one on a limb, one in a crotch of a willow trunk, one on the ground, and several in unoccupied nests. Eggs are elliptical ovate, white, and measure about .83 x 1.07 inches and are laid approximately 30 hours apart. Incubation begins as soon as the first egg has been deposited except in early season nests when in- cubation more often begins after both eggs are laid. Incubation lasts 14 to 15 davs with both male and female carrving on the incubating process. Soon after the young are hatched, the egg shells are removed by the parents. AYhen adults are appruaehed and frightened from their nests, the '"broken wing" ruse is often employed in an effort to lead the intruder away from the nest. This pretense of injury is shown to greater extent in the brooding period than prior to hatching of the young. Nestings and the Nesting Season The mourning dove has an extremely long nesting season. At Gray Lodge Refuge it begins about mid-March and continues until about September 20, a period of approximately six months. The earliest hatching date noted was March 29, 1949. The latest brood hatched on September 9 and 10, 1950, and these young left the nest on September 22. The average numbers of active nests by months for the years of observation on the Willow Pond area are shown in Figure 4. The great- est numbers of active nests were found in July, followed closely by June and August. 512 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 17 - _ IS- 1948 1949 /^ "\ IS - - ^"^ / \. 14 - - 13 - /j K /■' \ \ 1/ V y -^-^ \ 12 - ii 11 p>^^ \ UJ II - 11 / V \ z 10 - 11 o-°'^ v--% \ UJ > 9 - If /■~v // o ' \ n Q 8 - 1 ^ ^^ o' °X I9 50y \ \\ UJ 7 - / ^-- // %>o-o- \ o\ > \ <3\ 1- 6 - / ,°-°-«-°^o y '^ \ o 5 - ' / X o-° V A a_ " ~ vO > •^ LU o >. ^J £1^ ro CO Ol c: "c: =3 o E o 2: o c= 3 « ^ .i •o o o -o ^« o ro KJ Eggs hatched o 1-H CO o 00 00 1— ( O CO Eggs laid 00 o 1— ( 00 1-H 00 CO Clutches hatched CO CO 1-H Clutches attempted 1© o I— ( in Total nestings attempted 00 CO CD o (N Total nesting pairs 1 to 1—1 r^ 1 1 Total active nests 00 CO CO a> s 1-H Total nests built o CO O - CM 1-H a! d a 1-H 1 I "3 -^ 0 Eh be CS ■<-3 s a> s s o a.' o bn j= -a -» o C c/; C Si O CS Ol bfi 0^ ^ — S p^m -J-. "C 2 a ~ o H c .a '^ o E — v: — c^ c^ a> U3 «« L- C^ k. ^ C ^ W C 3 'ZJ C; v' C r- =■» CC ■* WESTERN IMOURXING DOVES 519 The Nesting Census and Total Production of the Area Any evaluation of productivity on an area involves taking a census of the breedino- population. This may seem difficult in a species as mobile as the mourning dove. However, while the dove inliabits its breeding grounds, a relatively accurate index of the breeding pairs can be obtained. To accomplish this a careful census of the total dove nesting population must be made while it is at its peak of breeding activity. On the AYillow Pond area this peak was reached in the period from eariy June to mid- August witli maximum nesting activity occurring ordinarily in July. A thorough census of all nests in use on the entire study area was made in mid-July. Since some breeding pairs may be missed, due to the interval between nesting attempts, an allowance for this census error should be added to the total area count. This error was estimated at approximately 14 percent of the nesting pairs on the entire study area. Our total breeding population Avas determined by adding 14 percent to the July census figure. Then, by applying the known productivity rate observed in the AVillow Pond population (six young per pair) to the breeding population, the total dove production on the 2500 acre refuge was determined for each vear, as shown in Table 7. The total TABLE 7 Census of Active Dove Nests During July at Gray Lodge Refuge for the Years 1948-1951 With Calculated Production for These Years Year Willow Ijond Hdq. area Refuge area Estimated census error 1 Total nesting pairs Total production 1948 - - . 16 15 12 7 2 2 1 2 5 8 11 19 3 4 3 4 26 29 27 32 156 1949 1950 . _ . 174 162 1951 192 1 At any given time, part of the breeding pairs will not have active nests; hence will be missed in a census of active nests. Judging from nhseivation on the Willow Pond area, approximately 14 percent should be added to the total of active nests to obtain number of breeding pairs. nesting population in 1948 was 52 doves or 26 pairs. Calculating six young per pair, these birds produced 156 squabs. In 1941). 29 pairs raised 174 young; in 1951, 27 pairs produced 162 fledglings; and in 1951 the peak production of 192 was attained by 82 pairs. The slight increase in the dove population is believed to be due to improved dove habitat brought about by the reclamation of solid marsh stands and iiu'reased agricultural developments. In general, however, it may be said that the breeding population on the entire area was relatively stable. The over- all productivity for the 2500 acres during the study ]ieriod (1948-51) amounted to 684 fledglings. This is an average of 171 doves per year or approximately one dove per 15 acres annually. Autumn and Winter Status Each year through August and early September, both loosely organ- ized and well-bound flocks of doves were seen loafing along power lines and fence rows adjacent to feeding areas. Groups of 20 to 50 juveniles, formed during the summer months, were noted to frequent areas quite 520 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME apart from the nesting localities. In 1949 one concentration of 200 cloves, the largest gronp seen, remained from Angnst 10 to 16. Individual pairs that had not completed their nesting activities conld still be observed aronnd the breeding gronnds. Approximately To percent of the dove population departs in the second week of September. Only scattered singles, individual pairs and small, loose groups are seen by late September. The timing of fall mi- gration here is essential 1\- the same as noted in Missouri b}^ Leopold (1943) and in Massachusetts by Austin (1951). October is characterized bv the absence of doves. Four verv looselv grouped pairs were observed along the northern reaches of the refuge in 1950. This was the greatest number recorded in October for the years of observation. Normally only a pair or two, plus a stray single would be seen in this month. Tn early November doves were still few in numbers and somewhat scattered. AVinter groups begin to develo]) in the second week. These birds consist mostly of pairs, ranging in groups from nine to 27, as observed on the study area. In late November groups may develop in numbers up to 42 or more, but this apparently depends on the available food supply. Tn 1949 and 1950 wintering flocks did not exceed 24 doves. However, in 1951, 48 doves were observed in one concentration and this group increased to 72 birds during December, as noted above. SUMMARY Tills study presents data on the life history and productivity of the mourning dove, recorded from ]\lay 1, 1948, through April 30, 1952, at Gray Lodge State Game Kefuge, Butte County, California. Some dove flocks winter on or adjacent to the refuge. These are com- posed mostly of paired birds. Break-up of winter flocks begins in late January, and b\' the end of February or early ^larch the flrst cooing is heard. The nesting period extends from mid-March to almost Sep- tember 20, whicli is the longest nesting span of any bird found on the refuge. Nest construction was almost always in trees, with nests averaging 11 feet fi'om the ground. ^Most nests were in willows, as they were the dominant tree on the area. Ground nests are rare here. ( )ver 96 percent of all nests contained clutches of two eggs. * 'Dropped eggs" were occasionally found around the nesting areas. Nest construc- tion normallv reciuires two to three davs, incubation 14 to 15 davs, and brooding of the young continues until nestlings depart at about 12 days of age. Thus. a]^proximately 80 days are required to complete each nesting cycle. Only brief intervals occur between these cycles. Each dove pair attempted an average of 5.1 nestings in tlie course of the breeding season. KougJdy 25 percent of the nesting population renested in the same nest after each successful brood, and 75 percent built new nests. One nest was used six times consecutively by one pair which raised 12 young. Ten percent of all broods raised were still in nests on September 1, the date on which the dove season opens in Cali- fornia. WESTERN MOURXIXG DOVES 521 Of the 220 nesting* attempts recorded from ]\Iay 1, 1948, to ]\Iay 1, 1951, on the Willow Pond area, 35.5 percent were unsuccessful. Desertions, destruction by wind, and animal predators accounted for most of these failures. Nesting- success on the area amounted to 64.5 percent. The average annual productivity for each pair on the AYillow Pond area in 1949 and 1950 was 6.3 nestlings. In July of each year from 1948 through 1951 a census of all active dove nests was made throughout the refuge. Total annual productivity of the 2500 acre area was determined by applying the average produc- tion of each pair on the AVillow Pond to the total nesting pairs on the refuge. The July census varied from 26 pairs in 1948 to 32 in 1951. The average nesting population for the years of study was 28.5 pairs and they I'roduced approximately 171 fledglings yearly or about one fledgling per 15 acres. REFERENCES Austin. 01i\»'r T... Jr. 1951. The iiKiuniinj; (li>\e on Cape Cud. liird Bandinj;. \ul. 22, nu. 4, p. 141)-174. Bent, Arthur Cleveland 1932. Life histories of North Amcricun gallinaceous birds. U. S, Nat. Mus., Bull. 1(J2. 1-. 402-417. Boldt. Wilbur, and George O. Hendrickson 1952. Mourning dove production in North Dakota shelterbelts, 1950. Jour. Wildl. Mangt., vol. 16. no. 2.. p. lST-191. Dalrymi>le. Bryon W. 1949. Doves and dove shooting. New York. G. I*. Purnam's Sons, 248 p. Grinnell, Joseph, Harold C. Bryant and Tracy I. Storer 1918. The game birds of California. Berkeley, Univ. Calif. Press, 042 p. Hjersman, Henry A. 1951. The 1948 surveys of California's huiiTing take and their significance. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 1, p. 77-95. Leopold, A. Starker 1943. Autumn feeding and flocking habits of the mourning dove in southern Missouri. Wilson P>ull.. vol. 55. no. 3. p. 151-154. Lincoln, Frederick C. 1945. The mourning dove as a game bird. U. S. Dept. Interior, Circ. 10, 8 p. McClure, H. Elliott 1943. Ecology and nianagt'nifnt of tlu' monming dii\t' in Cass County, luwa. Iowa State Col. Agric, Res. Bull. 310. p. 357-415. 1946. Mourning doves in Nebrasl^a and the West. Auk. vol. 63, no. 1. p. 24-42. 1950. An eleven year summary of mourning dove observations in the West. 15th No. Amer. Wildlife Conf., Trans., p. 335-345. Moore, George C. and Allen M. Pearson 1941. The mourning dove in Alabama. Alabama Dept. Cons.. Pub]., p. 1-35. Nice, Margaret M. 1922. A study of the nesting of mourning doves. Auk'. \ol. :!(i. uo. 4. p. 457-474. 1923. A study of the nesting of mourning doves. Auk, vol. 40. no. 1, p. 37-58. 1943. Review of : Ecologv and management of the mourning dove, by H. l]lli(ttt McClure, Wilson Bull., vol. 55, no. 3, p. 198-200. Quay, Thomas L. 1950. Mourning dove studies in North Carolina. No. Carolina Wildl. Res. Comm., Publ.,90p. Rosene, Walter, Jr. 1939. A preliminary investigation of the food habits of the mourning dove in Alabama. U. S. Dept. Agric, Wildlife Leaflet BS-133, 10 p. TOOTH DEVELOPMENT OF THE NELSON BIGHORN SHEEP' By O. V. DEMING, Desert Game Range, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Las Vegas, Nevada INTRODUCTION Prehistoric evidence indicates that the Nelson bi^'horn sheep (Oris canadensis nelsoni) has been endemic to the California and Nevada deserts since at least late Pleistocene times, yet it has had but very little of the attention and study that has been given to North American big game mammals. Field studies of this most interesting animal were started on the Desert Game Range, a national wildlife refuge near Las Vegas, Nevada, in 1942. In 1943 the writer began collecting skulls of the animals found dead in the field, and obtaining data from skulls of kno^vn age as well as from examinations of living bighorns under fence at the Corn Creek Field Headquarters. Forty-six skulls were collected, from which fourteen were selected to constitute a series showing tooth development from birth to four years of age. The data shown in Table 1 were compiled from four skulls which were obtained at birth, two days, eighteen days, and two years of age; from the examination of live animals, including three lambs at birth, one ewe lamb at two, four, eight, eleven and eighteen days, and another ewe at four months, eleven months, one vear, two vears, three vears, and four years of age. Supplemental information was obtained from skulls that appeared normal, and were intermediate in development between skulls of dead and living bighorn of known age. The drawings of bighorn skulls were made bv ]\Iarv Deming. There is a marked degree of abnormal tooth development and degener- ation in adult animals, particularly aged ones. Some teeth are deformed, others have been lost, and some skulls display incomplete sets Avithout the alveoli present to represent the missing teeth. In addition, there is un- doubtedly variation in tlic time element of normal tooth development among individual animals. Table 1, therefore, represents but a general time and order table of tooth development, and is not meant to be a means of determing the date of birth of an animal from an examination of the dental development. Throughout the period of tooth development and addition there is a steady growth of the tooth-bearing sections of the skull. The first full set of deciduous, or milk teeth, are present at approximately one month of age, and consist of four incisiform teeth on each side of the lower jaw, accompanied by three u]:)per and lower premolars. The dental formula at 0, p_0. p 3, ^r__<^. 3 ^ 1 ^ 3 0 permanent teeth that constitutes a full mouth is present at approximately this time is I— ^'' C— !/• F—f M—^' The first full set of deciduous and o JL o ' ' 1 Submitted for publication March, 1952. ( 523 ) 524 CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GAME TABLE 1 Tooth Development of the Nelson Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) Dental formula Age Incisors Canines Premo- lars ]\Iolars Remarks \t birth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Incisors close to the gum surface. Premolars can be felt with the fingers, but are not through the gums. 2 davs- 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Center pair of incisors (nippers) appear at 48 hours. Tips spread apart. 4 days 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 Second pair of incisors appear (first inter- mediates). Somewhat spread. 8 days- 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 Third pair of incisors (second intermediates) appear above gums. 11 days _ _ - 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 Lower canines (corners) appear. 18 davs 0 3 0 1 0 0 0 0 The premolars are pressing the gums. Inci- siform teeth still somewhat spread. 1 month U 3 0 1 3 3 0 0 Premolars through the gums. First molars just below the surface of the alveoli. Inci- siform teeth drawn together and over- lapping each other. 2 months 0 3 0 1 3 3 0 0 First pair of molars in maxilla and mandible protruding just beyond alveoli. 4 months 0 3 0 1 3 3 0 0 First pair of molars more pronounced but not through gums. 6 months 0 3 0 1 3 3 1 1 First molars are through gums. Alveoli of second molars present. 1 year 0 3 0 1 3 3 1 1 Second molars coming to the surface of the alveoli. Nippers replaced with permanent ones. TOOTH DEVELOPMENT OF BIGHORX SHEEP 525 TABLE 1— Continued Tooth Development of the Nelson Bighorn Sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) Age 16 months - 2 years - 23^ years. 3 years. 4 years. Dental formula Incisors 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 0 3 Canines 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Premo- lars Molars Remarks 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Second molars through gums. Third molars above alveoli. First inter- mediates replaced by permanent pair. All premolars replaced a pair at a time with permanent teeth. First full set of teeth. First and second pairs of incisors are permanent. Third incisors and canines still deciduous. Premolars and molars are permanent teeth. Second intermediates replaced with perma- nent pair. Corners replaced with permanent teeth. Full set of permanent teeth now present. two and one-half years of age. and the full set of permanent teeth does not occur until the animal is a full four years of ajie. After bi^rhorn are past four years of ag-e, wear on the teeth, then spreading, then losing teeth are tli(^ only indexes of age. These age indicators are not reliable as thev are higlilv variable due to the difference of range conditions and the foods eaten. Spreaeliiig and loss of teeth have been found in skulls collected from the field, but the "gummer" stage, eharacterized by the complete loss of teeth in domestic sheep after eight years of age has not been observed in the bighorn. In evaluating "gummers" in dry bighorn skulls the field worker must allow one-quarter inch of tooth in the dry skull to compensate for that portion of the tooth that was covered by the gum. If the teeth are under one-quarter inch in length, the animal was in all probability a ''gummer. y } INCISIFORM TEETH . The incisiform teeth of the Xelson bighorn are normally spatulate in shape with a dished-out effect on the po.sterior side. In some respects they resemble a shoe horn. Progressing from the center of the lower jaw out- ward, the first three pairs are tlit' incisors, and the fourth pair is classi- fied as lower canines, although they do not differ in shape or function 526 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME from the incisors. The first, or center pair of incisors is called the ' 'nip- pers." Progressing ontwarcl, the second pair is the ''first intermediates," the third pair is the "second intermediates," and the canines are called the ' ' corners. ' ' When the iiicisiform teeth first appear they are spread at the tips, but by the time the lamb is a month old they have drawn together and slightly overlap each other. The overlap begins with a posterior portion of the nippers covering an anterior portion of the first intermediates. The first intermediates likewise cover a portion of the second interme- diates, and this sequence follows tlirough outward to the corners. The deciduous iiicisiform teeth are smaller than the permanent ones, and in a bighorn from two to four years of age, are sometimes mistaken for abnormal teeth when compared with the larger permanent ones. Of three new-born lambs examined, two of them showed no iiicisiform teeth present beyond the gums, and the third had the tip of one nipper showing. The iiicisiform tooth development of one lamb was followed, and the nippers appeared above the gums at two clays of age. This pair was followed in order bv the first intermediates at four davs, the second intermediates at eight days, and the corners at eleven days. These con- stituted a full set of deciduous iiicisiform teeth. The replacement of the deciduous iiicisiform teeth does not start until the animal is a full year of age. The nippers are then replaced by the permanent ones. At two full years the first intermediates are re- placed. At three full years the second intermediates are replaced, and the animal is a full four j^ears of age before the permanent corners appear. UPPER CANINES Four out of eleven skulls of lambs under one vear of age were found to possess vestigial upper canine teeth. Xoiie was found in 35 adult skulls. Two of the four lamb skulls had an upper canine tooth on each side, one had an upper canine on the right side and no visible alveolus on the left, and the fourth skull had an upper canine on the left side and no visible alveolus on the right. The upper canine teeth examined were decidedly rudimentary in nature. They did not protrude downward, so as to be functional, but lay flat against the bone and at approximate right angles to the premolars. They protruded from the alveoli within the maxilla, and extended past the line between the maxilla and the premaxilla. The position of the upper canines prohibited them from protruding beyond the gums. Upper canines do not commonly occur among the North American wild sheep. Benson (1948) found evidence of upper canines in only three skulls out of a total of 308 examined by liim. Dalquest and Hoff- meister (19-18) in a series of 37 bighorn skulls from the State of Wash- ington found six with one or more upper canines and one with small alveoli. PREMOLARS All the deciduous premolars are protruding beyond the alveoli at birth, but do not extend past the gums. When the lamb is from three weeks to one month of age the deciduous premolars are functional and the lamb is eating considerable green herbs and grass. Lambs may start TOOTH DEVELOPMENT OF BIGHORN SHEEP 527 eating green foods when only two weeks of age. One was noted picking at green grass at eleven days. The deciduous premolars are not replaced by the permanent ones until the animal is two full years of age, or entering its third vear. FIGURE 1. Ventral view of maxillary dentition of young bighorn lamb showing canine 528 CALIFORNIA FISH AXD GA:ME 1" 2" FIGURE 2. Side view of young bighorn lamb skull showing canine In tlic maxilla, the first deciduous premolar has two external but no apparent internal cusps, wliile the second and third premolars each have two pairs of internal and external cusps. On the permanent re- placement the first and second premolars have one external cusp each. The third premolar has two internal and one external cusp. The decid- uous first premolar in the mandible has one external cusp and the second deciduous premolar lias one external and one internal cusp, which are sometimes fused tooether. The deciduous third premolar is a lar^e tooth with three external and three internal cusps. In the permanent replace- ment the first premolar has one external and one internal cusp, the second ])r(Mnolar has one external and one internal cusp, and the large third premolar is replaced with one having two external and two in- ternal cusps. MOLARS There is no replacement of the molar teeth. The alveoli of the first pair are visible in the mandible, hut not in the maxilla at birth. When the lamb is one month of age the alveoli are present in the maxilla, and the first molars are below the surface of the alveoli. At six months the first molars are through the gums and the alveoli of the second molars appear. At one year the second molars are at the surface of the alveoli and by eighteen months they are through the gums and the alveoli of the third molars are present. At two years of age the third molars are protruding beyond the surface of the alveoli and soon take their place as functional teeth. The first and second molars each have two internal and two external cusps, and the third molar has three external and three internal cusps, resembling in this respect the deciduous third premolar. TOOTH DEVELOP:\rEXT OF BIGHORX SHEEP 529 111 the maxilla the external cusps of tlie entire tooth row are more l^rominent than the internal cusps. This is reversed in the manible, and the internal cusps there protrude higher than the external ones. As the teeth wear down there is usually a leveling of the cusps, but uneven grinding action accounts for variable wear. EVIDENCE OF SIMILARITY There is evidence wliicli indicates that the tooth development of all the forms of the North American wild sheep and the domestic sheep are similai- if not identical. The findings of Murie (1944) show distinct parallelism in tooth development between the Dall sheep (Oris dalli dalli) and the Nelson bighorn data accumulated in Nevada. The state- ment of Dalquest and Hotfmeister (1948) that ''the first and second incisors of a three-year old ram (no. 1804) are larger than usual, while the third incisors and canines are very small, though of normal spat- ulate shape " ' indicates that the animal had not yet obtained its perma- nent second intermediates and corners ; that it was the approximate age as determined by horn growth; and that Oris canadensis calif or- niana also contains dental characteristics found in nelsoni. Likewise, the Nevada data agree in many respects with the findings of Cowan (1940) in his work with 761 specimens of the North American wild sheep. Pope (1934) describes the incisiforni tooth development of the domestic sheep wliieh is also the same as tliat found for tlie Nelson bighorn. "■^^ REFERENCES Benson, Setli 1;. 1943. Occurrence <>f uitppr canines in nnuiiiTjiin sheep Or/.s- canadensis. Amer. :\Ii(llanfl Xat.. vol. :;(). im. :',. p. 78(5-789. Cowan, Ian McTagjjart 1940. Distril^ution and variation in the nativt' sheep of X<>rth America. Amer. Midland Xat.. vol. 24, no. o, p. 514. Dalqnest. ^^'alr('r AA'.. ;ind Donnld F. Hoffmeister 1948. Mountain sliet-p troni the state of Washin.utou in the collf'ction of the University of Kansas. Kansas Acad. 8ci., Trans., vol. 51, no. 2, p. 224-2:>4. Murie, Adolph 1944. The wolves of Mount McKinley. Fauna of the X'^ational Parks of the United States. U. S. X'at. Park Serv., Fauna scr. no. 5. \,. 115. Pope, George W. 1934. Determininj? the age of farm animals by their teeth. U. S. Dept. Agric. Farmers' Bull. no. 1721. \). 10. FOOD HABITS OF CALIFORNIA STRIPED BASS' By W. C. JOHNSON and A. J. CALHOUN Bureau of Fish Conservation, Californio Department of Fish and Gome An opportunity arose recently to add to the fragmentary knowledge of the diet of the striped bass {Roccus sajratilis) in and around San Francisco Bay. Two anglers, Leon and Emil Adams, collected 387 stomachs for us in tlio course of a year's fishing". This report discusses their contents. The sample is unusual, having been collected on successive Saturdays throughout the year. It should indicate in a general way what the bass population was eating at the principal times and places that the fish were being caught. The collection localities followed the principal bass migrations (Calhoun, 1952). The stomachs were removed from the fish at the end of the day and preserved in formalin. Subsequently the contents were sorted and identified, and the numbers and volumes of food organisms were deter- mined. All stomachs were from fish over the minimum leg-al length of 12 inches. Xo differences of any consequence were found in the kinds of foods in large (esophagus diameter more than 0.55 inches) and small (esophagus diameter less than 0.55 inches) stomachs in this sample. The stomachs have been divided into two groups on the basis of fish- ing seasons. One lot of 229 was collected during the summer and fall of 1947, in the region between San Rafael and [Martinez. The other lot of 158 was from the delta portion of the San Joaquin River between Antioch and the mouth of ^Middle River. It was collected between November, 1947, and June, 1948. The two will be referred to subsequently simply as the "summer sample" and ''winter sample," respectively. The foods in the summer sample are shown in Table 1. They represent the principal feeding and growing season (Scofield, 1931). The uniform- ity was a surprise for striped bass are reputedly voracious and rather undiscriminating feeders (Shapovalov, 1936; Merriman, 1941). Food of some sort was found in 72 percent of the sample. Shrimp (Crago)- were present in 35 percent. They represented 53 percent of all identifiable organisms b}' volume. They are clearly a major food of the bass population. The individual shrimp are small, but they support a minor commercial fisherv with a total annual catch currentlv fluctuating between 500.000 and 1,000,000 pounds. A progressive decline from about 2,500,000 pounds during the 1930 's (Young and AVithycombe, 1949) to the present com- paratively small catch suggests a possible decrease in abundance. Perhaps there is some relationship here with the recent minor decline in striped bass abundance since about 1944, indicated by catch records 1 Subm-itted for publication June, 19.52. - Xo attempt was made to di.stinguish the three species of San Francisco Bay shrimp, C. franciscoruyn, C. nigricuuda, and C. nigromaculata. ( 531 ) 532 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 1 Stomach Contents of 229 Striped Bass From the Summer and Fall Fishery Incidence Volume (cc.) Item Times found Percentage occurrence (in total sample) Total in all stomachs As percentage of identifiable materiaU Shrimp (Crago) __ .. .__ 80 26 14 6 4 2 1 1 35 11 6 3 2 1 0.5 0.5 557 410 12 24 14 18 14 3 53 Anciio vy {Enyraulis mordax) Isopods Crabs _ . _ 39 1 2 ]\Iysid sliriinp (JVeomysis) Bullhead (Leptocottus armatus) Flatfish. 1 2 1 Smelt 0.3 Total identifiable natural food -- -- 1,052 -- Sardine bait . _ 53 69 23 30 7.50 692 Unidentifiable digested material _ _ Empty stomacJis 65 28 -- ^ Sardine bait nut Included. (Calhoun, 1949). A study of these shrimp now bein"- made by Dr. E. S. Herakl of the California Academy of Sciences promises to clarify the matter. Next to shrimp in importance in tliis summer sample were anchovies {Engraiilis mordax), found in 11 percent of the stomachs. Their volume approached that of the shrimp, amountino- to 39 percent of the total. Other foods were isopods, mysid shrimp (Neomysis), bullheads {Leptocottus annatus), flatfish, and smelt. They confirm the striped bass's readiness to eat almost any available fishes or invertebrates of appropriate size. Let us turn now to tlie winter series of 158 stomachs. Feeding and growth are at a minimum in winter. Angling is normally poor then even in areas where fish can be taken readily in nets. The contents of these stomachs are outlined in Table 2. Almost half (42 percent) were empty. The remains of small fish were the most im- portant food, comprising 64 percent of the total volume. Mysid shrimp {Neomysis) were present in more stomachs than any other food. This is not surprising, in vicnv of their abundance throughout the Delta. In spite of their freciuent occurrence, however, the individual organisms are so small that they could scarcely be a major food for large striped bass, although they are known to be important for small fish in their first year (Hatton," 1940). FOOD HABITS OF CALIFORNIA STRIPED BASS 533 TABLE 2 Stomach Contents of 158 Striped Bass From the Winter and Spring Fishery Incidence Volume (cc.) Item Times found Percentage occurrence (in total sample) Total in all stomachs As percentage of identifiable material' Neojnysis ____ ___' 31 12 5 3 1 14 1 20 8 ' 3 2 1 9 1 74 48 1 6 <1 235 3 •^0 Shrimp (Craao) _ _ _ 13 Isopods - _ <1 2 Smelt _ Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Remains of small fish <1 64 Tule fragments _ <1 Total identifiable natural food -- -- 367 100 Sardine bait Unidentifiable digested material 45 50 28 32 803 393 -- Empty stomachs _ 66 42 -- 1 Includes remains of small fish hut excludes sardine bait. The tule fraji'iiients (Scirpus) were probably swallowed iueicleiitally, alono" with other food, althoiio'h it is not unusual to find veoetable material in striped bass stomachs (Shapovalov, 1936; Hatton, 1940). These two series of stomachs are indicative of feeding- habits in and around the principal fishing* gTounds. Unfortunately, there is no way to sample the many fish which are foraging widely during the summer in areas where few or none are caught. Another limitation of our sample stems from the inclination of schools of striped bass to feed intermittently (]\Ierriman, 1941). ]\lany of the bass caught by anglers have just begun to feed on chum or bait, after thoroughly digesting their previous natural meal. The large quantities of sardine bait found confirms this. It is of interest in this connection that 31 of 43 stomachs from angling-caught bass taken previously in the same general area were empty (Shapovalov, 1936). Similarly, Hatton (1940) found 57 percent empty stomachs in 224 gill-net caught bass from the mouth of the Delta in the spring. It is apparent that the striped bass stomachs which can be obtained are not going to provide an adequate picture of the food sources of the adult population, no matter how large the sample is. AYork with them has accordinalv been discontinued. SUMMARY Shrimps (Crago) and anchovies {Engraulis mordax) were the pre- dominant foods in 229 striped bass stomachs from the summer and fall fishery in San Francisco Bay and adjacent waters. Small fish predomi- nated in 158 stomachs from the winter fisherv. 534 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GA:\IE REFERENCES Calhoun, A. J. 1949. Califoniin striperl bass catch records from tho party boat fishery : 1938-1948. Calif. Fish antl Game, vol. oo, no. 4. p. 211-2.")o. 1952. Annual migrations of California striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 38, no. 3, p. 391-403. Hatton, S. Ross 19-10. Progress report on the Central Valley fisheries investigations, 1939. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 26, no. 4, p. .334-373. Merriman. Daniel 1941. Studies on tiie striped bass (Roccus sad-atilis) of the Atlantic Coast. U. S. Fish and Wild. Ser., Fishery Bui., vol. 50, no. 35, p. 1-77. Shapovalov, Leo 1936. Food of the striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 22, no. 4, p. 261-271. Scofield, Eugene C. 1931. The striped l)ass of California {Roccus lineatus) . Calif, Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 29, 82 p. Young, P. H., and .1. W. Withycombe 1949. Shrimp and prawn. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 74, p. 157-160. A SAMPLING PROGRAM FOR RECOVERY OF MARKED KING AND SILVER SALMON' By DONALD H. FRY, JR. and ELDON P. HUGHES Bureau of Marine Fisheries, California Department of Fish and Game Halloek, Warner and Fry (1952) told of the origin of the Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission's salmon marking program, and of the actual capture and marking of fingerling salmon as carried on during 1950 and 1951. The present paper is concerned with recovery of these marked fish and with sampling the commerical catch of salmon in Cali- fornia. PURPOSE OF PROGRAM The primary purpose of the marking program is to determine the contribution of major spawning streams to the ocean catch. For example, it will endeavor to establish where Sacramento River salmon are taken in the ocean and in what numbers. There is much other information Avhic-li can be obtained from the mark- ing and mark recovery program. For example : king and silver salmon have different life histories, and present vastly different management problems. AVe need good records of the landings of each, but the species separation currently being made by dealers is so unreliable that it is useless. The sampling, which is a necessary part of the mark recovery, is already giving us a start on such separation. Some of the other information which we hope to obtain includes : direct comparison of hatchery and wild fish through out their life cycle ; a good librar}^ of salmon scales of known age and early life history ; added information on growth rate ; determination of the survival of in- dividual year classes of fish ; changes in the average weights and length frequencies of salmon landed at different ports. Even if there were no marking program, it would be necessary to have a sampling program to obtain part of the above data. BASIC PLAN FOR RECOVERY OF MARKED FISH In conducting a marked fish recovery program, it is possible to obtain returns either from fishermen and fish processors or from trained observers employed to examine the fish for marks after they are de- livered ; occasionally, both methods can be combined. AVhenever quantita- tive estimates must be based on recovered marks, it is necessary to depend primarily upon men employed and trained to do the work. The reason for this can be made clear by an example. Suppose 100,000 salmon are landed at a port ; samplers examine 10 percent of them and find 50 marked fish. It can then be calculated that approximately 500 marked fish were 1 Submitted for publication March, 19 52. ( 535 ) 536 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GA:\IE present in the jxn't's entire eateh. However, even if fishermen and fish processors should turn in more marks tlian the samplers, there is no satisfactory way of estimating- the number of marks they missed, or the number of unmarked fish they examined to find the marks. For the reasons just given, the present mark recovery program is depending entirely upon recovery by our own samplers. Marks turned in by others will be gladly accepted and information given about the origin of the fish, but no rewards are being offered and no publicity campaign is planned. Time and Place of Sampling In 1948 and 1949, the salmon catch at Eureka was sampled although no sj^stematic searching for marks was done. In 1950 a general survey was made of processing practices in the salmon industry in all major salmon ports. In anticipation of the forthcoming mark recover}^ and sampling necessitated by the Pacific Marine Fisheries Commission's marking program, experimental work was done that year to develop tools and techniques that Avould make satisfactory recovery and sampling possible. In 1951 a dress rehearsal of the program was tried. Although the fish marked by the Pacific Marine Fisheries were too small to be expected in the commercial catch, it was believed desirable to correct any major flaws in the svstem before these fish became numerous in the catch. Over 240 marks from various independent marking experiments were found. The experience, as well as the information collected, certainly made 1951 's sampling worthwhile. Sampling* has been done in twelve ocean ports from Monterey to Crescent City, and in four Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta ports. Experi- ence has shown that sampling should be done in the following areas : (1) Crescent City-Eureka ; (2) Fort Bragg-Point Arena; (3) Bodega Bay-Point Reyes ; (4) Princeton-Monterey ; and (5) Martinez-Pittsburg (in the Sacramento River Delta). These are not rigid boundaries, but illustrate the range of efficient coverage by a sampling crew. Under normal circumstances, each of the first three areas should have a sampling crew w^orking during the summer. Only a single sampler is needed south of San Francisco. In this area, almost the entire catch is king salmon, and thus species separation is lu) problem. Efforts of this sampler can well be divided between the ocean and the Sacramento- San Joaquin Delta. The southern ocean fishery usually declines markedly before salmon enter the delta in any number. Occasionally, it may be necessary for more than one crcAv to work in the same area should the catch become so localized that this would be efficient. Personnel Requirements The recovery-sampling program is designed to examine at least 10 percent of the State's commercial salmon catch. During the summer, this will require full time effort of one staff biologist plus half the time of another. In addition, it should have the full time effort of six additional men. (These need not be biologists but can all be temporary seasonal aids, though it would be better if one or two were permanent employees.) reco\t:ry of marked salmon 537 The salmon fislierj^ is very flexible ; this program has been designed to be just as flexible. Obviously, if the program is to function properly, the samplers must be alert for major shifts of the fishin": fleet, and must be ready, willing' and able to follow it. In finer detail, the samplers must determine at wliidi dealer in each poit tliey can most efficiently spend their time under a given set of circumstances. Equipment Used A description of the equipment and forms used is appropriate at this time. In addition to rubber boots, apron and protective sleeves, the sampling crews are issued a double hand tally, a metric pocket rule, a measuring board, recording forms, and scale collecting envelopes. The first three items need no explanation to anyone who has seen a fish pro- cessing crew at work. The double hand tally is used to keep a separate count of the two species of fish. The measuring board is used when length frequency samples are being taken. At other times the pocket rule is used to measure marked fish. The form most used is the daily catch examination record. The fol- lowing data are recorded : port of landing ; date ; dealer ; sampler ; Fish and Game number of tlie boat ; catch area ; species ; total number of each species examined; number of marked fish found; weight of the catch (by species when possible; ; condition of the fisli. i.e.. round, dressed head on, or dressed head off ; and the corresponding length sample num- ber when length samples ar^ taken. A note about weather conditions and an estimation of the total number of boats fishing from the port are also recorded. The measuring board described below was developed through neces- sity. When the early survey was made, it soon became apparent that it would be necessarv to have a svstem of measurement and recording which could be used in wet places by one man with speed and accuracy. After several false starts, the present method evolved. In essence, it is quite simple, its main advantage being that the time consuming proc- ess of measuring and recording has been condensed into one operation. Sampling Procedure Speed is the keynote of salmon handling, and the sampler also must be fast — otherwise, he is apt to find, for example, that the large fish have been sorted out, iced, boxed and even shipped before he has had a chance to examine them. This emphasis on speed often makes it impossible for a single sampler to do a good job. Two men working as a team can do almost twice as much and do it a great deal better. Usually such a team can do their work so fast that fish butchering oioerations are not hindered, but often a single sampler cannot. A typical sampling procedure is as follows : One man separates and tallies the fish by species, obtains the weight of the entire catch from the weighmaster and records other necessary data. The other sampler examines the fish for fin marks and (if possible) weighs all the fish of whatever species is in the minority. When length sampling is being done, the following procedure has been found to work satisfactorily : Before a length sample is started, a 538 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME strip of plastic four inches wide is fastened to the bottom of the measur- ingr board. As eacli fish is slid onto the board, its nose is placed against the board's head block and its tail over the plastic. A short pencil mark on the plastic records the length to the fork of the tail fin ; a different mark is used for each species. AVhile one man examines for marks and slides the fish onto the measuring- board, the other man records length and species, and slides the fish in a position ready for cutting to the butchers. Transposing tlie pencil marks on the plastic strip into a length fre- quency record is done later at the sampler's leisure with the aid of a transparent plastic template accurately inscribed at half centimeter intervals. This template is placed over the strip of marked plastic, and the number of pencil marks between each two lines on the template is totaled and recorded at the proper length interval on a record sheet. For example, the template is so placed tliat the mark for a fish which would measure exactly 70 centimeters falls at the midpoint of the space similarly labeled on the template. Marked fish are put aside for a more complete examination when time permits. Scales are taken to establish the age of the fish, and thus serve as a check on the validity of the mark. The place and date of recovery is recorded, as well as the weight of the fish, length, sex and species. Also recorded is the particular combination of missing fins and the per- centage of regeneration. The above data are recorded on an envelope in FIGURE 1. Aluminum measuring board for salmon sampling. The shape is such that fish slide readily into position. The snout is held against the wooden block and a pencil mark is made on the plastic sheet to indicate the length of the fish. The millimeter and inch rules are not used in routine length frequency sampling. The inch rule is convenient when some bystander wonts to know the length of a fish. Photograph by D. H. Fry, Jr. RECOVERY OF MARKED SALMON 539 which scales from the fish have been placed. To insure that all the above data are (•ollect(Hl. the envelopes have an appropriate form printed on them. It is proving" quite difticult to organize tlie sampling program so as to minimize bias. Small ' ' day ' ' boat.s fish one area and deliver fi.sh at one time of day. Larger " ice " boats go farther for their catches and deliver at a different time. The size and species composition of their catches may be altogether different. California dealers sort salmon by size and some- times by species, but are apt to mix silvers and small kings. Fishermen mav or mav not detect marked fish and carrv them ashore to ask the samplers about them. The best method devised to date is reasonably satisfactory. It is for the samplers to examine all the salmon delivered to one dealer during a day. In the event tliat this proves impossible, the men examine the entire catch of each boat which they are able to sample. Marked fish from such boats are included in the calculation of marked to FIGURE 2. Three samples recorded on a plastic sheet. A transparent template has been placed over the sheet. The lines on the template ore ^2 centimeter apart. The template has a reference mark which is placed against the end of the sample sheet. Note that two different marks are used, one for king salmon, the other for silvers. Photograph by D. H. Fry, Jr. .')40 CALIP^OKXIA I-^ISir AND GAME unmarked fish ratios whether tlie fisli aiT i'ouiul by tlie samplers or brou >- a> O 0} CO <" o o « CD o O lO t^ iM X C-J i-l CO -^ ^ C>l 1-H X c^i ro -t X X JJ t^ C 't cr. 1.- cc JO -i< — t^ X r^ LO 1 1 ^ X 1 , ^ o CO Oi CO -^ CO «-o t^ c^ >> d 5 < + c: C c: — C; C 3 o c - — -1 ^ 't CO i-i 1 I 1 1 c '^J 1 1 »— 1 1 L': t^ o t- - - - ~ - C: C C C) -f CO Tt* CO CO 1—^ I— 1 1— ( I 1 1 r CC ^^ i 1 • lt^ 3; CO o -M C C C C :-: — -M Li c-i X X — -M C) ~ 3; 1 ; 1 1 Oi lO 1 1 1 -H C5 o 1 1—1 »— ( l.": CJ - C C — ^H -^ — ' 't ^ --I i-i CO CJ 1 1 1 1 IM 05 1 1 »— t t-H 1 b- >o « 1 ,-1 (N '^ - -' ^ ?J C ■— — — ?i ' " fo 1 1 1 1 O] Id 1 1 CO "-I 1 — 1 02 CD cc Tf c X :r. '-: T) C -r O c; .-^ CO Tj- c: 0) - O CO It O ' ' 1 1 1 I t^ X 1 1 ^ (N 0-. LO o (N ci - t- ■-: -M ■M f) ?J Tl --C — c«: 7* •^ -r ~" ' 1 1 1 1 r-i CO ■^ c o 1— ( ^H t^ C -r Ti — -M — r^ -c - v= X iC cc rc O C ~ C re -M X T) X O ' 1 1 1 1 1 l^ rt o X Tt f^ C- -^ C -r ^t t- C; — C X o o 1 1 1 ' ^ ~ ^oo O 1 1 t 1 1 Lt -^ r- X r: rj 'n 71 rj ^1 .-:' •^' h-' X c; cc ?c rc c*t cc 5 2" ir ^ ' r >'• --z h-' X r Zl 1 '^ "Z • ^^ ^^ 5* '3 '^ _ _ _ _ — — — . THE PISMO CLA:\[ IX 1 95 1 543 OS (•1 O r>i — LU O) —I .iC QO (13 •< •— O O 01 e ^ ^ re ■M i— ' ^^ »-H Arc in years + 00 - c - c - 1 1 t ' 0 ei Li c e-i L-e t^ ej c - 1 1 ' C re re e) -c t^ «c L- C: C C C c c c r- — - - -c - c .1 ' ' X Li -q- -£ r^ c; 1 ' C4 ci e^ 0 ^ c c 0 c; " Ci z z - •• ~ ~i I \ 1 I t^ C C-. ue r: — 1 1 rt (N ^ X « •^ ci rt C; c-i re re re C — e] '- -T ej — . ■ • ;r • ' ^j — 1 1 1 Le r^ — X ' w -T ci ei -v "-1 CO Tj- c'l X ri X ej — t- X rr 7) r: :e L.e — ue re i-e Le 0 ' 1 1 1 ,-._-„ t^ f^ ^ 1 ' L-: c>) re t» --i C O CO cc -t Lo c^ -- 00 CC CO C^l >^ h- W o r^ cc lo Tf CO O cc •— cj C5 O 0-. ^ cc 00 (N CJ C4 CC Tf C^) (M r-( Tf CO o CO rt ' 00 >o 1 Tj< 1 'M 1 iM lO 1 lO 01 •^ (M I-H + 00 C C' o c c c ceo C C O r-^ IN o o 1 CO Tf ccrcoo cocco IN -—I CO O) (N '-I 1 CO CO CO c o o o o O ^ O CO - o a> iC O) C C O CO — --^ CO j: CO J: -t CO 't O lo I CO lO I CO — I ■— I lO a: 00 lO '— I O LO tT IN — »0 (N 1 O CO lO CO ■* (N r-l 00 t^ ^ O Tf O " ■* CO CO CO CO rt a-, a-. 31 C-. - O '- IN CO •^ -f 'T -r 'T -^ C-. — ~ o C-- lO CO b- 00 Oi O '-« 't ■* •* "* t lO iC O^ O'' ^- C' O"' ^' Oi THE PISMO CLAM IN" 1 95 1 545 PISMO SECTION This area, directly in front of the town of Pismo Beach, has never been closed to digging*. The census line is located approximately one- eighth mile north of the Pismo Beach pier. In years past, clams of the incoming year class have been most abundant in this section, as many as 483 having been found in 1937 (Table 3). This section was not dug in 1948 and 1950 but it is certain that the set in those two years was very poor. Only 22 clams were found in 1951, which ranks with 1941 as the poorest on record. Of the 22 only one was less than four years of age while six were of legal size. This high percentage of legal clams indicates that clamming pressure has not been too heavy. MORRO SECTION The Morro section was first dug in 1949 shortly after a 1.5 mile stretch of beach north of Morro Rock was made a clam sanctuary. The census that year produced 77 clams (Table 4) ; 66 of these were four years of age or older and four were of legal size. In 1950, 32 clams were taken, all were four years and older and eight were legal size. In 1951, 60 clams were counted from this section, 16 age zero, 44 six years and older and 11 of legal size. At Morro Bay incoming year classes have not survived since 1945. Observations made on this beach in addition to the census indicate that the mortality rate among young clams is extremely high. In light of this, it seems unlikely that the 1951 year class will be in existence more than two or three years. CAYUCOS SECTION This section, eight-tenths of a mile north of the Standard Oil pier, was first sampled in 1949. It is an area open to public clamming and censuses indicate that it is an extremely poor clam-bearing beach. In 1949, 28 clams were dug in this section, 18 of which were zero years of age. In 1950, 3 clams were found but none was located in 1951. CONCLUSIONS From the 1951 census it is evident that the Pismo clam crop in the intertidal areas of Pismo Beach and Morro Bay is in a sad state. Once before, in the late 1920 's, conditions were equally poor (Tables 1, 2 and 3). During the late 1920 's and early 1930 's there Avere few legal sized clams to be found, the population consisting almost entirely of clams less than four years of age. In 1951, however, it is the young clams which are lacking. ]\Iost of the present decline in population can be attributed to three factors: failure of incoming year classes, extremely heavy clamming pressure and failure of the public to rebury undersized clams. The failure of incoming year classes, undoubtedly a normal fluctuation, could be remedied by one or two good sets of clams. Clamming pressure will probably be even greater as the population of the State increases. The present policy of opening and closing alternate 4—64158 546 CALll'UKNIA FllSli AND GA.ME ro >- o a> "'^l- ■^ £= LU -it CQ )^ i ^ T— t CI ^ C • -H « tc <1 M »-H C C: (M t- c O T— 1 c cc o ^H t 1 r* H o 1 5 o iO a ^- ^H I-H THE PISMO CLAM IX 1 95 1 547 sections of good clam bearing- beaches should assure a continued recrea- tional fishery regardless of increased clamming pressure. P^inally, a new laAv which became effective late in 1951 will do much to remedy the third factor. Tliis law states, "All undersized clams sliall immediately be re- turned to the hole from wliich thev are dug. " REFERENCES Aplin, J. A. 1947. Pismo clam increase. Calif. Fish and Game. vol. ?,?,, no. .'',. p. liiO-l-'U. Collyer, Robert I). 1951. Results of the Pismo clam censuses, 1948, 1949, and 19o, 1951, the remainder were re- ported from the Los An> species on the outer coast of Baja California. Lampris regius (^Bonnaterre)— opah A 57-pouii(l o})ah was caught on September 15, 1951, by Mr. Robert Clarke of ^Westminster, California, some 10 to 12 miles off Newport Beach. The flesh of this fish was considered of excellent flavor both fresh and smoked. Jrachipterus rexsalmonorum Jordan and Gilbert— ribbonfish Two ribl)onfisli were bi'ought to the California State Fisheries Labora- tory on October 21, 1951. by .Mr. Ben P'ukuzaki, skipper of the seiner Nancy Rose. These fish, 16^ and 22 inches in length, were caught in a purse seine the i3revious night some eight or nine miles off' Newport Beach in 35 fathoms of water. Lophotus sp. — crestfish In the early part of August, 1951. one of these interesting fishes was seen swimming feebly in the surf at Avalon, Santa Catalina Island, Cali- fornia, and picked up by Edward Huffaker of San Pedro. This crestfish, fourth known from the Pacific Coast, was destroyed and the identifica- tion is from i)hotographs. Leuresfhes tenuis (Ayres) — grunion Six grunion were collected under a light at San Juanico Bay, Baja California on A]^i'il 12. 1!)5(). by the Yellowfix. The present record is published to establish a possible southern distribution limit for the species. Nemafistius pecforalis Gill — roosterfish The collection of one young Xematistius pectoralis at Turtle Bay, Baja California, on August 28, 1951, and 20 at Asuncion Point, Baja California, on August 29, 1951, by the Yellowfix establishes its presence on the outer coast of Baja California. Palomeia snyderi (Gilbert and Storks) Three of these fish were caught on snag hooks by the author from the Yellowfix while at anchorage in San Juanico Bay, Baja California, dur- ing the night of April 12, 1950. Occurrence of this species at San Juanico extends the range north from Panama Bav. NOTES OX SOME MARINE FISHES 559 Icichfhys lockingfoni Jordan and Gilbert (Figure 1) On October 15, 11)50, a lar<2e putple striped jellyfish was dipped from the Yellowfin and fonnd to have one of these fish living: commensally within the gastrovascular cavity of the jellyfish. I.ocalitv of capture was about 60 miles off Pt. Buchon, California (lat. 35=34'X. long. 122'20'W.). On May 22. 1951, a second specimen 42.4 mm. standard length, was dipped from under a liulit by tlie X. P). Scofield while at anchorage at San Nicolas Island, California. Finally on May 10, 1952, two specimens 83 and 108.5 mm. standard length, were taken in a bait net just inside the Santa Monica breakwater. These latter two fish (Figure 1) show several changes in body outline from those younger stages which live commensallv with iell\tish. but still bear little resemblance to the adult. FIGURE 1. Three stages in the development of Icichfhys lockingfoni. Top specimen was found living commensally within the gastrovascular cavity of a jellyfish; center and lower specimens show transformation stages. Cenfer and lower photographs by Herb Phillips, San Pedro. 560 CALTFORXTA FISH AND GAME Pneumatophorus diego (Ayres) — Pacific mackerel On Ai^i'il .'), lf)5(), ^Ir. Ben Fiikuzald, skippt'i- of tlie seiner Nancy KosE dipped a small Pacific mackerel from under a li' the I>aja California coast to Cape San Lucas and iiil<> the (4ulf of California; however, this is the first record from the mainland side of the Gnlf. Scomberomorus conco/or (Locklnton) — Monterey Spanish mackerel A ^lonterey ISpanish mackerel was taken with a bait net in the Los Angeles Harbor during October, 1951. This species has been reported from California waters almost annually for the past decade. It has been found to be extremely abundant in the northern part of the Gulf of Cali- fornia. FIGURE 2. Black skipjack, Eufhynnus lineatus. Photograph by Al Johns for Vernon M. Haden, San Pedro Eufhynnus lineafus Kishinouye— black skipjack (Figure 2) On July 21, 1951 a black skipjack 412 mm. fork length was taken off Dana Point, California by ]\Ir. Steve Licato of Pomona while fishing from the sportfishing boat 8ea Biscuit. This is the second California record for this southern form ; tlie first, in July 1939, was from Santa Barbara Island. iufianus novemfasclafus (Gill) — dog snapper Luf'ianus argeniivenfris (Peters) — yellowtail snapper Lutianus Colorado (Jordan and Gilbert) — Colorado snapper Luiianus aratus (Gunther) — mullet snapper Collection of these four species of snappers by the Yellowfin in Santa Maria Lagoon, Baja California on April 14, 1950, establishes their pres- ence on the outer coast of Baja California. This collection, taken with poison, includes one each of dog and mullet snappers, three Colorado snappers and ten yellowtail snappers, all of which were adults. A single young yellowtail snapper was taken with poison in the same lagoon by the Yellowfix on ]\Iarch 28, 1952. Isopisihus remifer Jordan and Gilbert Seven adult Isopisthus remifer were taken in two-inch-mesh gill nets by the Yellowfix on April 18, 1950, at San Juanico Bay, Baja Cali- fornia. On the night of August 30, 1951, four juveniles of this species were dipped from under a light at Abreojos anchorage, Baja California. These records establish this species on the outer coast of Baja California. NOTES OX SOME MARINE FISHES 561 Cynoscion reficulatus (Gunther)— striped corbina Four striped corbina were taken in f tlie eastern Pacific with de- scriptions of new species. Calif. Zool. Club. Proc., vol. 1, no. 11, p. 57-108. Brock, Vernon 1938. Notes on the ranges of fishes from Lower California and the west coast of Mexico ; with a discussion > the classification of ihe l)leiinioid fishes of the family Clinidae. with ;i imi-ii.-il revision of the eastern Pacific forms. Stanford Ichthynl. r.iill. vol. 4. no. 2. p. 41-165. Roedel, Phil M. 1948a. Occurrence of the black skipjack (Euthyntuis lineatus) off Southern Cali- fornia. Calif. Fish & (Jame, vol. 34, no. 1. p. .38-39. 1948b. Common marine fishes of California. Calif. Div. Fish & Game, Fish Bull. 68, 150 p. 1950. Notes on two species of sharks from Baia California. Calif. Fish & Game, vol. 36, no. 3. p. 330-332. Roedel, Phil M., and AVm. E. Ripley 1950. California sharks and rays. Calif. Div. Fish »S: Game, Fish Bull. 75, 88 p. THE FANFISH, PTERACLIS VELIFERA, FOUND IN CALIFORNIA' By GLENN A. NOBLE California State Polytechnic College, San Luis Obispo and CHARLES O. BLODGETT San Luis Obispo High School and Junior College Although the faiifish, Pieraclis velifera (Pallas) has been known for a long- time in Atlantic waters and in the seas aronnd Japan and Africa, it has never before been reported from the U. S. Pacific coast. Even in other localities this fish is rare. Toward the latter part of September, 1951, a fisherman was surf cast- ing for perch on the beach just south of the mouth of Santa Rosa Creek near Cambria in northern San Luis Obispo County, California. The dav was warm and clear and the water was relativelv calm. The fisher- man baited a Xo. 4 hook with a small sand crab (Emeriia analocja) and cast into the moderate surf. He soon noted that he had caught what he believed to be a perch. The fish put up practically no fight while being drawn in. The man grasped the animal and found, "silvery stuff like alumiiiiiin paint" coming off on his hand. He then discovered huge, membranous dorsal and anal fins which had been completely hidden in longitudinal dorsal and ventral grooves. The specimen was brought by the fisherman 's nephew a day or two later to the junior author for identification. The senior author was consulted and finally a description was sent to Dr. Carl L. Hubbs of Scripps Institution of Oceanography who identified it as Pieraclis veli- fera. In the meantime the fish was prepared as a taxidermy mount. This mount has been sent to Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California. Pieraclis velifera was described as a new genus by Jordan and Snyder (1901) under the name Benienia aesiicola. They distinguished it from P. velifera on the basis of a spine in the dorsal fin and a spine in the anal fin and placed it in the family Pteraclidae. ]\Iore recently B. aesiicola has been synonymized with P. velifera by Smith (1949) . Because of inter- mediate types. Berg (1947) has placed it in the family Bramidae. For a detailed description of the species see Jordan and Snvder (1901) and Smith (1949). A brief description of the California specimen follows. Total length 51 cm. ; tip of head to posterior margin of operculum 8 cm. ; depth of head, through eye, 8 cm. ; length of caudal fin 7 cm. ; pectoral fin (dried) 8 X 1.5 cm. ; diameter of eye 2 cm. ; margin of dorsal fin can be lifted 26 cm. from body ; margin of anal fin can be pulled 20 cm. from body ; dorsal and anal fins fit into longitudinal grooves 1-2 cm. deep formed by modified scales; body laterally compressed, 1.9 cm. through center, 1 Submitted for publication Febrviary, 1952. ( 565 ) 566 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME FIGURE 1. Fanfish, Pferadis velifera. Photograph of the mounted specimen courtesy of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jollo, California. 1.3 cm. tlirouo-h area just anterior to caudal fin, 3.4 cm. throngli area of operoiluiii : scales variable, many Avith centrally placed spine; scales hard and fitting tiglitly against body : month and margin of opercnlnm almost inclistingnishable in fresh specimen; mouth appears almost verti- cal from a lateral vi<'A\ : iris pale orange-red; body cavity extremely short, limited to anterior quarter of body; body bright silvery; dorsal and anal fin membranes, thin, delicate and jet black (possibly colored in living specimen ) ; dorsal and anal fin rays progressively smaller from anterior to posterior becoming long, slender and thread-like, about 34 in the dorsal fin and 32 in the ventral fin ; double row of teeth in both jaws, about 24 teeth in one row in each half of a jaw; occasional teeth between the two rows. REFERENCES Berg, Leo S. 1947. Classification of fishes hoth recent and fossil. URSS Acad. Sci., Inst. Zool., Travaux, vol. 5. no. 2, p. 87-517. Jordan, David Starr and John O. Snyder 1901. Description of nine new species of fishes contained in museums of Japan. Imperial Univ. Coll. Sci., Journ., vol. 15. p. 301-811. Smith. .7. L. B. 1949. The sea fishes of Southern Africa. Capetown, Central News Agency, 550 p. VARIATIONS IN THE WOLF EEL, ANARRHICHTHYS OCELLATUS AYRES, A FISH INHABITING THE EASTERN NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN ^ By ROBERT H. KANAZAWA Division of Fishes, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. INTRODUCTION Preliminary examination of United States National Museum specimens of Anarrluchthys occUatus Ayres indicated the possibility of two forms, for differences were noted in coloi- pattern, dentition and body propor- tions. A study of 37 specimens, ranoing- in length from 175 to 1,693 mm. revealed that these differences were variations of a single species ; therefore, it seems pertinent to give a redescription of the species. FAMILY ANARHICHADIDAE AnarrliicJithys is distinguished from other genera of the family by its excessively elongate, tapering, eel-sliaped body ; the dorsal and anal fins are confluent with the elongate tapering caudal fin ; and a greater number of vertebrae. ANARRHICHTHYS OCELLATUS AYRES Figures 1-3 Anarrhichas felis Girard (nonifMi innluin). 1854. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila., vol. 7, p. 150-151. Anarrhkhihys ocellaius Ayres, 1855, Proc. Calif. Acad. Nat. Sci.. vol. 1, p. 31-32, (type locality, San Francisco Bay, California). Anarrhichthys felis Girard, 1858. U. S. Pac. R. R. Surv., vol. 10, Fish, p. 125-120, pi. 25a, figs. 1-3. Siwcimens Studied. U. S. X. M. nos. 104500 Thorn Arm, Alaska; 103532 Hawk Inlet, Alaska; 104501 Zaikof Bav, Alaska: 57832 Knik, Alaska; 104502 AVrangell, Alaska; 55638 Seattle, Washington; 222(54 AVashington; 133946 A^ancouver Island, British Columbia; 27149, two specimens, San Francisco, California; 511, two specimens, San Fran- cisco, California ; 10451 Farallone Island, California ; 26507 ]\Ionterey, California; 27054 Alonterey, California ; V. W. nos. 5207. two specimens. Cape Lynch, Alaska ; 5336, two specimens. Prince of AVale's Island, Point AYebster, Alaska ; 3781, Orca Inlet, Alaska ; 2676 Uyak Bay, Kodiak Island, Alaska ; 2872 Petersburg, Alaska ; 6229 Hansville, Washington ; 4746 three specimens. Cape Flattery, Washington ; 265 Puget Sound, Washington ; 1330 False Bay, Washington ; 4459 Orcas Island, Wash- ington. S. X. H. M. nos. 6065 San Francisco Bay, California; 26014 San Pablo Bay, California ; 14917 Fort Ross, California ; 2768 two specimens, 1 Submitted for pubUcation May, 1952. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. ( 567 ) 568 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME y^/vrrn^^ A ff B FIGURE 1. Dentition of a juvenile, two times natural size: A, lateral view; C, ventral view of upper jaw; D, dorsal view of lower jow. Dentition of an adult, one-half natural size: B, lateral view; E, ventral view of upper jaw; F, dorsal view of lower jav/. COLORATION A B p d O.S. P d P d P d coniccil molar TEETH 40 4SL 4^ ^6 49 S) SZ S'9- S6 S8 60 6Z 6^ 66 STANDARD LENGTH IN CENT/METFR6 FIGURE 2. Diagram showing the sizes at which various characters transform from juveniles to adults. The broken line represents the juvenile condition and solid line that of the adults. A, pec- toral fin; B, dorsal fin; C, anal fin; D, lower one-third of trunk; E, lower one-third of caudal region; p, pale; d, dusky; d.s., dusky spots; o.s., ocellated spots. The coloration of pectorals considered pole when most of the fin was pale. The coloration of dorsal fin considered with ocellated spots when the ocellation was very distinct and the paleness not very apparent in the interspaces between the dusky spots. The lower one-third of trunk and caudal considered pale when over half was pole. VAEIATIOXS IX THE WOLF EEL 569 FIGURE 3. A, juvenile, 315 mm. in standard length, U. W. no. 5207, taken at Cape Lynch, Alaska; B, juvenile, 483 mm. in standard length, U. W. no. 6227, taken at Honsville, Puget Sound, Washington; C, juvenile, 586 mm. in standard length, U. S. N. M. no. 57832, taken at Knik, Cook Inlet, Alaska; D, adult, 1,405 mm. in standard length, S. N. H. M. no. 14328, taken near Monterey Highlands, Monterey County, California. Phofographs by Photographic Laboratory, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. 570 CALIFOKXIA FISH AND (JAME %^ a> £ -i o Id E ro to 3 O =3 r~ y^ fa C a> ' tj ■o o a> u^ cc i_ c a> • ^ —J fO o <_> -, o l/t c a> E a» « CO o o C c o o 03 o c r. c - -. cc ^ -^^ 1 1 ,-H ( ,-H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 f-H 1 1 1—1 1 1 1 III 1 1 1 . r^ 1 f-H o 2 Lt *^ *C f— ' 1— I 1 ^ CI CO ' ' 1 1 c 1 1 li-< l.-CC^rH»-( 1 1 1 1 CO C>^ i-H 1,400 to 1.499 1 1 l-H f-l 1 .-1 I 1 1 1 1 li-H 11— 1 1 r li-H ' 1 ^H .^ 1 T— 1 1,300 to 1,399 1 1 1 1 1 1-H 1 1 1 t 1 1 1 1 1 1 f^ 1 1 1 t 1 I 1-H 1 1,200 to 1,299 1 1 1 i-l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r-l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-1 1 1,100 to 1,199 1 1 f— ( ( 1 1 1 r 1 1 ( 1—1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-1 1 1 - - ' ; ; ! ; 1 ! ; ; ; 1 1 : 1 ' ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ? 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 I 1 t 1 r 1 5 - §: S c X- X ~ X 1 1 T— ( 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 ! 1-H 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i-H 1 1 1 C - 2- 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 t II O ^ C2 1 ,-H 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 rH 1 r 1 1 1 1 T 1 1 1 1-H 1 C 1 T— 1 lit ^H 1 1 itiMt} 1 1 — ri — 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r 1 ! T^ 1 ! I ! O ^ 3-- 1-H 1 1 1 1 1 1—1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1-H LO -^ t- X - ~ t^ X - I I o c c c LO O t^ 00 33 3 C — C-J CO -T ^1 01 Ol Ol Ol o -c t^ X cr. M O) 01 M 01 s 2 O s o 9j u C 03 X Q 3: C t- X - C 03 «4H o c o o c: (C «*H O o «4H to u c c3 0 — o) CO -r '0 "C t^ X C-. 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 01 CO -^ «-0 O l^ CO I I I I I I o o o o o o CO Tj< O CO t^ 00 o a ♦J c 1-3 VARIATIOXS IX THE WOLF EEL 571 c^ 1-1 CC Oi ^ CC o ^: — ^j rc " r L"^ » ■^ *-^ •c r^ X ~. o — — — — 71 71 r: -- - :"i T) "■ .^-. ^fc >-^ ,_ ,_,^ ^_, ^ Js ^ - — O — X .» -■- — ) ■- X — ,— ^ ^-» — - ^ ^-.^ <-«. -^ — . c c c c o vr t- X C'l :c ■C L~ C4 7\ 71 r- ri • ' " -^^ ■^ Lt -^ r^ X «. o ' ££ 1 ts o CO -1^ T3 © O i-^ w 2 03 ft ' a a, 3 3 e3 +3 ' O 1- ' +3 <*H o o t< o c O. © ■^ G >> w* m T3 1 o a 'a o i O a a o c a o O a 2 >> t£ © "-: S^ o o 1 -o -•A - ':: ^ JS 53 ^ © -t^ -ki ■*^ +a S o t£ tt OQ to S3 2 a 03 a 2 a 02 fvi CQ to ro O o E •a o o a> (J o o a; ^ ? ID 02 ay= S o ^ -^ ^ O 05 '2 e3 o OS Si CO CO TT O 00 CO <- -H M OS CO e3 1^ 5 C O — a. *- S ~. -i r3 :i 'J .~ iZ ♦- ** J*- Q ccCCQ «;>. o c o3 o iC 00 00 lO •-I CO <— I "C 00 OO O) Tf CO CO CO =0 w 03 o OS Mr~ ;~ C u s^ ^ t 03 o c u 03 O S = Q o S o FOOD OF THE PACIFIC SARDINE 579 C5 9—i o o "H .-c O) 1— i CO 1 CO t* CO CO ^ 1 c^i 1-1 CO (N 05 O r-l 00 W '-' (N CO C^l 1-1 CO 423 3,223 178 3,824 ^- 1—i o O I— 1 1 o ' o 1 1-H 1 1—^ 00 T-H 1 1-H 1 ^H 1 O 1 o 1 00_ 1 00_ , 1-H l-H 1— ' N i i 00 CO 1 ! 1 o o 1 1 1-H 1-H III 1 l-H 1-H 1 rH CO (N 1 re M -r. > < __ >-H 00 '< 00 1-H (N 1 CO cr. o 1 CO " o 1 t^ t>. CO CO l-H t> 1-H 1-H ■* Cft 1—1 e<3 c; 1 T-H ^- f-H 1-H t- O CO o 1-H 1-H "^' ^^* rH 1—1 T— I (M 00 CO CO 1—1 1 M CO 1 (M >H 1 o u o O 1 ai o Copepoda Calanus finmarchicus Other Copepoda Copepod nauplii Total Copepoda Schizo[)oda M ysidacea FiUphausiacea Unidentified Total Scliizopoda Stoniatopoda Sguilla sp c a o O 0) s o c ■VH es C O B m 1—1 o « to "S 580 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME ro cr ■a 0) fa O O to E O o CJ O « -5 --S (O ccn c o P rt — c m ai C c3 tc 33 s CO OQ C CI e3 lO M lO 00 ■* •* CO CO 00 CO 'a. 3 " 03 --i ro 1-1 cc CO CO (N C 00 (N CO o o CO Tl< — I o 00 -* lO Oi UO t^ 05 CO Oi (N iC o GQ c O o B c3 03 c: u u ^ ^ >. >•. >> C3 O "3 o ?; ?H n c3 u c3 X 3 o aj bC bC J3 0) ■<-> > c (3 > c8 a bC o .a CO PC4 FOOD OF THE PACIFIC SARDINE 581 m -SI "to o a. ro WO o (•1 E o E wo ro 01 O O 0 o (J — ( *— 1 I-H I— ) I-H I-H I-H CO .^ J2 ~ tn Tota 18fis C0«0'l<0c00i0 0 0 t^ t^ 0 r^cocoLOOsOi^co ai rH TJH CO C<) rt 0 Cl CJ 00 0 CD C. 0 i-O co_ Oi" • iO_ ■* 0_ 0_ X CO c-^ CO* c^f c-i Oi 'S o3 I— 1 i-( i-H r}< ■<*' bO ;-i 0 1 M rH 10 i-t 1 10 •-• 10 I in iC LO 1 1 1 1 . IC 1 S 00 1 0 ■* 0 0 1 1 1 s OQ 1 t^ 1 CO 1 1 05 1 CO •* t^ t^ -* 1 CO 1 ■ 1 00 1 g-^ c: 1 lO 1 (N 1 1 ^ 1 0 '^ 'if C^ in 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 3 Z s CO 1 rH 1 .-1 , , CO , CO'lN 00* t^ 05" 1 CD 1 1 I IN I CO c3 >n , i-^ , , , in 1 <^^ ' III 1 bo L^ 0 M L-^ 1-1 -^ 1 ^ i-H 1 CO tH 0 -* t^^:t^^t'^l~T^-co ^ CO .^H P:^ CD "^ 03 CO 0 0 CO 1 0 0 ' C3 t^ CD LO t^ CO 00 0 r; 0 'C CO "« in ■-I ■* CO 00 1 CO 0 > ^ t^ Ci ^ 00 -^ i" C-. t^ 0 r. ~ §f- a 10 CO CO 1 CO 1-1 1 t>^CO co_ (N CD ^ CO CO X ?t CO (O 1—1 CO T}!" I-H (N Tj* r-H 0 CQ '2 o3 Sh 0 »H j I-H I-H (N — i ^ 1 •-( 1 1— ( 1 1 1 1 I-H 1-H 1-H I-H 1 1-H I-H 1 1 I-H 1 s 1 CO 1 CO 1 1 1 1 (N ■* CD (N 1 iM m 1 1 — 1 1 I-H 1 1 1 1 CO CD 05 in 1 CO OS 1 1 0 1 i^ M a 05 0 1 .— 1 1 I-H 1 1 1 1 ^l '^ CD t- 1 CO CO 1 ' o\ > TjT 1 ,-h" I I (N 1 1 ■*^ 0 c8 fcC 03 S ^ 0 ^ ^ Q Ci ^ :?; Ht) H cn £ c a, ^ Q e? a. Ah a. 0 Q cc Q jlJ 582 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME a> o o •a u^ a> a> = c c ■o c: ra O «•! c_ > ,_ o m fcO w LU ra CD E o 1— c*o ^ ■^ !•» E Vrf^ c= fO o> O -a o o u. ., o Kn 0) o a> O J2 a: ^ 03 i-O IC 1^ CO O to CO '5 O CO CO o oo CO CO o C^ C) ^ C*T CI 00 (N (N >c CO c^ po CD lO C I^ — O •^ ^^ ~ C^ '" -^ F-i ^H CO >o c>i lt: CC t^ (M CD of o CD cj CD o; ■* 00 o CO 00 Tf o; -^ 35 iM CD (N (N <-0 o e*3 o CO CO t-H irj CD CO »c IN CO 1— ( lO eo CO CO (N O o" CO 00 05 CO lO ■* »-^ C5 O CO t^ CO lO CO •* eo" 00 (N CD CD c^i I— I I— I tj< ic >— I CO ►o o 00 o CO 00 N O 05 C^ O '^ CO 00 CO c; '^ lO CD CO L.~ 00 t-i o o (N IM_ CD CI 00 CD CO Tf ^ (N CO --H 5 c C3 O o a o O 5 --^ -2 -• - "^"^ M ■: ■t; 7". e c3 03 o3 c3 o c *^ ^id ^1^ *^ cS « O •§ 0 fe t fe c ?L; ^ ;j iL. <>) S..S Q O 03 Pi O. 03 a in a a SO _00 ^ d S S S s s o t3 ^^ -^ V O ^ C K -^ ^ i» I. 5 ■- ^ O O O K ^ S > M S "o o3 C 'o c a c « c c H ■5 t- 03 V C 'o c c c 03 -^ o H S3 C O 03 FOOD OF THE PACIFIC SARDINE 583 (N .— 1 1—1 ■* CO o (M ^ ^ LO L.0 — 1 CO t^ X 00 Ol 05 00 c: 00 (M Tt* I— 1 C iM Ol (MO^i.Oi0 05eO 1— 1 CO f— 1 0 0 00 0 Ol U5 00 (N 1—1 I 1 1 TjH (M — 1 -4< 1 O i-i 1 r CO >o CO ■^ (N ■* 1 1 1 ' r — OJ 1 00 1 1 1 CO — c; 1 CO 1 1 1 Ol i CO — H Tf CO Tf - CO 1-1 CO IM 1 1 CO Ol OJ LO 1 LO lO CO uo CO C^i 00 Ol o CO If 322 1,540 4 10,188 18,103 to (N L-t 5 i-O 5 1— 1 — f) CO 1 — 1 ■- r t- ^: t- t> Ol CO t- ^ 0) i-i o] c; 01 0) 04 2 15 2,504 748 170 4,340 (N 1 1 05 00 (35 CO 1—1 ►-H Appendiculariidae Oikopleura sp bC Is X3 O u s o o en » S c o s a s s •a "O ^ « C3 y: c: 'ij S >» Z^ VI — ^ c3 ■*, -* 0 — « 0 0: £ w — ' w E s- 7" C^ K ^ c^ c CS -*- >i c — ^ c ■— .w^ 0 — Ti >. r = cS tl=^ — ^ -r. 584 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME o to E o c o Ll_ a> o. E O a. E 01 O t^ 0 CO 10 CO Cl -H a> 10 CM 0 0 to ^ CO 0 • CM CO 10 ^^ d 0 (M t^ 0 OS 1-H S3 ■*^ 0 t>-" w" CO" 00 >.o" r>-' co" ^ Os' Tf -H CO (N 00 l>- ■* ■* 1— ( iO t^ CO CO 0 CO 0 0 CO 0 CD « fC — 1 >c X -H 00 (^ CM 0 ■*_ Tf t^ CO CD 0 CO iC 0 "S. Tf <£ 0' X 10 CD 1-H cd" M r-l ■* ■* s m o3 C L. 0 00 C2 t- 0 t^ C3 00 ■* 0 1-H **^ t^ t^ C» CO rt« 0 C5 'O CM "3 0 "a g -* CC X ^H ■^ ^ Tf 0 OS OS 00 t>." lo" 00 00" co" CM T— ( t>.- CO ■* 1-H CD 00 CM c CO CO ■5}< Li 3 , 2 OJ -►J 0 j» CD »0 1-H 10 T^ CO CO CO 10 ■* CO 05 0: 05 CO 05 t^ 0 OS S ^ CO ic C5 10 "* 0 CO r)< 10 ■^' — <" iC t- ■*" t>.- r— t CM t-T 1-1 10 CO »-H CM 00 cc CO CO CM 0 (N ■ l^ OS 0 1-H LO cr. 0 0 t^ 1 0 t^ « a; 'a S c3 e — 00 T— i tN. 1 uq CM OS 0 CO CO 00 1-H 1-H CO- T-^ t-- ^H -^ 1-H m ^» ^— •^ 0 ^ CO 01 OS 0 OS Lt CO (M ^ CO 'S* CM ■* r^ ^ CJl LO CO_ '* CO ■* 10 CO J (N (N ■* 1-H lO lO CD t-T 00 CM- 0 I-H CM CO H 1 00 00 cr. CO ■* OS 0 N. ■■_ 06 CO_ O iO 00 cm' LO (N !N •* CO i-h' 10" t-' CD cm' S 03 CO i 1 1' a 'i I 0 c T C C lankton oplankton.. jzoans 03 fl 1 1 1 03 a 'S 03 <4- c ) X 50 "3 )lank tacea rs C 3' 0 -0 0 0 t a-e ^ c 4 0 >> 0 H Cl, H &H <— HM HM auoa S % < FOOD OF THE PACIFIC SARDIXE 585 REFERENCES Hart, John Lawson, and George Herbert Wailes 1932. The food of the pilchard, Sardinops caerulea (Girard), off the coast of British Columbia. Biol. Bd. Canada, Contr, Canadian Biol, and Fish., n. s., vol. 7, no. 19, p. 247-254. Kishinouye, Kamakichi 1907. Notes on the natural history of the sardine (Cliipea melanosiicta Schlegel). Imperial Fish. Bur., Journ., vol. 14, no. .3, p. 71-105. Lewis, Ralph C. 1929. The food habits of the California sardine in relation to the seasonal dis- tribution of microplaukton. Scripps Inst. Oceanogr., Bull., Tech. Ser., vol. 2, no. 8, p. 155-180. Parr, A. E. 1930. Is the presence of phytoplankton in the stomach contents of the California sardine caused by special nursuit or merely 7. Hubbs, Carl L. 1943. Terminology of early stages of fishes. Copeia, no. 4, p. 2G0, DE^^:LOPMEXT of the pacific sardine 595 Morris, Robert W. 1951. Early development of the cottid fish, Clinocottus recalvus (Greelev). Calif, Fish" and Game, vol. 37, 110. 3, p. 281-300. Orcutt, Harold George 1950. The life history of the starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus (Pallas). Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 78, 64 p. Radovich, John 1952. Report on the young sardine, SanUnops caerulea, survey in California and Mexican waters, 1950 and 1951. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 87, (in press). Scofield, Eugene C. 1934. Early life history of the California sardine fSardina caeridea), with special reference to distribution of eggs and larvae. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 41, 48 p. Scofield, Eugene C, and M. J. Lindner 1930. Preliminarv report of the early life history of the California sardine. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 16, no. 2, p. 120-124. PHEASANT COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA RESULTS, 195r By CHESTER M. HART, JOHN F. DAVIS and WILBUR F. MYERS Bureau of Game Conservation, California Department of Fish and Game INTRODUCTION The cooperative hunting area program successfully initiated by the Department of Fish and Game in 1949 and expanded in 1950 was con- tinued in 1951. During the 1951 hunting season, 11 areas were operated for pheasant hunting, consisting of the 10 areas which functioned in 1950 plus the Twitchell Island area in the Delta region. Figure 1 shows the location of the areas. The Sartain area continued to be the single charge area collecting the daily fee of $2 per hunter allowed by the co- operative hunting area law. Xo charge was made for hunting on the 10 other areas. Rules and regulations and mechanics for management of the hunting areas were practically the same as in previous years (Harper, et al., 1950; Hart, et al., 1951). The pheasant hunting season started Saturday, November 17. and continued for 10 davs, with a dailv bag limit of tAvo cocks and a season limit of 10. TABLE 1 Size of Each Zone in Cooperative Hunting Areas and Seasonal Capacity for Hunters^ OPEN ZONE RESTRICTED ZONE CLOSED ZONE TOTAL Area Acres Seasonal hunter capacity^ Acres Seasonal hunter capacity Acres Acres Staten Island Ryer Island Sutter Basin Natomas Grimes Sartain Butte Creek Meridian Los Banos Firebaugh T^\-itchell Island _ 6,745 11,288 12,671 16,684 19,213 12,. 530 8,612 8,556 6,116 7,700 5,720 5,000 6,6.50 8.000 12,000 18,000 11,500 11,500 6,300 3,200 4,500 3,500 1,320 1,737 2,075 2,937 4,567 2,550 1,705 1,050 212 1,300 458 At discretion of landowner 1.135 325 2,800 2,000 2.160 50 500 50 4.382 4,000 641 9.200 13.350 17.546 21,621 25,940 15,130 10,817 9,656 10,710 13.000 6,819 Total.s 115,835 90,150 19,911 18.043 153.789 1 There were some slight changes in zone acreages during the hunting season. 2 Minimum number of hunters that could be accommodated for the season (hunter days). No allowance is made for hunters that hunt only part of a day and are then replaced by other hunters. 1 Submitted for publication May, 1952. Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act, Cali- fornia Project 22-R. The authors wish to express their appreciation to numer. u; em- ployees of the Department of Fish and Game who aided in gathering or compiling th • information presented herein, especially to George Metcalfe, Ernest Clarl , AI\ In Stewart and Ward Hill. (597) 598 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME The total acreage in cooperative liuiiting' areas increased from 138,634 in 1950 to 153,789 in 1951. Table 1 .presents information on zone acre- ages and linnter capacity for each area. Willows ^Chlco jbutte creek \area Auburn FIGURE 1. Cooperative Hunting Areas, 1951 PHEASANT COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA RESULTS, 1 95 1 599 5? o. o o o 03 10 «o 0 Cvl (-> U LU CQ -0 > K — =3 la' 02 CCOlt^CO-^t^Ot^OfOiO f— I OOTfTt^CtCX^ — OOiCOO 00 cc C^_ !» 0^ 0 C^)_ — b-. 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T M -^ -^ Lt ^ L-: c; oo 1^ = t-H i-T c^i' jvf ■.^ ,-(" ^ i-T 0 .—1 H ^ 0 -*^ — ^ c^t^~. oocot^oe<5eo-*«o CO c ^ 0 0 ::3 d CM c; c; cr. t^ C5 CO 06 06 I© d hJ -a< 0 L-^ L': © c; ci cc ^ cc »o hJ Oh 0 1— 1 Q h4 b — C^ClCCOOt^-^CC'M'MO t^ 4) © L- IC CM CT. •M ■M X t^ C^5 C5 0 ^ •. — ^ L- ^ ^ M w s — ' — ' c-f OS 3 "^ ■*^ -^ oocci-i(Nr^ecTt INED FARM LL C ^ df "3 a>i>dddcMdo-i^eo 05 10 ■^'^■^CC l^O00C5 "0 j_ oc!C5-*>-<) rr ci — -^ :r CO 0 t^ 0 cr 0 C CI C — _ t^ cc LC ^^ s ^^ T— f ^^ 1— ! T— 1 r-t oi" 2 -*^ I 1 t- iC ^ CM 1 1 ' 1 1 II 1— 1 .— 1 1 1 C I 1 10 CO cc G 02 5- 0 ^C:i< •E2 -^-1 M Sl^ ^ ri-l 1 1 00 t^ c; t^ "O CM ' ■ ^ Tj< 1 1 CO Tt< >— 1 '— 1 II IC -^ I-t 0 S 0 0 .4^ .— 1 1 CO 1 1— 1 lO ' I— 1 C^ 1 0 II i 1 i-H 1 CM ^H IB I- lO 0 X 0 c» t— ( :3 tH --1 «=; ^ C^ ci ; •<5 fe 53 iC- 1 CM CO '-3 ^ .-1 r-H "5^1 P^ 0 Cii c3 c3 GO ^ oc -r C-. '- cc 00 cc — CO fe i, p CO LC ^ CI t^ t- — CI lc 0 OS 1—1 CO -.0 ~ ~ — ~ — _ r^ ci_ LC 0 X" " L-3 C5 00 3 i-H 0 c3 ; -^ i. rH 602 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME TABLE 4 Summary of Releases and Kill of Game Farm Birds Liberated on All Areas, 1951 Date or area released Number of cocks released NUMBER OF RETURNS Cooperative hunting areas 1 Licensed game bird clubs2 Others 3 TOTAL RETURNS Number Percent By Date of Release July 204 340 852 10,189 3,682 52 95 391 5,889 2,566 3 4 7 221 23 55 100 402 6,132 2,591 27.0 September October Nov. -Preseason .. Nov.-Inseason 1 4 22 2 29.4 47.2 60.2 70.4 Totals 15,267 8,993 29 258 9,280 60.8 By Area of Release Staten Island Ryer Island Sutter Basin Natomas Grime.s 1,083 1,000 1,675 1,620 1,816 668 654 948 924 1,179 8 11 19 27 26 676 665 980 962 1,205 62.4 66.5 13 11 58.5 59.3 66.4 Sartain Butte Creek Meridian Los Banos Firebaugh 1,838 2,127 1,025 2,083 1,000 975 1,163 728 1,2.53 501 5 27 62 5 60 13 1,002 1,230 733 1,313 514 54.5 57.8 71.5 63.0 Twitchell Island 51.4 Totals 15,267 8,993 29 258 9,280 60.8 1 Bands collected at checking stations. - Most clubs made an effort to collect and return bands. 3 Voluntary return of bands. results, presented in Table 5, showed that the number of individual hunters using each of these three areas averaged about 68 percent of the number of permits issued. TABLE 5 Numbers of Individual Hunters and Permits Issued per Individual on Grimes, Natomas, and Staten Island Areas Area Number of state issued permits Number of permits per individual hunter Total individual hunters Grimes . _ _ _ 8,706 10,297 3,184 1.38 1.56 1.34 6,309 Natomas. . ._ . . ._ 6,601 Staten Island ._ _ .. 2,376 Totals _ _ ... 22,187 1.45 15,286 Figure 2 shows the number of davs hunted bv individual shooters. Most hunters, 73.6 percent, used tlie area for only one day, and fewer than four percent hunted four days or more on one area. Applying the average of 1.45 days hunted per individual to the total of 52,541 state-issued permits gives a calculated number of 36,235 indi- PHEASANT COOPERATIVE HUNTING AREA RESULTS, 1 95 1 603 5.8 2 3 4 Number of Days Hunted 6-10 FIGURE 2. Number of days hunted on Cooperative Areas by individual hunters expressed as a percentage of the total sample number of hunters vidual shooters using cooperative liiintiiig areas. This figure has not been corrected for the unknown number of hunters that hunt on more than one area. However, it is believed that this duplication probably would be more than balanced bv the number of landowners and their guests hunting on cooperative areas, Avhich is not included in the 52.541 figure. Thus, it appears that approximately 20 percent of the 188.770 pheasant tag buyers hunted on cooperative hunting areas sometime during the 1951 season. TRENDS Figure 3 shows the trends of pheasant tag sales and over-all acreage, hunter use, and bag trends on cooperative hunting areas since this pro- gram was started. From 1949 to 1951 the total acreage has been in- creased 113 percent Avith gains of 33 percent in hunter use of the areas and 62 percent in the number of birds bagged. The much greater proportionate increase in acreage has resulted from new cooperative hunting areas being added in poorer pheasant habitat where the numbers of hunters accommodated and pheasants bagged have been much less per unit of area than on the original areas. Also, adding more cooperative areas has had the effect of distributing hunting pres- sure more widely, so that the increase in hunter use has not paralleled the acreage increase of areas even in the better pheasant habitat. Hunter success on the areas has increased approximately 25 percent. Less hunting pressure with approximately the same number of birds stocked per unit of area has resulted in a greater bag per hunter day of game farm birds and, on some areas, of wild birds. 604 200,000 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME 150,000 100,000 50,000 Total HunterDays_ Total Bag • 949 1950 95 FIGURE 3. Cooperative Hunting Area trends and trend of pheasant tag sales, 1949-1951 The decrease in pheasant tag sales in 1950 was not reflected in lessened hunter use of cooperative hunting areas that year. It appears that the general trend of pheasant tag sales is upward, and that the cooperative hunting areas are aiding in furnishing these additional pheasant hunters with a place where they can hunt. SUMMARY 1. Eleven cooperative hunting areas totaling 153,789 acres were oper- ated by the Department of Fish and Game during the 1951 pheasant season. 2. A total of 21,781 pheasants was taken on the areas in 54,701 man- days of hunting. Success was 0.40 birds bagged per hunter day. 3. Wild birds made up 50.3 percent and game farm birds 49.7 percent of the total bag. 4. The 15,267 game farm birds stocked on the areas yielded a 60.8 per- cent return over-all, varying from a low of 27.0 percent from early releases in July to 70.4 percent from in-season liberations. 5. The total number of individual hunters using the areas was calcu- lated to be approximately 36,235, nearly 20 percent of the number of pheasant tag buyers. 6. From 1949 to 1951 there have been increases of 113 percent in the total acreage of cooperative areas, 33 percent in hunter use of the areas, and 62 percent in the number of pheasants bagged. LITERATURE CITED Harper, Harold T., George Metcalfe and John F. Davis 1950. Upland same cooperative hunting areas. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 4. p. 404-432. Hart, Chester M., Fred L. Jones and Dale E. Shaffer 1951. Phea.sant cooperative hunting area results, 1950. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 4, p. 395-437. REVIEWS Amphibians of Western North America By Robert C, Stebbins ; University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1951 ; ix -T- 539 p., 5 color and 59 black and white plates, 35 figs. S7.50. This book gives accounts of all the recognized species and subspecies of amphibians in western North America. Information as to distribution, habitat, behavior, food habits and reproduction is given for each species. The author tells the reader that "Tentative identification to species may be made by reference to the illustrations." This realistic approach and the convenient arrangement of the illustrations will rnake this book popular with the amateur naturalist as well as the professional herpetologist. The illustrations by Dr. Stebbins are in my opinion the best that have appeared on amphibians and excellent examples of what scientific illustration should be. The author has a knack for bringing out significant differences in his illustrations and figures. Distribution maps give ranges of all species and subspecies and localities where specimens have been collected. I did not care for the arrangement of the table of contents and found the location of page numbers inconvenient and inconsistent. Except for these minor points of printing style I can find nothing in this book to rate adverse criticism. This book is one that should belong to everyone interested in amphibians. It will undoubtedly stimulate an interest in these animals among those who even glance through the book and it will be a standard for many years to come. — Wallace ilac- gregor, Jr., Calif ornia Department of Fish and Game. Range Management, Principles and Practices By A. W. Sampson ; John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Xew York, 1952 ; xiv — 570 p.. Ill figs. ST.50. As investigations in the range management field ramify and intermingle with other related sciences, it becomes increasingly diflicult for any one man to keep up with all the latest developments. As stated in the book under review, "The range manager, like the ecologist, leans on many fields of basic and applied science as background material in drawing plans for rational grazing land use." These fields include economics, veter- inary science, animal husbandry, predator and rodent control, vertebrate and inverte- brate zoology, big game management, animal nutrition, agronomy, ecology, plant nutrition, physiology, taxonomy, genetics, soil technology, irrigation, microbiology, geology, mineralogy, meteorology, and land-use planning and administration. Dr. Sampson has done a good job of integrating much of this material and presenting range management fundamentals in a well-written text. Dr. Sampson's book, illustrated with 111 figures, is well documented. It is divided into four sections. Part One, Range Management in Perspective, includes discussions of range manage- ment concepts, the world's grazing practices and problems, physiological principles and plant ecology as applied to range problems, physical and vegetal characteristics of our grazing lands, and the historical development of grazing in America. Part Two, Native Range Forage Plants, discusses forage plants as a basis of range production, three tribes of range grasses, other native range grass and grasslike forage plants, and important western forbs and shrubs as stock-food plants. Part Three, Improvement and Management of Range and Stock, is concerned with artificial reseeding and the establishment of irrigated pastures, natural reseeding and systems of grazing on western range, the control of noxious woody vegetation, manage- ment considerations common to ranges and range livestock, range conditions and trends as guides to better management, range utilization, range inventories and management planning, and the economic, physical, and social aspects of ranching. Part Four, Protection of Land Resources and Range Livestock, includes chapters on protection of timber reproduction and the use of shade trees and shelter belts, stock- (605) 606 CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME poisoning range plants, their recognition and control, foraging and predatory wild life of the range, soil erosion and its control and administration of public grazing lands. Although the text runs to 570 pages, it is obvious from a consideration of the scope <»f the subjects included that the treatment tends to be brief and princii»ally concerned with fundamentals. As with any text of this character, one is apt to feel disappointed that the specialties in which the reader is interested are not given more attention. Thus the game manager, in the light of his knowledge of the numbers and economic impor- tance of big game animals, and the importance to this resource of good range manage- ment, may Avonder why the subject of big game range management is treated so briefly. And the range technician might wish for a fuller inclusion of some of the more recently developed range sampling methods. P.ut taken in whole, Sampson's book is a usable and readable presentation of materia] tliat would need otherwise be gathered from extensive reading of articles, bulletins, and texts. — ^\'illiam 1'. Dasmann, Game Man- ager, California Department of Fish and Game. Tropical Fish as a Hobby By Herl)ert K. AxeIro3.50. Robert S. Lemmon. former managing editor of "House and Garden*' and author of ••How to Attract Birds" and numerous magazine articles, here presents to the lay botanist and naturalists an informative and non-technical book that gives detailed descriptions of each of 59 of the most common or picturesque trees of America. Each description includes data for identification of the tree, a summary of its life history, a list of its commercial uses and values, the limits of its native range, and, among other interesting items, recommendations for landscaping — where and when to transplant and precautions that should be taken to insure greatest success. An outstanding feature is the 293 well chosen photographs depicting the floral and fruiting parts, bark, and over-all form of the tree in its native habitat, including summer and winter photographs of the deciduous species. One may become somewhat 608 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME bothered, however, by the fact that there are no captions with the illustrations. This omission sometimes necessitates thumbing through several pages to the head of the section on that species. Incidentally, the species are not arranged in any taxonomic or geographic grouping. The author has taken care in presenting species native to each section of the con- tinent. Of the 58 indigenous species 86 are native to the region east of the Rocky Mountains, but 30 of them have been introduced to the West Coast where they are now commonly found. Considering the difficulties in assigning a single common name to a specific organism, it is not surprising that a few discrepancies occur. For example, there is an error in the contents where the author used the specific name of Quercus crpsolepis (canyon or maul oak) for the California live oak, which is Q. agrifolia. The text and illustrations describe Q. agrifolia. A more serious error was made when the author described and illustrated the American beech (Fagus americana) and called it F. sylvatica, which is the European beech. Also, the particular will notice that the author states that there are two species of live oaks in California Avhereas there are at least four. The naturalist, lay botanist, and landscape gardener will find this book interesting, useful and authoritative. For the research worker or the game manager in the field, it is of little value though it does have a place as a reference book for those especially inter- ested in siliviculture. — Daniel J. Miller, California Department of Fish and Game. Flowers of fhe Southwest Mountains By Leslie P. Arnberger ; drawings by Jeanne R. Janish ; Southwest Monuments Association, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 1952 ; 109 p. $1 (Paper) . This is the "Mountain Book" of a triad of booklets which are designed to aid layman in identifying the more conspicuous plants of the southwestern United States. The first, "Flowers of the Southwest Deserts," introduces plants of the hot, dry deserts ; the second, "Flowers of the Southwest Mesas," covers the plants of the Pinyon-Juniper Woodland country which ranges from 4500 to 7500 feet in elevation ; the third and last of the group "Flowers of the Southwest Mountains" deals with the plants found from 7500 feet up. There are two steps in the identification of the various plants: (1) a color key leads one to a broad group, and (2) detailed drawings to specific identities. Trees are identified by form only. The inherent weakness of a color key is acknowledged. How- ever, this is partially overcome by using broad color groups, six in all, thus tending to eliminate the confusion resulting from different interpretations of color. The drawings are excellent. Minute details are shown with simplicity and clarity. By illustrating various stages in the plant's life history, identification during periods other than the flowering is facilitated. The background material includes such items as origin of names, uses by wild and domestic animals, and uses by man. This type of information increases the booklet's value by stimulating interest beyond the learning of labels and also aids in future recognition. This reviewer found that the booklet was of considerable use in areas other than the southwest mountains. During a recent trip to the mountains of Northern Cali- fornia and Southern Oregon, many of the flowering plants were effectively keyed out, at least to genus. The identification chart for evergreens worked equally well. Visitors to the high mountain regions of the west will find their trip enriched by the use of this booklet. — Leo Pinkas, California Department of Fish and Game. Charley Cottontail By R. W. Eschmeyer; Fisherman Press, Oxford, Ohio. 1952; 50 p. $1.50 cloth; $.50 paper. The latest in this excellent and authoritative series of children's books written by a foremost conservationist. Other recent titles include "Freddv Fox Squirrel" and "Bobby Bluegill." REPORTS FISH CASES April, May, June, 1952 Offense Abalone: Closed season; undersize; possession out of shell; using illegal instru- ment; failure to show on demand; no Ucense; failure to have accurate measur- ing de\'ice Angling: Xo license; 2 lines and poles; failure to show hcense; operating 4 set lines; closed season; no non-resident license; possessing 3 spears within 300 feet of stream; fishing in closed area; operating limb line; false statement to obtain license; set lines; night fishing; operating fish trap; using 2 poles and and handUne; illegal fishing equipment; snagging; using another's license; us- ing compressor to take fish; angling within 150 feet of lower side Mendota dam; transferring angling license; unattended rod; angling too near fishwaj"; an- gling in closed spawning waters; operating 7 lines; chumming with vegetable matter; taking game fish with net Bass: Taking black bass without license in closed season; taking in refuge; using 2 poles; overlimit black bass; possessing striped bass in bait store; using 2 lines; taking undersize; taking at night; no license; overhmit; using 3 lines.. Catfish: Using 2 poles; using 6 setUnes; overlimit; night fishing; no hcense; operating fish trap Clams: Cockles, overlimit, no hcense, closed season, undersized; big necks, no license, overlimit; pismos, undersized, overlimit, no license, closed season, digging in preserve, failure to bury undersized, out of shell; gaper, overlimit; Washington, overhmit; razor, overhmit Commercial: Xo Ucense; bringing fish ashore in condition in which size and species could not be determined; no importer's license; failure to record species on market ticket; illegal use roundhaul net; possessing illegal dragnets; agent knowingly selling citizen license to ahens; using roundhaul net and possessing fish Dist. 19A; possessing undersized salmon; selling undersized yellowfin tuna; possessing striped bass on commercial boat; no party boat permit and failure to keep records; undersized crabs for sale; allowing crabs to deteriorate and waste; failure to show catch; taking crabs closed area; sell- ing fish without hcense; illegal packing for pet food Crab: Undersize Frog: Closed season Lobster: Using trap in closed area; closed season Pollution: Sawdust, oil, tin cans and hog swill, mill refuge, rotary mud Salmon: Spearing and blocking stream Sturgeon: Taking fuU protected fish Sunfish: Closed season; overlimit; no license; aUen taking with illegal license; using 2 fines; operating fish trap Trout: Overhmit; failure to show hcense; closed season; closed stream; unat- tended rod; no license; using 2 rods; set fine; possessing spear and attempting to take with artificial light; taking within 150 feet of dam YeUowtail: Xo license Totals Sale of seized fish . Grand total Xumber of arrests 206 Fines imposed JaU sentences days) S6,934 00 652 34 16 101 8 3 2 n 1 1 51 96 1 1,274 8,941 50 ^S5 GO 180 00 3.929 00 4,290 00 180 00 30 00 75 00 1.050 00 50 00 25 00 1,445 00 3,340 00 i. 10 00 i. $31,364 50 6,243 55 $37,608 05 63 60 123 6 — 64158 ( 609 ) 610 t"ATJFOr-?XTA FTSTI AXD r.AME GAME CASES April, May, June, 1952 Offense Deer: Possessing closed season; allowing dogs to run deer in closed season; tak- ing spike buck in closed season; taking 2 spotted fawns falive); taking doe; loaded 22 in car; spotlighting; Calif, resident possessing deer on Utah license; taking deer at night ; possessing female deer Deer meat: Possessmg in closed season; possessing unstamped meat Dove: Possessing closed season; taking closed season Duck: Taking closed season; shooting from power boat; late shooting; trans- porting from North Dakota without permit Hunting: Loaded gun in auto; hunting without license; removing trap belong- ing to licensed trapper; disturbing State trap line; hunting in closed area; trespassing; failure to show license; shooting from road; using artificial light; hunting on cooperative area without permit Mudhen: Taking closed season; using 22 rifle Xongame animal: Killing mountain sheep Xongame birds: Taking robins, seagulls _. _ _._- Pheasant: P'ailure to tag; possessing closed season; taking with 22 rifle in closed season and from public road; taking hen pheasant; operating game bird farm without license and failure to release proper number of pheasants Pigeon: Taking in closed season; loaded gun in car; no license Quail: lUegal importation from Mexico; taking with 22 rifle; failure to show li- cense ; closed season Rabbit: Night hunting; closed season; no license; shooting in safety zone; load- ed 22 in auto; artificial light; shooting from auto Totals Number of arres ts 40 34 4 11 72 2 1 2 17 5 2 45 235 Fines imposed 13.870 00 3,790 00 75 00 365 00 1,910 00 25 00 250 00 45 00 820 00 160 00 125 00 1.527 50 $12,962 50 .Jail sentences (days) 1,515 160 30 50 1,757 SEIZURES OF FISH AND CAME April, May, June, 1952 Fish: Abalone Bass: Catfish Clams.- Crab Halibut Mackerel and sardine. Salmon Sole Sturgeon Sunfish Trout Yellowfin tuna Yellowtail Game: Deer Deer meat Dove Duck Mudhen Nongame birds. Pheasant Pigeon Quail Rabbit Number 644 150 416 364 138 2 23 14 1 544 662 21 12" 15 2 2 12 4 2 52 Pounds 91K 50 7,771 "348' 8.748 2,980 258 INDEX TO VOLUME 38 Ah II fief flu f sfidatilis : 562 Agoftifi ffirysfjf/tistfr : '>4-3C Albacore ; 24N--:41» Alhiihi rulpes: 008 Ameiurus nebiilosus : 63-72 Annrrichthi/s oceUfitus : 567-574 Anas, Ray : see Felin, Anas, Daiigherty and Pinkas. Auchoa iftchfina : 558 Anchovy, northern : California fishery. 189-207 Anglinjr ; Sacramento-San Joaquin . W. Hed- rick and A. M. Schultz : Mimaire- ment of chamise brnshlands for game in the north coast region of California. 453-484 Blodgett. Charles O. ; see Xoble and Blod- gett Blnegill. 37 Bolin. Rolf L. : Two nnnsnal records of marine tish*^s at ^lonterev. Cali- fornia. 209-210 Bonefish ; 55^ Bonnot, P-^nl ; in memoriam. 136 Boxfish : 563 Bifichyistius frenfifiis; 561 Brnnetti. Oscar ; see Sayama and Brn- netti Brnshlands : chamise. management. 453- 484 Bryan. Homer F.. and Waltf-r I. Long; Resnlts of the 1950 special deer hunt on Mineral King National Game Refnire. 235-238 Bullhead, brown, 63-72 Calappidae : 178 Calhoun. A. .T. : Annual migrations of Calif-flfi.i) in the California fishery. 189-207 f'luppfi iiftlh-s' : -L'.)'. 1-5(14 Colorado River : bait fishes. 7— '2 Gooner-'tivp huntinir areas. 19.51 : .107.(504 Coot. American : parasites of. 421-423 Cope. Oliver B.. and I.h,, F. Erkkila : Weekday angling nressui-e in the S;ir-r.-iniento-San .Joaquin Delt:"". 1 94s and 1949. 73-84 Corbina ; Panama. .561 ; sti"'ned. 561 f'oftus Ijfiirfli semiscfiTjer : 38-39 Cowan. .John B. : T^ife history and pro- dnctivit.v of a population of west- ern mourning doves in California, .505-521 Grabs : 1 Ti;-! 79 Grasronid-Te : 1 71 Grapple, black ; 63-72 ( 'restfish : .5.58 Croaker, spotfin : .561 Crustacea : 19.50 collections. 163-181 C ifHOHcion reticiihitus : 561 C' llprinuH cfirpio : 29. 65 ^'i/pse1urus : .549-555 Dace : longfin. .34-35 : speckled. 30-31 Dasmann. Raymond F. : Methods for esti- mating deer populations from kill data. 225-233 DauLdierty. Anita E. : Recent chanires in ]>urse seine gear in California. 125- 131 ; see Clark and Daugherty : see Felin. Anas. Daugherty and Pinkas Davis. .John F. : see Hart. Davis and Myers ( 611 ) 612 CALIFOKXIA FISH AND (iA.ME Deer : i)(>i)ul.ition estimates, 220-233 ; Sar- coci/stis in, l)l)-l()4 Dter. mull' ; DovIp hei-(1.21]-224 : Minora] Kin?; hunt. 23r.-23.S Deminjr. O. V. ; Tooth development of the Nelson hifjhorn sheep, r»23-r)29 Denii)ster. Holiert P. ; see Herald and Dempster Devilfish ; 183-188 DeWitt. John AV.. Jr. ; An occurrence of the natural destruction of hake in Humboldt County, 438 Douglas. Philip A. ; Notes on the spawn- ing of the humpback sucker, Xyvfuichen texanus fAbltott). 149- Dove, mourning ; life history and produc- tivitv, 005-521 Elk ; Sarcori/stis in, 99-104 Emhlotoca jackson i : 561 Engraulis mordax mordax ; 189-207 Erkkila, Leo F. ; see Cope and Erkkila Explosions, underwater ; effect on fishes, o,>,i-.>bb Euihynnus Jineatus; 560 Fanfish ; 565-566 Felin, Frances E.. Ray Anas, Anita E. Daugherty and Leo Pinkas ; Age and length composition of the sar- dine catch off the Pacific coast of the United States in 1951-52, 427- 435 Ferrel, Carol M., and Howard R. Leach ; The prong-horn antelope of Cali- fornia with special reference to food habits. 285-293 ; see Lassen, Ferrel and Leach Fish screens ; 53-62, 405-406 Fishes ; bait. Colorado River, 7-42 ; check list of Nevada, 113-123 ; effect of explosion on, 333-366 ; population estimation in reservoir, 63-72 Fishing, commercial ; changes in purse seine gear. 125-131 ; herring, 499- 504 Fitch, John E. ; The decline of the Pacific mackerel fishery, 381-389 ; Distri- butional notes on some Pacific coast marine fishes, 557-564 ; The Pismo clam in 1951 , 541-547 ; Tox- icity and taxonomic notes on the squaretail, Tetragonurus cuvieri, 251-252 Flyingfish ; embryology, 549-555 Fry, Donald H., Jr. ; Cleaning losses in king and silver salmon, 425-426 ; see Hallock. Warner and Frv Fry. Donald H., Jr.. and Eldon I». Hughes ; A sampling program for recovery of marked king and silver salmon. 535-540 Fundulu.s : panipintiis parvipinnis, ze- hrinus, 36 Gamhusia affini.s : 37, 64 GasterosteK.s uruJentus : 439 Genyonemus lineatus; 561 Gila: ntraria, 31-32 ; niprescens, 32 Gillichthi/s mirahilis: 39-40 Godsil, H. C, and E. C. Greenhood ; Ob- servations on the occurrence of tunas in the eastern and central Pacific. 239-249 Goldfish ; 29-30 Goodwin, Delbert G. ; Crustacea collected during the 1950 bottom-fish inves- tigations of the M. V. N. B. Sco- field, 163-181 Gordon, Seth ; A new Fish and Game era, 5-6 ; Retirement of Alan C. Taft. 284 Greenhood, E. C. ; Results of the exami- nation of four small yellowfin tuna, l^eotJxunnns macropterus, 157-161 ; see Godsil and Green- hood Grunion ; 558 ; guide to, 409-420 Guitarfish, shovelnose ; 133 Gullion, Gordon W. ; Some diseases and parasites of American coots, 421- 423 H Hake ; natural destruction of, 438 Hallock, Richard J.. George H. Warner and Donald H. Fry, Jr. ; Califor- nia's part in a three state salmon fingerling marking program, 301- 332 Hart, Chester M., John F. Davis and Wilbur F. Myers ; Pheasant co- operative hunting area results, 1951, 597-604 Hedrick, D. W. ; see Biswell, Taber, Hed- rick and Schultz Henry, Russell ; see Miller and Henry Herald, Earl S.,and Robert P. Dempster ; The 1951 shark derbv at Elkhorn Slough, California, 133-134 Herring, Pacific ; Tomales Bav fishery, 499-504 Heterostichus rostratus : 563 Hippolytidae ; 170-171 Hitch, Sacramento ; 33-34, 64, 66 Ilolorhinus calif ornicus; 133-134 INDEX 613 Hubbs, Carl L.. and Andreas B. Rech- nitzer ; Report on experiments de- signed to determine effects of un- derwater explosions on fish life. 333-366 Hughes, Eldon P. ; see Fry and Hughes I Icichthys Jorkiugfoni ; 559 Inachidae ; 178-179 Isopisfhus remifer : 560 J Johnson, W. C. and A. J. Calhoun ; Food habits of California striped bass; 531-534 K Kanazawa. Robert H. ; Variations in the wolf eel. Anarrhichthf/s ocellatiis Ayres, a fish inhabiting the eastern North Pacific ocean. 567-574 Katsinconus pelamis : 239-243 Kelpfish, 563 Killifish ; 36 Kingfish ; 561 Lacioria diaphana .• 563 Lampris regius ; 558 La Rivers, Ira, and T. J. Trelease ; An annotated check list of the fishes of Nevada. 113-123 Lassen. Robert W., Carol M. Ferrel and Howard Leach ; Food habits, pro- ductivity and condition of the Doyle mule deer herd, 211-224 Lavinin exilicauda : 33-34, 64-66 Leach, Howard R. ; see Ferrel and Leach ; see Lassen. Ferrel and Leach Leitritz, Earl ; A new mechanical fish screen for hatchery ponds, 405- 406 ; Stopping them : The develop- ment of fish screens in California, 53-62 Lepidomeda sp. ; 35 Lepomis : cyaneUus, 37-38, 64. 66 ; maoro- chirus, 37 Leuresfhes tenuis; 409-420, 558 Lithodidae ; 176-178 Long, Walter I. ; see Bryan and Long Lopliortyx calif ornica ; 295-300 Lophotus sp. ; 558 Lntianus : aratus, argentiventris, Colo- rado, novernfasciatiis, 560 m' Mackerel ; atka, 210 : Monterey Spanish. 560 ; Pacific, 560, decline of fishery. 381-389, Los Angeles fisherv. 253- 273 McCormick. Ralph B., and Wayne J. Baldwin ; Golden Dover sole taken at Eureka, 134 Menticirrhiis pananiensis : 561 Merluccius productiis ; 438 ^linnow. southwestern fathead ; 34 Micropterus sahnoides ; 64, 66 M icrostomiis pacificus : 134 Miller, A. W.. and Russell Henry ; Me- chanical aids for bird banding, 43- 51 Miller, Daniel J. ; Notes on the embryol- ogy and behavior of the flyingfishes (Ct/pselurus) off the coast of Southern and Baja California, 549-555 ; Development through the prolarval stage of artificially fer- tilized eggs of the Pacific sardine ( Sardinops caerulea ) , 587-595 Miller. Robert Rush ; Bait fishes of the lower Colorado River from Lake Mead, Nevada to Yuma, Arizona, with a key for their identification, 7-42 Musquitofish ; 37, 64 Mountain-sucker; bluehead. 27; Bonne- ville. 27-28; duskv, 28-29; Rio Grande. 28 Mudsucker. longjaw ; 39-40 Murphy, Garth I. ; An analysis of silver salmon counts at Benbow Dam, South Fork of Eel River. Califor- nia. 105-112 Myers. Wilbur F. ; see Hart, Davis and Myers N y^arcine eniemedor : 557-558 Xejnatistiiis pectoralis ; 558 Xeothunnus macropterns : 157-161, 239- 243 Nevada, check list of fishes ; 113-123 Noble, Glenn A. ; The case of the artesian sticklebacks, 439 Noble, Glenn A., and Charles O. Blodg- ett ; The fanfish. PteracUs veli- fera. found in California, 565-566 Xotemigonus crysoleucas ; 32-33 Xotropis hitrensis lutrensis; 34 Odocoileus : hemionus, Sarcocystis in, 99- 104 ; ^. hemionus, 211-224 ; h. cali- fornicus, 235-238 Oncorhr/nchiis : gorhiischa, 275; kisutch, i05-112, 301-332. 425-426. 535- 540; tshairytscha, 301-332, 425- 426, 535-540 Opah ; 558 Opisihoteuthis calif orniana ; 183-188 Osmeridae ; 134-135 Oris canadensis nelson i : 523-529 614 CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME P(tlo>)i('f(i sni/dcri: r».")8 Pamlalidae; 1()()-1(59 Pantosteus : (Jelphiniis, 27: phtfinhi/ii- chus. 27-28; pleheius, 28; species, 28-21) Payne. Lee F. ; resolution honuiinjj, 148 Peneidae ; 165 Perca f^avescens : 38 Perch : l)laek, 561 ; kelp, 561 ; yellow, 38 I'heasant : cooperative areas, 11)51, 597- 604 Phillips, J. B. ; Yellow sablefish (black cod) taken in ^Monterey P>ay, 437- 438; see Clark and I'liillips Pimephales promelas confertus : 34 Pinkas, Leo ; see Felin, Anas, Daugherty and Pinkas PJitiiopierus (irgentissimiis : 36 PUiiyrhinoUJis triseriata ; 557 PleurofirdininKs iiionopteri/(/ius : 210 PneiiiiKitophonis diego ; 253-273, 381-389, 560 Pomacanthus zonipectus ; 562 PoiiKicoifnis rectifraenum : 561 Poiiio.iis nif/ronifiriildfiis : 63-72 Pterarlis relifera ; 565-566 Purse seines ; changes in, 125-131 Q Quail, California ; effect of 1080 on. 295- :;o() Queen tish ; 561 Radovich, John ; Food of the Pacific sar- dine. S(irdi)iops caer idea, from cen- tral P>aja California and Southern California. 575-585 Ray. electric ; 557-558 Rechnitzer. Andreas R. ; sec Ilublis and Rechnitzer Remicnhi eigenmanni ; 563 Reviews; Adventures witli reptiles, 443 ; American wildlife and jilants, 139 : Amidiibians of western North America, 605 ; The baml)oo rod and how to build it, 607 ; The l)est loved trees of America. ()07-60S ; The clever coyote. 276 ; A field guide to the mammals. 607 ; Fish- erman's spring, 138; I'ldwers of the southwest desert, 138-139; Flowers of the southwest moun- tains. ()08; The fly and the tish, 277 ; Came birds and mammals of California. 606 ; (Juide to the John Muir trail and the High Sierra region. 138 ; The lure and lore of trout fishing. 441 ; Mexican birds : First impressions. 442-443 ; Migra- tion of birds. 444: ()utlinH of ui»- land game bird management, 277; The oyster industry of Willapa Ray, Washington, 276 ; I'ractice of wildlife conservation. 140; Range management, principles and l)ractices, 605-60() ; The shell book, 277 ; Survey of marine fisheries of North (^irolina. 441-442 ; Tropical tish as a hobby, 606; Under the sea-wind, 443 ; Water — or your life. l'>7 ; Waterfowl and their food plants in Washington, 276 ; Waves and tides, 442 Rhinichthgs tiuJiilus; 30-31 Rhinohaios prodnctus ; 133 Ribbcmfish ; 558 Rich(nd.souiu.lue, life history, 485-498 Roedel, Phil M. ; A review of the Pacific mackerel (Pneumatophorus diego) fishery of the IjOS Angeles region with special reference to the years 1939-1951, 253-273 Roncndor steartisi : 561 Roosterfish ; 558 Sablefish ; yellow phase, 437 Salmon, king ; cleaning losses, 425-426 ; fingerling marking. 301-332; sam- pling program, 535-540 Salmon, pink ; 275 Salmon, silver ; cleaning losses, 425-426 ; fingerling marking. 301 -.332 ; sam- pling program, 5.35-540 ; survival estimates, 105-112 ^arcoci/stis : in deer and elk. 99-104 Sardine : average month catch 1949-51, 85-97 : comi)osition of 1951-52 catch. 427-435 ; egg and prolarva, 587-595; food of, 575-585; review of California fishery. 367-380 Sardiiiop.s caeriilea : 8.5-97, 367-380, 427- 43."i. .575-.58.5. .587-59*5 Sayama. Kenji ; Sdicoystis in deer and elk of California, 99-104 Sayama. Kenji. and Oscar Rrunetti ; The effects of sodium fluoroacetate (1080) on California quail, 295- 300 Schultz. A. M. ; see Riswell. Taber, Iled- rick and Schultz. Scofield. W. L. ; Packaged '-silver smelt", 134-135 : The Tomales P.ay herring fishery. 499-504 Scoliodoii Ivngurio : 5.57 i^comheroniorus concolor : 560 Screens, lish ; .53-62, 405-406 Scul])in. Bonneville mottled ; 38-39 Searsville Lake ; fish population. 63-72 Sehastodes : caruntus. gUherii. tniniatu.t. 5(»2 : nnjstiinis. 4S5-498 ; serrn- n(nd('s, rc.rHlnris. .562 INDEX 615 Seriphu.s poUtus : 561 . Shark ; ausel. T).")! ; leopard, 133 ; sharp- nose. .">r»7 Sharks, Elkhorn Slouch derby. 133-134 Sheep, bij^horn ; tooth development, .j23- 529 Shiner : Bonneville redside. 31 ; golden, 32-33 ; plains red, 34 Shrimp : 165-175 Skipjack ; 230-243 ; black. 560 Smedley, S. ('. : Pink salmon in Prairie Creek. California. 275 Smelt, surf ; packaged "silver smelt", 134-135 Snapper ; dog. rV)lorado. mullet, yellow- tail. 500 Snyderichfhi/s aliciae : 32 Sodium fluoroacetate ; effect on quail, 21)5-300 Sole. Dover ; golden phase. 134 Spine-dace ; Virgin Kiver, 35 ; White River, 35 Squaretail : 251-252 >■■ (I II a till a vol ifo in tea : 55 7 Stickleback, artesian ; 439 Stingray. l)at ; 133-134 Sucker; 407-408; flannelmouth. 26; humpback, spawning. 149-155 ; Utah. 25 ; western white. 25 Sunfish, green ; 37-38, 64, 66 Taber, R. D. : see Biswell. Taber. Hed- rick and f^chultz Taft, Alan C retirement of, 284 Tetra. Mexican banded ; 24 TetrnfioiiiiruH cuvieri : 251-252 Thornback ; 557 Tivelci stuUorum : 541-547 Traehipteriis rexsaJmonorum ; 558 Trelease, T. J. '; see La Rivers and Tre- lease Triakis seoiifasciata ; 133 Triggerfish ; 209. 563 Tuna, yellowfin ; 157-161, 239-243 Ven-Hn<-uhi>< poJi/lepis : 209, 563 w \\'ales. .losei)ii II. ; Life history of the blue rockfish. Sehastodes mystinus, 485-498 Walker. P.oyd W. ; A guide to the grunion. 409-420 Warner, George H. ; see Hallock, Warner and Fry , AVohlselilag. Donald E. ; Lstimati(»n of tish populations in a fluctuating reservoir. 63-72 Wolf eel ; 5()7-574 Wonndtin ; 3(^ X !/r(i iifhrn ir.rdiiiis: 149-155 Zenaidiira niavrouni iiniiyineUa ; 505-521 printed in California state printixg office 64158 6-52 7,800