CAUFORNlAl

FISH- GAME

£ VOLUME 40

JULY, 1954

NUMBER 3 1

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California Fish and Game is a journal devoted to the conserva-
tion pf wildlife. Its contents may be reproduced elsewhere pro-
vided credit is given the authors and the California Department
of Fish and Game.

The subscription list is limited because of budgetary considera-
tions. Requests can be considered only from persons who can
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There is no charge, but subscriptions must be renewed annually
by returning the postcard enclosed with each October Issue. Sub-
scribers are asked to report changes in address without delay.
Please direct correspondence to:

Leo Shapovalov, Edifor
Department of Fish and Game
926 J Street
Sacramento 14, California

u

0

VOLUME 40

JULY, 1954

NUMBER 3

Published Quarterly by fhe

CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

SACRAMENTO

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

GOODWIN J. KNIGHT
Governor

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

WILLIAM J. SILVA, President
Modesto

LEE F. PAYNE, Commissioner CARL F. WENTE, Commissioner

Los Angeles San Francisco

HARLEY E. KNOX, Commissioner WELDON L. OXLEY, Commissioner

San Diego Redding

SETH GORDON
Director of Fish and Game

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
Editorial Staff

LEO SHAPOVALOV, Editor-in-Chief Sacramento

PHIL M. ROEDEL, Editor for Marine Fisheries Terminal Island

CAROL M. FERREL, Editor for Game Sacramento

J. B. KIMSEY, Editor for Inland Fisheries Sacramento

TABLE OF CONTENTS .

Page

Deer ami Forage Rolationsliip on tlic Ijassen-Washoc Interstate
Winter Deer Range

WiLT;TA]\r V. Dasmann ami James A. r>r,Aisi)i;i,i, •Jl.')

p]ightli Progress Report on the Cooperative Study of \\\r. I)<;vils
CJar(l(Mi Interstate Deer ITei'd and Its Range

Intkhstate Dj:ek IIekd Committee 23')

Notes on tlie Habitat of the Desert Bighorn in the San Gabriel
Mountains of California

Cyril S. Robinson and Fred P. Cronemiller 2(!T

Native Postlarval Fishes of the Lower Colorado River Basin, With
a Key to Their Identification

Howard Elliott Winn and Robert Rush Miller 273

Establishment of a Forage Fish, the Red Shiner (Notropis lutren-
sis), in the Lower Colorado River System Carl L. Hubbs 287

Tagging Experiments on the Yellowtail, Seriola dorsalis (Gill)

Robert D. Collyer 295

Progress Report on the Tagging of White Catfish (Ictaliirus
catns) in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta David E. Pelgen 313

Field Tests of Stainless Steel and Tantalum Wire With Disk Tags
on Striped Bass John E. Skinner and A. J. Caliioi'x 323

A Survey of the Coast Cutthroat Trout, Salmo clarki clarki Rich-
ardson, in California John W. DeWitt, Jr. 329

Salmo rosei, Not a Valid Species

William A. Dill and Leo Shapovalov 337

Notes

Two Mid-Pacific Recoveries of California-tagged Albacore

C. E. Blunt, Jr. 339

Another Large Black Sea Bass Caught in Monterey Bay

J. B. Phillips 339

Abnormal Fetal Development From a Mule Deer

Arthur I. Bischoff 340

Reviews 343

(211)

CHANGE OF EDITORSHIP

With tliis issue, a new editor takes over the iiiiportaut task of assom-
blin{>' the material on fish and <i'aine conservation and investigation
which appears in California Fish and Game.

In recent years the dejiartment lias had a policy of rotating the
editorship bt'tween staff members of the three fact-finding nnits, the
branches of Inland Fisheries, ^larine Fisheries and Game ^Management.

For four years, Phil M. Hoedel of Marine Fisheries has been in
charge of this publication, in addition to discharging rather heavy
duties as assistant sn])ei'visor of the State Fisheries Laboratory at
Terminal Island. In INIr. Koedel's hands California Fish and Game
has maintained its high standards in picsenting to the interested public
the results of scientific investigations upon which management pro-
grams are based.

To Mr. Roedel we express onr appreciation for a job well done. We
are happy that he will continue to serve as associate editor for marine
fisheries.

The new editor-in-chief is Leo Sliapovalov, senior biologist of the
Inland Fisheries Branch. Mr. Shapovalov, who has been with the de-
partment since 1932, brings to his new assignment a world of experi-
ence in fisheries research and management. He is the author of numer-
ous articles on steelhead, salmon and freshwater fishes, and is well
fitted to take over this important assignment.

To assure balance and a broad base of experience in presenting im-
portant facts in a readable manner, Mr. Shapovalov will be assisted by
three associate editors. Carol Ferrel, game management, and J. B.
Kimsey, inland fisheries, along with Mr. Roedel. will form the editorial
staff. — SetJi Gordon, Director, California Department of Fish and
Game.

(213)

DEER AND FORAGE RELATIONSHIP ON THE LASSEN-
WASHOE INTERSTATE WINTER DEER RANGE

WILLIAM P. DASMANN and JAMES A. BLAISDELL

Game Management Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

During the past seven years the California Department of Fish and
Game has carried on a series of range investigations in conjunction
with deer herd management studies. One of these investigations is in
progress on the Tiassen-Washoe interstate winter deer range. The study
area is located principally along the boundary line between T^asscn
County, California, and Washoe County, Nevada, in the vicinity of
the ToA^ai of Do3de. It includes the Doyle deer management unit and
part of the Loyalton-Truckee management unit (Figure 1) and em-
braces 228,400 acres of public and private lands which make up the
winter range of a herd of Kocky Mountain mule deer {OdocoUeus
hemionus hemionus).

The investigation was initiated in the fall of 1948 by the California
Department of Fish and Game. The following year a cooperative study
group was organized to take over and expand the investigation. This
committee is made up of representatives of agencies responsible for
administration of the land, livestock, and/or game animals of the area.
Representative sportsmen and ranchers are invited to act in an advisory
capacity. The agencies participating in the study are the Nevada Fish
and Game Commission, the U. S. Forest Service, Regions IV and V;
the Bureau of Land Management, Districts C2 and N3 ; and the Cali-
fornia Department of Fish and Game. The objective of the coopera-
tive investigation is to gather factual data from which to formulate a
management plan acceptable to all interests.

The range studies have consisted primarily of (1) surveys to inven-
tory the kind and the condition of vegetation now present on the winter
range; (2) utilization checks to determine the amount of browsing by
livestock and deer from year to year; (3) deer pellet group counts to
point out concentration areas and provide information on trends in
deer numbers. Deer herd studies, which have been carried on concur-
rently with the range investigation, have yielded annual data on fawn
production and survival.

The findings of several phases of the study have been reported previ-
ously (Lassen et al., 1952; Blaisdell, 1953). This paper is concerned
with the relationship of deer production and survival with various
range factors. It provides evidence to support the belief that bitter-
brush (Purshia trident aia) is important as an indicator species in
management of the deer herds wintering on the Lassen- Washoe range.

^Submitted for publication January, 1954.
Assistance was given the investigation by personnel of Pittman-Robertson Projects
California W-41R and Nevada "WSR. These projects are supported by funds pro-
vided through the Federal Aid to W'ildlife Restoration Act.

(215)

216

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

/"n

Colifornia Deportment of Fish ond Gome
LASSEN-WASHOE WINTER DEER RANGE

FIGURE 1. Map of the Lassen-Washoe winter deer range.

IjAssen-wasikip: I)i:i;k iii:i;i) 217

METHODS USED IN THE INVESTIGATION
Inventory Methods

A lill('-])()iii( iiicIIkkI (»r uroiilKJ-coNcr iii\ ciildi-y luis Ixm-ii riniilovcd
ill riiii<;v studies on llic ivjisscii- WjisIioc jircji. The iiicHkmI is siiiiil;ii- to
lli.-it (Icsci'ibcd by Pjirkcr (IDlL'), jiiid docs not ,u!'c;dl\- dilTcr frdin thai
now int(\tiT;i1(Ml inio llic l',ii-kcr Tlir('c-stc|) iiictlioil (I'jirkcr, 11).')];
l!>r);5). A liun(li-c<l-roo1 mcl.-d lijind Inpc was strcldwd hclwcrii two
perni.incntly cstjihlislKMl iron rods. At each of the footmarks on the
tai)(\ a ])lunil) was taken. The classes of ground covei- which occurred
directly under or over the footmarks were recorded. iWire grinuid,
rock, litter, annual grass, and annual or |)crciinial Forhs, were eon-
sidered hit when one of tli(>se classes doniinated the area of a foiir-incli
eircle directly nnder the line-point. Hits on perennial grasses \\i'\-(^
limited to instances where the line-point fell above the'root crown,
rather than the leafage of the plants. With browses, a hit was recorded'
when the line-point fell within the average perimeter of the shrub or
tree, even though the point was directly over or nnder an inter-space.
Where dead browse plants or dead ]wrtions of living browses occni-red
at the line-points, the hits were classified as "dead species." Other
differences from the three-step method were as follows: (1) rock was
(h'hned as any rock an inch or more in diameter; (2) erosion pavement
was not classified separately from bare ground; (3) Avhere available
browse occurred at a line-point, no record was made of the ground
cover beneath it; (4) only single plots, rather than clusters, were used
at each sample site in order to get a wider ground coverage.

Along with the survey of ground cover, the individual browse plants
hit by line-points were classed as to form and age. The age classes used
Avere seedlings, young plants, mature plants, and decadent plants.
Shrubs of which 25 percent or more of the crown was dead ^vere classi-
fied as decadent. Form classes, as defined in these surveys, were a com-
posite of degree of hedging and of availability of forage. Degree of
hedging was broken down into (1) not hedged or lightly hedged (2)
moderately hedged, or (3) heavily hedged. Browses were classTfied for
availability as (1) all available, (2) partly available, (3) mostlv una-
vailable, or (4) unavailable. These classifications were more fully de-
scribed by Dasmann (1951) and Parker (1953).

In the Lassen-AVashoe investigation, it ^vas an objective to classifv
at least three of each of the more heavily utilized browse species for
age and form at each plot site. Where at least three were not hit by
Ime-pomts, but representatives w^ere present on the area adjacent to
the plot, the quota was filled by inclusion of bushes closest to the tape.

The line-point method is designed to yield data representative of
frequency and hence percentage of cover. Because observations are
limited to a series of points along a line, the probabilitv of hittincr
small plants is somewhat less than that for large plants, even though
all sizes are equally present on an area. Hence the method used on t?ie
Lassen- Washoe range to obtain data on form and age classes yielded
findings which are valid as indices of frequency of occurrence' of the
various classes of shrubs encountered on the plots, but are not neces-
sarily representative of actual age and form class composition of the
browse stand.

218 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Utilization Surveys

The visual estimate method was used for checking utilization of
browses and farbs, except that the twig measurement method was used
on juni]ipr {Junipcnis Occident alls). Visual estimates of percentage
cropping of browses were calculated as a result of a consideration of
(1) unbrowsed leader lengths, (2) browsed leader lengths, and (3) the
proportion of the leaders which was browsed. A record was kept of all
unbrowsed leader length estimates. These were averaged each fall and
used as an index of the year's growth. These methods are described
by Hormay (1943), Aldous (1945), Dasmann (1947; 1951), and others.
Tile lieight-weight method was used for estimating the percentage utili-
zatit)u of perennial grasses (Lomasson and Jensen, 1942). Utilization
checks were made in October and April of each growth year.

Pellet Counts

Pellet group counts were made at the sites on which forage plots
were established. Pellet sample plots were 11 chains long by 6 feet wide,
giving an area coverage of one-tenth acre. Plots were defined by pacing
five chains out, one chain across, and five chains back. Only droppings
of the season were counted. These were distinguished from those of
previous years by color and shine. Unless more than half the droppings
in a group occurred on the plot, the group was not tallied. A more de-
tailed description of the method will be found in the Devils Garden
Interstate Deer Herd Committee progress report (Interstate Deer Herd
Committee, 1951).

Deer Herd Composition

Deer herd composition was based on careful counts made (1) during
the rutting season, in late November and December, and (2) at the end
of the \vinter period, in April. During the first count, the animals were
classified as bucks, does, or faAvns. At the time of the spring count, the
deer were classed as adults or fawns, since at this season bucks are
difficult to distinguish from does, because they lack antlers. For com-
parative purposes, it was assumed that the proportion of bucks to does
in tlie spring was the same as that found the previous fall. The adult:
fawn raticjs were converted to doe : fawn ratios, by use of fall per-
centages. No groups of deer were included in the tally unless every
iiidix idiKil in the group was classified. Counts were made with binoc-
ulars to I'cdufo the possibility of raisclassification.

TRAINING

In training men to estimate forage utilization, initial practice con-
sisted of manual measurements of leader lengths, actual counts of
cropped and uncropped leaders, and paper calculations of percentage
cropping. After the crew members became familiar with the basic
procedure, and proficient at estimating twig lengths, straight visual
estimation was substituted. Training continued until the individual
range examiner's average for practice runs of 10 shrubs fell within a
range of the crew average plus or minus 10 percentage points, i.e.,
45 ± 10 percentage utilization.

Tlie range investigations did not aim at procurement of exact data,
as might be gained from precise manual measurements or other time

LASSKN-vvAsiKti; i)i':i;i; iii;i;i) 1^1 !J

c'oiisiimilljif tecliiii(|ii('S. U'atlicf, only iiii'thods which jippr;! ti'd |ir;ii-1 iral
for ^(MUM'al iis(! by field pci'sonticl wdv, developed and ein|)loyed. l''ind-
in^-s \vei'(> compiled as arithinetieal averaj^es, and such arc; used thr()u^'li-
oul. this paper. Some statistical averages, toj^-ettier with confidence
limits, are given in Table ^'^ to allow comparison.

FINDINGS

IMost of the data presented in this section have Ix'cn i-epocted by
IMaisdell (l!);");}) and part of them have been reported by Lassen et al.
(1952). The findin<is are included here for the sake of completeness,
since they constitute the material analyzed in the succeeding section.

Ground Cover Inventory

A total of 235 line-point ph)ts was established on the Lassen- Washoe
range during the study period, 161 in 1949, 48 in 1950, and 26 in 1951.
These phits were located along roads, trails, and ways at predeter-
mined, mechanical intervals. The plots did not constitute a strictly
random sample, but they are considered to make up a close approxi-
mation.

The line-point inventory of the ground cover revealed that 32.1 per-
cent of the ground was covered by vegetation available to deer and
livestock, of which 11 percent was annual vegetation and 21.1 perennial
grasses, forbs, and browses. Sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata) was by
far the most abundant shrub on the range, covering 12.2 percent of the
ground surface. It was followed in descending order by bitterbrush,
rahhithrush (Chrysothamnus spp.) desert peach (Prnnits andersonii),
horsebrush (Tetradymia canescens), and western juniper. These six
browse species made up 19.5 percent of the ground cover. Perennial
grass covered only 0.5 percent of the ground surface and perennial
forbs only 0.2 percent. All other perennial vegetation made up but 0.9
percent of the ground cover. Table 1 gives a tabular breakdown of the
findings.

Dead browses covered 6.7 percent of the ground surface, dead sage-
brush covering 3.5 percent and dead bitterbrush 0.8 percent. Of the
total coverage by sagebrush and bitterbrush, both living and dead,
22.3 percent of the sagebrush cover was dead and 22.9 percent of the
bitterbrush cover was dead. The amount of dead bitterbrush partic-
ularly is a matter of concern in view^ of the low percentage of young
bitterbrush plants occurring on the plots, as pointed out below. At the
present time, there is little replacement by reproduction of the dead
and dying bitterbrush plants on the Lassen- Washoe range.

The first surveys, made in 1949-50, revealed that bitterbrush was
the most heavily cropped browse on the range, as shown by both degree
of hedging and by current utilization. This browse has been considered
the key forage species, since no other important browse is apt to be
over-browsed, so long as the utilization of bitterbrush is kept within
proper limits. For this reason, the age and form class data given below
are limited to this important shrub.

To provide a basis for comparison, the data are compared with those
reported for the Devils Garden interstate winter deer range (Interstate
Deer Herd Committee, 1951).

220

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
TABLE 1

Ground Cover Inventory
(Based on 235 liue-point Plots)

Class of cover

Percent of
ground
surface

Number
of plots
w/cover

Percent-
age

composi-
tion

Bare ground

Litter

Dead shrubs i

Bitterbrush {Purshia tridentaia) __.

Desert peach {Pruiius andersonii)

Rabbitbrush {Chrysotfiamnus spp.)

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)

Others

Total nonproductive

Annual grasses

Annual f orbs

Total annuals

Perennial grasses

Idaho fescue {Fesluca idahoensis)

Indian rice grass (Oryzopsis hym'enoides) —

Sandberg blue grass (Poa secunda)

Sqviirreltail grass (Sitanion hystrix)

Needlegrass (Stipa spp.)

Perennial f orbs .,--^ _

Arrowleaf balsam root (Balsamorhyza sp.)
Buckwheats {Eriogonum spp.)

Total perennial herbs

Sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)

Bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata)

Rabbitbrush (Chrysoihamnus spp.)

Desert peach {Prunus andersonii)

Horsebrush (Tetradymia sp.)

Juniper {Juniperus occidentalis)

Wild currant (Ribes spp.)

Desert tea (Ephedra viridis)

Hop sage (Grayia spinosa)

.\spen (Populus tremuloides)

Total browses

Unclassified

Grand total

0.8
0.7
1.1
3.5
0.6

0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1

0.1
0.1

32.3

28.9

6.7

67.9

10.0
1.0

11.0
0.5

0.2

0.7

12.2
2.7
1.5
1.4
1.1
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1

20.1
0.3

100.0

234
235

64
27
58
160
42

191

77

5

6

5

16

10

10

7

211
98
78
57
51
15
21
10
5
3

20

235

31.2
3.1

34.3
1.5

0.6

2.1

38.0
8.5
4.6
4.4
3.4
1.9
0.9
0.3
0.3
0.3

62.6
1.0

100.0

The age class data presented in Table 2 indicate tliat the condition
of the Lassen-Washoe bitterbrush stand is far worse than that of the
Devils Garden. The index reveals that on the Lassen-AVashoe area
there are less than one-third the number of young plants and more than
half again as many decadent plants as were found on the Devils Gar-
den range, a range that itself presents a deer forage problem. This,
coupled with the high percentage of dead bitterbrush found on the
Lassen-Washoe range, poses a critical factor in management of the
deer herd. The form class index, given in Table 3, reveals that 78.8
percent of the bitterbrush plants checked on the Lassen-Washoe range
were heavily hedged, as compared to 80.7 percent on the Devils Garden.

i.AssK.v-WAsiioi; i)i;i:i{ iii;i;i)

221

TABLE 2
Bitterbrush Age Class Index

Class

SeedliiiKs

VouiiK plnnts

Mtiturc plants--
1 )ccadont pliints

Percentage of total plants claMifn'l

The se\('i'ity oL' bruwsiii;^' which results in lic;i\il_\' hi.'(l<>'e(l hittcrhnisli
is eoiisidcrcd damaging to sustained maxiniuiii prodnctiort of browse
forage.

Pellet Counts

The amount of deer duuu on an area may be nsed as an indicator of

total deer pressure on range forage. A eount of deer pellet groups on

])lots scattered throughout the Lassen-AVashoe range yielded averages

which rellect the nvnnber of deer on the ai-ea each year nndti|)lied by

their leugth of stay. These averages may be used dii'eclly as an index

of intensity of range use by deer. The averages for the four winters

under consideration were as follows :

1!J4'J-.jU 2G1 f^roups per acre

1950-51 276 groups per acre

1951-52 4.38 groups per acre

1952-53 236 groups per acre

The highest pressure occurred during the winter of 1951-52, when
record snowfalls drove in deer from marginal ranges and confined them
on the study area for a protracted period. The lowest pressure occurred
during the relatively mild, open winter of 1952-58, when the deer herd,
which had been reduced by the die-off of the previous year, remained
scattered on the range.

TABLE 3
Bitterbrush Form Class Index

Class

All available, little or no hedging

All available, moderately hedged

All available, heavily hedged

Partly available, little or no hedging
Partly available, moderately hedged.
Partly available, heavily hedged

Mostly unavailable

Unavailable

Percentage of total plants classified

Lassen- Washoe

Devil's Garden

4.8

11.7

12.3

53.9

74.9

30.3

0.6

0.6

2.1

2.8

3.9

0.4

1.3

0.0

0.0

0.3

222 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Forage Utilization

Forage utilization data are summarized in Table 4. During the first
year's survey, all perennial plants hit by line-points, plus the off-line
shrubs included in the age and form class survey, v^ere checked for per-
centage cropping. Starting the second year, the number of plant species
checked for utilization was reduced to the six, and the following year
to the four, most important browses. In addition, twig measurements
have been taken on juniper. To date, the amount of juniper browse
taken on this range has been negligible. A few trees show heavy use;
the balance, little or none. The volume of juniper browse found in
sample deer stomachs collected from this range has been low (Lassen
et al., 1952). Relatively few deer remain on the Lassen-Washoe winter
deer range during the summer months. Hence, the utilization data
secured in the fall can be assigned principally to livestock and rodents.
While it is the practice of the ranchers to feed hay and concentrates to
livestock during the winter, some livestock do feed on the range between
October and April, and particularly so during mild winters. In the
spring of 1951, the data on browse utilization from areas on which no
livestock were reportedly present during the preceding winter were
compiled separatelj^ It was found that browsing was actually heavier
on the livestock-free areas than on the rest of the range, as shown in
Table 5. These findings were considered a strong indication that deer
and rodents are primarily responsible for browse utilization on the
Lassen- Washoe area during the winter period. The utilization data
secured in April constitute the total taken by livestock, deer, and
rodents. By subtracting the fall averages from the totals obtained in
the spring, the balances are considered representative of the fraction
taken principally by deer. The utilization data given in Table 6 have
been compiled on this basis.

It will be seen at once that bitterbrush is by far the most heavily
cropped browse on the winter range, both by livestock during the sum-
mer period and by deer during the winter. The amount of bitterbrush
forage taken by rodents is negligible. Rodents appear to take a con-
siderable fraction of hopsage (Grayia spinosa) and significant amounts
of rabbitbrush and horsebrush.

Utilization of bitterbrush by livestock has averaged 24 percent of
the current leader growth during the four -year investigation, while
that by deer has averaged 85 percent. Plots on which percentage crop-
ping of bitterbrush averages 60 percent or greater are considered as
over-browsed. The degree to which each class of animal is responsible
for over-browsing of bitterbrush is shown in Table 7. It will be seen that
relatively few plots (11 percent) show heavy utilization as a result of
summer livestock browsing as compared to the percentage of plots (54
percent) which show this condition after winter browsing by deer.

Growth Indices

As stated earlier, records were made of the estimated lengths of un-
browsed bitterbrush leaders on each shrub checked during fall forage
surveys. These leader lengths were averaged to make an index of the
amount of forage produced during the year in question. Such indices

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224

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 5

Utilization on Livestock-free Areas Compared With Entire Range

Percent utilization

Bitterbrush

No livestock

Entire range

Sagebrush

No livestock

Entire range

Fall survey, 1950. _
Spring survey, 1951
Number of plots

24
60
17

28
62
91

1
22
35

2
13

87

can be used to throw light on year-to-year fluctuations in percentage
utilization. It is important in management to know whether fluctuations
in percentage cropping arise from variations in forage production or
from changing animal numbers.

The average bitterbrush leader lengths for the four growth years
under consideration were as follows :

3.4 inches in 1949-50
3.1 inches in 1950-51
5.1 inches in 1951-52

3.5 inches in 1952-53

Forage production during the growing season of 1951 was about 54
percent greater than the average for the other three years studied.

TABLE 6
Utilization of Browses by Deer and Livestock

Percentage utilization

Livestock

Deer

Total

. Livestock

Deer

Total*

1!)4!)-.50 ---

25
28
18
24

Bitterbrush

42
34
39
25

67
62
58
49

2
1

T
1

Sagebrush

10

8
10

3

13

1950-51 . . -

13

1951-52

13

19.52-53

4

Average -

24

35

59

1

8

11

1949-50

19.50-51

1951-52 -

8
3
2

Rabbitbrush

3
1
1

13
13
11

5

5

2

Horsebrush

10
2
4

19
12
11

19.52-53

--

--

--

--

--

* Includes rodent use.

i.ASSKN-vvAsiior; i)i:i;it iii:i;i)

TABLE 7
Distribution of Bitterbrush Ulili/ation

Percentage of total plots in each class

rcroi'iitiiKc ulili/iitiiiii

Fall

BprinK

Classes

1949

1950

1951

1952

Aver-

HKC

1950

1951

1952

1953

Av.r-

0-19.9

50
30
16

4

48
23

11
18

0)3
21

9

7

50

21

9

14

54
24
11
11

1
10
22
67

3

10
23
64

5
11
32
52

7
25
35
33

4

2()-:?9.9 . .

14

t()-r)9 9

28

(iO i)lus

54

Fawn Production and Survival

The most striking revelation oL' llic deer herd stndies on the liiisscn-
Washoe winter range was tlie heavy loss of fawns tliat occurred during
some winters, after the fall herd composition counts had been made.
The data presented in Table 8 serve to stress the importance of s|)i'iiig
composition counts where information on survival is neech'd. In inter-
preting tliese count ratios, it should be remembered that actual fawn
k)sses were somewhat greater than the ratios indicate, because the num-
l)er of does on the range did not remain constant. Each winter there
is a loss of older animals as well as fa\\ us on the Lassen-Washoe range.
On the other hand, the effect of winter mortality on the following
year's doe : fawn ratio must also be considered. A heavy loss of fawns
(potential yearlings) one winter will tend to make the succeeding fall
fawn ratio higher than normal, and vice versa. The low survival after
the winters of 1949-50 (12 per 100 does) and 1951-52 (29 per 100 does)
are especially significant.

ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS

Forage Utilization: Fawn Survival

Because of tlie poorer quality of browse stems, as compared with
tips, and because expenditure of energy per unit of food is increased
where browsing is limited mostly to woody stems, it can be assmned
that deer nutrition declines when these animals are forced to feed from

TABLE 8
Deer Herd Production Data — Number per 100 Does

Fall

Spring

Year

Bucks

Fawns

Number in
sample

Fawns

Number in
sample

1949-50

13

17
11
15

62
49
64
65

764

831

1152

1239

12
48
29
64

193

19.TO-51

600 (Appr.)
575

1951-52 .

1952-53 . .

600 (Appr.)

226

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

heavily browsed shrubs. But with animals in the wild there is always
question about the food values of various plant species, actual carrying-
capacity levels, and relation of animal mortality to levels of browsing
intensity.

In order to learn if a consistent relation exists between deer browsing
intensity and fawn survival on the Lassen-Washoe winter range, the
forage utilization data and fawn survival data were analyzed as shown
in Table 9. Here the spring doe : fawn ratios are compared with (1)
total utilization of each of the four principal browse species, and (2)
with utilization by deer. It will be seen that there is a general correla-
tion between survival and utilization for all four browses, and for both
total use and use by deer alone, and that a close correlation appears
between survival and bitterbrush utilization bj^ deer. This relationship
is plotted in Figure 2. Whether the survival ratio of 48 fawns per 100
does in the spring of 1951 and that of 64 per 100 does in the spring
of 1953 might have been greater had a higher ratio of fawns been pres-
ent the previous fall, will have to be determined from future findings.

TABLE 9
Fawn Survival: Browse Utilization Relationship

Year

Fawns per
100 does

Bitterbrush

Sagebrush

Rabbitbrush

Horsebrush

Total use (livestock,
deer, rodents)
1949-50 . .

12
29
48
64

12
29
48
64

67
58
62
49

42
39
34
25

13

13

13

4

10

10

8

3

13

11

13

5

3
1

1
3

19

1951-52

11

1950-51

1952-53

12
2

Winter use (princi-
pally by deer)
1949-50

10

1951-52. _ . . .

4

1950-51

2

1952-53

0

Food habit studies of deer on the Lassen-Washoe range (Lassen et al.,
1952) have revealed a decreasing volume of bitterbrush forage in the
deer diet from October through January, with low volumes in February
and March. This is accompanied by a build-up in the volume of sage-
brush and herbaceous forage. A similar deer diet pattern was found on
the Devils Garden winter deer range (Interstate Deer Herd Committee,
1951), where the volume dropped sharply in March and was marked by
an increase in juniper browse and herbaceous foods. Although there
appears to be a loss of fawns throughout the winter, rather heavy losses
occur toward the end of an adverse season (Lassen et al., 1952), after
the animals have shifted from a diet which contains significant volumes
of bitterbrush to one in which sagebrush and herbaceous forages pre-
dominate.

It may be that an adequate diet of bitterbrush during the fore part
of the winter helps to project some favorable bodj^ condition long

LASSEN-WARTTOE DEER HERD

227

70

(l

, 1952-53
\
\

\

\
\

\

950-51

\
\
\

O 1
\

951-52

\

\

1949-50

60

50

i4&

a.

If)

</)

UJ30-
O
Q

O
O

°= 20

UJ
Q-

<

\o

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

PERCENTAGE UTILIZATION OF BITTERBRUSH BY DEER

FIGURE 2. Relation of bitterbrush utilization to fawn survival.

enough into the adverse period following to provide the margin of
safety needed to carry the animals through the balance of the season.
On the other hand, the bitterbrush relationship may be not directly
nutritional, but o-f a purely secondary nature. In other words, when
deer are forced to browse bitterbrush heavily, it may be indicative of
a condition, or combination of conditions, which will result in poorer
fawn survival. The lowest survival occurred during the winter of
1949-50, a severely cold season with little green grass available. This
can be contrasted with the much higher survival of 1950-51, a mild,
open winter, when green grass was available mucli of the time (Lassen
et al., 1952). In any event, a true relationsliii) should prove useful as
an indicator in management of the Lassen-Washoe deer herd.

Forage Utilization by Livestock and Deer

It should be remembered that livestock are in i)osition to take the
cream of the bitterbrush forage crop. Since they are on the range dur-
ing the summer growing season, they can feed on this browse at a time
when it is succulent and in full leaf. Deer, on the other hand, are
forced to subsist on that which livestock leave. Although livestock
cropping is not evenly distributed throughout the range, and extensive
stands of bitterbrush do remain uncropped, or lightly cropped, until
the deer ari-ive in the fall, livestock benefit from feeding on twig tips,
while deer (on areas browsed by livestock) must fare on less nutritious
stems (Aldous, 1945) that are approaching dormancy and leaf -drop at
the time these animals arrive on the range.

228

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Percentage utilization of bitterbrush leader growth by livestock and
deer lias varied from j^ear to year, ranging from 18 to 28 percent for
livestock and 25 to 42 percent for deer. In order to determine bow
much of this variation was due to changing volumes of growth and
how much to changing pressure by range animals, the use index given
in Table 10 was compiled. The index is a product of average leader,
length multiplied by percentage cropping. The products indicate how
much of the average leader was consumed by livestock and how much
b}" deer.

The graphic breakdown, given in Figure 3, shows that consumption
of bitterbrush by livestock has been relatively constant during the four-

TABLE 10
Bitterbrush Use Index

Average leader length (inches) X percentage utilization

Year

Livestock

Deer

Total

1949-50

0.9
0.9
0.9
0.8

1.4
2.0
1.0
0.9

2.3

1951-52 . -

2.9

1950-51 ._ -_- -

1.9

1952-53

1.7

5.0-

C/5
UJ

1 4.0
o

QUN

CROPPED
DEER UTILIZATION
LIVESTOCK UTILIZATION

o

3.0-

<x.

UJ

O

<

Si.o

>
<

3.4

3.5

1949-50 1951-52 1950-51 1952-53

YEARS

FIGURE 3. Utilization of average bitterbrush leaders.

LASSKN-WASiioi': i)i:i:it iii:i;i)

0')r)

V(';ii' period. I)iiriiii;' udod '.^rowlli ycjii's |)crcriit;i;^i' lit ili/.iit ion Ity live-
stock fi'oos down wliih' dniinii' poor lii'owlli years if j,'oes ii|); liowevor,
Hie \()lnine r.\' food t;d<en remains relatively niieliaiiired in eitlier eas»;.
Ill contrast, ran^c pressure by deer up|)ears to he subject to consider-
able varicition.

It should be pointed out that, althou<i-li livestock demand ap[)f'ars
constant, the impact ol' this browsing' can be considei-ably ^'•reater in
])ooi' ^'I'owth yi'ars, when these animals are forced to bite deeper into
tlic slirunkt-n supply of f()ra<;(' to fill out their demand, tlian in {?ood
years. Thus, a level of deer poi)iila1ion wliieli fares well on the forage
left b\' livestock in a year of abundance mi,e|i1 suffer from a fofnl short-
aye in H year of dearth, even thoii<ih livestock numbers remain un-
changed.

The effect of livestock browsini^' of bitterbrush on the subsequent
su]i])ly of forage for deer -was greatest in 1950-51 and least in 1951-52.
However, it will be seen from Table 9 that fawn survival was relatively
high dui'ing the winter of 1950-51, Avhile a heavy mortality occurred
during tlie winter of 1951-52. Also, the heavy fawni loss of 1949-50
and the good survival of 1952-58 were not related to any significant
difference in effect of livestock browsing, as indicated in Figure .'1 It
ai)pears that the effect of livestock brow\sing on fawn survival has been
constant, and that while snrvi\al lias gone up and down with percent-
age cro]i])ing of bitterbrush by (Un-r, the variation has operated inde-
pendently of utilization of this browse by livestock during the period
of study.

Bitterbrush Utilization: Deer Pressure Relationship

There remains unanswered the question whether variations in per-
centage ntilization of bitterbrush leader grow'th by deer are a product
of changes in population pressure or of a changing preference or need.
In order to throw- light on this relationship, the data w-ere analyzed as
shown in Table 11. Using a pellet group as a unit of deer pressure, and
the number of pellet groups per acre as an indicator of total range
pressure by deer, this pressure is compared in the table with bitter-
brush use index data and with fawai survival data. The relationship is
plotted in Figure 4. It will be seen there is good correlation with the
exception of the data of 1949-50, the year of poorest fawn survival.

It appears evident that during the winter of 1949-50 deer consumed
much more bitterbrush per unit of total range pressure than in any

TABLE 11
Relationship of Range Factors

Year

Fawns per
100 does

Pellet group
per acre

Bitterbrush
use index

1949-50

12
29
48
64

261
438
276
236

1 43

1951-52

1 Q9

1950-51.

1 05

1952-53 ...

0.88

230

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

75

*s

1952-53

•

C

Q.

CO

\^

1950-51

s.

(A)

in

LlI

O
a

-.

^

S,

o •^u

UJ
Q.

(/)

2 |c.

•1951-52

5 '^

i2

19

49-50

o n-

• 1951-52

X

y^

/
/'

y
y

y

Q
LlI

.19

49-50
•1950-51

^

y

(B)

q:
m
q:

[^ 05

^

^ 4952-53

1-
m

n A

225 275 325 375 425

PELLET GROUPS PER ACRE

475

525

FIGURE 4. Relation of (A) fawn survival, and (B) inches of bitterbrush leaders
consumed to total range pressure by deer.

other year, and that fawn survival was extremely low and out of all
proportion to total range pressure by deer, as shown by the relation-
ship existing during the other three years. During other years bitter-
brush consumption rose and fell, and fawn survival went up and down,
with total range pressure by deer. It Avould appear that increased
animal numbers and/or length of stay was involved in the higher utili-
zation of bitterbrush and lower survival of fawns in 1950-51 and
1951-52 as compared with 1952-58, but that during the winter of
1949-50 some other factor was active. A study of Figure 3 indicates
that a relatively high volume of bitterbrush forage was taken by

LASSKN-WAsiioM I)i;i:k Ili;i;l)

231

ilcci- I'loiii only a incdiiiiii supply in l!)4!)-r)(). 'I'liis resulted in tlu?
hiulicst pci-cculii^c III ili/.al ion \>y dri^v (42 prrcrnl ) i-cconlcd in the
study. It may l)r, as sn,L;,i!('s1('(l hy Lassen el al. i II».'>l!), tliat tlie sliort-
a^'e of jii-eeii lici-haceons Feed dniinu llial dry, cold winter loreed deer
to hroAVSO bilterhrnsh liea\ ier I han would he expeeled Troni lie- pressure
index I'elationsliips.

Relation of Bitterbrush Utilization to Succeeding Fawning Success

In order to deteriniiie if a relationship exists between winter hitter-
bmsh utilization and the sneeess of the suceeedinfr season's t'awniiif;
(as indit'ated by fall tloe : fawn ratios), the data wei-e assembled as
shown in Table 12. It was found that an apparent relation existed,
althongh in this instance there appears to be a somewhat better corre-
lation with total perepnta<.':e utilization than with utilization by deer
alone. The relation of fawn success to total bitterbrush croi)piii<^ is
shown in Figure 5. This appears to strengthen the evidence that after
a winter of nutritional deficiency (as evidenced by their need to crop
bitter})rush heavily) deer are less successful in fawning than where
the opposite is true. Here again the importance of maintaining proper
balance between deer numbers and forage supply becomes evident.

TABLE 12
Relation of Bitterbrusli Utilization to Success of Succeeding Season's Fawning

Year

Percentage bitterbrush
utilization

Fawns per 100 does

By deer

Total

Year

Fall ratio

1949-50 -

42
34
39
25

67
62
57
49

1950-51.
1951-52.
1952-53 .
1953-54.

49

1950-51

64

1951-52

65

1952-53

77

Unfortunately, it is not possible at this time to check the findings
of the four-year study against data from other similar deer ranges in
this State. There is a lack of spring fawn survival data from other
areas. Survival records for the past two years only are at hand from
four other deer range studies. But on all of these ranges, deer were
forced out of bitterbrush zones by heavy snows during the winter of
1951-52 and had to subsist for much of the time on marginal areas.
As a consequence, fawn survival in these herds was low and out of all
proportion to that which would be indicated by percentage bitterbrush
utilization. It is highly desirable that the findings of the Lassen-Washoe
study be checked against data from other similar deer ranges.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this four-year study indicate a strong correlation
between fawn survival and percentage utilization of bitterbrush leader
growth by deer on the Lassen-Washoe winter range. The relationships
found here give support to the belief that bitterbrush can serve as an
indicator species in management of the deer herd. The studies make

232

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 13

Statistical Data on Bitterbrush
(Statistical Means at the 5 Percent Level)

Year

Number of
plots

Number of
plants

Percentage utilization

Fall

Spring

1949-50

67

92

114

124

181
272
361
419

25.4±4.2
26.6±5.6
17.8±3.6
22.6±4.3

67. 4 ±4.0

1950-51 . .. ..

64 . 1 ±4 . 2

1951-52

57 . 6 ±3 . 4

1952-53

48 . 1 ±3 . 9

Percentage of ground covered by living bitterbrush: 2.75 + 0.36.

it appear that, under the existing demand for bitterbrush by livestock,
a moderate decline in fawn survival may be expected where the crop-
ping of bitterbrush leader growth by deer exceeds 25 percent, and a
steep decline where it exceeds 34 percent. Were livestock demand
changed, this percentage relationship, no doubt, would shift. It would
appear, under existing conditions, that deer browsing should not be
much above the 25 percent bitterbrush utilization level for good sur-

"zz pn.

Li-

^

953-54

en

LU

O

r\ 70.

O
O

or

UJ

\.I952-

53

• 1951-

52

Q_ bU'

\

Z

<

Ll

N

\

\l950-5l

OU

N

0-^

40

45 50 55 60 65

PERCENTAGE CROPPING OF BITTERBRUSH

70

FIGURE 5. Relation of percentage bitterbrush utilization to following season's fawn success.

LASSi'iN-WAsiioi: I)i;i:k iii:i;i) 233

vi\;il (»r llir I'jlWIls of the ye;!!' ;iii(| "jdod success (tf rawilillj.' rllirilltr
the succeeding' sejisoii.

Tlie ^■('iierally coiisishMit roljitiniisliips roiiiid in lliis study imlicjitn
llud Hie snr\-ey inclliods used can j)i'(»vide dala wldcli arc aili'ijiiaie
lor deiT iiianagoinent imrposos.

SUMMARY

1. A ran^c investigation lias been in |)rof;T('Ss foe four yoars in con-
juiu'tion witli Kocky IMountain mule deer (O. Ii . Iicniioiiiis) lierd
studies on the Ijassen-Waslioe interstate winter deer ranire. The
study is under llic direction ol' the Lassen- Washoe deer herd study
comniitteo.

2. A firound cover inventory, made "witli line-point plots, reveals that
veji'etation available to deer and livestock covers IV2.1 percent of
the ground surface. Browses cover 20.1 percent of the f?round sur-
rac(\ Sagebrush is the most abundant browse, followed by bitter-
brush, rabbitbrush, desert peach, horsebrush, and juniper.

3. An age class index compiled from range plot data indicates that
there is little replacement by bitterbrush reproduction of the dead
and dying' browses on the range. Over 43 percent of the bitter-
brush shrubs checked were classified as decadent.

4. The form class index shows that 78.8 percent of the bitterbrusii
plants checked were classed as heavily hedged, as a result of past
overbrowsing.

5. Deer pellet group counts ranged from 236 groups per acre during
the winter of 1952-53 to 438 groups per acre during the winter of
1951-52.

6. Forage utilization studies reveal that bitterbrush is by far the
most heavily cropped browse on the wintei* range. T^se by deer,
livestock, and rodents has ranged from an average of G7 percent
in 1949-50 to 49 percent in 1952-53.

7. The volume of bitterbrush growth produced has varied from year
to year, as indicated by average leader lengths. The length of
average bitterbrush leaders ranged from 3.1 inches in 1950-51 to
5.1 inches in 1951-52.

8. There has been extreme variation in fawn survival, as shown by
spring com])ositi()u counts. Fawns ]ier 100 does in April have rangetl
from 12 in 1949-50 to 64 in 1952-53.

9. Analysis of the various range data, together willi the fawn survival
figures, reveals a strong relationship between percentage utiliza-
tion of bitterbrush by deer and fawn survival.

10. The volume of bitterbrush forage taken by livestock appears to
have been constant over the last four years, although percentage
utilization shows considerable variation. The et¥ect of the impact
of livestock use on fawn survival appears to have renuiined constant
during the study. The volume of bitterbrush forage taken by deer
shows considerable variation from vear to year.

234 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

11. The data indicate that bitterbrush consumption rose and fell, and
fawn survival went up and down, with total range pressure by
deer (as reflected by pellet groups per acre) except during the
winter of 1949-50. In that year, fawn survival was extremely low
and bitterbrush utilization extremely high, and both of them out of
all proportion to total deer pressure.

12. A relationship appears to exist between intensity of bitterbrush
cropping and the success of the succeeding season's fawning, as
reflected in fall doe: fawn ratios.

13. The study has provided support for the belief that bitterbrush
is an indicator species of value in deer management on the Lassen-
Washoe range.

14. It is planned to check the validity of these findings against data
from similar ranges. Meanwhile, they can stand as an example of
how range data maj- be used to guide deer management.

The findings indicate that the survival of the fawns of the year and
the success of the following season's fawning are dependent upon the
deer not browsing much above the 25 percent bitterbrush utilization
level. This is true under the existing level of livestock pressure on the
Lassen- Washoe range.

LITERATURE CITED
Aldous, C. M.

1945. A winter study of mule deer in Nevada, Jour. Wildlife Mangt., vol. 9, no.
2, p. 145-151.
Blaisdell, James A.

1953. A progress report on the Doyle Deer Herd. West. Assoc. St. Game and
Fish Comm., 33d Ann. Conf., Proc. (In press.)
Dasmann, William P.

1947. A critical review of range survey methods and their application to deer

range management. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 34, no. 4, p. 189-207.
1951. Some deer range survey methods. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 1,
p. 43-52.

Hormay, A. L.

1943. A method for estimating grazing use of bitterbrush. Calif. Forest and
Range Expt. Sta., Research Note no. 35, 4 p.
Interstate Deer Herd Committee

1951. The Devils Garden deer herd. Fifth progress report of the interstate deer
herd and its range, including a summation of work to date. Calif. Fish
and Game, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 233-272.

Lassen, R. W., C. M. Ferrel, and Howard Leach

1952. Food habits, productivity and condition of the Doyle mule deer herd.
Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 38, no. 2, p. 211-224.

Ijomasson, T., and Chandler .lensen

1942. Determining the utilization of range grasses from height-weight tables.
U. S. Forest Serv., Northern Region, 9 p. (Mimeo.)
Parker, Kenneth W.

1942. A method for estimating grazing use in mixed grass types. Southwest For-
est and Range Expt. Sta., Research Note no. 35, 5 p. (Mimeo.)
1951. A method for measuring trend in range condition on national forest
ranges. U. S. Forest Serv., 26 p. (Mimeo.)

1953. Instructions for measurement and observation of vigor composition and
browse. U. S. Forest Serv., 9 p. (Mimeo.)

EIGHTH PROGRESS REPORT ON THE COOPERATIVE

STUDY OF THE DEVILS GARDEN INTERSTATE

DEER HERD AND ITS RANGE'

INTERSTATE DEER HERD COMMITTEE

INTRODUCTION

The Interstate Deer Herd Committee was organized in 11)45 to study
tlie Roeky Mountain mnle deer (Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) \)V(>h-
lem on the Devils Garden winter deer range in Modoc County, (Cali-
fornia, and to attempt to draw up a plan for management. The com-
mittee is composed of members of the Oregon Game Commission, tlie
U. S. Forest Service (Regions V and VI), and the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game. Representatives of organized sportsmen and
of livestock growers' associations are invited to committee meetings to
act in an advisory capacity. This is the first instance of such a coopera-
tive venture in California to study a deer herd and its range. This pilot
study has helped in developing deer and range survey technifpies and
mauagement practices that have later been used successfully in otlicT-
parts of the State.

During the past eight years, the committee has fostered the following
investigations: (1) deer herd collections to determine general condition,
disease, parasites, productivity, and food habits; (2) road kill collec-
tions for the same purpose; (3) trapping and marking; (-1) predator
control; (5) wild horse removal; (6) livestock use reduction; (7) ant-
lerless deer removals; (8) salting experiments; (9) deer herd composi-
tion counts; (10) trials of census methods; (11) carcass counts; (12)
annual forage utilization checks; (13) range trend inventories; (14)
range reseeding; (15) habitat improvement work; and (16) range
revegetation studies.

Throughout the investigation, numerous problems have arisen which
have resulted in a change of the methods used to gather the information
needed for management. For instance, when forage plots were first
installed, an attempt was made to get a coverage of the entire winter
range. This forage utilization study revealed that deer browsing was
heaviest on areas where winter concentrations occurred and that forage
use was relatively light on areas principally used during migration.
This changed the concept of management from one embracing an exten-
sive range to one of primary concern with a key area on which the deer
tend to concentrate during the winter months. It was premised that
if the better deer forages could be maintained on the key area, where
cropping is ordinarily heaviest, the rest of the range would logically
take care of itself. The key management area omliracos the range on

1 Submitted for pubUcation December, 1953. Special acknowledgment is made of the
work of Trevenen ^Vright of the California Department of Fish and Game, who
did a large share of the compilation of this report.

(235 )

236

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

wbit'li deer use is concentrated during mid-winter and on which an
adequate supply of forage is vital to maintenance of the deer herd.

FIRE HISTORY

Fires in the Great Basin area are generally deterimental to deer
browse species, because most of these shrubs do not sprout after burn-
ing. Fire usually results in destruction of browse, and their replace-
ment by annuals, such as cheat grass (Bromus tectorum). This results
in an increase in the fire hazard ; a vicious circle, since dry cheat grass
is more combustible and carries tire more quickly than will the native
perennials. Cheat grass also oifers stiff competition for living space to
the more desirable forage species.

One of the problems on the winter range of the Devils Garden inter-
state deer herd is the destruction of valuable browse stands by the
several large fires which have occurred since 1936. The location of
these fires is shown in Figure 1. The most recent extensive burn, the
]\rears fire, occurred in 1951. This fire covered nearly 27,000 acres in
the heart of the winter range. Nearly one-fifth of the key management
area was burned, including extensive stands of bitterbrush {PursMa
tridentata) , an important winter deer browse.

LEGEND - FIRES lOOO ACRES OR MORE 1936-1952.
E?73 1936 CORNELl, 2.1,090 «CAES 1^ 1945 - OAMOW BOTTE.

nmH 1938- MospiT(»i. ROCK LW« BEOS itos? ESI 1 946 -twin sisters

BE] I940 • BRyANT MT. 1,019 ESS] (948- Muo \j\ke

^a 1941 •MAHhWTH.BARNTOP 97,760 ^3 l950- MftHMCfTH.PuMia Mia, PlUMRlME 23,760

l9M -TWIM VOTERS, MtDOWe 1.7,695 ES 1951 -MEMRS, MOWITZ

FIGURE 1. Fire history map. Devils Garden winter deer range.

12, no
5,882
1,016

Z(>,S58

'iiii; i>i:\ii,s (;ai;|)|;\ I)i;i;i; iii';ui) 237

SIZE OF THE DEER HERD

Track Count

A It ll()iii;li wii'ioiis ((•(■liiii(|ii('s ;iii(l iiicIIkmIs Ii;i\c hccii used lo dctiT-
iiiiiic llic size of llic (l('('i- |)(i|iiil;il ion which wiiilcrs on tin- Devils (inv-
den I'Jiii^c ( I iilci-slatc Dcci- llci-d ( '(uninil tec. If).")! ), iimir Ii;i\c |)fov('(l
as sfitisffictory ;is Ilic st;i1c line livick coiiiit. This tr;ick ('(111111 has been
eai'i-icd oil each spring' I'oi- llic past seven yeafs. (hily \\\r intcrstato
lierd which inii;ratcs I'rom Calirornia into ()re^'on is in\entoried by the
ti'aek count. This count does not account t'oi' the deer which ini;zratf3
I'roin the Devils (iarden area to sunniier ian;^es in ( "alifornia. The popu-
hition li,mii-es obtained IVom this count ace therefore considei'ed con-
servative.

Early in the s])ring', when observations indieate the deer herd is
ini<ii'atin«i' north, an airplane is nsed to determine the proximity of
deer to the state line. When deer begin to eross the state line road,
the eonnters move in with jeep, horses, and e(inipment. Camp is made
near the state line, in a U. S. Forest Service cabin.

The length of the track connting-strip is approximately 23 miles.
It runs from Willow Reservoir in Khiiiiath ('ounty, Oregon, to Young
\';dley in Lake County, Oregon.

The track counting-bed is approximately -'{(i inches wide, a width
sufficient to recoi-d llu' tracks of walking or trotting deer. The average
\valking step of the adult deer is 18 iiu-hes, while the trotting step
averages 28 inches. Very few deer run across the connting-bed, because
there is little to disturb them.

The counter walks in front of the jeep with a tally register in each
hand and tallies the north- and southbound tracks. At the end of the
strip, the south tracks are subtracted from the north and the actual
number of deer going north is recorded.

Half of the strip is counted every other day. A crew of two men
handles the count. Horses are used, when snow and road conditions are
poor, to count deer crossings and reconnoiter roads for travel. Herd
composition is tallied at the same time the count is in progress. Fawn
losses over the winter can then be calculated.

As the count is made, the tracks are erased and the track-bed pre-
pared for the next count by the jeep, which pulls a spring-toothed
harrow and a tire behind the counters (Figure 2). This operation is
carried on every day until the northward migration diminishes, after
which counts are made at longer intervals.

Conditions which tend to bring about a conservative count include
(1) stretches of rocky and hard road surfaces; (2) snow and rain,
which cover or wash out tracks; (3) single-file crossing of large groups
of deer, which results in obliterating tracks; (4) livestock on track-
bed, which obliterate tracks; (5) deer crossing on snow packs which
subsequently melt way; (6) deer crossing on wet ground that is frozen;
and (7) incidental vehicles which travel on the track-bed.

Table 1 shows the actual count figures and the estimated population
for the past seven years of the count. Table 2 shows the number of deer
counted by weeks.

238

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1
State Line Track Count Figures for Seven Years

Year

Actual tally

Estimated missed*

Adjusted total

1947-- _ . . _.. - -_

10,826
9,665
14,011
13,256
17,570
10,547
11,601

2,060

'2",oo5

2,000
1,500
3,000

12,886

1948

1949 .. ..

1950 _____

15,256

1951

19,570

1952

1953 _

12,047
14,601

* These estimates are derived from field observations. They include deer crossing before and after track counting
period, deer crossing during storms, and those crossing rocky places in the track bed.

Pellet Count

Each spring when the forage utilization check is made, groups of
deer droppings are counted on tenth-acre strips, 11 chains long and
six feet wide. The pellet group count is converted into deer days by
use of a conversion factor of 12.7 groups per deer day, as determined by
Rasmussen and Doman (1943).

In the past, pellet group counts were used by the committee to esti-
mate the deer population. Now that only the key management area is
sampled each year, the pellet count is used as an indicator of the trend
in deer use on that area.

4^ u.>M&E(. DRive.
Teep

COOM-VER.
ir4 &ACH rtftfjo

SPl?ti>»<5--tooTH
KftRROui

TRACK COUNT METHOD

USED TO COUNT INTERSTATE DEER. "THcvr
MIGRATE BACK TO OREijON PROt-\ Cf^UFORNIA
EACH SPRING. NORTH AND SOUTHBOUND TRACKS

ARE COUNTED EACH Dfly. Southbound TRACKS

are: 5ueTRACTE.D FROM NORTH'BOUND FOR THE,
TOTAL NORTH.

FIGURE 2. Track count procedure.

THE DKVir.S fl.\KI)F:.N' DKKIt ni:i{|)

»»'*f

{'»

1950-51

1951-52

I95i-M

LEGEND

□

0-10 DEER DAYS PER ftCRE

MORE. THAN 10 DEER
OftVS PER ACRE

MORE TMAN 30 DEER
DAYS PER ACRE

""-. BOUNDARY OF Kty
.-.^' MANA6EME.NT AREA

FIGURE 3. Deer concentration areas according to pellet count data.

Figure 3 delineates the portion of the -winter raii^e on ^vhi^.'h deer
were most concentrated during- three winters (1950-51, 1951-52, 1952-
53), as shown by abundance of pellet groups. Table 3 shows average
pellet group counts and deer days use per acre for the three winters on
the management area.

240

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 2
State Line Track Count, by Weekly Periods

Year

April
5-11

April
12-18

April
19-25

April-
May
26-2

May
3-9

May
10-16

May
17-23

May
24-30

May-
June
31-6

1Qd7

2,566

4,560
94

3,030
577
5,808
2,329
4,134
1,551
2,893

670
730
3,614
4,574
888
3,316
1,411

1948

3,241
3,323
1,300
95
3,394
2,492

3,616
902

2,482
606

1,711
428

754
364
800
136

143

653

1949

1950

970
6,226

801
5,485

364
1,104

1951

1952

211

1953

*2,954

176

* Tracks counted February 17th to April 11th, Inclusive.

THE COMPOSITION OF THE DEER HERD

During the winter of 1952-53, the composition count of animals in
the Interstate and Glass Mountain deer herds was made from the
middle of November to the end of December. Similar methods of
classification were used as in past years (Interstate Deer Herd Com-
mittee, 1951). For classification purposes the western limit of the Inter-
state deer range is arbitrarily set at the Great Northern Railroad track.
There is some intermingling of Interstate and Glass Mountain deer
along this line. Table 4 gives the herd percentages for the past ten
winters of the study.

As seen in Table 4, the percentage of fawns in the herd in 1953 is
down from previous years but is still high, considering the heavy die-off
during the preceding winter. This may be due in part to the decreased
number of yearling (non-bearing) does in the count, resulting from
deer loss as fawns the previous winter.

Table 5 shows the buck-doe and fawn-doe ratios for the past ten
years of the study.

The number of bucks per 100 does has remained relatively low in the
Interstate herd, because of heavy hunting pressure and because of the
vulnerability of the deer, due to the openness of the country. Ap-
parently the incidence of pregnancy has remained satisfactory in spite
of the wide ratio, as evidenced bj^ the doe-fawn ratio, which has re-
mained as high as in most other herds in California.

TABLE 3
Average Pellet Groups Per Plot and Deer Days Use

Year

Average groups per plot

Deer-days per acre

1950-51

30.9
22.1
13.2

24.3

1951-52 1.-. .

17.4

1952-53 -- --- . - - - .-

10 4

Till'; i)i;vii-s (iAKi)i;.\ i)i;i;i{ iiiikd

TABLE 4
Herd Percentages for Past 10 Years of Study

I'll

Year

Bucks

Does

Fawns

No. deer • ..^c^...> -s

1913-44 -._ ..1

g

8
6
9
8

5

8
10

7

7

03

55
01
57
59
59
47
51
52
GO

28
37
33
34
33
44
45
39
41
33

5,980
3,(K)7
1 f>90

1944-45

1945-40

1 94G-47

1 003

1947-48. ... . .

1 7 '10

1 948-49 -

■'97

1949-50 . .

1 ,835
1,5(h»
l,Ofil
1.019

1 950-51

1951-52

1952-53 -

Table (5 sliows the aiitlei- jioiiil classes of the buek-s classified dui-iii",'
tiie past several years.

It can be noted from Table 6 that the percentage of spike Ixieks has
been increasing gradually each year, with only two exceptions. Tin-
1952-5.3 decline can be explained by the winter die-off which took a
lu'avy toll of fawns in 1951-52. On deer ranges in good condition, the
liocky ^Mountain mule deer reportedly is a forked horn the first year.

TABLE 5
Buck-Doe and Fawn-Doe Ratios

Year

Bucks per 100 does

Fawns per 100 does

1943-44 ..

14
15
10
16
14
10
17
19
13
12

45

1944-45.. .... .. . . ..

67

1945-46

54

1946-47 .

61

1947-48 ... - ... .. .. .. .. ...

56

1948-49

85

1949-50

94

1950-51 ... .. ... .. ..

77

1951-52

77

1952-53

55

TABLE 6
Antler Point Classes, by Percentage

Number^^of points

Number of

Year

1

2

3

4

Over 4

bucks classified

1943-44 . .

5
9
8
10
19
25
29
36
36
21

30
28
26
25
40
31
42
31
26
32

30
25
26
22
17
19
12
20
19
24

28
34
38
30
18

12.5
14
9
16
17

7
4
2

13

6
12.5

3

4
3
6

515

1944.45 _ _

240

1945-46 . -

109

1946-47

144

1947-48 - . . ..

141

1948-49 ....

16

1949-50

1.54

1950-51

1951-52- _-.... .

154
73

1952-53 .- .

71

-97014

242 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Antler growth seems definitely correlated with good nutrition. The
increase in spikes on the Interstate winter range may be due directly
to a deterioration of rans-e conditions.

■^o^

WINTER MORTALITY

The winter of 1951-52 was a deep snow winter and the conditions
caused a heaw toll of deer on most of the poorer winter ranges in
northeastern California. One of the heaviest hit herds was that on
the Devils Garden. The calculated loss of this herd was approximately
32 percent.

The first indication of an impending winter loss was the general con-
dition of deer seen the last of December. It was noted that instead of
"kegging up" during storms, the animals were feeding right through
the clay. Deer began invading the Tulelake Homesteads for the first
time, feeding from haystacks and new alfalfa seedings. Nine deer,
killed on the railroad tracks January 28 near Perez, were all in poor
condition. A trip was made in the vicinity of Dead Horse Canyon
January 31. A total of 536 deer was seen and approximately 20 per-
cent of them were in extremely poor condition. One dead fawn was
found.

The snow depth level in the die-off area never exceeded two feet, and
was generally considerably less. During the first part of February the
weather was clear and mild and this encouraged the growth of grass.
The deer started feeding on this grass out in the flats. Snow storms
occurred immediately afterwards and continued through the following
month. As a consequence, the deer moved back to the juniper thickets
and protective rims, where most of the carcasses were later found.

Sportsmen's Feeding

Sportsmen in Tulelake, California, hearing reports about dead deer
(which were plainly visible from State Highway 139), became alarmed.
On February 23, these sportsmen took six tons of feed and salt out to
the deer. The feed consisted of cottonseed cake and range pellets (40
percent protein). The deer used the feed but not much of the salt.
Whether this feeding resulted in the saving of deer was not determined.
There were many carcasses in the vicinity of the feeding stations, but
these animals could have died prior to provision of feed. The peak of the
die-off occurred in the middle of Februaiy, before feeding commenced.

Stomach Contents

A collection of 110 stomachs from winter-killed deer was taken to
the department's Food Habits Laboratory and the stomach contents
analyzed. Table 7 shows stomach analysis of 55 deer collected in the
Casuse IMountain locality and Table 8 shows the analysis of 44 stomachs
taken in the Sagehorn vicinity. It should be stressed that the tables
indicate the diet of deer which were not able to withstand the winter.

The stomachs of all deer, with the exception of two fawns, were full.
Although even in mild winters some juniper is utilized, it is apparent
from the tables that a diet heavy in juniper will not maintain these
animals under conditions similar to those of the winter of 1951-52.

THE DKVILS OAKDEN DKKU m;KI)

•_'i:{

TABLE 7
Food Items Eaten by 55 Winterkilled Deer Near Casuse Mountain

ColllIllOIl IliUllO

Volume perri'nt

Frr'f|tiirncy of
occiirronro
in percent

Browso

Juniper . .

SaKohrush _ _
Rabbitbiush_
Bitterbrush . _

Total browse

Forbs

Rock lichen

Tumbling mustard-
Moss

Filaree

Forbs spp. (dry stems) .

Total forbs-

Grass

Grass (dry)

Grass (green)

Gheat grass (dry florets) .

Total grass

54.0

15.0

1.3

trace

70.3

0.9

26.8

2.0

trace

28.8

100

91

24

4

0.6

15

0.3

24

trace

33

trace

2

trace

7

01
71
67

TABLE 8
Food Items Eaten by 44 Winter-killed Deer Near Sagehorn

Browse

Juniper

Sagebrush —
Rabbitbrush .

Total browse-

Common name

Forbs

Tumbling mustard.

Rock lichen

Moss

Filaree

Total forbs-

Grass

Grass (dry)

Grass (green).
Cheat grass

Total grass-.

Volume percent

54.4
8.0
1.4

63.8

1.8

25

trace

7

trace

9

trace

7

1.8

30.7

3.7

trace

34.4

Frequency of
occurrence
in percent

100
64
25

93
66
73

244

CALIFORNIA PISH AND GAME

The heaviest mortality occurred in an area which has been gutted
by fires in past years, thus offering little in the way of adequate forage
for deer. Practically 100 percent of the junipers on this area are now
highlined as high as an adult deer can reach.

Bone Marrow

Another check on the condition of the animals was made by examin-
ing the bone marrow in the femur of 122 deer. According to Cheatum
(1949) the bone marrow of the deer can be used as an index of mal-
nutrition. As an animal declines in physical condition, the bone marrow
reportedly changes in color and consistency. The following four bone
marrow classifications were used: (1) solid, white marrow: excellent
condition; (2) solid, red-flecked marrow: good condition; (3) fairly
solid, red marrow: fair condition; (4) jelly-like, red marrow: poor
condition. Of the 122 animals checked for bone marrow condition, all
but five were found to be in the fourth categorj^

Carcass Composition Count

A total of 708 deer carcasses were classified as to age and sex. It was
found that 16.6 percent were adults, 5.8 percent were yearlings, and
77.6 percent were fawns. Ninety percent of the deer were found lying
beneath junipers, many as if they had lain down to sleep. Approxi-
mately 10 percent of the adults were old deer that may have died re-
gardless of winter conditions. Table 9 shows a further breakdown of
the composition of the carcass count.

Dentition was used to classify the yearling class from older deer.
The dentition of yearlings examined showed only partially erupted
canines and the third premolars not yet replaced by permanent teeth.

TABLE 9
Composition of 1951-52 Winter-killed Deer on Devils Garden Interstate Winter Range

Animal class

Number
classified

Percent of
total

Adults

Female - _ _ _

103
14

14 6

Male

2 0

Total adults

117

23

18

16 6

Yearlincs

3 3

Male - --

2 5

Total yearlings

41

299
251

5 8

Fawns

Female _

42 2

Male

35 4

Total fawn."?-

550
708

77 6

All deer . . _

100 0

Mil': i)i:\ii;S (i.\in)i;.\ \ha:\( \i\.h[>

24 :>

Predation

Evidence of prcdiit ion \v;i.s found in ;i |)|iro\iiii;ilc|y 7) iicrcumt of the
carcasses. I low nnicli \\;is due to I lie .iiiiiii.ils hciii'^j in poor and weak-
ened condition was dillicnlt to evaluate. .\ nunilxu- of tlir cafeasses e.v-
annned had heen eaten al'tei- the ilrcy had died. I'^ai^les had worked on
rib ca<i'es and eaten \iscera, while pack rats had liollowid (,ul hams
and eaten ears, noses, and Feet.

Carcass Count

Between A])ril 20 and Mny 2, 19r)2, the dead deer were counted in an
ai'(>a of .')S, ;")?') acres ( h''iu'ui'(^ H. A map of the die-ofT area was drawn

>;,,; Big Sond Butte

,-, Eost Sand
"--' Butts'
^,„ Little Sand/-^-^

''n- ButtC'-''^

©

ACRES DEAD DEER
12,700 1,013

©

6,060 • 777

@

2,165 63

®

4,120 192

®

6,700 194

(§)

6,830 189

Total

38,575 2,428

One deer to sixteen ocres

Quarantine
Sta. \

FIGURE 4. Carcass count areas. Devils Garden winter deer range. Counts made
April 20, 21, 22, 29, 30, and May 1 and 2, 1952.

246

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

from previous reconnaissance and divided into six units. Manpower
and time limited the counting and 100 percent coverage could not be
attained on any one unit, although on Unit 3 the coverage amounted
to an estimated 90 percent, since men were walking within sight of
each other during the whole count (150 yards apart, estimated).

As mentioned before, most of the deer died under junipers. It was
therefore possible to walk by a dead deer without seeing it. As an ex-
ample : one counter who had a dog looked back to see the dog sniffing a
carcass by which he had walked within 15 yards, and had not seen.

Road kills, fence kills, and railroad kills were excluded from the
count. A rock was placed on each carcass as it was counted to avoid
duplication.

TABLE 10

Unit Data of Carcass Count (see Figure 4)

Unit

Date

Acreage

Man days

Total
count

Acres
per
deer

Estimated
coverage
(percent)

Deer

1 .

4/20
4/21
4/22
4/29
4/30
5/1-2

12,700
6,060
2,165
4,120
6,700
6,830

20
14

7.5

8

9
10

1,013

777
63
192
194
189

12.5
6.8
34.4
21.5
34.5
S6.0

70

75
90
85
85
80

1,447

2 .

1,036

3 _

70

4 _-.-_..

226

5 .... _..

228

6 - _ . .

236

Totals. _ _

38,575

68.5

2,428

3,243

A total of 68| man-days was expended on the tally. Besides person-
nel from the three agencies concerned with the study, assistance in the
count was given by the Klamath Falls Sportsmen's Association.

A total of 2,428 deer was counted on 38,575 acres, or one deer to
every 16 acres. The estimated total loss on the count areas was esti-
mated to be 3,243 deer, or one deer to everj^ 12 acres. As only the
heavily concentrated areas were counted and deer also died along the
migration routes to Oregon, the total number of animals lost on the
winter range was considerably greater than the total estimated to have
died on the count area.

Unit 2 produced the most carcasses per acre, with one deer for every
6.8 acres. Unit 1 was next, with one deer for every 12.5 acres.

The mild winter of 1952-53 caused very little mortality and, except
for normal loss due to old age, survival was high.

DEER COLLECTION

For the past three years, highway-, fence-, and railroad-killed deer
have been collected during the winter and spring. Arrangements were
made with the Quarantine Station, Division of Highways and Highway
Patrol, to notify the California Department of Fish and Game in Al-
turas whenever any deer were found. The deer were then aged, sexed,

Till': i)i;\ii,s (i.\Ki)i;.\ i)i;i;i£ iikkd

247

inonsiirod For .i^ii'lli, clicckcd I'oi- coiiditioii, hidat ion, pn'^Miaiicy, fiii-
bryo scN .iiid size, |);ir;isiics, and disease. Stomach saniplcs and ovari"s
W'i'vv collcclcd. Talilc 11 ji'ivos a siiinniafy ol' some nl" llicsc data.

Carcasses not too hadh damajicd wn-c irivcn to the .Modoc Count v
Jail.

TABLE 11

Summary of Higliway-, Fence-, and Railroad-killed Deer

Number of duer (.'xuiiiiuccL

Adults

Female

Male

Yearlings

Female

Male

Fawns

Female

Male

Unclassified

Number does examined for pregnancy.

Percent pregnancy

Number embryos per doe

Bone marrow condition in percentage
Number 1 — excellent — solid, white.
Number 2 — good — solid, flecked red

Number 3 — fair — solid, all red

Number 4 — poor — jelly, all red

1951

30

11
1

7
7

1

11

88
1 . 75

1952

5'J

26
2

18
07
1.0

18
43
26
13

1953

40

19
0

9
7

0

9
100
1.6

36

52

12

0

FORAGE STUDIES
Forage Inventory Report

In 1947 and 1948, 400 line-intercept sample range plots were in-
stalled on the Devils Garden winter deer rano-e. These plots were es-
tablished at predetermined intervals alon^i', but at ri<i'ht angles to, the
many roads and trails that traverse the winter range. Plots were 200
feet long. Plant measurements were taken along 500 inches of this line.
The 500 inches were broken into 20 segments, each 25 inches long.
These segments were spaced along the transect line at 10-foot intervals.
The individual segments were marked by painted 60-penny spikes.
Transects were marked at roadsides witli numbered iron posts. An
analysis of the plot data was made to determine the composition of the
ground cover on the key management area. A total of 204 plots fell
inside the area. From these, it Avas computed that, if all forage species
were evenly spread over the management area, the surface of ever}'
thousand acres would be covered as shown in Table 12.

248

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

In the fall of 1952, 105 of the sample plots in the key area were re-
measured. The survey was made to determine if changes had occurred
during' the four-year period. Of the plots remeasured, 90 were con-
verted to the line point method, which is now the standard method
used throughout the State in open type deer range studies. Bitter-
brush, juniper, sagebrush, and rabbitbrush plauts on the plots were
classified as to form and age classes, to gain information on availability,
hedging, and age of these browses. Data from the 90 line point plots
are compared beloAv with those from the 90 line intercept plots to
point out the differences in results from the two methods.

TABLE 12
Forage Cover on Key Management Area

Class of cover

Acres

Bare grouivd .-

291

Rock

55

Litter

Dead bitterbrush ._ _

298
18

Dead sagebrush

13

Other dead browses -

5

Total nonproductive- _

680

Annual grasses- - -__ -

45

Annual forbs

34

Total annuals -

- 79

Mosses - - - - -

2

Sedges -- - - -- - -----

14

Perennial grasses- -- - -

70

Perennial forbs

22

Total perennial herbs - -

_-- -- 108

Bitterbrush _ _ -

29

Juniper -- --

4

Rabbitbrush-- -_--

14

Sagebrush -- --

67

Squaw carpet ----

12

All other available browses

6

Total browses -_

--- 132

Unclassified cover -

1 1

Grand total -

-- - - 1,000

In presenting the range sample plot data, four comparisons have
been made to show the different methods of analysis. The first com-
parison (Table 13) shows the number of inches of various classes of
cover measured in 1948 in comparison with the number of inches meas-
ured in 1952. This is a yardstick from which actual changes in the
ground cover are indicated. Table 14 shows the percentage composi-
tion of the living vegetation. Table 15 gives the number of plots on
which each class of cover occurred. Table 16 shows the number of seg-
ments that contained plants in 1948, in comparison with 1952.

In comparing the ground cover data, some differences should be ex-
plained. For example, the percentage of rock increased in the 1952
breakdown. This can be attributed to the fact that fires uncovered rock
that formerly was covered with vegetation.

TllK i)i;vii,s (lAKDKX |)i;i;k iii:i;i)

24f)

TABLE 13
Comparative Analysis of Ground Cover in Key Area for 1948 and 1952

( r.;is('(l (111 lori-liiic li;iiiM'(l pints, rt'JJAHt" of iiilciTi-pl )

rinninil cover

11118

Inches

Percent

U»02

Inches

Percent

il

Han

Kofk

Litter...

Moss

Dead saKi'l>rush_ _
1 )('a(l rahbitbrush.
Dead bittorbrush.
Dead others

Total noniirodiictivc.

Annual grasses-
Annual weeds. -

Total annuals

Sagebrush

Squaw earpet.
Rabbitbrush..

Juniper

Yellow pine

Wild cherry. _-

Hitterbrush

Other shrubs..

Total browse species.

Balsam root.

Mule-ear

Other forbs-.

Total ])erennial forbs.

Bluebunch wheatgrass..

Sedge

Idaho fescue

Junegrass

Bluegrass

Squirreltail .__

Needlegrass

Other perennial grasses.

Total perennial grasses.
Grand totals

14,509

2,620

1C,!(28

100

725

205

1,:U4

15

36,452

1 ,(i()6
1 ,1'4C.

2,942

2,583

755

712

290

148

68

2,451

47

7,054

499
313
230

1,042

198

935

419

64

1,188

1,077

1,083

46

5,010

52,500

27.6

32
0,
1,

0.

0.0

69.4

3.2
2.4

5.6

4.9
1.4
1.4
0.6
0.3
0.1
4.7
0.1

13.5

0.9
0.6
0.4

1.9

0.4
1.8
0.8
0.1
2.3
2.0
2.1
0.1

9.6

100.0

11,286

2,923

18,158

95

848

1 !M

Sfif,

113

34,483

4,310
2,829

7,139

l,.'-)35
1 ,050
618
583
174
112
1,945
110

6,127

164
145
138

447

222
710
266

48

(i.')2

920

1,431

55

4,304

52,500

21.5
5 . (1

34.6
0.2
I .6
0.4
I .6

8.2
5.4

13.0

3.0
2.0
1.2
1.1
0.3
0.2
3.7
0.2

11.7

0.3
0.3
0.2

0.8

0.1

1.2
1.8

0.1

8.2

100.0

The dead sagebrush category shows an increase in 1952, while dead
hitterbrush shows a decrease. At the same time, hisses of coverages by
living plants have been sustained for both species. In the case of tleail
sagebrush, the increase was due to plants dying from causes other than
fire. The decrease in the amount of dead bitterbrush was mostly due
to fire, which completely consumed the dead shrubs.

Annual grasses and Aveeds show increases due, for the most part, to
fire.

250

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 14

Comparative Analysis of Vegetative Composition by Percentage
(Based ou 105-line transect plots, 52,500" of intercept]

Plant species

1948

1952

Sagebrush

Squaw carpet

Rabbi tbrush

Jumper

Yellow pine

Wild cherry

Bitterbursh

Others

Total shrubs

Annual grasses

Bluebunch wheatgrass

Sedge

Idaho fescue

Junegrass

Bluegrass

Squirreltail

Needlegrass

Others

Total grasses

Annual weeds

Balsam root

Mule-ear

Others

Total f orbs

Grand total

16.10

8.52

4.70

5.83

4.44

3.43

1.81

3.24

.92

.97

.42

.62

15.27

10.79

.30

.61

43.96

34.01

10.57

23.92

1.23

1.23

5.83

3.94

2.61

1.48

.39

.27

7.40

3.62

6.71

5.11

6.75

7.94

.30

.30

41.79

47.81

7.76

15.70

3.11

.91

1.95

.80

1.43

.77

14.25

18.18

100.00

100.00

In the perennial grasses a decrease is shown in all species with the
exception of bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum) , needlegrass
(Stipa spp.), and junegrass. Since there is a strong possibility of mis-
identification of grass species, it is believed that only the total for
perennial grasses indicates the true picture. These totals show an over-
all loss of 14 percent resulting from fires and other causes.

Of the 105 line intercept plots checked, 15 had burned in the interim
period. Of the bitterbrush segment loss, 53 percent occurred on burned
plots, while 32 percent of sagebrush loss occurred on burned plots.

The figures indicate a downward trend in range conditions. The
increase in annual vegetation is an indicator of range depletion. Cheat
grass and other undesirable annual weeds soon take over an abused

range.

The Mears and Plum Kidge fires had a marked effect on this down-
ward trend. Percentage utilization by livestock and deer for the past
two years (1951 and 1952) was at a level which should result in main-
tenance of the better forage plants. During the two previous years
(1949 and 1950 j over-utilization of the range occurred.

TUi: r)i:vii,s cakdii.v i)i:i;i; iiikd

2.')!

TABLE 15
Number of Line Transect Plots on Wliich Eacti Class of Ground Cover Occurs

Common name

Bare soil

Rock.-

Litter -

Moss

Dead manzanita _
Dead saRebrush —
Dead rabbitbrusli-

Dead mahogany

Dead plilox

Dead pine .

Dead cherry — .
Dead hittcrbrush...

Annual grasses

Annual weeds

Service berry.

Manzanita

Sagebrush

Squaw carpet-
Mahogany

Rabbitbrush--

Juniper

Incense cedar_
Yellow pine. _
Wild cherry- -

Bitterbrush

Gooseberry

Horse brush- -

Yarrow

Antennaria

Balsamroot

Wild buckwheat-

Lupine

Pentstemon

Phlox

Groundsel

Mule-ear :

Unclassified

Bluebunch wheatgrass-

California brome

Sedge

Wild-rye

Idaho fescue

Junegrass

Bluegrass

Squirreltail

Needlegrass

Unclassified

Scientific name

Arctostaphylog patula^

A rtemisia spp

ChrysnOinmnua spj).-
Cer -ocarpus ledifuiiim

Phlox spp

Pinus ponderosa

Prunus spp .

Purshia tridentala

Amclanchier alnifulia..
Arctostaphylos palula..

Artemisia spp

Ceanothus prostratus ^
Cercocarpus ledifolius.

Chrysothamnus spp

Juniperus occidentalia
Libocedrus decurrens^

Pinus ponderosa

Pnimis spp

Purshia tridentala

Rihes spp .

Tetradymia spp

Achillea spp

Antennaria spp

BaUamorhiza spp.

Eriogonum spp

Lupinus spp

Pentstemon spp

Phlox spp

Senecio spp

Wyethia mollis

Agropyron spicatum.

Bromus carinatus

Carex spp

Elymus spp

Festuca idahoensis. -

Koeleria cristata

Poa spp

Sitanion hystrix.
Stipa spp

1948

KM
71

lO.-j
12
15
40
18

55
81

83

1

2
60
21

1
39
19

1
13

4
73

1

21
6

21
9
2
2
7
4

21
7

20

2

53

5

36

16

86

78

84

1

1952

MM

79

lor,

11

1

37

21

3

1

1

1

48

90

86

1

4

50

26

1

39

21

1

8

6

57

3
7
11
3
1
2
1

13
9

23

7
44

6
26
II
57
72
80

3

Comparison of Line Intercept Plot and Line Point Plot Method

At the time the line interee]it plots were renieasured, 90 were
changed to the line point method on the same 200-foot line. The class
of cover present over or under every other foot mark along the tape
was recorded. This gave a total of 100 line points for each plot.

The line point plots were made 200 feet long, instead of the standard
loo feet now used on most deer ranges in California, in order to in-
clude juniper trees that had been tagged in the original line intercept

252

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 16
Number of Segments That Contained Plants

Species

1948

No. segments

1952
No. segments

Percent loss in
no. segments

Bitterbrush _

262

218

71

183

180

66

30.4

Sagebrush

17.4

Rabbitbrush

7.0

TABLE 17

Ground Cover Composition in Points and Percentage, September, 1952

(Including Number of Plots on Which Each Class of Cover Occurs Based on

90 Plots, 200' Long With Every Other Footmark Recorded)

Class of cover

No. points

Percent
of cover

No. plots
W/cover

Bare ground

Rock

Litter

Moss

Dead sagebrush

Dead rabbitbrush

Dead bitterbrush

Dead others

Total nonproductive

Sagebrush

Squaw carpet

Rabbitbrush

Juniper

Yellow pine

Wild cherry

Bitterbrush

Others

Total browse species

Mule-ear

Others

Total per forbs

Annual grass

Annual forbs

Total annuals

Bluebunch wheatgrass

Sedge

Idahoe fescue

Junegrass

Bluegrass

Squirreltail

Needlegrass

Others

Total per grasses

Grand total

1,668

539

3,088

18

183

27

192

3

18.9

6.0

33.9

.2

2.1

.3

2.2

90
68
90

5
48
17
55

3

5,718

63.6

409

4.5

54

211

2.3

26

163

1.8

43

149

1.6

36

53

.6

20

10

.1

4

484

5.4

65

18

.2

7

1,497

16.5

16

.2

5

80

.9

26

96

1.1

810

9.1

66

291

3.3

56

1,101

12.4

22

.2

12

85

.9

31

55

.6

18

7

.1

5

99

1.1

38

102

1.1

41

213

2.4

52

5

5

588

6.4

9,000

100.0

Tiir: i)i:\'ii,s (;.\i;i)i;.\ i)i:i:i{ iii;i;i>

2:>:i

siiTNcy, ;iii(l so lluit ;is iii;iiiy ;is possililr o|' hit tcrlji-iisli |)laiit.s iiu-liidcd
in llic earlier siii-veys Wdiild he iiiehiihMl in tlic new sample.

Three painted iron reiiil'oi'einL; rods were (lri\en on eaeji plot: at
the zero, lOO-foot, and liOO-foot marks. .M'Irr the first lOO f.-ri wi-re
recorded, the tape w;is moved to the second 100 I'ei't. A lead plumh-
l)ol) was snspeiided l)y a sti'in;^' at eacli foot mark. l*'or hare ^r'onnd.
littei-, rock. moss, annual j^i'asses. and all I'orhs, the dondnant class of
i;round coxcr in a I'onr-inch circle sni'ronndin;^' the point of pinndt,
was recorded. For perennial <irasses the ])lumh point, had to touch the
hasal area of the plant before a hit was reeorded. For browses, the
pinnd) point had to fall witldn the avei'a^^c perimeter of the ci-own to
he recorded. Dead slirnbs which wei-e still in place were so recordi'd ;
if out of i)lace, they were classified as litter.

T<d)le 17 j>'ives a br-eakdown of data taken by the line jtoini method.
Table 18 shows composition of the \-egetation.

TABLE 18
Comparative Summary, Line Point and Line Intercept Methods

Line point
(Percentage)

IJne intercept
(Percentage)

Nonproductive

.A.nnual vegetation

63.6

12.4

16.5

1.1

6.4

06.4
11.1

Shnibs

Perennial f orbs

Perennial grasses

12.8

.9

8.8

Totals - .

100.0

100.0

On tlu' DO line i)oint plots, none was ])laced on recently burned over
land. It will be necessary to install line point pilots on burned over
range, if a representative sample of the management area is desired.

Tn order to compare the data from the line interci'pt and line point
methods, a summary of the ground cover for the same plots is given in
Table 18. In Table 19, a further breakdown is shown.

It is apparent there is a difference in the two methods of measuring
ground comiiosition. The line intercept method indicates a greater shrub
coverage and less perennial grass. The line point method reeorded less
bare soil and litter. (See Table 20.)

Because of the strict standards of the line ])oint method, on which
the basal area of perennial grasses must be touched by the plumb-bob
before a hit is recorded, as compared to that of the line intercept
method, in which grass leafage, so long as it is hung over the line
intercepts, is recorded, the decrease in perennial grasses i-an be ex-
plained readily.

The increased coverage of other classes of vegetation cannot be ac-
counted for so easil}'. On the whole, the line point method, as used in

254 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 19

Analysis of Vegetative Composition by Percentage, September, 1952
(Based on 90-line point plots — 3,282 points of vegetation)

Plant species

Percent
vegetation

Sagebrush ..-.._ ._..

12.5

Squaw carpet _ -

6.4

Rabbitbrush

6.0

JuniDer

4.5

Yellow pine -- - . -

1.6

Wild cherry

.3

Bitterbrush.. - - ....

14.7

Others .- - - -

.5

Total browse species .....

45.5

Annual grass

24.7

Annual forbs

9.0

Tntpl nnrmals

33.7

.5

Others

2.4

Total perennial forbs

Bluebunch wheatgrass

Sedge .. -- .. -.

2.9

.7
2.6

Idaho fescue . .

1.7

June2Tass

.2

3.0

Squirreltail

3.1

Needlegrass . ..... ._

6.5

Others . .

.1

Total perennial grasses

17.9

Grand total

100.0

the survey, employed stricter standards than those used in the line
intercept method.

Either method is suitable for measuring trend in vegetative types,
but the line point method has been adopted because it is less time
consuming.

Form and Age Classes of Shrubs

In the course of the survey, shrubs were classified as to form and age
class. Table 21 summarizes these data for bitterbrush, juniper, sage-
brush, and rabbitbrush.

The absence of seedlings on the range is a matter of concern. While
the line point method provides only indices of numbers of plants on
a range, in that the probabilities lean toward the missing of smaller
plants, field examinations support the plot data. Seedlings of bitter-
brush have been found the past two years in the timber type, but close
scrutiny of the sage and juniper types shows a complete absence of any
small bitterbrush plants.

'I'm; i)i;\ii,s (i.\iti)i:.\ i)i;i;i( iii:ui)

2r,r)

TABLE 20
Comparative Analysis of 90 Plots treasured With Line Point and Line Transect Metliods, 1952

Ground cover

Lino point

Line tramtcct

>il

Hock ---

liitter.

Doad saKobrush_.
Dond ralihitlinish.
Dead bitterbriish.
Moss,

Total noil) irod lie tivc.

Annual grasses

Annual wi-eds.

Total annuals.

Sagebrush

Squaw carpet-
Rubbitbrush- -

.Tiuiiper

Yellow jiine

Wild cherry. -
Bitterbrush . _
Others

Total shrubs

Balsam root

Mule-ear

Others

Total forbs^

Bluebunch wheatgrass-

Sedge

Idaho fescue

.lunegrass

Bluegrass

Squirreltail

Needlegrass

Others

Total perennial grasses-
Grand total -

18. i)
0.0

33.9
2.1
0.3
2.2
0.2

63.6

9.1
3.3

12.4

4.5

2.3

1.8

1.6

.6

.1

5.4

.2

16.5

.2
.9

1.1

.6

1.1

1.1

2.4

.1

6.4

100.0

20.5
5.0

30,6
1.8
0.3
2.0
0.2

66.4

8.3
1.8

11.1

2.9

2.3

1.2

1.3

.4

.2

4.3

.2

12.8

.4
.3
.2

.9

.4
1.6

.6

.1
1.2
1.9
2.9

.1

8.8

100.0

The age classification iiulicatcs that a hi^h percentage of shrubs are
in the decadent class, with very few young plants established to replace
those which are passing out of the picture.

Forage Utilization

Each fall and spring, forage utilization clifcUs have been taken on
the range sample plots. In the fall period, after livestock have left the
range and before deer have appcai-cd, the key shrub species are meas-
ured for percentage of livestock utilization. At the same time, the aver-
age leader growth on bitterbrush plants is recorded. The following
spring, when deer have left the range and before the livestock return,
utilization is again checked on the same plants. The spring utilization
check indicates the total use of the plants by both livestock and deer.

256

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 21

Form and Age Class Index in Percentage, September, 1952
(Taken from 00-line point plots)

Species

Form classes*

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Sagebrush

59.4

32.7

7.6

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.3

0.0

Rabbitbrush

84.8

12.0

3.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

Juniper

35.6

17.6

6.4

9.5

11.2

6.9

6.4

6.4

Bitterbrush

15.3

57.9

26.3

0.0

0.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

Age classes

Seedling

Young

Mature

Decadent

Sagebrush

Rabbitbrush

Juniper

Bitterbrush

0.3

0.0

14.3

0.0

15.4
21.6
60.5
.32.3

48.8
53.6
24.3

45.6

35.5

24.8

0.9

22.1

Number of plants checked

Sagebrush 330

Rabbitbrush 125

.Juniper 391

Bitterbrush 406

NOTE: All iunlpers were classified that fell within 15 feet either side of the plot line.
* 1. All available, little or no hedging.

2. (\11 available, moderately hedged.

3. All available, heavily hedged.

4. Partly available, little or no hedging.

5. Partly available, moderately hedged.

6. Partly available, heavily hedged.

7. Mostly unavailable.

8. Unavailable, t

t Includes only living plants.

The fall utilization figure i.s subtracted from the spring to derive that
resulting from deer use alone.

The species checked for percentage of utilization are bitterbrush,
juniper, sagebrush, and rabbitbrush. Any rodent use is noted sepa-
rately, although it has been found to be insignificant in the over-all
picture.

The fall measurement of the length of uncroppecl bitterbrush leaders
also provides an index of the volume of growth produced during the
current year. Comparative data on leader growth are given in Table 22.
It will be seen that 1952 was an excellent growth year for bitterbrush.

Utilization figures for the last four years on bitterbrush are shown
in Table 23.

Allowable use of bitterbrush for deer and livestock has been set at
38 percent. Since utilization is not evenly distributed over the man-
agement area, the allowance of an average percentage utilization of
60 percent w^ould result in severe over-browsing on large areas of deer

Tin: i)i:\ii,s (iAKDK.v i)i;i;it iii.kh

257

TABLE 22
BItterbrush Growth Index

Yoar

Inchcft of Krowtti

1949

3.:.

1950 --

:i.2

1951

.•{.7

1952 - --

5.1

coiMTiil r.-ilidii. Till' (•(uiiiiiitlrc h;is sr1 lip the .'IS pci'i-riil fi'j'iin- to tjikt'
cai'c ol' this factor. Li\-(>st()ck and deer ai'c cadi allottiMl .'iM prri-riit ot
tlic allowable fora{i:e croj), or If percent of the ciirreiit year's <.a-o\vth.
1^'or the past two years, total use lias hocii under that wliicli is con-
si(lci\'d allowable.

A statistical elieck of the 111."):! sprini:' data on bitterbrush crop|)injr
indicates the odds are 1!) out of '_'() that the true mean lies Avithin '24.')

and ;r2.i.

Altlion<ili the utilization data indicate a steadily decreasin<r per-
centaji-e cropping- of bitterbrush leader orrowtli dnring- the past four
years, the actual volume of forage cousuiiicd appears to have remained
more constant. This is indicated by use indices. These use indices are
the product (f average percentage cropjnng times average inches of
leader growth. They express the actual inches of growth taken. The use
indices for the past four years are shown in Table 24.

The data indicate that the decline in p(>rcentagv \itilization is due
l)artly to an increase in volume of growth during lft")l and 1!'.)2. as
well as to a decrease in the amount of forage consumed.

The intensity of use on bitterbrush is shown in Table 2."), which gives
the figures for the past three years.

TABLE 23
Average Percentage Cropping of Bitterbruin

Year

Livestock

Deer

Total use

1949-50 _ - -

18.8

10.3

16.1

7.1

29.5
29.9
18.2
15.6

48.3

1950-51 - .

40.2

1951-52 -- . --

34.3

1952-53

22.7

TABLE 24
Use Indices for Four Winter Seasons

Year

Livestock

Deer

Total

1949-50 ._ --- ---

0.7
0.3
0.0
0.4

1.0
1.0
0.7
0.8

1.7

1950-51 .

1.3

1951-52 --

1.3

1952-53

1.2

258

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 25
Bitterbrush Intensity of Use

Average percentage of use

Percentage of plots in each class

1951

1952

1953

0-14.9

15-29.9

30-44.9

45-59. 9-_

60 plus. - -

15
14
22
29
20

22
26
22
13
17

41
30
14
10
5

Totals

100

100

100

Numbered boxcar seals have been placed on junipers that are on or
adjacent to forage plots. Four twigs, so located that they are avail-
able to deer, are tagged on each juniper. These twigs are measured each
fall from the car seal to the tip of the twig. In the spring, the same
twigs are remeasured and the average percentage of cropping is de-
rived. No limit has been determined as to the amount of cropping a
juniper can withstand and still maintain its growth. Aldous (1941),
in his experiments on northern white cedar (Thuja Occident alis) , found
that browsed limbs would not regenerate leafage if more than 25 per-
cent of the foliage was removed annually. Table 26 gives the data on
juniper cropping for the past six years. As shown in the table, crop-
ping was very light in the winter of 1952-53.

Juniper measurements in the timbered areas should be discontinued,
because deer appear to use very little juniper until forced out of
timbered areas by snows to juniper types at lower elevations. Here
'the use of juniper during heavy winters is usually heavy. Because the
measurements taken in timber types tend to outweigh those taken in
the juniper-sage type, the present figures do not present the true pic-
ture of the importance of juniper in the midwinter diet of deer.

Over-all utilization of sagebrush and rabbitbrush has been slight in
every year since the study started. However, it is measured each year
to give data for comparison. Cropping of these species for the past year
by livestock, deer, and rodents is given in Table 27. Table 28 indicates
the total average use of these species during the four years 1949-50

through 1952-53.

TABLE 26
Juniper Utilization

Year

Percentage of twig
growth taken

1947-48 .--

14.0

1948-49- .

22.2

1949-50 - - - -

12.3

1950-51

5.4

1951-52 _. ..

10.4

19.52-53 ... .-

2.7

'I'liK i)i:vii,s (iAKi)i:.\ i)i:i;u iii;hi)

TABLE 27
Sagebrush, Rdbbitbrush Utilization, 1932-1953

'i'ifl

AvoraRO pcrcinitiiKf "f croppitiK

Livestock

Deer

Rodents

Tm'.,i •:-:•

SuKohnisli

Iiat)bitbi'uah

(1.(1
0.8

4.5
2.9

0.0

o.:i

4.5
1.0

Chemical Analysis of Some Browse Species

Kacli inonlli, IVoin ( IctolxT, l!).")!), Ihrdiii^li April. 1M.")1, hrowsfi
siiiuplcs were eolleeted in two areas on the winter faiiiic and sent to
tlie Food Habits Lal)orator\- in Berkeley. l>itterbru.sii, jnniper. and
rabbitbrnsh were collected from the Potter Pasture and Tinilier Monn-
tain areas. The two areas were selected because of different tj-pes of
soil and growth characteristics. The samples were analyzed for protein
and ash content. Table 29 shows the results of the analysis.

Two other areas in the Great Basin Refi'ion that were also sampled
were the Doyle in Lassen County and Elderberry and Buttermilk in
Inyo County. Bitterbrush in Inyo analyzed hi;^her than in either
Lassen or Modoc. Sagebrush in Modoc rangetl lower than in Inyo and
Lassen Counties.

This information is only a part of the nutritional studies beinj;
carried on by 11. D. Bissell of the Department's Food Habits Lab-
oratory. As Bissell points out, "obviously, many things in addition to
crude protein are significant in ruminant digestion."

SALTING STUDY

Although most areas of bitterbrush on the management area show^
signs of heavy use and declining condition, there are excellent stands
of bitterbrush in the adjoining Glass Mountain winter deer range.
During the falls of 1951 and 1952, a salting experiment was carried on
to determine if it was possible to induce Devils Garden deer to follow
salt trails into areas of abundant and lightly used browse on the Glass
Mountain winter range. Blocks of salt were placed at freciuent intervals
along routes leading to the new range. Although this salting procedure

TABLE 28
Sagebrush and Rabbitbrush Utilization for Four Years (Percentage^

Year

Sagebrusli

Rabbitbrush

1949-50

8.7
9.4
9.0
4.5

13.5

1950-51

11.7

1951-52

1952-53

14.4
4.0

260

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 29
Chemical Analysis of Browse Species

•

Content in percentage

Oct.

Nov.

Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April

Bitterbrush

Protein

Potter Pasture

8.8

9.2

8.1

7.3

6.5

4.5

7.3

Timber Mt. .. .

8.6

9.3

8.0

7.3

6.0

6.2

9.6

Ash

Potter Pasture

2.1

2.2

Timber Mt

2.2

2.2

2.0

Sagebrush

Protein

Potter Pasture

11.1
10.9

10.0
12.0

_8.4
6.9

9.1
9.5

7.7
8.3

6.2
8.5

9.2

Timber Mt

9.6

Ash

Potter Pasture

2.9

2. .5

2.4

Timber Mt

3.0

2.2

2.1

Juniper

Protein

7.8

7.8

8.6

5.6

^ 5.6

6.9

6.7

Ash

2.8

2.9

was followed for two years, results were negative. Not only was there
little use of the salt blocks during migration, but so far as is known,
there was no success in changing the habitual movements and ranges
of the deer.

BROWSE RESTORATION STUDY

Browse is a major item in the diet of deer and is especially im-
l^ortant on snow covered winter ranges. Desirable browse has been
greatly reduced by heav}^ grazing, fire, insect depredation, and other
factors.

The California Forest and Range Experiment Station is undertaking
a state-wide browse research project for the California Department
of Fish and Game, using Federal Aid to AVildlife Restoration (Pittman-
Robertson) funds. It is hoped findings will lead to practical methods of
artificial reseeding and other cultural methods of restoring browse on
depleted deer winter ranges.

A major portion of the study will be confined to the Devils Garden
winter deer range. Plot sites have been selected and experiments are
already under way. Deer-proof exclosures have been constructed at
Doyle, Lassen County, and near Flukey Springs, Modoc County. The
latter will inclose approximately five acres.

A variety of seeds has been collected and planted under different
methods. Weather and soil conditions are being recorded. Means of
soil preparation are being investigated. Phenological records of key
species are being kept on experimental sites. Competition of low quality

Tin: i)i;\ii,s (;.\i;i)i;.\ in.i.i; iii:ki)

-Mil

|)l;iiils willi llic more (|('sic;ilili' s|»('cics is ;il>(i \\\\i\rv<jit\t\<j: study. It. will
l»(' ii('('('ss;i r\' to cxIcikI lliis sludy (i\i'i' ;i |i>'riii(| of yriifs in urdiT t»»
secure ;ill ol' I lie iiee( led in roniuil idii.

Ill .'idditioii lo the iii\('s1 i'_;;il ion Iteiiej e;irried on \>\ the j'ittMiaii-
Kohei-tson study. Ilie I )e|);i rt nienl 's ll;diit;il 1 ni |M'o\cMient ('rcw is car-
rying' on seed colleetion Jind |)l;nitin;js in tlie eritical area. Piitrlit plots,
conlaiiiin^- approxiinatelx' two and onediall' a<'res, wei-e planted in l!»."»2
with l)ilterl)riisli, inali()<^any. and sa^('l)nisli seed. Due to ihr Ui.-k of
|)ro|)er seedin;^' ('(pupnient, and other fjietors. the |)lanlinL;s have not
shown encouraging' results.

The crew has also consti-iicted a KlOd'oot s(piaie deer exclosnre witli
a lOO-foot square stock excdosnre ad.iacent, near i-'liikey Sprin'js. It was
completed in duly, ll>.");>, and ox'er a period oT ye;irs will show the eft'ect
on hrowse species of complete erazinu' protect i(Mi and tin- effe<'t of
protetdion I'roiii livestock alone.

Range Grass Reseeding

Over a period of years, the Forest Service has can-ied on a raii<re
reseeding' i>ro<;ram to which the Dei)artment of Fish and (Jauie has
contributed. Burned over rano'e has received the hulk of the seed. The
seedino' -was licnerally a mixture of crested wdieat {A(jro]>!iron cris-
fdtiitii), smooth brome [Hyomus inennis), and timoth\' (I'hhidii ]>ra-
ivnsv). Various other species of trasses and le5;-uines have been tried on
smaller scales. Best results have occurred with the above named species.

In the Mears Burn, 6,785 acres were reseeded. The work was done by
the Modoc National Forest, with the Department of Fish and (iame
contributino' 1 (),()()() pounds of seed to the project. The timbered area
w-as planted by airplane. Smooth brome has shown up in a vigorous
stand in the southeast corner of Potter Pasture fi-om this seedinp:.

Table 30 shows data on area seeded in the Devils (iai-den ai-ea.

TABLE 30
Range Reseeding Data on Devils Garden Winter Range

Year

Area

Acres

Type of seedinE

1045

Dry Lake

42
24

15

20

35

179

265

540

366

200

3„i00

6,000

765

20

20

Drilled

Drilled

Drilled

Drilled

Drilled

Drilled

Dixie Drag

Drilled

Drilled

Drilled

Broadcast in ashes

Broadcast in ashes

Drilled and Dixie Drag

Drilled

Drilled

1 945

Hart Icrode (Doublehead)

1946

Tucker Lake

1946

Clear Lake Hills ---

1946

Mud Lake

1946

Saddlehlanket Flat

1947

Saddleblanket Flat .

1947

Clear Lake Hills

1948

Clear Lake Hills --

1949

Holbrook Flat .

1950

Plum Ridge Fire-

1951

Mears Fire- -

1951

1952

Mears Fire

1952

^'lowitz Fire -

Total aoreaefe

11,991

262

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

LIVESTOCK ON THE RANGE

During the past five years, 1948 to 1952 inclusive, livestock use has
been reduced on the Devils Garden management area. Sheep use has
been reduced by the changing and shifting of allotments. Nonuse by
cattle in the Potter Pasture has lessened the pressure in the burned
area that has been reseeded. Dual use is being eliminated.

Table 31 gives the livestock obligations for livestock allotments which
fall within the key area. These figures differ from those given in the
Fifth Progress Report of the Devils Garden Interstate Deer Herd Com-
mittee, which shows the obligations for most of the winter range.

The obligations for the management area for 1948 as compared with
1952 show : 1948 — 12,335 animal unit months, and 1952 — 9,115 animal
unit months. This represents a 26 percent reduction in livestock graz-
ing obligations over the four-year period.

DEER HARVEST

The buck kill for the California summer and winter range was de-
termined from returned deer tags and is shown in Table 32. The kill
for the Oregon portion of the Interstate range is given in Table 33.

In 1951, the legalization of forked horn deer in District If coupled
with early storms brought about the largest harvest of bucks ever ex-
perienced in Modoc County. In 1952, very few of the Interstate deer
got down onto the winter range until after the hunting season was
over. This resulted in a very low kill.

TABLE 31
Livestock Obligations on Key Area of Devils Garden Winter Deer Range for 1948 and 1952

Allotment

■ Head

Animal unit months

530 Cattle

930

13,400 Sheep

4,985

346 Cattle

1,580

300 Cattle

1,500

470 Cattle

1,880

925 Sheep

740

900 Sheep

720

16,871

12,335

8,000 Sheep

2,503

900 Sheep

720

1,250 Sheep

375

1,000 Sheep

333

431 Cattle

2,086

750 Cattle

2,046

263 Cattle

1,052

12,594

9,115

1948

Clear Lake Spring
Clear Lake Spring

Dry Lake

Mowitz

Potter Pasture

North Badger

South Badger

Grand total

1952*

Clear Lake Spring.

jMowitz

Casuse

Bro^vn's Well

Dry Lake

Tucker

Potter Pasture.. .

Grand total. .

* Cattle remaining on the Clear Lake Spring allotment as of 1948 have been moved on to a portion of it, out-
side the key area.
The Brown's Well allotment is tlie former North Badger with a minor boundary change.
South Badger is no longer considered a part of the key area.
Casuse has been added. Tlierc is little change in the gross area.

'iiii; i)i;\ii,s (i\i;iii:.\ I)i;i;k iii:ici)

TABLE 32
Deer Kill on the Cdlilornia Portions ol ttie Deer Range

2»i:j

Year

Antlciluss

HiicUh

TiiImIm

RfniiurkN

1937
1938

1 939

Iil40

404
497
5C1
825
402
236
207
244

---

War yciir
War year
War year
War yfar

Storms late in InintiriK Boason.
Dry suaHon, late iiii^ration.
Forked liorns le^al, Mtortiis.
Dry season, no niii^ration. Forked
legal.

ISMl

1942

1943

l')44

1915

194(1. ■

541
615

670
410
967
153

1947 -

1948

1949

1950

1951

1,319
1,504

1,729
2,471

1952

Iioni^

The lO")! Devils Garden special antlerless deer season went off with
less opposition than the 1950 hniit (for a description of the 1930 hunt,
see Interstate Deer Herd Coinniittee, 1951). The recommendation of
the Interstate Committee at the public hearing- was to harvest 4,000
antlerless animals, 2,000 to be taken in Orejiou and 2.000 to be taken
in California. This was accepted. I.atcr, after the Mears fire, the com-
mittee asked that an additional 4,000 animals be taken. No action was
taken on this request.

In California, over 26,000 applications were received for the special
hunt and 2,300 names were drawn. Of these, 1,818 accepted permits and
1,716 hunted. Of these hunters, 1,504 or 88 percent were successful.

The Oregon Game Commission states that 2.343 antlerless deer Avere
taken during- their 1951 season. This made a total of 3,847 deer taken
out of the 4,000 proposed.

Analysis of the Kill Figures

Of the total animals checked. Ilic age classes indicated mature does
75.5 percent; yearlings 12.5 percent (16 percent males); fawns 12
percent (56 percent males"). In the 1950 antlerless take, yearlings
formed 13.6 percent of the total and fawns 17.5 percent.

TABLE 33
Deer Kill on the Oregon Portion of the Interstate Range *

Year

Antlerless

Bucks

Totals

Remarks

1949

2,500
1,500
2,422

2,500
2,188
4,765
2,400

1950.:

688
2,343

1951

1952

Includes antlerless deer taken in a four-

day either sex season at end of regular
buck season.

' Tlie figures for bucks arc estimates; the figures for aiitliTlfss deer are exact.

264 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The percentage of yearling does taken in antlerless hunts can be
used as an indication of yearling survival. This assumes that in an
antlerless hunt, hunters are indiscriminate in the taking of yearlings
or mature does. In the 1951 antlerless hunt, 14 yearling does were
taken to every 100 mature does. During the previous fall (1950), a
fawn: doe (j-earling and mature) ratio of 77 to 100 was obtained in
classification counts.

It was found in the 1950 antlerless bag that 20 percent of the does
were yearlings. From this it can be computed that there were 96 fawns
per 100 mature does in the fall of 1950. Assuming that 50 percent of
the fawns were females, there were 48 female fawns per 100 does at
that time. In a year's time, the ratio dropped to 14 per 100 mature
does, a fawn loss of 71 percent, which occurred during the relatively
mild winter of 1950-51.

These figures are noteworthy in that they show large losses occurring
even in years of mild winters and are a further indication of the effects
of crowded conditions on this winter range.

GUIDES TO MANAGEMENT

The first objective in the management of the Devils Garden winter
deer range is to determine the productive capacity for grazing and
browsing animals of these public lands, which have been depleted by
past abuse. The range is used by sheep in the spring and summer, cat-
tle during the spring, summer, and fall, and by a migratory deer herd
during the winter season.

The second objective is to balance the combined range use by live-
stock and deer so that no more than the average forage crop produced
on the range is consumed each year.

With the exi)erience over the years, the management methods and
techniques developed have resulted in the following changes in the
management plan drawn up in 1948 :

1. Originally, utilization measurements were made on plants occupy-
ing the 25-inch intercepts on the 200-foot line plots. Later, it was de-
cided that a larger number of plants would tend to give a better sam-
ple of range use. To get this larger sample, browse plants that fell on
line between the intercepts or close to them were included in the utili-
zation check. An attempt was made to get at least four plants on each
plot. The addition of the plants not on intercepts made a change in
computation methods necessary. All plants were given equal weight
and straight arithmetical averages of percentage crojaping were adopted.

2. The allowable use of bitterbrush had been set at 34 percent under
the original computation method. AVhile Hormay's (1943) work on
bitterbrush indicated that an allowable use of 60 i)ercent was the maxi-
mum amount of cropping of the current year's growth that an indi-
vidual plant could sustain and still remain vigorous and reproduce
satisfactorily, it was recognized that an average of 60 percent for the
entire range would result in extreme use in some areas, balanced by
light use in others. In order to protect the range on which deer use
was heaviest, the average of 34 percent was adopted. When the sample
was enlarged and the weighing feature of the computation was discon-
tinued, the committee raised the allowable use factor to 38 percent.

Tin: i)i;\ii,s (iakdi.n i>i;i;i{ iiiihd 265

.'{. The type (>r plols iis<-(l lor lji'iiiiihI royi'v (•(iinpnsit ion iiml I'oiml.""
Ill i li/.;il ion \\;is cIuiiiliciI in !!).)■_! IVoni Inn' inti'riT|)t to litn- point.

4. The coNci'ii^c \)\ forjiuc plots liiis hem rrdiiccd I'r'oiii tin- total
uinlcf ranLic to I lie key niana^rincnt an-a.

'). AIcasuiTincnls of ntilization were once niadr on jn'r-cnnial ;^'ra.ss«*s,
hnl (Inc to the oxer all liiilit axd'a^c nsc of i/i-jisscs hy drcr and the titiH!
ronsuiucd in del crniini ni; this ntilization. Ilir clicck was discoiil iMil<'«|.
I'tilization cliccks arc now i-cst rictcd to hit Icrhrnsli, sa^'chrnsli. ral»l)it-
brush, and jnnipcr, the most ini|)ortant hrowscs on llic winter rani/f.

6. Pellet coniits ai'c made only on the nianai^cnu'ot ari a, and iwr now
used to show ti'cnds in i-clatixc use ratlici- than as a deer ceiisiis iiictliod.

7. The car strip ccnsns to determine dfi'i nnml)ers wfis diseoiit iniied
Iteeaiise the weather (H)nditions were too often such as to result in poor
counts. Also, the i-o ads were sometimes impossihir to tra\e|, whieh pre-
vented <>atherin<>' of comparative data each x'cai-. Herd eompositioM has
been eontinu(Hl as b(>fore. but it is not limited to the ear strips.

8. Since weather conditions iiave a <:reat deal t(j do with the amounts
of forage produced each year, it was thou<iht that a three-yeai- rnnnin^'
avera<ie of utilization -would be the best base from which to determine
allowable deer and livestock numbers. This did not take into consid-
eration the effect of severe winter mortality on (li'rv nuiid)ers, as ex-
perienced durin«' the winter of 1951-52. Once that weakness was re-
vealed, the Interstate Committee beg'an to use straig-ht year by year
averages to determine allowable nund)ei's. The utilization by deer,
measured in the spring of 1!)52, seenu'd to appi'oaeh the desired level.
It is hoped by the committee that the breeding herd can be held at that
level until the range conditions are improved, at which time a new deer
population ceiling could be set. The 1952 spring ]iopidation of inter-
state deer numbered approximately 12,UUU animals.

SUMMARY

The Iiderstate Deer Herd Committee was organize(| in l!»4.') to stud\-
the Koeky Mountain mule deer (Odocoilcus heinionus licntiomis) prob-
lem on the Devils Garden winter range. This is the eiglith progress
rei)ort of the findings of this committee.

Numerous fires have burned over the winter range since 1!):U), de-
pleting approximately 65,000 acres of the key wintering area.

The state line track count has proved to be the most reliable method
for obtaining deer numbers. The actual tally during 1!)5:! was ll.tiOl
animals. It was estimated that an additional 3,000 animals were missed,
due to unfavorable weather and counting conditions.

The pellet count is now used as an indicator of relative use on the
key management area. During the Avinter of l!)52-5o, the use was light,
reflecting a scattered deer henl in a mild winter.

The 1951-52 winter was severe with heavy snows. These snows forced
the deer to concentrate on areas where little food was present, resulting
in a winter loss calculated to be approximately o2 percent of the total
herd.

266 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Deer collected from highway kills, railroad kills, and caught in fences
have been an excellent source of information for food habits, produc-
tivity, condition, and numerous other data.

Herd composition counts each year have shown a consistency in a
low percentage of bucks. However, the good fawn production indi-
cates that there is still an adequate number of breeding males. The
increasing number of spike bucks may be the result of a decline in good
deer forages.

The results of the survey of ground cover composition made after a
four-year period indicate a downward trend in range conditions, which
can be attributed primarily to fire. There was a small decrease in non-
productive ground cover, a large increase in annual grasses and weeds
(mostly undesirable), a decrease in the most important browse species,
and decreases in perennial weeds and grasses.

Annual forage utilization checks indicate that during 1951-52 and
1952-53 the deer population was close to the proper number for range
maintenance. During previous years of study, overstocking, mainly by
deer, tended to cause further range depletion.

REFERENCES

Aldous, Shaler E.

1941. Deer management suggestions for northern white cedar types. Jour. Wildl.
Mangt, vol. 5, no. 1, p. 90-94,

Cheatum, E. L.

1949. Bone marrow as an index of malnutrition in deer. N. Y. St. Conservation-
ist, vol. 3, no. 5, p. 19-22.
Hormay, August X.

1943. Bitterbrush in California. Calif. Forest and Range Expt. Sta., Research
Note no. .34, 13 p. (Multilith)

Interstate Deer Herd Committee

1951. The Devils Garden deer herd. Fifth progress report of the interstate deer
herd and its range, including a summation of work to date. Calif. Fish and
Game, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 233-272.
Rasmussen, D. I., and E. R. Doman

1943. Census methods and their application in the management of mule deer.
Eighth No. Amer. Wildl. Conf., Trans., p. 369-380.

NOTES ON THE HABITAT OF THE DESERT BIGHORN

IN THE SAN GABRIEL MOUNTAINS

OF CALIFORNIA'

CYRIL S. ROBINSON and FRED P. CRONEMILLER

United Slates Forest Service

Region V, San Francisco

INTRODUCTION

The desert bighorn (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) ranges in portions of
the desert areas of California and adjacent Nevada and Arizona. It is
I'oiiud as far north as the White Mountains in Mono County and south
to tlie Mexican border. In Southern California its habitat is mostly in
tlie rugged terrain of the Upper and Lower Sonoran Life Zones, below
4,000 feet elevation. To the west, however, in the San Gabriel and San
Bernardino mountains, where higher life zones occur, bigliorns are
found in the conifer forests of the Transition Life Zone and above.

Ober (1981) of the California Division (now Department) of Fish
and Game discussed the race and gave much life history data on tin-
Inyo and Mono County herds. The species in Death Valley National
Monument was studied by Dixon and Sumner (1939).

During the past 10 years, the authors have had many opportunities
to observe desert bighorns in the San Gabriel Mountains. The habitat
here and its use by these sheep differs greatly from the remainder of
the area occupied by the species. ]\Iost of these notes are from observa-
tions by the senior author in the vicinity of the head of tlie South Fork
of Lytle Creek, and the lower slopes of the middle fork of this stream,
all within the San Bernardino National Forest. The junior author has
observed a number of mountain slioop herds in the State, and has given
particular attention to these animals in the Sau Antonio drainage in
the Angeles National Forest.

HABITAT

The San Gabriel Mountains lie in Los Angeles and San Bernardino
Counties, California, extending from the Santa Clara River on the west
to Cajon Pass, some 60 airline miles to the east. They rise abruptly
from the coastal valleys, reaching an elevation of 10,000 feet on ^It.
Baldy. The crest of the range is above the 5,000-foot contour for most
of its length.

The sheep summer in the conifer belt, mostly above the 6,500-foot
contour. During winter and early s]iring. one herd may be found as
low as 2,500 feet on a series of low ridges between the South Fork and
Middle Fork of Lytle Creek. There is only meager information on the
wdntering area of the San Antonio herds, and this indicates they seldom
go below the 3,500-foot level in winter. Summer and winter ranges

1 Submitted for publication December, 1953.

(267)

268

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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I)|';si;k"1' i'.iciiou.n iiaimtat 2G9

are iisiially coiil iuiKuis, so lliat I lie slicci) an- iiol I'orccil to make exten-
sive mass miji:rat.i()iis.

The t(M'i"il()i'y of iii(li\i(lnal licnis appcafs to encompass a small area;
however, individuals may stray widely. Tiu^sc; watiderei's are assumed
to be youn^' or (pnte old malfs that have lost in the hattle for herd
leadei-ship. M'liese individuals ai'e known to icavr tle-ir panMd herds
and stray jireat distanees, |)erliaps in seai'eli of other (»|)port nint ics.

Figure 1 shows the area in wlneh tluM-e are delinitc lierd territories
and sij4ht records which include tlu^ casual raiid)lin<i-s of imlividual
sheep.

Water a])]iears to be essential for their livfdiliood, at least in the snm-
nier. The sheep ajipear to water early in the day. Watei-in^' places are
far apart and usually in deep gulches or canyons raii'ly frecpiented by
the public.

Domestic livestock are not present on their range.
The combination of food and cover requirements i-esults in their
habitat being fairly well delineated by geology. Their search for roots
and foliage of certain herbaceous plants takes them to areas of deep
soil. Their escape "cover" consists of the typically rugged, cliffy areas
for which the genus is noted.

Geologically, the San Gabriel Mountains ai-e a i-ather young uplift.
The deepei- soils are on the ridges, usually at the higher elevations.
The canyons are deei)ly cut, and mostly steepei- than the noi-mal angle
of repose for fertile soil. The mountain sheej) habitat, therefore, con-
sists of these high ridges with deepei- soils, the tloi'istic belt where
desirable forage species occur, and where there is adjoining rugged
terrain.

FOOD HABITS

The food supply for bighoi'us in the San (iabriels is not abundant,
and as a result, the herds can never be large. A variety of shrubby and
herbaceous plants is taken. The forage supply of one hei-d may be
almost entirely different from that of another, de]ien(ling upon avail-
ability of the forage. With the exception of silveiy lujune, no individual
forage species was found commonly throughout the sununer ranges.

Table 1 lists tlie important forage species grouped by shrubs and
forbs, and then under these categories in order of their value based
on observed use and abundance.

Black oak (Qi(('rcus kcUof/f/ii), coastal sagebrush (Artemisia cali-
fornica), bitter cherry (rnoiiis < iiKirf/iiKifd ), mornutn tea (Ephedra
sp.), rabbitbrush {Chrysoihamnns spp.), and Brewer oak (Quercus
garriiana. var. hrewcri) are not common in the habitat, but are quite
closely used where they occur, ^lanzanitas (ArctosfaplniJos spp.) and
live oaks are common but oidy occasionally nibbled. Chinquapin
{Castinopsis) is common but rarely eaten. Some winter fat (Eurotia
lanafn) and mock locust (Ai)inrpha caJifornica) are taken.

Common forbs only occasionally cropped are pentstemon and monkey
flower (Mimuli(s).

Bunch grasses such as Poa, Bromus, Stipa and S if anion all may show
signs of cropping early in the year, before seed stalks appear. The dry
leafage is lishtlv eaten in winter. Annual grasses are eagerly sought

*e"^ io iiy,i

270

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 1
List of Desert Bigliorn Forage Plants

Scientific name

Common name

Use and abundance

Browses

Ceanothus cordulatus-

Sierra whitethorn.

Ceanothus integerrimus-

Deerbrush_

Ribes spp.

Eriogonum spp.-

Salix spp..

Cercocarpus ledifolius.

Abies concolor

PimLS ponderosa

Wild currant

Wild buckwheat.

WiUow.

Mountain mahogany.

White fir

Ponderosa pine

Yucca whipplei-

Forbs

Lupinus spp.-

Trifulium spp

Lotus spp

Lotus scoparius

Aslralagus bicristalus and A
inflexus

Agaslache urticifolia

Pedicularis semibarbata

Chaparral yucca.

Lupines -

Clover

Trefoil

Deerweed- .

Loco weed

Giant hyssop
Lousewort

Eagerly sought in the eastern end of the
range. Not common elsewhere.

Closely cropped and a most palatable
browse. Used heavUy during summer
and fall. A valuable browse in some
areas at lower elevations for faU-winter
range.

Not common but eaten wherever found.

Two species are common and important:
E. ovalifolium, a cushionlike or matted
plant, and E. umbellatum, more erect.
The former is grazed the year around
and, in some places, kept to a low mat;
the latter less closely used. The value
or palatabUity of the wild buckwheats
is often questioned for both deer and
domestic hvestock, but there is no
doubt of the value of these two species
for mountain sheep. The abundance
and wide distribution of this genus
makes for a staple year-long feed where
more succulent forage does not exist.

The willow thickets in shallow draws
showed evidence of light browsing.

Available parts closely eaten, but not
always common, and often too tall to
reach.

Shows occasional nibbhng.

Parts of needles were taken near bed
grounds. Terminal buds were un-
touched.

Tips of leaves stripped, leaving fibers
hanging.

Silvery lupine L. breweri is widely distri-
buted and is one of the best herbaceous
foods. It grows on the deeper soils and
is a good indicator of potential moun-
tain sheep habitat. As with domestic
livestock, lupines are eaten mostly from
August into October. The tall lupines,
while more succulent, do not receive
the use of silvery lupine, and are taken
mostly in the fall after pods have
opened.

Closely cropped wherever found.

The prostrate species are often sought.

Does not grow above 6,000 foot eleva-
tion, but is an important plant.

Cropped most in late fall or when almost
dry.

Good forage, especially in the fall.

Herbage grazed in spring.

DESKRT I'.ICIlolvN IIAI'.riA'r 271

(Mil l)y bitiliofiis r('('(liii<;' aloii<;' the soiilli filer of low fid^'cs in Alan-li
and April. Tlicsc supply llic cai'licsl, j^i-ccn Teed.

NUMBER OF SHEEP PRESENT

Raiiiier Taylor oi' tlu^ San rx'riiaidino Xatioiial i<V)i"('st and llif
senior author have esliiuated the Lytle (!re(^k liord at (JO head, with
1li(> i)ossibility o\' there heinu' as many as TOO head in the San I'.ei-nar-
diiio portion of the San (Jabriel Mountains. Kang(!r Ansehno Lewis
of the Mt. Baldy district of the Anpeles National Forest estimates
that the population in the San Antonio draina<;e and otluT parts of
the San (Jahriel ]Mouidains on this forest at 60 liead. It is believed by
the writers that the present estimates are quite conservative.

There appears to be a good distribution of age classes in the hei-ds
sighted. Young animals, lambs, and yearlings ])redominate, leading t(j
the supposition that the herds ai'e tlirifty and jiossibly inci-easing.

BREEDING AND LAMBING

The rutting season of the Lytle Creek herd begins in late September.
Lambs are dropped mostly in April. Lambs observed the first week of
June were able to traverse cliffs with an agility almost equal to that of
their mothers. Two sets of what were assumed to be twins have been
observed.

DISCUSSION

The desert bighorn, from its habitat in the San Gabriel ^Mountains,
can look down on an area with a present population of nearly 3,000,{)()0
persons. The threat of disturbance is very great, yet due to the rugged-
ness of the terrain and other factors of accessibility, such as fire closures
and few roads, it appears that numbers may possibly increase.

Management should include a continuance of its protection from
shooting and vigorous law enforcement. A policy of minimum develop-
ment and judicious location of any trails in its territory should be
followed, so as to keep disturbance by human beings to a mininuim.

REFERENCES
Ober, E. H.

1931. The mountain slioep of California. Calif. Fish and Canio, vol. IT, no. 1. p.
27-39.

Dixon. J. S., and E. L. Sumnei-, Jr.

1939. A survey of desert bighorn iu Death Vallev Nati(uial ^Monument, .^^uniiucr
1938. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 25, no. 2, p. 72-9.J.

NATIVE POSTLARVAL FISHES OF THE LOWER

COLORADO RIVER BASIN, WITH A KEY

TO THEIR IDENTIFICATION'

HOWARD ELLIOTT WINN and ROBERT RUSH MILLER
Musaum of Zoology, University of Michigan

Little is known ;ilMiut tlic cjii'ly lite liistdry stjincs nl' the fresh-
Wcitcr fishes of North Aincric;!. pjirt iciihii-|y IVdin thr point ot" view of
systomatics. The infonnation availabk! for the identification of larval
freshwater fishes is hir^cly scattered throimliont lil'e-histoi-y studies
excej)! for tliree important contributions by Fish (]!»'2!)a. l!»2Ilh, 1!).'52).
Papers on freshwater fishes from western Nortli America that con-
tain figures of larval stagfcs include those by Frv (!!>.'{()), Kopec
(1949), AVeisel and Xewman (1951), and Doup-jas n9r,2. Fi^nre :} is
Nil illicit fit y.s osciiIks, not Xi/raticlK it fexaiitis). A helpful comparative
study (with figures) of the young of the five species of Pacific sahnon
was published by Foerster and Pritchard (1935).

It is frecpiently important that biologists be able to identify correctly
the eggs and young stages of fishes. This is often necessary for the solu-
tion of such problems as the location of breeding sites, the distributidii
and biology of the larvae, and the conservation of populations (Balin-
sky. 1948). The abundance of a year class may be determined by the
environmental conditions that act on tlie critical larval ])eriods. An
understanding of the early sequences in its life history may bear signifi-
cautly upon the origin and relationships of a species (Ortoii, 1953).

During an ichthyological survey of the lower C'oloi-ado Kiver system
in the spring of 1950, the authors collected numerous early stages of
many of the native fishes (Figure 1). Gathering life-history data was
one of the objectives of the survey. Specimens avcic obtained with fine-
meshed dip nets and wire strainers, and some of the best larval collec-
tions were secured at night with the aid of a bright light. For the
purposes of this paper, the lower Colorado River is defined as that
part of the river and its tributaries that lie below Lake Mead (Hoover
Dam). This includes all of the Clila Kiver system, whicli is the major
drainage basin of the southern half of Arizona and of western New
Mexico. Nearly all of the early stages of 12 species are represented
in the collections.

The species treated in this paper belong to two families, the Cato-
stomidae (suckers) and Cyprinidae (minnows), which are among the
most difficult of all freshwater fishes to identify. The following six
species of minnows are keyed out, although postlarvae of Ptychocheiliis
were not obtained: Agosia chrysogaster Girard. Gila rolmsfd P>aird

' Submitted for publication February, 1954. Tlie field woriv wliith made thi.« paper pos-
sible was financed through a research grant to R. R. Miller from the Horace H.
Rackham School of Graduate Studies, University of Michigan.

3—97014 ( 273 )

274

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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h- LEGEND

\ SPRING f7\ LARVAL FISH

o WELL W COLLECTION

y LAKE y^ RESERVOIR
£) PLAYA — — INTERMITTENT
= DAM

Spring, 1950

■■^.. "■-b,

M E

FIGURE 1. Drainage map of Arizona, showing stations where larval fishes were collected in
1950. In addition, there were three stations in Mexico and five in New Mexico.

and Girard, Meda fulgida Girard, Ptychocheilus lucius Girard,
Bhinichthys osculus^ (Girard), and Tiaroga coMtis Girard. Plagop-
ierus argentissimus (Cope), formerly present in the Gila River, is now
probably extinct in that drainage (no specimens have been reported
since 1898). The following six species of suckers were studied:
Catostomus insignis Baird and Girard, Catostomus latipinnis Baird
and Girard, Pantosteus clarki (Baird and Girard), Pantosteus del-
phinus (Cope), Pantosteus species, and Xyrauchen texanus (Abbott).

2 A proposed revision in the International Rules of Zoological Nomenclature (Bull.
Zool. Nomen., vol. 4, 1950, p. 330) required the replacement of osculus by nubilus,
for reasons of line priority. That ruling was revoked, however, at the Copenhagen
Congress in 1953 (Copenhagen Decisions on Zoological Nomenclature. Ed. Francis
Hemming. Int. Trust for Zool. Nomen., 1953:66.).

NATIVK POSTLAKVAf. I'lSUKS 275

l^Mvc other t';iiiiilics of iwilixc (islics ;ii-(' !-r|iiTM-iil I'l 1 in lli<' hji-^iii i>l'
the lower Colorado Kiver: h]h)|)i(hic i I'^lops alfinis ) , ShIuiow'uIhc iSdhno
gilae), Cy])riiH)(h)nti(lae {('upriinxloii nKiciihtriiis), I'oeciliidao (I'oe-
ciliopfiis occidcntdlis) . Mii^ilidac {Miit/il r( plKiliis) , ami I'Mfot ridae

(Elcotris picta). whii-h has only I n i-ccofdrd oiicr i||id)l)s. ID');}).

(lillirlillnis (JrfnisKs ((iobiidae) docs iiol pciift rjitr ihr ('oliii-;ido K'ivt-r
imich beyond tidal infiueiiee.

We are yratet'ul to Fred AiKh're^-;^-. Sii|)er\isor of l'lioto^M-;iphi<'
Services, for takiii{>' the photographs, and to W'illijim L. r.indon. Ai-tist
of the Museum of Zoolof»y% for inoindiii<i- these and retoiiehin<,' the
baekprouuds. William L. C^ristauelli ot' the Michigan Institute for
Fisheries lieseareh, drafted the map (Figui-e Ij.

METHODS AND TERMINOLOGY

The ideutifieation of the lai-val fishes was based upon eritieal lab-
oratory studies of preserved material (fixed in 10 percent formalin).
Since thei'e was no opportunity to reai- the larvae, the ages of the
specimens are not known. Confidence in the accuracy of our identifi-
cations was assured by the limited fish fauna and by the following
methods :

1. The many individuals of each species secured varied in size from
juveniles to the smaller stages that lacked adult characteristics.
Some intermediate specimens exhibited both adult and larval char-
acters in various combinations. Thus, we could trace the sequence
of developmental stages from the earliest (prolarvae. in some
species) to those showing the distinctive features of the adult.

2. A number of collections contained only two species, a sucker and
a minnow, and these species pairs varied sufficiently in tlifferent
samples to include all representatives of both families. Thus, when
numerous species of suckers and minnows were taken together, it
was possible to verify identifications by comparison with the col-
lections that contained only a single species of either group.

3. For one cyprinid, Agosia chrysogasfer, the young with yolk sacs
(prolarvae) were collected in the gravel nests of the adults.

Hubbs (1943) divided the early stages of fishes into the embryo,
prolarva, postlarva, alevin, and juvenile. He pointed out that the word
larva is used as a general term for all of the young stages of fishes.
The term alevin is used for species in which the yolk sac larva (,pi*o-
larva) transforms directly into the juvenile. It seems more logical to
refer to such stages as juveniles, although the term alevin will probably
be used, as in the past, by students of salmonid tishes.

The postlarval stage, with which we are concerned, was defined by
Hubbs as the period after the absorption of the yolk and is only applied
when the structure and form continue to be strikingly unlike that of
the juvenile. This leaves doubt as to the end of the postlarval period
and to the interpretation of "strikingly unlike." It may be questioned
whether many freshwater fishes, in the period after the prolarva. would
be considered strikingly unlike that of the juvenile. However, it seems
advisable to use the term postlarva for the period after the prolarva

276 CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

when (1) a continnous fiiifold is present, (2) there are pigment char-
acters different from those of the jnvenile, or (3) the fins are absent,
nnossified. or developed to various degrees. It would serve no nseful
purjjose to add another term. "SVe therefore redefine the postlarva as
the period after the absorption of the yolk to a stage when the fish
resembles the juvenile. The end of the postlarval condition in many
marine fishes may be recognized by a striking transformation to the
adult-like form or, in most freshwater fishes, by the loss of most of the
finfolds and the ossification of the rays of the pelvic fins. The two
latter criteria characterize satisfactorily the suckers and minnows and
most egg laying North American freshwater fishes, as nearly as we can
determine. An even more precise definition is that the postlarva corre-
sponds to developmental stages 33 to 40 (Balinsky, 1948; p. 337-338,
summarized below) in the Cyprinidae and Catostomidae. In this way
an accurate definition of the larval stages is established. These stages
probably do not deviate greatly in most other families of freshwater
fishes. The Hiodontidae, Coregonidae, Esocidae, Catostomidae, Cyprin-
idae, Percopsidae, Centrarchidae, Percidae, Cottidae, and others have
a postlarval period. This is absent in the Salmonidae and Ameiuridae.
All groups have the earlier prolarva, which corresponds to stages 27
to 32 (see below).

The distinction of the postlarval stage serves two purposes. From
the systematic standpoint, it characterizes a period when most, if not
all, specific characters used for identification are at least superficially
different from those of the adult. From a functional point of view, it
is a unique period when the microhabitat, feeding, sensitivity to en-
vironmental fluctuations, and other behavioral differences are often
quite different from those of the adult.

We have followed the terminology given by Balinsky (1948), with
very few modifications and additions. He divided the chromatophores
into four horizontal series :

1. The dorsal pigment line, which consists of pigment rows or scat-
tered pigment along the dorsal edges of the myotomes and/or

. the dorsal integumentary pigment.

2. The lateral 'pigment line, which comprises the rows of pigment
along the side. These are divisible into (a) pigment on the myo-
meres and (b) a single row of cells along the horizontal myo-
septum. The lateral pigment line should not be confused with
the lateral line (as Avas evidently done by Fish (1932)), a sense
organ that does not coincide with the horizontal myoseptum.

3. The ventro-visceral pigment line, which is internal, lying along
the intestine.

4. The unpaired midventral line, which mav be internal, external, or
both.

Additionally, we subdivide the dorsal head pigment into the occipital,
the interorbital, the narial, and the upper lip pigment. Some of the
differences between Balinsky 's usage and ours are explained by his
utilization of live, transparent material, whereas our specimens are
preserved. The employment of internal characters with live material is
generally impractical for routine identification.

Thirteen measurements taken on a series of the postlarvae of each
species failed to shoAv diagnostic differences within the Cyprinidae or

NATlVi; I'OSTI.AiaAI. IISIIKS _M

Catostoniid.ic. Some rc;iliifcs were r<)iiii(| to M'pjiratc tlir two t'atiiiiios ;
tlic most reliable one was used in the kc\ . (See also Tahle l.i

Vov ea<'li s|)e('ies ovef 100 speciiiiciis wrrc availalilf, r.xcrpt llial unly
17 (if 'ri(ir()(/(i cohili^ were scciii-imI. Kcw jiiv rmli-s ul' ('hIdsIdih us hili
•pinnis were obtained, but a lar'je cullcct imi with ;dl sta'/es Irom the
Green Kiver. AVyominu- [\] . }>\. M. Z. NO. !»2:^4m. was utilized. \V.- did
not- eolleet postlarval stages of PI ifchoclicilns tiirius, u speeit^s now far<-
in the lower Colorado Kiver system.

Developmental Stages

Baliiisky ( 1!)4S ) •^ave a table of de\ ejopiiiciita! statjrs for 1 li<- ( 'ypi-in-
idae that was modified tVoiu ( )|)|)enheiiner's ( ]I»;{7 i labli- \'i>r I'lnnln-
lus heteroclitus (Linnaeus). Such an ai-raniiciiicnt of diagnostic stajres
makes it ])ossibl(> to e()mj)are eoi-respondinji' stai^es of difVerrnt spt-eies.
Comparisons based on the alternative eritei-ia of i'(pial leii^rtlis ami
equal a^cs are usually unsatisfaetory. liowevcf, it is useful to know
the len<iths of the s|)ecimens and als(» wbethei- size ditVei-cnees exist be-
tween species at (Mjual developmental sta^-es. IJalinsky did not jrive the
leno'th of his fish or state wliether the si)eeies were of different sizes
at similar stages of development. Variations in the time of appearance
of some of the larval characters of the species studied b\- us are shown
in Table 1.

It seems worthwhile to briefly sunnnarize the eyprinid stain's worked
out by Balinsky. These define the limits of the postlarval jieriod and
call attention to a useful method for future studies of the larval sta«?es
of North American fishes.

Table of Normal Stages of Development of Cyprinid Fishes

(C'onilt'iiM'd Iroin U.-iiinsky (1'.>4.Sm

Stage 1. Unfertilized eKS-

Stages 2-27. Devflopment of fertilized egg. Il.iichiim nccurs ;it almiit stage 27.

Stages 28-32. I'rolnrval stage with yolU sac

Stage 83. Yolk is assimilated; no candal tin ra.vs i)rfsfiii.

Stage 34. End of notochord straight; eaudal tin witii .".J r.i,\s: m. trafe of
dorsal or anal tin.

Stage 3"). End of notix-lionl upturned; caudal tin witli 7 ".» ra.vs; elt-vaied tin
membrane at site of future dorsal and anal fins.

Stage 36. Dorsal and anal with rudimentary, eartilaginous rays; caudal tin
rounded, nearly coniplcte. with 1.1 17 rays. Air l)ladder subdividing.

Stage 37. Hays of dorsal and .anal tins partly ossified; caudal emar;:inatc. with
19 princiiial rays; rudiments of jiclvics appear. .\ir lijaiiilci- siilxlividfd into two
parts.

Stage 38. Pelvic fins in the form of crescentic fidds.

Stage 39. Pelvic fins in the form of paddies, with no trace of rays.

Stage 40'. Pelvic fins with rudiinenlar.\ . uuossified rays.

Stage 41. Pelvic rays i>artly ossified. CiMilinuous linfold n-iliiced.

Stages 42-4(). Finfojd lost, scales develop, and Lateral line can.al forms.

The embryo oeeujues stao'es 2 to 27, or to liatrhini;- if it oeriirs in
some other staoe. The prolarval or nonfeedino- ])eriod is from stajres 28
to 32 and the postlarval or feedino' larva is from stajres 83 throu.Lrh 40.
The five cyprinids we studied follow the above staiics rather closely, anil
these stao'es can also be used as a basis of comparison for the Catos-
tomidae. The first loop of the intestine in the suckers forms in stag:e
37, whereas the mouth descends to a normal ventral position between
stages 39 and 40. Tn staoe 37 some of the dorsal rays ossify before the

278

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PLATE 1

Lateral Views of Postlarval Minnows

A, Agosia chrysogasfer, total length 10.1 mm., UMMZ No. 162705; B, Meda fulgida, 8.4 mm., UMMZ

No. 162738; C, Gila robusta intermedia, 9.2 mm., UMMZ No. 162841; D, Tiaroga cobitis, 10.5 mm.,

UMMZ No. 162754; and E, Rhinichfhys oscu/us, 10.0 mm., UMMZ No. 162810.

NATI\i: roSTLAKVAl. FISHKS

2V.)

PLATE 2
Dorsal Views of Posflarval Minnows

A, Agosia chrysogasfer, 9.3 mm., UMMZ No. 162705; B, Meda fulgida, 8.4 mm., UMMZ No. 162738;

C, Gila robusta infermedia, 9.5 mm., UMMZ No. 162841; D, Tiaroga cobitis, 10.6 mm., UMMZ No.

162754; and E, Rhinichthys oscuivs, 9.4 mm., UMMZ No. 162810.

280

CALIFORXIA P-'ISH AND GAME

PLATE 3
Lateral Views of Postlarval Suckers

A, Xyrauchen fe.anus, 12.6 mm., UMMZ ^f }62B45- B Panfosteusde^^^^^^^

UMMZ No. 162848; C, Pantosteus species, 12.4 -"--UMMZ ^0^^62830 D, Ponfos^eus c^a^^^,^^

mm UMMZ No. 162776; E, Cafos/omus msignis, 14.5 "i["., UMMZ No. oz/^z, □ a ,

mm., ur/N/i^/. .no. '/a/ip/nnis, 14.2 mm., UMMZ No. 92248 (Wyoming).

.\AII\i; l-ns'll.AKVAl. I'ISII1>

PLATE 4

Dorsal Views of Postlarval Suckers

A, Xyrauchen iexanus, 10.5 mm., UMMZ No. 162845; B, Panlosleus delphinus ulahensis U2 mm

UMMZ No. 162848; C, Pantosteus species, 13.0 mm., UMMZ No. 162830 D.Panfos^eus dark, 12.3

mm UMMZ No 162809; E, Catostomus insignis, 13.8 mm., UMMZ No. 162742; and F, Co»os»omus

latipinnis, 14.6 mm., UMMZ No. 92248 (Wyomingl.

282

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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NATIVE rOSTr^AKVAI, I'ISIIKR 283

anal rays in both suckers jukI iiiiimows. and ()^silial ii.n (>\' tin- j toral

rays also occurs at this time. A pcciiliai-it y of tlir ( atosfoniidao is that
the operculum does not completely cover the )j:\\[ arches until sta<,'es
37 to 'Si). CalostoniKS conrmersotii (Ijacepe<h'; also seems to lit this },'cii-
eral picture (Stewart, 1})26). The c\priiii(i sta«res of I'.aliiisky may .stand,
therefore, as a basis for comparison of Ann'iican minnows ami suckers.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO POSTLARVAL FISHES

Most of the characters described in tiie key thai I'ollous may be
readily seen in the accompanying photographs ( Plates 1-4). Difliculties
were encountered at three points in the preparation of the key (items
4a, 8a, and 9a-9b). No small specimens of riycliocheihis Indus were
collected but it is assumed that they possess characteristics noted in
late postlarval stages of Ptychocheilus gravdc and P. orffioncusc. Those
two species have an oval internal pigment spot near the ba.se of the
upturned portion of the vertebral column, as in Gila rohitstu. Whether
Ptychocheilus can be separated from Gila in earlier postlarval stages
remains to be determined. To our knowledge, Ptychocheilus now occurs
only in the main, swift flowing rivers (Colorado Kiver, Salt Kiver) and
does not go up tributaries very far. Consequently, cyprinids f i-om smaller
streams that key out to item 4a can be identified with eoufideuce as
Gila rohusta.

The species within the genera Catostomus and Pantosteus are often
difficult to distinguish, even when adult. This problem is greatly multi-
plied when one attempts to key out the larval stages. We feel confident
that the separation in the key between these genera is well founded,
but it has not been possible to separate the species of Paritosteus and
the distinction between Catostomus msignis and C. latipinnis is weak,
although juveniles can readily be identified. In general. C. latipituiis
seems to have less pigment than C. insignis. As Avith Ptychochiilus, few
specimens of C. latipinnis have been recorded from the Gila Kiver
drainage in the past 50 years and, so far as we know, this species does
not go far up the smaller tributaries. Consequently, suckers from the
smaller streams that key out to item 9 may be determined i)rovisioiially
as C insignis.

Pantosteus dephinus, recorded here for the first time from the lower
Colorado River system (Burro Creek, tributary to Big Sandy Kiver,
Mohave-Yavapai Co. line, Arizona; UMMZ l(i:)92U), has been taken
only once in the Williams Kiver drainage, tributary to the Colorado
River at Parker Dam. It is evidently scarce there, whereas Pantosteus
species is common.

la. Distance from front of anus to end of caudal fin enters distance from an-
terior point of head to front of anus less than two times

Minnows, family Cyprinidae 2

lb. Distance from front of anus to end of caudal fin enters distance from an-
terior point of head to front of anus more than two times

Suckers, family Catostomidae G

2a. Pigment on medial edges of nares concentrated as a single or dout>le row
of chromatophores. Internarial region largely unpigmented. Pigment line
of horizontal myoseptum extending forward nearly to head

Agosia chrusoaaster

(PI. lA, PI. 2A)

284.. CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

2b. No distinct rows of chromatophores on medial edges of nares. Inter-
narial region pigmented. Pigment line of horizontal myoseptum not ex-
tending far forward 8

3a. Mouth almost vertical. Horizontal myoseptum pigment line indistinct.
Lateral pigment line formed of a band of widely scattered chroma-
tophores, more distinct posteriorly Meda fulgida

(PI. IB, PI. 2B)

3b. Mouth at most slightly oblique. Horizontal myoseptum pigment line
distinct. Lateral pigment line not bandlike, comprising few scattered
chromatophores 4

4a. A distinct, oval internal pigment spot at the base of the up-
turned caudal vertebrae. (See discussion of key)

Gila rohusta and Ptychocheilits luciiis

(PI. IC, PI. 2C)

4b. No such distinct oval spot present 5

5a. Many scattered chromatophores over side of body above hori-
zontal myoseptum pigment line ; those along dorsal pigment

line numerous and small. Snout not blunt Tiaroga cohitis

(PI. ID, PI. 2D)

5b. Only a few scattered chromatophores on side of body ; those in
dorsal view larger and fewer. Snout blunt and, in later stages,
with mass of pigment from eye to side of upper lip

Rhinichthys osculus
(PI. IE, PI. 2E)

6a. Top of body covered with a few giant chromatophores ; those in hori-
zontal myoseptum form long dashes or are long and stellate

Xyrauchen texanus
(PI. .3A, PL 4A)

6b. Chromatophores notably smaller and more numerous ; those in horizontal

myoseptum form short dashes or are round and stellate 7

7a. External chromatophores present below anterior part of horizontal
myoseptum pigment line, extending downward over part of abdominal
region. Edge of upper jaw and tip of lower jaw usually heavily pig-
mented. Many scattered chromatophores in space on each side of nar-
row posterior part of occipital pigment Pantosteus 8

8a. Williams River drainage, western Arizona

Pantosteus delphinus and Pantosteus species
(PI. 3B and C, PI. 4B and C)

8b. Gila River drainage Pantosteus clarki

(PI. 3D, PI. 4D)

7b. No external chromatophores below anterior part of horizontal myo-
septum pigment line. Edge of upper jaw and tip of lower jaw usually
lightly pigmented (sometimes no pigment on tip of lower jaw in
earlier stages). No chromatophores, or only a few in later stages, in
space on each side of narrow posterior extension of occipital pigment

Catostomus 9

9a. Typically with many chromatophores on caudal fin at all stages
(rarely none or a few in earlier stages) ; usually more than four
large chromatophores in midventral pigment line along isthmus

anterior to bases of pectoral fins Catostomus insignis

(PI. 3E, PI. 4E)

9b. Typically lacking chromatophores on caudal fin (or a few in
later stages) ; usually fewer than four large chromatophores
(often none) in the midventral pigment line along isthmus an-
terior to bases of pectoral fins Catostomus latipinnis

(PI. 3F, PI. 4F)

NATIVIi I'OSTLAKVAI. IISIIES 2eO

REFERENCES

i;,iliiisky. I'.. I.

l'J4.S. < >ll ihi' (|('\ rldiHiiflil lit' s|Hcilic (■Ii;ir:iil<'l> in t'\ |il'ili i<l li~lii'~ '/,i»<] Sue.

I (Ion. I'nic., \(,i. lis. |,i. 1', |.. .■■.:;ri :; 1 1, ij Hks.

I».iUf;l;is. I'liilip A.

J'.>r>L!. .\(ilrs iin llif sjinuniii;; of the li nin|pli;ick slicker. .\ i/iil iiihi ii lij-iiiiun
(Al>l)i>iii. Calil. I'ish .ind (lunif. \i>l. .'IN, ii<>. L'. ]•. 1 !!• I-'..'., I ti«j4.

Fisii. .Miiric I'.ihiini

I'.Hi'.lii. Cuiitrilinl inns to tlic ciiiI.n litV liistmiis of |.;ikf l^iii- lisliivs. .\. Y. ('oii«*.

Kepi.. iMli Ann. Kciit., lltUS. Sni.pl.. p. H.-'X,, 17 tins.
l'J2Ul). Contriijiitions to tlif ('.iily life liistnrics nl I.iikf Ei'i'- lislifs. IJnfTiiln S««-.

Nat. Sci. r.nll.. vol. 14. no. :;. \>. II'.C.-IST, .'.:'. fiKs.
1032. Contriitutions to llic cirly lilV histories of .^ixty-two siiecies of lislws fmin

J.jike lOrie .-ind its I lilnii ,i i-,\ \\;ilers, ['. S. I'.iir. Fisli., liiill., vol. 47, ii<>.

10. ],. -J!!.". .".'.IS. 144 ti>;s.

Foerster, K. F., and A. F. I'ritcli.iid

VXi7>. Tile ideiitific.ition ot i he V'l'ii;; oi' ilir live six-cics of I'jicifie siilmoii, with

notes on the t'resh-water jiliase ol their life-history. I'rit. Colniiili. Coiiini.

Fish., Kept. 19::4, p. KKKIKIIC, 1 li-.. 1 pi. i repriiiled, l!»4»i.

Fry, Donahl H., Jr.

i'JSG. Life history of Ilesperolruviin roiiistiis Snyder. Calif. Fi^li and (JaiiK".
vol. 22, no." 2, p. (;r)-!»S. II fiys.

Iluhhs. Carl L.

I'.t4;i Terniinolojjy of early stages of fishes. Copeia. no. 4. ]>. 2('((i.
1953. Eleotris picia added to the fish fauna of California. Calif. Fish and Cinmc,
V(d. 3!), no. 1. p. (;!)-7C.. 1 f\'A.

Kopec. .John A.

1949. Ecolo^iy. breeding habits and .\oiinj; sta.ires of Crenichthi/s hnilri/i, a fypriii-
odont fish of Nevada. Copeia, no. 1, p. 5G-61. 2 figs.

Oppenheimer. J. M.

1937. The normal stages of Fiiinhiliis hctcroclitiix. Anat. Rec, vol. f..s, no. 1.
p. 1-15.

Orton, Grace L.

1953. The svstematics of vertebrate larvae. Syst. Zool.. vol. 2. no. 2. p. t'K".-75.

10 figs.
Stewart, Norman Hamilton

102(*>. Development, growth, and food h.-ibits of the white sucker. Cntost,,,,,,,.^
connin'i-sonii LeSuenr. V. S. Bur. Fish.. Hull., vol. 42. p. 147-1.^4. 55 figs.

Weisel, George F.. and H. William Newman

1951. Breeding habits, development and early life history of li'irlmnl.^oiiiiis btil-
teaiiis, a northwestern minnow. Copeia, no. 3, p. 187-1'.»4. S figs.

ESTABLISHMENT OF A FORAGE FISH, THE RED

SHINER (NOTROPIS LUTRENSIS), IN THE

LOWER COLORADO RIVER SYSTEM'

CARL L. HUBBS
Scripps Institution of Oceanography of the Univorsily of California

La Jolla, California

It has been reeooiii/od for some time by lliosc concerned with the fish
management of the k)wer Cohjrado Iiiver that some of the nnineroiis
bait minnows bronght in from diverse regions LMilirr. lll.')-Ji may be-
come established, for better or Tor worse, in tin- river jiikI connected
Avaters. Since the native fish fanna has become hirgely replaced by
introduced game and pan fishes, as sliown by the survey of Dill ( l!t44,
p. 144-146) and, more emphatically, by recent field work, it has been
thoug-ht that the establishment of an esseiiti;ill\- nonijredatory forage
fish might increase the production of game fislies. It is therefore of
interest and potential importance to note the recent establishment in
the lower Colorado River system of such a forage fish, namely, the red
shiner, Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard) (Figure 1). The name
"red shiner" refers to the color of the body and more particularly of
the fins, especially in the gorgeous breeding males, lit^-ause of its
abundance and small size, this shiner is an important forage fi>;li. Tt
has also been valued as a home aquarium fish.

FIGURE 1. Red shiner, Nofropis lufrensis, from Miller 0952).

THE ESTABLISHMENT

That the establishment has been recent is indicated by the lack of
this species not only in the collections reported by Gilbert and Seofield
(1898) and by Dill (1944), but also in more recent seining. In March.
1950, Robert Rush Miller, the author, and assistants collected iu the

1 Submitted for publication February, 1954. Contributions from the Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, New Series, No. TI.t.

(287)

288

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

f '—^^ ^ ^ SflN BERNARDINO

PACIFIC

FIGURE 2. Sketch map of the lower Colorado River system, including the Delta and Salton
Sink, showing by numbers where red shiners were taken along the river in 1953. Drafted
by Robert G. Kirk primarily from state base maps and topographic sheets by the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey, from World Aeronautical charts, and from maps and data furnished by the
International Boundary and Water Commission (Ing. Jose G. Valenzuela), Imperial Irrigation
District (B. A. Weiss), and Coachella Valley County Water District (C. S. Hale).

lower Colorado River over the same region where the species was taken
in January, 1953, but failed to obtain a single specimen of this species.
The first collections of the red shiner in the Colorado system were
made by Kenneth 8. Norris, A. A. Allanson, and party, during a boat
trip down the main river undertaken for the author in January, 1953
(Figure 2). The first three collections contained specimens of this

RED SniNKR IN 'llll. I.uwi.i: (oi.ouAUU

289

species. Collection llf).'}-!, nuuN' in the riv<T in I'»aja California Nort«',
2 miles south ol" (Jadscii, ^'llllla (Jonnly, Arizona, on .lannary 18, con-
tained 14!) yotinp- lo adult spcciiiicns 17 1o Ki nnn. in standard Irnjj^tli.
Colletitioii lir);{-'J, made in a harkwalcr ol' tin- i-iv»'r in Arizona, - uiiles
north of San Luis, Soiiora, on llir sanir da_\, iiwlndi'd I) half-(;rowii to
small adnlt specimens 20 to IH mm. lonj,'-. A sintrlr stinill adnit :{() nnn.
lonji" was seined at Station llf):}-:}, in llic river in l»aja ('alitornia Nortf
an estimated IT) miles, by Uie Kio Hardy slon^^li and tin: river, below
El Mayor, on .lanuary 20. Sid)se(|uent coUc'ctions farther (lownstream
(1153-4 to 7, !), and 10), ran<^inu from 2 miles abf)ve the I'oiifo <1»»
Abajo Ferry (Avhieli is div(>etly east of a point on flie San Felipe Iliirli-
way 8.5 miles soutli ol' El ]\Iayor) to the cstnarx- about 10 ndles by
river above the moutb, contained no rc<l shimix

The next collection of the red shiner fi-oin the Colorado Kiver system
(\V58-410). Idndly made available l)y Dr. lioyd W. Walker, was taken
by John E. Fitch and AVayne J. iJaldwin on Deeembei- :!, 1!,».'>:{, in one
of the pools, then becoming dry, of the settling basin of the Coachella
Valley County Water District, in Kiverside County, California. This
settling basin is 124.5 miles from the Colorado Kiver rin open earth-
lined, canal (36 miles ah)ng the All-Ameriean Canal and ss.5 miles on
the Coachella Main Canal, which continues 37.5 miles farther as a con-
crete-lined, open ditch). Between 500 and 700 of the shiners were taken
in a tied-mesh minnow seine, but only !)4 young to adidt speeiniens. 15
to 50 mm. long, were preserved (Mr. Fitch reportetl .some selection of
larger fish). On December 15, while rescuing game fish in the same
basin with a coarse-mesh seine, Richard D. Belaud found one dead and

40

30

UJ

D-

o

LjJ

20

RIVER-

10

xcEl

[1

SETTLING B^vSIN

10

20 30 -1^^

STANDARD LENGTH, MM

•>: 60

FIGURE 3. Size frequency distribution of red stiiners collected in the settling basin of the

Coachella Valley branch of the Ail-American Canal in December, 1953 ishoded columns) and in

the lower Colorado River in January, 1953 (white columns).

4 — 97014

290 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

one live specimen of the same shiner. On December 28 John E. Fitch,
using a "Common Sense" minnow seine, obtained here a larger, nn-
selected series, comprising 284 specimens 18 to 56 mm. long. The size
frequencies, however, are approximately the same as for the December
3 collection.

That the species has rapidly become well established in the Colorado
River and connected waters is indicated by the rather large number of
specimens collected in 1953 in Arizona, Baja California Norte, and
California, and by the widespread occurrence of young. The size-fre-
quency distributions of the several collections (Figure 3) reveal that the
red shiner in its new home breeds over a prolonged period, as it does in
its native range (Hubbs and Ortenburger, 1929, p. 34; Ward, 1953, p.
20). By winter the young of the year, though in part still small, grade
in size into the yearling and older groups. The rapid increase in num-
bers indicates that the new waters are well adapted to the species and
emphasize anew the lack of faunal saturation in the western streams,
particularly after the abrupt depletion of the limited native fish fauna.
The Colorado River waters where the species has taken hold appear to
be rather similar to the larger streams of Oklahoma and western
Arkansas where it abounds, as well as in small streams of various types
(Hubbs and Ortenburger, 1929). The annual fluctuation in the tem-
perature of the Coachella Valley Branch of the AU-American Canal,
according to Mr. C. S. Hale, General Manager of the Coachella Valley
County Water District, is from 48 to 86 degrees F. (probably the ap-
proximate range encountered by the species over much of its native
territory).

There is circumstantial evidence that the lower Colorado system has
become populated by red shiners through escapements from the ponds
of the Arizona Fish Farms, Inc., at Ehrenburg, Arizona (near Blythe,
California), though escaped or dumped bait may have contributed to
the establishment of the species. The rearing of this minnow at the
Arizona Fish Farms for the forage of channel catfish and for sale as
bait has been reported by Miller (1952, p. 34). Richard D. Belaud says
(personal communication, 1953) that red shiners abound in some of
the ponds, from which many have escaped into ditches on the Arizona
side of the river, but that he has not taken the species in the river
proper. A special effort by him to obtain specimens with rotenone in
two small bays of an oxbow on the California side of the river, 2 miles
north of the bridge at Blj^the, on December 4, 1953, was not successful.
His report (letter of December 11) adds: "I believe N. lutrensis was
first propagated at the Arizona Fish Farms in 1948. They have been
sold for bait along the river from Needles to Imperial Dam." Kirby H.
Walker heard in 1949 that the spawning activities were under way for
the second year. J. Bruce Kimsey reports (in letter dated December
17) : "Mr. Hill of the Arizona Fish Farms near Blythe advised me
large numbers of fry pass out through the screens into the river each
time the brood ponds are drained, so its establishment seemed inevi-
table. A series of small minnows were noted by me on December 10,
1953 on a sand bar at Walker's Fish Camp, south of Blythe." Though
these minnows were not sampled, it is highly probable that they were
red shiners.

RKD snTXKk i.\ 'iiii; i.ovvkk cor^ouAiK)

291

The slock (>r rcil sliiiicrs ;il tlic A ii/.()ii;i l-'isli l-'aniiH Ik rcportci) to
lijivc (•(line Iroiii the vicinity of h;ikc I !iicli;iri;iii in Texas 'MilU-r, l!».'._'.
|>- -i^), oil <Ih' ItJisis (»r iiir(irni;it ion rnrnisdnl |)r. MJHcr an<l im- \>\
Kirhy II. Wnlkci-. who li;i(l consnilcd with oflicials of tin- r<irii|)aiiv.
Lake r>iichanan is ;i rcscrxoir on Hm- ('ohx-ado Hivi-r (oF tlu* (Jillf of
Mcxict) (1 rainauc I , in Manoimd l'.ni-ncl cunnt ics, 'rrxas.

IDENTIFICATION

The idciit ilical ion of I hcsc shincr-s as of t he species A ntinjus httn i> >
(Uaird and (fii-ardi is indnhilahle. The characters a^Tee fully uiii:
those of the species and in nearly all respects with those of the "typieal
subspecies, the Plains val shinei- 'A'. /. Iiihcnsis), as these eliaraeters
liave been determined by nie (in llnbbs and Ortenl)nr'_'er. 1I)*J1>. p.
33-34, 73-7G ; and in MS) and hy ('lark llid)l)s. who. at the riiiversity
of Texas, is eondndinp; statistical and experinienlal stiulies on this
species and its close relatives and is considering'' the status of its sub-
species. The anal rays (Tabl(> 1) are ty|)ically !l. rarely S or 10. Tin-

TABLE 1
Anal Ray Counts of Red Shiners in the Lower Colorado River System

Locality

Anal rays

N'.).

1J3
94

8

9

10

5
5

Mran

River in Arizona and Baja California .

18
5

130
84

g 01

Settling basin of Coachella Valley Canal .

9.00

lateral line scales in 10 river specimens vary from 32 to 34 and averajre
33.33; in 30 specimens from the basin of the ('oa<'liella \'alley Irri'_'a-
tion Canal, from 33 to 36, average 34.07. Tli(> sli<rht ditfereiu-e in scale
counts, as of anal ray counts, may be due to small-sample error or to
direct environmental effects. The month is nearly strai<rht and is stroii'.'ly
oblique, rising anteriorly abont to the level of the middle of the pupil.
The lips are not markedly thickened. The midventral black streak on
the head of the adults is confined to the sjiaee between the mandibular
rami. The general color is pale, with the ]u,<iinent i-ather well spread
over the scale pockets, with the lateral dark band weak. ilitVuse. and
obsolescent anteriorly on the trunk and head, and with the lower
sides unpigmented or lightly pigmented. The dark shoulder bar is well
developed. The arrangement of the nuptial tubercles of the males is not
evident on the s]iecimens at hand, all of which were obtained in the
winter. The young are ]iigmented like (>klahoma and Arkansas speci-
mens described by llnbbs and Ort(Mibuiger (1!'2!>. p. 7(i). except that
a middorsal file of melanophores is usually nioi-e or less evident, espe-
cially behind the dorsal fin. and the lateral dark band is obsolescent
anteriorly.

292 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Identification to subspecies is complicated by the fact that the stock
came from a region in Texas "wliere Noiropis lutrensis lutrensis appears
to interg'rade with a form of the sonthern coastal plain of Texas that
maj^ well rank as a distinct subspecies, which would probably bear the
name Notropis lutrensis stiavis (Girard). Compared with typical N. I.
lutrensis this local form ordinarily has a slenderer body, smaller fins,
and, in the ripe males, fewer tubercles. It also usually has a slightly
reduced average number of anal rays, about 8.7 rather than about 9.2.
The depth of the body seems to provide the best distinction. Clark
Hubbs has provisionalh" determined that, as a rule, the distance from
the dorsal origin to the anal origin in the adult males is less than .31
of the standard length in N. I. suavis and more than .33 in N. I. lu-
trensis; in the adult females, less than .29 in suavis and more than .30
in lutrensis. In this respect the specimens from the settling basin of
the Coachella Valley Branch of the AU-American Canal, taken De-
cember 28, agree rather well with suavis: in 38 males 37 to 56 mm. long
the distance between the origins of the dorsal and anal fins measures
.25 to .30 of the standard length, with an average of .278 ; in 31 females
37 to 51 mm. long, .25 to .29, with an average of .273. But many of the
specimens were small adults, none were breeding, all were taken in the
winter, and some showed a degree of parasitism and emaciation that
could be attributed to crowding in desiccating waters. The number of
anal rays (Table 1) is intermediate. These determinations, and more
especially the circumstance that Clark Hubbs has identified material
from the source region of our stock as intergrades between suavis and
typical lutrensis, lead me to identify the introduced stock provisionally
as intergrades (Notropis lutrensis: lutrensis X suavis).

The specimens from the settling basin are indicated as even more
slender when the greatest depth is stepped into the standard length.
In 113 of the largest specimens taken on December 3 and 28, divided
about equally between the sexes, this measurement is 3.7 to 4.7, with
an average of 4.29. For Illinois specimens Forbes and Richardson
(1920, p. 144, col. pi. opp. p. 143) give: "depth 2.7 to 3.2 in adults,
the young more slender."

The retention of the slender form in various habitats where the
species has been established in the lower Colorado River system, in
places where competition is presumably slight and food probably plen-
tiful, provides strong evidence that the slenderness of the form called
N. I. suavis is genetically determined, though the possibility remains
that the body form ma}' be determined, at least in part, by the environ-
ment, interacting with hormones. The depth of the body in N. lutrensis
is suijject to wide fluctuations, both individual and regional, and in-
creases with age, especially in the males. These fluctuations are largely
responsible for the abnormally long synonymy borne by the species
(Hubbs and Ortenburger, 1929, p. 74-75).

The genus Notropis has not previously been reported from either
California or Baja California Norte and the species is new for these
states and for Arizona. The native range of Notropis I. lutrensis is from
Illinois and South Dakota westward and southwestward through the
Great Plains, with the southern limit in the Rio Grande, Rio San Fer-
nando, and Rio Soto la Marina systems of the Atlantic drainage of

RED SHINKR IN TIIK r/)VVP:R rOI.OIlAIK) 293

nortlioastorii Mrxico. Oiu; localized siil)S|ircic.s, .Sotro/tis Itttrtnsis hlmrt
lliibbs (1940, ]). (i-8), lias \)M'.u dcscrilx-d rroni Texas. It may [irov ♦'•
be a distinct spocics; ttn Hh; otlior liaiid. .s(»mt' of the nomiiial sp.
now rec()<!,iiized Fioni the disiiiplcd s('<,Mii('iit.s ol" IIh* Itio (irandf coinph'X
on tlie Soiioran IMatcaii of noil licrii IMi'xjcn may on mon- rritic-al st'; '
be regarded as .sid)si)ccic'.s oi' i\ . talrcnsis. iJccuiist! ol" thr in<:oti.Hi.Ht< j.- _.
of its two cliiei" features, tlie slender body and the larjje «ye, I now
treat as N. Intrcnsis forlonensis Meek tlw! form inliabif iuf? the Uio
PaniU'o sN'slcm in iiiidcaslcrii Mrxico llial lias bf-ni callrtl .V. finlinn -

It is obvious that tlu; material imdcr discussion is not rcr«Tahl. ;-.
Notropis mearnsi, which was descrilxMl I'rom the Kio ^'a(p^i system in
Sonora by Snyder (1915, p. 582-584, fi^^) and has sim-n been takon in
the same system in Arizona (IMiller and Simon, ll>4:r). As Snyder indi-
cated, that form has smaller scales (about M) in the lateral liin-i and
usually only 8 anal rays. The same kind, or complex of similar forms,
occurs in other Mexican tributaries of the (iulf of California. It should
probably be called N. formosa tnearusi Snxder. N. formosa formnsii
(Girard) is one of the forms in the interior drainajre of the Sonoran
Plateau, itself perhaps only subspecifieally dilTcrcntiated from A'.
lutrensis.

The red shiner may be recognized, at least as an adult, by comparison
of specimens with the colored plate in Forbes and Kichard.son or with
the figure given by Miller (1952, p. 21), reproduced herewith as Fijjure
1. Miller's figure shows well the characters visible in side view, except
for the black stippling of the interradial mendii-anes of tlie dorsal fin.
The slenderer body of the introduced form must be kei)t in mind in
comparing specimens with the published figures.

SUMMARY

The red shiner, Notropis lutrensis (Baird and Girard). native from
the North Central States to noi-theastern ]\Iexico, has recently become
established in the Colorado River and connected waters of Arizona,
Baja California Norte, and California, where it is of potential impor-
tance in game fish management. The recent great depletion of the
limited native fish fauna accounts for the rapid increase of this and
other introduced fishes in the lower Colorado Kiver system. The estab-
lishment of the red shiner is attributed to escapements from the Arizona
Fish Farms near Blythe, California. The stock came from near Lake
Buchanan, Texas. The introduced fish are provisionally regarded as
intergrades between N. I. lutrensis and X. /. sua vis, a slender race of
the southern coastal plain of Texas. They are not N. nuanisi Snyder, a
form of the Gulf of California drainage that should pr.)bably be treated
as a subspecies of N. formosa (Girard). That form ami certain other
nominal species, of the interior drainage of the Sonoran Plateau, may
also prove to be interpretable as subspecies of X. lutrensis. yotropis
forlonensis of the Rio Panuco system in eastern :Mexieo is definitely so
regarded.

294 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the accumulatiou of material and data for this paper I have been
aided by A. A. Allanson, Wayne J. Baldwin, Richard D. Beland, Philip
A. Dongias, Willis A. Evans, John E. Fitch, C. S. Hale, Clark Hubbs,
Lanra C. Hubbs, J. Bruce Kimsey, Robert G. Kirk, Robert Rush Miller,
Kenneth S. Xorris, Jose G. Valenzuela, Boyd W. Walker, Kirby H.
Walker, B. A. Weiss, and Donald E. Wohlschlag.

REFERENCES
Dill, William A.

1944. The fishery of the lower Colorado River. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 30,
no. 2, p. 109-211, figs. 45-82.
Forbes, Stephen Alfred, and Robert Earl Richardson

1920. The fishes of Illinois. 2nd ed. III. Nat. Hist. Survey, vol. 3, cxxxvi -t
357 p., 76 figs., 68 pis.
Gilbert, Charles Henry, and Norman Bishop Scofield

1898. Notes on a collection of fishes from the Colorado Basin in Arizona. U. S.
Nat. Mus., Proc, vol. 20, p. 487-499, pis. 36-39.

Hubbs, Carl L.

1940. Fishes from the Big Bend region of Texas. Tex. Acad. Sci., Trans., vol.
23, for 1938-1939, p. 3-12.
Hubbs, Carl L., and A. I. Ortenburger

1929. Further notes on the fishes of Oklahoma with descriptions of new species
of Cyprinidae, and Fishes collected in Oklahoma and Arkansas in 1927.
Univ. Okla. Biol. Surv., Publ., vol. 1, nos. 2-3 (in: Univ. Okla. Bull., new
ser., no. 434), p. 15-112, pis. 1-13.

Miller, Robert Rush

1952. Bait fishes of the lower Colorado River from Lake Mead, Nevada, to Yuma,
Arizona, with a key for their identification. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 38,
no. 1, p. 7-42, figs. 1-32.

Miller, Robert Rush, and James R. Simon

1943. 'Notropis mearnsi from Arizona, an addition to the known fish fauna of
the United States. Copeia, 1943, no. 4, p. 2.53.
Snyder, John Otterbein

1915. Notes on a collection of fishes made by Dr. Edgar A. Mearns from rivers
tributary to the Gulf of California. U. S. Nat. Mus., Proc, vol. 49, p.
573-586, 1 fig., pis. 76-77.
Ward, H. C.

1953. Know your Oklahoma fishes. Okla. Game and Fish Dept., 40 p., 37 figs.

TAGGING EXPERIMENTS ON THE YELLOWTAIL,
SERIOLA DORSAUS (GILL)'

ROBERT D. COLLYER

Marine Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

The yellowtail is one of SonlTicni California's most |»ri/.<Ml marinp
panic fishes because of its fi*>'htin<i- (|iialities. Few otli.Ts atTonl morf
thrill to an<i'lers and consoqneiitly it is soii^-lit extensively, pai-tii-iilarly
by the sportfishiiio- boats at San Die«i'o. Records of tlie aM^rlers' catcli.
Icept by recreational fishing boat operators, show that since lfl47 the
average landings have been abont 22, ()()() fish per year. Sportsmen have
become incrc^asingly concerned over tlic sn|)pl.\' ;ind their eoneern led
tlircctly to the establishment of this investigation.

Yellowtail are also valuable to commercial fishermen, and are mar-
keted canned, smoked, or fresh. TJoats seldom make trips speeitieally
for yellowtail, but they do take considerable ((uantities incidental to
other fishing or when more desirable species are not available. The
average commercial landings since 1947 have been 7,.")( )().()()() pounds
per year (about 75,000 fish).

Yellowtail have been recorded from ^lontcrey T>ay in Central Cali-
fornia but are rare north of Los Angeles County. To the .soutii they ai-e
found along the Baja California coast and in the fiulf of California.
By far the greatest abundance occurs in Mexican waters, and California
is on the fringe of the population. Almost the (Mitire eommei-cial eatch
is taken between Cedros Island and ^Tagdalena Bay. Sport tishermen
take yellowtail primarily during tlie spring and summer months along
the Southern California mainland coast and around Santa Catalina
and San Clemente Islands. In recent years, however, the best catdies
have been made at the Coronados Islands, just south of the ^lexican
border.

Full-scale yellowtail investigations were started in Jan nary. l!i.')2.
The first and major problem has been to determine whether tlie.se
highly prized fish move from ^lexican waters, where they are most
abundant, into California waters. This question can be answered most
directly by the results of a tagging jirogram. Marking yellowtail has.
therefore, been the largest single nndertaking of the investigation. It
was felt that considerable experimental work should be done to fiml
the mark best suited for these fish. Consequently, a great deal of time
was devoted to testing of tags during 1952 and 1953.

^Submitted for publication IMarch, 1954. This work was performed as part of Dingell-
Johnson Project California F-l-R, "Yellowtail Study," supported by Federal Aid
to Fish Restoration funds.

(295)

296

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Four types of experiments were conducted :

1. Double tagging- at sea to obtain information on the relative merits
of various tags, as well as data on migrations.

2. Observing tags on live yellowtail in an aquarium.

3. Testing the staying qualities of tags on fish in a high-speed water
tunnel.

4. Testing the physical effects on tags of a prolonged period on the
bottom of the department's survey vessel, N. B. Scofield.

This report is concerned primarily with these tests, which have re-
sulted in the development of suitable tags. The program is now devoted
to marking a sufficiently large number of fish to provide the necessary
information on migrations.

RESUME OF EXPERIMENTS

Tagging at Sea

By the end of February, 1954, 3,147 yellowtail had been tagged and
released and 103 recovered (Table 1). Most of the fish (2,314) were
double tagged, using Petersen disks as the basic mark in conjunction
with one of the following :

1. Plastic, diamond-shaped tag, stapled to the operculum.

2. Cellulose nitrate strap tag on the operculum.

3. Streamer tag.

4. Jaw tag.

5. Vinylite tubing tag.

TABLE 1

Release and Recovery Data for Tagged Yellowtail
Data Are Complete Through February, 1954 (See Figure 9)

Date

Place of release

Number
tagged

Number
recovered

June-Sept., 1951

4

1

11

1

La Jolla, California-- - -

0

Guadalupe Island

0

Totals - - - -

16

18

380

87

1

1952 - _ . - _

Coronados Islands -_-__- -_ ___-

7

Guadalupe Island . - -

11

Cedros Island- Abreoj OS Pt.- - - -

8

Totals ---

485

9

268

76

1,685

14

26

19.53 --- - ---

Coronados Islands. - .

4

Guadalupe Island . _ _ _ - - _

13

Cedros Island-Abreojos Pt. _ - . __ ._

2

Abreojos Pt.-Magdalena Bay -- -

57

Gulf of California _ . _ _ .

0

Totals -. --- --

2,052
594

76

Jan.-Feb., 19.54

Baja California

25° 44' N. to 27° 30' N.

0

Grand Totals . .- --

3,147

103

Yi';M,()\v'rAii- TACidiNd i:xi-i;uiMKN'r.s 297

The double laf?f;iri<!,' cxpciiniciits iiiadi' it [(ossiMr to comimro tht?
staying' (iiialitics of llic \ai-iniis ni.irks in onlrr- to i|)-t*-i'iiiitii; which wen*
llic inosl sat islactory I'm' rnliiic iisi' ;iiii| ;it the saiiif tiiiu' jjavi! hoiiu?
knowietlye ol movciiiciils.

Aquarium Experiment

l^]i^li1(MMi live, inark(Ml ydlowtail wci-r |)l;iri(l m aii a<|iiai'iiiiii at fli'*
Seripps Institution of Occanoj^i-apliy in latr .Jiuniary, 1I>.VJ. All hut
five survived until niid-.lunc, lila'i, wlim, unrortiinalfjy, an a<|wariiiin
accident resulted in tlieir death.

Tile la^s a]>parently in-itated the fish to some dr'_M-er. l-'nr ••xaiiipl'*.
a tisli, witii a sudden burst of s|)ee(l, would swoop upside down alonu'
the bottom, trying- to rub olT the iiiai'ks. There were several marine
turtles in the tank and the lisii l'r(M|iicnt ly scr;ipcd their backs across
the ridj^cs of the turtles' carapaces.

Yellowtail are semiixdaj^ic, being Tound o\er shadow banks and rocky
shoals. Sometimes whole schools are near the surface, and at other times
they are found only at the bottom. Their habitat, totjether with their
observed tendency to rub their backs against solid ol)jeets, makes it
obvious that the tags must be rugged and well secured.

The following types of tags were observed in the a(iuarium experi-
ment :

1. Petersen disks attached by :

a. Stainless steel wire ;

b. Monofilament nylon line.

2. Plastic diamond-shaped plates stapled to the operculum.

3. Nickel strap tags attached to the operculum.

4. Cellulose nitrate strap tags attached to the operculum.

5. Jaw tags.

6. Streamer tags.

7. Hydrostatic tags.

Acknowledgment is made to the Scripps Institution of Oceanoir-
raphy for provision of an aquarium tank and for the care of the lish
during this experiment.

Water Tunnel Experiment

The work of Alverson and Cheuoweth (1951) in testing the eftVct of
water velocity on albacore (Thunnus girnio) tags suggested that sinu-
lar results might prevail with yellowtail. Both fish are capable of short
bursts of considerable speed, and it seems (pute plausible tiiat the veloci-
ties at which they swim nnght easily exert sutticieut fon-e t.> tear tair^

loose.

Messrs. Alverson and Cheuoweth readily agreed to test our fish, and
their cooperation and help are gratefully acknowledged. In Mardi.
1952, five yellowtail were shipped frozen to Seattle, Washington, where

298 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

tliey were tested at the University of "Washington Hydraulics Labora-
tory. The following tags were used in the experiment:

1. Petersen disks attached by:

a. Stainless steel wire;

b. Monofilament nylon line.

2. Petersen disks riveted to the opercular bone.

3. Nickel opercular strap tags.

4. Streamer tags.

5. Hydrostatic tags.

6. Vinylite tubing tags attached through the back.

Test on Bottom of Vessel

On July 24, 1953, samples of jaw tags and tubing tags were attached
to two pieces of rubber hose in a manner similar to their attachment
on a yellowtail. The hoses were then secured to the bottom of the N. B.
ScoFiELD, one section about 60 feet aft of the bow and the other just
under the counter of the stern. The tags under the stern received re-
flected light and were completely submerged only when the after bait
tanks were full. The tags were untouched until December 11, 1953,
4| months later, when the vessel was put in dry dock for overhaul.
During this time the N. B. Scofield covered approximately 4,200 miles,
most of the distance through waters frequented by yellowtail. The
cruising speed of the vessel is a little less than 10 knots. None of the
tags came off, and all remained in excellent condition.

TYPES OF TAGS USED

Petersen Disks

The Petersen disks were identical with those used extensively in
other marking experiments conducted by California workers (Calhoun,
1952; Calhoun et al., 1951; Collyer and Young, 1952). They were made
of three layers of laminated cellulose nitrate one-half inch in diameter
and 0.040 inch thick (Figure 1). The center layer was red and the
protective cuter layers transparent. The legend was printed on the
center layer.

In the yellowtail experiments, the tags were applied in pairs, one
on either side of the fish, by means of a wire or line passing through
the body, just under the anterior insertion of the soft dorsal fin. One
disk bore the legend and the other was blank. Two plastic spacers
(Figure 2), each 0.040 inch thick, were used, one under each Petersen
disk, to assure that the tags were not secured too tightly. Two mate-
rials were used to attach the tags. Type 302, 0.032-inch diameter, soft
temper, stainless steel wire was used between June, 1951, and April,
1952, and various types of monofilament nylon fishing line thereafter.

Throughout most of the program, double strands of 18-pound test,
0.021-inch diameter nylon line were used. Limited field trials were made
in July, 1952, and September, 1953, with single strand 40-pound test,
0.032-inch diameter line. The initial supply of 18-pound test nylon
was quite stiff and hard to handle, but it was the only type available
during most of 1952. A softer variety, said to have all the qualities of

vi;i,i.()\vi'.\i

A(!(ll.\(i KXI'KKI.MKNTS

299

^ RETURN ^^
f^. / DISKS "

I'

•'3 U 1 i:

TERMINAL IS.
CALIF.

i

FIGURE 1. Petersen disks, showing the knots. The blood knot (right) was tied in advance of
tagging operations and threaded through the numbered disk. The turban knot (left) woj the

final tie which secured the tags to the fish.

FIGURE 2. A double-tagged fish, showing the tubing tag in position and the Petersen disks

being aflfixed. The spreader plates, which are removed before releasing the fish, are shown

under the Petersen disks. Photograph by Claude Kreider, September, 1953.

300 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

the original material and much easier to use, was put on the market
in late 1952. Most of the nylon used in 1953 was the soft, more flexible
type.

The blood knot (Young et al., 1953) was the initial tie with nylon.
The final securing was done with a double overhand knot until the
September, 1953, tagging trip on the N. B. Scofield. On this cruise
21 double-tagged fish, which had been released only a month before,
were retaken, and all but four had lost their Petersen disks. Although
we could not be sure, it appeared that the knot was failing. The turban
knot (Young et al.) was then substituted for the overhand.

Aquarium Experiment

On these fish nine sets of Petersen disks were attached by stainless
steel wire and three sets by 0.021-inch monofilament nylon. Of the nine
sets of wire-secured disks, seven were retained for the duration of the
experiment, 147 days, and two sets tore loose after 1^ months and
four months, respectively. In all cases, the wire bent so that the tags
were perpendicular to the flow of water, and those in place at the end
of the experiment were tearing and irritating the tissue through which
the wire passed. The disks attached by nylon were placed on the fish
March 7, 1952. Two sets of disks lasted the remainder of the experi-
ment, 104 days, and were still in good condition when the fish died.
The third set came off in 66 days, but neither the tags nor the nylon
were found, and thus there is no explanation for the failure. These
tags were all secured with hard nylon, using the blood knot on one
side and the double overhand knot on the other.

Water Tunnel Experiment

The staying qualities of four sets of Petersen tags were tested. Three
pairs of disks attached by stainless steel wire remained on the fish for
the duration of the runs. One pair stood the maximum test of 12
minutes at 25 to 29 miles per hour. However, like similar tags on the
aquarium fish, they all bent perpendicular to the flow of water, and the
process of tearing the tissue had started. The fourth set of disks,
attached by 0.021-inch diameter hard nylon, broke loose before con-
clusion of the test. The cause of loss was failure of the nylon, but
whether it was due to breakage or to the knot coming loose is unknown.

Tagging at Sea

The number of yellowtail released at sea with Petersen disk tags,
regardless of attachment, totals 2,463, of which 2,314 were double-
tagged. There have been 26 recoveries and 66 known losses from double-
tagged fish (Table 2) and eight recoveries from the 149 single-tagged
fish.

Disks attached by wire were used on 71 fish, all of which were
single-tagged. The six recoveries have made the best showing in terms
of the number of days retained : 38 to 225, with an average of 151
days. However, wire was used only during January and February,
1952, at which time of year there was little or no yellowtail fishing in
tlie area where they were released. The returns, all but the one out 38
days, occurred in late summer and fall, which coincides with the fish-
ing season. None were taken in 1953.

YKI.I.OW TAIL TAOCilNU KXI'KUI M KN'TS

301

TABLE 2
Tags Returned and Those Known fo Have Been Lost From Fish Double tagged in 1952 and 19SJ

TagRiiiK coiiiliiiiMliiiti

Petersen disks attached by two strands of
18 ll>. test nyU)ii, double o\erb!Ui<l knot,
with:

diamond opercular tags

Opercular strap tags _

Streamer tags (type D)

Jaw tags

Tubing tags

Totals

Petersen disks attached by two strands of
18 lb. test nylon, turban knot, witli:

Jaw tags

Tubing tags

Totals

Petersen disks attached by a single strand
of 40 lb. test nylon, turban knot, with:
Tubing tags

Grand Totals

Fi-sh
tUKK('<l

77
107
lite.
118
390

888

U
1,388

1,399

27

2,314

i i.-.h
returned

7

4

13

15

21

00

0
31

31

92

III. I

Uoth tnicn
rutainvd

P«>t(.r>«>n ' '>Hi«T tug

18

20

0

f)

13

13

36

0
30

30

66

1

3
2
0
0

0
0

0
6

Petersen disks attached with nylon made a poor showing in 1952.
The 12 returns were out an average of G4 days witli a ran«?e of from
5 to 188 days. Nine sets of disks on doitbh^-tagged fish were known to
have been shed, and there were no returns in 1953.

The 1953 results were even more unsatisfactory, the 20 returns aver-
aging only 39 days out with a range of from 11 to 81 days. The losses
far exceeded the tags retained; 57 fish were recaiitured witli tlu- alter-
nate tag intact and the Petersen disks gone.

Evaluation

The aquarium observations, the water tunnel tests, and the field
experiments have all shown that Petersen disk tags are unsatisfactory
for marking yellowtail. The use of wire left much to be desired ; the
hard nylon was unsatisfactory. Soft uylou a]ipeared to be Avorse and
changing the knots did not reduce the losses. The use of Petersen disks
has been discontinued.

Diamond Opercular Tags

These diamond-shaped tags were made of cellulose nitrate. 1 by ^
by 0.040 inches, and were attached to the opercular bone by a staple
passing through two rectangular holes (Figure 3'i. The staples were
bent from pieces of type 302 stainless steel, 11 by i by 0.020 inches,
and were covered by protective sheaths of polyvinyl chloride tubing.

The tags were fairly easy to apply. Two holes were punched through
the operculum, the right width and size to fit the staple. The staple

302

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

was passed through the holes from the inside and was clinched over
the plastic plate on the outside with pointed-nosed pliers. Care was
taken not to squeeze too tight.

FIGURE 3. Diamond opercular tag. The words LENGTH, PLACE, DATE were inscribed as a
notice to fishermen; space limitations prevented more detailed instructions.

Aquarium Observafions

In the aquarium, one diamond staple tag lasted a little less than
a month, one a month and a half, and a third just a few days less than
two months. All the tags tore through the o-perculum, leaving gaping
holes.

Wafer Tunnel Experiment

Three tags similar to the diamond staple tag were tested. These con-
sisted of single Petersen disks riveted to the operculum with a soft
temper, type 303, stainless steel rivet. This tag was an adaptation of
that used by Cable (1950) on shad. Tag 1 came off after 7^ minutes of
a 12^-minute run at 20 to 25 miles per hour. Tag 2 lasted through a
10-minute run at 20 to 29 miles per hour but worked considerably and
would not have remained much longer. Tag 3 came off after 3| minutes
of a 12-minute test at a maximum velocity of 29 miles per hour.

Tagging at Sea

The 77 diamond opercular tags used in conjunction with Petersen
disks yielded six recoveries (Table 2). The time out ranged from 5 to
95 days, with a mean of 40 days. There was one known loss on a fish
which retained the disks for 172 days.

Evaluation

Neither the diamond opercular tag nor the Cable-type tag yielded
satisfactory results. In addition, there Avas the possibility of their not
being seen by fishermen because they were visible from only one side
of the fish. Further use of these tags on yellowtail has been abandoned.

vi:i,i.(tw'iAii, 'rA(i(!i\(j i:xi'i;i{|mi:nts

Mr.i

Opercular Strap Tags

'I'wd kinds ol' (i|M'i(Mil,ii- slr;i|) tii^s ui-n- tr-ii-il. Xickrl ta},'s, 1I» by -l
hy 0.7 mill., (Irsi;:iic(l lor I'.icilii- iiuickrrrl. I' m u niiilnjthnrus dittjo, (Fry
and Hocdcl. 1!>4I)), were ii.scd in the a(|ii;it-iiiiii ;iiid watrr ImiiU'l fX|M*ri-
iiKMits. The second ty])(' (Fiji-iin' -1) was made of ccllidosc nitrate strips
ineasnrin^- :> hy ;' l)y ().()4() indies. A le^ii-nd was printiMl on tin- pla.slie
with H I'lihher staiiip. iisiiiu ink i'()iitaiiiin<; a solvent for ci-HidoM- nitrati*
(California Ink Coinpany No. l()4Xr)A2). 'Plie serial mnnlM'r wa.s writ-
t(Mi at one eiul of the le<ieinl with a steel prn. Tlir sti-i|)s werf dipjHMl
in boilinji" water to soften tlieiii, and then hcnt into a Hat elon^ratt-d •• ('"
shape with an overlapping- fiaiige, so that the tag could lie snapped in
l)laee, much like securing the latch of a safety |)iii. The shape cd' tip-
tag was thou set by dipping in cold water.

RETURN TO CALIF FISH a GAME, TERMINAL
ISLAND, CALIF GIVE LOCATION WHERE CAUGHT,
LENGTH, DATE, NAME AND ADDRESS

12

%

FIGURE 4. Opercular strap tag. a. Plastic strip showing legend and number, before bending;
b. End view, showing latch closed; c. Face view, showing latch open.

Application of the nickel tag was with special |)liers. as desci-ibed by
Fry and Koedel. Tlie plastic tag was applied as follows: A small slit
was cut throngli the operculum at a distance from its posterior margin
equal to the length of the tag. The straight portion of the tag was in-
serted through the slit from under the gill cover. The tag was then
rotated through 18U degrees, so tliat the entl opposite tlie llange lay in
the slit and the flange lay at the posterior margin of the operculum.

Aquarium Observafions

Four nickel strap tags aiul one cellulose nitrate strap tag were ob-
served. The nitrate strap tag was in good condition a month after being
put on, when the fish became sick and was released. The first mackerel
tag to come oflf did so in 2^ months, and the last came off in five
months. In all cases the tags worked posteriorly through the opercular
bone.

Water Tunnel Experimenf

Three nickel strap tags held wi'Il through the water tunnel tests.
None showed signs of coming loose.

304 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Jagging at Sea

Cellulose nitrate strap tags were applied to 107 fish in conjunction
with Petersen disks. Of four recoveries, three had lost the strap tag,
and the single fish retaining it was at liberty only 23 days (Table 3).

Evaluation

The use of strap tags, like the other opercular tags, has been discon-
tinued. Almost all indications were that the opercular bone was too
weak to hold the tag.

Jaw Tags

The jaw tags (Figure 5) used in the experiments differed only in
shape from the plastic opercular strap tags. In fabricating them, the
softened strips were bent around a wooden jig to the approximate shape
of a yellowtail's lower jaw.

FIGURE 5. Jaw tag.

Jaw tags are still being used, but are now made from laminated
sheets of cellulose nitrate with machine-printed legends on the red
center layer. The new tags are larger, 4 by f by 0.050 inches as against
3 by I by 0.040 inches. They are shaped in the same manner as were
the old.

In securing the tag, the isthmus between the lower jaw (dentary)
and the tongue support (hyal assembly) is slit about one inch. A dull
knife works satisfactorily and is much safer for the tagger in case the
fish makes a sudden lurch. The tag is inserted through the slit from the
ventral side with the flange up and on the outside of the fish. It is then
turned around the dentary bone and snapped into place with the fiange
down and on the outside.

Aquarium Observations

Only one jaw tag was tested in the aquarium. It was applied April
21, 1952, and stayed in place until the termination of the experiment
June 19, 1952, with no sign of distress to the fish.

Water Tunnel Experiment

No jaw tags were tested in the water tunnel.

YIOLTvOWTAIL TAQQING EXl'KKIMFCNTS

305

Test on Botfom of Vessel

Four la^'S, altjidu'd to two riihhcf lioscs on flu- hottoiii of tin- N. U.
Scoi'ii;!;!), held pci-tVct ly. 'IMic only fault apin-an-d to In- failiiii^ Jiinl
possibly wearing' oL" the pfintiu^'; howi'vcr, all were .still Ic^fihjir aftfr
4J months.

Togging at Sea

Jaw ta^s were used in con junct ion with l'i-t<'rsen disks on 12!) fish.
Fifteen of these fish liaxc liccn rccii|il nrcd with no hts-s of jaw tHffs
(Tabh; 2). There was no soreness nor cvidciiiM' that the tajrs would not
liavc stayed in place i'or some time. However, Un-rt! was some indifalioii
that the legends were fading. Only two sets of the retersen disks wore
retained. The number of da^'s oul ran'jcd from 'J to st;, with a im-an
of 37i.

Evaluation

The jaw tags have proved very satisfactory and tlieir use is bcinfj
continued. The tags are cojispienons and show fi-oni almost any anjrle.
They are easy to attach and may be applied faster than any of the
others, with the possible exception of tlie streamer tag.

The hand-made tags used in tlie experiments liad oidy one fault: The
legend, being exposed, was subject to fading or wcai-. Drtinitf evidence
was obtained from the tubing tag tests tliat the ink used on them and
on the jaw tags would fade (page 309). The ink on the new jaw tags is
believed to be far more durable, and the lamination will protect the
printing from wear.

Streamer Tags

Two types of streamer tags were tested: the Einar Lea hydrostatic
tag (Cons. Perm. Intermit., 1953) and a tag similar to the "type D"
mark (Figure 6) which was used on tuna (Wilson, l!>.')3i. Sevt-ral
methods of making the latter tag- were tried. A message printed on a
piece of waterproof paper | by 2^ inches was rolled tight around one

FIGURE 6. "Type D" streamer tag.

306 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

end of an ll-inch length of braided nylon line. On the other end of the
line was a loop one inch in diameter. At first the message was enclosed
in a short length of nylon tubing, about f inch long. The whole mes-
sage end was then dipped in soluble nylon to give it a tough protective
coating. Later the tube was eliminated. The message was then rolled
around the end of the braided line and twisted into a small piece of
polyethylene film, just enough to hold it, and then dipped in the solu-
ble nylon as before. The new method of fabrication resulted in lighter
tags that were simpler to make.

CWT EWDS

Letter inside -^^2

FIGURE 7. Einar Lea hydrostatic tag with wire bridle attached.

We wish to thank Mr. Einar Lea for sending us a number of his
hydrostatic tags and wire bridles. This tag has been successfully used
in Norway to tag cod and herring. Its principal merit is thought to be
its nearly neutral buoyancy, which allows it to stream along with little
strain on the fish or the attachment. The tag (Figure 7), consisting of
a small transparent plastic tube with a sealed-in message, was attached
to the back of the fish by a stainless steel bridle. Li addition to using
Lea's wire bridle, we also used monofilament nylon. The hydrostatic
tags were tested on yellowtail in the aquarium and in the water tunnel.

The type D tags were applied with the aid of a hook, much like a
crochet hook bent in a half circle. The hook was inserted through the
back of the fish about one inch below the middle of the soft dorsal fin.
The loop end of the nylon line was hooked and the hook withdrawn,
pulling the tag through the muscle tissue. The capsule containing the
message was passed through the loop and over its own string to form
an overhand knot which secured the tag.

VKM.OWI'AII, T.\(l(;i\(J KXI'Kin.MKNTS 307

Aquarium Observations

h\)\\v l>|»c I) st I'ciiMci- l;i^s shiyi'd in plarr until \\,r i\sh .siiri-iMiihnl.
One was retained lor (lii-cc nidnlhs with no si^rn of faults. Th«' othrr
three Avei-e kept iindci- ohscrx al ion loi- jihont nn,- tnontli .-ai-h ami hIio\vc(I
no delects.

Six ]jea taus were used on I he ;i(|n,iriiiiM (isli. W'lyr l)i-ii||cs wen* iijmmI
on two (isli. (Mic cainc off in jdxMil lour iiioiillis wliilr the othrr, ul-
thou^^li badly beiil, lasted the duration of I lie cxpfrinient. Thf riMiiaiii-
iufi' roui- ]jea taiis were secured with nylnn linr. One canu- (»tT in two
niontlis, two histed four mouths, imd one rrmaiiicd in phir.- until tlic
conclusion of the experiment, ahoni li\c niontlis.

Water Tunnel Test

One type D streamer tag held the dnralion of tin- test. 10 ininut»»s
at 20 to 29 miles per hour, with no faults to he found.

Five Lea tays, two attached Avith wife l)i-idlcs ami three with uylmi
line, were tested. One of the uyhm-held marks vibrated badly atid
came otf after 8 minutes of a lO-miuute run at 20 to 29 miles per hour.
The others stayed in place thronyhout the experiment.

Tagging at Sea

There have been 11 recoveries and two kiu)vvn losses from 19(5 type
D tap's used tog-ether with Petersen disks ( Tal)le 2). The time of re-
tention ranged from 7 to IIG days. The losses oceurreil on tish which
retained the Petersen disks for 35 and 36 days. No hydrostatic tags
were used at sea.

Evaluation

The hydrostatic tag did not appear to be very satisfactory for mark-
ing yellowtail. Neither the wire bridle nor the nylon was substantial
enough to secure the tags.

At the end of 1952, the type D sti-eamei- tags appeared to ha\e done
well. Neither the field trials, the aquarium observations, mu- the water
tunnel tests showed serious faults. However, no fish tagged in l!).'>2
were recovered in 1953, and furthermore, there was a known 15 per-
cent loss among the double-tagged fish. Again because other tags t»'sted
in this study have shown more merit, the use of streamer tags has been
abandoned.

Tubing Tags

Pour types of tubing tags have been used on yellowtail, three of
which were identical to those being used by the I'alifornia Department
of Fish and Game to mark tunas (AVilson, 1953). The four types are:

1. No. 14 vinylite tubing Avith type 302, 0.0:;2-ineii diameter stainless
steel wire center (tuna type E).

2. No. 14 vinylite tubing with 45-]iouud test braiiled nylon line core
(tuna type F).

3. No. 14 vinylite tubing wdth No. 20 vinylite tubing center (tuna
type G). .

4. Transparent red No. 14 vinylite with 40-pound test. 0.032-inch
diameter monofilament nylon center (Figure 8). The outside di-
ameter of No. 14 tubing is approxinuitely Vio iw^^ ^"^^ ^'*^- -^
about 0.065 inch.

308 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 8. Tubing tag which is being used on yellowtaii, showing the turban knot, which is
rolled down to the ends of the vinylite tubing to secure the tag.

Type 4 was made as follows. The legend was inscribed on a three-inch
piece of opaque white No. 20 vim^lite tubing which was later drawn
through an eight-inch piece of transparent tube. Lastly, 22 inches of
nylon was threaded through the whole. To keep the nylon from slip-
ping, a simple overhand knot was tied in the line and pulled into the
end of the outer tubing-.

The legend and number were hand-inscribed on the opaque white
core with a steel quill pen, using plastic ink (California Ink Company
No. 104N5A2).

The tubing tags were all attached with the aid of a stainless steel
needle inserted through the back of the fish about one inch below the
middle of the soft dorsal fin. The techniques for applying the type E,
F, and G tuna tags were the same as described by AVilson. The vinyl-
monofilament mdon tags were secured with a turban knot which was
rolled down close to the ends of the tubing before cinching tight.

Aquarium Observations

No tubing tags were place on yellowtaii in the aquarium.

Water Tunnel Experiment

Two tubing tags were tested and both held satisfactorily throughout
the experiment.

Test on Bottom of Vessel

Twelve tubing tags were tested, six on each of the two pieces of hose.
All stayed in place and none showed any defects during the 4|-month
test.

Tagging at Sea

Tubing tags have been used in conjunction with Petersen disks on
1,805 fish and 605 have been used alone. Recoveries from double-tagged
fish (Table 2) total 53, with no known losses. The time out has ranged
from 11 to 81 days, with a mean of 39 days.

YELLOWTAIL TAGOING EXPERIMENTS 300

Evaluaiion

The stayino' ((luililics nf ;ill lour lypcs Iwivi- Ix-ni cxccllciit and tlicre
is no conclusive evidence, at tliis sta<,'c of the invcslij^'atioii, that one is
definitely better tluin ;i not her. However, in vi(!\v oi" the desirability of
narrowin;^' tlie iiniiiher of t;i,us in nse to only tlie very best, two of theso
types liave been diseontinned. The bi-aided nylon center of tlie typa F
ta<:: sliowed some tendency to fray ;ind thon^li none have been known to
come off, it is ])elieved tliat some oi" those retnr-iied Tinjrht not have
lasted mncli lon^-er. The vinyl-stainless steel type E ta<,' has also been
discontinued. There may be sufficieid, tlexui'c of the wire to result
eventually in breakage. Secondly, tags which were partially untwisted
have been returned. Finally, this tag is slower to make.

A rather serious fnidt occurred on several tags recently returned in
that the ink had faded. The worst tag was out only Go days. It is
believed that the bad tags were from fish which spent considerable time
at the surface, wdiere the greater light intensity caused fading. That
portion of the tng covered by tissue always remained in perfect condi-
tion. The problem was referred back to the California Ink Company,
which found that the addition of 2 percent carbon black fortified the ink
so that there was no fading Avhen tested the equivalent of 142 days at
summer sunlight. The improved formula number is in4X."')A4. The
assistance of the crime laboratory of the Long Beach Police Depart-
ment in positive identification of the one particularly bad tag is grate-
fully acknoAvledged.

EflPort has been made to have fishermen return the whole fish rather
than just the tags alone and 45 specimens with the tubing tag in place
have been received. This has given an excellent opportunity to observe the
condition of the tags. In every case, the hole through which the tubing
passed was either completely healed or was healing with no sign of
soreness. It was observed that the tissue tends to grow to the vinylite
and in some cases the tags adhered so tightly that removal was difficult.

MOVEMENT

At the end of February, 1954, 3,147 yellowtail had been tagged, all
but one in Mexican waters, and 103 recovered (Table 1, Figure 9). Of
those recaptured, 90 were taken less than 10 miles from the point of
release and the remaining 13 at distances of from 20 to 240 miles
(Table 3). Three fish traveled from Guadalupe Island to the mainland.
The longest migration was from Guadalupe Island to Asuncion Island,
a distance of 240 miles southeast in G2 days. The only recovery in
California waters was a fish released at the Coronados Islands and
recaptured at Santa Catalina Island. Another yellowtail from the same
tagging lot moved southeast and was caught near Ensenada.

Of particular interest are some of the returns from fisli which did not
move. On successful trips in August and September, 1953, 1.405 yellow-
tail were tagged on a small bank, just a few acres in area, latitude
25° 44' N., longitude 113° 10' W. On the September cruise, 24 of the
fish marked in August were recaptured. Commercial fishermen who

310

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

PACIFIC

OCEAN

Scolt of Milei

FIGURE 9. Areas in which yellowtail have been tagged and recovered. Numbers above lines

indicate releases; those below lines, recoveries within a 10-mile radius. Arrows and circled

figures show fish that moved more than 10 miles.

Vi;i.I.()\VI'\ll, 'I\0(!IN(1 KXI'KUI.MKNTS

:!1

Dull'
tagged

1-26-52-
1-26-52.

1-27-52.

1-27-52.

li- 2-52.
(i- 7-52.
(;-ll-52_
■4-24-53-
4-24-53.
8- 1-53-
8- 2-53.
8- 2-53-

9-25-53.

TABLE 3

Log of Tagged Yellowtail Which Moved 10 Miles or More 'See Figure 9)

Liiciility i)f rc-l(;usc

Cedros Is., North l^iid

Ccdros Is., Nortli Isiid

Cedros Is., North ImkI

Ccdros Is., North KniL

Sail Bonito Is.
Guadnhipc Is.
Guudahipe Is.
Coronados Is..
Coronados Is..
Guadalupe Is.
Gua<ialupe Is., South End
Guadalupe Is., South End
Cedros Is., North End

South End.
South End.

South End-

l/ocality of ri'(:u|iture

lllpolilii Hunk

Kcllct Chaiiiicl south of

( 'cdros Is. .

K<'ll('l ('lianiii'l .soulli of

( 'cilros l.s.
Kellet Channel south of

Cedros Is. .
Ilipolito Hank
San Martin Is.
San Quintin Hunk
Santa Catalina Is..

Ensenada

Asuncion Is

Guadalupe Is. Nortli lOnd
Guadalupe Is. North End
San Cristobal Bay

Din

••^tion

NiiriiU.T

of finh

duyn at

movoinont

liberty

'.HI nil.

si:.

213

20 mi.

s. .

I.V)

2(1 mi.

,s.

1 2!l

20 mi.

s.

153

{10 mi.

si;.

w;

155 mi.

NK.

172

ItIO mi.

NK.

188

70 mi.

N\V.

81

45 mi.

SK.

49

240 mi.

SE.

02

20 mi.

N.

69

20 mi.

N. .

48

70 mi.

SE. _

11

were working a school ol' lima on the hank in (h-lolx-r and .X'ovcrnbcr,
195.'5, took 40 of the yellowtail which were tagged in September. Fisher-
men reported seeing many more marked fish in the water. In January
and P^ebruary, 1954, two more visits were made to the bank. Only a
few fish were taken and none bearing tags were seen or canght.

By far the greatest number of the fish marked were less than 6.50
mm. (25 1 inches) fork length. Likewise, most of the returns (62 per-
cent) were from these small fish, but all of tlie ^'^ fisli which moved
were over 650 mm.

SUMMARY

The yellowtail, Seriola dorsalis (Gill), is extremely important to
Southern California sportsmen and is also a commercial variety of
some significance. Apiireheusion by sportsmen over future good fishing
for yellowtail resulted in the Department of Fish and (iame under-
taking a thorough study of the species in 1952.

A major problem was to determine whether or not the fish moved
from Mexican waters, where they are most abundant, into California
waters. The most direct approach to the problem lay in a tagging ]>ro-
gram. Conseqnently, dnring 1952 and l!t5;} considerable effort was
devoted to the development of suitable tags and to marking fish at sea.

Four types of experiments were loerformed in developing suitabl(>
tags. These included double-tagging at sea, a(|uariiim observations,
tests in a water tunnel, and tests of tags attached to the bottom of a
vessel. The tags used included : conventional Petersen disks attached
by both stainless steel Avire and monofilament nylon : ojiercular tags of
several types; streamer tags, some of them hy^lrostatic ; plastic jaw
tags and plastic tubing tags similar to those used successfully on tuna.

The tubing tags and the jaw tags have been most satisfactory and
their use is being continued. Ry the end of February. 1954, there was
no evidence of tag loss from either of these types. The Tetersen disks,

312 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

regardless of the means of attachment, showed serious flaws in all the
experiments. This was demonstrated most forcefully by the double
tagging work at sea. Of 92 re;Overies from fish marked initially with
Petersen disks and one of the other types, there were 66 losses of the
disks. The other types of tags tested and rejected also showed losses,
though not as great as for the Petersen disks.

At the end of February, 1954, 3,147 yellowtail had been tagged and
released. Kecoveries totaled 103, only 13 of which moved more than 10
miles from the point of release. The maximum movement recorded was
240 miles, for a fish at liberty only 62 days. The maximum time out
was 213 days, by a fish which moved 90 miles. One yellowtail tagged
at the Coronados Islands, just south of the International Boundary,
was retaken in California waters at Santa Catalina Island. Three fish
moved from Guadalupe Island, 140 miles off the coast of Baja Cali-
fornia, to the mainland.

With the development of suitable tags, a concentrated effort is now
being made to mark fish in large numbers.

REFERENCES

Alverson, D. L., and H. H. Chenoweth

1951. Experimental testing of fisii tags on albacore in a water tunnel. U. S. Fish
and Wildl. Serv., Comm. Fish. Rev., vol. 13, no. 8, p. 1-7.

Cable, Louella E.

1950. A cheek tag for marking fish, with semi-automatic pliers for application
of tag. Jour, du Cons., vol. 16, no. 2, p. 185-191.

Calhoun, A. J.

1952. Aquarium tests of tags on striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39,
no. 2, p. 209-218.

Calhoun, A. J., D. H. Fry, Jr., and E. P. Hughes

1951. Plastic deterioration and metal corrision in Petersen disk fish tags. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 301-314.

CoUyer, R. D., and P. H. Young

1952. Progress report on a study of the kelp bass, Paralahrax clathratus. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 2, p. 191-208.

Conseil Permanent International pour I'Exploration de la Mer

1953. A guide to fish marks used by members of the International Council for
the Exploration of the Sea. Jour, du Cons., vol. 19, no. 2, p. 241-289.

Fry, D. H., Jr., and P. M. Roedel

1949. Tagging experiments on Pacific mackerel. Calif. Div. Fish and Game, Fish
Bull. 73, 64 p.
Young, P. H., J. W. Schott, and R. D. CoUyer

1953. The use of monofilament nylon for attaching Petersen disk fisli tags. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 4, p. 445-462.

Wilson, R. C.

1953. Tuna marking, a progress report. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 4,
p. 429-442.

PROGRESS REPORT ON THE TAGGING OF WHITE
CATFISH (ICTALURUS CATUS) IN THE SAC-
RAMENTO-SAN JOAQUIN DELTA'

DAVID E. PELGEN

Inland Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

INTRODUCTION

Catfish play an important role in California sport fisjiiiiii-. An esti-
mated 171,000 anglers (17 percent of all licensees) fishcil tor thrm jind
canglit almost 5,000,000 fish in 1951. Moreover, a special survey in 1948
indicated thnt 4.5 percent op all anplors prefei-rod catfish in^r over all
other types of fishing (Calhonn, 1950, 1953a).

Althongh catfish are found in virtually every county in the State,
the fishery in the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta area is particularly
important, x>roviding over 50 percent of the California catch.

The white catfish (Ictalnriis catiis), channel catfish (Z. pu7ictatus),
brown bidlhead (Ameiurus ne'bidosvs), and black bullhead (A. melas)
have all established breeding populations there. However, the white
catfish is dominant, and the other species are taken infref[uently.

Until September, 1958, both commercial fishing and S]iort fishing for
catfish were permitted in the Delta area. A serious decline in these
fisheries led to the initiation of a study of them in January, 1952.

Several thousand white catfish were tagged early in 1952 in the Delta
in connection with studies of fishing pressure and migrations and the
development of tagging techniques.

The first tagging experiment has thrown considerable light on tlie
movements of white catfish in the Delta, about which notliing was
known previously. It has also yielded valiuible inforn\ation about
tagging techniques. The present report summarizes these preliminary
data. Studies of fishing mortality are coul inning and will be covered in
a subsequent report.

METHODS

A total of 3,466 white catfish Avas tagged with tAvo types of tags. The
tagged fish were released at the six localities shown in Figure 1. At five
of these fish were purchased directly from commercial fishermen.
Tagging was done on the fishermen's wlmrves, using their live cars,
tables, and other facilities. The fish tagged at the Antioch locality were
captured by project personnel, during the conunercial closed season.

When large numbers of catfish are concentrated, some individuals
become punctured or cut by the spines of others. All such injured fish

1 Submitted for publication JNTaroh, 1054. This work was performed as part of Dingell-
Johnson Project California F-2-R, "A Study of the Catfish Fishery of California,"
supported by Federal Aid to Fish Restoration funds.

(313)

3M

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Sacramento

1 Sacramento River

six miles above Sacramento

2 Sutter Slough

3 Sandmound Slough

4 Antioch Bridge

5 Burns Cutoff

6 Old River near Tracy

Scale

Stockton

FIGURE 1. The six localities at which catfish were released.

wiiri'i; cA'i'i'isii 'i'.\<i(;i\(i

'nr,

were discarded, and only lisli in prrfrd rondition were tn<j;<^t'(\. Al-
tlioug'li catfish can lie kcpl iml nf wairr for lon^c pci'iods in cold wi-aflicr
witliont harm, an rll'oil was made; to keep the (isji out of Ihe water
for a short while owly. In no case avcm'c fish ohserved In he in distress
when i-elni'ne(l (o the watei-, or later t'onnd de;id.

Fork lenj^th ineasiireiiients to the nearest teiitii of an inch wcr*' made
on all ta^u'ed lisli. Ta<ijiini;' was done hetwcen -lannai'v 1.") ;ind .Innc 10,
I!*.")!'.

'Vwn types of tags were nsed in the st ndy : an operenla r st I'aj) ta:_'. and
a disk ta<;' attaclied with taidalnin wire. Ivii-licr prelindnai-y latr^'iiit;
with standard Petersen disk ta;^s had shown them to he totally iin-
isLiitable for white catfisli because of rapid sheddinii-. The strap taj^

FIGURE 2. Tlie opercular strap tag stiown
in place. Tlie tag is anctiored securely by
piercing the bony opercular plate.

(Figure 2) was supplied by the National Band and Tag Company of
Newport, Kentucky. It is a self-piercing monel metal tag, size No. 1.
style 1005, applied with special pliers. As used on white catfish, the
clasp of the tag pierced the bony opercular plate, anchoring the tag
securely.

The othfr type of tag used has been called the disk-dangler tag
(Calhoun, in53b). It is a A'ariatiou of the Atkins type tag (Rounsefell
and Kask, 1945), and consists of a cellulose nitrate disk, onedialf inch
in diameter and 0.040 inch thick, attached with 0.020-inch tantalum
wire. The tag was attached to tlie fish 's body beneath the dorsal fin
with two strands of wire, as shown in Figure :'.

It was found that a small, viselike clamp holding two hypodermic
needles of appropriate size provides a convenient method of getting the
wires through the fish's body. The clamp is shown in Figure 4. The
needles are put in place and pushed through the body in one motion.
The tag wires are then inserted into the hollow needles and the clamp
pulled outward. This leaves the tag in place with the wires through
the fish's bod}'. These tags were put on with one wire anterior to, and
one wire posterior to, the origin of the dorsal spine. A metal spacing
strap placed between the protruding wires keeps them from pulling

316

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 3. Disk-dangler tag shown in place. The exposed wire and tag
are bent backward so as not to catch on nets, weeds, or other obstructions.

FIGURE 4. The clamp holding two hypodermic needles used in the appli-
cation of the disk-dangler tag.

WHITE CATFISH TAGQING 317

togetlier ;iiiil Iciiriiiu' tlu; flcsli wlicii tlioy am twisted to«?othcr. The
ta}j:f?in<^ l)r()('('s.s is coniplclcd l>y ciitlinj^ olT llic fxccss wire on tlip
twisted Olid, Jiiid hoiidinji- hiicic llu^ exposed wire; and la<^' so fli;it they
will not tend to eatch on weeds, nets, or other ohsti-iietions.

It shonhl 1)0 mentioned that the chinip Iioidin*^ the hypoderniie
needles, althon^h snitahle for ta^-^in^- catlish, is not satisfactory for
scaled fishes. The needles arc delleeted hy the scales, and do not remain
parallel. As a result they may emorpje on the opposite; side at tlie same
point, or ])erhaps an inch apart.

Ori<iiiial ])lans called for the application of 4^0 opercular strap tat:s
and ll20 disk-dangler ta<is at eacli of the six locations. Deviation from
this number was due primarily to missing tags and niiavailal)ility of
fish.

In order to insure as complete a return as possilHe, several methods
of stimulatin<;' interest in the return of the tags were used :

(1) Posters (Figure 5) advising the public of the tagging program
were distributed widely at boat liveries and fishing spots
throughout the area.

(2) Press interviews and releases were utilized as much as possible
to inform the public of the tagging i)rogram.

(3) Talks were given to sportsmen's groups.

(4) Commendation cards (see Figure 5) "vvere sent to persons return-
ing catfish tags.

(5) Every person returning a catfish tag had his name entered in
drawings sponsored by the Foothill Sportsmen's Club of Oak-
land. An annual first prize of $100 has been given, along with
many other attractive merchandise prizes. Wide newspaper pub-
licity was given to these drawings.

RESULTS

The results obtained in the first year of this tagging study are sum-
marized in Table 1. The rate of return from the different tagging loca-
tions varies considerably. Considering disk-dangler tags only, the re-
turn from Sutter Slough was lightest, with oidy 2.5 percent. The great-
est return (22.5 percent) was from Old River. The total return from
all disk-dangler tags was 16.3 percent.

The tagged catfish ranged in size from 5.6 to 17.6 inches fork length.
The mean length was 8.52 inches. Catfish for which tags were returned
ranged from 6.4 to 13.9 inches, with a mean length of 8.54 inches. The
difference is not statistically significant at the 1 percent level.

Suitability of Tags

The most striking result of the study tluis far has been the demon-
stration of the superiority of the disk-dangler tag over the opercular
strap tag. A return of 16.3 percent was obtained from the disk-danglers
over a period of one year, while over the same period of time and
under the same conditions only 2.6 percent of the strap tags were re-
turned.

The writer is confident that this great difference in rate of return
is not due entirely to the ability of the tags to remain on the fish, since
experiments conducted at Steinhart Aquarium and Central Valleys

318

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TAGGED

Have been RELEASED in this

AREA

RETURN TAGS TO

California Department of Fish and Game f^^"

FERRY BUILDING

SAN FRANCISCO, CALIF.

BE SURE TO INCLUDE THIS INFORMATION

1. Your Name and Address.

2. Dale the catfish was taken.

3. Place. Be as exact as possible.

4. Lenqlh of the catiiah.

Measure from ironi oi head to tip of toil.
Be as exact as possible.

YOUR TAGS AND YOUR INFORMATION
are needed to help the DepoHment of Fish and Gome main-
tain the supply of catiish.

OFFICIAL COMMENDATION CARDS
tm sent to fishermen who return togs with the neieimy
information regarding their recorery. A brief history of the
catfish is furnished with each card.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TAGS

Other types oi tags may be used or they mcry be on different

ports of the tish.

RETURN ALL TAGS

CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OFFISH AND GAME

FIGURE 5. Poster used to advise the public of the tagging program.

State Fisli Hatchery demonstrated that both types of tags remain in
place satisfactorily for a j^ear. In the experiment at the hatchery 100
white catfish were tagged with strap tags, and half of these were also
tagged with disk-dangler tags. The fish were held in a weed-choked
pond of one-third acre, and checked at regular intervals for a period
of one year. At the end of this time none of the tags had fallen off and
few were loose. However, the strap tags had all become hidden under
a covering of opaque mucus, making them difficult to see. Anglers do
not tend to look closely at their catfish after catching them, and it is
believed that most of the opercular strap tags went unnoticed.

wiirri; cati'Isii 'rA<i(!i\(i

310

111 llic few c.-iscs ill whicli llic wrilrr |i;is li;i(| tlir oppurt MnitV tO

obsci'Vt' ta<iji('(l (■Jitlisli jil'tcr cjiptiirr. llir (lisk-daii^'lcr ta<;s ii|)p<*anM|
1() !)(' ill <i'()()(i coiidit idii. Xol ill rr('(|iiriil ly tlic cvpost-d wirr on tin- side
ol' the (isli oppdsilc the disk hfcoincs huricd in the llcsli, Icaviii',' no
sear. In no (•;isc li;is wire ('(innsion nr plaslic di't<Tii)i';i1 ion lirni notrd.

Migration

'^riic iii(i\t'iiicii( of la^'^t'd while ciinisli IVdiii till' piiiiii (if la;_'j.'in^' wa.s
sporadic and without ap|)ar('iit direction, in L:cnii-;il. ihc picture is one
of fi'radual difl'usioii from Ihc point of taji'^in^-. I''(»r c;ic|i lisli th;it makes
a considerable mo\-eiiieiit in one direction, tlierc is usually another
one that made an e(|iially loii^' moNcment in the o|i|)osite direction at
about the same time. Only 20 of 17.'} taji's retnined were li-om fish cap-
tured near their point of release. P]i^li1y-fi\-e (ish tiiiM'led iip>tre;iiii
from llu' ])oiiit of release, avera<iiii,u' !I.S mili's; .'i:; lish that were i-ap-
tured downstream from the ))oiiit of release iraxcled an avera},'e dis-
tanee of 8.6 miles. Movements of 15 fish eonld not he determined.

The fact that white catfish are capable of iiio\in<^ (piite rajiidly was
(U'liioiistrattHl by the capture of one indi\idnal '2') miles from the taj,'-
gin<i' localit}' only ei<;ht days after beinii' tai^'gcd. The longest movement
of a taji'ged fish was 55 miles, accom])Iished in slightly over two months.
Individual movements of catfish from one point of tagging are siiown
in Figure 6.

Commercial fishermen in the area have thought for a number of years
that catfish leave the lower reaches of the Sacramento and San Joaquin
rivers during the winter months and congregate in quiet, warmer
slonghs throughout the Delta. They chose their fishing areas accord-
ingly. Sampling activities of the writer have also indicated such a

TABLE 1
Data on Tags Applied and Tags Returned During the First Year

Tags put on

Tags returned

Tagging location

Strap

Disk-
dangler

Total

Strap

Disk-
dangler

Total

Antioch Bridge • . _ _

480
480
477
479
479
470

124
120
118
None
119
120

604
600
595
479
598
590

7
(1.5%)

20

(4.2%)

21

(4.4%)

15
(3.1%)

9
(1.9%)

3

(0.6%)

27
(21.8%)

27
(22.5%)

27
(22.9%)

None

3

(2.5%)

14
(11.7%)

34

Old River near Traey

Burns Cutoff

Sandniound Slough

(5.6%)

47
(7.8%)

48
(8.1%)

15

Sutter Slough

(3.1%)
12

Sacramento River six miles
above Sacramento. _,

(2.0%)

17
(2.9%)

Totals --

2,865

601

3,466

75
(2.6%)

98
(16.3%)

173

(5.0%)

320

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

6

0 12 3 4 Miles

1 I I I I

Scale

Recoptured in 0-3months
Recaptured in 3-6montlis
Recaptured in 6-9rrK)ntlis

Recoptured in 9-l2months

Tagging Location ot Antioch Bridge

FIGURE 6. Tag recoveries made from fish tagged at the Antioch Bridge locality. The results
are typical of those obtained from other localities.

seasonal cliange in clistribntion. It will be necessary to tag larger
numbers of catfish with suitable tags for this to become evident from
tag returns.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Acknowledgments are due Alex Calhoun, under whose guidance the
tagging study was conducted. I am indebted to the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game employees who assisted in the capture and tag-
ging of catfish, particularly Vincent Catania. I also wish to thank the
Foothill Sportsmen's Club of Oakland for generously sponsoring prize
drawings to stimulate interest in the tagging program.

WUITE CATFISFI TAflGI.VG 321

SUMMARY

Dui-iii^ Mh' early |)art of ^'.)^)2, ',i,4(')i) vvliito (catfish were i&i^iJ^oA at six
dirfcrciil loi-alitirs in I lie SaiTjitni'iilo-Saii Ji(a(|iiin Dclfu ar<'a of ('ali-
i'ornia.

Two (linVi-cnt lypcs of laiis wci-c used. 'I'lir rrtm-ii ol' disk-danjjfliT
tufis was ai)proxiiiiately six times that of opereiilar strajt ta<,'s. It is
l)elieve(l tliat llie ])riii('ipal i-easoii Tor this (lill'ereiii'e lies in tlic fact
that the strap taj;- is dii'lie.ult to see, and is not nofieed by anj,derH.

Migration or movement of tlio catfish I'l-om tlic jioint of Uv/i:;'\xv^ was
quite sporadic and witliout apparcnl direction. Tlie fish arc; capable of
eoverinff considerable distances in laliier short priidds of (ime.

LITERATURE CITED
Calhoun, A. J.

1950. Califonii;i aiiKliiiS catcii locoids from postiil card surveys: IfKifl-lO-lS ;
with au evaluation of postal card nonrcspouse. Culif. Fisli and (.iuiiw, vol.
36, no. 3, p. 177-234.
1953a. State-wide California angling estimates for Ifl.'l. Calif. Fi.sli nn«l (iaiiii-,

vol. 39, no. 1, p. 103-113.
1953b. Aquarium tests of tags on striped bass. Calif. Fisli and (Janie, vol. 39,
no. 2, p. 209-218.

Rounsefell, G. A., and J. L. Kask

1945. How to mark fish. Amer. Fish. Soc, Trans., v(d. 7:;, p. 320-3G3.

5—97014

FIELD TESTS OF STAINLESS STEEL AND TANTALUM
WIRE WITH DISK TAGS ON STRIPED BASS

JOHN E. SKINNER and A. J. CALHOUN

Inland Fisheries Branch
California Department of Fish and Game

Recent fisli tas'si'iji" i>i"()^riiiiis li;i\c indicMted tli;it sonif ot" tlif mate-
rials commonly used for disk tii<is ;iic iii;i(lr(|ii;itc. .Metals siich as inonol,
nickel, and silvci* lunc |)i'()V('ii iiiisjil isCiriory on iiiiii'itu' ;iiid atiailni
mous lislicis (Calhoun, Fry, and llii^lics, llt.'tl i.

A field tagging: experiment witli sti'i|)cil l)ass (liorrus snTatilis)
was nndertaken in 1951 to evalnate tantalnin and staiidcss stfcl as
possil)l(> snbstitntps. Petersen type cellulose niti-atc tlisUs oiif-lialf int-h
in diameter and 0.045 inch lliick were nsed with tlwtM' typt's of wire,
all 0.0;32 inch in diameter. Tantalnm was nsed with disks liaviug serial
nnmbers ending in 1, 4, and 7; type 302 mcdimn soft temper stainless
steel with nnmbers ending in 2, 5 and 8; ami i\|>i' ^'Oi' [)assivatt'd dead

40

o

oLJj^A^

FORK LENGTH IN INCHES

FIGURE 1. Length frequencies of striped bass tagged (upper) and returned (lower)

for each of three types of wire.

1 Submitted for publication Marcli, 1951.

(323)

324

CALXFORNIA FISH AND GAME

o

CO

s

>
O

o

Pi

■a

o

CO
I

o

CO

Ph

CO :^

o

e=
o

CO

CO

CO

CO

o

CO

CO

in

CO

rt

o

05

o

in

o

CO

CO

C-)

o

CO

o t3

CO CO m

CO 00 o

CO ^ CO

ft

3
d

T3

(d

s

3
'-3

O

STKIi'KI) IJASS TAO TKSTS

325

soft temper stainless steel witli lliosd ciKiiiif,' in 0, .'{, G, and '.K Tlut fiHh
were all tagged on liu! caiidjil pediuide ((Jalhoun, If);').'!; Fit'-un; 2).

A total of 1,'Jll s1i-i|)<'(l l»;iss i-an<,'iri-,r fi-oin 10 to .'ID inclirs in fork
length was caught, witli gill nrfs (Callionti, ]'Xt'2) and tagged in th<?
above manner dnring April aiMJ May of 11)51. The N-ngtli fr<M|ii(,>ncie«
of the fish tagged are shown in Figiii'e 1.

Two liiindrod and four lags (KJ.Hf) percent) were returned hy Febru-
ary 1, 1954, two years and nine months after tag^ring began. The
elapsed time between tagging and reeovery ranged from I) to 1,005
days, with a mean of 225 days for the (;ond)incd returns.

16

q:

3

UJ

UJ
O

8

LEGEND

M TANTALUM

MED. SOFT STAINLESS STEEL

DEAD SOFT STAINLESS STEEL

X

i

YEAR

YEAR 2

YEAR 3

FIGURE 2.

Comparative returns of ttiree types of wire used for fagging striped boss. Returns
in the third year are for the first nine months of that year only.

The total percentage returned and the pattern of elapsed time be-
tween tagging and recapture were essentially the same for the three
metals within each of the three years following tagging (see Table 1
and Figure 2). The general similarity of the returns of the three types
of tags throughout the entire recovery period is shown by Figni-e 3.-

An analysis of variance failed to show any statistically significant
difference in the returns of the three types of wires, using the mean
number of days at large as the criterion for distinction. The mean
number of days at large and standard deviation for each type of wire
are given in Table 2.

Figure 1 (lower) reveals that a slightly smaller percentage of striped
bass tagged with medium soft stainless steel wire were returned in the
shorter kngth classes, compared with tantalum and dead soft stainless
steel, while the converse is true for the longer length classes. Statistical

2 After the manu.script had been submitted for publication 4 wires which had been
out for considerable time were returned : 2 dead soft steel wires out for 8S6 and
1,145 days, and 2 tantalum wires for 1,106 and 1,123 days.

326

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

360 480 600
NUMBER OF DAYS

FIGURE 3. Cumulative returns of tantalum and stainless steel wires.

procedures showed significant differences between the returns (at the
5 percent level) for the shorter length classes, whereas the returns for
the longer length classes approached, but did not reach, the significant
level.

A plausible explanation for these differences is that the medium soft
stainless steel is considerably less flexible than the other two metals
and is therefore more apt to cut its way through the soft flesh of the
smaller fish. Further, it is more difficult to tie a knot providing the
desired amount of slack in the medium soft stainless steel, especially
when tagging small fish. With repeated bending tantalum and dead
soft stainless steel break much more readily than does medium soft
stainless steel. This may explain the smaller number of returns for
the larger fish in the case of the former.

TABLE 2
Mean Number of Days at Large and Standard Deviation for Tantalum and Stainless Steel Wire

Type of -wire

Number
returned

Mean number of
days at large

Standard
deviation

Tantalum. _-______.

63
84
57

246
201
236

±189.5

DpaH soft tp.TTippr stainlpjss stppi

±171.1

Mp.fliiiTn snft tpmppr stainlpss stppl

±194.4

It is of interest to compare the retention period of these tags with
those used in earlier experiments. Merriman (1941) tagged 2,573
striped bass with modified Scottish plaice tags located beneath the
dorsal fin, attaching them by means of nickel pins. The total return
was 21 percent, with a maximum elapsed time of 608 days between
tagging and recovery.

Clark (1936) reported a recovery of 10 percent for 1,544 small
istriped bass tagged beneath the dorsal fin with disks and nickel pins.
The recovery period ranged from 4 to 477 days.

Morgan and Gerlach (1950), tagging striped bass in Oregon with
Petersen disks and nickel pins, reported a 13 percent return with a
maximum elapsed time of 128 days.

STHII'i:!) I '.ASS r.\(i 'I'KSTfi 327

Til ox|)l()r;it()i'y field l;i^';^iii;:' cxprririiciils wifli sfripi-d Ita-^-. m ( 'ali-
Foniiii pi-ior lo ]!),')!, in wliicli moiicl ntid nickel wire with disk tajfs
located under I he durs.d lin was used, few if any ta<j;s were n'tiiriHMl
al'IcM' a year and a half.

Til file ])r('S{'id experinieni , taj^'s wer-e r-ehirried al'ter 1, ()().") days,
indicating a- coiisideraltle iinpi-oveiiient in leteiit inn.

The objective oi' these ta<i<j:iii<i: studies was to (h-velnj) a ta<^ which
would remain on stri])ed bass i"oi- at least u year, to permit an cvalMa-
tion of fisbiii<>- mortality, it appeai-s that this has been approached,
if not aeliieved, by tlie taf>'s used in lliis experiment. Since tantalum
and stainless steel gave similai' results, tlie latter is obviously to he
preferred because of its lower cost.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The knowledge and skill of X'ineeut ('atania were lai'^n-ly responsible
for the success of this project, lie netted the fish which were tat:<:ed,
while William Johnson and David Iv Peh^eu <lid the ta!:r<,'in^' and kept
the field records.

The outstanding' publicity i)ro<iram conducted by the San Francisco
Striped Bass Club created widespread interest in the taf>:<:in<.' study.
A yearly prize of $T00 and other lesser awards presented by this or-
ganization at periodic drawings <ireatly encourag-ed the return of tai:s
to the Department of Fisli and (Jaiue. A similar proj,M-am recently in-
augurated bv the Bethel Island Ivod and Ciun Club is also gratefully

acknowledged.

SUMMARY

In 1951, 1,211 striped bass w^ere tagged on the caudal peduncle with
cellulose nitrate disks and three types of wire: tantalum, passivated
dead soft stainless steel type 302, and medium soft stainless steel type
302. There were 204 returns (16.85 percent^ by February 1. 11)54. The
elapsed time between tagging and recapture ranged from 0 to 1.00.')
days. There were no significant differences in the three metals, in either
the total proportion returned or the elapsed time between tagging and
recapture.

A small but significant difference was noted lietween the returns as
related to the length of the fish. Comparatively fewer small fish were
returned with medium soft stainless steel than with tantalum or dead
soft stainless steel.

The recovery period in this exiierimcnt was significantly longer than
in earlier studies, in which nickel and other metals were used with
tags beneath the dorsal fin.

328 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

REFERENCES
Calhoun, A. J.

1952. Annual migrations of California striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, vol.
38, no. 3, p. 391-403.

1953. Aquarium tests of tags on striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39,
no. 2, p. 209-218.

Calhoun, A. J., D. H. Fry, and E. P. Hughes

1951. Plastic deterioration and metal corrosion in Petersen disk fish tags. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 37, no. 3, p. 301-314.

Clark, G. H.

1936. A second report on striped bass tagging. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 22,
no. 4, p. 272-283.

Merriman, Daniel

1941. Studies on the striped bass {Roccus saxatilis) of the Atlantic Coast. U. S.
Fish and Wildl. Serv., Fishery Bull., vol. 50, no. 35, p. 1-77.

Morgan, Alfred R., and Arthur R. Gerlach

1950. Striped bass studies in Coos Bay, Oregon. Ore. Fish. Comm., Contrib. No.
14, 31 p.

A SURVEY OF THE COAST CUTTHROAT TROUT,

SALMO CLARKI CLARKI RICHARDSON,

IN CALIFORNIA'

JOHN W. DcWITT, JR.

Humboldt State College

Areata, California

INTRODUCTION

Although of restricted distrihul idii and oih' uI' iIm' jciist Uiidwm ti-oiit
of California, the Coast Cutthroat Trout, Salmo elarki clarlci liicliartl-
son, occupies an environmental niche tliat lias not yet hcfii filled l)y any
other fish. Probably because of its relative iiniuiportance iiumtM-ifally.
no general scientific studies have previously been made of this fish
in California. Sumner (1948) has conducted intensive research into
the life history of the coast cutthroat in Orcg-on. Very little has been
published concerning it in the State ol' Washington, but Dyiiiond
(1928, 19;?2), Ilaig-Brown (1947), and Neave (1940), have contributed
considerabl}^ to the knowledge of the fish in British Columbia.

With an allegedly declining pojndation of coast cutthroat in Cali-
fornia there is a need for definite information on this subspecies. The
present paper is based on a study made during 19.")! to deternune its
general distribution and status in the State, as the first step in the
search for information on which to l)ase its management.

DISTRIBUTION IN CALIFORNIA

In California the coast cutthroat is restricted mainly to the area
bounded by the Eel River, the Oregon state boundary line, the Pacific
Ocean, and the summit of the Coast Range (Figure 1). It has also been
reported from tributaries of the Rogue River in California's Siskiyou
County. Murpliy and DeWitt (19.11) established what appears to be
the first definitive record of the cutthroat in the Eel River system. In
that river system cutthroat have been found only in the main river,
in tidewater, and in six small tributaries, all within 10 miles of the
ocean.

From Eel River northward the distributi(Mi extends gradually farther
inland. In the Klamath River drainage cutthroat have been taken about
20 miles inland. In the Smith River system they are common even in
the headwaters, some 50 to 60 miles from the ocean.

The Smith River system is the most important coast cutthroat area.
Virtually all sections of the river and its tributaries are known to con-
tain or are reported to contain cutthroat (see Table 1).

1 Submitted for publication January, 195 1.

(329)

330

CALIFOENIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 1. Map shov/ing the range of the coast cutthroat trout in California.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF THE COAST CUTTHROAT

The coast cutthroat in California is a slender fish (Figure 2), gen-
erally not as deep-bodied nor as large as its cousin, the Steelhead
Rainbow Trout {Salmo gairdneri gairdneri) , in the same waters. Few
specimens weighing more than three or four pounds are taken, while the
sea-going rainbow frequently exceeds 10 pounds.

The cutthroat may generall}' be distinguished from steelhead and
other trout of the rainbow series by the presence of hyoid teeth and
reddish or orange dashes on the throat, as well as by differences in body
coloration.

The presence of hyoid teeth is one of the most reliable characters
for distinguishing cutthroat from trout of the rainbow series. Rainbows
lack these teeth. However, not all cutthroats possess them, as shown

(J(JAS'r CUTTllliOAl' 'rUOI!'!' IN CAMIOKMA

:{:n

TABLE I
Wafers Containing Coast Cutttiroat Trout in California

i;cl River— C

Klamath River — C

Salt Hivor

Panther Creek- U

Hiiss Creek — C

Hunter Crock— C

lleas Creek — C

Turwar Creek— K

I'"niiic.i.s ("reek — C

Ah Puh Creek— C

Williiuns Creek— C

'I'ectuh Creek — C

StroiiKs Creek — C

WiJHon Creek — R

Harher Creek- C

Lake Karl li

Elk River— C

Smith River -C

Mad River— C

Howdy Creek— R

Mill Creek— C

Little Mill Creek l{

Warren Creek— C

Mill Creek— G

Lindsay Creek — C

South Fork Smith River <

North I'ork Mad River— C

Goose Creek — -C

Widow White Creek— R

Hurdygurdy Creek — R

Clam Beach Lugoons — C

Jones Creek — C

Little River — C

Fall Creek— C

Liiffenholtz Creek— R

Middle Fork Smith Riv.T II

McNeil Creek— C

Patrick Creek- R

Patrick Creek— R

Jones Creek — C

Big Lagoon — C

Monkey Creek— C

Maple Creek— C

Siskiyou Fork — R

Stone Lagoon — C

North Fork Smith River - R

McDonald Creek— C

Diamond Creek -R

Freshwater Lagoon — C

South Fork Winehuek River -R

Redwood Creek — C

Prairie Creek — C

Lost Man Creek — C

iC = Cutthroat trout collected during course of study; R = Cutthroat trout reported but not collected (lurliiK

study.

FIGURE 2. Three coast cutthroat trout from Monkey Creek, tributory to the Middle Fork of

Smith River, Del Norte County, California. Largest specimen about 12' 2 inches long, fork length.

Phoiograph by John W. Westgofe, Augusf, ?95I.

332 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

by Dymond (1928) and others; and, as Miller (1950) points out, all
trout having hyoid teeth are not pure cutthroat, for hybrids may have
as many as six teeth.

Generally, the hyoid teeth are arranged in two rows meeting at either
end, to form a boat-shaped pattern. Frequently, several more are
located inside the two outer rows. The teeth are located on the basi-
branchial bones approximately between the first and second gill arches.
They are deciduous and thus very easily scraped away or broken. The
teeth are fang-shaped and usually point toward the back of the throat.
In large specimens they may be seen easily with the naked eye or felt
with the finger; in small individuals (two to three inches long) they
may be readily located with the use of a microscope.

Seventy-nine specimens from nearly all sections of the range were
examined. In 73 of these fish the number of hyoid teeth varied from
1 to 34. Most of the counts fell between three and nine, and the average
number was 8.8. The counts were made with a binocular microscope
under a bright blue light, using a very fine dissecting needle. The
usual procedure, which required considerable care, was to count all
teeth visible without disturbing the mucus covering over the tooth area.
Then, after carefully removing the mucus, a second count was made.
Often several teeth would be hidden by the mucus, giving an initial
count lower than the actual number present. On occasion, however,
during the removal of the mucus one or more teeth were lost, giving
a higher initial count.

Nearly all cutthroat observed in this study possessed red, orange,
or red-orange throat dashes. Several small specimens under four inches
in length and one large tidewater fish did not have the dash. Dymond
(1928) and Sumner (1948) also noted that at certain stages cutthroat
may not have the red dash. A number of specimens, from Tectah Creek
especially, had the general appearance of cutthroat, but instead of the
red or orange dash possessed faint yellow or bronze streaks. These fish
possessed other somewhat intermediate features and may have been
cutthroat-rainbow hybrids.

There was great variation in coloration and an even greater variation
in spotting. It was impossible to select any one si^ecimen as a truly
"typical" coast cutthroat which would represent all others in its gen-
eral appearance.

Fish taken in or near tidewater areas were the most uniform in ap-
pearance. The most marked diversity occurred among those in small
streams and in headwater areas.

The tidewater fish examined were usually more faintly spotted than
specimens from other waters. They were often silvery in coloration.
Among the upstream fish the spotting varied from profuse to scarce,
and the spots ranged from rounded to irrescular in shape. Even fish
from the same part of a single stream sometimes differed strikingly in
the spotting.

General coloration ranged from washed-out brown to brilliant blues
and greens. Every specimen examined from the Eel Eiver tributaries
was a dirty-white color. In these the jaw dash was a faded orange or
red-orange and the spotting on the back was indistinct. A number of
Prairie Creek specimens possessed the same general features.

COAST CUTTHROAT TROUT IN CAf-U'ORNIA

riM

riic most sti-ikiiij^ly colored lisli wn-.- tliost' I'lMiiii several very hiiiuII,
clear creeks Mowing- dirci'lly inio Hie o(!eaM. These, as well us many from
other areas, eharaetcrist ically displayed predomiiiaiitly red-orauj;*? pec-
toral, ventral, and ;iiial tins. The hases of ihrse fins were orrliriarilv
greyish-white and tlie five iimr<;ins tnilky-white. In other s|i«-eiirieii.s,
the pectoral liiis were yellow, the ventrals red-orarifje, and tiie unaU
yellow and orange. The characteristic pattern amoni,' fish taken from
murky waters was grey-white jMictoral, ventnd, and anal tins.

Diagonal rows of scales wei-e eonided alon;,' the seeond row ahove
the lateral line within the standaid length (measured from tij) of snout
to base of the center caudal lin rays) on 78 of the cntthroat examinfMl.
The mean count was 151.7. The range of the eonnts was 122 to IHH.
Approximately 80 percent of Hie valnes fcdl between 137 and 1G5. In
referring to the coast form, Snyder (1!J()8) stated that the seales in
the lateral series of ISalnio clarki vary generally from 140 to 170. In a
later paper (Snyder, 1!)4()), he li.sted the vwwsr as KiO to 200.

Pyloric caecum eonnts were made on 71 of the specimens e.xamine'd.
The mean number was 40.3. The extreme range of the counts was from
23 to 60; however, the majority were between 30 and ;")(). These values
vary rather widel.y, thus extending the range given by jNIiller (IO'jO),
who gives the limits as 27 to 45.

LIFE HISTORY NOTES

In the fall and winter fresh sea-run cutthroat are taken in varying
numbers from Redwood Creek and the Mad, Klamath, and Sndth
Rivers. Most of the fish are caught in September or ()etf>ber, usnally
after the first substantial rain. Only a few are taken from ^lad River,
with larger numbers from Redwood Creek and tribntaries, and the
Klamath. Very good catches of apparently sea-run fish are made in
tidewater areas of the Smith, es])(>eially in the fall, winter, and early
spring, but occasionally also in the summer.

Female cutthroat containing ripe or nearly ripe eggs have been taken
from September to April. Spawning thus evidently occurs over a rela-
tively long period. Snutll. newly emerged fry have been seen from
March to June. In British Columbia, according to Dymond (l'J32K
spawning occurs from February to May in the small streams. Dimiek
and Merrvfield (1945) say that the migratory phase spawns in January
and February in Oregon.

During the sunnner and early fall the cutthroat pt)pulations in
coastal California streams consist ordinarily of fish of the year class 1
to and including mature fish that have spawned but have never gone
to the ocean, plus a few sea-run individuals landloeketl by receding
water levels after spawning.

Log jams and natural falls block many streams at different points,
preventing, at least in part, the migration of steelhead and salmon into
the waters above. Almost ]uire or ]n-edoniinantly cutthroat {)opulations
exist in the sections above tliese barriers on a number of streams, while
almost none are found below the barriers in the summer and early fall.
Some of the fish above barriers are sexually nuiture although relatively
small, usually under 10 inches in length.

334

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Fish-of-the-year were taken only in the verj^ smallest tributaries,
usnally in those with summer flows less than one cubic foot per second.
Most of the cutthroat brood streams examined were too small to be
named. Large cutthroat occur in many streams throughout the year;
life histories of such individuals vary considerably.

In September of 1951 a 779-foot section of Prairie Creek was cut
off by diverting the flow into an artificial channel. The cut-off section
was seined, treated with rotenone, and reseined. The fish population
collected was composed of sculpins {Coitus sp.) (72.7 percent), silver
salmon {Oncorhynchus kisutch) (15.0 percent), steelhead {Salmo
gairdneri gairdneri) (8.7 percent), stickleback {Gasterosteus aculeatus)
(2.2 percent), cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki clarki) (0.9 percent), and
king salmon {Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) (0.3 percent). The total
number of fish of all kinds taken was 674. Scale readings of the nine
cutthroat collected indicated that none had undergone any ocean or
tidal growth. The ages of these fish varied from two to six years
(Table 2). No cutthroat-of-the-year were found in the cut-off' section.

TABLE 2
Length, Age, and Residence of Coast Cutthroat Trout From Prairie Creek Cutoff^

Fqrk length
in inches

Number

of
stream
annuli^

Calculated length at each annulus

Ocean
or

1

2

3

4

5

6

tidal
growth

15.0 . ._ - .

6
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
2

3.2
3.2
2.4
2.8
2.0
2.8
3.1
2.0
1.7

4.8
4.9
4.3
4.6
4.4
4.7
4.3
4.1
3.8

6.1
7.5
6.0
7.0

8.2
8.9

11.13

13.43

None

10.1

None

8.6 - . -

None

8.1

None

6.1 -- .

None

5.7 . . -

None

5.3

None

5.4 . -

None

4.7

None

1 Determinations by F. H. Sumner of the Oregon Game Commission.

2 Not counting edge where annulus is partly formed in some samples.
2 Spawning check.

SUMMARY

In California the Coast Cutthroat Trout {Salmo clarki clarki) is
restricted mainly to the area bounded by the Eel River, the Oregon
state boundary line, the Pacific Ocean, and the summit of the Coast
Range. The Smith River system is the most important cutthroat area.

The cutthroat may generally be distinguished from steelhead and
other trout of the rainbow series by the presence of hj^oid teeth and
reddish or orange dashes on the throat, as well as by differences in body
coloration.

This form is extremely variable in California. Pyloric caecum counts
range from 23 to 60 ; scale rows along the lateral line vary from 122
to 188 ; hyoid teeth vary from 1 to 34.

Fresh sea-run cutthroat are taken in varying numbers from the
main streams within their California range during the fall and winter.

COAST Ctri'l IIKMIAI' IKori' l\ ( AMRm.S'lA 'Mi'l

Thoro iwo iiidicnl ions lh;it soiiic coast ciiMlii-oat (l<i not iiii;,'r;il«f l4i wa
and const it iilc resident, l)re<'din'_'' popniat ions.

Fish-or-llie-xcai- wei-e foinid only in the ver> smallest frihiitary
streams, usuallv those with siiiiiiik r Ihvws less tlian one cnhii- foot ]wr
second.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are extended to Leo Shapoxahiv of the ('alit'oi-nia I)f'[»art-
iiient ()]■ Fish and Ciamc and to \)v. Donald iv Wohlsclda^' of Stanford
University for readin<:' the iiiannscript ci-itically and on"erin«r vahiahle
suggestions during the conrse of stndy. .John \V. Westgate assisted the
writer in making many trout collections.

LITERATURE CITED

Dimiclc. K. E., :iik1 Fred ]\rcii\ licld

194"). Tlic lislics of tile ^\'ill;lllll■l Ic IJi\<'i- s.\siciii in ii'Jiil ion to |io!iiition. Or»'Koii
St. Coll., Eng. P:xpt. Sta., I'.ull,, ii... L'o. .'.s \>.
Dymond, J. R.

1928. The trout of British Columbia. Aincr. Fish. Soc., Trans., vol. ."S, p. 71 77.
1932. The trout ,ni<l otlicr -aiue fishes of British Columbia. Ottawa, I>cpt. Fish-
eries, 51 p.

Haig-Brown, Roderick Tj.

1947. The wostoru auj^ler — an account of Pacific salmon and western trout in
British Coluuiiiia. X. Y., "Win. ]\Iorrow and Co.. .".."(> p.

Miller, Robert Rush

1950. Notes on the cutllu-o.it and rainbow trouts, with the (h'scrii)tion of a new
species from the (Jihx River, Now Me.xico. Fniv. Mich., Mus. Zool., Mcc.
Pap., no. 529, 42 p.

Murph.v, Garth T.. and John W. I^eWitt, Jr.

1951. Notes on tlie fishes and fishery of the lower Fel Ri\er, Ilunilioidt County,
California. Calif. Div. Fish and (iamc, I'.ur. Fish Cons., Admin. Kept.,
30 p. (Minipo.)

Neave, Ferris

1949. Game fish populations of llic Cow iclKin KImt. Fisli. Res. P.il. Canada,
Bull., no. 84, 32 p.
Snyder, .John Otterbein

1908. The fishes of the coastal streams of ()re;;on and nortiiern California. F. S.

Bur. Fish., P.ull., v..]. 27. p. 153-lS!t.
1940. The trouts of Caliloinia. Calif. Fish and Came, V(d. 20. no. 2, p. 06-138.

Sumner, F. H.

1948. The coast culthrt)al tnnil. Oregon St. Game Conun.. I'.ull.. \ol. :'.. no 12.
p. 1-8.

SALMO ROSEI, NOT A VALID SPECIES'

WILLIAM A. DILL and LEO SHAPOVALOV

Inland Fisheries Branch
California Department of Fish and Game

Joi'daii aiul Menrcuor fli'L'n (Icscrilicd ";i new species of trout,"
Salmo rosier, from Tjako Ciilvci- ami one adjaccnf lake in tlif lii<:li Sit-rra
of California. Tlioy statod tliat it was an "all\- or derivation of tli"
Kern Eivor trout (Sdlnio (lUhcrti) Jordan."

Snbspqnentlr, Jordan, Evorniann, and Tlar-k MfiriO, p. TiDi. Kv»t-
mann and Clark (10:11, ]>. 47, 50), and Snyder nfl.Tl. p. 84), all listed
Slalnio /'O-sv?" as beinfj present in T^ake Ciihcr "and iieitrlil)f>riii<_' lakes."
In disenssinp- its systeniatie statns, Snyder (lOijrj. p. lOG; 1040. p. 128)
stated: ''Its relationship's are said to he with the jrolden trout of the
rep:ion. There is difference of opiinon as to whether this is a native fish
or one introduced thronah artitieial stoekinqr. " Nevertheless, in both
nnblieations Snyder listed it as a distinct species of the rainbow series.
In the absence of published information dis]n-ovin<z the validitv of the
form. ShapovaloY and Dill ('l!)50) listed it as a subspecies of Salnio
qairdneri. Recently gathered evidence, presented in this paper, shows
definitely that '^ Salmo rosei" is not a valid entity.

Lake Cnlver. named by Jordan and ^b-Creiror, can be identified
from their description as the larii'est of the rrronn now known as the
T,ittle Five Lakes in Tnlare Conntv. Tt is located in T. Ifi S., K. .32 E..
Sec. 30, at an elevation of 10, .500 feet, and is tributary to T\\v: Arrovo.
a tribntary of the Kern TJiver. This location has bei^n verified bv 'Sir.
E<i-erton Lakin of Palo Alto. California. Avho aided in the collection of
snecimens there in 1023 fverballv to Shaiiovalov. February 2fi, 1946).

Since, so far as is known, all the other lak(^s in this area were oripr-
inally barren of fish, it has seemed donbtfnl to the authors that the
form could have been native here. Ad<litional verification of this be-
lief came in 1047 when Drs. Carl Tj. TTnbbs and W. T. FoUett examined
all the type material of S. aiWcyf'} and .^. ra^-r/ in t1i(> Stanford T^ni-
versity collections and found no differences betwciMi the two forms.
Hnbbs and Follett did not publish their findin"s but have now priven
us permission to do so. Together with the followinir material, these
clinch the case against S. roaci as a distinct entity.

On October 28, 1053, the anthors talk(>d with :\rr. O. V. F.rowidow of
Visalia, retired Captain of Patrol, California Division of Fish and
Game. Mr. BroAvnlow worked for many yeai-s in the southern Sierra
Nevada, where he was instfuniental in stockinu' barren waters and in
^atherinfr the history of such endeavors. He inf(n-nied ns that Lake
Culver w^as originally barren of fish and was ]Janted in about lOK)

1 Submitted for publication March, 1954.

(337)

338 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

with adult tront caught on hook and line from the Big Arroyo. He re-
ceived this information from a Mr. William Millinghausen (sp.?), a
cowpuncher and packer in the area, who had planted the fish. Inci-
dentally, Mr. Brownlow was at Lake Culver in late July or early Au-
gust of 1923 when at least one of the described specimens was taken. He
informed us that the fish were trying to spawn near the outlet and to
him did not appear to differ from the Kern River rainbow, with which
he was quite familiar.

In view of the combined evidence presented, we can only conclude
that Salmo rosei is a synonym of Salmo gilherti, now known as Salmo
gairdneri gilherti Jordan.

LITERATURE CITED

Evermaim, Barton Warren, and Howard Walton Clark

1931. A distributional list of the species of freshwater fishes known to occur in
California. Calif. Div. Fish, and Game, Fish Bull. no. 35, 67 p.
Jordan, David Starr, Barton Warren Evermann, and Howard Walton Clark

1930. Check list of the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of North and Middle Amer-
ica north of the northern boundary of Venezuela and Colombia. U. S.
Commissioner of Fisheries, Kept, for Fiscal Year 1928 ; with appendixes ;
pt. 2, appendix 10, 670 p.

Jordan, David Starr, and Ernest Alexander McGregor

1924. Description of a new species of trout (Salmo rosei) from Lake Culver in
the high Sierras of California. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., Proc, vol. 76, 1924,
p. 19-22, pi. 2.

Shapovalov, Leo, and William A. Dill

1950. A check list of the fresh-water and anadromous fishes of California. Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 36, no. 4, p. 382-391.

Snvder, John O.

i933. California trout. Calif. Fish and Game. vol. 19, no. 2, p. 81-112.

1940. The trouts of California. Calif. Fish and Game. vol. 26, no. 2, p. 96-138.

NOTES

TWO MID-PACIFIC RECOVERIES OF CALIFORNIA-TAGGED ALBACORE

Two alh.icorn {Thunniis (/(rnta ) ta^^rd by tlic ('aliforiiia I )f|»artni«Mit
of Fish and (Jaiiic oil' llic coiist ol in>rlln'fii l'»aja ('aliforiiia. Mr-xico, in
Aiiji'iist, inr)!!, \voi'(' i-ccapl iii-c(l ill llic mid I'acilic diiriiii: Fchniary
lf)54. l>()tli were caiiiihl liy Jap;! iirsc vcssi^ls fisliiii;; in flu- vii-iiiily of
Midway Islanil.

Fishci'niaii ahoai'd the Kun |iira-iiiani No. 1 oT Miyairi I'rrfcotiirf?
caug'ht the (ii-st fisli on Ion-line -cai- al lat. 36° -K)' X.. Ion-.'. 17H' 12'
E., 500 miles noi-lli ol' .Mid\\;iy Isl.nid. on l'"el)i-nai-\- 'J, ll'oj. It was
tao-o'od with a Type F ta^' ot" clear \in_\iite (nl)inir secnred hy hraicN-d
nylon fisliing line. When released on Anj^iist 11, ID.'):; tiie alhacore wa.s
84 cm. lonp;. It liad increased in hnnth to 88 cm. when recaptured. Tho
straightline distance between the points of release and recovery is :{,().'{.'i
miles.

The second albacore was ean^hl on l-'elnnary "_':!, II'.') I. hy the Sin-f)-
iiiaru (Iwate Prefecture) while fishing \\\\\\ hm-lines at lat, :!(• 10' .\..
long. 178° 54' W., 150 miles northwest of Midway island and -J/HK)
miles from the place of release. It was marked with a 'l\\|>e (I vinylite
tubing tag on August 16, 1953. At that time the fish was HI cm. in
length; it was reported to be 93 em. long when caught by the Sin-o-
maru.

Both of these recoveries are from 754 albacore tagged in the viciinty
of Guadalupe Island. There have been 12 other returns from this lot.
All occurred off the central California coast within 45 days of relea.se.

The tags were received by the Department of Fish and (Jame througli
the fine cooperation of Ilideyuki Ilotta and Masaka/.a Vao of tlic
Tohoku Regional Fisheries Research Laboratory, Shiogama. .lapan. and
Hiroshi Nakamura, Director of the Nankai Regional Fisheries Research
Laboratory, Kochi, Japan.

These returns do not i-epresent maximum known movem<Mits. as an
albacore tagged off Southern California in 1952 was i-ecaptnred otV the
coast of Japan during the summer of 1953 (Ganssle and ( leniens, Calif.
Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 4, 1953, p. 443). The tags used are describeil
by Wilson (ibid., p. 429-442).— C. E. Blunt, Jr., Mnrin, Fislnrirs
Branch, California Depart iiirnf of FisJi and datni . Marrli. l'i',i.

ANOTHER LARGE BLACK SEA BASS CAUGHT IN MONTEREY BAY
On August 29, 1953, a California black sea bass, Sfnrohpis niijns
Ayres, w^as caught off Pacific Grove, in the southern portion of Mon-
terey Bay. The spe<'inien. which measured six feet, two inches and
weighed 265 pounds, was t-aught by Charh^s May of Pacific Grove anil
his son. The two were fishing in a skiff, using rod and reel ami a 50-
pound test leader, when they hooked the large fish. It took them two
and one-half hours to boat if. The last record of a black sea bass from
Monterey Bay was of one taken April 30, 1930 (Phillips. Calif. Fish
and Game, vol. 16, no. 3, 1930, p. 2(iSi. This sjiecimen weigheil 450
pounds and was also caught by a skitf lishennan in approximately the
same area as the recent specimen. — J. II. I'll ill ips. Marine Fishertcs
Branch, California Department of FisJi and Catne, Fchrnary, 195 i.

( 330 )

340 CALIFOENIA FISH AND GAME

ABNORMAL FETAL DEVELOPMENT FROM A MULE DEER

In 1951 a food habits and disease investigation of Rocky Mountain
mule deer {Odocoileus hemionus hemionus) was conducted in Sierra
County, California. During tMs study a fetal cyclopean monster was
taken from a normal four- to five-year-old doe (Figure 1). This type of
developmental abnormality has not previously been observed in mule

FIGURE 1. Top left: two male fetuses, the meningocephalic and its normal twin. Top righf:
side view revealing the hypoplasia of the upper jaw and sac-like development of the skull.
Boffom: ventral view showing (A) eyes, (B) tongue, and (C) upper jaw. Phofographs by author

and John R. Azevedo.

NOTES 341

floor, nlthoiiuli il has boon dcscriltcd lor oilier mariiinals. A (lov«'U*f)-
iiioiilal (iirfiTciicc was roa(iil\' noticed wlion it was cornpanMl with its
iiorinal Iwiii. Tlic afjc ol" tlic iioiinal I'd us was (jefcrmiiicd to Ix- approxi-
mately 150 days, while tlu; nioiistcr's ({(iVfdopiiioiit was (•(|uival«'nt to
TJO days, aooordiii^' to Arinst roii<r's (}'.)')()) iiiefliod. This monster was
pinkish in color, without hair, and lacked evidence of juvenile spots.
Examination oi! the head revealed a hypoplasia of the upper jaw. The
eyes were fused at the nie(li;in line in ;i sin;.de orhit. and the vaidt of
the oranium -was al)sent, resultiiii:- in a hulj^int,' sao-liko structure flllod
■with iluid. The ecirhruin consisted of a tlnn sheet of brain tissue lining
tlie bony portion of tlie eraniuin. The mid .md liiMdln-ain were <rreatly
reduced. No other anatomioal abnoi malities were observed. Its general
apiM'aranco lod to tlio belief thai Hie fetus was alive at the time the
doe was collected.

REFERENCE
Armsfroii}?, R. A.

1900. Fetal development of (he Northern white-tailed deer ( Odocnihuii riVj/iwi-
anus horealis Miller). Amcr. Midi. Nat., vol. 4.'5, no. :'., p. tJ.'iO (;<;«>.

— Arthur I. Bisclwff, Game Management Branch, California I)( parfment
of Fish and Game, Fehriiary, 1951. This ivork was performed as part of

Pittman-Roherfson Proiref California W-35-R.

REVIEWS

Sfriped Boss Fishing in California and Oregon

By L«'oii 1>. Adams; I'arilir I'.ooks, riil.i Alio, ('iilif..iiiiii, 111.'.".; xiv f- T14 p.;
forowoni li\ Alr\ ("allidim; tIrawiiiKs liy I'alriciii Talliul. ."<ri.

In the wnti'is of San l''ra iiriscu I'.a\ ainl its I rilmtarirs lives a rcfiwirkaltli- UxU.
It is M(i( (he I'lil.v i;aiiic lisli <<( this area, nur nf (hi' ( )r<'Kon Imys wliiTi- it in nln<»
rimnd. I>iit as tar as many lliipiisand lislii'fmrn arc ciinrcnifil, it is llii" only tisli in
the wofld. Siimctliim; alionl llir siriiicd liass t ra nsrni-ms ot In-rwisi' S4>risililc |ic(i|ili>
into wild cNcd, siiii;|(' pniiicisc l'aiiali<-s, Mimi and vvunirn who scorn to (isli for tlic
liii'dly salniiiii m- \\il.\ Ironl will leave llicii- linnirs in llic inid<ilc of (lie Mi;;lit for ii
chance In sit all da.\ in I he i-ain nv wind In ealeh a slri|)cr.

What is there about, this lish iliai makes them so irn-sist ililc? Is it not for the
lislicrics scientist to say. 'IMie sliii-.\ of I In- striper can come only from one \vlii> hiis

succundied to its ainre. And i ne has a worse case of "striper it is" than I.enn

Adams. Only he can tell ns all .ilmni I he li.iss and how to fish for tlieni.

Mr. Adams was bitten hy the hnn many years ago. Sonu'tirnos hfi DinKli' fish.
often he failed. I>nt the failures, instead of discoura;;in^' him. served to spur him on.
Thei'e must he a reason for his spotty success he thou;;ht. and there must also he a
reason for the consistent catches of some old-timers. So he set himself to the task
of plotting the stripers' movements, habits and moods, lie sought advice both from
expert anglers aud scientists.

During a IG-year period, under attack by every known deviee of science and
mathematics, including an enormous bulk of information tabulated on punch cards,
the bass yielded its secrets. ]Mr. Adams has done the .job and m)w all that remains
is for the reader to follow his advice and catch tish. Some of my friends have done
just that, they tell me.

This reviewer has read many a book on how to fish but few of them contain so
much useful information ])resented so engagingly. The book might have been full
of facts but too dull to read, or it might have been one of those clever but frothy
"me and Joe" stories. But Adams is too skillful an observer and writer to fall into
either trap.

The result is a book so interesting it can't be put aside, so factual it can't be
ignored. Wh(>tber he be beginner or veteran any would-be bass fisherman will profit
by reading Ibis book, and he who reads it so<ui tinds himself a striper enthusiast.

The usual information on tackle, bait and lures is included. I'oth text ami illustra-
tions are descriptive. Most valuable is the nuiteria! on Imw to (ind the migratory
bass when you want to catch them. The combination of tishennen, scientists and
mass data reveals secrets only guessed at previously by fishermen. The bass calendar
is something new in angling. The life history of the sti-iper is recountt>d in an easy
going manner that ties its habits to those of the fisherman and gives them meaning.
Instructions are so complete lliai I hey excn in(lude a chapter on alibis and their
cures. What more could a lisherman askV — h'icluird S. ('inker, Ctilifontin Drjimf-
ment of Fish (iiid flame.

Our Wildlife Legacy

V>y Durward L. Allen; Funk and \\'agnalls Company. New York, l!»."i4 ; x ~- 4'2'2
)>., 2l> photos. !fi).

Although there has been a fair (juantily of books on wild life in the I'nited St;ites
during recent years, there has been a great scarcity of comprehensive writings which
satisfactorily bridge the gap between what the professional wildlife biologist knows
(or needs to know) and what the nouprot'(>ssional reader of wildlife lore should
know. Dr. Allen's attemjtt to write a general book in everyday language, yet basetl
upon scientifically sound (Geological iirinciples, has been one of the most successful
attempts in recent years. In his i)reface. th(> author states. "This work is neither
a professional job of debunking nor an indictment of anyone in particular. It is not

(343)

344 CA1.IF0ENIA FISH AND GAME

another climb-upon-my-knee interpretation of deep science for the dumb public."
But the author does present a straightforward, hard hitting account without the
all too common polemics and panaceas.

In the first of three parts of the book, "Numbers at AVork," a simple description of
the principles of population biology is given. The role of the environment to the
maintenance of wildlife populations is emphasized in its proper perspective in rela-
tion not only to population numbers and environmental "carrying capacity" but also
to birth rates, death rates, and the tendencies of some populations to fluctuate.
Particularly valuable are accounts of the resiliency of populations to natural and
man-caused depredations and accounts of the birth and death rates which make this
resiliency possible — accounts which should be read and reread by everyone concerned
with natural populations. The chapter, "Boom and Bust," dealing with cyclic
fluctuations, contains examples and discussions of populations which are generally
regarded by biologists to be truly cyclic in nature, but detailed discussions of sup-
posed basic cosmic causes of these cycles are wisely omitted. Mention of cycles
among Pacific salmon species is conspicuously absent.

In Part II, "Paths and By-paths," the intricate relationships among biologists,
wildlife managers, legislative bodies, and the sportsmen are described by using as
illustrations management practices which have been tried for various species. In
each case erroneous concepts of management are pointed out, and the correct con-
cepts and correctly applied techniques are thoroughly evaluated. For the reader
without technical training, this section of the book should go a long way to clarify
the problems of fish and game management and to explain why biologically sound
solutions are necessary.

In Part III, "The Method and the Outlook," the future of fish and game activities
in the United States is astutely appraised. Four chapters, "Lead Kindly Light,"
"Biopolitics," "We CaU It Yours and Mine," and "The Pilgrim's Pride," are timely
discussions on the role of research, on the "political arena," on private property
rights and the availability of fish and wildlife environment which the public may
enjoy, and finally on man's responsibility of preventing the earth from becoming a
"biological slum,"

There are few errors or omissions which detract from the author's general themes.
Although great emphasis is properly placed on the maintenance of terrestrial and
freshwater environments and their wildlife resources, little mention is made of the
marine environment and its increasingly important resources.

The book is written in easy-to-read style, highly colored with colloquialisms and
•catchy phrases, which add to reader interest without detracting from the main
theses. There are no literature citations, graphs, tables, or diagrams to detain the
reader when a thought is being pursued. But there are 57 appended pages of refer-
ence notes covering the material presented in aU but the last chapter ; the reference
notes contain brief discussions of data and ideas presented in the various chapters
with further reference to a selected bibliography of 501 entries. Perhaps the out-
standing feature of the book is the illustration of principles of population biology
by the use of examples pertaining to fish, fowl, and furbearers, thus emphasizing
the generality of these principles rather than having them adumbrated in separate
sections on each kind of wildlife. This feature alone makes the book a worthy addi-
tion to the libraries of all who are iaterested in wildlife. — Donald E. Wohlschlag,
Natural History Museum, Stanford University, California.

The Pracfical Fly Fisherman

By A. .J. McClaue ; Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York, 1953 ; ix -1- 257 p., illustrated
by Walter Dower. $5.95.

A. J. McClane is an analytical angler who writes a literate column for "Field d
Stream." Some of his magazine articles have now been used, in well integrated form,
as the basis for "The Practical Fly Fisherman."

Following a somewhat florid introduction, the book begins with a discussion of
the fly rod and its mechanics. The next chapter is on casting, followed by one on
lines and one on leaders. There are chapters on nymph fishing, the dry fly and the
wet fly, and bucktails and streamers. There is even one devoted exclusively to
spiders. ("Of all trout flies, the one you can least afford to be without is the
spider.") There is a chapter on fly fishing for bass and one on panfish. A special
chapter, "How to Cast Beyond Sixty Feet," describes the double line haul, tip fish-
ing, and the so-called Belgian style of casting.

REVIKWS 345

Soino (if tlio discussions and IcrniiiioloKy iniiy ]>(• ii liltio ndvnriffd, mid, thor<'foro,
may ind hold llir Ix'Kiniifr's iiiiiiilcrniplt'rl iiifcrrsl. I'liit, tlii' vvritiiiK '•< '"Iciir, ntid
I\Ic('liiin''s tiicoriPH aro based on sound ron.sonint;. IHm HiiKK*'Nti'>nH for tlie wlfftlon
of llics arc as Nciisihlo as any I liavc over read. And, itiridcntally, Uii nftt-rn nn
oxcclicnl (>\|ilanalion as to why the ono-pattcrn ancl'TM, (he believers in exnet imi-
tation, and th(> iiniiressinnisls may all he e(|iially siiecessfiil in fakiriK fl><Ji.

'IMiere are live plates of Hies pairiled in color hy Walt. I>r»\ver. Unfortunately, tho
keys to Mi(>se jdates, i.e., names and desciipl ions of the flies, are loo fur removed
from the jilalcs liiemsehes. Of most interest amonu tiiem is a reproduction of
ci;;liteen of l»anic .liiliana Ilernors' fly pnttorns, th«! earliest set of trout flies in
history. The.N' are repi-ixlncecl for the tirst time in cohir from tlie desr-ript ioiiH
written in "A Treatyso of Fysshynuc wylh an An«le," published in 110(5.

Tiiis is a K""'I Ix'ok, and tliis re\iew can best end with the .-luthor's own advice:
"And now it is time to ;,'el on with the an^'linn. We shall talk much and fish some,
and possibly our innoceni (lesi;;n will compound n brew thnt will ro off with an
(explosion, should we trap a reader who was unfamiliar with the ways of an
aiifiler. I'ei'liaps lie will i-e^ret his years P[ient awa\ from rivers and nundier his
years in their wisdom. If so, let us fill our cup and drink to the comiriL; fly-fisber.
IVIay his d;iys be blessed in sweet merriment." — Willidin .1. Dill, (Uilifontin /)r[)nrt-
ment of Fish and Game.

Baja California

By Ralph Hancock with Ray Haller, Mike McMaban and Frank Alvarado;
Academy Publishers, Los Angeles, 1953 ; ISO )). ; illustrated, $5.

If, in 1950, a census had been taken listing all of the books ever published on
Baja California, the census taker could probably have tallied the entire lot on tlie
fingers of both hands. Of these approximately 10 tomes only E. W. Nelson's "Lower
California and Its Natural Resources" seems to have been overlooked by the author
of this present volume. Even though lacking this important work, the author's com-
plete knowledge of the others blended carefully with several leisurely vacation
treks throughout the entire length and breadth of the Baja California peninsida
and liberally sprinkled with some very fine photograjihs seems to have become the
perfect recipe for a combination travelogue, guidebook, almanac, and saga of
modern adventure.

This book is mostly concerned with south of the border travels of four Los An-
geles businessmen. It takes the reader over an assortment of roads — mostly narrow
and rough — through an assortment of amazing and unlielievable country — mostly
desert — lying between latitudes 32.5° and 23° N. — a distance of some 650 miles as
the crow flies. Because they are never too busy nor too impressed with a sense
of their own importance to detour miles or even days out of their way to run an
errand, deliver a package or otherwise render some slight service to a person en-
tirely unknown to them, the four travelers — and therefore the readers — -are priv-
ileged to .share in a portion of the everyday, simple existence of the rural baja-
californianos ; an existence of which the average vacationer is seldom cognizant.

The first time the reader's eye encounters a lengthy list of fish or game said to
be commonly taken at a particular locality there is a natural tendency to snort in
derision (having assumed — and logically it seems — that the list was most certainly
copied verbatim from a tourist folder or similar testimonial). That precisely was
the feeling of this reviewer, until a second glance brought a realization of personal
acquaintanceship with the fishing at many of the localities in question. Actually,
most of these lists do the fish fauna a grave injustice by their brevity and if
secondhand reports are to be accepted the same statement holds with regards to
game.

For those individuals planning extended vacations in Baja California, there is a
complete detailing of protocol attendant with obtaining visas, plane or hotel res-
ervations, below the border insurance, vaccinations, and dozens of related trivia,
much of which is likely to be overlooked by the inexperienced — thus causing unnec-
essary delays. In this department alone, by saving time and the expense of medi-
cating last-minute headaches, "Baja California" more than repays its purchase
price. — John E. Fitch, California Dci)arti)teni of Fish and Game.

346 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Handbook of Freshwater Fishery Biology With the First Supplement

By Kenneth D. Carlander ; Wm. C. Brown Company, Dubuque, Iowa, 1953 ; v +
429 p., 2 figs. $6.50.

Undoubtedly every fishery scientist in the United States and Canada is aware of
Professor Carlander's indispensable "Handbook." Since its publication in 1950, its
summarized life history data and extensive bibliography have proven to be a con-
venient and valuable aid in both freshwater fishery research and management. Now
the author has gleaned from more recent literature a wealth of additional data and
included it in a "First Supplement." This new summary is offered in a new edition
of the "Handbook," or may be obtained separately for $3. The combined edition
saves the purchaser of both works $1.

The new edition of the "Handbook" is essentially the same as the original one.
Some errors in the first edition have been corrected and a few minor errors have been
preserved. Most of these errors, it seems, concern specific names of fishes and result
from recent rulings in nomenclature. These few oversights can be easily corrected in
future editions.

The "Supplement" contains age and growth and other life history data for 146
species of freshwater fishes of the United States and Canada. Most of this informa-
tion is derived from more recent studies of species covered in the "Handbook," but
36 additional species (mostly non-game) are also covered. Of these, 12 are cyprinids
and four are catostomids. The "Supplement" summarizes not only the literature, but
the "Handbook" as well. Whenever sufficient data on a given species were available
in the "Handbook," the median of the means from various bodies of water is recorded
for comparative purposes. In some cases, the first and third quartiles are given also.

While most of the "Supplement" is devoted to age and growth, length-weight
relationships, and conversion factors between standard, fork, and total length
measurements, there is also interesting information about fecundity, annual yield,
creel censusing, population density, and other phases of freshwater fishery biology.
The bibliography contains 447 titles.

The only weakness in the author's painstaking presentation appears to be his
arbitrary exclusion of the striped bass and all species of Oncorhynchus. Not oniy uo
these fishes spend the most critical stage of their life histories in fresh water, but
they also provide considerable sport for freshwater anglers. Future editions should
include them.

In anticipation of future supplements to the "Handbook," let all professional
fishery biologists hope that the author is not deterred in his labors. His compilation
of this vast amount of widely scattered data is an outstanding contribution to the
young science of freshwater fishery biology. — George W. McC amnion, California De-
partment of Fish and Game.

The Black River Studies

By .John L. Funk, Edward M. Lowry, Mercer H. Patriarche, Robert G. Martin,
Robert S. Campbell, and Timothy R. O'Connell, Jr. ; The University of Missouri
Studies, vol. 26 r2) , Columbia, Missouri, 1953 ; 136 p., 11 figs. $2.50.

The Black River is an Ozark smallmouth bass stream. In 1947 a cooperative
research project was initiated by the Missoui'i Conservation Commission and the
University of Missouri in order to obtain detailed data concerning the effect of n
nearly complete impoundment upon the stream fishes and bottom fauna of the Black
River. Impoundment was completed in 1948. The project w^as continued until 1950.
Thus, both pre- and post-impoundment data were obtained.

The results of the investigations are presented in a unique, but somewhat repeti-
tious, fashion. The work is composed of seven separate, but closely related, sections.
Each section was prepared by one or more of the authors and each is a complete unit
in itself that could be published alone with little or no loss of meaning. The reviewer,
however, is not certain that this method of presentation is worth the effort, since
each separate section contains a considerable amount of reference to the other
sections. A more concise presentation might have been more effective. At least reading
time would have been significantly shortened.

REVIEWS 347

■Ii:i|ilr|- (IcM rilii'S llif |)ll\sii:il :iiii| rlii'lllic.'l I cli;! r.K.'U'ristiCH of
tin- I'.l:icl< l{i\cr. 'riircc siil)sc(|iiciil srclioiis (Inil willi (In- IxmiI lios, Nrn;ill tislifs, iiiiil
lar>,'«'i" lislics i<( llic I'.l.ick Ki\cf mikI I Im' cli.'m^^cs iluit "m-ciiitcmI in tin- ]i<i|iii|alioii.s <»f
these orKiinisins wlun llic ( 'leu w.ilir l-.ike iinpotiiulint'iit wiis rornplctcd. Thf fifth
SPCtion oont.'iiiis iiu<' :ii"l ;,'rn\\tii diitii nlioiit, five of the inori- iinportiinf (islics, iiiiil rhc
sixth scclioii trc.-ils p.ist iii;iii;ii;(MiiciiI jiikI ill ili/.'it ion ol' the I'l;i<-k Itivfr lislicrv . 'I'lic
hist soctiim smnninri/.cs nnil rrl.ilcs the rniiliii;,'s of Ihi- ihm-n ioiis sections iiixl re-
iterates the hifjhlifihts of tiie studios. Tiie methods and procedures ;ire i,'i\eii in an
appendix.

This puhlic.'ition is solid ovidence of the repent progress made in tri'>lj\v:iter
fisher.v research and man;i;;eiiient . 'I'iie Missouri workers now posses a s(did foutula
tion for future m;iiia;;('ment of the I'.lack Ki\'ei' and similar Ozark streams. Fiirlher-
more, they will he able to predict the effects of impimndim.'iit upon sucli a stream.
If such data were available for other streams in the United States, much of tlie
t;uesswork that has characleriz<'d iiasi management techniques and polir'ies could he
eliminated.

Althougii the specific, detailed information presented in this technical publicati<m
will he of little interest outside of the midwest, all freshwater fisher.v biologists,
especially those involved in warmwater projects, will benefit by reading it. — fleoryr
W. McCammon, California Department of Fish and Game.

97014 4-54 5400