«big.'.JuiiiiiK. t'^ij^':^ ^'^5i>"":^^.jf"oison oak, scjuaw bush, bush lupine, digger ]Hne, interior live oak, blue oak, and buckeye. These species were about 65 percent top-killed 'on tlie" upper slopes but less so near the stream course Avhere the fires were set. One seep was found in the edge of the stream bed next to the second burn ; this was nearly dry before the fire. Following the first burn, water increased in certain places in the creek l)ut no ]iliotographs were taken oi- definite measurements made before the burn. Three days prior to the second burn, photographic stations w^ere established in the stream bed which was nearly di-y except for depressions that had filled wdth watei- following the first burn. These stations yvere re-photographed on September 14th, about three weeks after the burn wdien Avater was flowing down the creek (Figure 2). One could not be sure how^ much of the increase in flow was due to killing of the vegetation in the stream bed and on the slopes, or to the gradual decline in transpiration that occurs in the early autumn before the leaves normally fall (15). Also, the days were getting shorter. Cooler weather was not a factor since this period was uniforndv clear, hot, and drv. Grapevine Spring The watershed above this s|)ring was 7)'.) acres. It was control-burned on August 20, 1949. Coverage of brush and trees before the fire was estimated as 50 percent. The reduction in transpiration area of these by burning was approximately 80 percent. The spring produced 76 drops of water per minute before the fire, equal to li gallons per da}^; 24 hours after the fire it produced one quart per minute, equal to 360 gallons per day. Measurements were made nine days and 24 days after the fire ; the flow continued at about one quart ])er minute. Tn addition, a seep develo])ed about .lO yards above the spring. Measurements of this spi'iug were continued (hii'iug the summer of 1950. The flow on August 24th was about e((ual to tiiat on the same date after the fire in 1949. On August 24th a lai-ge gi-ajieviiu^ near the spring was cut (Figure ;J). After this the flow increased by about 15 gallons per day. Before cutting, the difference in morning and afternoon flow amounted to eight seconds per quart. After cutting it amounted to only thi'ee seconds, which iiulicated that most of the incj'ease came from reduced transpiration (Figure 4). Five days after the grapevine was cut, on August 2!Mli. six interior live oak, two blue oak, one digger pine, and two wliitetliorn cha])arral EFFECTS OF VEGETATION RKMOVAT. 21 FIGURE 3. Grapevine Spring. The large grapevine and trees were removed from area of spring to study effect on water flow. Arrow points to location of spring. 5 10 15 SEPTEMBER FIGURE 4. Flow of Grapevine Spring before and after removal of grapevine on August 24th, and trees on August 29, 1950. plants near the spring' were cut. Tliis did not give any increase in spring flow. \\\ the early suniiiier of 1951 the seep above tlie spring was developed for livestock water, which prevented further measurements. 2—75061 •21(i fALlFORXIA FISH AXI) CXMV. Tank Spring The watershed ali al)(>\'e this spi'iiej \\as hiiij: and iiai'i'ow and coxci'ed about 25 acres. It was eonlrol-hufiied on Au;iiist !•. 1 '.>.')(). The kill ' or i)ipe outlet for a distance of 35 feet. See]>a<:e inci'eased after the tire. Sprin<>er pine 5 percent, kill 50 percent. In addi- tion, two small grapevines, two small interior live oaks, and two buck- brush plants all near the spring were cut hy hand. Flow of the spring increased after burning and cutting for three or four da,vs but then the trend continued downward at a rate equal to that before treatment (Figure 6). The net result was that the flow was set ahead about 15 days. 10 15 20 JULY S 10 IS SCPTEIMBCR FIGURE 6. Flow of Pipe Spring before and after control-burn on August 5, 1950. Rock Spring This watershed Avas one of five acres. It was control-burned on July 22, 1950. The crown cover of shrubs and trees was estimated to be 65 percent. The species composition and degree of top-kill were as fol- lows: whitethorn chaparral 50 percent, kill 85 percent; buckbrush 15 percent, kill So percent ; digger pine 10 percent, kill 85 percent ; in- terior live oak 15 percent, kill 90 percent; manzanita 3 percent, kill 95 percent; blue oak 2 percent, kill 75 percent; buckeye 3 percent, kill 90 percent; redberry 2 percent, kill 90 percent. The spring water comes from a crack down about 10 feet in solid rock. Several years ago the spring furnished water year-long for a homesteader. However, the ranch owner reported that in recent years it had gone dry each sinnmer. Before the control burn the spring decreased rapidly in flow and, although the control burn produced an excellent top-kill, no change in trend of flow was found. Apparently the deep-rooted trees and shrubs had already depleted the water at this time (Figure 7). This spring was measured several times in lf)51 between September 12 and October 24, at the time of the first fall rain ; also on August 8, 1952, August 30, 1955, and August 13, 1957. The flow data per day are shown in Table 1. 218 CA 1. 11 'OK. MA I'ISll AM) (I A M i: UJ I- ?075h U Q. 0.20 < Oo.\5 O 0.10- O0.05 Z q: Q. 000 \ \ ^ \o "^ _ \ i- \ '" \ "^ o\ - ncasurements taken V Before /0 AM y \ Betv/^en lOAn-^p[^o \ After ^pn O 1 1 \ /o 15 ^5 JO 20 JULY FIGURE 7. Flow of Rock Spring before and after control-burn, July 22, 1950. TABLE 1 Flow Data for Rock Spring Dale CitlJoiis S.'i.tciiiiii'r lli, l!).".! 474 Scptcmhor 2S. ID.jl ."ill October S, I!).!! 406 October 24, 1051 408 August S. l!»r)2 840 August 30, 3!).V, ()28 AuRust 18, inr.7 7.S2 II' Jill iiicasiii-ciiiciils liiid IxM'ii made on the s;iiiir ilalc rjicli year the \arial ion, no doubt, would haxc been snialb'r. i*ri'ci|)itat ion for tlic years of stud}' was rccoi-dcd as foll()\vs ±'oi- tlir San .loa(|uiii Ivxpcri- in(Mital Kanoc, about one mile away: l!)4f)-r)(), Ki inches; IK.")!)-.")!, 21.4 inches; l!)r)l-r)2, 24.7 inches; \\)7)-l-W.\, 1,").7 inclies; li)ri:5-r)4, \'^A\ inches; 1954-55. Ki.T incites; l!)55-5(;, 2(i.5 inches; l!):)(i-57. 14.5 inches. Tile watershed was reburned on .lnl\ 2(i, 1!»52. Its appearance on June 21, 1!I5(), before buniiiii; and in Auoiist, 1!)57, is shown in Fig- ure 8. EFFECTS OF VEGETATION' HEMOVAE 210 FIGURE 8. A portion of Rock Spring watershed on June 21, 1950, before burning, and (lower) in August, 1957, after two re-burns. 220 CALIFORXIA FISTT Axn r,A:srE Mine Spring Within .')() IVct of this spring' were cij^lit hiilloii willows, three interior live oak elumps, three cotfeeberry bushes, three medium-sized dip-o'ei- pines, and one blue oak. All of these were cut by hand on July 11. lf)50. Tlie watershed above was not burned. liefore the euttinjr was done the sprin rj o O08 \ ^ o ° \ UJ ^ — —-^.^^ o \ K ^ /^ ^^^^^ u. / 0 O ^s.,^^ / 0 °^ |0.04 \ * / ^"^ IE \ / ^v a. \ / \ {ft \ / \ 0.00 \ 1 1 Al / , , , , 1 , , , , \ ■ 1 ' 15 JULY 20 25 30 10 15 20 AUGUST 25 30 5 10 SEPTEMBER FIGURE 9. Flow of Mine Spring before and after cutting shrubs and trees within a radius of 30 feet, 1950. Spring House Spring This served as a cheek spring with no manipulation of eovei-. It was located about one-cpiarter mile from ^line S])ring. It was deei)-seated. the How coming from beneath a large rock. .Measui-ements w(M-e taken 0.30 UJ 1- i 025 IT 0.20 in j- (E < O 0.15 ° 0,10 ;o.o5 0.00 MEASUREMENTS TAKEN BEFORE BETWEEN AFTER 10 AM 10 AM-2 PM Q 2 PM o 20 25 JUNE 10 15 JULY 20 25 30 10 15 20 AUGUST 25 30 5 10 15 SEPTEMBER FIGURE 10. Flow of Spring House Spring where there was no manipulation of cover. This served as a check, 1950. EFFECTS OF VEGETATION REMOVAL 221 beji:iiiiiino' June 20th and ending September 1st (Figure 10). There was a gradual decrease in rate of flow throughout this period. However, it was a little more rapid early in the season than later. This may have been due to drying of poison oak and buckeye on the slope above and less use of water by these i)lants after about mid-July. Cap Hill Spring This was also a check spring. Its watershed had few shrubs and trees. The rate of flow was gradually downward from July 15th to September 5th (Figure 11). The rancher reported that the spring flowed better than it did the summer before when he had to remove the cattle from the range pasture because of a lack of stock water. Rainfall in the winter and spring season of the year before was about four inches less than the year of measurements. This probably accoinits for the difference in flow. Z.S 3 Z z.o (E u Q. in \- tc\s < a 1.0 o -I O0 5 z ec 0. (0 00. 15 Mcaiuremfnt* taken' Before Between After 10 AM lOAH -£Pn 20 ZS JULY JO 5 10 15 20 25 30 AUGUST ' FIGURE 11. Flow of Cop Hill Spring. This served as a check, 1950. 5 10 15 SEPTEMBER Willow Spring This spring was found within a few miles of Clear Lake in Lake County. It was surrounded by a clump of willows as shown in Figure 12. The willows formed a closed canopy about 35 feet in diameter and were 12 feet tall in the center. The spring was boxed, with sidings 38 by 51 inches. No other woody vegetation was near the spi-ing, but up tiie hill about 150 yards were a few blue oaks and 50 yards higher were blue oaks, manzanita bushes, interior live oaks, and poison oak. The watershed Avas estimated at 7 to 10 acres. 222 (AI.II'OHMA I'ISIl AXI) (iAMK ^ \ M \ FIGURE 12. Clump of willows at Willow Spring as it appeared before cutting August 9, 1950. Thirty minutes before cutting the rote of flow was sharply downward; 30 minutes after cutting began the rate of flow was sharply upward. ■ 85" ■, <='b(f\ -03 • Q2 • '/ V .■■\ •■ ^ I -— ^/ Spring Flow / \ /■•• / ^ / \ /■ \ \ / N V ■\ Air Temperatur '< \ y j. Relative Humidity A-'' so' 30' n •lO- Willow Cut. 1^ P" 12 An :Z pn 12 am \l pn IZ An \l Pr-i 12 am Auq. 10 I Aucj 15 Aug 16 FIGURE 13. Measurements of spring flow, air temperature, and relative humidity at Willow Spring before and after cutting willows in 1950. EFFECTS OF VEGETATION KKIVIOVAI. 223 Rpp'ininiip- at 10 a.m. on Au- box fell l)elow the outlel and was down one and one-ei p.m. water in tlu^ spring box liad l)een one and tlir(>e-quarters inch below the pii)e outlet. After tile How was measured for 24 hours, cutting of tlu^ willows began at 10 a.m. on August l()th. One person removed the willows in two hours. Cutting the willows had about the same effect on the spring flow as oiKMiing the faucet on a garden hose. The flow began to increase almost immediately and continued to increase rapidly until the cutting was finished. Thereafter the spring flow continued rather uniformly day and night. The flow was measured every hour during daylight and ever}" two hours during night for 48 hours after cutting. On the second day the spring produced 122.0 gallons of water, in comparison with 31.5 gallons before the willows were removed. Therefore, the clump of Avillows had been using at least 90.5 gallons of wafer per day. Other measurements taken on September 5th, 11th, and 12th, showed the spring to increase by about another 20 percent as the area around the spring became recharged. When this increase is figured against the decrease that would noi'mally occur with downward trend in flow, the water use would amount to about 124 gallons per day. The willows sprouted shortly after cutting and further measure- ments were made periodically in 1951, 1952, and 1953, as indicated in Figure 14. Generally the trend in spring flow was downward except for fluctuations which corres})onded with temperatures and water use by the willows. Sprout growth in 1951, 1952, and 1953 is shown in Figure 15. Each year, measurements of spring flow were made hourly for two 24-hour periods: August 8-9 and 15-16, 1951; August 11-12 and 18-19, 1952; and August 12-13 and 19-20, 1953. The results for one of the 20 25 5 10 15 20 25 3d 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 JUNE ' JULY I AUGUST | SEPTEMBER FIGURE 14. Trend in flow of Willow Spring in 1951, 1952, and 1953. 224 CALIFORNIA I'lSIl AM) (iA.MF. '■■■"'"^u\\\ in \ M \ \ FIGURE 15. Re-growth of willow sprouts after cutting In 1950: in 1951 (upper), 1952 (middle), and 1953 (lower). Sprouts were re-cut in 1953 after lower photograph was taken. EFFECTS OF VEGETATION REMOVAL 225 periods in eacli year are sliown in Fijiiire l(i. These wert; witliin tliree days of the same date, but the temperatures and humidity varied considerably, tlie temperature bein<>- lowest in 1952. If we use the maximum rate of flow which oecurrcHl at approximately 6 a.m. as the potential and then subtract the actual amount of water produced we obtain a partial answer to the amount of water used by the willows. The data for the three vears are shown in Table 2. FIGURE 16. Measurements of spring flow, air temperature, and relative humidity at Willow Spring for a 24-hour period for each of three years as the sprouts recovered in growth. TABLE 2 Flow Data for Willow Spring Showing Use of Water by Willows Gallons per day Average temperature Average Year Potential flow Actual flow Water used relative humidity 1951 - ... 188 232 170 144 191 124 44 41 52 84 77 80 29 1952 19.53 34 38 226 (Al.ll-OKMA llSll AM) (lA.MK The willows were cut ;i second tiiiic on Aniinsl 20. in.'):). Tlic fi-cnd in How hcl'oi-c jind nt'lcr cuttinii' is shown in I'Mliiii'c 17. 'I'lic dirt'crcncc in How t'oi' 24 lioui's before cuttinu' and t'oi' 21 hours after cullinj; aniounted to 63 f>'allons. This is 21 percent ui-eater than the aiiHiunI shown in Table 2. The How continued to increase i'or the I'cniaindei' of the season as it did in iDoO, indicatini!' a^ain that the willows were iisinp- considerably nioi-e water than the amount calculated by sub- Iractinii' the How the da\' at'tei' I't'oni the da\' bei'oi'e cuttiuL;-. 12 AM AUG 2 2 FIGURE 17. Measurements of spring flow, air temperature, and relative humidity at Willow Spring before and after recutting willows in 1953 20 25 JUNE 5 10 15 20 SEPTEMBER FIGURE 18. Trend in flow of Buckeye Spring for eacti year of study. This served as a check to Willow Spring. Rainfall at the nearest station (Lakeport) was as follows: Season 1949-50, 21.9 inches; 1950-51, 34.3 inches; 1951-52, 36.7 inches; 1952-53, 31.1 inches. EFFECTS OF VEGETATION REMOVAL 227 Buckeye Spring This sprinp- was looatod about ouc-half mile from AVillow Spring and served as a clieck. The surrounding area -was open except for one man- zanita bush and a buckeye tree nearby. Leaves of the buckeye began to dry about mid-July. The trend in flow for this spi-ing was downward for each of the four summer seasons, as indicated in Figure 18. DISCUSSION Springs are an important soui'ce of water iu Califorida for game and livestock and for domestic use. Just how plant-cover manipulation effects them has been studied but little. The results here indicate that in some cases the flow might be increased markedly by removing or changing plant cover. California is a good place for studies of this sort because of the long summer period when there is no precipitation to complicate matters. Every spring is different. There are differences in size of watershed, l)lant species and density of cover on the watershed, type of soil, geological formation, whether or not the spring is shallow or deep seated, and source of water. For some springs the water supply may come from outside of the local watershed. Where the spring water is dependent on the local watershed, it is not unreasonable to expect some increase in flow as a result of manipulation of the plant cover. Several principles are involved (8, 9, 16). One of these is changing from deep-rooted species, such as shrubs and trees to more shallow-rooted species, such as grasses and shallow-rooted forbs. In this case the moisture left in the soil below the depth of the shallow- rooted species is then available for spring flow. This change in plant cover becomes more significant where the grasses and forbs are annuals and are not using water dui'ing the summer. This was probably the case with Rock Spring which flowed water all summer long after the conversion from brush and trees to more shallow-rooted annual grasses and forbs. Studies by the California Forest and Range Experiment Station showed that the soils under shrubs and pines, lost all the available moisture to evapo-transpiration dui'ing each summer dry season, whereas, under grass 10 inches of water remained in the soil (3). This was determined by the use of lysimeters extending down six feet. Field studies also showed important differences in evapo-transpiration loss from deep soils covered with oakbrush and annual grass (4). The field plots were originally covered with dense scrub oak and other native Lrush, and in the winter of 1951-52 two sets of plots were converted to annual ryegrass. The soil of the undisturbed brush plots was wet to field capacity thi-oughout tiie 12-foot depth during the first winter, when rain totaled 41 inches. But during the next three winters rainfall was only 12, 25, and 20 inches, and th(> soil was wet to field cajiacity to depths of only 4, 10, and 4.5 feet. Each sunnuer eva])o-transpiration dried the entire soil of these plots to near or below wilting point, and rain was insufficient after the first vear to rewet it fullv. 228 CALll'OliNIA FISH AM) GA.ME In the plots converted from brush to jrrass the story was different. H(>rp, the soil was wet to field (•a])acity thr()\i(). 7'.* \>. 2. Daytun. W. A. liC'.l. liupditaiit western l)r()\vse plants, l'. S. Dejit. Aj;r. :Misc. Pn1). 101, 214 p. 3. Forest Research in California. 1!).")."). Water nse ])y brnsli, urass, ^■rass-forI)s compared. In : Annual Re[M)rt Calif. Forestry ami Ran^c K\\). Sta.. ]). 7.">-TS. 4. l!)."i(i. Water yield influenced hy type of veji'etation. In : Annual R(>i)ort Calif. I'^orestry and Ran;;e E.xp. Sta., p. .'i(>-r)S. 5. Gatewood, J. S., T. W. Robinson. X. R. Colby. J. 1). Hern, and L. C. Halpenny. 19.10. T'se of water by bottom-land vegetation in lower Safford Valle,\'. Arizona. (H'olos'ical Survey Water-Supplv Paper 110.">. U. S. Covt. Print. Office, 210 p. 6. Hellniers, H., .T. S. ITorton, G. .Juhren. and .T. O'Keefe. V.)'>7k Root systems of some chaparral plants in southern California. Ecology, vol. 30, p. 667-678. 230 ( A1.!1-()K.\1A I'ISII AM) tiA.Mi; 7. Hoovci-. M. I). 1".I44. ]'"J'l'('cl (if rrinii\;il nl' I'oi'i'sl \'('i;rl .-i I ii.ii (HI umIit \ icids. Trniis. Anici-. ( ;<'(i]ili\ sicil Inidii \'I. p. '.H\'.\'J~~. S. Knilllrl-. I'. .1. lU'til. I'l.-iiil ;iii(l soil wjilcr rcl.-il inns on tlic walcrslicd, .Idur. Foi-cst i\\', \(>1. ."id. p. Ill' '.I.",. !). Lassen. ],.. 11. \V. Lull, and i'.. Fiank. ]!(."il!. Some plant -soil-w ;i I cr rtdalidns in \va I ci shed niana;;('nuMil . I". S. I). A. Cifcniar Xo. '.11(1. (Vl p. 1(». Leonard. (>. A., and W. A. llai\c.\. ID")!). Clieniical (•()nlr(d of wood.v plants in ( 'a litdinia . (■alif. .V~i'- l'"\p. Sta. T.ull. 7.'.."). 1(1 p. IL L(jve. J.. I». 1!)")."). The effect on si ream lidw (if the kiliini; (if s|HMice and pine li.\ the I^n;;el- niann sprnce lieelle. Tr.ans. Anier. ( iedjih.x sical I'nidii. p. ll.'l-llS. 1:^. Schnhz. A. M.. .1. L. Lannclih.Mnuli. and II. H. Uiswell. l'.t.l-"i. l;(d;i t i(iiisiii]i lie! ween .n'l'ass densit.x' and lirnsii sce(llinu snr\i\a]. 1-]c(i](im.\ . v(ii. ;;(;. i.. 22(;-2:;,s. ]:i. The Spiiiii; Dell Unuixo Stiid.v. ll)."i."l. Seciind IM-(ii;ress Repdit. Stale lM\isi(in df I''drest i'\ . Sacr.-inientd. el ai. i:; 11. 14. \'eihine,\('r. I'\ .1.. and ( '. X. .Idhnstdii. 1*.M4. Soil moisture i-ecords from liuined and iinhiirned plots in certain fivayjiia areas of ( 'ai ifdrni;i . Trans. Anier. ( Jcdphysical rninn. ji. 72-.SS. ]•">. Weaver. .1. 1'].. and .\. .Mozensen. I'.M!). Kel.-itive t i;inspii-at idn (if cnniferdns and hrdad-lea\'e(l trees in anlunin and winter. I'>dl. (J.-iz.. \(il. (iS. p. .■'.!I.">-4114. 1<). Wilni. II. F. I'.l4(i. The status (if wa teisiu'd nianaucnient cdiicepls. .Idur. (if I''dres|r.v. vol. 44. p. !>(;s-!)71. 17. Wilni. II. (L, anil \]. C. Duufdrd. 1".I4S. I^ffecl (if tiinher ruttinj; on water available for stream flow frdui a ]d(l.i;cp"le pine forest. T'. S. T). A. A^r. Tech. Bull. ;. .\. A., and Ilarr.v 1''. I'.lane.\. T.I12. I'se of water h.v native vejietat ioii. ('alif. l)epl. of I'uhlic \\'drl Wildlife Conservation I'.oard bronght in Dr. D. 1. IJas- mussen, a recognized authority on big game management fi'om I'tah, to inspect representative sections of deer range in California. Dr. Rasmussen concurred with the findings of the Cniversity of California, and with depai'tnuMit investigators, that thei-e was a need for greater harvests of deer in ()i-der to nse the resource pi'operly and to insni'c its maintenance. As a resnlt of the fiiulings of these various investigations, the Cali- fornia Fish and (lanu:" Connnission. after statewide discussion and aj)- pro\al ity spoi'tsiiien. I'aiichers, consei'\'at ion agencies, and otliei- inter- ested parties, adopted a deer nuinagement i)olicy for CalifoiMiia in .liiiic. Ifl.lO. The objectives of this policy nuiy be snnunai-ized as the jji-odnc- tion and iiunntenaiice of a ma.xiinnm breeding stock of deei' on wild lands of ( "alil'oi'ina consistent with ivinge carrying capacities and other uses of such lands, and the ntilization throngh public luuitiug of th(> availa])le cro]) of sur|)lus deer of eithei' sex |)roduced annually by this bi-eeding stock. ^leanwhile. the fii'st antlerless deei' hnnt had been held dnring a special season on Catalina Island dnring the winter of l!)49-i;)r)(). with a take of 477 animals. This Avas followed by the first special antlei'less deer hunts held on the nuiinland when 677 deei- of both sexes were taken from the Minei'al King Refuge in Tnlai-e County, and 1.319 antlerless deer fi'om the Devil's (iarden in .Modoc ('ounty. during the fall of 1950. EITHER-SEX DEER SEASON 233 As tlir roc'()<»'iiiti()ii of deer ])r()l)leiHs beeamp more <;'Piieral, additional special antlorless and oitlici'-sex deer seasons -were oi'dcrcd by the com- mission. Starting- with the Catalina hunt, there have been 37 such hunts Avith results shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Special Mi nts in California Through the 1955-56 License Year License year Number of hunts Reported kill 1949-1950 - 1950-1951 One Two Four. . 1 477 1,996 1951-1952 3,225 1952-1953... . .. Five* 1,932 1953-1954 1954-1955 -- - -- -- Four Eight Thirteen 814 2,135 1955-1956 9,459 * Kill figures were not obtainable from one of these bunts. This adds to a total of 20,038 deer reported taken during 37 special hunts up to the end of the 1955-56 license year (June 30th). A majority of people interested in deer in this State have become aware of the fundamental concepts of deer management during recent years due to considerable publicity on the subject. By law, special hunts in California have been based on serious need to correct problems of agricultural or range damage or of population surpluses. The experience in many other states, as well as of limited investigations here, have indicated that either-sex hunts are a needed year-to-year harvest practice. The most significant trend in deer management throughout the Nation during the last 15 years has been the shift in concept of either-sex deer hunting from a damage to a harvest basis. Present thinking recognizes the need to keep deer herds at optimum population levels at w'hich the animals have all they need in order to flourish. It recognizes that this can only be done by removing annual surpluses, both male and female, each hunting season. It aims at prevention of range damage. Experience has shown that properly stocked ranges result in healthier animals in better condition, improved fawn produc- tion and general survival. As the public recognized the need for deer harvests to correct local problems and recognized that many other states were hunting deer of either sex as a general practice, the demand that localized controlled special hunts be replaced with a more easily administered general either-sex deer season arose. At the April, 1956, meeting of the commission, when recommenda- tions for seasons and bag limits were hcai'd fi'om tlie ])ub]ic, a large number of individuals and oi-gaiiizations went on recoi'd in favoi- of either-sex deer hunting. While some of these I'ecommeiidations varied as to length of season or method of tagging, a total of 18 unsolicited resolutions, signed by 2,811 individuals, favored hunting deei- of either sex as did 49 organizations (see A])pendix I). Because of the public demand for a reduction of restrictions in antlerless deer hunting, and the successful regulation of either-sex deer 234 CALIFORNIA I-ISII AM) (iAMK hunting: by longtli of season in other states, as opposed to tlie nnit qnota system, the department reeommemh'd that a iiumbei- ot" ch'sig- iiated counties be open to either-sex deei- liuntinji- durinthy dis- oussions and public hearin«j'S the either-sex lumts were ordered by the Pisli and (iame Commissiou. The counties included in tlu' area open to sueli hunting are shown in Figui-e 1 (listed in Appendix 11). Open to either- sex hunting 9/14-9/16 Open to either-sex hunting 10/26-10/28 I,!!,]]!,!^,"^ = Fish ond Game Regions Boundary of Fish and Game Regions FIGURE 1. Map showing areas open to either-sex deer hunting during the regular season of 1956. Prepared by ClifFa Corson. When the hunting regulations were being considered it was jiointed out that the experience gained from tlie ID.IG hunts eonld sei-\t' as a guide in the future as to whether to allow longer or short(>r geiuu"al either-sex deer seasons, or go to a (|iiot;i system where needed to limit the number of hunters or to control ilie lr (•niiipanMl willi the classifical ion of tin' kill made by the linntci-s t licinschcs as lislcd on kill report cards. The autk'rless kill was classified by hunters as follows: Does .'?.!. ")() ((55 percent I Spike bucks 771 ( 1(> jjerceiit t Fawns !>()!» (19 percent I Sulttotal 4.838 (KK) p,.iccnt ) Age or sex not given 911 Total 5,747 Tl \vill be noted that the percputa^e of spike ])ncks re])orted l)y hunters is higher than indicated by cheeks of the ba^' in the field. This may have resulted from misclassification by hunters of this year's fawns with small s|)ikes as "spike bucks." it also appears that the hunters may have misclassifiher in He (lAMK ■- t- b c o 0> .; « o (— X O LU ■f OQ O^ LU >o ^ o« o 01 03 a} * 3 -a 5) ■«■ 3 <1 0; * <2; a 3 o O cc :c w -n* t-t -t X ^ C X *^ 'X C'l i^ I* '!T C'l r^ ci CC "' »— ' f>*' C^l ^ ^ IC ^H ^- tC •— •— O) — C^J ^H (O O TI — — *) 00 o o C-l ^ — •^ X c ^ to a; ^ CC c^i »f^ x "m ci cc 't a; o^ ccx-T -^ t^ :o^^ X .-( .-H o; X CC I CC -^ 05 -H rt o; X X ■* "~o X CC C^J CC (N « I o 5 X CC d d Tf Lo r^ 10 o; >o -"• ^ Tf — rf « CC ^- C^l ^ »o ^1 t^ 'O ■c CI — — X CCt^t^"S"CCCC03X ■* O CD t^'OCOCC — OC^tTf. C^JTj^^'^Oi'OXfN r^ ■* IN t'-C^X'— OCC'OC^IN t>.(NOl^OCCXtD'-i CC CC -f •-HuCCC^^'OCO'^ 't>"CC^"»0 rt IM -H 1^4-- o to O CJ IN CC CO X 10 X IN CC 35 d rt X -f tc — ' o cr. 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In such Jircas ni;inv people wlm were exposed to doe and t'awii liiiiiline and can care for themselves after weanin<:-. Fawn survival lias not been I'cpoi-ted as a ])roblem in states which reyulaidy hunt deei- of either sex. The best example of this sort in this State oeeurred on the .Mineral Kini: ai-ea in Tulare Count.w Here, a speeial eitluu'-sex deer hunt was held from Septendier 16 to ( )ctober 15. I!).")!). When the n(\\t s])ecial hunt was held on this area in 19.")."), it was found that the second highest jx'r- eentafje of animals over yearlinv: a^e in the kill was made up of the animals born in l!l.")() despite the faet that the ID.lO hunt beiian in mid-September. The hiuhest percenta<:e of animals over yearliiii: ajjc in the 195.") kill was nuule up of the fawn class of 1951. Hunter Distribution The problem of hunter distribution has been an important considera- tion of the eomnussion and department for some time. Foi- several years the connnission has denied the i-e(piest that the deer season in Southern Calil'ornia be chan55, the com- mission wisely decided not to oi'der this hunt because of the dan number of hunters in the Susanville-Westwood area was reported by the state liighway ])atrolman in that district to have been one-third greater than on the op(Miing weekend of buck season. While it is true that conceiiti'ations of hunters that would be con- sidered normal in some parts of the State (viz. Southern California) were reported as dangerously high in other pai-ts of the State because the.v were unusiud there, there is little doubt that some serious crowd- ing occurred. In the Paynes Creek area the ])roblem was especially acute. Here a total of 1,004 cars were parked or moving on an eight- " "B" tags are u.sed for the .second buck in a two-deer district or for the one buck in a one-deer district. 242 CALIFORNIA l-lSll AND (JAMK mile sti'ctcli Ix'tweon the I^luiii Crock hcadquai-frrs and Jiidd Ci-ock on Uftubcr 27. On a six and one-half inih' si retch of i-oad l)ct\vcen the Paynes Creek store and the Iloo'baek Hoad (via the LydiiviUc Uoad) 459 ears were parkecL There were two to fixe huiitci-s \)i'v car. Wliile tlu' concent I'ation of hnnters was hi^h in sonic areas, tlic (h'cr kill on sncli concentration areas was hi^h hnt not exct'ssivc. For in- stance, the total antlerless deer kill on the Devil's Garden ai-ea in Modoc Connty dnrin^- the !!•.")() cither-sex dcei' hnnt was 1,88"). This iiia\' be compared with a total antlerless kill of 2J)()S made the year previous (11)5.")) during a sj)ecial hunt. During 1!)5(), a total of :i,l()2 antlerless deer was i'e])orted taken from the Lassen-AVashoe management unit in Lassen and riumas Counties, an area from wliirh 1.S5S antlerless dcci- were i-emoved in 1055. In Tehama County, a total of :>,S()() antlerless deer was taken during the 1I)5() cithei'-scx drey season as compai-ed with 2,715 antlerless deer taken dui-inti a special iiunt in 1!I55. Th(> fcai- of ovei-shooting is a reaction tlsat has happened in cv<'r\- state after the first general doe season. As Dr. A. Starker Lcopohl. of the I'niversity of California, points out. "the dangei- of overshooting is more hy])othetical than real. It remains a fact that in all the legal doe shoots that have been held in the Tnited States in the past 20 years, there has never come to light an authentic case of serious overshooting of a herd. The surviving population has an astonishing way of bouncing back and filling the vacnum h'ft by the hunting * * * . The best i-e- assurance to hunters that the herds are not bcinstigation made in I'tah sexcral ycai's ago revealed there were fewer deer left in the field in areas where either- sex hunts were held than in areas open to bucks alone. This a]i]iears logical enough, when it is remembered that all deer exce])t legal bucks shot during a buck season through carelessness or miscalculation tend to be left, while during either-sex seasons most deer are taken. For the early eithei'-sex deer season. Kegion II re])orted the crip])ling loss to be about the same usuallx' encountered during the rcgidar buck season. Kegion III I'cported the nund)er of dead deer left in the field as considerably less than that which occurs during the opening weekeml of buck season. ^More than 1, ()()() hunters were contacted. They report (m1 u total of 25 such lost deer seen while hunting. Ivcgion \' stated that EITIIER-SEX DEER SEASON 243 the usual reports of deer shot and left in the field were noticeably lack- ing during the early either-sex deer season. During the late either-sex deer season, Region II (juestioned huntei-s regarding dead deer seen left in the field. Arouiul :^,.')()0 hunters were questioned. They reported a total of 14 bucks, 56 does, and 7 fawns seen crippled and 11 bucks, 27 does, and 16 fawns seen dead, during the course of their hunting. The department investigated reports of dead deer left in the field, and was unable to substantiate them. For instance, a report of 12 to 14 deer carcasses left on a ranch on State Highway 16, Amador County, was received on November 19th. The persons who made tlie observation were contacted. They admitted that the spot was alongside a road where trash was dumped and that what was seen was bags of heads, hides, feet, and olfal of about 14 deer left there shortly after the close of the hunting season. They stated they had seen only one entire animal, but had seen several forequarters. Upon checking the garbage dump on November 20th, no remnants of deer remained. Humors of many deer carcasses left at the Redding garbage dump (reportedly the worst case) were investigated, but attendants claimed that the carcasses had been burned. It is believed that rumors of deer left at garbage dumps have been grossly exaggerated and are based primarily upon disposal of olfal at such places. A postseason deer carcass count was made in the Snow Lake-Mount Adams area north of Sierra Valley in Sierra and Plumas Counties. Three men walking abreast 80 to 50 yards apart for approximately six miles, located four deer carcases: one female fawn, one adult doe, one yearling buck, and one unknown. All carcasses were believed to have been dead a year or more. During the process of making deer counts in Sierra Valley in December, 1956, about 20 miles were covered on foot. A total of five fawn carcasses was observed. These animals could have been killed during the deer season. Four man-days of search in the heavily hunted Doyle area in Lassen County resulted in a count of one dead doe, one crii)pled doe, and one crippled fawn. A check of losses in the most heavily hunted areas in Siskiyou County resulted in a count of three dead deer in five miles of check strips. One was a doe killed prior to the hunting season, and two were fawns. A carcass search made on the Devil's Garden in Modoc County resulted in finding one fawn carcass during 16 hours of search. No crippled deer were seen in this area when counts were made in December, 1956. Thei'e can be no doubt that a crippling loss did occur, just as it occurs during regular buck seasons. It appears doubtful, however, that it was of more serious magnitude than that which occurs each year. HUNTER BEHAVIOR Early Season During the early either-sex deer season, according to reports re- ceived from Region TI, there were no reported accidents in that region and little hunter trouble. Of 826 hunters checked, 23 were first-time deer hunters, 52 were occasional hunters, and 751 were regular hunters. 244 CAUFOHNIA FISH AM) (iA.MK Jxe^ioii 111 ri'})urle(l that few iiistjiiiccs of pooi- (■(Miduct wci'c cNidriil. .Most Imiiters were residents of tlic rounty in winch they hunted. Ah(i\il two-thirds of the liunters were rc^ulai- yfar-to-ycaf linntci's, onc-iiflh wei'e iiifr('(|U('nt huntei's, and ai'ound one out of ten were Hrst-tiuie hnnters. Koad Jiuating- was comparatively lif;ht in all areas except Pope Valley, Napa County, where road hniitino- was moderate to heavy. Of 1,086 hunters checked, 48 percent hnntcd on public land, and of these, one-thii'd had hunted the same area eaiiiei- dui-ina- the buck season. Of the 52 percent hunting on jirivately owned laud, two-thirds had hunted on the same ranch earlier in buck season. Re<>ion V reported that the consensus among field men was that the hunt went smootldy. Hunter conduct was good, although thei'e were a considerable number of first-tinu> hunters in the field. Law violations increased ovei- that level usual to the opening of buck season, hut most were tag violations. One known accident, in which two pci-sons were wouiuled, Avas reported from Santa Barbara County. Late Season Considerable numbers of reports regarding trespass, reckless shoot- ing, and road hunting have sprung out of the late either-sex deer sea- son. There can be no doubt that there were grounds for such reports. When large numbers of hunters are in the field during any type of season, such instances will occur, due usually to irresponsible })ei-soiis making up a small fraction of the total persons abroad. There was a considerable demand in some areas for deer tags. License agents in Northeastern California reportedly sold out all tags on hand during the latter part of the deer season. Evidently hunters made last minute purchases of tags, possibly for their wives and older children, after reaching deer territory. Tliere w(»re disturbing reports to the effect that tags were being purchased for nonhunting wives and juniors in order to tag deer already killed in the field. Final returns show a 9 percent increase in deer tag sales in 1956, as compared with a 4 percent increase in 1954 and a 3 percent increase in 1955 over the previous year. In Ixegion II liunters Avere questioned at checking stations in regard to hunting ex])erience. Of 3,488 hunters contacted, 141 stated they wei-e fii'st-time hunters, 181 said they hunted deer occasionally (one out of three or four years), and 3,166 chiinied they w(>re I'egular yeai-- to-year hunters. A check of hunters in Siskiyou County showed that 83 ix'icent of the persons hunting deer during the either-sex deer season were regu- lar hunters, 8 percent were occasional hunters, and 9 percent were fii-st-time hunters. However a check of unsuccessful hunters showed 44 percent regular, 38 percent occasional, and 18 percent tii"st-time. Ex- cluding the first-timers, 78 percent of the hunters indicated they had hunted in the same area before for bucks, while 22 percent had hnnted in other areas for bucks prior to the either-sex season. Whenever large numbers of hunters go into the field, casualties occur. This ha|)pens every year during the opening days of the deer, pheasant, and waterfowl seasons. The either-sex deer seasons of 1956 added to the casualties that year in that they provided two additional season openings. During the deer hunting season of 1955, a total of 10 fatal and 15 nonfatal hunting accidents were reported. In 1956 casualties ElTllEK-SEX DEEK SEASON 245 increased to 12 fatal and 27 nonfatal accidents. Of these, one fatality and 12 iionfatalities occurred during the three-day either-sex seasons. LANDOWNER CO-OPERATION During- the early either-sex season, in liegion III, 60 percent of the ranchers who owned deer range and had been issued deer depredation permits allowed deer hunting on their lands. Tn Region TI, 47 percent of the ranchers with depredation permits allowed hunting. Some of the other ranches were not suitable for hunting. A survey made by Murray Doyle, AVildlife Representative on the Bureau of Land Man- agement Grazing Advisory Board, revealed that nearly all ranchers in the Milford-Doyle area opened their lands to hunting during the late either-sex season. John Weber, of the Modoc County Cattlemen's Asso- ciation, stated that only a few ranchers in the Alturas area had posted lands, and that most of them allowed hunting with permission. Many large ranches were left closed during the either-sex deer season. Ranchers feared that armies of hunters would arrive to trespass and shoot everything in sight. On the other hand, some landowners who opposed doe hunting closed their lands, and individuals opposed to such hunting placed warning signs on both private and public lands. These actions had the eifect of further concentrating hunters on the remaining open lands. HUNTER ACCEPTANCE OF EITHER-SEX DEER HUNTING Hunters were questioned at different times during the general open season at checking stations in Region IT in regard to their thoughts a')(int either-sex deer hunting with the results given in Table 7. TABLE 7 Results of Poll in Regard fo Eifher-sex Deer Hunting Number of hunters Period wlien poll was taken Yes No Undecided Opening of early buok season Opening of late buck season 546 1,175 (60 i)ercent) (63 percent) (62 percent) 164 714 20 262 Total and percentage September either-sex season October either-sex season 1,721 203 2,493 878 (30 percent) 65 1.004 282 (10 percent) 38 474 Total and percentage Grand total and percentage 2,696 4,417 1,069 (25 percent) 1,947 (27 percent) 512 (12 percent) 794 (11 percent) Of the 7,158 hunters (luestioned, 62 ])ercent favored either-sex deer seasons, 27 percent were opposed, and 11 iien-ent were undecided. It is rerognized the sample taken during the either-sex season may be biased due to the fact that persons who decided to partake in the hunt would probably be in favor of either-sex shooting. However, it will be noted 246 CALii'oKxiA I'lsii AND oa:\ie t'l'oiii Tabic 6 that the ]Kn'('eiita«i'e in favoi- dufiiii; hiick season was aliiiosi as great. PUBLIC REACTION TO EITHER-SEX DEER HUNTING Altlionyh the early cither-sex deer limit went off rather smoothly, there was sufheieiit public reaction in certain (juarters to call fortli a resolution fi-om the ('oviuty Supei'xisors .Association of Caiit'oi-nia in late September askin"- the commission to cancel plans for the October either-sex deer hunt. Had the county supervisors objected prior to the time tiie original orders were made in May, tliei-c is little doubt that the commission would have complied with their wishes. In fact, the reason Colusa and Trinity Counties were dropped from the open area at that time was because their Boards of Supervisors had passed resolu- tions against the killing of antlerless deer. But, according to California law, areas open to hunting for various game species under the commis- sion's regulatory powers cannot be closed at a later date except in eases where added protection of a species is actually needed. Since the commission had ordered the either-sex seasons because it was con vi need that the deer herds involved would be benefited by a heavier harvest, grounds for cancellation of the either-sex deer season Avere not pi-(»sent and no action was taken. Within a few days after the close of the late either-sex deer season, the Senate Interim Committee on Fish and Game held ]uiblic hearings in Plumas, Lassen, Modoc, and Shasta Counties to learn the public reaction to the killing of does and fawns. Most of the people present at the Lassen County, and more especially the Modoc County, hearings api)eared to favor sound deer management, including antlerless deer hunting, although many of these persons stressed the need for con- trolling the number and distribution of hunters. Hunter behavior and crowding during the three-day either-sex hunt were the chief eom- plaints heard at the Lassen and Modoc County hearings. It should be pointed out again that antlerless deer hunting was not new to the people of these counties in that previously there had been three special antlerless deer hunts in the Devil's Garden area of Modoc County and two such antlerless hunts in the Lassen-Washoe area of Lassen and eastern Plumas Counties. Although the Lassen-Washoe special dcci' hunts had encompassed the eastern edge of Plumas County, most of the residents of that county had their fii-st sight of antlerless deer hunting during the 1956 either- sex season. The experience was also entirely new to the residents of Shasta antl Siskiyou Counties who attended tlu' Shasta County h(>ai"ing. These persons were greatly disturbed by what they had seen during the recent hunt. The hearings wei-e highly charged with emotion. It a])- peai-ed to be the consensus of opinion that the killing of does and fawns was criminal and that the deer hei'ds in IMumas. Shasta, and Siskiyou Counties had suffei'ed irreparable damage as a result of the three-day hunt. The either-sex hunt was called a fiasco, and the results were considered a debacle. The u])swell of j)ublic indignation against the killing of dws and fawns was quite similar to that which has occurred in other states after initial changeovers to eith(M'-scx (l(M'r hunting. The opposition was EITHER-SEX DEER SEASON 247 quickly orjianizod and was given wide coYeraye in newspapers. The eelio of the outcry in Northern California soon solidified opposition in most of the State. Many persons and oroanizations who had been in favor of either-sex deer huntino' now accepted the idea that the hunts had proven to be a bad thing. This organized opposition was felt in the 1957 Session of the California Legislature in the form of legislation relating to deer hunting. As a result of the laws of 1957, the Fish and Game Commission can no longer order general area-wide either-sex deer seasons such as those of 1956. Antlerless and either-sex deer seasons must now be ordered on the basis of management units, crop damage, or restricted instances of surpluses only. Unit hunts may be for antlerless deer if hekl during the regular buck seasons, or for deer of either-sex if held at other times of the year. Quotas of hunting permits must be set up for each unit and issued to the public either by drawings or first-come, first- served sale, or a combination of both. In short, California is now definitely committed to a unit-quota system for general antlerless deer hunting. Only bucks may be hunted on a general unrestricted basis. In addition, it is no longer legal in California to take spike bucks or spotted fawns. Spotted fawns are rarely found during the periods when such hunting will be allowed. ^t) THE 1957 DEER HUNTING SEASON RESULTS Although some people predicted that deer hunting was a thing of the past in the northern counties of California as a result of the either-sex deer hunt, the buck kill during the 1957 deer hunting season did not bear out such beliefs. The total reported kill of bucks taken during the regular deer seasons in 1957 was 65,214, the fourth highest kill on record. This may be compared to the kill of 70,371 bucks for 1956. It is true that the buck kill was higher in 1956 than in 1957 in all but five of the counties in which either-sex hunting was permitted the year previous, but the 1957 kill was higher than the average (1952-56) in 14 out of the 34 counties involved. It is true that the effect of the doe harvest of 1956 cannot be completely evaluated until 1958 and 1959, because the fawns that such animals might have produced in 1957 would not have become legal bucks until they had become one or two years of age. Nevertheless, the buck kill of 1957 clearly dispenses with some of the pessimistic claims. For one thing, the high returns do show that the deer herds were not decimated. Also, bag checks in Sierra and east- side counties have revealed a high percentage of yearling and two-year- old animals in this year's kill, an indication that last year's fawns were abundant and survived well, and that last year's spike yearlings were not wiped out during the 1956 either-sex hunts. The fact that influences other than the either-.sex deer hunts of 1956 affected the buck kill is made evident by the status of the north coast counties. AutUn-less deer hunts have never been allowed in Marin, Sonoma, Lake, Mendocino, or Humboldt County. The status of the buck kill in tliese counties has been as shown in Table 8. 248 CAIJI'OK.NIA ISII AM) (iA.\I TABLE 8 Status of Buck Kill (Coastal Season) County 1957 1956 Average 1952-1956 Humboldt Mendocino, , Lake Sonoma 1 Marin 986 3,847 1,585 1,267 548 1,085 4,051 2,030 1.303 707 1,134 4,. 503 2.252 1,620 875 Totals 8,233 9,176 10,384 There are many factors tliat affeet the deer kill in any one year. These are the opeiiiiisz- or elosiiio' of refii^'es, the protection or h*^Miizin- weekends when the g-reatest nnniber of luinters aiT in the field, as well as the weather toward the end of the season when many Imnlers - ab(mt a total kill lii<>lier or lower than that of the year previous. But the most important sinatioiis of )irobl(>m ranjies have been carried on by the Department of Fish and (ianie for several years. Tt has been found that when fawn survival is ])oor. or fair, or ^ood on several ranjics in this area, the chanc3s are high that it will be ]ioor. or fair, or <>'oo(l all over the area. Tn the li<>ht of this findinji', the buck kill for counties that lay in whole or in part east of the Sici'ra Crest (Table 9) Avere compiled for the last ei'.iht years and compared with accumulated fawn sur\i\al information (Table 10). The result is shown in Table 11. TABLE 9 Buck Kill by Counties (1950-1957) County 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 2.330 2.243 2.842 6,077 4,499 4,035 1,794 1,962 2,187 1.076 1,519 2,768 2.151 2,643 4,036 2. .535 3,366 4.220 4,817 4,086 5,651 4.034 Lassen Siskiyou 3.252 4,396 Totals Plumas Nevada . 7.415 1,820 939 947 l..3()6 1.494 302 14,611 2,255 1,327 1,126 1,755 1,973 718 5,943 1,671 972 795 1 .442 795 308 5,363 2.285 1.217 1.032 1,638 2,098 593 8,830 2,763 1.750 1.322 1.765 2.565 606 10,121 2,543 1,149 1,014 1.896 1.899 493 14,554 1,915 937 782 1,318 1,373 486 11,682 1,720 872 Sierra .Alpine Mono Inyo _ 702 1,163 2,237 564 Totals 6,808 9,154 6,465 8,923 10,770 8,994 6,811 7,258 EITHER-SEX DEER SEASOK 24a TABLE 10 Number of Fawns per 100 Does Surviving Until Spring (Eastern California Ranges) Area 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 12 48 34 29 44 43 30 12 35 56 64 43 50 48 39 29 86 74 69 71 67 54 48 32 55 53 36 71 46 72 63 35 46 31 35 50 32 63 42 48 35 34 26 17 18 , South Warners East Warners West Warners _ 68 77 Devil's Garden Lassen- Washoe Verdi Carson River 70 76 69 70 Walker River Buttermilk 64 57 Goodale Creek 41 Tunawee Canyon 39 Average -- 32 46 62 49 37 63 TABLE 11 Connparison of Favifn Survival With Subsequent Buck Kil Fawns per 100 does Total buck kill Statewide Year (spring counts) (eastern counties*) buck kill 1950 __ (poor) 6,808 47,128 1951 _- (fair) 9,154 64,169 1952 32 (poor) 6,465 .50,667 1953 46 (fair) 8,923 58,992 1954 62 (good) 10,770 75,602 1955 49 (fair) 8,994 71,126 1956 37 (poor) 6,811 70,371 1957 63 (good) 7,258 65,214 * Kxrept llodoc, Lassen, and Siskiyou. The 1957 kill appears to have been affected by the poor survival of the 1954 and 1955 class of fawns. The o'ood survival of the 1956 class (as shown by counts in the sprino' of 1957) apparently was not enoug'h to offset the accumulated deficit. The kills from Lassen, Modoc, and Siskiyou Counties are not in- cluded in the totals given above because of the influence of the forked- horn law on the take in these counties. Forked-horn bucks were pro- tected up to 1951, at which time the season was opened for two years. The forked-horn was again protected during the three-year period 1953-55. It was made a legal target again in 1956. The records show that the high total kill in these counties in 1951 and 1956 was in great part a result of the bagging of an accumulation of two-, three-, four- year and older previously protected forked-liorn deer. The close relationships of deer kill to fawn survival not only appears to apply to the eastern counties in which the doe : fawn counts were made, but also to a lesser extent to the statewide deer kill. This is an indication that the influences producing poor to good deer survival and buck kills in any one year are of a broad nature. As deer managers accumulate information on deer from other sections of California, the picture may be developed more fully and with more confidence. 250 CALIFORNMA FISH AND (iA.MK SUMMARY Califoi'iiia's fii'st - soasons in 195(i resulTcd in a liarvcst of .SS,()81 antlci'lcss deer ffoiu all or ])oi-tions of .'U counties. This rcpi-csciits i}.") jxTcciil of tlic statewide kill of 108,452 deer. Ill the counties involved in these two three-day seasons, the antler- less kill made nji 46 percent of the total kill of those counties. The full impact of the either-sex seasons will not be felt until the 195S and 195!) seasons, since most of the fawn pi'dduel imi of the sur- viviii<:- does will not become le<>al tarj^ets until those seasons. However, the 1!*57 buek kill of 65, 214 was close" to the 11)52-56 average bali. A stii'\('.\ of California dcor herds, their ranges and nianaficnient iirohleins. ("alif. Dei't. of Fish and (Janie, (lame J'.uU. No. (i. i:!() p. EITHER-SEX DEER SEASON 251 APPENDIX I List of organizations recorded as favoring- the hunting of deer of either sex during 1956 : 1. Anfjwiii ('Ii.-miher of Comnierce 2. liielter ('haml)er of ConiniProe 8. Bitterwiiter Soil Conservation Dis- trict 4. Butte County Farm Hureau ."». Calaveras Sportsmen's Club (i. California Hunters, Inc. 7. California Farm Bureau Federation 5. California Wildlife Federation !t. ('loverdale Farm Center 10. Cloverdale Farm Bureau 11. Cuyania Valley Sportsmen's Associ' ation 12. Kscondidd Fish and Came Associa- tion 13. Fontana Sportsmen 14. Forest Hill Rod and (Jun Club 15. Game Unlimited It). Oilroy Farm Bureau Center 17. Crass Valley Rifle, Rod and Gun Clul) 18. Indian A'alley Granse 19. Key Rod and Gun Club 20. Lake Tahoe Archers. Inc. 21. Lake County Sportsmen's Associa- tion 22. Los Angeles County Rod and Gun Club 2?.. Mather Rod and Gun Club 24. Montebello Sportsmen's Club 2.">. Modoc County Cattlemen's Associa- tion 26. Monterey (^ittlemen's Association 27. Napa Rod and (Jun Club 2S. Northeastern California Conserva- tion Leaftue 29. Nevada County Sportsmen's Cluli .'iO. Northern Sonoma County Sjjorts- men's Club 31. Pentz Farm Center 32. Plumas-Sierra County Farm Bureau 33. San Die-o Wildlife p>deration 34. Santa Rosa Rod and Gun Club 3"). San Fernjindo Valley Sportsmen's Club 36. Santa Maria Valley Sportsmen's Association 37. State Section. Isaac Walton League 38. Sacramento-Sierra Sportsmen's Council 39. Stockton Rod and (Jun Club 40. Sportsmen of California 41. Sonoma County Farm Bureau 42. Sage and Surf Club 43. State Highway Rifle and Pistol Club of San Bernardino 44. Telco Rod and Gun Club 45. The Marching and Bird Watching Society of San Rafael 4(*>. Truckee Outdoor Sportsmen 47. West Kern Sportsmen's Club 48. West Point Rod and Gun Club 49. Whittier Chapter, Isaac Walton League APPENDIX II Counties open to either-sex deer hunting during the last three of the 1956 regular buck seasons: davs Efirlji Seiixon Alameda Contra Costa Los Angeles Monterey Napa Orange San Benito (except New Idria area) San Diego (northwest corner) San Joaquin (west half) San Luis Obispo (except Pozo area) San Mateo Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Solano Ventura (except Frazier Mtn.) Yolo (eastern two-thirds) (west of the Sierra Crest) Late Season Amador Butte Calaveras El I)() niiii as their liniitiufr faetor to (h'tci-ininc sex witii accuracy. Ttiis uicasurciiiciii is ('(jiiivah'iit to 50 to 55 days dcvclopinciit on wlutc-tailcd dccf as de- scribed by Arinstroni hemionus columbianus) . Forty-three Rocky Mountain mule deer (0. h. hemiomis) from the Lassen- Washoe and the Truckee-Verdi herds were exanuned for productivity in 1951. Chattin's woi-k on 49 Rocky Moun- tain mule deer from the Interstate herd is incduded in this rei)oi-t. The Doyle herd, as described by Lassen et al. (1!)52), is synonymous with the Lassen- Washoe herd. The Liyo mule deer (0. /'. iinioensis) is repre- sented by 35 females taken in 1952 from their winter ranges in Owens Valley. Sixty-eight deer from Camp Pendleton taken in 1955-56 repre- sent the southern mule deer (0. //. ftilginatus) . Twenty-five Califoi'uia mule deer (O. h. californicns) w(>rc sampled from Sequoia National Park in 1955. With the exception of the Lassen-Washoe herd, sampling was done only during a single year. For this reason, no attem])t is made to corre- late productivity with range conditions. Although 322 adult does were examined from 11 herds, no com])rehensive statistical analysis was made, because, when individual herds are considered, samples become limited. Sampling of the fawn and yearling classes was very linntcd and this data is presented for the value it may have. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION Rej^rodnction in CV)lnnd)ian black-tailed adult does is sunnnarizcd in Tabic 1. A pregnancy of IMI ])crccnt was found in 102 adults with a ratio of l(i() embryos per 100 does. The lowest repi-oduct ion was found in the Oak Knoll herd with 154 end)ryos per 100 does. The highest repi-oduc- tion of 173 end)ryos pci- 100 does was seen in the Tehama herd. The ovulation rate was likewise lower in the Oak Knoll lici-d — 1.54 as com- pared t(» l.fH from the Tehama herd. The i-atc of fertilization was al)out e(pial in the thi'cc herds examined. Data were not available to determine the rate of fei-tilization in either the Oak Knoll or the llartsti'and herds. The end)ryo sex ratios showed gi-eat vai-iation (SO to 177 males j)cr 100 females) in the black-tailed hei'ds. A factoi- in this spread maybe inadecpiate samj)ling; the total of all black-tailed (Mubi-yos (170) gave the ratio of 135 males: 100 females. Studies by Taber gives the sex ratio of black-tailed deer in Lake County as 127 males: 100 females. Taber and Dasmann (1954) give the probable sex ratio in black-tailed deer as 120 males : 100 females. PRODUCTIVITY IN DEER HERDS 255 •a a c f O O O iC O O t n T-H ■*J C to .-^ ro o o t~ lo O "O t^ Tf CO C^l r aJ t-. c oj .5 03 rf O O CO 'O (N •* po m cc t^ a. « 0 o M >>-;2 CD o t^ ^ t^ t^ o 00 CO o -H t^ oi ir^ T-H t-H I— ( 1— ( (S -i-- N „ C O CO (M ■ 1 O O^ O^ Oi 1 1 o fe *^ fe fS ^ ti o -*j a;! rt CO lO Tji lO t^ cs -is O! t^ 00 lo r^ (N > O GO O 05 CO lo o 'f -H r^ t^ CO t^ lO t^ O) c S W "" >1 c: 13 ^1 lO O O -H CO o 05000-010 S SP T-H T-H T-H Ph t- a o QJ ^ 00 00 ^ Tf CO CTi o S CO (N CO CO CO " Q-? IM t~ O IN -H lO OJ (N r-< (N C^ IN ^ en a C^ t^ O IN ^ lO (N T-H C^^ (N IM T-H ca M =? !r: ^ 10 lO T-H T-H 00 -s^ »0 lO lO *o »0 lO Q"^ T-H -S"2« o «a: .^"^ = J 05 ^ 00 Tf it c « .5 CO '*' C-J CO CO CM CL, m 0 .2 M >>t: 00 :3 [h T-^ T-i T-H .— i O QO O CC bry per 100 nale 00 O 'O CO CO CO -i^ iC f>- CO »o t^ G QJ w ■" >, *H O c c 0; =*- ^ lO 00 O Tt< O 05 05 05 0 05 o f-H (Ih Si — T o Tt< CO O 05 "O 00 >C a CM CM -^ CO CC CM s "a CO o 05 ira 00 »o ^ C^ O) ■* CO CD C-i cS m Ji C3 in T-H T-H t^ C^) CO «o ■ O lO Th .o 2 1 1 1 1 lO to »o D « 1 1 1 1 1 C^ w ^ c^ ^ 1 1 T-H lO 1— t ^ d ; i ; M ' 1 1 Sea ; : t— ( -f^ GO ' 1 ^5 5) . ' ^ -p o OJ S'S'^ ' c M K ell il 'S "9^ ' -t- o o ^ ;: <2 o;gc; a 9 .-C S: — 0! M "3 ssen Was uckee-Ve; terstate* yo (Inyo ■ndleton ( U "5 — i 1-H t-l i-H I-, Ph Oj 256 i'K'(»i)f(Ti\i'i ^' i.v 1)i;i:k' iii.uds The incidence of single and mnltiple eniln-yos is presentecl on Table 1. Triplets wei'e recoi'ded only IVoiii tlii'ee herds: two sets tVoni 'reliama and one set each iVoni the Lake Hollow and Oak Knoll hei'ds.- The i-eprodnction in t'oiu' snbs|)ecies of iiinle deer in California is siuninai-i/.ed in Table '2. The pei'cent of iii-epfiiaiiey is hifjli, ranpring from 91 ])ei-een1 in the Lassen-Washoe herd to 100 percent in the Inyo and Se(pioia herds. Cheatnin and Severiniiant-y from 7!) ])ereent to 94.8 pen-ent from five regions in New York State. Robinette {op. cit.), in TTtah found !)4 percent pi-ejiiiancy in adult does with two-year-old does exhibiting- th(> hi<>hest rate of ])i'e<^iiancy. The Se(juoia herd of California mule deer was the only lunle deer oTonp examined to have over 90 percent of the ova produced fertilized. The I'enuiining herds wei'e in the hiuttei'nnlk ran^e of the Inyo mnle deer. There also appeared a hi^hei- de5(). As is indicated in Table 4 a slight iiu'i'case in productivity was iu)ted in 1!I5(). Whether this is valid cannot be definitely determined because sampling was limited. However, dui'ing this interval of live vears, some changes did occur Reproductive data wa.s ('(illectcd Ircnn Mack-tailfd dctT in .Saii Ufniln ('dUiit.x' in Fi-liniary, H».58, and is suniniai-izi-d in 'I'alde 1. PRODUCTIVITY IN DEER HERDS 257 on this raiiye witli regard to both the deer themselves and the einiruii- nient. During this period an increasing number of deer were removed by antlerless Imnts. Since the severe winters of 1951-52, subsequent winters have been mild and oj)on. Deer were not forced onto the Avinter ranges and remained disi)ersed for longer periods of time. Tliis, in turn, put less pressure on the winter range. The combination of reduced numbers of deer and the mild open winters no doubt increased the available forage and reduced certain stress factors such as crowding and competition for food. Abnormal fetuses were found in four of the 11 deer herds examined. Robinette and Giashwilder (1950) reported three out of 318 mule deer embryos, or 0.9 percent of the fetuses to be absorbed or were malfor- mations. During the study of the Inyo mule deer, three out of 96 or 3.2 percent of the fetuses were absorbed. In each case, the doe was carrying twins with a single fetus being absorbed. The sex could not be determined, as the fetuses were less than 50 days old. These adults were in the four- and five-year classes. Another doe, seven and one-half years old was carrying twin female fetuses approximately 121-126 days old. One was underdeveloped, measuring 21 mm (forehead-rump) less than its twin. The eyelids and mouth of the underdeveloped fetus were open. A Rocky Mountain mule deer from the Lassen-Washoe herd was carrying two fetuses approximately 180 days old. The female fetus appeared normal, whereas the male was icteric. The fluid in both horns of the uterus was clear. Unfortunately, the specimen was not saved for further examination. Bischoff (1954) reported a fetal cyclopean monster, which was taken from a normal four and one-half year old doe from the Truckee-Verdi herd. A normal twin was present. Examination of pregnant does from the Camp Pendleton herd of southern mule deer during 1955 and 1956 revealed a high percentage of abnormal fetuses. Nineteen percent of the 64 pregnant does exam- ined had abnormal fetuses. These abnormalities consisted of a shorten- TABLE 3 Productivity in Yearling Deer Herd sample Percent pregnant Embryos per pregnant doe Percent ovulation Percent fertilization Black-tailed Tehama Lake Hollow Elephant Hill _... Oak Knoll 2 1 3 3 2 2 50 0 33 33 50 100 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 100 0 66 33 50 1.50 50 0 100 Hartstrand Rocky Mountain mule Las.sen-Washoe 67 Inyo mule Inyo 4 25 0.25 44 25 Southern mule Pendleton 14 73 0.85 59 91 258 PRODUCTIN ITV IN DKKK 1 1 KRDS TABLE 4 Reproductivity in Lassen-Washoe Herd (Adulf females only) 1951 1956 Gain/loss Sample Doe/embryo Percent pregnancy. _ Embryo per 100 females Ovulation rate « Fertilization rate - Knibryo sex ratio to 100 females- Percent singles Percent twins Percent triplets 23 23/24 91 148 1.69 87 64 38 62 0 28 28/46 100 167 1.83 93 105 23 -77 0 + 9 + 19 + 0.14 + 6 + 41 — 15 + 15 0 ing or lack of the lower jaw. sliort liiul)s. umbilical ln'niia. and a gener- alized abnormal appearance of the entire skeletal strueture. Kobinette (op. C'it.) reported a fetus with an umbilical hernia from rtali. but it did not have the shortened lower jaw or limbs. Only two of llie 12 abnormal fetuses were males. SUMMARY Reproductive data was taken tVom -VI'I adult does, 31 \-eaiTiu()-G(Jt). r.isriiuff, A.I. l'.l.">4 .VhiKinnal fetal (le\ ('lii|iiiiciil frnm a iinilr deer. Calif. I^'isli and (lame. \(d. 40. no. :!. 1). :;4(i-;!4i. lll.'iT The breediiiK sea.sons of some California den- lierds. Calif, l-'isii and Came, vol. 4:!. no. 1. ].. 91-l)(i. ClnUlin. .T. K. l'.»4s Hreeding season and iiroducti\it y in the Inteist.ite Kccr Ilrrd. Calif. Fisli and Game, vol. .'',4, no. 1. ji. Ii.~>-."!1. ( 'lieatnm. E. L. I'.i4!t The use of corpora lutea for detei-niinin;; o\nIation incidenci' and variations in fertility of white-tailed deer. Corned] Veterinarian. \c>l. .■!!». no. ;!. \>. 282-2!tl. PKODTTTIVITY IX DEER HERDS 259 Cheatum, E. L., and C. W. Severinshaus 1950 Variations in fertility of white-tailed deer related to ruii^e eonditions. Trans. Iftth N. A. Wild. Mgt. Conf., p. ITO-llKt. Jones, P. L. 1954 The In.vo-Sierra Deer Herds. Calif. Dept. of Fish and (lame T'npui>l. ri'pt., 8.". p. Lassen, Robert W., ('. M. Ferrel, and H. K. Leach 1952 Food habits, prodnctivity and condition of the Don le nmle deer herd. Calif. Fish and Game. vol. 38, no. 2, p. 211-224. Leach, Howard R. 195(j Food habits of tlie (ireat Basin deer herds of California. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 42, no. 4, p. 243-308. Leach, Howard R.. and J, L. Hiehle 1957 Fond habits of the Tehama heid. Calif. Fish and (iame, vol. 43, no. 3, p. 161-178. Robinette, W. L. 19.55 Fertility of mule deer in Ftjili. .Jnur. \\'ildl. M«t., vol. 19, p. 115-130. Robinette, W. L., and .T. S. Cashwiler 1950 Breedinji' season, productivity, and f.-twninj; jieriod of the mule deer in Utah. .Jour. Wildl. M«t., v(d.'l4, p. 457-4(59. Robinette, W. L., and .1. S. Gashwiler, J. B. Low and D. A. Jones 1957 Differential mortality by sex and n.i;e among mule deer. .Tour. Wildl. ^Nlgt., vol. 21, p. 1-10. Taber, Richard D. 1953 Studies of black-tailed deer reproductioji on three chajiarral cover types. Calif. Fish and Game, vol. 39, no. 2, p. 177-187, Taber, Richard D., and R. F. Dasmann 1954 A sex difference in mortality in young' Columbian l)lack-tailed deer. Jour. Wildl. Mgt., vol. 18, no. 3, p. 309-315. MENDOCINO NATIONAL FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT' EDWIN L. BRAUN and THOMAS J. BELAND Department of Zoology University of California, Berkeley INTRODUCTION The population increase in California and the resultin<«' heavj- demands placed on the trout waters of the State have accelerated the development of new management techni({ues for increasing the produc- tivity of streams. Stream improvement has been suggested as a partial s(jlution to the problem. Two methods of stream improvement that have proved successful in California are: (1) flow maintenance dams, which store water for release in streams during periods of low flow; and (2) stream clear- ance, which is especially api)licable where anadromous fishes are con- cerned and a shortage of suitable spawning areas exists. Improvement consisting of the construction and placement of various devices in streams with the intent of creating shelter has generally not met Avith any great success (Ehlers, 1956). The Mendocino stream improvement project was not concerned with any of the above methods. It was a basic research study designed to determine the possibility of manipulating riparian vegetation to in- crease shade and cover along exposed streams. The origin of the project stems from a survey of Stony Creek and adjacent basins made in August, 1946. At that time generally poor conditions for trout ]n"evailed, mainly because of high water tempera- tures and large populations of rough fish. On the basis of this survey it was suggested that the severe floods of 1987-88 had removed the riparian vegetation, and that the resultant absence of cover and shade had reduced the pr()(lu<-tivity of the stream in terms of trout. Late in 1950, the Inland Fisheries Branch (then Bureau of Fish Conservation) requested the Department of Zoology of tiie University of California to investigate the feasibility of re-establishing streamside vegetation. The experimental areas were to be selected from streams in the Little Stony Creek, Big Stony Creek, or Criiulstone Creek basins, Glenn County. In 1951 a contract was arranged l)et\veen the Wildlife Conservation Board and the University of California. After preliminary surveys the Stony Creek basin was selected as the study area and field work extended from October 1, 1951, to October, 1952. 1 Submitted for publication December, 1957. Project TX-301 of the Wildlife Conserva- tion Board. ( 2G1 ) 262 CALIFUKMA ;il AM) CIA. ME The work was pi-imarily an analysis (if tlic siii-\i\al of cxpcriiin'iital |)laiitiii;;s of \c;;t'tat ion, altlioii^ii (illicr aspects wliidi iiiiL;li1 ttcar on llic t'('asil)ilit_\- ul' a plantiiiii' })r()<:rain wi're also c'xi)lori'(l. DESCRIPTION OF STONY CREEK BASIN The ai'ca is in the ^lendoeino National 1^'oi-est. .Manaiicinent policy nndei- the Tnited States Foi-est Sefvice has been one of tii-e protection, facilitation of recreational nse, and regidation of ^razinji' by livestock. Stony Creek basin contains the watershed cont ributiniz to the (low of Tilg Stony Creek at Stonyford and aboxc. This well-dcfinrd \\alcr- slied contains 97 s(piai'e miles of niountainons connti-y, aiid is bonnded by steep peaks and ridges on all sides. Two j)eaks. Snow Mountain, elevation 7,054 feet, and Monnt St. John, elevation 6,503 feet, and their slopes form nearly two-thirds of the surface area. The hiuhei- re-zions ( ;^,5()0 to (i,()()0 feet) are more or less densely covered with a coniferous forest. IJelow this (2,500 to .'5,500 feet) the slopes are dominated by knobcone pine (I'i)}i(s tuhcrculafa) and luan- FIGURE 1. Minimum flow of approximately four cubic feet per second in the South Fork during summer of 1952. Phofograph August 13, 1952. FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT 263 zaiiita {Arcfosfapln/hjs s]).). Uelow 2,500 ft-et the veg'etation becomes typically Sonoraii. Sections of the South Fork and North Fork of Stony Creek, gener- ally lyin52, was estimated at 1,500 cubic feet per second (c.f.s.). Five days later the flow was 700 to 800 c.f.s. On August l.'{, 1!)52, the miiiiiiium flow for the season was about 4 c.f.s. SURVEY OF THE NATIVE VEGETATION During the Avinter of l!)51-52 it was found that even miiKn- floods were severely damaging to volunteer riparian vegetation. Seedling plants of red willow {Salix lavaigata), cottonwood {Popiili(s j'rononiii), and 264 FOREST STREA^r I .XrPKOVK^rKXT FIGURE 2. Seedlings developed in a sand and silt bar formed by floods in 1950-51. Phoiograph October 8, 7 951. .^si !...,:■ .*.*. <,.-^fi-fiikath' . .^^fi--- * ^ ! » 3«W*' FIGURE 3. The sand and silt bar shown in Figure 2 following minor floods in the fall of 1951. All seedlings have been destroyed and the surface material of the bar has changed to coarse gravel. Phofograph December 10, 795J. FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT 265 white alder (Alnus romhifolia) were present on nearly all moist areas adjacent to the stream channel in the fall of the year. Figure 2 shows an abundance of natural seedliniis of shade trees growing on the sand and silt bar left by the previous season's floods. Heavy storms late in November and in early December resulted in high stream discharges. Figure H shows the changes caused by the high water. Tlie bar has changed from a silt and sand deposit to coarse gravel and all the vege- tation has been removed. Despite the occurrence of isolated even-aged groves of young willows and alders along all the streams of the basin, natural recovery is, on the whole, insufficient to provide significant streamside shade. An age and growth study of the vegetation cover along the lower two miles of the North and South Forks was made in order to determine the growth rates, the maximum size, and the shade-producing potential of the native arborescent species. An increment borer was used to deter- mine age, height was estimated, and diameters were taken with a tape. The area covered is a typically Upper Sonoran life zone, supporting such characteristic species as digger pine {Pinus sahiniana) , blue oak (Quercus douglasii), valley oak {Quercus lolata), buck brush {Cea- nothus sp.), and manzanita (Arctostaphylos sp.). A few dwarfed individuals of the Transition zone, such as ponderosa pine (Pinus punderosa), incense cedar {Liboccdriis deciirrens), and Douglas fir {Pseudotsuga taxifolia), are found in favorable sites. The data indicate that the growth of woody plants is generally slow, and that their maximum heights are not great. Even the rapid-growing alder grows slower than at higher elevations. Of all the species investigated, only cottonwood, wallow, and alder satisfied the require- ments of rapid growth close to the summer stream channel, and maxi- mum shade production. Only alder showed a strong tendency to grow in thick, cool groves necessary to atford maximum stream cover. RIPARIAN MANAGEMENT INVESTIGATIONS The first year 's work was concerned with selection of suitable species and development of practical and effective planting techniques. All plants native to the drainage from which seeds or cuttings were avail- able were used, as they were considered best adapted to local conditions. A few plants not native but especially suited to conditions of the drain- age were also used. The planting program had a threefold objective: (1) to find species suitable for stream improvement in the Stony Creek drainage; (2) to find for each species the site or sites on Stony Creek for which it was best adapted; and (3) to determine the best planting nu^thods for each site and species. Such broad objectives could not be fully realized in a single year, but much was learned. Experimental plantings were made in small plots using small numbers of plants, so that close observation and attention to the fate of each individual could be made. Sites were chosen to i)ermit the study of establishment and growth of plants under the whole range of variation of soil, moisture, and exposure. In general, however, favorable sites were scarce. Most of the area was hot and dry, with poor, gravelly soil. Planting stock was of three kinds : cuttings, seeds, and seedlings. 266 FOREST STREAM I M I'lM tVEMENT Survival of Cuttings Doriuant cutliiifis 18 iiiclics to '2 t'ccl loii^- were collected (liifiii^' the fall and winter inoiitlis. Some wei-e iijanted iiiiiiiediately aftei- ^ather- iii^', wliile otliei's wece held in a nni'sei'v established hy project per- sonnel at Stonyford niitij spring. ()\\iii!j to the I'ock and L;i-a\-el of the streanisi(U'. enttin^s eonld not l)e planted e\en l)y drixin^ into the ground with a maul or sledge. Instead, holes of slightly gi-eater diam- eter tluin the cuttings and IS inches deep were forced into the ground with a crowbar, and the cuttings were then gently fitted in the holes and the soil tamped around them. Early spring growth was browsed heavily hy deer. Sexcre daiiniLic was also sustained later in the spring when stock was tui'ned in. Barbed wire fences were erected about some of the cuttings to minimize losses. In g(>neral, however, such exclosures were not etfective. sinc(> they were easily entered by deer. Most species suffered heavy losses during the summer, {\\\r pi'imarily to a combination of drought and animal damage. Early browsing retards growth and development. The result is that plant has neither the root system nor the vitality to withstand the summer heat ami dryness. Hy the ]2th of August, spice bush {Calycdii lints occidenialis), creek dogwood {Cornus calif ornica), plane tree {Platan us raceniosa), sfjuaw bush (Rhus frilnhata), and elderberry {Suiuhurus roo-ulca) had faihnl completely. The few remaining cottonwooil and snowberry {Symphoricarpos alhus) cuttings were in very poor condition. Only mule fat (Baccliaris viminea), willow, and California wild grape {Vitis ealifornica) showed any vigorous growth. ])y the 2()th of September only nude fat and willow remainetl in significant ninnbers (Table 2i. Those species which failed completely are probably unsuited to root under the conditions imposed by the environment of the experimental ai-ea. They might be rooted in a nnrseiw and ti'ansferred to the field as |)otted stock. Cottonwood, mule fat, and willow survived av(>11 (MU)ugii to show trends in the struggle foi- establishment. Figure 4 shows survival and losses foi' cottonwood cuttings which ai"e fairly i-e|)reseuta- tive of the othei- species. Results From Planting Seeds Seeds of native ]ilants were gathei'cd in the fall and wintei- as they became available and ])Ianted in the field in ])repared seed spots. Protection fi'om seed-eating animals was provided by covering each seed spot with a cone of 1-inch mesh hardwai'c doth S indies high. Some seed spots were left without this ])rotection as controls. A high percentage of gemnination for the seeds of most species was obtained. Animal damage was light during tlie winter and eaidy spring. The only serious losses sustained until ^lay wei-e due to floods. Seed plantings of this type are quickly washed away e\cn by light floods. Certain large-seeded species, such as buckeye and black walnut, are exceptions, and if planted deeply to protect them from the force of the flood will usually survive. When food became scarce late in the spi-ing, i-odents increased their activity and frequently huri-owed beneath the wire cones to devour the sprouting seeds. Cattle and deei' left the drying hillsiiles and wandered along the creek in search of green feed, trami)ling and destroying many FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT 267 CM a. CO 1^ o H •13 m o 13 o PQ 03 itting ost to flood -1 Q o ^^ -a >> o Ml C T3 be 3 O T3 O O 03 a '3 - 0^ 2^- M C H g a 02 OOlNOOOOOOOOO oo — ooooooo-^ OO-hOOOCOOOO to t^ OSOOOOOOOOO r-H (M oooooooooo OOOOi-hOOOOO C3 O -1 i ° I fl; rt, o -^ o 0) 3-; (U e cs c ^ *^ -2 g e :_ =^ "C s o « . , i; -c — ■'■• -• s n, ca < a. s S t£i ?.^|£? "m I^ >, b '^ ■^ ~r « S e M o ^ > ■£ 03 ^ U 5 **3 03 1> ti-I M O c . o o c O L- o 2 •i° 2 o 'o o c5 sc Q 268 FOREST STREAM I .M 1'1{<)VI;.\1 I:NT 30 25 CO 3 O u. o a: m 3 Z 20 10 A ^^ NUMBER LEAFED OUT w ^^ F -^F • • • • • • • .CD ^ § 1 ■ • f • f • f • Mm mm ff • mm mm Mm mm Mm * \ 1 Km f* f« mm Mm Mm \ 1 K 1 1 1 / ■■■\ "■■■■\ 1 ..A !. h'^.>.t MAR. APR. MAY JUN. AUG. SEP. 18,1952 24 29 DATE OF 30 OBSERVATION 12 20 FIGURE 4. The survival of 30 Fremont cottonwood, Popu/us fremontii, cuttings planted in various sites. more seed s])ots. A lars'e number of seeds wwo dctniycd dcspilc the protectioii jiffoi'ded hy tlie cones. Loss of seeds phiiilcd \\itli(iut benefit of the cones was nearly comph'te. As summer started, sprontiup- seeds be<>an to suffer from lieat and dryness and a constantly increasing number witliered and died. Of all the species tried, only buckeye (Aescuhis calif arnica), Cali- forina black walnut {Jurjlans hindsii), ;iiid white oak showed promise. Only black walnut yrew large enough and fast enough to In- useful. Table 3 summarizes the results of the seed plantings. Figure 5, illus- trating survival and loss of seedlings of black locust (Rohinia pseudo- cacia) is characteristic of survival and loss for seed ])laMtings. FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT 269 to o llJ lU QC UJ CO 3 MAR. 18,1952 MAY JUN. AUG. 29 30 12 DATE OF OBSERVATION FIGURE 5. The survival of 35 first-year black locust (Robinio pseuc^ocecacio) seedlings planted on exposed rubble bars and east-facing chaparral slopes. These observations were carried out betv/een January 10, 1952, and September 20, 1952, and include one regularly watered seedling. Seedling Survival The planting stock of ponderosa pine, hybrid pine, and black loenst were all one-year-old bareroot seedlings. The alder and black walnut were also bareroot, but were two to three years old. The great majority of seedlings survived transplanting to the field and produced new growth in the spring. The losses remained low until April, then in- 270 FOREST S'ri;KA.\i 1 ,\i ri;( )\i: M i;\' 1 K O CI '- I- c o -r T Tl 00 « 0 ^— 1 . — 1 T3 (1) (0 •f 01 o c ri ^: r^ 1 ^: c -T -r ci 00 — L. •— J3 sj B u V ^ t3 T3 V CO ^: o PQ CCCIC t^COOOCO •! T3 is § w X re C CI O 00 TC T CI 3; •M -T 2^ (n "s __ MTI 04 'c -4J U-( >> O XI b£< — — or^ — r^r^roccr^O ^~ T3 O — — — — ^~ 0^ ^ o >. Q rsj e 09 E ■a ■o o> T3 o 0) o "S. OJ a> a) E u^ -c rn o OJ LU wn 03 QQ C _2 fl3 q c '2 o. < •a a> , 1 i^O s * "o •S "= ^ oscco-^OiOrccit^ — ^^ >. i's c •-H TO CJ IM C) C( ^ fe E E M =) i^ u ■- (U OS ooor-iooTOOoic-twW'O ,° = •CiOiCrt<(NC>D TO — — c.. 2. s ; ; 1 1*: : 1 . 1 i^g r».,',«,"iiiie GO iK-leaf maple (Acer macrophylh ox elder (Acer neyundo) uekeye (Aesculus caiifornir.a) . idas tree (Cercis occidenUiUs) .. oothill ash (Frnxinus dipetnla) alifornia black walnut (Juglan. an oak (Lithoc.arpus deiisiJU,ra) ilay (Prunus ilicifolia) [aul oak (Quercus chrysolepis) . eatlier oak (Quercus durata)... alley oak (Quercus lobata) alifornia laurel (Umbellvlaria c paD5CQ>Si^UH.^ ^►J>0 1 a> -a: .2 -■ =- c c3 rt ral years. Grazing damage to streamside plants does, howevei-. make the i)r()- tection of plantings by adequate exclosures advisable. Deei- caused heavy plant damage whether the planting site was fenced or not. since they can easily .iump the standard cattle fence. Deer-proof fencing such as the outrigger fence described by r>laisd(>ll and Hubbard (1!)57) was not available at the time of this study. Rodents find and destroy all unprotected seed plantings. Wire mesh cones placed over the seeds at the time of ])lanting provide pi-otection that is only partly effective. Even though no ma.jor fires had occurred on the Xoi'th Koi'k t'oi- :!() years prioi- to 1046, a survey made that year indicated that conditions in this sli'eam were unsuitable for trout dui'ing the summer. (\)m]iaiM- soii of the l!)4(j data with data taken by the authors in 1!).')2, four years after a major fire had swept througli the entire North Fork watershed below the 3,500-foot elevation, showed no substantial change in stream temperature, stream flow, oi- fish ]io])nlat ions. Thei'e is no evidence to indicate that I'ccent fires have been much different in frecpiency or extent fi-oiii those set by liuliaus aiul early white settlers. Any changes in the streams due to the effects of fire have almost certainly been gi-adual. Thei-e is little to support the idea that the streams of the drainage have undei-gone any ]ihysical deteriora- tion in recent times. FOREST STREAM IMPROVEMENT 273 The results of this study indicate that the streamside veo'etatiou is limited to its present state by climate. The total water supply avail- able from rainfall and seepaf?e throu<>h tlie soil is not sufficient for rapid or extensive growth. This shoi'taj^'c is a<::<>ravated by the fact that precipitation does not occur durino' tlie hot <>rowin'etation is limited to its pi-cscnt state by climate. There appears to he no real basis for conidudinji' tliat tires, lii-az- ing, or floods have caused a siyniticant ciianyc i'l'om the natural state. REFERENCES P>t'laii(l, TlidiiiJis J., and Kdwiii ],. Itrauii lit.")!'. A icjidrt on Mendocino National Forest stream inipiov cnicnl (rinjcci 7X- 1)01 I of llif California Wildlife ( 'oiiscr\ at ion Hoard. 7-" jip.. + L' p. hihlin. -|- ApiK'ndix. ( Minico. ) I'daisdcll. James A., and Kicliai-1. 4.'!. no. 1. pp. 1()()-1()2. Ehlers, Robert l!>r)(>. An F\ahiation of stream imi)r()vement devices constrncti'd Is years ai;o. Calif. Fish and Came, vol. 4'2, no. ;j, pp. 20o-217. THE SHORTNOSE SPEARFISH TETRAPTURUS ANGUSTIROSTRIS TANAKA A SPECIES NEW TO THE NEAR SHORE FAUNA OF THE EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN ' WILLIAM L. CRAIG Marine Resources Operations California Department of Fish and Game On August 31, 1957, while trolling- for albaeore near the Sixtymile Bank, Baja California (lat. 32° 05' N., long. 118° 14' W.), Mr. Louis Sadler, owner of the vessel California Rept^bijc, canght a single speci- men of what he believed to be a Pacific sailfish. .Since Mr. Sadler was headed toward San Pedro to discharge his load of fish, the specimen was ]ilaced in the vessel 's refrigerated hold. T^pon arrival in port the "sailfish" was placed in cold storage under the custody of Mr. Billy Rice, operator of the bait hauler Sunshine II, who arranged for its deliverv to the California State Fisheries I^aboratory on September 3, 1957. The Pacific sailflsli (lsti(jplK>n(s (jreyi), a conunon member of the sailfish family on the west coast of North America, is very rare north of Cape San Lucas, Baja California. Although Walford (1937) states tliat sailfish are found on the Pacific C'oast as fai- north as Monterey, a search of the literatiire and contacts with several authoritative sources uncovered no specific record of this species from California. However, several reports of sailfish in California waters came to the attention of the California State Fisheries Laboratory during 1957. A personal contact by one of the biologists indicated the capture of a sailfish by a commercial fisherman off San Clemente Island, California, about the first of September. Another sailfish Avas reported to have been captured about the same time even farther north, some 60 miles offshore between Point Arguello and ]\Iorro Bay. At present facts necessary to substan- tiate these reported captures are insufficient to warrant considering litem as positive records of Pacific sailfish from California waters, but in both cases mention by the fishermen of an extremely high dorsal fin leaves little doubt concerning the identity of the specimens. The oidy member of the sailfish family definitely recorded from Cali- fornia waters is the striped marlin, Makaira auda.r, a number of which are caught each year by sport fishci'incn. The fish captured by Mr. Sadler was neither a sailfish nor a marlin but a shortnose s])earfish, Tctrapiurns angusiirosiris, (Figure 1) a third member of the family Istiophoridae. Although superficially re- ■^ Submitted for publication December, 1957. ( -'T.-i ) 276 CAMFOKMA FISH AM) GAME .sciiil)liii 1 ,.579 402 229 35.5 13 61 273 211 197 333 186 112 343 409 1,008 424 185 1,015 141 170 75.5 48 45 971 62 197 65 41 44 COUNTS: Dorsal Anal Pectoral Pelvic Branchiostegal rays. III, 46-6 II, 12-7 I, 17 I, 1 7 Thousandths of standard length 876 114 1,033 263 1.50 23 9 40 179 138 129 218 122 73 224 267 6.59 277 121 664 92 111 49 31 29 635 41 129 43 27 29 Thousandths of orbital standard length 1,142 131 1,179 300 171 27 10 46 204 158 147 249 139 84 256 305 753 317 138 758 105 127 56 36 34 725 46 147 49 31 33 A weight of but 21f pounds for its length of approximately five feet well illustrates the strikingly fusiform body shape. The gonads of both sexes in all of the istio]ihorids are reportedly often asymmetrical. Both testes in this immature male specimen ap- peared to be of equal size. No food organisms were present in the stomach but the existence of an extremely short intestine leaves little doubt of the carnivorous food habit of Tetrapiuriis. Some confusion seems to exist regarding the status of the dorsal fin elements in this species, as well as those of the other members of the family. Some authors refer to all the elements as being spines, others as varying combinations of spines and rays. The first three elements in the dorsal fin of the present specimen were considered to be spinous in 278 THE SHORTNOSE SPEARFISH J I L mm B FIGURE 2. Camera lucida drawings of scale outlines, (a) Tefrapfurus angusfirostris; (b) Adult Isfiophorus greyi; and (c) Juvenile lsfiophoru$ greyi. THE SHORTNOSE SPEARFISH 279 structure. Though completely uubrauched, the remainiug dorsal fin elements were considered to be more characteristic of rays. The finlets were composed of typically multibranched rays. Because of their uimsual furcate shape, the scales of Tetrapfurus appear to be quite distinct (Figure 2A). Very few of the randomly taken scales were of the bifurcate type but were predominately multi- furcate. For comparison the scales of a 327-mm. juvenile and those of an adult sailfish, IstiopJionis greyi (exact size unknown), are shown in Figures 2C and 2B. The scales from the juvenile are quite nondescript, being- typically cycloid, while those of the adult are elongate, much as in Tetraptiin(s. The obvious difference in scale structure between the two species lies in the number of projections. In the random scale sam- ple from the adult sailfish those scales with a single projection domi- nated heavily over those with a bifurcate projection. None of the typically multifurcate scales of Tetraptnrus were noted in the sample of Istiophonis scales. No marlin scales were available for comparison, but LaMonte (1955) describes them in the adult stage as being ' ' more or less flattened, elon- gate, and thorn-shaped, sometimes bifid." This indicates that the scales of MaTi'aira more closely resemble those of Isiiophorus than those of Tetraptnrus. Since this specimen was out of the water only about 72 hours before examination, the colors were considered quite indicative, though prob- ably not as vibrant and iridescent as in life. A deep lead-blue best de- scribes the color of the back above an imaginary line from the snout, along the upper edge of the orbit, and running posteriorly through the dorsal caudal keel. Both the ventral and anal fins were similarly colored. The flanks, including the pectoral fins, shaded from blue to the chalky white of the belly. The cheeks, below the eye were an iridescent silver color. This specimen of Tetrapfiirvs angustirostris, a new record for the extreme eastern Pacific Ocean, has been deposited in the fish collection. Department of Zoology, University of California, Los Angeles. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere thanks go to Mr. Louis Sadler and Mr. Billy Rice for their respective parts in making this specimen available for examination. A great deal of credit for the publication of this note is due j\Ir. John Fitch, Research Director of the California State Fisheries Laboratory, for without his stimulus, counsel, and guidance the manuscript would never have been concluded. REFERENCES Gabrielson, Ira N., and Francesca R. LaMonte 1950. The fisherman's encyclopedia. Ilarrishnrg, Stackpole and Hecht Inc., G3S p. Graham, .lo.seph J. 1957. Central North Pacific albacore snrveys. May to November 1955. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. : Fish., no. 212, 38 p. Gregory, William K., and G. Miles Conrad 1937. The comparative osteology of the swordfish (Xiphias) and the sailfish (Isfiophonis) . Amer Mns., Xovit., no. 952, 25 p., 12 figs. 280 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME Jordan, David Starr, and Barton Warren Evormann 1898. The fishes of North and Middle America. I'.S. Nat. .Mus.. I'.uU. 47, iil. 1, p. 890-893. LaMonte, Francesca R. 1\)Z)7). A review and i-cvisidu of tlic in.ulins. j;ciius Miilinirn. Anicr. Mils. Xat. Hist., Bull., vol. 107, art. 3, p. 319-1558, 9 figs. LaMonte, Francesca R., and Donald E. Marcy 1941. Swordfish, sailfish, marlin, and spearfish. Internat. Ganii' Fish Assoc, Ichthy. Contrib., vol. 1, no. 2, 24 p. Nakaniura, Hiroshi 1943. Tunas and spearfishes. Translated by W. G. Van Caiii|Mii, ];ir,l, U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. : Fish., no. 48, p. 13-40. Tanaka, Shigelio 1935. Figures and descriptions of the fishes jil. "WaU'ord, Lionel A. 1937. Marine game fishes of the Pacific coast from Alaska to the Equator. Berkeley, Univ. Calif. Press, 205 p. FIRST RECORD OF THE AGONID FISH PALLASINA BARBATA AIX STARKS FROM CALIFORNIA' DONALD V. HEMPHILL Mendocino Biological Field Station, Albion, California and W. I. FOLLETT California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California The capture of a tubenose poacher, Fallasina harhata aix Starks, at Cleone Beach, Mendocino County, California, extends the recorded range of this fish approximately 170 miles southward and adds another species to the fauna of California. The poacher was taken on July 20, 1957, wdth a number of surf smelt, Hypomesus pretiosus (Girard), by James Hartman w^hile fishing- with a surf net, at approximately 2 p.m., which was at midtide in a neap- tide series. Cleone Beach consists of coarse sand. It is some three miles north of Fort Bragg, its approximate position being latitude 39° 29' 30" N., longitude 123° 48' 00" AV. In the dried condition in which the specimen reached us, it measured 127 mm. in standard length and 5§^ inches in total length. It is an adult female, containing ova to 1.8 mm. in diameter. The meristic counts are as follows: dorsal VIII, 7; anal 11; pectoral 11-11; pelvic 1,2-1,2; caudal (principal) 6 + 5; branchiostegals 5-5; prepelvic median plates 3 ; plates before spinous dorsal 11 ; spinous dorsal on plates 12-20 ; lateral line pores 45 ; vertebrae 15 + 32 = 47. The men- tal barbel is indistinguishable. The specimen is catalogued as No. 26307 in the Department of Ichthyology of the California Academy of Sci- ences. Although the photograph (Figure 1) does not show the two dorsal fins or the single barbel on the tip of the lower jaw, it does show the tubelike snout which distinguishes this species from the other 12 FIGURE 1. Tubenose poacher, Pallasina barbafa aix Starks, S. L. 127 mm., T. L. 5-21/32 ins., Calif. Acad. Sci. Cat. No. 26307. Photograph by W. I. Follefi. 1 Submitted for publication March, 1958. (281) 282 CALIFORNIA KISIl AM) (i.VME species of the family A^oiiidju^ that ai-e known from California. An excellent fifi'ure of this ])oacher a('i'om])ani('(l the oi-iizinal (l('scri])tion (Starks, 1896, pi. 75) and .inoihci- was pnhlislird hv l'.;ii'i-aclon-ili (l!i:}2, ^- !)• . .. . The scientific name of tlie sontheastern representative of th(^ uimius PaUashxi has lon<>' been a matter of nncertainty. Steindachnci- (ISTG, ]). 188) orig'inally described the species Slpha- gonus barhdfus on the basis of specimens from the Arctic Ocean near Berin. 77). erected for i'^ip]ia(i())n(s bav- hatus the new penns PaUasiiui, "distinpnished fi-om Braclniopsis by the long, Synp'nathnsdikc body, and by the pfcscncr of a lonp bai-bcl at the chin."' Starks (1896, p. 558) described from Pnpet Sound, near Poi't Liid- low', "Washinpton, a new species, Pallasina aix, whicii he distinpnished from Pollasina harhafa by the "much shorter barbel on (diin. * * * two median plates in front of v(Mitrals in ])lace of three, and * * * the plates between the median and latei-al plates much smaller and less reg- ular in ai-rangement." Thereafter, Pallasina aix was treated as a distinct species bv Jordan and Evermann (1898. p. 2050), Scofield (1899, p. 504). Jordan and Gilbert (1899, p. 472), Evermann and Goldsborouph (1907. p. 328), Starks (1911, p. 194), Halkett (191:5. p. 105). Kincaid (1919, p. 35). Powers (1921, p. 3), Hubbs (1928, p. 14). and Joi'dan. Evermann. and Clark (1930. p. 394). Gill)ert and Burke (1912. p. 65) suggested that Pallasina air is only subspecifically distinct from PaJlasiua harhafa. They rcgai-ded the form occurring from Bering Strait to Herendeen Bay (midway of the northei-n shore of the Alaska Peninsula) as referable to Pallasina har- hala harhata, and that from Unalaska to Puget Sound as representing Pallasina harhata aix. We follow this intei'pretation. which was ac- cepted by Schultz and DeLacy (1936. p. 133), Schultz (193(i. p. 183), and AVilimovsky (1954a. p. 24; 1954b, p. 286). and was discussed and used by Barraclouph (1952. p. 146). We have found no ])ublished recoi-d of this |)oach('r from fail her south than "Oregon" (Jordan ami Evei-mann, 1S9S, p. 2050). The record of Pallasina harhala aix from Cleone Beach, wiiich is approxi- mately 170 miles south of Oi-egon. is therefoi-e a substantial extension of the recorded range. LITERATURE CITED Biirr.'icloii-li, W. K. 1952. The ngonid fish PulUisUtu hurhdln ai.r (Sl.irks). liuni Uiilisli ( 'iilumlii.i. Fish. Res. T.d. raiiad.i., .Ji.iir.. vol. it. un. :\. p. 14:M47. Cniin.T, [Fr;mK-l 18i)."i. [ J)i;iKii<)sis of PdUd^'nia. now Skulls. | In: The fishes of I'uficI Snuiul. liy David Starr .Tordaii and Edwin Cliapin Starks. Calif. Acad. Sci.. I'roc, ser. •!. vol. .-.. i.t. 1', p. .sir)-Sl(J. Kveniiaiin. r.artoii Warren, and Edninnd I^ee (Joldshorou^h 11)07. The tishes of Ahiska. U. S. Bur. Fish., Bull., vol. 2(> (liiOU). p. lill) :]G0. AGONID FISH PROM CALIFORNIA 283 Gilbert, Charles H. 1805. The ichthyological collections of the steamer Albatross during- the years 1«)0 and ISOl. U. S. Coram. Fish and Fish., Rept., pt. 19 (1893"), p. 393-47«. Gilbert, Charles Henry, and Charles Victor Burke 1912. Fishes frora Bering Sea and Kamchatka. U. S. Bur. Fish., Bull., vol. 30 (191(1), p. 31-96. Gill, Theo. 1861. [On several new generic types of fishes contained in the museum of the Smithsonian Institutimi. 1 Acad. Xat. Sci. Phila., Proc, 1861 [vol. 1.".], p. 77-78. Halkett, Andrew 1913. Check list of the fishes of the Dominion of Canada and Newfoundland. Ottawa, C. H. Parmelee, 138 p. Hubbs, Carl L. 1928. A check-list of the marine fishes of Oregon and Washington. Pan-Pac. Res. Inst., Jour., vol. 3, no. 3, p. 9-16. Jordan, David Starr, and Barton Warren Evermann 1898. The fishes of North and Middle America. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 47, pt. 2, p. i-xxx, 1241-2183. Jordan, David Starr, Barton Warren Evermann, and Howard Walton Clark 1930. Check list of the fishes and fishlike vertebrates of North and Middle Amer- ica north of the northern boundary of Venezuela and Colombia. U. S. Comm. Fish., Rept. (1928). pt. 2. p. i-iv, 1-670. Jortian, David Starr, and Charles Heiiry Gilbert 1899. The fishes of Bering Sea. In : The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the north Pacific Ocean, by David Starr Jordan. Washington, Government Printing Ofiice, pt. 3, p. 433-492. Kincaid, Trevor 1919. An annotated list of Puget Sound fishes. Olympia, Frank ^I. Lamborn, 51 p. Powers, Edwin B. 1921. Experiments and observations on the behavior of marine fishes toward the hydrogen-ion concentration of the sea-water in relation to their migratory movements and habitat. Univ. AVash., Puget Sound Biol. Sta., Publ., vol. 3, no. 57, p. 1-22. Schultz, Leonard P. 1936. Keys to the fishes of Washington, Oregon and closely adjoining regions. Univ. Wash. Publ. Biol., vol. 2, no. 4, p. 103-228. Schultz, Leonard P., and Allan C. DeLacy 1936. Fishes of the American Northwest. A catalogue of the fishes of Washington and Oregon, with distributional records and a bibliography. Mid-Pac. Mag., vol. 49, no. 2, p. 127-142. Scofield, Noi-man Bishop 1899. JJst of fishes obtained in the waters of arctic Alaska. In : The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the north Pacific Ocean, by David Starr Jordan. Washington, Government Printing Ofiice, pt. 3, p. 493-509. Starks, Edwin Chapin 1896. List of fishes collected at Port Ludlow, Washington. Calif. Acad. Sci., Proc, ser. 2, vol. 6, p. 549-562. 1911. Results of an ichthyological survey about the San Juan Islands, Wash- ington. Carnegie Mus., Ann., vol. 7, no. 2, p. 162-213. Steindachner, Franz 1876. Ichthyologische Beitrage (V). K. Akad. der Wissensch., Sitzb., vol. 74, pt. 1, p. 49-240. Wilimovsky, Norman J. 1954a. Provisional list of the fishes of Alaska. Stanford Univ., Nat. Hist. Mus., 35 p. 1954b. List of the fishes of Alaska. Stanford Ichth. Bull., vol. 4, no. 5, p. 279-294. REVIEWS Fleas, Flukes and Cocfcoos By Miriam Rothscliild and Theresa Clay; The Macminan Company, Xew York, 1957 ; xiv pins 305 p., 99 black and white photographs, 4 maps, and 22 draw- ings. $5.00. Here is a book that deals with one part of the facts of life : the l)irds and the bugs. It delves into the private lives of the birds as well as those invertebrates intimately associated with the birds. It is the association that receives the emphasis, for in reality this is a treatise on avian parasitology. But far removed from the ponderous tomes on parasitology, the volume is delightfully different in style, at least enough to provide light and iul cresting reading. In fact some of the passages are reminiscent of "Togo," e.g., "the thought of a tapeworm as long as a cricket pitch living secretly in the stomach of a film star, or a beetle quietly chewing the feet of a close sitting hen * * *," or "Is it possible that a remora, twitching in their buccal cavities, assuages feelings akin to loneliness or l)oredom with which the sun- fish and swordfish are otherwise afflicted?," and again, "It is impossible to know for certain if a duck is tickled or worried by the leeches attached to its vent, but it is unlikely that they are beneficial." These quotations illustrate the many whimsi- cal descriptions lil)erally used throughout. However, let me hasten to add that there is sound scientific content and organization that one might find in a dull standard text. The authors have further enlivened the book with accounts of first-hand observations many of which are rather startling. The first six chapters orient the reader with descriptive definitions of terms, generalizations on hosts and ])arasite relations, and theoretical considerations of origin and evolution. The seventh and eight chapters are devoted to the fleas and lice, and they constitute the most comprehensive section of the work. This is not surprising when one knows that Miss Rothschild is a leading authority on bird fleas, and Miss Clay is the world's leading authority on bird lice. The next eight chapters are somewhat too brief as discussions of the protozoa, helminths, micro- inirasites, ectoparasites other than fleas and lice, the skuas and cuclcoos. Rounding out the book are many beautiful illustrations and photographs. A reference list for each chapter is included as an appendix containing some im- portant citations, but unfortunately omitting several classical contributions, especi- ally in relation to tlie viral and bacterial diseases of birds. There is a usefid in<]ex of popular and scientific names, designed to broaden the prospective audience for the book. This is a special volume of the New Naturalist series, and as such it is properly included, because it should have significant appeal to amateur naturalists and biologists as well as sjiecial interest to professional biologists and parasitologists. — Merlan A*. Rosen, California Depart incut of Fish and (Jaine. San Francisco Bay By Harold Gilliam ; Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1957, 3.36 p., ,$4..50. In "San Francisco Bay" the autlior has accomplished an aml)ition of many a newsman; that of writing a book. In so doing he has given, as the description on the jacket states, "A factual and fascinating account of the history, life and lore of California's vital inland sea." The reader is first educated in the geological evolu- tion of the bay and its climatology. Next the ev(>hts leading to the discovery and development of this great natural harbor into one of tlie largest and finest in the world are wo\en into an absorbing iiistorical account. With the authority of a long-time resident of the Bay area, Mr. Cilliain adroitly describes the profound effect the bay has had on the communities about its shores. It is interesting to note how the elements, mode of transportation, and other similar circumstances influence the daily lives of the residents of tiie area and, furtlier- more, how the bay has influenced the types of commerce and industry. The author (284) REVIEWS 285 (all too briefly) also discusses the converse situation, how man has affected the bay and the life beneath it. The islands of the bay are each treated in some detail, giving an account of their historic and present use. As opportunity develops, the various legends having to do with the islands, sea monsters, ships and shipwrecks, and hidden treasures are brouglit out. Finally, the author presents the intriguing story and persistent efforts behind the construction of the great spans across the bay and the Golden Gate. As a conservationist, it is perhaps with a prejudiced eye that this reviewer points to the scanty treatment of the i-ole played by our fish and wildlife resources in the development of the Bay area. The importance of the bay in the military Ijrogram could profitably have been treated in more detail. It is unfortunate that any manuscript describing San Francisco Bay should be without photographs or drawings. One can scarcely imagine the bay without its symbols. The Golden Gate, the two monumental bridges, Fisherman's Wharf, the Embarcadero, the ferry building, and Alcatraz ; these and many others tell a story impossible to des-cribe adequately in words alone. This is the first contemporary work about the bay and will be useful and in- formative to tourists and residents alike. The subject has been treated in an inter- esting manner and should appeal to all who have wondered about or are acquainted with San Francisco Bay. From the content, it is obvious that the author has made an extensive search of the literature and personally acquainted himself with many of the phases of activity on the bay, about which he w^rites. — John E. Skinner, California Department of Fish and Game Verfebrates of the United States By W. Frank Blair, Albert P. Blair. Pierce Brodkorb, Fred R. Cagle, and George A. Moore ; McGraw-Hill Book Companv, New York, 1957 ; 6| x 9i in. ; ix plus 819 p., illus. $12. This volume represents the culmination of an ambitious undertaking : a clearly written covei"age of all the vertebrates wathin the continental United States. Intended as a much-needed text for students in taxonomic courses and related fields, it promises to be a useful reference for practicing biologists as well. Many of the latter have undoubtedly felt a need for a comprehensive yet concise reference source, and this work adequately fills that need. The text is arranged naturally in six separate but co-ordinated sections covering each of the five classes of vertebrates, plus an absorbing introduction. Among other things, the introduction contains a simplified history of vertebrate evolution and a good discussion of the theories used to explain speciation. Systems of classification followed are: Berg. Classification of Fishes, Both Recent and Fossil (1947) ; Schmidt, A Checklist of North American Amphibians and Rep- tiles (1953) ; Miller and Kellogg, List of North American Recent Mammals (1955) ; A. O. U., Checklist of North American Birds (1931), and Supplements (1944-1956). The sections are arranged logically and follow the evolutionary path from fishes through mammals. Dichotomous keys and distribution lists are provided to the species level. Keys are based on external characteristics or other easily determined features when possible. The first section after the introduction, fishes by Moore, is very good. Coverage is inclusive of all save marine species. The ommission is regrettable, but it is probably necessary for reasons of economy. This section is easily the most outstanding in the book. Although it leaves little to be desired, it might have been appropriate to mention in greater detail some of the more interesting variations within the genus Salmo. This could have been done wnthout use of names, thus avoiding complications of trinomials. According Salmo whitei species status seems questionable. Perhaps it might better have been disregarded entirely, as were subspecies of *§. clarkii and /S. gairdnerii of equal or greater importance. In other respects, the brief mention of the confused relationships existing among the trouts seems adequate, within space limitations imposed, to summarize the actual situation. The bibliography is the most adequate of any chapter in the book. Amphibians by A. P. Blair, and reptiles by Cagle are amply covered, but illustra- tions are limited, perhaps due to space limitations. One unaccountable ommission is marine turtles. The need for a marine turtle key and a distributional list seems fairly evident. It certainly would not require much space, and it would be useful. Bibliog- raphies for both chapters are adequate, but brief. 286 CALIFdKMA I'ISII AND GAME The trcatimnit of birds liy lirodkrul) nuiv rctlcit his ixM-suiiiil I'ccliiifjs to excess in regard to importance of various characters useful in systematics. Tlie introductory material is fairly brief, and his stress of intestinal loop jjatterns at the expense of oth»'r features may jirove undesirabh". 'I'lie (•hai)ter is sparsely illustrated, but is very good, nevertiii'less. The one serious fault is tlie oniissiun of a bililioi;r;i iili y. 'I'his should be remedied in future editions. Mammals b.v W. F. Blair ai)pears to be well organized. Recent cbaiigcs in iKnuen- clature and terminology are included where apjiropriate, yet controversial genera are left umlisturbed. Acpnitic niauiniais are inclu(b'd. wliich seems inciuisistent with the exclusion of marine turtles from the chapter on ripiilcs. Tiie hilili(i^i;i|ili\ . witii its 70 listed references, should prove adeqiuite. Uudonbtedly, some readers will find errors they consider worthy of considerable criticism in the book. Personally. I find it diflicult to refrain from using superlatives in descriliiug my iniin-essions of its high oxcrall (pialily. It is an I'XceHent assemblage of many facts. — /(ihks II . I,'i/(iii. Ciilijoniid 1 h/xi i t iiiciit nf Fish tiiitl (laiifr. Norfh American Head Hunting liy (irancel Fitz. <)xford T'nivei-sity l*ress. Inc.. New Yoilv. I!l."i7, xxvi i)his ISS p. illus. $4.7.".. The autlior has iiad iiuiilislied in this \oJuine 10 accounts of what he has expressed as the high spots in his lifetime of hunting big game in North America. His objective, to collect a trophy head of each of the 20-odd big game species, has been attained, and if. in narrating the accounts of each of these hunts, the author has tended to "brag a little" the humility expressed by the author in dedicating the book to the guides "that made these adventures possible" would ciunlone this frailty in any hunter. After the foreword in which considerable effort was made to justify man's reasons and desires to hunt ; the author takes you on 10 trips for 10 different species of North American big game from the Arctic Circle for polar beai', to Mexico for desert bighorn shee|i. Although tills re\ iewer had read some of these stories wliicli li;i\(' been publisiied in sportsmen's magazines, the unabridged and more detailed nari-ati