f-^i^:^^fm'o:.

CAUPDRNIAl
FISH- GAME

"CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION"

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u

D

VOLUME 53

JULY 1967

NUMBER 3

Published Quarterly by

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

THE RESOURCES AGENCY

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

RONALD REAGAN, Governor

THE RESOURCES AGENCY

NORMAN B. LIVERMORE, JR., Adminisfralor

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

THOMAS H. RICHARDS, JR., President, Sacramento
WILLIAM P. ELSER, Vice President JAMES Y. CAMP, Member

San Diego Los Angeles

HENRY CLINESCHMIDT, Member C. RANSOM PEARMAN, Member

Redding Huntington Park

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

WALTER T. SHANNON, Dirmcfor

1416 9th Street
Sacramento 95814

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
Editorial StafF

LEO SHAPOVALOV, Editor-in-Chief Sacramento

ALMO J. CORDONE, Editor for Inland Fisheries Sacramento

JAMES H. RYAN, Acting Editor for Inland Fisheries Sacramento

CAROL M. FERREL, Editor for Wildlife Sacramento

HERBERT W. FREY, Editor for Marine Resources... Terminal Island

DONALD H. FRY, JR., Editor for Salmon and Steelhead __ Sacramento

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pa?e

Second ("ooix'rative Survey of the California Condor

Robert D. Mallette, John C. Borneman, Fred C. Sihley,

and Baymond S. Dal en 132
Tlie Probable Affinities of a Wolf Captured Near Woodlake,

California Dale B. McCullouejh 146

Fecundity and Age at Maturity of Lake Trout, Salvelinus namay-

cush (Walbaum), in Lake Tahoe

Jaek A. Hanson and 7?((.s.sy7/ TI. WicJiwirc 154
Distribution, Size Composition, and Kelative Abundance of the
Lahontan Speckled Dace, Bhiniehthys osculus rohnsUis

(Rutter), in Lake Tahoe Phillip H. Baker 165

Two King Salmon AVitli Spawning Features Taken in Ocean Troll

Fisheiy Phillip (J. Swartzell 174

Preliminary Experiments on the Acclimatization of Juvenile King
Salmon, Oncorhynchus fsliawytscha, to Saline Water

Mixed With Sewage Pond Effluent

(Uorye H. Allen and Patrick O'Brien 180
Fisli Pcmains Recovered F)'(mi a Corona Del Mar, California,

Indian Midden (Ora-190) John E. Fitch 185

Part^'boat Logs Show ITow Sljyndivers Fared During P»6:? and

1964 Williaia F. Wood 1!)2

Serological Studies of Kelp Bass, Paralahrax clathratus

Albert C.Smith 1I»7
An Inexpensive, Self-Contained I"''nder\vater Dc'.ta Recording

Camera Charles T. Mitchell 203

Notes

Tagged Anchovies Move From Southern California to Monterey

Bay '/. D. Messersmith 209

Final Introductions of the Ponneville Cisco [Prosopiutn yemmi-
feriini Snyder) Into Lake Tahoe, California and Nevada

Ted C. Frantz and Almo J. Cordone 209
A 1955 Record of V'mk Salmon, Oncorhynchus gorbuscha,

S|)awning in the Russian River Donald 11. Fry. Jr. 210

A High i*heasant {Phasianus coleliicus) Nesi Density on the

Gray Lodge Waterfowl Management Area

Jonathan H. Ive.<i and John B. Cowan 212
Isolation of Pasteurella muUocida From a Snowy Owl {Nyctea

scandiaca), a New Host Record Brian F. Hunter 213

Biological Notes on Southern California Lanternfishes (Family

Myctophidae) John B. Paxton 214

Albinoid Coloring in a Sand Bass, Paralabrax ncbidifer (Girard)

J ides M. Crane, Jr. 2A1
Predation Upon Pacific Hake, Merluccius proeluctus, by Pacific

Dogfish, Squalus acanthias

Herbert H. Shippen and Miles S. Alton 218
Report on an Attack by a Great White Shark off Coledale Beach,
N.S.W., Australia, in Which Both Victim and Attacker

Were Recovered Simultaneously

T. B. Gorman and D. J. Dunstan 219
Book Beview 224

(131)

Calif. Fish and Gamc.bZ (3) : ]:!2-lir). lOfil

SECOND COOPERATIVE SURVEY OF THE
CALIFORNIA CONDOR'

ROBERT D. MALLETTE •
California Department of Fish and Game

JOHN C. BORNEMAN
National Audubon Society

FRED C. SIBLEY
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

RAYMOND S. DALEN
U.S. Forest Service

The second annual California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) survey
was conducted October 18 and 19, 1966. Forty-five sightings were re-
ported by 15 of 65 stations manned on October 18, 1966. One hundred
twenty-tv/o sightings were reported by 23 of 65 stations manned on
October 19, 1966. These sightings, by an evaluation of the reports, were
reduced to a population index of 29 and 51 individual birds, respec-
tively, for the 2-day survey. An increase of 13 birds on the second day
over the count of 38 in 1965 does not necessarily indicate an increase in
the condor population. Better weather, placement of stations, and an
increase in the number of observers were factors that could contribute
to the increased number tallied in 1966. it becomes increasingly evident
that comparative weather conditions are the most important variable
affecting this survey. The different results experienced on the first and
second days of the 1966 count beer this out. During the second day of
the survey 14 young birds were observed, which is approximately 30
percent of the population index. This indicates a satisfactory rate of
reproduction.

INTRODUCTION

The first cooperative survey of the Cailfornia condor (Gi/mnogyps
californianus) was conducted in October 1965 (^Mallette and Borneman,
1966). The survey procedures are coordinated by a Condor Survey
Committee representing the California Department of Fish and Game,
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, I^. S. Forest Service, National Audu-
bon Society, University of California, and other conservation interests.

Objectives of the survey are to: (i) establisli periodic condor popu-
lation counts which will provide an index to the population; (ii) gain
an indication of nesting- success based on tlie age classification of birds
observed; fiii) obtain more information on the distribution of condors;
(iv) foster public awareness of the precarious status and problems
related to tlie protection of the species; and (y) gain other knowledge
on condors and raptors as incidentally ]U'()vided by such survey.

' Submitted for publication April 1967. A contribution from Federal Aid in "Wildlife
Restoration Project W-4 7-R, "Upland Game Investigations".

= Prepared for and with approval of the Condor Survey Committee: Chairman Ben
Glading, Chief of "Wildlife Management Branch, California Department of Fish
and Game ; A. Starker Leopold, Professor of Zoology, University of California,
Berkeley : W^illiam P. Dasmann, U. S. Forest Service : John E. Chattin, U. S. Fish
and AVildlife Service; John C. Borneman, National Audubon Society: Fred C.
Sibley, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service ; and Robert D. Mallette, California De-
partment of Fish and Game.

(132)

SECOND CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEY

133

METHODS

The methods and evaluation procedures were essentially as reported
for the 1965 survey (Mallette and Borneman, 1966). Changes in the
1966 survey were : (i) nine sector captains were selected to coordinate
survey details with observers; (ii) two observers were assigned to each
of the 65 stations; (iii) all observers were asked to call sector captains
each evening, reporting the daily results, and a summary was relayed
to the evaluation center; and (iv) survey results were released 24 hours
after survey was completed.

Criteria for ruling out sigliting duplications M'ere those used in
1965 and were based on : time of observations, direction of flight, group-
ing of birds of known age and plumage characteristics, distance be-
tween stations, noi'iiial condoi- flight iiatterns. and resting and roosting
locations.

Observation stations are listed in Ai)p('ii(lix A and shown in Figure 1.

WEATHER

The temperatures during the survey were warmer than last year,
averaging 20 F waiMuer on the flrst day of the survey and 1.". F warmer
on the second (Table 1). The winds were genei'ally fi'mn ilie south
ovei- much of tlu> census ai'ea on both days of th(> survey and were
somewhat stronger on the second day. Observers reported that soaring
conditions were more favorable on the second day of the survey.

TABLE 1

U.S. Forest Service Lookout Stations Reporting Weather Information
Which Were Also Condor Survey Stations

Readings Were Taken 2 p.m. October 18 and 19, 1966

October 18

Lookout station

County

Average
wind

velocity

(miles

per hour)

Direction

of

wind

Temper-
ature
(F)

Relative
humidity

Thorn Point

Ventura

G

10

6

8
8

SW

SE

E

SW

SW

70

78
08
82
81

12

Nordhoff - -

Ventura-

11

McPherson

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara

San Luis Obispo

13

FifiTueroa

10

Hi Mountain

7

October 19

Thorn Point

Ventura - -

10
8
18
10
16

SW

E

SW

SW

s

69
80
71
81

77

8

Norhhoff

Ventura

10

M cPherson

Figueroa

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara

San Luis Obispo

8
9

Hi Mountain

5

134

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

CONDOR SURVEY 1966

O Observotion stations at wtiich one or more
condors were sigtited on October 18, 1966

O Observation stotions at which one or more
condors were sighted on October 19, 1966

O Observotion stotions at which one or more
condors were sighted on October 18 and 19, 1966

• Observation stations at which no condors
were sighted

Condor Sonctuories

I I I Condor Range

FIGURE 1— Location of condor survey observation stations and the locations where condors
were sighted on October 18 and 19, 1966. Drawing by Cliff a Corson.

SECOND CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEY

135

RESULTS

On each day of the survey 65 stations were manned by 133 observers.
On October 18, 45 condor sightings were reported from 15 stations
(Appendix B). These sightings, by an evaluation of the reports, were
reduced to 29 individual condors. The age classification breakdown
was: 2 juveniles, 1 subadult, 17 adults, and 9 unknown. An estimated
877 raptors of 13 species were also reported on the first day of the
survey (Table 2).

On October 19, 122 condor siglitings were reported from 23 stations
(Appendix C). By an evaluation of the reported siglitings, 51 indi-
vidual condors were seen. The age classification breakdown was : 6
juveniles, 5 immatures, 3 subadults, 33 adults, and 4 unknown. The
observers jilso i-cported aii estimated f)55 rai)t(»rs of 13 species (Table 2).

TABLE 2
Raptors Reported During Condor Survey October 18—19, 1966

Species

Dale reported

Oct. 18

Oct. 19

Turkey vulture {Calharles aura)

(loldeu eagle (Aqtiila chrysados)

Bald eagle {Haliacetus leucocephalus)

Goshawk {Accipiter gentilis)

Sharp-shinned hawk (^4. striatus)

Cooper's hawk (.4. cooperii)

l{ed-tailed hawk {Buteo jamaicensis)

Swainson's hawk (B. sirainsoni)

Rough-legged hawk (B. laoopus)

Pigeon hawk {Falco columbarius)

Sparrow liawk [F. sparvarius)

Prairie falcon {F. mexicanus)

Marsh hawk {Circus cyaneus)

Miscellaneous raptors

Total

357

375

85

105

2

3

5

2

24

24

29

35

214

229

25

27

2

3

3

3

64

iO

7

9

10

8

50

52

877

955

DISCUSSION

As in the case of the 1965 survey, no attempt to project the popula-
tion index to a total condor population figure was made. A number of
variables occur which prevent us from doing this; chief among these is
the rugged terrain in the condor range which makes it difficult to detect
and count all condors moving through or roosting in the area.

It is imperative that survey methods providing comparable survey
data from year to year be established. Although evaluation techniques
have been the same for both surveys, the present survey results do not
provide fully comparable data. Additional experimentation and changes
in survey procedure are necessary for survey results which will be
more comparable.

136 CALIFORNIA PISH AXD GAME

On October II' (-(iiulii ioiis \vci-c t'jivofjililc i<> |)iil iiKirr birds in tlie
air Ili;m on ()ciobi'i- ]s. Tlic m.ijdi' \;iri;iblc i iilhicncing condor move-
ments apj)iir('iitly is wcatlwr. Dnriii'j- the 1 !»()() survey the average tem-
jK'raturc was a])j)r<)ximatcly tlir s.iinc botli clays; the average -wind
velocities -were a])i)r()ximately ."> miles an liour greater on tlie llltii
than oil the iMh. ;iii(l ;i shifi in wind ilirection was noted at some
observation stations. Tliese Aveather changes, even though slight, can
alter soaring or flying conditions in the rugged terrain which these
birds inhabit. Weather is si ill an unknown vai'iable, and it may be
necessary to have a longer survey ])eriod to assure at least one day of
favorable weatlier conditions. T^util we better understand these factors,
it Avill be difficult to obtain a coiiip;irab1e ])o])iihitio7i index from an-
]iu;d surveys.

^\ n increase of l'.\ condors counteil in lIMil! c(»]nj)a]'ed with 1965 does
not necessarily represent a poi)ulation increase. The report of 51 con-
dors in 1966 shows there are more tlian the 40 birds estimated earlier
by Miller, McMillan, and Mc]\lilliiii (1965). Survey results neither
substantiate nor refute the claim of these writers that a population de-
cline of one-third had occurred since the 1940 's. Earlier estimates,
based on single liigh counts of birds or simultaneous sightings by a few
observers, may have been conservative; or the 1966 survey results may
be reflecting a population increase ; or both.

During the 1966 survey 14 young birds (approximately 30%) were
observed, indicating a satisfactory rate of reproduction. Six of these
were reported as juveniles and were birds liatched in 1965. Because
of the difficulty of accurately ditfer(.'ntiating the juvenile age class
from the subadult class, caution must be used in analvzing these data.

The late summer distribution of the condor population as shown by
the two annual surveys is consistent with that determined from scat-
tered observer reports for this time of year. Losing the survey results
of October 17, 1965, and October 19, 1966, only 10% and 2%, respec-
tively, of all birds observed were seen west of V. S. Highway 33, in
the western portion of the condor range. Forty-five percent of the
condor population observed both years was in the vicinity of the Sespe
Condor Sanctuary, Ventura County, and 45% and 53%, respectively,
was in the Tehachapi IMountains in Kern T'ounty and the eastern por-
tion of the condor range (Figure 1).

In both years the major feeding area was in the Tehachapi Moun-
tains on the Tejon Eauch, Kern County, pointing out the need for
additional coverage in this area in order to obtain data to better evalu-
ate the survey results. Observers at station 50A on Purdy Eidge
reported 53 condor sightings in addition to numerous other raptors
on October 19. Eight condors were in the air at one time, making it
very difficult for two observers to take detailed notes. Provisions are
needed whereby assistance can be given to observers manning stations
when such a concentration occurs.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Seven suggestions for improving subsequent condor survej^s are :
1) More observation stations are needed on the Tejon Eaneh prop-
erty in the Tehachapi Mountains, Kern County, in the vicinity of
station 50A to provide better coverage in this ke}' condor feeding area.

SECOND CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEY 137

2) Additional fire lookouts situated along the Sierra footliills, most
of which are manned by the California Division of Forestry, should
be incorporated as survey stations. Discussions witli Division of For-
estry personnel indicated this is possible.

3) Two observers should be located at each station where large
numbers of condor sightings have been or are likely to be seen. At
peripheral condor range statioiis the number of observers should be
reduced to one per station. At stations where an unusually large con-
centration of condors occurs, standby observers should be available to
assist in keeping track of birds and recording sightings.

4) A review of the observer list should be made so that good experi-
enced observers need not be given the routine training designed for
inexpei'ienced observers. A field session should be continued as
part of Iho 1i-aining program i'oi- inexperienced observers. Tlie special
1 raining session for sector ca])taiiis should be continued to i)ropci'ly
coordinate tlie survey.

5) The survey headquarlci-s should be moved from Ventura to suit-
able ({uarters in the Bakersfield area. This is more centrally located
to the survey area and is closer to the areas where maximum condor
activity occurs.

0) Exi)erim('ntal feeding should he initiated under close supervi-
sion to determine its practicality as a survey method. If successful, it
may be possible to conduct the annual survey with fewer observation
stations and have more comparable data from year to year.

7) Alteriuite survt'y dates should be established well in a(l\ance of
the survey in the event a cancelhition is necess;ii-y because of bad
weather and/or other factors. If poor observing conditions also exist
on the alt(n-nate dates, the survey should be cancelled for that year.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Condor Survey Conmiittee M'ishes to thank all the jK'ople who
])articipated in the condor survey; without them tliis survey could not
liave been jjossible. The i-eturn of many persons who participated in
last year's survey added much to the reliability of the survey results.
The continued cooperation from the National Audubon Society, U. S.
Forest Service, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, California Department
of Fish and Game, California Division of Forestry, Sequoia National
Park, and interested ranchers and conservationists is greatly appreci-
ated.

REFERENCES

Koford Carl B. 1953. The California condor. New York. National Audubon So-
ciety, Res. Kept., (4) : 154 p.

Mallette. Robert D., and John C. Borneman, 1966. First cooperative survey of the
California condor. Calif. Fish and Game 52(3) : 185-203.

Miller. Alden H.. Eben McMillan, and Ian McMillan. 1965. The status and
welfare of the California condor. New York. National Audubon Society, Res.
Rept., (G) :61 p.

138 (■ \l,li'(il;\l A IMSM AM) CAME

APPENDIX A

Second Cooperative Condor Survey Observation Stations
Manned October 18 and 19, 1966

(Sfafions marked with an asiciiik reported one or more condors)

San Benito County

1. Bitterwater, 1 mile s(iu1]i of sldi-c (ni Maggini Ranch.
San Luis Obispo County

'2. (Iiolaine Flat near f^aii Tjiiis 01)isp(^-"^^()ntorpy connty lino.

;j. Ebon MclMillan l^audi. in tlio Palo i'rioto aroa.

4. 1 mile east of La Panza Ranch lidqrs. at San -Jiiau Creek
road crossing.

n. Ppper Px'ai'ti'a]) <';iiiyoii.

(). La Panza Raneli, 1^ inilcs sdiith ol' Lcjirt r;ip Canyon (used in

l!)(io bnt eliminated in ll)(>(ii.
7. I'.lackMtn. Lookout.

5. Hi :\I1ii. Lookout.

Santa Barbara County

!l. .ALi-aiida Pine ^Itn., nortliwcst end of Sierra Madre Ridge.
10. ]\IcPlierson Peak Lookout.
*11. Cn\ama Peak Lookout.

12. Figuoroa Mtn. Lookout.

13. Sisquoc Sanotuary area, 2 miles east of the South Fork Guard
Station and 200 yards up slope from Sisquoc Canyon Trail
across canyon from Sisquoc Falls (eliminated).

*]3a. Sisquoc Sanctuary area, 2 miles northeast of sanctuary on
Sand Springs Ridge (replaces Station 13).

14. AVost Big Pine Lookout.

14a. Cuyama Valley and Foothill Road (eliminated).
14b. T^a Cumbre Lookout (added in 1966).

Ventura County

*15. Frazier IMtn. Lookout.

*16. Maxey Ranch in Hungry Valley, 5 miles southwest of Gor-
man.

17. Alamo ]\Itn. Summit Road (eliminated).
*18. Mutali Road near San Guilloriiio Mtn.
*19. Roves Peak.
*20. Thorn Point Lookout.
*21. Iload of Agua Blanca Canyon on ti-ail about 1 mile north of

lincksnort (^imp.
*21a. McDonald Peak.
*22. Squaw Flat Road near Squaw Flat.
*23. Hopper Mtn., Pemberton Rock.
*23a. Hopper Mtn., Percy Ranch.
*24. Upper Reasoner Canyon.

24a. Reasoner Canyon on Dale King Ranch.

24b. Dominguez Canyon (added).

25. Lower Agua Blanca Creek at Hollister Cabin Camp (elimi-
nated).

26. San Cayetano Peak and Pino Canyon where San Cayetano
Road crosses saddle midway down ridge leading east from
peak to Sespe Creek.

27. nines Peak area at end of road in saddle on northwest side
of peak.

SECOND CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEY 139

28. Santa Paula Canyon on trail 1 mile north of Cross Camp.

29. Nordlioff Peak Lookout.

30. Strathearn Rancli in Rimi Valley (eliminated) .
30;!. Torrey Mtn. (replaces Station 30).

Los Angeles County

31. Whitaker Peak Lookout.

32. West Liebre Lookout.

32a. Antelope Valley (eliminated).

32b. Warm Springs Lookout (replaces Station 32a).

Fresno County

33. Delilah Lookout, 5 miles north of Dunlnp.
33a. Fence Meadow Lookout.

33b. Stony Flat, 2 miles north of Pincliurst.

Tulare County

*34. Milk Kancli Lookout.

35. Blue Ridge Lookout.

36. Solo Peak, 8 miles southeast of Springville.
3()a. Solo Peak near Rogers Camp (eliminated).

*37. Mule Peak Lookout.
*38. Tobias Peak Tjookout.
38a. Lindcovc area on the Mehrten Ranch.

Kern County

39. l>lue]\ltii. Lookout,.") miles northeast of Woody.

40. Fai'iisworth Ixaiich, 2 miles south of Cleunville.

41. Dead ( )x Ridge, about 4 miles south of Woody.

42. Round ]\Itn., 3 miles northeast of Granite Station.

43. Rattlesnake Ridge on the .lohn Rofer Ranch, 4 miles west
of Oak Flat Lookout.

*44. Oak Flat Lookout.

*4r). Breckenridge ]\ltu. Lo(»kout.

*46. Toll gate Lookout.

47. White Wolf Corrals.

48. Comanche Pt., 4 miles southeast of Arvin on Tejon Ranch.
*49. 2 miles east of Grapevine Station and 4 miles southeast of

Wheeler Ridge on Tejon Ranch ostrich farm.
*50. 2 miles east of Fort Tejon at Tejon Ranch airline beacon.
*50a. Purdy Ridge. 2 miles west of Lopez Flats on the Tejon Ranch.
*51. Cordon Ridge on Tejon Ranch.
52. Pleito Hills overlooking Wheeler Ridge and Salt Creek on

San Emigdio Ranch.
*54. Ridge to west of big flat at head of Pleitito Canyon on San

Emigdio Ranch.
*55. Tecuva Ridge, 2 miles north of Lake of Woods in Cuddy

Valley.
*56. Mt. Pinos, east end of sunnnit.
*57. Mt. Pinos, w^est end of summit.

58. Mt. Abel.

59. Brush Mtn., 4 miles north of Mt. Abel (eliminated) .
*60. Santiago Canyon on Snedden Ranch.

61. Apache Potrero on Snedden Ranch (eliminated).

140

CATilFORNIA FISH AND GA"ME

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THE PROBABLE AFFINITIES OF A WOLF CAPTURED
NEAR WOODLAKE, CALIFORNIA'

DALE R. McCULLOUGH -

Museum of Votebrate Zoology

University of California, Berkeley

A study of the physical characteristics of a wolf killecJ near Woodlake,
California, in 1962 suggests that the animal was introduced by man.
Statistical comparison of the skull with those of living races showed that
it was highly different from western North American wolves, and differ-
ent in several measurements from the eastern race, it was most like the
race of wolves from Southeast Asia.

On March 23, 19G2, an adult jiinlc wolf (Canis lupus) was killed by
Mr. David Boas near Woodlake in Tulare County, California (Ingles,
1963). This occurrence stirred considerable interest, since wolves were
thought to have been extinct in California for about 40 years; the last
known specimen liad been taken in 3924 ( Grinnell, 1933).' Ingles (1963)
suggested that the Woodlake wolf might be one of a small remnant
of wolves in the remote portions of the southern Sierra Nevada, and
he listed various siglit reports as evidence. When tlie Woodlake speci-
men was received in the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, a study of its
probable relationships was undertaken.

METHODS

The skull was compared with specimens in the MVZ collection visu-
ally and by measurements. Measurements of the MVZ specimens w^ere
combined witli published measurements taken primarily from Young
and Goldman (1944) for the New AYorld forms and from Pocock
(1935) for the Old World forms. However, the more recent revision
of Old World races by Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951) was fol-
lowed. Old World forms were considered in light of the possibility of
an introduction. Most of the races from tlie far north (botli New and
Old AVorlds) w^re not compared statistically because of their much
larger size. These greatly exceed the largest forms compared with the
Woodlake skull.

Statistical comparisons of the Woodlake skull with adult males of
the various races were made using the "t-test" as given by Simpson,
Roe, and Lewontin (1960) for comparing a single specimen w4th a
larger known population. The statistic is:

(X-X)4fT

u —

S

which follows tlie t-distribution with N — 1 (=l-[-N — 2) degrees of
freedom, whore X is the mean of tlie sample, X the value of the single

' Submitted for publication February 1967.

= Present address: Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, School of Natural Resources,
University of Michigan, Ann Arljor, Michigan.

(146)

PROBABLE AFFINITIES OF THE WOODLAKE WOLF

147

FIGURE 1— Top and side views of the Woodlake wolf skull. Note the extreme slenderness in

form, OS manifested in triangular shaped (instead of flaring) zygomatic arches, long

narrow muzzle, constriction in the brain region, and rearward projection of

the sagital crest and supraoccipital shield.

observation, s tlie standard deviation of tlie sample, and N the sample
size. No statistical tests were made when the sample size was less than
five.

Only general comparisons of external body measurements were made
and, because of the great variation in the color of wolves, little reliance
was placed on this character.

14R

CAI.IFOUXIA nsil AM) (;A>rE

FIGURE 2 — Comparison of the Woodlake wolf skull I'center) with typical specimens of the most

similar North American races — lycaon (left) and baileyi i^right). Difference in

color of the bone is due primarily to methods of preparation.

RESULTS
Description of the Woodlake Wolf

Tlie AVoodlake wolf is clearly C. lupus but is a relatively small speci-
men for the genus as a whole. It weiglied 56 pounds in the flesh and
was not emaciated. Body measurements as given by Ingles (1963) are:
total length, 1,500 mm; tail, 400 mm; liind foot, 255 mm; ear (notch),
105 mm; shoulder height. 750 mm. In color, the specimen was salt-and-
pepper gray.

The skull in general form was exceptionally slender (Figures 1 and
2). In breadtli measurements, the "Woodlake specimen was narrower
in relation to its length than nearly all other male specimens in both
the I\IVZ collection and the published data (Tables 1 and 2).

Of special interest was the presence of a chalky deposit on the teeth,
which, unfortunately, was removed in the cleaning process. Mr. Ward
C. Russell, preparator for the Museum for many years, observed that
in his experience such deposits were usually found on the teeth of
animals held in captivity.

Statistical Comparison of Skulls

The Woodlake wolf skull is similar to those of only two races of
wolves in North America: haih]ii and lycaon (Table 1). However, the
Woodlake skull differs in a statistically signifieant way from each of
these in two of the measurements taken.

Published measurements of Old World wolves are much less satis-
factory (Table 2). Adequate samples for statistical comparison are
avaih'ble for only three races: lupus, chanco, and pallipes. The Wood-
lake wolf skull is clearly smaller than lupus and larger than pallipes
(Table 2). Of the Old World forms, only chanco and signaius are
similar to the Woodlake specimen. Tlie others, although the sample
size is small, appear to be either much larger or murh smaller.

PROBABLE AFFIXITIES OF THE WOODLAKE WOT.F

149

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PROBABLE AFFINITIES OF THE WOODLAKE WOLF 151

DISCUSSION

At the outset of this section, I wish to make clear that there is no
way of establish inof absolutely the affinities of the Woocllake wolf from
the evidence available. The best that can be done is to state the proba-
bility of encountering this kind of skull among particular existing
races. Also, even though the specimen showed no evident abnormalities,
the possibility that this animal was an extremely aberrant individual,
such as are known to occur occasionally in nature, cannot be completely
ruled out.

According to Grinnell (1933) wolves were not found originally in
California west of the Sierra Crest. Young and Goldman (1944) give
early written historical records of wolves in this area, but conclude
that wolves were extremely scarce, and they do not show them on dis-
tribution maps. Also, the reliability of the historical records is subject
to question, particularly in view of the common reference to coyotes
(Canis latrans) as wolves.

Thus, the Woodlake wolf was taken in a region where the original
occurrence of wolves was doubtful. Grinnell (1933) established the
presence of wolves (fvsci(s) in the northeastorji comer of California
and in the southeastern desert in eastern San Bernardino County
(youngi). The Woodlake specimen does not resemble either of these
formerly geographically adjacent races (Table 1).

The wolf has been extirjiated over much of tlie United States, and
natural invasion of the Sierra Nevada would involve a journey of
hundreds of miles. The nearest wolf population is of the race haileyi
in Chihuahua, Mexico, some 600 miles away. Individuals of this race
occasionally move into the southern portions of the United States. In
general body size haileyi is similar to the Woodlake specimen, but its
skull conformation is at the opposite extreme, being broad, blunt, and
robust (Figure 2; Table 1). These differences are readily apparent
from visual comparisons, and are even greater than reflected by the
statistical difference in the measurements in Table 1. To the north,
the nearest wolves are found on Vancouver Island (crassodon) and
coastal British Columbia (fnscus), about 1,000 miles away. Larrison
(1947) reported records of wolves (probably fnscus) invading the
Cascade Range south to the latitude of Everett, Washington. However,
both of these races are very different from the Woodlake wolf
(Table 1).

Of the North American wolves, the California specimen is most like
the eastern race, lycaon, which has a small size and a slender skull
conformation. Yet, even it is different statistically in zygomatic breadth
and squamosal constriction (Table 1). Furthermore, the nearest re-
maining animals of this race are around the Great Lakes, approxi-
mately 1,700 miles away. It seems incredible that a wolf would or could
cross the intervening farmland and mountain chains undetected. Thus,
even assuming that the Woodlake wolf were an abnormally slender-
skulled member of this race, an artificial introduction would have to be
postulated.

Of the Old World wolves, the choice can be quickly limited to two :
signaius and chanco. A few wolves of the race signatus still are found
in the remote parts of Spain and Portugal, but the museum material

I>- CALIFORNIA FISH AM) CAME

on tliis i-;i('(' is cxt rcincly limited. \\'li;it cxidcnce tlicro is su<;f^est,s lliat
the skull of this rjicc is of a bi-o;i(l( r ii;i1ure, typie;il ol' llio {;onus.

The Woodhikc skull is like the race chnnco of Southeast Asia in
nearly every respect. Jt may be si<j:nificant that Abe {VSM)) described
the wolves of Korea as a sep;irate race (corranns), based upon the
extreme slenderness of the skull, cntu uKirc slender than llic chanco
specimens with whidi I'ocock (I'.Ki'i) and Ellcrman and Morrison-Seott
(in.")!) lumped them. In f;ict. tlie ]ih()touf:ipli of a Korejin wolf skull
in Abe's paper is virtu;illy i(|cii1ic;d t(» tlic W'oodlake specimen. And,
although color of the i)elage li;is little \;due. Abe's desci-iption fits the
specimen closely.

"When one considers that f;iir jiopulations of wolves are still present
in Korea, that thousinids of Americiins luive been in the country since
the beginning of the Kei-rjin \v;ii-. ;itid th;i1 wild animals can be pur-
chased live in the market places, the possibility of an introduction from
this source is not so remote as one would conclude at first thought.

Til us. the evidence available suggests the following tentative con-
clusions: (i) the AVoodlake wolf is so different fnnn the western races
that a natural invasi(,n from these sources is extremely unlikeW; (ii)
the great distances from similar wolves and the lack of intervenino-
wolf records, as well ;is the white deposit on the teeth, strongly suggest
that the specimen originated from an introduction; (iii) the most
similar race in North America is the eastern hjcaon, but even this race
differs significantly in several respects; and (iv) the specimen is most
similar to the 8outh(vist Asian chanco and particularly the Korean
population.

Finally, it should lie observed that these conclusions do not rule out
the possibility that h small population of wolves exists in the Sierra
Nevada, as suggested by Ingles ( llHi:};. But if this specimen is from
such a population, it appears that it resulted from an introduction.
This question cannot be answered until more evidence is available.

SUMMARY

This study eompai'ed u wolf taken neai' \Vo(](lhd\(.\ (Jalifurnia, in
1962 witli the world races of wolves in an attempt to ascertain its
genetic relationships. The method of study was primarily a statistical
comparison of measurements of the AVoodlake wolf skull with meas-
urements of the ^IYVj specimens, and with published data. Final con-
clusions cannot be reached, but available evidence suggests that this
wolf was derived from an introduction bv man rather than through
a natural invasion of the Sierra Nevada. The specimen is markedly
different from western races of wolves. The closest similarities to North
American wolves are Avith the eastern race, lycaon, but the extremely
slender "Woodlake skull is significantly different from this form in both
zygomatic breadth and squamosal constriction. It is most like chanco
of Southeast Asia, and particularly the slender-skulled Korean wolves.

PROBABLE AFFINITIES OF THE WOODLAKE WOLF 153

REFERENCES

Abe, Yoshio. 1930. On the Corean [sic] and Japanese wolves. Hiroshima Univ.
Jour. Science Series B, Division 1; 1 (3) : 33-37 + one table and 5 plates.

Clutton-Brock, J. 1962. Near Eastern canids and the affinities of the Natufian
dogs. Zeitschrift fiir Tierziichtung and Zuchtiingsl)iologie. 76 (2-3) : 326-333.

Ellerman, J. R., and T. C. S. Morrison-Scott. 1951. Checklist of Palaearctic and
Indian mammals. British Mus. (Nat. Hist.). London. 810 p.

Grinnell, Jo.seph. 1933. A review of the recent mammals of California. Univ. Calif.
Publ. in Zoology, 40 (2) : 71-234.

Ingles, Lloyd (i. 19()3. Status of the wolf in California. .Tmir. Mammalogy, 44
(1) : 109-110.

Larrison, Earl .1. 1947. ^liscdlaneons distril)utional notes for Washington. ^lur-
relct. 28 (1 ) : 11-13.

I'ucock, R. I. 1935. The races of Vunix /iz/jf/.v. I'roc. Zool. Soc. London, i'art III :
647-686.

Simpson. Ciooige (1., Anne Roe, and R. C. Lewonfin. 1060. Quantitative zoology.
Harcourt. Brace and Co., New York. 440 j).

Young, Stanley P., and Edward A. Goldman. I!t44. The wolves of Xorth America.
Amcr. Wildl. Inst., Washington. I>.C. 6.36 p.

Calif. Fish nvd anmr.53 (?.) ; ir,1-1f.|. 1007.

FECUNDITY AND AGE AT MATURITY OF LAKE TROUT,

SALVEUNUS NAMAYCUSH (WALBAUM),

IN LAKE TAHOE'

JACK A. HANSON and RUSSELL H. WICKWIRE
Inland Fisheries Branch
California Department of Fish and Game

The relationship between fecundity and fork length in inches for 44
female Lake Tahoe lake trout was Y -^ 9,361.6 583. 5X, and between
fecundity and weight in grams, Y = 17.7 + 1.4X. The number of eggs
produced ronged from 919 | 17.9-inch fish] to 11,472 |34. 0-inch fish].
There was considerable variation in the number of eggs among individ-
ual fish relative to both length and weight. A few fish matured in their
5th year of life, and a!l were mature in their 11th. Lake Tahoe lake
trout appear to spawn every year. The spawning season lasts from the
middle of September to the first half of November. Over 69% of the
lake Irout taken by anglers v/ere immature. No changes in angling regu-
lations were recommended.

INTRODUCTION

In July 1960 the California Department of Fish and Game and the
Nevada Fisli and Game Commission initiated a compreliensive study of
Lake Tahoe to determine ways to improve angling. Lake trout are the
backbone of the fishery (Cordone and Frantz, 1966a) and therefore
it was necessary to obtain basic life history information on this species.
The purpose of this paper is to present and evaluate data on fecundity,
size and age at maturity, and time of spawning. These data plus
related information are necessary to help evaluate angling regulations.

Lake trout i50])ulations are easily overharvested by a moderate degree
of angling pressure when prosecuted on a year-round basis. The ex-
treme vulnerability of immature fisli is considered resjjonsible for this
(MacKay, 1963). Witli its year-round season, it was important to
evaluate tliis ])r(iblem at Lake Tahoe.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Lake trout fecundity ;ind age at maturity were determined from
gonads collected fi-om ]'.h]] tln-duiili l^f;:!. Data for tliese years were
combined.

The total nuuiber of mature or maturing eggs in each pair of ovaries
was estimated by the gravimetric method. Sample egg counts were
made from a]oproximately one-third of the total weight of both ovaries.
Samples were taken from the anterior end of either ovary. Testes were
weighed only.

Comparisons of the gravimetric method witli actual egg counts for
16 fish showed only slight and random discrepancies. A f-test of the
paired observations (Li, 1957, jd. 96 j showed that the differences were
not significant at the 5% level ff = 0.2959 with 15 d. f.). The differ-
ences ranged from an underestimate of 10.3% to an overestimate of
6 1%. Only estimates were used in the analysis.

• Submitted for publication February 1967. This study was performed a.s part of
Dingell-Johnson Project California F-21-R and Nevada F-1.5-R. "Lalce Tahoe
Fisherie.'-- Study", supported by Federal Aid to Fish Restoration funds.

2 Xow with Marine Resources Operations, California Department of Fisli and Game.

( 1.>1 )

LAKE TROUT FECUNDITY AND AGE AT MATURITY

155

A random sample of 25 eggs was taken from both ovaries and their
diameters measured to the nearest 0.01 mm with an ocular micrometer
to determine the mean diameter of mature eggs. Lake trout were meas-
ured in fork length to the nearest 0.1 inch, and fish and gonads Avere
weighed to the nearest 0.01 gram.

FECUNDITY
Relationship Between Fecundity and Fork Length

The mean number of eggs produced by 4-1 fish ranging in length
from l(i.(j To 84.0 inches and grouped in 2-inch intervals was 3.429
and ranged from 919 (17.9-inch fish) to 11,472 (34.0-inch fish) (Table
1). Extreme variability in fecundity of fish of similai- size was evident.

TABLE 1
Relationship Between Fecundity and Length of Lake Tahoe Lake Trout

Fork length (inches)

Xuinber

Number of eggs per fish

Interval

Mean

of fish

Range

Mean

1().0-17.9

17.3

5

919-2,137

1,501

1S.0-1<).9

18.7

9

1, 21 0 2,363

1,547

20.0-21.9

21.2

11

1,477-3,627

2,557

22.0-23.9

22.8

10

1,749-1,274

3,384

24 . 0-25 . 9

24,7

3

5,162-3,521

5,770

26 . 0-27 . 9

26.8

3

3,704-7,891

6,276

29 . 3

..

1

8,576

30.7

..

1

. -

9,401

34.0

--

1

--

11,472

Total

44

Grand mean 3,429

12

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FORK LENGTH IN INCHES
FIGURE 1 —Relationship between fork length and fecundity of female Lake Tahoe lake trout.

156

CAl.lFdK'NI A I'ISII AND CAMM

SoutlkTii J.iiko Mk'liigaJi lake Iroul cxhibilni .similar varialiuii.s (E.scli-
meyer, 1955).

The linear regression Y = -O.'^Ol.fi + 588.5X (whciv \ is llic csli-
niated number of egprs and X is llic fork Icnfrtli in inches) (k'scribes
tlie rehilioiishi)) between feenndily and h'nirth (Figure 1 ). The correla-
tion coefficient Avas 0.91. The slope of the line shows an increase of
about 584 eggs per 1-ineh increase in length.

Relationship Between Fecundity and Weight

The ('(luatioii V -^ 17.7 -[- 1.-+X describes the relationsliip between
fecundity and weight (Figure 2). The correlation coefficient equals 0.94.

CO

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10

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Y = 17.7 + 1.4 X
n = 44
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I 23456789

TOTAL WEIGHT IN THOUSANDS OF GRAMS

FIGURE 2— Relationship between total weight and fecundity of female Lake Tahoe lake trout.

Fecundity ranged from 919 eggs at a Aveiglit of 1.089 grams to 11,472
at 8,709 grams. The mean number of eggs produced by fish grouped
in 500-gram intervals increased from 1,162 to 11.472 but the ranges
overlapped considerably due to individual variations in fecundity
(Table 2). The number of eggs produced per 100 grams of fish was
141.7, which approximates the slope of the calculated line.

Relationship Between Fecundity and Age

The ages of 36 fish collected for the fecundity study were determined
previously (Hanson and Cordone, 1967). These fish ranged from age
group VI to age group XII. As with length and weight, fish of the
same size varied greatly in fecundity (Table 8). The mean number of
eggs increased from 1,866 for age VI fish to 9.40] for a single age XI
fish (one age XII fish contained 8,576 eggs).

tAKE TROUT FECUNDIT"^ AND A(ilE AT MATURITY

157

TABLE 2
Relationship Between Fecundity and Weight of Lake Tahoe Lake Trout

Total

44

Grand mean

Weight (grams)

Number

of

fish

Number of eggs
per fish

Number of eggs
per 100 grams of fish

Interval

Mean

Range

Mean

Range

Mean

902.6
1,000-1,499
1,500-1,999
2,000-2,499
2,500-2,999
3,000 3,499

3,583.4
4,000-4,499
6,032.8
6,849.2
8,708.9

1,184.2
1,715.3
2,183.3
2,707.9
3,401.9

4,297.8

1
13

6
9
6
3

1
2

1
1

1

919-2,363
1,460-3,273
1,668-3,898
2,415-4,274
3,704 5,626

7,233-7,891

1,162.0
1,708.5
2,541.8
2,939.4
3,.37 1 . 5
4,830 . 7
6,.521.0
7,562.0
8,57().()
9,401 .0
11,472.0

84 . 4-228 . 3
94.4-186.9
78.1-182.9
93. 1-154.4

106.0-167.6
__

161.9-191.2

128.7
147.0
145.9
133.5
124.1
142.5
182.0
176.5
142.2
137.3
131.7

141.7

AGE AND SIZE AT MATURITY

Wo separated fisli lliat would spawn in llic year of oaptuve I'l-om
those that would not and refer to tlicin as mature .nid immature,
respeetively. Souk* innnature fish actually eould have been mature fish
wliich were not K^jiiip' t<J si)awn in the year of capture. This phenome-
non has been described for lak(» trout from other lakes. However,
evidence presented later leads us to believe that mature Lake Tahoe
lake trout ordinarily spawn every year.

Analysis of census data and examination ol' anyler-cauji'ht fish re-
vealed that mature lake trout are less vulnerable to fishing in October
than in othci- months. Therefore, October fisli were eliminated in the
anal\sis of the percentage of mature fish at dift'(n"ent ages.

TABLE 3
Relationship Between Fecundity and Age of Lake Tahoe Lake Trout

Fork lengtl

1 (inches)

Weight (grams)

Number of eggs per fish

Number
of

Age

group

fish

Range

Mean

Range

Mean

Range

Mean

VI

11

17.1-20.2

18.. 5

1,016.0-1.823.4

1,222.6

919-3,164

1,865.8

VII

U

lC.6-23.2

20.7

902.6-2,766.9

1 ,879 . 1

1,220-4,774

2,482.4

VIII

.5

20.8-22.9

21.9

1,505. 9-2,721. .5

2,0.^0.2

1.540-3,898

2,715.6

IX

.3

21.8-27.1

23.6

2.032.0-4,127.7

2,771.4

1,032-7,891

4,383.3

X

4

23.1 24.7

23.8

2,449.4-3,356.6

2,789.6

3,102-5,626

4,283.0

XI

1

30.7

..

6,849.2

..

9,401.0

XII

1

--

29.3

--

6,032.8

--

8,.576.0

Percentages of mature male lake trout in each age group tended

Table 4). Three

to be slightly higher than females at the .same age

158

rATJFORNIA FISH AXO OAME

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LAKE TROUT FECUNDITY AND AGE AT MATURITY

159

fish (two males and one female) in their 5th year of life (age group
TV) were mature. However, these were exceptionally large and fast
growing individuals, measuring 17.8, 17.9, and 24.7 inches. For both
sexes, 50 /c of the individuals in their 8th year were mature (Table 4).
All males matured by their 10th year, and all females by their 11th
year.

Lake Tahoe lake trout mature at a younger age than lake trout in
most other lakes; however, these mature fish are extremely large for
their age. In several Canadian lakes, lake trout did not mature until
their 6th year (Martin, 1952; MeCrimmon, 1956; Cuerrier and Schultz,
1957; Rawson. 1961 ), and not until their 14tli year in Great Bear Lake
(Miller and Kennedy, 1948). However, lake trout mature in their
5tli year in Great Slave Lake (Kennedv, 1954) and Lake Opeongo
(Fry, 1949).

Mature male lake trout ranged from 13.2 to 34.4 inches and mature
females from 16.6 to 32.7 inches (Table 5). Although the smallest
mature female was 2.4 inclies longer tlian the smallest mature male,

TABLE 5

Length Frequency Distribution of Lake Tahoe Lake Trout
by Sex and State of Maturity

Males

Females

Fork length*
(inches)

Iniinature

Mature

Percentage
mature

Immature

Mature

Percentage
mature

7.0- 7.9

8.0- 8.9

9.0- 9.9

10.0-10.9

11.0-11.9

12.0-12.9

13.0-13.9

14.0-14.9

15.0-15.9

16.0-16.9

17.0-17.9

18.0-18.9

19.0-19.9

20.0-20.9

21.0-21.9

22.0-22.9

23.0-23.9

24.0-24.9

25.0-25.9

26.0-26.9

27.0-27.9

28.0-28.9

29.0-29.9

30.0-30.9

31.0-31.9

32.0-32.9

33.0-33.9

34.0-34.9

2
3

8

4

11

G

11

20

32

37

38

26

18

7

12

3

3

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
7

17

13

11)

11

15

11

11

17

10

6

5

2

2

0

0

2

1

1

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0]

8.3

4.8

3.0

15.9

30.9

33 . 3

47.1

61.1

55.6

78.6

78.6

94.4

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

100.0
100.0
100.0

1
0

8
2

1

13

8

21

25

27

46

31

19

9

6

5

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
8
14
16
8
11
15
14
5
7
0
2
0
1
2
0
1
0
0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

3.6

14.8

31.1

45.7

47.1

64.7

75.0

93 . 3

83.3

100.0

100.0

100.0
100.0

100.0

* Two immature fish smaller than 7.0 inches not shown.

|(i() CAL11'()1;NIA I'ISll AM) CA.MK

bdlli s('X(^s Avoro 100'"f nuiturc ;it iiciirly llir same si/c (males a1 24.1
iiiclics and fomalos at 24.fiV Almost half of tho fenialos "were niaturo
in tlio 20.0- 1<. 20.1i-iiicli iiOrrval. and half of tlie males in tho 10.0-
to in.niiicli interval. E.sehmevci- ' l!t."),")i also found males matiirin*; at
a smalh'T size than females iji southern Lake IMiehijran.

Si/.es at first matui"ity reported for (ireat Bear Ijake (IMillei- and
Kennedy. 1048). Great Slave Tjake (Kennedy. 10.141. and Waterton
Lakes (Cuerrier and Selmltz. 1057 1. Canada, were similar to Tjake
Tahoe. Tn eontrast. ^lartin n0o2) found lar<r(^ numbers of lake trout
mature at 12 iiudies and tlic majority at IG inches in T^ake Louisa and
Eedroek Lake. Ontario, respectively. Koyee (1051) found none ma-
turin<i' initil they rea(died 26 to 80 inelies in Seneea T>ake. New York.

An interesting: aspect of these data is the apparent decrease in per-
centaofe of mature males at agres IX and XT (Table 4). Fry (1940)
reported a similar condition oeenrring' for both sexes in Tiake Opeongo
and believed that this ])ortion of the population does not spawn every
year. Various other authors have rc^ported that lake trout do not spawn
every year (Kennedy. 1954; Cuerrier and Schultz, 1957; Eawson,
1961). In Great Bear Lake they probably spawn only ever\- third year
or, at most, eA^ery second (Miller and Kennedy, 1048). Lakes in which
lake trout spawn less than once a year are typically northern, olipfo-
trophic lakes, and Great Bear Lake is an extreme example of this.

Miller (1051) found what he believed to be mature female Lake
Tahoe lake trout with eggs, that would not ripen in that year. He sug-
gests that these fish would fail to spawn, but does not give their
lengths. Although tlie evidence isn't concdusive. we believe that Lake
Tahoe lake trout ordinarily spawn every year. The five immature fish
in age group TX and the one in age grouji XI were small for their age
(Table 4), and probably were slow groAving and late maturing indi-

TABLE 6

Weight of Ovaries as Percentage of Total Body Weight and Egg Diameter
for Mature Female Lake Tahoe Lake Trout

Date of collection

Number of fish

Mean egg
diameter (mm)

Percentage
weight of ovaries

June 1-15

16-30

July 1-15

16-31

August 1-15

16-31

September 1-15

16-30

October 1-15

16-31

November 1-15

6

0

0

1

8
6

5

8

3
3

3

2.74

2^78

4.08
4.54

4.91
5.35

5.35
5.65

5.80

3.6

3.7

6.5

8.0

8.0
12.4

14.7

17.8

17.6

LAKE TROUT FECUNDITY AND AGE AT MATURITY

161

viduals. (However, Martin (1966) reported that slow growing lake
trout matured at a smaller size and younger age.) Also, the percentage
of mature females increased with age, reaching 100% at age XI, indi-
cating that at tliis age and older they spawn every year. Eschmeyer
(1955) found no evidence that mature lake trout did not spawn every
year in southern Lake Michigan.

SPAWNING SEASON

The exact period of spawiiijig for Lake Talioo lake trout is not known.
We could not locate spawning beds and relatively few ripe fisli were
captured. However, it appears that spawning begins in September and
peaks in October.

In September tlie mean length of angler-caught fish begins to decline
and reaches an annual low in Octobei- fCordone and Frantz, 1966(0-
Moreover, the percentage of matiirc fisli taken by anglers declines
sharply at this time. These changes may reflect reduced availability of
mature fish to tlie angler because the fish are congregating on the
spawning grounds and are not actively foraging.

Progression of the spaAvning season was followed by ])lotting changes
in egg diameters and weight of the ovaries relative to total weight of
mature fish taken fr-om June through November (Table 6 and Figure
3). During this period, the mean egg diameter increased from 2.74 to
5.80 mm while the mean weight of the ovaries relative to total body
weight increased from 3.6 to 17.6%. Kelative weights of the testes iilso
increased dui-ing tliis period.

1

M' 1!

1- 23
o 22

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^20

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^ 17
O 16
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ill
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20 10 20

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10 20 10 20

S 5 15 25 5 15 . 2;
10 20 10 20

9 13 25 5

10 20 10

15 25

20

5 1

10

5 25 5 15 25 5 15 2S 5 15 25
20 10 .20 K) 20 10 20

FEB.

JUNE

AUG.

SEPT

OCT.

NOV

DEC.

FIGURE 3— Seasonal change in relative weight of ovaries of mature female Lake Tahoe lake
trout. Closed circles are ripe fish ancJ open circles spent fish.

3—93994

1C)2 CALIFOKNIA FISH AND CAMK

Wo colk'c'tcd no inntiu'c fi'iiijilrs nl'iri- Xovciiiln'r '^. llowcxcr. ;i i-ipc
fciiiiilc Avas tnkon in a ^ill net on -laiiiiary 24. I'J.Al t IJay < Orlctt,
\ini)ul)lisli(Ml data').-' Matur(> males were takni as late as .l.niuary 27.
Most of lln' spent females were taken in llie last lialf of Xoxcmher.
■with one taken as early as Sei)teml)ii' 1") < Ki<rure 'i).

llenee, it appears that the spawn inii:- season for Lake Tahoe lake
trout eovers at least the period from the }niddle of September through
tlie first half of Novemliei-. with an oeeasional fish spawning:- as late as
the last half of January. Tiiis rather protracted s])awnin«i' season eon-
forms to Royce's (1951) statement that the length of the spawning
season inereases in large lakes (Lake Tahoe is 123,300 surfaee acres),
and corresponds to the one-montli s|);i\\ninii' season reported for the
Great Lakes by Van Oosten (11*34 ). However, in Lac la Ronge (352.000
surfaee acres) the sjiawning season is restricted to less than a week
(Rawson, 1961).

DISCUSSION

Comparisons of length frequencies of angler-caught fish and the per-
centages of immature fish in corresponding length intervals revealed
that about 69% of all lake trout taken were innuature. The highest
percentages of immature fish were caught from June through October.
These months accounted for approximately 56% of the total catch
(Cordone and Fraiitz. 1966h). Percentages of innnature fish ranged
from 59.4 in February to 82.3 in October during the peak of the
spawning season. Further analysis of the length frequencies indicated
that the higher percentages of immature fish in the summer and fall
months were due to a decrease in the vulnerability of larger, mature
fish rather than in increase in the vulnerability of smaller, innnature
fish. This contrasts with information ])resented by Martin (1954), who
demonstrated that winter fishing in Algonquin Park lakes results in
greater exploitation of small, immature fish than summer fishing.

The harvest rate of immature fish has important management impli-
cations. The 69% exploitation of immature lake trout in Tahoe appears
quite excessive. Long-term studies in Algonquin Park by Martin (1966)
showed that higher percentages of immature lake trout were harvested
from piscivorous populations than from planktonivorous ones; approxi-
mately 459r compared to 15%. respectively However, while not mini-
mizing the importance of high spaw^ning escapement, Martin does point
out that size of spawning stock may not be an important factor in year-
class strength. Fry and Kennedy (1937 ) reported that in Lake Opeongo,
Algonquin Park, about two-thirds of the lake trout were harvested in
July and August and that about 50% of these were immature. They
believeil that. "... if tlie fishery is exploited without control it is very
likely to be faced with the prospect of depletion.'* It is difficult to make
meaningful comparisons between Tahoe and these small Canadian lakes.
However, the percentage harvest of immature Tahoe lake trout is so
high by comparison that we were concerned about overharvest of the
population under the present year-round seas(jn. Tiiis, however, does not
appear to be the case.

Cordone and Frantz (1966a) analyzed trends in the lake trout
fishery, including some historical data covering a 17-year span. No

3 Xevada Fish and Game Commission, Dingell-Johnson Project F-4-R, monthly report
for January 1956.

LAKE TROUT FECUNDITY AND AGE AT MATURITY 163

significant historical changes in tlie eatcli per hour or mean weight
of lake trout could be detected. Uni)iiblished results of a lake trout
tagging study at Talioe indicated high exploitation rates for immature
lake trout, with much reduced rates for the larger, mature fish. The
low vulnerability of these fish is probably related to a combination of
factors. One possibility is the congregation and reduced feeding of ripe
fish just before and during tlie spawning period. Another involves tlie
prevalence of precipitous shjpes in Tahoe which are virtually unfish-
able with conventional trolling gear and which may provide refuge for
large lake trout. In any event, enhanced survival of the larger, mature
trout ajjpears to ])rovi(le adequate spawning escapeinciit and no clianges
in angling regulations are recommended.

SUMMARY

Tlie i-clationsIii|)s between fecundity and fork length and fecundity
;iihI total weiglit are described by the equations Y ^= -9.361.6 + 583. 5X
and Y = 17.7 -j- l--^-^- respectively. There was considerable variation
among individual fisli in the number of eggs produced relative* to length.
weight, and age. Tlie relationship between fecundity and weiglit ap-
j)eared strongest. The mean number of eggs j)f()(luce(l by 44 fish was
3,429 and ranged from 919 for a 17.9-incli, l,(KS9-gram fish, to 11.472
for a 34.()-inch, 8,709-gram fisli.

A few lake trout mature in their r)tli year of life and all were
mature by their 11 th. IMature males ranged from 13.2 to 34.4 inches pl
and mature females 16.6 to 32.7 inches. We found no (>vidence that
Lake Tahoe lake trout do not spawn every yeai'.

The spawning season lasts from about the middle of September
through the first half of November.

Immature fish are extremely vulnerable throughout the year, and
make up over 69% of the total catch. No changes in regulations are
recommended.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to express our thanks to Almo •). ("ordone and Eobert F.
El well of the California Department of Fish and Game for their
assistance in the preparation of this re})ort. We also wish to acknowl-
edge Cliffa E. Corson for drawing the figures.

REFERENCES

Cordoiio. Almo J., and Tod C Fniiit/,. llHlCxj. The Lake Talioc sport fishery. Calif.

Fi.sh aiul (Jaiiio. 52 (4) : 240-274.
. l!M')(i/*. The Lake Tahoe sport fishery — suppleiueiitary report. Calif. Dept.

Fish and (iame. Inland Fi.sh Admin. Kept., (66-14) : i)4 p. (Mimeo.)

Cuerrier, J. P., and F. H. Schultz. 1957. Studies of lake trout and common white-
fish in Waterton I>akes. "Waterton Lakes Xational Park. Alherta. Canadian Wildl.
Serv., Wildl. Mgmt. Bull., Ser. 3, No. 5, 41 p.

Eschmeyer, Paul H. 1955. The reproduction of lake trout in southern Lake
Superior. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 84 (1954) : 47-74.

Fry, F. E. J. 1949. Statistics of a lake trout fishery. Biometrics. 5 (1) : 27-67.

Fry, F. E. J., and W. A. Kennedy. 1937. Report on the 1936 lake trout investi-
gation. Lake Opeongo. Ontario. Univ. Toronto Stud.. Biol. Ser. 42, Publ. Ont.
Fish. Res. Lab., No. 54, 20 p.

1(i4 (WI.II'OKNIA nsll AND CAMK

Il.-iiisMii. Jjick A.. :iii(l Aliiin J. Coi-doiir. I'.iCiT. A;,'<' iiiid ^rrnwlli (if tlw hike Iroiil,

Salvcliiiiis udmtnicuxh ( Walli.niiii i . in I.nkc 'I'.-iliof, Cilit". Kisli niid (Jntiic. 53

(12) : 08-S7.
Ki'iinofly, AN'. A. IlCil. (irciwlli. iii.-il iiriiy :iiicl iiKn-l.-ilil; in tin' rcl.-it i vcl.v iiiicx-

]il()i((>(l lake trout, Crisliroiiicr im m'l i/aisli. of (lir:it Sl;i\i' I,:ikc. .Imir. l'"isll. Res.

B(l. Caii.'ula, 11 (0) : S2T-Sr.2.
I>i. Jerome C. K. ^'^~>~. Introduction to statistic.-il intricncc, Kdw.irds P>r(>s.. Tuc.

Ann Arbor. Mich. '>~>'.] ]).
Martin. Xiuel V. 1'X>'2. A .study of the lake trout. Sulvclimis iKniKii/ciiah, in two

AIf;ou<iuin I'ark. Ontario, lake.s. Trans. Anier. Fish. Soc. 81 ( 1051 ): 111-137.
. I'.CA. Catch and winter food of lake trout in ccrl.iin Al^'ou(|uin T';irk

lakes. Jour. Fish. lies. Bd. Canada. 11 (1) : 5-10.

l!)(>(i. Tlic significance of food habits in llic l>i(do^'y, ex))loilat i(ui. and

nianaKenient of Al.i;nu(|uin Park. Ontario, lake trout. Trans. Amer. Fi.sh. Soc.

95 (4) : 41.-)-42li.
McCrimmon. II. K. 1056. J'ishing in Lake Simcoe. Ontario Dfiil. Lands and

Forests, 137 \>.
I\L-icKay. H. H. 1963. Fishes of Ontario. Ontario Dept. of Lauds and Forests.

The r.ryant Pre.ss Limited, Toronto. 3(10 p.
Miller, R. B.. and W. A. Kennedy. P.MS. Observations on tin- lake trout of Great

Bear Lake. Jour. Fish. Hes. P,d. Canada. 7 (4) : 17<i-l,S'.».
Miller. Richard Gordon. 1051. The uatui;il history of I>ake Tahoe Fi.shes. Stan-
ford L^niv.. I'h.L). Dissertation, 160 ii.
Rawson. D. S. 1961. The lake trout of Lac la Ronge. Sask.itchcwau. .lour. Fish.

Res. Bd. Canada. 18 (3) : 423-462.
Royce. William F. 1051. Breeding habits of lake trout in New York. U. S. Fi,sh

and Wildl. Serv., Fi.sh. Bull., 52 1 50 ) : .59-76.
Van Oosten. .Tolni. 1034. The value of questionnaires in commercial fisheries regu-

l.Ttions and surveys. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc, 64:107-117.

Cnlif. Fish and Gmnc, 53 (3) : IG.'.-lTn. IDGT.

DISTRIBUTION, SIZE COMPOSITION, AND RELATIVE

ABUNDANCE OF THE LAHONTAN SPECKLED

DACE, RHINICHTHYS OSCULUS ROBUSTUS

(RUTTER), IN LAKE TAHOE '

PHILLIP H. BAKERS

Inland Fisheries Branch
California Department of Fish and Game

Aspects of the life history of the Lahontan speckled dace in Lake
Tahoe were studied. Data on distribution, activity patterns, size com-
position, and relative abundance are presented. The most effective
methods for collecting dace were shoreline rotenoning and minnow trap-
ping. The minnow trap catch rates indicate that dace occur primarily in
the rocky benthic area of the littoral zone at depths less than 25 feet,
but are occasionally found to depths of 200 feet. Dace were most active
during the summer and early fall, when water temperatures are warm-
est, becoming relatively dormant when temperatures dropped below
approximately 50 F. The mean size of dace collected was 2.1 inches fork
length, with a maximum size of 3.5 inches. Length frequency analysis
indicated that approximately six age groups are represented in the
collections.

INTRODUCTION

Tlio I^aliontan speckled dace was orlji:iiially described as Agosia
rohiista by Kutter (11)0:5 1. The type locality is Prosser Creek, Nevada
County, California. Tliis subspecies occurs in the Lalioiitaii l>asin of
Nevada and California. Iviiusey (1!)50) also rei)orte(l it from waters
tributary to the Sacramento Kiver drainau-e. into Avlticli it may liave
been introduced.

Little is known of the life history of the speckled dace in Lake
Tahoe. Miller (1951) presented data on dace distribution and food
habits. Evans flOfifi) and Ilopkii'k and P)ehnke (lOGG) reported natural
intertj;vneric hybridization of dace with other Tahoe cyprinids. This
report deals primarily with distribution, activity patterns, size compo-
sition, and relative abundance of Lake Tahoe speckled dace. It is one of
a series of reports on the life histories of Tahoe fishes. These are based
on investigations conducted by the cooperative Lake Tahoe Fisheries
Study initiated by the California Department of Fish and Game and
Nevada Fish and Game Commission on July 1, 1960. McGauhey et. al
(1963) present a detailed description of Lake Tahoe.

METHODS

Shoreline rotenoning and minnow trapping were the most effective
methods for sampling speckled dace in Lake Tahoe. Sixty-six percent
of the 2,250 dace sampled were taken with rotenone, and 17% by min-
now traps. The remaining 17% were taken by seines and sled and otter
trawls. None were captured in bottom or open-water gill nets, although
mesh sizes used were as small as f-inch stretch measure.

All dace were measured to the nearest 0.1 inch, fl.

' Submitted for publication February 1967. This work was performed as part of
Dingell-Johnson Project California F-21-R and Nevada F-15-R, "Lake Tahoe
Fisheries Study", supported in part by Federal Aid to Fish Restoration funds.

= Now with Reg-ion 2, California Department of Fish and Game.

( 163 )

llid CALIFUKMA FL-iil A.\I> CAM 10

Shoreline Rotenoning

Slioroliiic arcjis df tln' lake were rolciioncd in Anizust ^'^('}'^. Au<^iisl
and September l!Mil. .Inly IfXi.l. and Maivli lIKlli. In l!l(i:{ saini)liii<r
areas Averc locaird a1 Kajrle I'dint. Sugar riiic INnnl. Dollar Point,
Crystal Bay, Secret llaihor. and Zephyr Cove (see Weidlein, Cordone,
and Frantz (1965) for a map ol' tlic locations). Tn lf)(i4 these areas
anil one in p]inerald Bay were rotcnoned. Only tiu; Su<^ar Pine Point
area Avas rotenoned in ItKiTi. These areas were approximately 50 feet
longf and 20 feet Avide, 'with de|)tlis to abont 4 feet. In 1966 an area
neai- Cave Boek was rotenoned. Maximum depth here was about 15 feet.

When rotenoninyf, the areas usually were first enclosed with a seine
to reduce the numbers of fish escapinj]:, and then sprayed with Pro-
noxfisli. Care was taken to I'eeover as many fish as possible. This method
seemed to be satisfactory in randomly sampling all sizes of dace. How-
ever, it did not provide accurate quantitative catch data for compari-
sons between samjiles.

Minnow Trapping

Two types of minnow ti-ai)s ])i-ovided the only (juantitative catch
data for speckled dace. One type was a small, cylindrical, commer-
cially-made trap, 17 inches lon<r and 82 inches in diameter, with 1-inch
diameter fykes at each end. The covering material was |-inch galvanized
screening. These were fished monthly, from March 1962 through May
1964, during daylight hours at the Cave Bock boat launching ramp.
The traps were generally fished on the bottom in 8 to 12 feet of water,
and canned dog food was used as bait.

The second type was a large rectangular trap, 36 inches long on the
side and 3 8 inches sc^uare on the ends, with l|-inch square fykes on
each end. The covering material was i-inch galvanized screening. These
traps were fished on the bottom in conjunction with the bottom gill net
sets, at depths of 25, 100, 300, and 500 feet, in selected locations around
the lake. Usually one, but as many as three, depth series, each in a
different location, were sampled monthly from July 1963 through June
1964. Most sets were fished overnight for an average duration of 20
hours ; however, some were unavoidably fished as long as 3 days. Bread
and cheese were used as bait.

Other Methods

The sled trawl was quite effective in sampling dace in shallow water.
Unfortunately, lack of time did not permit more extensive use of this
gear. It is described by Linn and Frantz (1965). The larger otter trawl
took few dace, probably because it was fished in relatively deep water.
This gear and its operation will be described by the author in a forth-
coming publication.

DISTRIBUTION
Spatial Distribution

Lahontan speckled dace appear to be most abundant in Tahoe's lit-
toral zone at depths less than 25 feet, below which numbers decrease
rapidly with depth. Moreover, the data indicate that they j^refer the
rocky areas of this zone, at least during daylight hours.

The small "commercial" minnow traps set in rocky habitat at Cave
Bock were consistently more successful than the larger traps associ-

LAKE TAIIOE SPECKLED DACE

167

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CAMFOKXIA FISH AM) ("".A^fE

ated Avitli boltoiii frill 7icts set nsiuilly on sand ;iiul iiiiirl substratos in
dcoi)or ■water. The catt-lios of tlic two types oi" traj)S are not, ll()^vever,
diroetly eoniparablo, sineo tbey differed in size and construction, type
of bait used, and dnraliDU tislied.

("atelies in llic lariici' ti-aps. al11iou<,di small, dc^oreased significantly
Avitli depth. From -luly llMi.'{ lIirou<ili .Jiiiic 1II()4. eatelies at tlie 25-foot
depth totaled 108 dace foi- a mean catdi pci- lidur of 0.27. Identical
traps set in 100 feet of water took only one dace during" this period,
■while tliose in 800 and oOO fe(>t failed 1o take dace.

Otter trawiiny from October IIHJo throuj:;!! .Sej)tember 19G4 look
speckled dace on three separate occasions at 100 feet and once at 200
feet at the south end of the lake. The latter is a depth record for dace
in Tahoe. The previous reeord of 100 feet -was re]iorted by ]\Tiller
(l!).")! I. No dace were taken in trawls at Agate Bay during this period.

During summer months, dace were observed in a number of Tahoe
tributaries and probably exist in all of them, at least in their lower
readies. ]\Tnrphy MfKi)^^ conducted a short-term study in late summer
of trout survival in a 2!J5-foot screened section of lower Taylor Creek.
Of the fish removed from the study section. 86% were dace. Murphy
noted enormous numbers of small dace uKtving toward Lake Tahoe
at tlie end of August.

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FIGURE 1 — Mean catch per hour of Lahontan speckled dace in "commercial" minnow traps,

and mean surface water temperatures at Cave Rock, Lake Tahoe,

from March 1962 through March 1964.

LAKE TAHOE SPECKLED DACE

169

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Seasonal Distribution

Seasonal changes in the minnow trap catches at Cave Kock were
quite pronounced. Large catches were made during the late summer
and early fall, but dropped to uniformly low levels throughout the rest
of the year (Figure 1, Table 1). Significantly, catches in the larger
traps in 25 feet were confined entirely to the summer and early fall
period. Furthermore, dace were fallen by rotenone at Cave Rock at
depths less than 15 feet in March 1966, indicating that at least some
dace remain in shallow water during the winter. Tlierefore, changes
in minnow trap catcli rates were probably the result of seasonal
changes in activity.

Mean monthly catclies at Cave Rock correspond well with the mean
surface water temperatures there. Largest catches, averaging 8.9 dace
per hour, occurred during August, when tlie water temperatures were
highest (65^ F). Catch rates were niucli hnvcr from November througli
May, when temperatures fell below approximately 50 F. Catches re-
mained h)W even into June and July, when temperatures rose to 59

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FORK LENGTH IN INCHES

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FIGURE 2— Length frequency of Lahontan speckled dace taken by minnow traps at lake Tahoe

from 1962 through 1965.

170

rAi,iK(~)i;xiA FISH and came

and (illl l'\ I'i'spci-l i\cl\ . 1 l(i\\ (Acr. 1 lir li a\ catrli i-,ilcs (liii'iii^- t hi;, ])e'ri(Kl
may l)r ilur to spaw nin-' acti\ii.\. .MiIIit - lH.")] i imd L;i Rivers (1962)
sii^rrcst thai spawiiiiiL;' (iccui-s ahniil this linic.

SIZE COMPOSITION

Loilgth i rtMpiciicy data I'nv dai-c taken in both tyjx's ol' luiiuiuw ti'aps
(Fij^ure 2) iiidicalc that dace less than iM inches were not fully
vulnerable \n ti-a|)pin!j;-. (inly '2'.].{)'( of the daee sampled with traps
were sniallei- than 2.1 inches. wlKM'cas 72..")', of those taken witli rote-
uone were of that size i^li'GG sample not ineludedj (Figure 3). There-

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FIGURE 3— Length frequency of Lahontan speckled dace taken by rotenone in Lake Tahoe

during August 15 and 16, 1963; August 20 and 21 and September 2

and 3, 1964; and July 19, 1965.

LAKE TAHOE SPECKLED DACE 171

fore, niiiinuw trap uatehes may not accurately reflect the disi ributioii,
movements, or activity of the smaller dace.

However, the descending- limbs of the length frequencies appear to be
similar, indicating- that both metliods were equally selective to the
larger fish. Tlie largest dace takeii by the two methods were 3.5 and
3.2 inches for minnow trapping and rotenoning, respectively.

Length frequencies of the rotenone samples indicate that the maxi-
mum size obtained by early September of the first year of life is about
1.1 inches, with a modal length of approximately 0.8 inches. The mean
length obtained by early September of the second year appears to be
about 1.7 inches. In all, it appears that about five or six age groups
are represented in these collections.

Year-class strength ai)i)ears to vary considerably. AVhat is assumed
to be the 1963 year class seems to be very weak, lacking the larger,
faster-growing individuals of the IfXil year class. The former can be
identified in all of the collections, although in the IfKJo collection it is
nearl}' obliterated by the stronger 19G2 year class.

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE

No sampling metliotl used was equally selective for all of Tahoe's
fishes. SelectiA'ity varied not only with species and fish size, bnt also
with type of habitat and lime of day fished. Kotenoning and sled trawl-
ing were the only methods which may have randomly sampled the dace
])()|)nlations. Both, however, were definitely selective to the snudler and
less mobile fish species. In sjiite of these limitations, a rough idea of
the relative abnndance of dace ami other species in the littoral zone
can be obtained from rotenone and sled trawl samples.

Speckled dace were the most abundant species in the shoreline rote-
none samph's, but their ])ercentages varied from year to year. In ir)()3,
64.6'/(' of the fish taken were dace, comi)ared with 71.7% in lIMil,
81.2% in 1965, and 33.3%. in 1966. Overall, 70.1 7o of the fish were
dace, 14.7%. Lahontan redside (Richardsoniiis egregius), 7.1% Piute
sculpin (Cotfiis l)fJ(lingii), 3.9% Tahoe sucker (Catosfonnis tahornsis).
3.2% rainbow trout {Salmo gairdnerri), and the remaining 1.0% tui
chub (Siphafelcs hicolor), brown trout {Salmo frittta), mountain white-
fish {Prosoi)iitni williamsoni) , and eastern brook trout (Salvclinus
font i)} (ills).

Sled-trawl catches in slightly deeper water had substantially
different species compositions than the rotenone samples. Here dace
appeared less numerous. In the combined catches of four trawls (made
on September 5, 1963; April 1, 1966; and May 2 and 20, 1966), 28.3^^
of the fish were dace. Piute sculpin comprised 31.9% ; small cyprinids
(probably tui chub and Lahontan redside). 17.7%; mountain white-
fish, 11.1% ; tui chub, 6.1% ; Tahoe sucker, 2.2% ; Lahontan redside,
1.9% ; and kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchns nerka), 0.8%.

DISCUSSION

Although the speckled dace is most abundant in the rocky shoreline
habitat in Lake Tahoe, it is not entirely restricted to this zone. Evans
(1966) collected large numbers of dace fry in a shallow, marshy area
off Lake Forest in midsummer. This appears to be a popular nursery

1 TLI C AI.II'OKN I A I'lSIl AM) CA.MK

;ii-i';i for (1;ici', i-c(lsi(l(^s. cliuhs. ;iiicl siii-l^ci's. However, siieli areas are,
iiisi'_:iiitic;iiit ill size ('(Hiip:! M'd with tlie ty|)ie;il slioi'e line of sand and
I'oek. I,;ir<;e aj;^reL;;it iolis ol' (l;iee I'yy ;il'e ;ilso (•(Uniiinii in VCry slialloW

w.iler oV(>r sand .iiid roek substrates.

As llie most abundant speeies in tlie littoral zone, daee assume an
ini])ortant role in Ibe lake's ecology. Miller (11)51) found that dace
fed largely on bottom oi-ganisms in Lake Talioe, and assumed that they
coiiipete Avitb ebubs. redsides, seul])iii. and ubitefish for food. About
^\[c of the stomaebs contained bottom oi-ganisms, while only 22'/.
contained i)lank1on. l>y xoluiiie. \irtiially all the contents were bentbic,
with pl.iiikloii colli rilmting only trace amounts. Important bentbic
forms were snails and (li])tera)i hii\ae. followed by caddisfly birvae,
beetles, mayfly nymphs, and water mites, leased on the collections
reported here, dace may also compete with small suckers and rainbow
tniut \'vy. l']\ans (106G) believes that siiice dace rely so heavily on the
cover afforded by 1lie rocky bottoms of the littoral zone, they do not
compete with the more widely ranging redsides and chubs. Data pre-
sented b\- ("allioun (1944) for Ui)per Blue Lake, Alpine County, Cali-
fornia, demonstrated that speckled dace probably compete severely
for food with fingerling Lahontan cutthroat trout (Salmo clarkii
hc7ishaivi) . Predation on fishes by the dace is apparently restricted to
eating eggs of other species. Miller observed dace rooting out the eggs
of spawning redsides and suckers.

Speckled dace are unimportant in Tahoe game fish food chains, a
reflection of their secretive habits and preference for rocky substrates.
Miller (1951) found none in the stomaebs of 191 lake trout and 80
rainbow trout. He also did not locate any in the stomachs of nongame
fishes. Only 2 dace w^ere found in 1,391 lake trout stomachs, with 4
recorded from 938 rainbow trout stomaebs, and none from 98 brow^n
trout stomachs (Lake Tahoe Fisheries Stud.y, unpubl. data). Concern-
ing the diet of Lahontan cutthroat, Calhoun (1944) remarked, "The
almost complete absence from the stomachs of the small minnow
{Rhinichfhi/s oscula) which is abundant in the shallows around the
lake came as a considerable surprise." Because dace prefer the mar-
ginal shallows, Miller believes they fall prey- to various avian and
reptilian predators, and thus may act as a buffer to other fish species.

fSpeckled dace apparently spawn in June and July over shallow
rocky areas in the littoral zone (Miller. 1951). At spawning time small
schools of dace can be seen, w^hile at other times mature dace show no
evidence of schooling behavior. Evans (1966) reported a catch of 233
dace in an overnight minnow trap set. This occurred in mid-June and
may represent a spawning concentration. Dace probably also spawn
in the tributaries of Lake Tahoe. Minnow traps set in Burton Creek
from May througli July 1965 began taking large numbers of ripe dace
in early June, apparently during an upstream spawning migration.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am grateful to the many persons who have contributed to the
project and this report. I especially wish to thank Ted C. Frantz of the
Nevada Fish and Game Commission for providing the CaA^e Rock
minnow trapping data, and Almo J. Cordone, who supervised the study

LAKE TAHOE SPECKLED DACE ]73

and assisted in preparation of this report. John D. Hopkirk read the
manuscript and offered valuable suggestions. CI iff a E. Corson drew
tlie figures.

REFERENCES

Calhoun. A. J. 1944. The food of (he Mack-spotted trout ifiulmo clarkii hcnxhawii)

in two Sierra Nevada hikes. Calif. Fish and Game, 30 (2) : 80-85.
Evans, Douglas H. 1966. Life history of the Lahontan redside, Richardsonins

egregius (Girard). in Lake Tahoe. Univ. Calif. Berkeley, M.A. Thesis, 82 p.
Hopkirk, John I)., and Rohert J. Behnke. 1966. Additions to the known native

fish fauna of Nevada. Copeia, 1966 (1) : 134-136.
Kiinscy, J. B. 19j)0. Some Lahontan fishes in the Sacr.-imenlo River drainage.

Calif. Fish and Game, 36 (4) : 43S.
La Rivers, Ira. 1962. Fishes and lisliiM-ies of .Xevada. Xcv. St. Fish and Game

Comm., 782 p.
Linn, Jack D., and Ted C. Frantx,. r.Ml.l. Tiili-oduction of the opossum shrimp

{Mysis relicta I.iOven) into Caiifoi-nia and .\c\ada. Calif. Fisli and Game, 51

(1) : 48-51.
McGauhey, P. II.. Rolf Eliassen. (Jerard Rolilich. Harvey F. Ludwiji. and Frman

A. Pearson. 196.S. Comprehensive study on protection of water resources of Lake

Tahoe Basin tlirou>,'h controlled waste disposal. Engineerinjj-Science. Inc., Oak-
land, Calif., 157 p.
INliller, Richard Gordon. 1951. The natural history of Lake Tahoe fi.shes. Stanford

Univ., Ph.D. Dissertation, 160 p.
Murphy, Garth I. lOti.'i. Trout survival in Taylor Creek, a tributary of li.-ike

Tahoe, California. Calif. Fish and Game. 49 (1 ) : 1(>-19.
Rutter, Cloud.sley. 1903. Notes on tislies from streams and lakes of northeastern

('aliforiiia not trii)utary to tlie Sacramento hasin. P>ull. U.S. Fish Comm., 22:

143-148.
Weidlein, AV. Donald, Almo J. Cordone. and T.mI C. Frant/.. 1965. Trout catch

and angler use at Lake Tahoe in 1962. Calif. Fish and Game, 51 (3) : 187-20L

Cnlif. Fish nud Gawr.Si Ci) : 171-ITt'. IOCm.

TWO KING SALMON WITH SPAWNING FEATURES
TAKEN IN OCEAN TROLL FISHERY'

PHILLIP G. SWARTZELL

Marine Resources Branch
California Department of Fish and Game

Two king salmon, Oncorhynchus fshav/ytscha (Walbaum), part of the
ocean troll catch landed in Eureka, California, in spring 1965, were un-
usual in that they exhibited features normally associated with sexual
maturation and spawning. A discussion is presented.

Ill the spriiiu' (if lIMi.'). two kino- siilmoii, p;irt of California's eom-
iiiereial occ;iii troll landings, were observed to have characteristics
Avliicli iisuiill.\- are associated witli sexual maturation. l)ut wliich are
quite unusual for oeean-cauglit king salmon.

Because it is well accepted that adult Pacific salmon [Oncorhynchus
spp.) always die soon after spawning, the idea of finding a survivor
of the exj)erience is intriguing. Some steelhead trout, Sahno (jairdnerii,
and Atlantic salmon, SaJmo salar, spawn and recover, but not without
recording the event on their scales. Hundreds of thousands of scales
of salmon and trout have been examined by fisheries workers, yet there
is no i'i'i)ort of a spawning mark on a Pacific salmon scale.

DESCRIPTION

Aj)ril L's. 1 !)()•'). 1 received a plione call from the manager of Eureka
Fisheries' salmon bu^'ing facility in Eureka. California, and was asked
to look at an unusual king salmon. It had been cauglit in the ocean off
the mouth of ]\Iad River in northern California in about 30 fathoms
by W. M. Sutherland of the commercial salmon troller Legend.

Sutherland reported the fish to be a female. He had examined the
ovaries when he cleaned the fish. They were about the diameter of his
thumb and lacked the firmness and form of maturing ovaries. He
described the eggs as being small, hard, and liglit in color; being more
yellow-orange than those of sexuallx- maturing salmon. He said the eggs
were not close together within the ovaries, and also reported that the
stomach contained ''small crabs" and the intestine contained fecal
matter. All entrails were discarded at sea.

The fish had some of the body characteristics which usually develop
in the freshwater portion of the spawning migration. The snout was
hooked (particularly so for a female) and the jaws were lengthened
noticeably (Figure 1). Enlarged teeth were present. This fish had less
iridescence than all other king salmon in the catch, but would be con-
sidered a "fresh-run" fish had it been caught in a river and judged
on color alone.

The fish was very lean, making the head and fins appear large. It
measured 41 inches (104 cm) fork length and weighed 22^ pounds
dressed, head on. Ocean-caught kings of this length landed in Eureka

' Submitted for publication January 19G7.

( 174 )

OCEAN KING SALMON WITH SPAWNING FEATURES

175

commonly weigh between 30 and 35 pounds (Fry and Hughes, 1951).
The fins were in good condition. Tliey showed no spawning wear.

The head, a small portion of kidney, and several scales w^ere col-
lected. Kidney matter from between the ribs was tested for tubercu-
losis, with negative results.

Scales were more difficult to remove from this fish than from other
ocean-caught salmon. They had to be extracted from tlieir skin pockets
with forceps. Microscopic examination of the scales showed the pos-
terior margin to be eroded and tlie anterior margin to be resorbed
in places to a wndth of six circuli, with some variation among scales.

FIGURE 1 —Ocean-caught female king salmon 41 inches (104 cm) FL. This fish shows character-
istics usually associated with the stream portion of the spawning migration.
photograph by C. L. Richardson, April ?965.

Tlic scales were conijiaiHHl witli others taken from spawning king
salmon at Trinity and Ximbus salmon and steelliead hatcheries in
California, and with scaK'S from "normal'' ocean-caught king salmon
(Figure 2). Selection of a "typical'' ocean scale was simple, as none
showed resorption. Scales from spawners. however, exhibited resorption
both to a greater and h^sser extent tliaii the subject scales.

May 3, 1965, five days after the first fish was found, I observed a
second king salmon with similar characteristics. It had been caught
near the ocean bottom in 38 fathoms between the mouth of Mad Eiver
and Trinidad Head, 9 miles north.

This fish was also very lean. It measured 43 inches (110 cm) fl and
weighed 26^ pounds dressed, head on. It also had a hooked snout and
lower jaM' and some enlarged teeth. It had ocean coloration and a severe
scar along the left side of the anal fin base. The scales showed erosion
at the posterior margin. Kidney material was tested for tuberculosis,
again with negative results.

17ti

(•AI.II'olJXIA FISH AND flAAIE

,*•',■; t

FIGURE 2— Comparison of scale condition of three king salmon. A, typical ocean-caught

salmon. B, Subject ocean-caught salmon. C, Salmon spawned at Nimbus Hatchery,

American River. Photographs by Robert H. Cretzner, February T966.

OCEAN KING SALMON WITH SPAWNING FEATURES 177

Nic Puskar of the troller Ease M reported this fish provided little
fight for its size. While the fish was being cleaned the gnllet broke,
showing that the fish had been feeding on what Puskar called "crab
spawn". Sex of the fish was not determined.

DISCUSSION

The two fish were not typical ocean troll fish. Had they spawned
and were they in the process of recovering wlien caught ? The scales
of the first fish were eroded to a degree that had the fish recovered
from its poor condition, and continued to live in the ocean, the scales
Avould exliibit a mark that would be similar or identical to the spawn-
ing marks seen on some steelhead trout and Atlantic salmon scales.

The fish were taken in late April and early May. This is not the most
common time for California king salmon to be mature, but McLean
(1945), MofPett and Smith (ir)r)0), and Menchen (1965) reported
observations of spawned or spawning king salmon in California in late
winter or in spring. Slater (1963) states that the experience of Cole-
man National Fish Hatchery personnel indicates that the spawning
period of winter-run king salmon in flic Sacramento River is from late
April to late July.

Sutherland's description of his fish's eggs is not tliat of normally
maturing eggs. The fish may have spawned and the fisherman may
liave seen residual eggs. If the fish had not yet sj)awn(Ml, tlie descrip-
tion indicates that tlie develojiment of the gonads was not normal.

Kicli (1921a) reported an instance of adult, sea-run king salmon in
the Columbia River system continuing to feed on smelt while tlieir sex
pi'oducts rii)ened. Could either of the Eureka fisli liave continued
feeding after entering the river, spawned in the lower readies, and
drifted back into the ocean ? If either fish actually did spawn, it Avould
appear that it had gained back most of its ocean coloration and was
recovering.

Rich (19216), while determining relative maturity of ocean-caught
salmon by egg diameter, learned that a small percentage of salmon
found just within the mouth of the Columbia River were immature;
liowev(>r, he indicated tliat they were found only during unusual tidal
conditions.

Robertson (1957) demonstrated that precociously mature male king
salmon parr a few montlis old can spawn and survive in the hatchery.
He tliouglit tliat age was the deciding factor in determining death or
survival following spawning. These two troll-caught fish were adults.

The suggestion that an adult Pacific salmon may have spawned, re-
turned to the ocean, and was recovering is so contradictory to our
understanding of these fish that it may be of interest to consider some
additional possibilities.

Had these tivo fish entered the river physiologicaUij iinahle to spawn
and returned to the ocean?

Gibbs (1956) described a bisexual, adult steelhead trout taken in the
South Fork of Eel River. The fish displayed the superficial appearance
of a male. Its gonads appeared to have distinct male and female por-
tions; however, some eggs w^ere "embedded irregularly throughout the
male tissue." Gibbs reported the eggs to be smaller than expected for
sexuallv mature female steelhead of the same size.

178 CAMFOKMA FISH ANDCA.Ml'.

Tlioro is similarity hotAvoon tlio (1('scri])tioiis of tlio <roiia(ls of Sutlicr-
laiid "s salmon and (Jibbs' bisoxual fisli. Tlionjjrb unnoticed in tlio salmon,
male tissue i-oidd liavc boon tlicrc in sufticicnt (juantity to interfere
Avitli final develojimeiit of tbe cggs and/or prevent tbeir release from
the {ronad. Sutherland's fish was judured a female because it contained
e<rrrs. y(>t its superficial a]ipearance. like that of the bisexual fish, Avas
that of a male.

Wood and Ordal flOSS") indicate that 1 ulx'i-oilosis may interfere
Avith sexual maturation or normal mi<rration patterns of kinjr salmon.
Tuberculosis test i-esults -were nejzative. lIow(n-er. this does not rule out
other diseases.

Ifad fJir fmh (nh)>(I a rii'ir )i'it ifi t fiadji In spfiicH. ninl ih(}i re-
turned to the oecan?

Pacific salmon lun'e been known to ilo this, but sudi action would
not ex]>lain the physiological conditi(»ii of the two king salmon under
discussion.

McCully flOoG) told of an adult king salmon tagged September 1953
in the Sacramento Eiver near Fremont Weir. 126 statute miles up-
stream from the Golden Gate, being caught by a jiarty boat fisherman
May lOol: in the ocean neai' tlie Farallon Islands, about 30 miles off
San Francisco. There is nothing in the report about the fish's appear-
ance being unusual. Presumably this fish had made an early entry
into the river and had returned to tlie sea without spawning.

Had fJi>))- spaie)n')i(i migration hern interrupted and had theij tempo-
rarity left the river?

King salmon in the San Joaquin Eiver. California, in 1964 were
tagged with sonic tags which i)ermitted monitoring their movements.
Most were observed to move downstream ra))idly and remain for from
a few hours to several days before returning as far as the tagging site
rCalifornia Department of Fish and Game, 1965). McCully (1956)
reported that 1.2 vr of the king salmon tagged in one period at Fremont
Weir (15% of the recoveries) were recovered in tlie gill net fishery
more than 62 miles downstream from the tagging site. (Until 1957,
commercial gill net fishing was legal in the Sacramento Eiver. ) The
tagged fish in the gill nets had not spawned and appeared no different
than other salmon taken.

Tait. Hout, and Thorsteinson (1962) reported that 21 red salmon,
0. nerka, out of 1.934 tagged 11 miles up the Kenai Eiver. Alaska,
were recovered the same season in the Cook Inlet commercial fishery.

Such evidence suggests either tliat tlie experience of being captured
and tagged causes some fish to reverse course and proceed downstream
or that a moderate number of immature salmon enter streams and
return to the ocean. The fish landed at Eureka had not been tagged,
but an interrupting experience could conceivablx' have caused them
to reenter the ocean.

Cendel their migration into the river have teen delayeel to the extent
that then were maturing or had spaivneel in the ocean?

This could happen if the homing instinct or navigational ability of
these fish had gone awry or if there had been some physical block which
prevented their entering fresh water.

A small adult pink salmon, 0. gorhuseJia, taken by a boy diver in the
ocean at La Jolla, California, in September 1945, was reported by

OCEAN KING SALMON WITH SPAWNING FEATURES 179

Hubbs (1946) as a southern range extension. The fish had slightly
hooked jaws, enlarged canine teeth, and body cavity filled with mature
eggs. Leo Shapovalov, California Department of Fisli and Game, ex-
amined a sample of the scales and found them to sliow spawning ab-
sorption or erosion along their outer margins. Pink salmon often spawn
in intertidal water. Therefore, it is fairly easy to accept that a pink
salmon could mature in the ocean. Maturation of gonads of king salmon
regularly begins in the ocean. Perhaps a king salmon would continue
to mature if it remained in the ocean.

SUMMARY

Two king salmon landed at P]ureka were recognized by salmon
dealers as being unusual. P)otli were cauglit in tlic ocean and ])ossessed
features associated with sexual maturation at a time when relatively
few California king salmon are iiuitiifing. The e()h)ration of one and
the scales of both were unusniil. llotli were iiiulerweiglit, of simihir
lengtli, and were caught from the same area on different da\s. Either
could liave moved into a i-iver to spawn, to feed, or for any other
reason, and returned to the sea. Eitliei- may have completed sexual
development in the ocean, as did a pink salmon taken off soutliecn
California.

REFERENCES

("iilifoniiii Depart moil t of Fi.sh and Gaiiic ll)t>"i. 1".m;1 IicKa salmon migration
study (soiiif tas phase). Stafl". Salmon/Steellicad Pmiinini, I'oh. 19G5, IS p.
( Typewritten i

Fry. Donald 11. .Tr.. and Eldoii 1'. I lushes. ID.")!. Tli.- California salmon troll
tishery. I'ae. Mar. Fish. Comm., Hull.. (2) : 7-42.

Gihhs. Karl D. lUr.C. A bisexual steelhead. Calif. Fish and Game, 42 (3) : 229-231.
IJiihhs, Carl L. l!)."i(;. Wandering of pink salmon and other salmonid fishes into
southern Californi:t. Calif. Fish and (Jaine. 32 (2) : 81-SO.

McCully. Howard. !!»")(). An undescribed type of migration in king salmon, Oncor-
hynchus fshuiri/t.srlia tWalbaum). Calif. Fish and Game. 42 (3) : 189-198.

McLean. Donald D. 194."(. Late sjjring spawning of cliinook salmon {Oncorhyn-
chus txhaicytHcha). Calif. Fish and Game. 31 (4) : 211.

Menrhen, Kobert S. 196.". An observation of king salmon spawning successfully
in Deer Creek in March 19t)4. Calif. Fish and (Jame, 51 (1) : 53-55.

Moffett. .lames NV., and Stanford H. Smith. 1950. Biological investigations of the
fishery resources of Trinity River. California. T'. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.. Si)ec.
Sci. Kept.— Fish.. 12 : 71 p.

Kich, Willis IL 1921a. An instance of adult, sea-run cliinook salmon found feed-
ing in fresh water. Calif. Fish and Game, 7 (1) : 7-8.

— 19216. The relative maturity of the chinook salmon taken in the ocean along

the Pacific coast. Calif. Fish and Game, 7 (1) : 12-22.
Robertson. O. H. 1957. Survival of precociously mature king salmon male parr

(Oncorhyiichiis txhauytscha Juv.) after spawning. Calif. Fi.sh and Game, 43

(2) : 119-130.

Slater, Daniel W. 1903. Winter-run chinook salmon in the Sacramento River,

California with notes on water temperature requirements at spawning. U. S.

Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. — Fish.. 461 : 9 p.
Tait. Howard D., .7. L. Rout, and F. V. Thorsteinson. 1902. An evaluation of

fyke trapping as a means of indexing salmon escapements in turbid streams.

U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept. — Fish.. 428 : 18 p.
Wood. James W.. and Purling J. Ordal. 19.58. Tuberculosis in Pacific salmon and

steelhead trout. Fish Comm. Oregon, Contribution, 25:38 p.

Calif. Finh and Gotm .S3 (3) : 1S0-1S4. lOf."

PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS ON THE ACCLIMATIZATION

OF JUVENILE KING SALMON, ONCORHYNCHUS

TSHAWYTSCHA, TO SALINE WATER MIXED

WITH SEWAGE POND EFFLUENT'

GEORGE H. ALLEN and PATRICK O'BRIEN'

Fisheries, Division of Natural Resources

Humboldt State College

Areata, California

The survival of king salmon in six experiments v/as tested in the fol-
lowing solutions: sea water from Humboldt Bay mixed with hatchery
water, effluent from Areata oxidation pond, and sea water from Humboldt
Bay mixed with effluent. The experiments were carried out at hatchery
facilities of Humboldt State College from February 2 through July 8, 1965.
Six-week-old salmon showed tolerance to high salinities, but at 9 weeks of
age tolerance of the fish decreased. After 9 weeks the salmon showed
increasing tolerance to higher salinities with increasing age. Maximum
survival occurred in mixtures of effluent and sea water. These mixtures
also showed a therapeutic effect when the salmon were suffering mor-
talities from an unidentified internal parasite. Results indicated the
desirability of field experiments to test the hypothesis that sewage ef-
fluent could be used to increase natural foods in saline ponds to rear
salmon.

The city of Areata. California, on the northern arm of Humboldt
Bay, gives primary and secondary treatment to its domestic sewage.
The effluent from this treatment is discharged into a 50-aere oxidation
pond (stabilization lagoon i. located on mud flats of the intertidal zone
of Humboldt Bay f Hazel. 1963 i.

Domestic sewage, eitlier raw or treated, is a recognized fertilizer.
It was liypothesized that tlie effluent from the Areata oxidation pond
could be used to increase natural foods for fisli in rearing ponds con-
structed adjacent to the oxidatirin pond. (Also, the rearing pond
would provide additional biological treatment to the oxidation pond
effluent, thereby producing a higher qualitv discharge into Humboldt
Bay.)

As a preliminary step, experiments on the tolerance of young king
salmon to various salinities and the effluent from the Areata oxidation
pond were carried out in the fish cultural facilities at Humboldt State
College.

METHODS

Eyed eggs, obtained through the cooperation of the California De-
partment of Fish and Came from the Iron Gate fish cultural facilities
on the Klamath River, were received on December 7, 1964, and began
hatching on December 27. A series of six experiments using these
salmon began on Februarv 2 and ended on Julv 8. 1965 (Table 1).

' Submitted for publication August 1966.

2 The junior author is now with Marine Resources Operations, CaUfornia Department
of Fish and Game.

(180)

EXPERIMENTS WITH JUVENILE KING SALMON

181

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182 ( .\l,ll()i;.\l.\ I'ISII AM) CAMK

Tn ciicli of tli(^ ('Xi')r'riiiionts. tlio sli(irt-t(>rni inortjility of juvonilo
s;iliiiim \v;is Icslcd in tlic I'dllowiii^- solutions: sc;i water i'roni Hum-
boldt r>iiy iiiix(Ml with lialcli(M-y \vatci- to prdduco selected salinities
(test A), oxidation pond water > crducnt i alone (test B), and sea
■water from IIuiid)oi(lt liay mixed with oxi(hdion pond Avater to produce
several selected salinities (test ('). A coidrol <;-roup in hatchery water
Avas maintained dnrinjr each expi liment.

The broad ran<re of sjdiinty levels in test A of the first experiment
Avas seh^'ted to locate the critical area for salinity tolerance of juvenile
kin<r sabiion. (_)n the basis of the results of this experiment and pre-
liminary information derived fi-oiii salinity tolerance experiments at
the Alsea Laboratory of the Orejjon State Came Commission (H. J.
Rayner and F. L. Carrison, pers. commun.. I)<'e. 7. If)n4), salinities
of 17, 19, 21. 28. and 25', V ())ai-ts per thousand; were chosen to pro-
vide 2/^f) increments around what appeared to be a critical point for
acclimati/ation (20/^f,). In experiment 2, the tank for test A with 17%o
was not assembled because of an oversifrht. Initially, the experiments
had been ])lanned to run dnring the period of instruction at the collefre
and to finish with experiment 5 the end of May. Examination of results
of the first five experiments nrued another experiment, so experiment
6 was added. Only six aquaria wei-e available for this experiment.
Salinities for test A of 8.5, 25, and MYrt were selected. The lii<,dier
salinities were chosen because the data indicated an increasing tol-
erance to higher salinities with increasing age.

For test C, an initial salinity of 10;^r was chosen arbitrarily. This
was increased to 15/^c for the following four experiments. In the final
experiment, it was increased to 17^f because of increasing tolerance,
as indicated above for salinities in Test A. expei-iment 6.

Each of eight 25-gallon aquaria Avas fitted with a commercially avail-
able spun glass and charcoal filter designed for home aquaria. Com-
pressed air was forced through each filter to circulate the water through
the filter and insure oxygen saturation in the aquarium.

Temperature fluctuation through the course of an experiment was
minimized by placing the aquaria in troughs, where ambient hatcherv
Avater provided insulation. Temperatures during the series of experi-
ments gradually iiicreased Avitli the normal seasonal Avarming of water
in the hatchery. Day-to-day A'ariation usually did not exceed 1 or 2 F.
altliough in a feAV 1- or 2-day periods increases in temperature of 2
to 3 F occurred.

In experiments 1 tlirough 5, each solution AA'as tested Avith 50 salmon.
Control grou])s also contained 50 salmon. In experiment 6. the number
of fish AA'as reduced to 25 to prevent overcroAvding, since the fish had
groAvn considerably by the end of June.

Experiments 1 through 5 Avere run for 13- and 14-(lay periods; ex-
periment (i Avas run for 8 days.

RESULTS

The results of the experiments are reported in terms of mortality
percentages (Table 1). SeA^eral peculiar results appeared. The first AA^as
an unexpectedly loAv mortality of A^ery young salmon fry in all but one
salinity tested in experiment 1. Only at 25/^r salinity did any mortality
occur. The second appeared in experiment 2, AA'lien older fish shoAved

EXPERIMENTS WITH JU^^NILE KLVG SALMON 183

70% mortality at W/cc. Unfortunately, no fisli were tested at ll%o in
expernnent 2. As the fish grew older (experiments 3-6), an increasing
tolerance to higher sahnities occurred, eventually exceeding that showS
by the very young salmon fry in experiment 1. We are not able to
explanitlie apparently anomalous results of liigli initial tolerance to
relatively high salinities in experiment 1 followed by the much lower
tolerance m experiment 2.

An epizootic of internal protozoans caused mortalities in all hatcherv
hsh including test fish, trom late .Alarch until mid-Iunr We were
unable to identify these parasites.

In experiments 4 and 5, salt water had a proimuiieed therapeutic
ettect on til.' salm.m at a time when the control fish were sutt'erino'
considerable mortality. (Oxidation ix.nd water also ha.l a tlierapeutic
eitect. ^

A consistently low mortality in our cxpci-imcnts occucivd in a mix-
ture of oxidation pond water and sea water (test C).

DISCUSSION
Surprisingly, the undiluted efHuent from the oxidati.m p.uul was not
toxic to tlie salmon until early suimiier (experiment G). The oxidation
pond receives raw sewage as overflow when the sewage treatment i)lant
IS not able to treat the entire incoming flow during lieav\- rains Al-
though storm drams are .separate fi-om the sewage s\-.stem, there is con-
siderable leakage of storm water into the sewage lines The pond re
ceived maxnnu.M flushing from storm waters during heavv rains in
December 1!MJ4, but it is doubtful that the dilution persisted until June
Ihus, it appears that during mu.-h of the year the Areata pond .■fliuent
alone is ot sufficiently high (,uality to rear juvenile king salmon

Average monthly salinities of 32-3-1/,^ characterized north Ihn.iboldt
iiay m l<Jbl-b2 at a point about 2 miles southwest of the oxidation
pond (KSkeesick, 1963; Jaeoby Creek Station, Table o). Periods of rainv
weather reduced the salinity to a low of about 2S%o during February
Since Humboldt Bay has a high flushing rate, periods of low salinity
are of relatively short duration. Even the 2Sycc encountered in Febru-
ary 1962 IS considerably higher than the 15-17;^. which our experi-
ments indicated would be an initially desirable salinitv for voun..- kirn-'
salmon. Increasing the salinity of the pond with tlie groWth of the
salmon might be desirable.

Presumably, temperatures in the rearing pond would have to be
kept low. Summer water temperatures in north Humboldt Bay (ther
mograph records of the California Department of Fish and Game) are
below ,0 F, and generally in the low 60 's. At all other times the tem
peratures are below 60 F. How temperature might affect the ability
ot salmon to acclimatize could not be shown by the present exoeri
ments. ^

CONCLUSIONS

_ Most municipal and industrial effluents in California are discharc^ed
into coastal saline waters (Pearson, Pomerov, and McKee 1960) Thus
a large fisli production potential might be exploited with the success'
ful development of saline fish rearing facilities fertilized with sewa^^e
enluents. °

184 <'.\l.ll(>l;.\"IA I-'ISII AM) CAMI')

The results (if llicsc prcliiiiiuiiry laborjilory cxjierinicnts seem to
justify testiii<r of tlic liyi)()tli('sis in the field by cimst I'lict iii<r small ex-
periiui'iital jxiiids adjacent 1n ilic Areata stabilization la;io(in. T.and to
eoiistruet a seri<'s of 1-aei'e jxMids is available. (Mn' sudi ])ond would
reeeive sea watei- from Ihnnboldt Day oidy. Other ponds could i-eeeive
different volumes of eftluent from the stabilization lajroon. Kcpial ]ium-
bers of youn<j: salmon could Ic phmtcd into ihc jxuids and the results
of fertilization measured by the survival, growth, and physical condi-
tion of the fish after chosen time intervals.

REFERENCES

Hazel. Chnrlcs R. lOCt'.',. fliloruiilix 11 iind non-.astuciii pignipiit nuiconlrnf ion, and
l)liot().><.vntlictic ox.vfien iirodiiction in a sewaj^e oxidation i>oiid. ITiinil)o]df, State
College, M.S. Thesis. June liKw.

Pearson, p]rnian A., Richard D. Ponieroy, and .lack E. IMcKee. 1U(\0. Snmmary of
marine waste disposal rescarcli program in California. State Water Pollution
Control Board, Puld. No. '2'2. 77 \).

Skeesick. Delhcrt C. l!t().'l A study of some ]iliysical-chemical characteristics of
Humboldt Bay. Humboldt State College, M.S. Thesis, June 19G3.

Calif. Fish and Game, 53 CJ) • 185-191. 19G7.

FISH REMAINS RECOVERED FROM A CORONA DEL MAR,
CALIFORNIA, INDIAN MIDDEN (ORA-190)''

JOHN E. FITCH

Marine Resources Operations
California Department of Fish and Game

The washed screenings from approximately 0.6 ft.^ of Indian midden
yielded 133 fish vertebrae, teeth, otoliths, and other remains from which
five species of sharks and six kinds of bony fishes were identified. Most
of these fishes undoubtedly were caught by the Indians, but the arrow
goby and northern anchovy otoliths probably arrived at the midden in
the stomachs of predatory species.

During exea\ati(jn <jt' an Orange County, California, Indian midden
by members of the Paeifie Coast Arehaeologieal Soeiety, a 6-ineh scjuare
coluiim lit' uiiddcii sdil was saved from their pit H-28 so that I could
process the sample i'or fisli remains. Tlie site the Indians had occupied,
designated Buck Gulley #1 Site, Ora-190, is "on the 300-foot terrace
above tlie town of Corona del Mar, 10.000 feet southeast of Newport
Bay" (Paul G. Chace, pers. commun.). The midden at pit H-28 was
30 inches deep, so the special sample comprised five units, represent-
ing sequential 6-inch horizontal levels.

1 i)rocessed the material from each unit separately, using a teclmique
that has proven highly successful for recovering fish remains from fossil
deposits (Fitch, 1966), and which recently yielded identifiable fish
remains from 45 species that liad been utilized by the (,'humasli Indians
at ^\'ntura, California (Fitch, ]\IS).

Using a metal tub, I submerged each 6-inch unit from the special
sample in sufficient water to produce a soupy mixture that could be
manipulated easily in fine-mesh screens. Next, I fitted three sieves
together (2, 1, and 0.5 mm, U. S. Standard Sieve Series), with the
largest mesh on top, and then washed the soupy mixture through these
screens a couple of quarts at a time. The clean residue retained by each
screen was dumped onto newspapers and allowed to dry in the sun.
Since the 9-mesh screen (2 mm) had retained an assortment of coarse
non-fish material (rock and shell fragments primarily), this was re-
moved by rescreening with |-inch mesh. The coarse residue retained
by the ^-inch mesh was scrutinized by eye, but the remaining material
was spread evenly, one tablespoonful at a time, in a square, plastic
icebox-dish lid with slightly raised edges, and examined through a
binocular microscope at six magnifications.

Although the coarsest screenings yielded but a single, unidentified
teleost (fish) vertebra, the residue from the finer screens contained

' Submitted for publication January 1967.

- Various sites in California tliat have been occupied by Indians are designated by
a series of three letters followed by one or more numbers. The letters indicate
the county in which the midden is located, and the numbers specify a particular
midden within that county. In southern California, personnel of the Archeological
Survey, University of California Los Angeles, assign numbers as middens are
reported and maintain a master file for the area. The Division of Beaches and
Parks, Sacramento, performs the same function for northern California, and
maintains a master file for the entire state. Thus Ora-190 is the 190th site
recognized in Orange County.

(1S5)

ISC

r.MJFOI^'NMA FISH AM) CAMK

l;!l' ilcllis ih.ll i-dilld he jlSsij^MU'd 1(i 11 species (i I' lislles: f) cljISIIlO-

l)r;iiiclis iiiiil (i tclcosis (^Tablc 1). hi addil inn. iiuinci'diis i-odent tcetli,
\-(.'rlcl)i-ii('. iiiid oilier bniiy fr;m-iiicii1s were [treseiit in llic residue ro-
taiued liy llic !•-. IS-, niid .'JL*-iiiesli screens; ;iiid tiny, chari-ed plant

TABLE 1
Fish Remains from a Corona del Mar Indian Midden (Ora-190)

Scientific name

lleteriiiloiitiix fraiicixci

Platjirliinoidis triscriata^ _ .

Hhitu)bat:>.i jiroiluctus

Sqtiatina califoniici,

Triahis semifasciata

Unidentified clasiiiobranchs

Amphistichus argenteus

Calamus hracJii/somus

Clevelandia ios

EngrauUs mordax

Paralahrax sp

Pimclomctiipon pulclirum . _

Unidentified bony fishes-.

Cunnuon name

Sharks, rays, skates

Horn sliark

Tharnback - -

Sh-jveinose guitarfisli- _

Pacific angel shark

Le jpard shark

Bony fishes

Barred surfperch

Porgy

Arrow goby

Northern anchovy

Bass

Sheephead

Depth (inches)

0-6

C-12

12-18

18-24

ijt

Ijt

Ijt

3dd

Idd
Ijt

2v

2v

Iv

IdJ

Ipt

Idd

2,it

lo

lo

Ijt

3jt

■lit
Ipt

4jt

.'(V

26v

26 V

21v

-'Jt

I'jt

Ijt

2jt
Ipt

24-30

Idd
2dd
Iv

2jt
ll't

Lit

jt = jaw tooth; pt = pharyn^ieal tooth; dd = dermiil denticle; o = otolith; v = verterbra.

seeds were very abundant, particularly in the finest material. While
these plant and rodent remains may not represent food items, their
presence in tiie midden indicates that they were living in tlie area at
the time the site was occupied, and they offer an excellent opportunity
for some enterprising- arcliaeologist to improve our knowledge of the
Indian's environment. Finalh% a disk-type shell bead 4.5 mm in di-
ameter was retained by the 9-mesh screen from the 18- to 24-iiich
horizon.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT
Heterodontidae — horn sharks

Hcfcrodonfus francisci (Girard) — horn shark

Horn sharks are abundant in rocky subtidal areas between about
Morro Bay, California, and ]\Iagdalena Bay, Baja California. They
reach lengths of about 3h feet, and weights of about 25 pounds. They
are actiA^e mostl}^ at night, when they are foraging for food. Although
they W'ill take a baited hook, they are easily caught in fish or lobster
trajjs which are set overniglit, and can be taken abundantly with gill
nets. On rare occasions, horn sharks are found hiding under large
boulders in shallow intertidal areas. The Indians Avho occupied Ora-190
probably captured horn sharks incidental to other fishing activities
(including intertidal scrounging) along tlie rocky outer coast. Horn
shark remains haA'e been reported from a Chumash site at Ventura
(Fitch, MS).

Material: 2 teeth, from the 18- and 32-mesli screens.

FISH REMAINS FROM AN INDIAN MIDDEN 187

Triakidae — leopard sharks

Triokis semifasciata Girard — leopard shark

The leopard shark ranges from about Oreg-on to Manzatlan, and is
also found in the northern Gulf of California. It usually frequents
shallow areas where the bottom is sandy, including bays and lagoons.
A 5-footer weighing 40 to 45 pounds would be a large individual,
altliough they may reach 7 feet. Leopard sliarks are easy to catch on
hook and line, especially at night; they also can be speared without
too much difficulty. Although present-day fishermen catch leopard
sharks j)i-iinarily with gill nets, tlie inhabitants of the Ora-l!)() sit(>
|)i'(»l)abl\' relied almost ciitircly upon hook aiul line, and the hai'poon
or spear, for obtaining fish. Leopard shark remains have been repoi'ted
from a Ventura site (Fitch, MS) and from middens at Arroyo Sequit,
the Century Ranch, and Drakes Bay (Fonett, 19r)3r/./>. 1904).

Material: 1 tooth from tlie 9-mesli screen.

Squatinidae — angel sharks

Sqitatina califoruica Ayres — Pacific angel shark

Pacific angel sharks range from soullierii Alasl<a into llie Gulf of
California, but they are not abundant north of Point Conception. They
usually are seen in sandy areas along the outer coast at de))tlis slial-
lower than IjU feet; they rai'cly eiiler shallow bays or lagoons. A 44-
ineh female, the largest of seveial liumli-ed individuals examined dur-
ing a 3-year period, Aveighed 31 pimiids. The Indians ])robably caught
angel shai'ks on hook and line in iutennediate depths outside the surf
zone. The habits of these sharks pri'clude the use of sj)cars, except by
divers. Angel shark remains have been reported from coastal Indian
middens at Ventura by Fitch (MH ) and at Point ^Nlugu. Arroyo Sequit,
and the Century Panch by F(.llett ( 1!)32. 19(i3r/./>i.

Material: G dermal denticles from the 32-mesh screen.

Rhinobatidae — guitarflshes
IiJiiiiohatos prodKchis ( A\res ) — shovelnose guitarfish

The shovelnose guitarfish is one of the more common elasmobranchs
throughout much of its range between IMonterey Bay and the (iulf
of CaliToriiia. It visually inhabits shallow sandy areas along the outer
coast, but often enters shallow bays and lagoons. Sometimes large indi-
viduals will feed high up on the shore in the wash of breaking waves,
often almost stranding themselves as a wave recedes. These indiA'iduals
can be har]:)ooned or caught by hand if one is quick enough, but most
of the shovelnose guitarfish the Ora-190 Indians caught probably were
taken with hook and line. A record-sized female was 61| inches long
and weighed 40^ pounds. Shovelnose guitarfish remains have been re-
ported from a Ventura midden (Fitch, IMS) and from Chumash sites
at Arroyo Sequit and the Century Ranch (Follett, 1963rt.&).

Material: 1 tooth from the 32-mesh screen.

Platurlnnoiclis triseriata (Jordan and Gilbert) — thornback

The thornback ranges from about Elkhorn Slough. California, to
Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California, but is rare north of Morro
Bay. On the outer coast it seems to prefer sandy areas outside the

18,=:

(• ai.ii"(m;\ 1 A I'isii \\i> cwii;

l)f(';ikiiiLr surf, bul ;i1 liiiics t liornljiicks will n^'j^i'c.Liiilc on lidal iia1s in
l)ays and lajroons. In tlio oooan. Ilicy arc i-cadily C'an<>-lit ■with hook
and line. I)ii1 wlicn cnncriit ral i(ins appi'ar on tlic tidal Hats ol' bays
and lairoons llicy can be cauLiht by hand, spcai'cd. etc. A lai'^c indi-
A'idnal iiii<rld be '.]{) iiiclics lonjjf and wci;^-li (i or 7 jxiunds. Fiteh (MS)
I'cported thornbnck remains from a ('linmasli site at V'entura.
Material: 1 dermal deiiti(de or ''spine" from the 82-mesh screen.

Unidentified elasmobranchs

Amoni;- 1lic uiiidcnt i(ic(l sliai'k. skate, and ray i-cmains from tlie
()r;i-llll) special sam])le are (i small vertebrae( mostly frotii tlie 9- and
18-mesli screens), and 2 '■(Ici-mal denticles" sindlar to those found
around the "lips" of Sqi(afi)ta, Triakis, Mi<sf(iits, and a few other
sharks. These tiny denti(des were both in the 32-mesli screen.

Engraulidae — anchovies
Engraiilis: mordax Girard — northern anchovy

The northern anchovy is a schoolinp; fish that rano:es from British
Columbia to jMajzdalena Bay and offshore for several hundred miles.
They are reported to attain a length of i) inches, but specimens larger
than 7 inclies seldom are seen in nearshore areas. An 8-inch fish will
weigh about 2 ounces. I have no doubt that some coastal Indians fished
for and caught anchovies, but tlie single otolith recovered at Ora-190
(Figure 1) showed signs of having been eroded by digestive action,

. *-,

FIGURE 1— Fisti otoliths recovered from a Corona del Mar, California, Indian midden: left,

right sagitta of northern anchovy 3.3 mm long; right, left sogitta of arrov/

goby 1.2 mm long. Phofographs by Jack W. Schoit.

which would indicate that it had been in the stomach of some preda-
tory fish or bird the Indians had utilized. Northern anchovy otoliths
were fairly common in a Chumash midden at Ventura (Fitch, MS).
Material: 1 otolith from the 32-mesh screen.

Serranidae — basses

Paralahrax sp. — sand or kelp bass

Three species of Paralaljrax are abundant in shallow waters along
the southern California coast. The kelp bass, P. clathratus. prefers
rocky habitat, especially where kelp beds are prolific. Of the other two,

FISH REMAINS FROM AN INDIAN MIDDEN 189

P. nehulifer is the most likely to be found on sandy-bottom areas of the
outer coast, while P. maculatofasciatus is most common on the same
type of substrate within bays and lagoons. All three species are easily
hooked or trapped (lobster or fish traps), and one or both techniques
probably were used by the Indians who inhabited Ora-190. P. clathratus
attains a weight of at least 15 pounds, but the other two species are
smaller : P. nehulifer possibly attains 10 pounds, and P. maculatofasci-
atus 6 or 7. Follett ( 1963(7, ?>) has reported P. nehulifer remains from
Chumash sites at Arroyo Sequit and the Century Ranch.
Material: 1 canine-like jaw tooth from the 18-mesh screen.

Sparidae — porgies

Calamus hrachysomus (Lockington) — Pacific porgy

The prosent-day range of the Pacific l)orgy extends from Oceanside,
California, to south of Lima. Peru, but the species is rarely seen north
of Sebastian Viscaino Bay, Baja California. Adults rarely are found
in depths greater than 150 feet, and are abundant in shallow, sandy
areas of the outer coast as well as inside coastal bays and lagoons;
juveniles occur in great numbers over shallow tidal fiats of coastal
bays and lagoons. A hirge individual miglit be 20 inches long and weigh
6 or 7 pounds. The Pacific porgy is easily lakrn on hook and line,
whicli is probably how the Indians caught theirs, but they might also
have si)eared the i)orgy in the sluillows of Newport Bay.

Material: 2 teeth from the 18-mcsh screen.

Embiotocidae — surf perches

Amphistichus argcnteus Agassiz — barred surfperch

Barred surfperch range from Bodega Bay, California, to Playa
Maria Bay, Baja California. Tliey have been captured in depths ex-
ceeding 50 feet, but they are primarily inhabitants of the breaking
surf along sandy beaches of the outer coast. Barred surfperch are
superior bait thieves, and because of this they are difficult to hook even
thougli they "bite" readily. They would be an easy target for an
exj^erienced spear thrower standing in shallow water scanning the areas
between shoreward-rolling waves, and I svispect that this was the prin-
cipal technique employed by the Ora-190 Indians. A record-sized fish
was 17 inches long and weighed 4:j pounds. Barred surfperch remains
were rei)orted by Fitch (MS) from a Ventura Chumash site.

Material: 1 pluayngeal tooth from the 18-mesh screen.

Labridae — wrasses

Pimrlomciopon pulclinim (Ayres; — California sheephead

California sheepliead range from Monterey Bay to and into the Gulf
of California. Throughout much of this area they abound in rocky
areas, particularly where dense kelp beds grow. They have been re-
ported to attain lengths of 3 feet and a w^eight of 36^ pounds, but
individuals exceeding 30 inches and 25 pounds are extremely rare.
Sheephead w411 "bite" on an assortment of baits, but they are diffi-
cult to hook because of heavy, protruding teeth and an ability to nibble
at the edges of the bait. They are easy to capture in fish and lobster
traps, and underwater spearfishermen take a heavy toll each year.

]'.H) ('.\1,1|-()|;NI A IMSII AND CAM I!

SIii'i'|i1ic;m 1 ;i |)|);i iTiit I \ wcrr ;i I'lndi'ilc |»rc\ (if tlu' cdnsl;!! Iiidijiii. jind
llicir (list iiicl i\(' niiissix'c j;i\\s ;iii(| tci'tli :\rr iisii;illy rctjiiiicd 1)\- 1lic
Ijirjro-iiu'sli scrci'iis used by jii'cli;H'()l()<j:isl.s. so /'. piilclniini i-ciiuiiiis luivc
been r('])()rl('(l t'l-oiii iiiniiy middens iiicludinLi' sites ;i1 Arroyo (Jr;mde,
\'('ii1ur;i. Point .Mii'ju. ^Vrroyo Se(|ui1. liie ('eiitiii'v Haiieli, La .Jolla,
Scili Nicolas Islaiivl. and Santa Catalina Island i b'ilcli, in press; Follett.
1!1:12. }'M]:](i.h: Mein-Iian, .1!)59; Mei«,dian and Kberliart. 195:?; Miteliell,
l!*.')!); Shniiiway. ijnbbs, aiid ]\Ioriar1y. l!)(il; Wallaee, 1902).

Mairriah 115 jaw teetli (mostlv from the .']2-mesli sereon) and 2 scsr-
iiienis of fused jiharyngeals from the 9- and IS-mesh sci-eens.

Gobi Ida e — gobies

Ch !'( hindia ios (Jordan and Ciilbcrt i -ai-row ^'oby

The arrow y:oby ran<i:es from Vaneouver Island, British Columbia,
In at least San Quintin Bay, Baja California. Tyj)ically it inbabits
mud Hats of baek bays and lagoons, and bas been reported from rivers
and streams that enter tliese bays. l^>eeause a large arrow goby, perbaps
2 inches long, would not weigh much more than a good-sized kitchen
mateb, I do not believe the Indians eitber fisbed for or caught tbem.
Keeder (1951) reported finding 120 C. ios otoliths in tbe stomach of a
greater yelloAV-legs {Toianns mdanoJcucus), and 27 more in the stom-
ach of a short-billed dowitcber (Lininodromns scolopaceus), so the oc-
cun-ence of goby otoliths in sborebird stomachs is fairly well docu-
mented. I feel quite certain that tbe single C. ios otolith I recovered
(Figure 1) from the Ora-190 midden arrived there in the stomach of
some sborebird (willet, curlew, yellow-legs, dowitcber, etc.) the Indians
had killed or found.

Mail rial : 1 otolith from the 32-mesb screen.

Unidentified teleost remains '

Vertebrae were tbe most abundant of tbe unidentified bony fish re-
mains from this site, being found in all screens and at all depths. Some
of these 81 vertebrae probably came from the same species as listed
above, but I believe that they represent a minimum of four or five
additional species. Other unidentified teleost renuiins include 11 jaw
teeth and 1 pharyngeal tooth, primarily from the 18- and 32-mesh
screens.

DISCUSSION

The use of fine-mesh sieves and a ]iiicros('o})e to examine washed
screenings from a relatively ininute ])ortion (about 0.6 ft.'^) of the
1,800 ft.'"* of midden excavated at Ora-190 yielded considerable infor-
mation regarding tbe fin fishes utilized by tbe Indians, and permits
speculation about their fisheries.

The relative dearth of fish remains, compared to Ven-3, Arroyo
Sequit, the Century Ranch, and similar middens, indicates that the
inhabitants of Ora-190 were not marine oriented, even though they
seem to have been familiar with seagoing craft. To obtain at least 3
and possibly 4 of the 11 species identified from this midden (angel
sharks, bass, porgv, and sheepbead), the Indians would have had to use
some type of craft that would float and could be propelled, although
a raft would have been adequate, because none of the fisheries would
have necessitated trips into rough water or more than 100 yards or so

FISH REMAINS PROM AN INDIAN MIDDEN 191

offsliore. It does not appear that this group of Indians utilized such
efficient types of gear as gill nets, beach seines, etc., or a great many
more fish remains would have been found in the midden, even thougli
not all food items harvested were taken home.

Although this group of Indians apparently utilized hook and line for
several species and may have used traps, I believe that many of the
fishes they took were speared as the opportunity arose while various
individuals were scrounging the shoreline for mollusks, crustaceans, and
whatever else they could find that was edible.

The relatively small quantity of midden soil saved for fisli analysis
pre(dudes an exhaustive evaluation of the fishes utilized by the occu-
pants. Unfortunately, 80 to 100 mandioui-s are needed to ))i-()cess an
adequate sample (at least 10 ft.-'), and since most qualified individuals
wdio could do tliis work are employed full time in ficdds of endeavor
other than archaeology, it is extremel\' difficult for the archaeologist to
find a specialist who is willing to undertake the task or who can s|)ai'0
that mucli of his "free'' time.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My I'cseaiudi on fish otoliths has been supported in part by a gi'ant
from the National Scdence Foujulation (GB-1244i. In addition, I wish
to thank Paul (i. ("hace for having saved for me the sample ffom
()ra-l!)0 upon which this re])ort is based. ^Irs. Koberta (li'cenwood.
Pacific Palisades, revicnved the manuscript and offered sevei-al lielpl'ul
suggestions; -lack W. Scliott took the excellent i)hotographs; and Mrs.
Loretta IMon-is typed the manuscript in its sevci'al I'cvisions.

REFERENCES

Fitch, John E. 19G0. Additional tisli ii'inaiiis, mostly otoiitlis. from a Pleistocene
d(M>nsit at Pla.va del TJey, Califoi-iiia. I.os .\nj:cles ( "o. .Miis., ("onti-ih. in Sci.,
(119) : 1 Pi.

Follett, AN'. I. 19.S2. Incomplete list of iishes from L'oint Magu [sicl sliellninund.
Los Angeles Co. ]Mus. Nat. Hist., nnpul)!. ms.

1963a. Fish remains from Arroyo Seqiiit Shellnioiind ( I..\n-.">1' ) . T>os ,Vii-

gcles Coujity. ("alifornia. Calif. Hept. I'arUs and Hecr.. l>i\'. Heaclies and I'arks,
Archaeological Kept., (9) : ll.S-ll'l.

1903/j. Fish remains from the Century H.incli Site ( I>.\n-L'l'7 ) . Los An-

geles County. California. Ann. Kept. l'.M)L;-19(i;!. Archaeological Snr\-.. rni\-. Calif.
Los Angeles p. 299-313.

19G4. Fish remains from a Si.\teenth Century site on Drakes ]5ay, Cali-

fornia. Ann. Kept. 1903-04, Archaeological Surv., l'ui\. Calif. Los Angeles,
p. 31-41.

Meighan. Clement W. 19.">9. The Little Harlior Site, Catalina Island: an example
of ecological interpretation in archaeology. Amer. Antiquity, 24 (4) : 383—405.

Meighan. Clement W., and Hal Eherhart. 19.j3. Archaeological i-e.sonrces of San

Nicolas Island. California. Amer. Antiquity, 19 (2) :109-125.
Mitchell. Edward D., Jr. 19r)9. Appendix IV. Faunal and human skeletal remains.

Archaeological Surv. Assoc. So. Calif., Los Angeles, Pap. 4, p. 1.51-1.53.
Reeder, William G. 1951. Stomach analysis of a group of shorebirds. The Condor,

53 (1) : 43-^5.
Shumway, George, Carl L. Hnbbs, and James R. Moriarty. 1901. Scripps Estate

Site, San Diego, California: a La Jolla site dated .5400 to 7370 years before the

present. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., 93 (3) : 37-132.

Wallace, William .1. 1902. Archaeological investigations in the Arroyo Grande
Creek watershed, San Luis Obispo County, California. Ann. Kept. 1901-02,
Archaeological Surv., Univ. Calif. Los Angeles, p. 23-00.

Calif. Filth ami Ontnr.Bi (2) : 1f>2-Uir,. inr,7.

PARTYBOAT LOGS SHOW HOW SKINDIVERS FARED
DURING 1963 AND 1964'

WILLIAM F. WOOD

Marine Resources Operations
California Department of Fish and Gome

During 1963 and 1964, catch records of 10,753 California skindivers
show abalone, kelp bass, and spiny lobster to be the most important
species. Diving success, in various areas, ranged from 0.6 to 5.5 fish,
shellfish, and crustaceans per da/.

Shortly after AN'oild VCnv 11, self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus (SCUBA), better skindiving equipment, and expert instruc-
tion became readily available. Consequently, many thousands of Cali-
fornians liave been lui-cd to cxi^lore tlie ocean oil' tiie nearby coast and
adjacent islands. Due Id this increased popularity of skindiving, a fleet
of charter boats catering to the needs of the skindiver has appeared.
These vessels have air compressors for filling SCUBA tanks, ladders
for easy access to and from the water, and tank storage racks. Cali-
fornia law (State of California, 1963) requires the operators of these
diving charters to keep daily records of the fish taken from their boats.
Young (1961) and Wood (1964) have summarized partyboat skindiv-
ing activity for the period 1958 through 1962. All diving catch records
received during 1963 and 1964 are summarized in this paper, except
for a few unreadable, incomplete, or improbable logs.

TABLE 1
Marine Species Catch and Effort by Diving Area, Central California, 1963 and 1964

Catch by area

Bodega Bay

Morro Bay

Monterey
Peninsula

Total

Common name

1963

1964

1953

1984

1983

1964

1963

1964

Abalone*

Rockfish*

Sea urchins- .

25

--

--

9
3

1

24

21

30

5

12

20

13
15

49

21

30

5

12

9
23

Lingcod

Scallop, rock

Cabezon

13

15
1

Number of trips

Number of divers

Number of diver/hours _ _

Catch/diver

Catch/diver-hour

25

1
5
5

5
5

--

—

13

1

9

36

1.44
0.36

92

3
54

288

1.70
0.32

48

5

81
585

0.69
0.08

117

4

59

293

2.00
0.40

61

6

90

601

0 68
0.10

' Probably more than one kind.

' Submitted for publication December 19G6.

(192)

SKINDIVER PARTYBOAT LOGS

193

During 1963 and 1964, tlie Department of Fish and Game received
eatch records from 612 skindiving charters, 10 from central California
and 602 from southern California. Central California charter boat oper-
ators reported that 149 divers took 178 fish and shellfisli (Table 1)
during the 10 skindiving trips in that region. Eight of the 10 trips
were made in the Monterey Peninsula area; no reports were received
from tlie FaraHon Islands, the most frequented area in 1960-62.

Southern California charter boat operators reported 10,604 divers
taking 27,031 fish, sliellfish, and crustaceans, of at least 21 kinds (Table
2). The four j)rincipal species, abalone, kelj) bass, lobster, and sheep-
head, have not varied in their relative importance during the past 7
years. Rock scallops moved from 16tli to 5th in importance; this was
the only majoi* cliange from the jirecediug '.\ years.

TABLE 2
Marine Species Taken by Charter Divers off Southern California 1963 and 1964

Coiniiion iiaiiic

Abalone*

Kelp bass

Spiny lobster

( "alifornia slieephead. .

Hock scallop

0))aloye

Perch*

California halibut

Hockfish*

i 'acific bonito

California yellowtail _-.

Half moon

Cabezon

Sculpin

Flatfish*

Lingcod

White seabass

California barracuda

Pacific mackerel

Ocean whitefish

Total

Number of trips

Number of divers

Number of diver-hours.

Catch diver

Catch diver-hour

Number reported

1963

1964

Total

5,881

9,543

15,424

2,262

1 ,995

4,257

998

2, 1 1 5

3,113

983

1,221

2,204

591

292

883

233

259

492

34

251

285

4<t

78

127

68

56

124

13

14

27

10

9

19

16

16

2

14

16

12

2

14

7

6

13

1

6

7

4

4

2

1

3

2

..

2

--

1

1

11,148

15,883

27,031

296

306

602

5.067

5,537

10,604

23,831

26,526

50,357

2.20

2.87

2.55

0.47

0 60

0.54

Probably more than one kind.

The most favored diving areas in southern California were Santa
Catalina, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa islands. These areas normals pro-
vide favorable diving conditions and results, and are easilv reached
from mainland ports.

'M

CAIilFOKN'IA FISH AND (iAMi;

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:^:^'A

OO 1

SKINDIVEB PARTYBOAT LOGS 195

Divers at Santa Catalina Island took 68% of the 1963-1964 abalone
catch, while at Santa Barbara Island 2.2% of the total divers took
19.3% of the total lobster catch (Table 3). Anacapa and Santa Cruz
islands were the best all around diving areas: here, 31% of the divers
took 27% of the abalones. 73% of the kelp bass, 62% of the lobsters,
and 48% of the sheephead.

A single boat reported 23 tri])S to the Palos Verdes Peninsula. Of
the 337 divers logged on these trips, perhaps lialf were trainees. For
this reason, the low catch of 0.21 animals per diver-hoiir w;is j^robably
a small fraction of the true potential.

According to the 1963-1904 logs, southern Californin divers av(>rag(Ml
4.75 hours diving time per trip. However, this figui-c includes most,
if not all, of the time boats were at anchor. The actual underwater
dive time depends largely upon the number of aii- tanks available but.
in any case, it is less than the time at anchor. On trips on which there
are a large number of divers, much time may be spent on deck wait-
ing for air tanks to be recharged. On one tri[), for exam])le. 17 divers
reported using an average of four tanks each with 30 minutes diving
time per tank (total possible ^ 2 iiours), while the boat log sliowed
5 hours of diving time.

TABLE 4

Common and Scientific Names of Marine Species Taken by Charter Divers

in California, 1963 and 1964

Conmioii tiaiiic cjciontific name

Fishes

Kass, kelp Paralabrax clathratus

Uarraciida, California Sphyraena argentea

I ionito, Pacific Sarda chiliensis

( "abczon Scorpaenichtfajs marmorntus

Flatfish* ._ Species of bothids and plcuronectids

I lal f moon Medialuna caUforniensis

1 lalibut, California Paralichthys californicus

Lingcod Ophiodon elongalus

Mackerel, Pacific Pneumatophonis diego

Opaleye Girella nigricans

Perch* Species of embiotocids

Rockfish* Sebastodes spp.

Sculpin Scorpaena guttata

Seabass, white Cynoscion nohilis

Sheephoad, California Pimelometopon pulchrum

Ocean whitcfish Caulolatilus princeps

Yellowtail, California Seriola dorsalis

Mollusks

Abalono* Haliotis spp.

Scallop, rock Hinnites muUirugosus

Crustaceans
Lobster, spiny Panulirus interruptus

Echinoderms
Sea urchins Strongylocentrotus franciscanus

* Probably more than one kind.

10r> OALTFORNIA FISH AND OAME

S(iutlii'i-ii C'nliforniii divers ;iV('r;i<r('<l 2.y)~) fisli, slicllfisli, and erus-
tiiccaiis ix'i- day in i:i():{"]i)()4, very similar to tlie 2.4 animals per day
(ibfaiMfd ill 1 !i(i()-li)(i2. Fnrtlicrmoro. Anacapa and Santa Cruz island
(livors avcrajrod '.'>.] and :'.7 animals durin<r 10r)3-1964, compared with
tlie lf)(i()-l!)(i2 avcra^'c of '.'>.{) and .'{.(i animals. At Santa Catalina Island.
catches increased from 1.75 animals iu 1DGU-1DG2, to 2.05 animals i)er
diver in 1963-1964.

REFERENCES

St.'Ho of California. 1063. Fish and Game (.'ode. 43rd ed., 294 p

Wood. William F. 1DG4. I'artylxiat lojjs sluiw Imw sl<iiirliv<'rs f.iml dnriii;; lOfJO.

llMil. aiid llHili. f'jilif. Fish and Game. 50 ( 1' t : 1 1 1 117.
Vonnj;, I';irki' H. 1!Hil. I'art.vhoat lo;;.s show how sUiiidivcrs f;irc(! (jiiiinj; liJ58

and l!>."il>. Calif. Fisli .•ind (Janie. 47 (3) : 303 -3()r).

Calif. Fish and Game, B3 (3) : 197-202. 1967.

SEROLOGICAL STUDIES OF KELP BASS,
PARALABRAX CLATHRATUS'

ALBERT C. SMITH'

Marine Resources Operations

California Department of Fish and Game

This is the first report of human blood-typing sera agglutinating kelp
bass erythrocytes, and of kelp bass sera clumping human red cells. Fish
sera from one species have not previously been known to contain ag-
glutinins specific against all human red cells in the ABO system.

Agglutination frequencies of kelp bass erythrocytes in human A and
B blood-typing sera were compared in fish caught near the southern
California mainland and at Santa Catalina Island. A statistically signifi-
cant difference in agglutination frequencies in B typing serum indicated
separate populations.

Additional blood tests revealed that there was no correlation between
type of bass serum agglutinin and agglutinogen present, and that the
kelp bass sera contained both specific and nonspecific agglutinins against
human type O red cells.

INTRODUCTION

Genetically distinct populations of marine vertebrates have been
identified by comparing the a (rgluti nation frequencies of their red
blood cells in a specific reagent. This method was utilized in studying
sei, fin. blue, and humpback whales (Fujino, 1953 1 ; sockeye salmon
(Ridgway, Gushing, and Durall, 1958) ; albacore (Suzuki, Morio, and
Mimoto, 1959) ; fur seals (Fujino and Gushing, 1960) ; spiny dogfish
(Sindermann and Mairs, 1961) ; Pacific sardines (Sprague and Vroo-
man, 1962) ; albacore, bigeye tuna, skipjack, and yello"\vfin tuna
(Sprague, Holloway, and Nakashima, 1962) ; and golden, rainbow, cut-
throat, brown, and brook trout (Galaprice and Gushing, 1964). Such
investigations have been described in detail (Gushing. 1964).

Fish sera contain a variety of substances Avhich agglutinate erythro-
cytes. Within a species, serum agglutinins occur in different frequen-
cies. This has been demonstrated in the eel AnguiUn anguilla (Grubb.
1949) ; yello^^-fin tuna and skipjack (Gushing, 1952r/,?>) ; dolphin (Yam-
aguchi and Fujino, 1953) ; goldfish (Hildemann. 1956) ; and catfish.
white croaker, and skipjack (Gushing and Durall, 1957). However, no
one has studied agglutinin frequencies to see if they could be used in
identifying noninterbreeding populations. This is probably because cer-
tain agglutinins might have been introduced previously by infections,
and because some may appear in the serum only seasonally. Therefore,
it would be difficult to tell if a particular agglutinin represents a
genetic character or an environmentally induced one.

Identification of separate kelp bass populations is an essential requi-
site for managing the resource. The present research was designed to
determine if two geographically divided groups of bass are genetically
distinct. I investigated the frequency of agglutination of their red

' Submitted for pulilication January 1967.

- Present addre.ss : Department of Population and Environmental Biologr, University
of California, Irvine ; Irvine, California 92664.

(197)

198 C.\l.II'()i;.\I A IMSIl AND GAME

cells ill lliuiuili A iillil I '> IiIihmI 1 \ piiiLl' scr;i. ;ilii| ('(jIii | i;i red |);|SS ay;4'liiti-

niii ricijui'iu-ios will) llic <roiict ii-;ill> -hjiscd ;ii:i:l ill iiio^idi rre(|U('iic'y, to
see ii' a s^'steiiKilic !'i'l;iti(inslii|t rxisii'd.

METHODS

Kelp bass were caiiu'lil by hook and line and indixidiially cxaiiiined
for ex idence of disease and infestation. Hca]1liy-lookin<>- fish were
blotted dry Avitli a towel and bled by soxcrinu' tlie caudal peduncle with
a sliai']) knife; approximately 2 nil of blood from oaeli fisli was col-
lected directly into se])arate vials.

Fish erythrocytes to be tested were ])re|)ai-ed aboard sliip from tiie
blood M-]iich had been mixed witli 3 to 5 crystals of sodium citrate
(anticoa.a'ulant ). Sufficient pli\sio]o<rical saline solution (0.9 gjrams
sodium chloride in l(i() ml distilled water) was added to one drop of
this treated blood from each fish to make a 2% suspension of cells.
The required dilution was obtained by comparing its color with a
"standard" 2% suspension. Next, the vials of blood cell suspensions
were corked and refrigerated for use within 24 hours.

Fish sera for testing also were prepared aboard ship. Whole blood
was refrigerated for several hours, after which the clot was removed
from each vial Avith a wooden applicator. At the laboratory the remain-
ing serum was cleared by centrifugation for 5 minutes at 1,000 r.p.m.,
and the sample then stored frozen until needed.

The experiments were performed with red blood cells and sera, and
utilized agglutination tests and absorption tests. These were performed
in 10x75 mm test tubes, and on 10-concavity agglutination slides.

Agglutination Test I. Fish Cells — Human Typing Sera ^

Two drops of typing serum were added to one drop of 2% red cell
suspension. The mixture was then thoroughly shaken and covered to
prevent evaporation. After 1 hour at room temperature, it was read
and assigned agglutination values 1+ through 4-|- ; a rating of 1+
was assigned to cell cluniping just faintly visible to the naked eye,
while 4-}- was used only for strongest reactions.

Agglutination Test II. Fish Sera — Human Cells

Two drops of bass serum diluted 1 :2 Avith physiological saline Avere
added to tAvo drops of a 2% suspension of Avashed erythrocytes^ (type
A, B, or 0). The mixture AA'as then treated as in Test I.

Absorption Test

This test Avas modified slightly from that recommended by Gushing
(1952//). One nd of fish serum from each individual was diluted 1:2
Avith physiological saline and placed in test tubes containing 0.1 ml of
packed, human type 0 cells. The tubes were then corked, shaken hori-
zontally for 5 to 8 minutes, and centrifuged. Next, the supernatent
Avas decanted for testing against human A, B, and 0 cells as in Test II.

3 Ortho Laljoratory human A and B blood-typinfr sera.

* Obtained fresh for each test from Memorial Hospital, Long Beach, California.

KELP BASS SEROLOGICAL STUDIES

199

RESULTS

Agglutination frequencies of fish red cells in himiaii A and B sera
were compared in kelp bass caught near the southern California main-
land (Corona del Mar to Dana Point) and at Santa Catalina Island
(White's Cove)^ — locales approximately 40 miles apart. Of 107 main-
land bass, 5 reacted in A typing serum and none in B serum. Of 126
Santa Catalina Island fish, 9 reacted in A typing serum and 13 in B
serum (Table 1). Differences in the frequencies of red cell agglutina-
tion in B typing serum were statistically significant at the 95 and
99% confidence limits, indicating that tlie kelp bass in each locale
belong to a separate population.

TABLE 1

Comparison of the Agglutination Frequencies of Kelp Bass Red Cells
in Human A and B Typing Sera

1 +

2 +

3 +

4 +

Number of a

gglut illations

o
3

Maiiilaiid kelp bass

Santa Catalina I. kelp bass

A

T.\i)iii<? scruiii

B

T,\|)ing scruiii

0

A

T.\i)ing serum

B

Tyinng serum

bO

03

O

2

0

1

0)
bO

Q

0

0

0

4

2

0

6

3

1

0

3

5

Totals

5

0

9

13

Blood samples from the first 60 of the bass caught at Santa Catalina
Island were tested reciprocally, using both Tests I and II (Table 2).
I found that A and B, or B agglutinogen existed in certain of these
fish and that agglutinins were present with little respect to type of
agglutinogen present. For example, erythrocytes from fisli nos. 4, 5,
24, 37, and 55 agglutinated in human B typing serum, while the sera
of these fish luul no d;4^ctf;ble ag'.ilutinins. However, red cells from
fish no. 23 likewise agglutinated only in B typing serum, but the bass
serum contained A, B, and unknown (i.e., type 0 cell-clumping) agglu-
tinins. In other instances, red cells from specimen no. 16 agglutinated
in A and B typing sera, while the fish serum agglutinated human
type B and 0 erythrocytes; cells from specimens 38 and 51 likewise
agglutinated in A and B typing sera, but their own sera apparently
lacked agglutinins. Red cells from the remaining bass did not aggluti-
nate in A or B typing sera ; how^ever, the sera from this group con-
tained a variety of agglutinins. These ranged from A (no. 35), B (nos.

200

C'.\I.IF(tK'XI.\ FISH AM) CAMK

]. 2."). ,')(), ,111(1 r)Si. uiikiKiwii jiLTLiliit iiiiiis I iKis. S and ."if)). A aiul B
(no. 33), r> ami uiikiKiwii aiiL;-! iit iiiiiis - ini. ."{() i , 1 li r(iu;^'li A, B, and un-
known a<r^Hiitiiiiiis i iios. (i. 7. li'. i:i 17. 18, 23, 43, and 52). In addi-
tion, sera frdin kelp bass iios. ^ ami ."iH coiitaincd aL'"trlntiiiins spofifip
against liuniaii t vpi' < ' i-clls.

TABLE 2

Results of Testing Kelp Bass Red Cells with Human Typing Sera (A and B),

and Kelp Bass Sera with Human Red Cells (Types A, B, and O)

Specimen

miiiihcr

1

2. 3 .
4, 5_.

6

7

8

9-ll_

12_--

13. _.

14. 1.5

16...

17...

18. -_

19-22

23_._

24___

25___.

26-29.

30.. _.

31, 32

.33...

34...

35...

36...

.37...

38....

.39-42.

43

44-49.

50

51

52

53, 54

55

56, 57.

58

59

60

Bas.s cells —
human typing serum

A

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 +

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 +

0

0

0

0

3 +

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

B

0
0

2 +
0

0
0
0
0
0
0

3 +
0

0
0

l-L

3 +

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 +

4 +
0

0

0

0

2 +

0

0

4 +

0

0

0

0

Bass scrum — human cells

A

n

0
0

4 +
3 +
0
0

2 +
4-f
0

0

3 I-
3f
0

4 +
0

0

0

0

0

3 +

0

3 +

0

0

0

0

3 +
0

0
0

4 +
0

0
0
0
0
0

B

3-F

0

0

4-F

1 +
0

0

3 +
3 +
0
2-1-

3 +

2 +
0

4 +
0

3 +
0

1 +
0

2-1-
0

0
0
0
0
0

3 +
0

2 +
0

4 +
0

0
0

2 +
0
0

o

0

0

0

4-1-

3 +

2-1-

0

3 +

4 +
0

H-
3+
3+
0

3 +

0

0

0

3 +

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3 +
0

0
0

4 +
0

0

0

0

14-

0

Sera from nine of the GO kelp bass from Santa Catalina Island ag-
glutinated human type A, B, and 0 erythrocytes. Absorption tests
performed on three of these confirmed that agglutinins specific against
type O cells were present in specimen no. 52 (Table 3). Antibodies
specific against liunian type O red cells previously were described in
sera of the eel AnguiUa anguiUa (Grubb, 1949).

KELP BASS SEROLOGICAL STUDIES

201

TABLE 3

Results of Testing Kelp Bass Sera (unabsorbed and absorbed)

with Human T/pe A, B, and O Red Cells

Bass serum
(unabsorbed) with human cells

Bass serum
(absorbed) with human cells

Specimen
number

A

B

0

A

B

0

52

4 +

4 +

4 +

2 +

2 +

0

18

3 +

2 +

3 +

0

()

0

23

4 +

4 +

3 +

0

0

0

The absorption tests, in addition, demonstrated that kelp bass sera
contfiined nonspeeifie agglutinins tliat reacted ajjainst type O cells
f specimens no. 18 and 23, Table 3). Tliese nonspecific agglutinins were
anIi-A and -B beeause they also reacted with the type A and B cells.
They were revealed by their depletion from the fish sera after being
(^xposed to type O red cells.

In \[Ki^^, fS. 8ugisliita reported thai serum ul' the eel ^1. japonicd re-
acts against all types of human erythrocytes (Gushing, 3964), but tlie
specificity of the agglutinins apparently was not determined.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of kelp bass erythrocytes being agglutinated
l)y human blood-tyj)ing sera, and of kelp bass sera clumping human
red cells. Fish sera from a single s])(H'ies have not previously been
known to contain agglutinins specific against all human red blood cells
in the ABO system.

The agglutination frequencies of kelp bass red cells in commercial
human A and B blood-typing sera were compared in fish caught near
the southern California mainland and at Santa Catalina Island. A sig-
nificant difference in agglutination frequencies in B typing serum lead
to the conclusion that there is a separate bass population in each locale.

"Reciprocal" testing of kelp bass and human bloods (commercial
human typing sera were used) showed in bass that the presence of a
|)articular agglutinogen did not positively mean the reciprocal aggluti-
nin was j)resent in the serum; agglutinins seemed to follow no rule
as to type present or absent. Therefore, I concluded that the agglu-
tinin frequencies in kelp bass were not sj^stematically related to their
agglutinogen frequencies, which have a genetic basis.

On the basis of reciprocal and absorption tests of kelp bass sera
capable of agglutinating human type A, B, and 0 red cells, the fish
sera could be divided into two groups: one contained specific, and the
other nonspecific, agglutinins that react with human type 0 cells. The
nonspecific agglutinins were designated anti-A and -B, since they also
reacted against type A and B red cells, respectively ; these agglutinins
were revealed by their depletion from fish sera exposed to type 0 red
cells.

I'll'J CAI.II'oK'N I A I'lSIl AM) CAM 1-;

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

1 wuiilJ liki' lu c'xleiul my sincere Ili;iiiks lo Harold 1). ('leuieiis for
liis helpl'iil criticism oi" the inaiinscrijit.

REFERENCES

C'jilaprice. .T. R., niul J. E. ("llsllill^^ liKH. lOrvtliroc.v ic ;iiitiKfiis of California
trout. Calif. Fish and Canio. 50 (?.) : ir,U I.IT.

Ctishinfr. -1. V-- 10r>2a. i^erologicnl (liffcrciilial ion of fish liloods. Science, 115 (HO.S!)) :
404-40.-).

1().")2/y. Tn(li\i(lnal \ariation in Iho lioinaKKlnl inin content of yellowfin tuna

and s]<i]).iack hlood.s. Jour. Inimunol., 68 (5) : 543-547.

]9()t. The blood ^roujis of marine animals, p. 85-131. /« F. S. Russell

[ed.]. Advances in marine biolo^.v, Vol. 2. Acndemic I'ress, New York.

Cushins. J. E., and <J. Tj. Dur.ill. 1!t57. Isoafrfciulinatiou in fish. Amer. Nat.,

91 (857) : 121-120.

Fujino. K. 1953. ( )n the serological constitution of tlie sei-. tin-, lilue- and liump-

hack-whales. 1. Whales. Res. Inst., Sci. Repts., (8) : 103-124.

Fujino, K., and J. E. Cushiug. 1960. Bl.pod types in fur seals. Science, 131 (3409) :

1310.

Grubh. R. 1949. Some a.spects of the complexity of human ABO groups. Acta
I'athol. Microbiol. Scaud.. Suppl., 84:1-72.

Ilildemann, W. H. 195G. Goldfish erythrocyte antigens and serology. Science, 124
(3216) : 315-316.

Ridgway, G. W., J. E. Cushing, and G. Jj. Durall. 1958. Serological differentiation
of populations of sockeye salmon. Oiicorhijnclius ncrka. U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Spec. Sci. Rept. : Fish. (257) : 1-9.

Sindermann, C. J., and D. F. ]\Iairs. 1961. A blood group system for spiny dog-
fisli, ><qiiaJus acanthids L.Biol. Bull., 120 (3) :401-410.

Sprague, L. M., and A. M. Vrooman. 1962. A racial analysis of the Pacific
sardine {Surdiiioji.s cacnilca) based on studies of erythrocyte antigens. Ann. N. Y.
Acad. Sci., 97: 131-138.

Sju-ague. r>. M.. J. R. Ilolloway.and I>. I. Xakashima. 19ri2. Studies of the erythro-
cyte antigens of albacore. bigeye. skipjack and yellowfin tunas and their use in
subpopulation identification. FAG World Sci. Meet. Biol. Tunas and Related
Species, La Jolla, Calif., Sec. 2, Experience paper, (22) : 1-15.

Suzuki, A., T. Morio, and K. Mimoto. 1959. Serological studies of the races of tuna.
2. Blood group frequencies of the albacore in Tg-system. Pt. 1. Comparison of
the Indian and northwestern I'acific Ocean. Nanliai Reg. Fish. Res. Lab., Rept.,
(11) : 17-23.

Yamaguchi, K., and K. Fujino. 1953. On the serological constitution of the striped
dolphin. Prodclphiitun cucnilco-ulhun (Meyen). Japan Acad., Proc. 29 (2) : 61-67.

Calif. Fif^h and Game, 5^ (?,) : 20:]-2(iS. IflGT.

AN INEXPENSIVE, SELF-CONTAINED UNDERWATER
DATA RECORDING CAMERA'

CHARLES T. MITCHELL

Marine Resources Operations

California Department of Fish and Game

An inexpensive data recording camera with underwater housing de-
signed for shallow water use is described. The unit requires no tending
while in operation and will operate for long periods of time.

A great deal of photographic equipment has been designed and con-
structed to use underwater where direct observation was iiifeasible.
Most of tliis equipiiicnt has been designed to oiierate in deep water
(Edgerton and lloadley, lf).')5; Kruse, lf)()4). To construct equipment
of this type, highly skilled personnel and considerable expense are
required.

Tlie recording camera with underwater housing described here is de-
signed for shallow water (less than 50 feet), is relatively easy to fabri-
cate, and can be constructed for less than $125. The basic design is
readily adaptable for laboratory or field studies in which it is neces-
sary to monitor equi])m('nt or organisms underwater. The unit rcMpiires
no tending while in operation and will operate for long periods of time.

CAMERA

A data recording camera for use underwater must fulfill a number
of requirements. It must be relatively compact, take a large number
of single-frame photographs without service, have an adjustable lens,
and load easily and rapidly.

Although many recording cameras have these features, their cost of
$1,000 or more limits their usage, especially when the likeliliood of loss
is high or when several units are desired.

A number of 16-millimeter, magazine-load, motion picture cameras
also fill these requirements. Examples are the Bell and Howell 200 and
Automaster, Revere Sixteen Magazine Load, Cine-Kodak Royal Maga-
zine, and the Silver Star 16-millimeter Sequence and Movie Camera.-
When new, these cameras range in price from $170 to $300, but used
models are plentiful and can be purchased for $25 to $75. The maga-
zines hold 50 feet of film and are available in black-and-white and
color.

The camera is spring-driven and permits exposure of 10 to 15 feet
of film on a single wind, or when rewound while submerged, the entire
film load. Exposing 10 feet of film provides 400 individual frames
(there are 40 frames per foot on 16-millimeter film), or at one frame
per minute, enough film to monitor for slightly over 6^ hours.

' Submitted for publication February 1967.

- Use of trade names does not imply endorsement of the products.

( 203)

204

CATJPARXIA IMsil AND CASfR

TRIPPING MECHANISM

Tn sotting: up tlio C';inici-;i 1 ri|)piii;_'' mccliiinisiii. Ilic sjiullcr-rclcase
trij) Icvor is driven tlir()U<i:li ii e()micetiii<r rod ;nid (■cccnlrie wlieel
attached to tlic diivc shaft of a 3-volt D.C. ch'cii-ic dis])]ay motor
(Figuros .1 and 2). The cani<i-;i ;iiicl 1rippin<? assembly are fastened
to a ]-iii('h plastie plate (Fi^ui-c .'! i with brass maoliinc sr-rows. Tlie
]>lat(' slides into the housing under two rumiers.

The 11 11)1 or is powered by two class-D dry -cell batteries. These motors
are small, but durable, and are available in speeds from 1 td 150 rpm
with battery holder and leads attaelied. Although the battery life varies
with load requirements, units Iuinc run as long as 4>>i) hcjurs witliout
battery replacement. We have used a motor rated at approximately
1 rpiii. However, with the installation of a 5-watt, lOO-ohni ])oteiiti-

1

r_

''b"

^

:i^

^•^

SIDE

FRONT

CUT-AWAY OF LEFT SIDE
SHOWING LEVER ARRANGMENT

0 '"- I 2 3 4 5 6

FIGURE 1— Tripping mechanism for the Bell and Howell 200 motion picture camera.

UNDERWATER DATA RECORDING CAMERA

205

^

a

SIDE

REAR

r

-

SIDE

FRONT

FIGURE 2 — Above — Tripping mechanism for the Bell and Howell Automaster motion picture

camera. Below — Tripping mechanism for the Revere Sixteen Magazine

Load motion picture camera.

L'IMi

CAl.ll'OliN lA I'ISII AMI c A \1 !•:

(iiiictcr ;iii(l ;i (' ;!-\nli !).('. vol! nind rr. it is possible U> rciiuhitc llic
s|t('('{l (if tlic iiioldT I'i'diii 0.5-2 r|Mii 1 i-r\(iliii ion = 1 simtirr i-clciisc i .
A slight voltage dr<)j> (0.2 xnlts pci- shour |)ci-io(l i whidi (MMMin'fMJ
(luiMiig continuous running, Icngllicncd the inlcrvai bclwccn t'raincs,
and decreased llie total fi-anies e.\])osed in an S-liour observation ])eriod
by about 4'r. The loss in total frames could have been eliminated by
periodically adjusting ihc potent iomcler.

FIGURE 3 — Camera and tripping mechanism ready to be installed in housing. Note snaps for
disconnecting tripping mechanism from front plate "switch".

UNDERWATER HOUSING AND CONTROLS

The camera lionsing is of clear acrylic plastic (Toggweiler, 1962).
Acrylic plastic is easily worked, has excellent light transmitting quali-
ties, and allows one to observe the internal equipment and detect water
leaks. It can be cemented with ethylene dicloride solvent (Kohm and
Haas Company, 1964).

The housing is of tnbing 8 inches in diameter with ^-incli wall, sealed
at one end with f-inch sheet stock (Figure 4). The front edge of the
tubing is grooved to hold a |-inch diameter "0" ring for sealing the
removable front plate. The front plate of f-inch sheet stock is cut
^ig-inch larger than the outside diameter of the tubing and has six
equally-spaced "lobes" 1-inch in radius. The lobes are drilled to accom-
modate retaining studs. A piece of tubing 4 inches in diameter, -J-inch
long, with |-inch wall is cemented to the outside of the front plate to
provide protection from scratching and is painted flat black with acrylic
paint to eliminate undesirable light reflections.

UNDERWATER DATA RECORDING CAMERA

207

To attach the front phite, six equally-spaced stud retainers, f by l-J
inches, are cemented to the outside of the housing along the front edge.
These are then threaded to receive :J-by-l-inch brass studs with wing
nuts.

The external controls for the camera wind and potentiometer are
sealed with an "0" ring. These are available from most diving equip-
ment suppliers (Toggweiler, 1962). The control for the potentiometer
enters through the front plate and connects with the adjustment screw
on the potentiometer. A frietional adapter made from a rubber bottle
stopper, drilled at the ends, is used to connect the control shaft and
adjustment screw. The camera wind control enters through the right
side of the housing on center witli the camera's wind shaft. A fox'k of
:^-inch stainless steel rod, attached to tlie end of the control shaft, is
fitted over the erected camera wind key. A large external knob was
used on this control because considerable leverage is necessary to wind
most spring-driven cameras.

Waterproof plugs installcnl in the front phite (Figure 4) are used
as a simple "on-off" switcli tliat can be operated without opening the
housing. Wires leading from the switch to the tripping mechanism
have snaps so the mechanism can be disconnected from the froiil phite
when servicing the camera.

FIGURE 4— Data recording camera within protective framework ready for submergence.

208 CALIFORNIA FISH AND CAMF.

A tul)iii;L: I'raiiii'Wiirk, lo x iL' .\ ]'■'> iiiclirs nt' .l-iiidi s(|u;irc iiliuiiimini.
is used to protect, the camera Ikiusjul;- iiml pinxidc ;i pdiiit of attach-
ment for a lioldiii}; stancliion. Tlic liousiiijr i-esfs in a sheet-alumiiium
cradle -within the framework and is licid in phicc hy a 2-in('li adjust-
able stainless steel band euslii(ni('d with neoprene rubber.

All •■()" rings are coated with silicone grease before each submerg-
ence to insure a waterproof seal. A small porous container of silica gel
dessicant is placed in the honsiiiL'- to provide a dry atinosphere foi- the
cajuera and timing asse?iil)l>.

The camera lens is pi-oxidi'd witli ;i shiide th;it extends to the front
plate. This eli?iiiii;ites light retlections originat ini;- fi-oiii within the
housing.

When associated with the U. 8. Uureau of ('(muuercial Fisheries,
Tuna Resources Laboratory, La Jolla, California, I successfully used
cameras of this design in evaluating the relative abundance of fishes
attracted to objects moored in the open sea. A correlation coefficient
of 0.788 (significant at 0.001) was obtained comparing daily estimates
hy (livers jiiid the percentage of total film frames containing fish on
the same days. The cameras were used, witli a miiiimuni of mainte-
nance, daily over a period r>f 2 months.

REFERENCES

Edgerton, Harold E.. niid Eloyd I>. Hoadley. ]n55. Cameras and lighf.s for under-
water use. .Tom-. Motion Picture aud Televisioii Euj;., 04 : 345-350.

Kruse, Paul .7. 1904. A remote controlled underwater photographic surveillance
system. U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rept., Fish. 490:16 p.

Rohm and Haas Company. 1964. Plexiglass sheet-cementing. P>ull. PL-7h, 19 p.
In Ple.xiglass design and fabrication data. Rev. ed. Philadelphia.

Toggweiler, ilart. 1962. How to build your own underwater camera housing.
Dive-Rite Products, Box 14444. Long Ueach. Calif., 73 p.

NOTES

TAGGED ANCHOVIES MOVE FROM
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA TO MONTEREY

BAY

On Marcli 14, 1966, the California Department of Fish and Game
began tagging and releasing northern anchovies (Exgraulis mordax
Girard) with small, internal, metal tags (Vrooman, Paloma, and Jor-
dan, 1966). These tags are recovered by magnets placed in cannery
reduction lines.

During the reductitm season, which closed April 30, 1966, 22,955
fish were tagged and 138 recovered. Additional tagging and recoveries
have since brought the totals to 100,509 fish tagged and 253 recovered.

Tag recoA'eries inelude four of great significance. A fish tagged
March 17 oft' I'oint Fermin was recovered in Monterey Bay October 25.
Two fish tagged off Point llueneme April 6 were recovered in Monterey
Bay on ( )ctober 21 and 26, resjx'clivcly, and one tagged off Santa
Catalina Island on April 26 was recovered in ^Monterey Bay on Janu-
ary 4, 1967. The Point Pei-min and Santa Catalina Island to Monterey
Bay recoveries represent a direct-line migration of 350 miles in 223
and 253 days, respectively. The other two traveled at least 275 miles
ill lf)f) and 204 daj'S, respectively.

LITERATURE CITED
Vrooin.-iii, Aiulrow ^I., Podro A. l':ili)Uia, jiikI K('iiiiiilo .Tor<l;'in. 190G. Expcrimcntiil
ta«Kiiifi <•' tlic nortlieni aiieliovv, L'lKjruiili.s niordax. Calif. Fish and (iaine,
25 (4) : 228-239.

— J. D. Mcsscr<;niith, Marine Fcsources Operations, California Dr part-
men t of Fish and Game, Januarri 1967.

FINAL INTRODUCTIONS OF THE BONNEVILLE CISCO
{PROSOPIUM GEMMIFERUM SNYDER) INTO
LAKE TAHOE, CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA

in fjauuary of 1964, 1965, and 1966, spawning Bonneville cisco were
collected from Bear Lake, Utah-Idaho, and transported to Lake Tahoe.
Reasons for the introduction, a description of the cisco, and details of
the 19()4 program were presented by Frantz and Cordone (1965). In
all, 15,888 cisco were released over the three years (Table 1).

TABLE 1
Bonneville Cisco Planted in Lake Tahoe

Year

Xumber'coUected
and transported

Transportation loss

Released alive

1964

8,500
7,906
5,100

3,000

2,614

4

5.500

1965

5,292

1966

5.096

Totals...

21,506

5,618

15,888

C209)

I'll) CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Lossos (lui'iiig lr;iiis])()rtalioii were reduced lo ;iii iiisiyiulieaiil level in
1D()(). 1"(tll()wiii<:' liiiili losses in l!l()4 and ]1)()5. Tliis rcduelioii was
aiiriliiiti'd 1(1 iiKii'e caiTfid lia iidl i ii<^'. iiiaiiit aining temperatures in the
tank between 34 and 40 instead of between 42 and r)0°F., and reducing
the eoneiMitratioji ol" fisli in the tank from between 4.7 and 7.1 to about
3.5 per gallon.

In addition to the i-i]ie adults, an estimated 250,000 eggs were artifi-
eiall\' taken aiul feiMilized at Bear Lake during the three collection
years. Al)out 205,000 were r(deased directly into shallow rocky areas in
Lake Tahoe. The remainder were held at Nevada's Verdi Fish Ilatcli-
ery. and tliosc that survived were released later as eyed eggs (25,000)
and alevins (:3,000).

We wish to acknoAvledge the wholehearted su[)poi-t ol' the Utah State
Department of Fish and Game and the Idaho Fish and Game Depart-
ment. The assistance of Arnold Bangerter, Utah Fishery Biologist, was
especially valuable.

LITERATURE CITED

Frantz, Ted C, and Ahno J. Cordone. 19G5. Introduction of tlie Bonneville cisco
(Prosopiinn (icmmiferuni Snyder) into Lake Tahoe, California and Nevada. Calif.
Fish and Game, 51 (4) : 270-275.

— Ted C. Frantz, Nevada Fish eind Game Commissioji, Keno, Nevada
and Ahno J. Cordone, Inland Fisheries Branch, California Depart-
ment of Fisli Olid (loine, September 1966.

A 1955 RECORD OF PINK SALMON,

ONCORHYNCHUS GORBUSCHA,
SPAWNING IN THE RUSSIAN RIVER

Definite records of pink salmon in California coastal streams are un-
common. Scofield (1916) reported "several" in the San Lorenzo River,
Snyder (1931) listed it as present but rare in the Klamath Elver, and
Smedley (1952) reported a specimen from Prairie Creek. The only
report mentioning the Russian River was that of Taft (1938), who
recorded an intiux of some numbers of pink salmon in 1937 into the
Russian, Garcia, and Ten Mile rivers and a single specimen taken in
Mad River.

In th(^ Sacramento River system, the species has been reported more
often, the latest paper being tliat of llallock and Fry (1967).

After some seasons of hearing occasional rumors of pink salmon in
the Russian River, some Department of Fish and Game staff members
made a one-day trip to the vicinity of Duncans Mills in 1953. Several
gill net drifts were made near the upstream end of tidewater, but no
salmon of any kind were obtained. However, while on this trip we
talked to several people who told very convincing stories of encounter-
ing pink salmon.

On the weekend of October 8-9, 1955, a sportsman landed two pink
salmon, a male and female, and took them to King's Sporting Goods
Store in Guerneville. Mr. King, who had been arguing that there were
pink salmon in the Russian River, was overjoyed to see them and
promptly traded two larger king salmon for them. He then notified the
Department of Fish and Game.

NOTES 211

Charles Meacham, who was then with the Department, obtained the
two salmon, then went to the spot where they had been canght, a riffle
immediately downstream from the mouth of Austin Creek. He fished
for about 2 hours but was unable to obtain any additional specimens,
then started looking for carcasses and found four, two males and two
females, all of which had apparently spawned and all of which had
apparently been caught by snagging.

On October 14, 1955, the writer visited this same riffle and watched
pink salmon spawning on at least six different nests. The gravel which
was being used was fine and sandy by comparison with that in which
king salmon normally spawn ; the majority of the larger rocks were no
more than 2 inches in greatest diameter. The riffle is a wide one, gravel
in the center is coarser, but the pinks appeared to prefer the relatively
fine material near the edges. Wading around in the middle of the riffle
failed to disclose any nests in the coarse gravel.

The females would dig very briefly, then stop for a fairly protracted
period. They frequently swam away from the redd and disappeared for
a while. It is possible that they were made nervous by the presence of
the writer and three anglers who wei'e in the area. This tendencv to
dart about made it difficult to ichnitify each female or each redd with
certainty. There w^ere, however, four nests whieh were very close to
the bank and could be seen clearly.

Tlie feinales were not accompanied by males A\liilc the digging was
going on, but there were some nudes in the area.

One badly decomposed carcass (female) was found.

While the writer was watching the salmon, one angler hooked two of
them, using either one or two salmon eggs on a single No. 12 hook. The
first fish stayed hooked only a second or two bnt the other was played
for considerable time and brought into shallow water almost completely
exhausted. No gaft' or landing net was avaihd)le and the fish was lost in
attempts to beach it. It had enough energy to work its way back to
deep water. It was a female of perhaps 5 pounds. The angler in question
was fishing for (and catching) small trout.

REFERENCES

Hallock, Kiclianl ,T., and Donald II. Fiy, Jr. 1907. Five species of salmon,

Oncorhi/nchiin. in the Sacramento River, California. Calif. Fish and Game,

53 (1) :5-22.
Scofield, N. B. l!)lt>. The humpback and doj; salmon taken in San Lorenzo River.

Calif. Fish and Game, 2 (1) : 41.
Smedh'v. S. C. I!)."i2. Pink salmon in Prairie Creek, California. Calif. Fish and

Game, 38 (2) : 275.

Snyder, John O. 1031. Salmon of the Klamath River, California. Calif. Div. Fish
and Game. Fish Bull.. (34) : 130 p.

Taft, A. C. 1938. Pink salmon in California. Calif. Fish and Game. 24 (2) : 197-198.

— Donald H. Frif. Jr., Marine Resources Branch, California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, July 1966.

212 CALIFORNIA FISH AX)) f:A:\rE

A HIGH PHEASANT (PHASIANUS COLCHICUS) NEST

DENSITY ON THE GRAY LODGE WATERFOWL

MANAGEMENT AREA

Oil June 3, ]966, a iire ori^iiiatiiiji' on private property spread onto
the Gray Tjodjre Waterfowl ^Management Area, burning 110 acres. Gray
Lodge is in southern l^>utte County, at api^roximately tlie center of the
Sacrameiild \';ili(y. An extreme!}^ dry spring had iirndncrd flammable
conditions much earlier than normal. The height of the nesting season
and the completeness of tlie burn presented a unique opportunity to
survey pheasant nest density and note any loss of wildlife.

Till' liuiiii'd ai'ea was in good pheasant habitat (Figure 1). Original
vegetative cover was primarily yellow star tl)istle (Centaurea solsti-
tialis), foxtail (Hordeum murinnm), canary grass (Phalaris canarien-
sis), rye grass {Lolium sp.), and wild oat (Aveiia fatna). Patches of
tule (Scirpiis acutus), cattail {Typlia sp.), and hnii-ush (Scirpus sp.)
were present. Willow (Sah'x sp.) and Fremont cottonwood (Populus
frcmoniii) trees were scattei-ed over the area.

FIGURE 1 — View of the edge of the burned area. Gray Lodge Waterfowl Management Area.

Photograph by John 6. Cowan, June 1966.

The entire burn was systematically searched for pheasant nests and
any evidence of wildlife losses noted. One hundred fifty-four nests
were found, representing a density of 1.4 per acre. All nests in the
1)11111 were destroyed. Examination revealed the following: 33 (21%)
wiic in incubation or in process of hatching, 29 (19%) had hatched
before the burn, 36 (23%) had been destroyed b}- predators, and 56
(37%) were dump nests, abandoned nests, incomplete clutches, or of
unknown status.

NOTES 213

The 29 nests which had hatched before the fire showed 9.0 eggs per
clutch and a hatch of 7.5 (83%). Previous nest studies at Gray Lodge
had sliown higher clutch sizes, ranging in various years from 10.7 to
12.9. The 1966 clutch size of 9.0 may be a reflection of the extremely
dry spring, which is generally considered unfavorable for pheasant
nesting.

Pheasant losses were confined to newly hatched chicks at four nests
and two juvenile birds. The only other wildlife losses were a California
quail (Lophortyx calif ornic us) nest containing 12 eggs and one black-
tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus).

Many pheasants immediately returned to the burned area and in two
cases hens attempted to resume incubation on the destroyed nests. —
Joiuithan II. Ives and John B. Cowan, Wildlife Manaycmcnt Branch,
California Department of Fish and Game, Octoher 1966.

ISOLATION OF PASTEURELLA MULTOCIDA FROM A

SNOWY OWL {NYCTEA SCANDIACA), A

NEW HOST RECORD

On January 4, 19G7, California Department of Fisli and Game
Wardens IMicIiacl Sadleir and William Donovan caught a snowy owl
while on patr-ol in the Yolo Dypass. The area wliere tlie bird was ])icked
up is 10 miles south of Interstate Higliway 80 near Davis, California.

This snowy owl, a male, was sick at the time the wardens caught it;
it was sitting on a large drain ])ii)e and made no attempt to avoid
capture. The owl died a few hours after its capture, before treatment
could be initiated. Autopsy revealed the presence of small, bipolar
gram-negative bacilli in blood and liver impression smears. Subse(|uent
culture and isolation of the organism, followed by biochemical charac-
terization, revealed the organism to be PasteureUa midtociela, the etio-
logical agent of fowl cholera (Breed, Murray, and Smith, 1957).

It is assumed by the author that the owl became infected by feed-
ing u])on ducks infectetl with P. multocida. This assumption seems to be
logical, since an outbreak of fowl cholera in the waterfowl had been
under way for several days preceding January 4.

According to Grinnell and Miller (1944), the last recorded sighting
of a snowy owl in California occurred in 1916. At that time there
were several reports of sightings in Del Norte, Humboldt, and Butte
counties. There have not been any published observations of snowy
owls in California since the work of Grinnell and Miller. However,
there have been a few unpublished sightings at various localities in
California since 1916.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author wishes to express his appreciation to Mrs. Harold Kim-
ball, editor of the Sacramento Audubon ''Observer", for checking
Audubon records.

214 CALIFORNIA FISir AND GAME

REFERENCES

Breed, Roliert S.. E. G. 1 >. .Mmr.iy. ■■uid Natlmn K. Siiiitli. Utr>7. Bergey's in.niii.il
of (lf'(cniiiii;if i\t' luu-teriology. Ttli <■'!. AN'illi.iiiis mik] ^^'ilkins Co., Baltimore.
I.UIM II.

Grinnell, Joseph, and Aldcn II. Millor. 1044. The distribution of the birds of
California. Cooppr Ornifli<pliif;ic;il Cliih, Berkeley, GOS ji.

Brian F. Hunter. Wihllife Management Brandt, California Dtpurtment of

Fish and Game, January 1967.

BIOLOGICAL NOTES ON SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
LANTERNFISHES (FAMILY MYCTOPHIDAE)^

INTRODUCTION

Lantprnfislu's, "witli about 300 iiMiiiiiial species, are amono: tlie most
common fislics inhabiting the upper 1,000 meters of the \vorld ocean.
Whales (Marshall. 1954), seals, porpoises (Follett, 1952), seabirds
(Alverson, 1961), sharks (Ilubbs, 1917), and squid (nightlight obser-
vations) utilize lanternfishes as ff)od. Salmon ''Sliimada, 1948), yellow-
fin tuna, skipjack (Alverson, 19(Jl;, albacore (Mcllugh, 1952), rockfish
(Fitch, 1951), as well as a number of midwater fishes (Marshall, 1954),
also have been reported as lanternfish predators. While myctophids
are an important part of the oceanic food chain, little is known of their
life liistory.

During a 2-year midwater sampling program in the San Pedro
Basin, located between Santa Catalina Island and the southern Cali-
fornia coast. 14 species of Myctriphidae and one species of the closely
related Xeoscopelidae were collected (Table 1). The systematic w^ork
of Fraser-Brunner (1949) contains references and synonymies for all
but two of the species. All specimens were taken with a 10-foot Isaacs-
Kidd Midwater Trawl, fished from the University of Southern Cali-
fornia research vessel Vclcro lY . An analj'sis of distribution was made
for the lanternfishes of San Pedro Basin (Paxton, 1967). From the
study collection of more than 16,000 specimens, about 300 adults with
visibly distendc^d abdomens were selected for dissection. Stomach con-
tents and gonadal conditions were recorded from this biased sample.
No record was kept when stomach contents were absent or digested
beyond recognition, although this was relatively common. The presence
of external cupppod parasites from the entire study collection was
noted.

STOMACH CONTENTS

Stomach contents from nine species were analyzed. The other six
species of lanternfishes taken during the study w^ere represented by only
a few adults which had no identifiable stomach contents. Stenohrachius
leucopsarus, Triphoturus mexicanus, Symholophonis calif orniensis,
Diaphus theta, and Lampanyctus ritteri seem to be highly specific
feeders; Tarletonheania crenularis and Scopelengys tristis may be, also
(Table 1). Only 6 of the 196 specimens of these 7 species had stomach
contents of more than one kind of organism. Aughtry (1953) also
found 9 specimens of T. crenularis with only euphausiids in the stom-

' Part of a thesis submitted to the Department of Biological Sciences, University of
Southern California, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of
Science degree.

NOTES

215

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216 CALIFOHNIA FlSll AND (;A.ME

acli contents. In contrast, at least throe types of aniiiuil i-ciiuiiiis Avere
j)r('S('iit in cacli stoinacli of tin- limili'd sjniiplr of fjini jKuh iia itrophdos
and C( rat(Jscopcli(s ioxcnsi ndi.

Althonjrh it would appeal- tluit .S'. leuc" />■■<" nis jiiid /.. rilhri consume
a ■wider variety of food 1li;iii llic otlici- species. Ilie siz(; ranj^e of the
dissected fishes influenced the d;ita. Individuals of the two species
reached 90 mm SL and, in tliis limited study, fish i-euuiiiis were found
only in specimens over 60 mm sl. Few individuals of the other species
reached 60 mm sl. and with the exception of A. iiniphnns. none of these
had fish remains in the stomach contents. .Mycto])hids consume larjje
amounts of food at one time. ;ind the stomach is often distended and
fills most of the eoelomic ca\ity. in one s|)ecinien of S!. leiicopsarKS, 19
undi<>:ested euphausiids wci-e found. ( 'rMst;ice;ins, part icul;irly eu])hau-
siid slirimps, mal-ce up tlie main diet of the ])asin lantei-nfislies.

Lanternfish ])opulations ai)parent]y U't'd l;otii durin^^ tlie day and at
night. An examination of trawl data reveals that 117 specimens with
identifiable stomach contents were taken diurnally and 86 specimens
were caught noctucnally.

PARASITES

Three lanternfish species are hosts of the parasitic copepod Car-
diodcctcs mcdiisacus of the family Lernaeidae. S. Icucopsarus is the pri-
mary host for the parasite in the basin, with 226 infected individuals,
or 2.47% of tile f).143 captured specimens. One L. ritfcri and four D.
thrta were also parasitized. Froni one to four ])arasites are found
embedded in the ventral side of tlie fish, in the middle of the isthmus;
the head enters the hulhifs arteriosus of the host. The parasite has been
figured l)y Sliiino (1958).

REPRODUCTION

Captures of ])()stlarval fishes indicate that nine of the resident lan-
ternfishes breecl in or near the San Pedro Basin. The six species for
which no young have been taken are also among the least frequently
captured: Diogrnichfhys latcrnatus, Taaningichilnjs hathuphilus, Lam-
padcna urophaos, Lampanijcius rcgnlis, Parvilux ingens, and Scope-
lengys tristis. The San Pedro Basin is at the extreme of the geographic
ranges of D. lafernafus. T. hafjnipjnhis, and S'. tristis. These species
may be expatriates, unable to reproduce within the basin environment.

Dissections revealed gravid females of *S'. lencopsarus, T. mexicanus,
and L. ritieri, the three most i-oimnon basin species. Few individuals
of the other species were dissected. Gravid females of S. lencopsarus
were taken from October through April, and of T. mexicanus from
June through September. While fewer adult specimens of L. ritteri
were examined, gravid females were captured in January, June, Au-
gust. October, and December, which suggests a year-round breeding
season. The occurrence of 15-17 inm postlarvae of >S'. leucejpsarus and
T. mexicanus during five months of the year supports the hypothesis
of a long breeding season for these species. A 9-month breeding season,
from November to August, is reported for >S'. leucejpsarus in Monterey
Bay TFast, 1960). In the San Pedro Basin, high summer temperatures
and salinities may prevent this subarctic-transitional species from
breeding. Possible competition with the summer breeding T. mexicanus
may limit the breeding season of 8. lencopsarus.

NOTES 217

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The fjuidance and criticism of Jav M. Sava<?e, University of Southern
California, is gratefully acknowledged. John S. Garth and Russel L.
Zimmer, University of Southern California, criticized the original
manuscript. The sampling program was carried out under support
from a National Science Foundation grant (G-10691). Gordon Hewitt,
Victoria University of AVellington, New Zealand, kindly identified and
provided information about the parasites.

REFERENCES

Alverson, Franklin G. 19G1. Daylight surface oociirronf-e of myr-toiiliid fishes off

the coast of Central America. Pac. Sci., 15 (3) : 483.
Au^litry, Kohei-t II. 1*.)~>H. A note on mass mortality of the myctoiihiil fish Tarle-

toiibeuniu creittildri.s. Copeia, 1053 (3) : 100—192.
Fast, Thomas N. 1000. Some aspects of the natural history of Sfcnohrachiiis leu-

copsarus Eigenmann and Eigenmann. Stanford Univ., Ph.D. Dissertation. UiT p.
Fitch. John E. 10.")1. Studies and notes on some California marine fislns. C.ilif.

Fish and Game. 37 (2) : 111-120.

Follett, William I. 1052. Annotated list of fishes ohtained hy the California Acad-
emy of Sciences during six cruises of the U.S.S. Mulberry conducted hy the
United States Navv off central California in 1040 and 10.50. I»roc. Calif. Acad.
Sci., Ser. 4. 27 ( 10) : 390-432.

Fraser-BrunniT, A. 1040. A classification of the fishes of the family M,\ctMphidae.

Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 118 (4) : 1010-1100.
IIulilis, Carl L. 1017. A note on the food of Squalus siicklii, the California dogfish.

Copeia, 1017 (43) : 37-38.
Marshall, N. B. 10.54. Aspects of deep sea hiology. Hutchin.son and Co., Ltd.,

London. 380 p.

McHugh, J. L. 1052. The food of albacore (Germo alaJnnga) off California and
Baja California. Bull. Scripps Inst. Ocean., 6 (4) : 101-172.

Paxton, John It. 1007. A distributional analysis for the lanternfishes (family Myc-
tophidae) of the San Pedro Basin, California, Copeia, 1007 (2 j : 422-440.

Shiiuo. Suco M. 1058. Copepods parasitic on Japanese fishes. 17. Lernaeidae. Rept.

Fac. Fish. Univ. Mie, 3(1) : 75-100.
Shimada, Bell M. 1048. Records of lanternfish in Pnget So\ind. Copeia, 1048

(3) : 227.

— John R. Paxton, Dept. of Biological Sciences, Universitij of Southern
California, Los Aiigeles, Calif. 90007, Octoher 1966.

ALBINOID COLORING IN A SAND BASS, PARALABRAX

NEBUUFER (GIRARD)

On July 14, 1965, the sportfishing boat Palamar, Jim Alvarez skip-
per, landed a very light-colored sand bass, 257 mm sl, wliile fishing in
the yellowtail kelp area about 8 miles northwest of Oceanside, Cali-
fornia, and 1 mile otf shore, opposite the San Onofre power plant (Fig-
ure 1). A deckhand, Greg Smith, preserved the fish because of its
unusual coloration, and brought it in to Cerritos College, Norwalk. Cali-
fornia. Notes on the color pattern of the specimen were made after it
had been in formaldehvde for 2 days.

218

CALIFORNIA FISH AND CAME

FIGURE 1— Sand bass, Paralabrax nebulifer ^Glrard), showing albinold coloring.

Phofograph by Dean Gross.

The sides and belly of the fish were white, and the dorsal surface
was a h<ihi yellow with some faint, seattered. darker irregular mottling.
Tliere was a blaek blotrli under the spinous dorsal, one beneath and
slightly behind the orbit, and a single bloteh on the middorsal line in
the nasal region. A reddish-orange patch, running parallel to the border
of the maxillary, extended from a region anterior to and below the
level of the orbit to tlie posterior margin of the preopercle. The dorsal
fin was yellowish, with black tips on the first three spines. The caudal
and pectoral fins were a light yellow. The remaining fins were white.

Mr. Smith reported that a "legal size" sand bass (minimum length,
12 inches from tij) of jaw to I(»ng(^st lobe of tail) with similar mark-
ings had been caught about two weeks earlier approximately a quarter
mile away by the sportfishing boat Sea Lure. However, it was not saved.

The specimen has been deposited in the fish collection of the Los
Angeles County Museum of Natural History (LAC^I 6993-1).

■ — Jules M. Crane, Jr.. Biejlogy Deparfmdif, Cerritejs College, Nor-
ivalk, California, August 1966.

PREDATION UPON PACIFIC HAKE, MERLUCCIUS

PRODUCTUS, BY PACIFIC DOGFISH,

SQUALUS ACANTHIAS

A mixed catch of Pacific hake and dogfish taken at Port Susan,
Washington fan arm of Puget Sound. 30 nautical miles north of Se-
attle), on May 18, 1966, contained 20% by weight dogfish. The fish
were schooled at 48 fathoms over a 65-fathom bottom, and were caught
in a large midwater trawl by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
vessel Jrjhn N. Cohh during an investigation of the hake resources in
Puget Sound. A new commercial hake fishery was started in this area
in the wunter of 1965-66.

NOTES 219

Tlie hake in the catch ranged from 12 to 25 inches, with a mode of
14 inches, fl. In a random sample of 207 hake, 192 were males, a phe-
nomenon that seems peculiar to the spawning period ; usually the sexes
are more evenly mixed. Most of the male hake were ripe, and milt
flowed freely when the fish were lightly squeezed.

The dogfish were mostly large females, 2-| to 3 feet long, carrying
young with attached yolk sacs. Of 52 dogfish stomachs examined, 25
contained hake. Most of the hake had been bitten neatly in two, and
either the anterior, posterior, or botli halves swallowed. Other species
in tlie dogfish stomachs included Dungeness crab {Cancer magister)
and Pacific herring (Cliipcn Jiarcngus j^cHasii)-

Clemens and Wilby (1961) reported that dogfish appear in large
numbers wliere herring school and tliat they feed on a variety of tlie
smaller fishes. The observed feeding of dogfisli on schooling hake is
consistent with this behavior.

REFERENCE

Clciiiciis. W. A., iiud O. B. Willjy. 1061. Fishes of the I'acific Cuast of Canada
(2ih1 ed.). Bull. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada (6S) :82.

— Ho-Ik li II. SJiippen mid Miles S. Alton, V. S. Bureau of Coiinner-
cial Fisheries, 2725 Montleilxe Blvel. E., Seeittle, Washington 98102,
August 1966.

REPORT ON AN ATTACK BY A GREAT WHITE SHARK

OFF COLEDALE BEACH, N.S.W., AUSTRALIA, IN

WHICH BOTH VICTIM AND ATTACKER WERE

RECOVERED SIMULTANEOUSLY*

( )ii the 26th of February, 1966, a shark was caught and killed after it
had attacked a 13-year-old schoolboy, on a southeastern Australian
beach. The shark was captured because it did not release its victim,
forcing rescuers to carry both the boy and sliark ashore. The sliark's
jaws had to be prized open on the beach to free the boy's leg. Ai)art
from being one of the rare instances where the species could be identi-
fied accurat(>ly, it is believed tliat this is the first recorded case where
a shark attack has ended in the manner outlined above.

PARTICULARS OF THE VICTIM

Raymond Short of Carrington Avenue, Hurstville, Sydne.y, was on
a camping holiday with his parents and brother at Coledale Beach.
He was of average height, lightly suntanned, and wearing dark green
nylon swimming trunks with a small j'ellowish stripe at the time of
the attack.

* Editor's Note: This species of sharlv is also responsible for some attacks along the
coast of California.

220 CALIFORNIA I'ISIl ANll (!A:\IK

LOCALITY OF ATTACK AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

rpi

lie viclini \\;is (iiic dl' nlxiut .')() pcdplc hiilliiiii;' ;i1 ( 'oli'djilc Ucacli
(lat. 84-° ]7' S.. Imiil;-. !.')() .")(/ E.i. ;i siiuill (-(ijistal resoi-l situated iil)()ut
10 miles north of tlie town of AVollonji'oii<i:. on tlie South ("oast ot" New
Soutli Wales. Tlic beach is a shallow sandy coxc about ^500 yards Ion":,
bounded to the nortli and south by low i-ocky lieadhinds. The beach
slielves nciitly out to sea. and is re^af(h'd i)y the ('oledale Sui'f ('lub
as reasonably free from strong rips and und(>rtows.

Tlie attack occurred at 2 p.m. in ."> feet of water al)out 'M) yards from
the shoi-e. The sky was clear, the ail' temperature 70.0 F. and tlie water
1em])erature 71.2 F. There was a light south to southeast Avind. and a
light but confused and cbopj)y surf. Due to strong winds and heavy
seas towartls the latter part of the ])revious week, the water was very
murky.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ATTACK AND RESCUE

The victim. Avho had just stai'tcd to ti'ead Avater. was first seized
on the left thigh and then on the lower part of the right leg. He
endea\()red to tight the shark off and bit it on the snout to make it
release its gri]i bnt Avithout effect. The boy screamed for help, the
shark Avarning bell Avas rung, and the other bathers promptly fled
from the Avater. Kaymond Joyce, a surf club member, first reached the
A'ictim, AA-ho said "helji me ]ilease — the shark is still there." OAA'ing to
the murkiness of the AA'atei-. the rescuer could not see the shark and
did not belicA'e the A'ictim until he endeavored to drag him ashore.
FiA^e other lifesaA^ers then arrived, and they too AA'ere unaAvare that the
shark AA'as still grasping the boy's leg despite the hitter's repeated
assertions that it AA-as. Joyce than ran his hand doAvn the boy's leg and
felt the shark; another rescuer immediately raised the boy's leg to the
surface and exposed the shark for the first time. At this stage another
rescuei" started clubbing the shark's head Avith a surfboard. When this
ju'oved unsuccessful the rescuers. Avith great courage, seized the shark
by the tail, and half carried and half dragged both the boy and shark
ashore. During the rescue the boy bled profusely and the AA'ater around
him Avas stained Avith blood.

On the beach the shark's jaws AA'ere forced open and the boy's leg
released. The lifesavers estimated that only 30 seconds elapsed from
the A'ictim's initial screams until they reached him and a further 30
seconds AA-ere taken to bring him ashore.

DESCRIPTION OF INJURIES AND TREATMENT

The boy AA-as gravely injured and in a deei)ly shocked condition; he
was also suffering from seA-ere loss of blood. Provident ialh' the District
Hospital AA-as situated on the northern headland only about 300 yards
from the scene of the attack. The boy was wrapped in toAvels, loaded
into a station AA-agon and rushed to the hospital. It AA-as estimated that
only about 8 minutes had elapsed betAveen tlie attack and the boy's
admission to the hospital. HoweA^er. in this short time his condition
had deteriorated rapidly and he AA^as on tlie point of death.

The injuries comprised loss of calf muscles and all muscular tissue
of the posterior part of tlie right leg; the shinbone Avas exposed and
bore imprints of the shark's teeth along its full length. On the left

NOTES

221

leg there were multiple lacerations to the front and back of the thigh.
The index, middle, and ring fingers of the right hand were badly lacer-
ated, and tliere were deep lacerations to the palm and wrist of the left
hand. Transfusion entailed 8 joints of blood and 200 stitches were
required. The victim has recovered and although the right leg has
been saved it will probably be withered and may require a brace.

IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SHARK
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ATTACK

After being dragged ashore the shark was allowed to die on the beach.
It Avas identified by the authors as an immature female great white
shark, Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus), measuring 8 feet 3 inches
overall. This species is easily recogjiized by the large, triangular ser-
rated teeth in the upper and lower jaws, and the strongly lunate caudal
fin. The great white shark is reputed to be one of the most dangerous
of all sharks because of its aggressiveness and ferocity, and according
to Garrick and Sehultz (Gilbert, 1063), responsible for more attacks
on men and beasts than any other species.

Detailed examination of the shark on the day following the attack
revealed massive wounds of comparatively recent origin on the left
and i-ight lower abdominal surfaces, and on the dorsal and ventral
i-egioii of the tail between the pelvic and caudal fins. There were also
multi])le lacerations and parallel scratch marks over this whole area
(Figure .1). The small injuries had healed over completely and the
major ones appeared to be healing well. One wound on the ventral
surface, between the caudal and pelvic fins, was elliptical in shape,
each half forming the typical parabolic curves of the upper and lower

y

FIGURE 1 — Left, ventral, abdominal surface of the shark, showing massive wounds. Photograph

by P. H. Wolf, March 1966.

CAIjIFOHNIA pish and GAIME

V

S#!<*

FIGURE 2— Ventral view of the posterior abdominal region. The wound caused by the shark
bite is recognizable. Photograph by P. H. Wolf, March 1966.

jaws of a shark (Fiyurc 2). Tliis was undoubtedly a shark bite, and
the 9-inch width and 5-ineli gape of the wound indicated that the
attacker was approximately the same size as its victim. An X-ray of
the area did not locate any tooth fragments, and established that the
vertebral column was undamaged.

FIGURE 3— Wound opening into the abdominal cavity on the ventral surface. P/iofograph by

P. H. Wolf, March 1966.

In addition to the above injuries, a 10-ineh wound ran anteriorly
from the right pelvic fin 5 inches then turned upward at a right angle.
This wound had penetrated the abdominal cavity, leaving a triangular

NOTES 223

hole 2 inches wide at the base and 4^-5 inches high. Miicli of this cavity
had healed over, but a small cylindrical aperture about 0.4 inch in
diameter still remained open to the outside, and it was possible to insert
a finger through this liole into the abdominal cavity (Figure 3).

The severity and extent of these injuries suggested that the shark's
ability to catch natural prey may have been impaired. However, stom-
ach analysis revealed two pieces of undigested squid, about 2 dozen
vertebrae from a fish weighing between 1 and 2 pounds, and about 2
pints of viscous brown liquid.

The most remarkable feature of the attack was the shark's lack of
aggression during the rescue operations. It is probably that this may
have been related to the severity of its Avounds.

SPECIAL NOTES

Til is attack has a number of features in common with the majority
of attacks in Australia (Coppleson, lf)62). It occui'red during the sum-
mer montlis when the water temj)erature exceeded 68.0 F ; it occurred
in the afternoon; the victim was a male aged between 12 and 22 years;
it occurred close to sliore in shalloAV water; and tlie attack was on the
legs.

The attack was given headline coverage by the i)ress, ;nid by tele-
vision and radio stations. Keporters identified it variously as a blue
pointer, whaler, grey nurse, and a white pointer. If these identifica-
tions are an index of the reliability of on-the-spot observations by lay-
men, the anu)unt of reliance that can be placed on identifications where
the shark is only briefly sighted during the horror and panic of an
attack is exceedingly small. According to Schultz (Gilbert, 1963), in
1,004 shark attacks less than 4^/< of the sharks were positively identified.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors are indebted to tlie attending physician, M. Rosen, Ken-
nedy Road, Austinmer, N.S.W. and to Matron Dunster, Coledale Dis-
trict Hospital, for pliotograplis and descriptions of the injuries; to
A. Stein, N.S.W. Fisheries Branch, for preserving the shark for de-
tailed examination; and to members of the Coledale Surf Club, who
participated in the rescue, for detailed accounts of events during and
subsequent to the attack.

REFERENCES
Coppleson. Y. M.

1962. Shark attack. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 209 p.

Gilbert, Perry W., editor

1963. Sharks and survival. D. C. Heath and Co., Boston, 578 p.

■ — T. B. Gormayi and D. J. Dunstan, Fisheries Branch, Chief Sec-
retary's Department, 211 Kent Street, Sijdney, Australia, November
1966.

BOOK REVIEW

Underwater Guideposts: Homing of Salmon

By Arthur D. Hosier; The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1966; xii + 155 p.,
illustrated. $6.

It is now wi'll recognized that Siilnion do niij;r;ilc Inmdrod.s or even thousiiiids nf
miles and return to their home river system mid luniic trihntary to spawn. Man has
even learned a moderate amount ahout the ahilitics or "mechanisms" wliich could
make it possihle for fish to find their way, but a great deal more will have to be
learned before this latter suliject can be classed as well-understood.

Tiie title of this book inight lead a reader to believe that salmon are the only
species considered, but nuu-h of the basic information was obtained by working with
.several other species. Arthur Hasler has asseud^led the important known facts and
theories on salmon migration and on the mechanisms by which fish are able to orient
themselves. Much of the exjierimental \\iirk has been done liy the autlior and his
associates since l!»."iO or a little before.

The book is dixided into three parts, the first of wliich is on the stream i)hase of
salmon homing. The author briefly discusses some disproven theories and then takes
up the odor hypothesis, which is (briefly) that salmon recognize their home river
system and home tributary by the odor of the water. Hasler describes in interesting
detail a series of experiments wliich show that blnntnose minnows can distinguish
between waters from different streams. Other experiments show that salmon can rec-
ognize the odor of a stream, and that salmon with sense of smell intact can and do
find their home tributary, but that salmon deprived of their sen.se of smell cannot.

Salmon transferred as eggs to another stream are now known to return to the
stream of their youth rather than to the stream of their ancestors. The ramifications
of this are discus.sed, but not at great length.

An interesting but as yet unanswered question is asked : Could salmon be switched
to another stream by the use of decoy odors? There are experiments in progress
which may or may not partially answer this. The implications for salmon manage-
ment could be important.

Part II of the book is on oceanic phases of salmon homing. The author explains
that until after World War II "it was generally believed that salmon stayed on
the continental shelves of the oceans after they had emigrated from their home
streams." He implies that it was generally believed (by salmon biologists?) that
salmon in the ocean remained within the influence of their home streams. (This
reviewer agrees with the first of these two statements but not with the second.)
When the Japanese started catching huge numbers of salmon far at sea, the need
for more knowledge of salmon oceanic habits suddenly became acute. Hasler devotes
most of a chapter to describing the resulting international investigations and their
findings. These findings pointed up the need for a hypothesis to explain how salmon
find their way home across open ocean.

There appears to be a strong possibility that salmon navigate by the sun. Orienta-
tion by "sun-compass" is quite complex in that it involves corrections for the time
of day, the time of year, and sometimes the latitude. Hasler describes experiments
in which fish which were trained to go in a certain direction to find food or cover
demonstrated that they could correct for all three of these things, but only if the
sun was visible. Several species of freshwater fishes were involved in the tests,
but salmon were not. It is not yet positively known whether salmon orient them-
selves by sun-compass or can use the altitude of the sun to determine whether they
are north or south of their goal. Even if they do these things, supplementary
theories may be required to account for apparent ability to orient at night or during
cloudy weather. Other possibilities and studies, including the mathematical model
which Saila and Shappi used to test the possibility that random movement could be
a major factor in salmon migration, are discussed.

Part III, "Closing the Migration Circle", is much the shortest part of the book.
It includes various aspects of seaward migration and an overall summary. Seaward
migration seems fairly easy to explain in streams, but in Babine Lake, British
Columbia, young sockeye salmon reared in the Morrison Arm of the lake show
definite orientation as they swim south until opposite the arm which leads to the
outlet, then move west into that arm and north again to the outlet. This appears
to be an inherited procedure.

Anyone who is interested in migrations or in fish will find this book well worth
reading. For the serious student of salmon or of fish migrations, it is a must. —
Donald H. Fry, Jr.

printed in California office of state printing
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