OMJFORNIAI

FISH™ GAME

"CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE THROUGH EDUCATION"

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u

1

]

VOLUME 55

OCTOBER 1969

NUMBER 4

Published Quarferly by

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

THE RESOURCES AGENCY

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

STATE OF CALIFORNIA

RONALD REAGAN, Governor

THE RESOURCES AGENCY

NORMAN B. LIVERMORE, JR., Secrefary For Resources

FISH AND GAME COMMISSION

JAMES Y. CAMP, President, Shaffer

C. RANSOM PEARMAN, Vice President JOSEPH RUSS III, Member

Huntington Park Ferndaie

SHERMAN CHICKERING, Member PETER T. FLETCHER, Member

San Francisco Rancho Santa Fe

DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME

G. RAY ARNETT, Director

1416 9th Street
Sacramento 95814

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME
Editorial Staff

LEO SHAPOVALOV, Editor-in-Chief Sacramento

STEPHEN J. NICOLA, Editor for Inland Fisheries Sacramento

CAROL M. FERREL, Editor for Wildlife . Sacramento

HERBERT W. FREY, Editor for Marine Resources Terminal Island

DONALD H. FRY, JR., Editor for Salmon and Steelhead Sacramento

HAROLD K. CHADWICK, Editor for Striped Bass, Sturgeon, and Shad Stockton

CONTENTS

Page
Distribiitirm of California Angling Effort in 1968

Surmun J . Abrcnnson and Catlierine L. Bcriide 260

Waterfowl Botulism in the Southern San Joaquin Valley,

1967-68 John M. rarrish and Brian F. Hunter 265

Comparisons of Disk-Dangler. Trailer, and Plastic Jaw Tags

Stephen J. Nicola and Almo J. Cordone 273

Distribution, Size Composition, and Relative Abundance of the
Piute Sculpin, Cottus hcldincjii Eigenmann and Eigenmann, in
Lake Tahoe rhillip II . Baker and Abno •/. Corelone 285

California Condor Surveys, 1968 Fred C. Sihleij,

Robert D. Mallettc, John C. Borncman, and Raymond S. Dalen 298

Redescription of Parclaphostrongylus (Boev and Schuls, 1950)
in California Deer, With Studies on Its Life History and
Pathology Oscar A. liranetti ;]()7

On the Occurrence of Larval Cestodes in the Washington Clam,
Saxidomus nuttnlli, and the (Japer Clam. Trcsus nuttalli, From
Drakes Estero, California

Stanley C. Katkansky, Ronald \V. M'arncr, and Richard L. Poole 317

Notes

Vertebral Column Deformity and Osteonecrosis of Pelvis and
Femur in the California Sea Lion G. Victor Morejohn 323

Occurrence of the Nematode, Fhilomctra amcricana, in the
English Sole, Paroplirys vctulus, in San Francisco Bay

Joseph J. Di Conza and Robert C. Cooper 327

Mortality of Common Murres Along the Northern California
Coast- John E. Bodle 329

Addition of Misgiirnns anguillicaudatus (Cantor) to the
Californian Fauna

James A. St. Amant and Franklin G. Hoover 330

Differential Streamer and Disk Tag Loss by Surfperch in
Humboldt Bay, California Allan K. Smith 332

Occurrence of the Spotfin Surfperch in Oregon Waters

Richard S. Wydoski 335

Occurrence of Prionotus stephanophrys off the Columbia River

Carl E. Bond and Robert B. Herrmann 335

Book Reviews 337

Index to Yoliime 55 343

(259)

California Fish and Game, 55(4) : 2G0-2G1. 19G9.

DISTRIBUTION OF CALIFORNIA ANGLING EFFORT

IN 1968'

NORMAN J. ABRAMSON and CATHERINE L. BERUDE

Marine Resources Operations

California Department of Fish and Game

A postcard survey of licensed anglers was conducted to determine
the distribution of 1968 sport fishing effort in (i) ocean waters, (ii) fresh
waters (including the Saiton Sea) and (iii) the waters of San Francisco
Bay and the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta. Estimated percentages of
total angler-days spent in the above water categories are 25.2, 64.2,
and TO. 6, respectively. Proportions of licensees fishing in each type of
water are estimated at 0.436, 0.747, and 0.167, and the proportions of
anglers fishing exclusively in the particular water category are 0.111,
0.382, and 0.017. An estimated 10.9% of all licensees did not fish.
Standard errors of the estimates were calculated. Results of this survey
differ significantly from comparable estimates of 1961 effort distribu-
tion. A positive response bias of about 250% in the survey estimate of
totaS cngler-days spent on party boats and barges is indicated by com-
paring that statistic with compulsory logbook data.

INTRODUCTION

This is the third in a series of reports on postcard surveys designed
to estimate angling effort distribution among three major California
water types. The first surveyed 1951 sport fisliing (Clark, 1953), the
second covered 1901 (Abramson, 19G3;, and this report presents the
results of a survey of 1968 anglers. Estimated values are the proportion
of angler-days spent in ocean, fresh, and San Francisco Bay and Sacra-
mento-San Joaquin Delta waters ; proportion and number of licensees
who fished in each type of water, and of anglers fishing exclusively in
one of the water types; and proportion and number of those who did
not fish.

STATISTICAL DESIGN AND OPERATING PROCEDURES

The survey employed the identical statistical design used in 1961
(Abramson, 1963). We believe the methods produce estimates which
are relatively free from both response bias and nonresponse bias. The
number of angling days spent in various types of water are statistics
of considerable interest to fisheries management ; however, estimates of
such effort are liable to large positive response biases. To assess the
magnitude of these biases, the survey questionnaire included a request
for the number of days the licensee spent on party boats, charter boats,
or barges in ocean or San Francisco Bay waters. Total days computed
from responses to this question were compared with totals compiled
from compulsorj^ logbook records maintained by the operators of such
vessels.

Execution of the 1968 survey was essentially the same as for the
1961 survey. A new method of licensing California anglers required an

1 Accepted for publication May 1969.

( 260)

CALIFORNIA ANGLING EFFORT 261

additional assumption in the method of sample selection. Under the
renewable sport fishing license sj'stem initiated by the Department of
Fish and Game in 1967, purchase of an annual stamp validates a per-
manent license form. On each folder of annual resident stamps, the
name and address of the f rst licensee are recorded. We must assume
that the first licensee represents a random selection from the 25 persons
licensed from the same folder.

Four independent systematic samples of names were drawn for mail
ing, each with a sampling fraction of 1/64, resulting in an effective
sampling fraction of 1/400. About 1,884,800 annual resident licensees
constituted the sampled population; 33,000 nonresident license holders
were excluded because no record is kept of the names. Slightly more
than 24,400 additional annual resident licenses were sold but were not
available when the samples were drawn.

Maintenance of the master address file, sample identification, and
postcard preparation followed the procedure established for the 1961
survey. Three mailings, an original plus two follow-up requests, were
scheduled at 3-week intervals beginning February 14, 1969.

RESULTS

About 4.2% of the questionnaires were returned undelivered because
of incorrect or incomplete address and were deleted from the samples.
Effective sample sizes were 1,119, 1,139, 1,141, and 1,117. Total response
was 68%: 39% to the initial request, 19% to the first follow-up, and
10% to the final reminder (Table 1). The second request elicited replies
from 31% of licensees who did not answer the first, and the third
mailing prompted 24% response from the remaining nonrespondents.

Of total angler effort, 10.6% was spent in San Francisco Bay-Delta
waters, 64.2% in fresh water, and 25.2% in ocean waters (Table 2).

Coefficients of variation (standard error of the estimated proportion
divided by that estimate) varied from 0.009 for fresh water to 0.021
for Bay-Delta waters.

The estimated proportions of licensees who fished at least one day
during 1968 are 0.167, 0.747, and 0.436 for San Francisco Bay-Delta,
fresh, and ocean waters, respectively. Coefficients of variation are less
than 0.037. Based on the sale of 1.920,143 annual resident and annual
nonresident licenses, the estimated number of anglers fishing at least
one day in Bay-Delta waters is 320,663 ; in fresh water, 1,434,347 ; and
in the ocean, 837,182.

Estimated proportions of licensees fishing exclusively in one type of
water are 0.017. 0.382, and 0.111 for water types in the above order,
with corresponding coefficients of variation of 0.113, 0.023. and 0.078.
This means that approximately 32,642 anglers fished only in Bay-Delta
waters, 733.495 in fresh water, and 213.136 in ocean waters.

License holders who did not fish at all during 1968 comprised 10.9%,
or 209,296, of all licensees. The coefficient of variation was 0.0623.

2ri2

CATJFORXIA FISII AND GAME

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CALIFORNIA ANGLING EFFORT

263

TABLE 2
Estimates and Standard Errors

Estimates

S.F. Bay and Delta

Fresh water

Ocean

Proportion

, S.E.

Proportion

S.E.

Proportion

S.E.

Angling days.. ..

0.106
0.167
0.017

0.00223
0.00610
0.00192

0.642
0.747
0.382

0.00600
0.00994
0.00863

0.252
0.436
0.111

0.00455

Licensees fishing

0.00858

Licensees fishing exclusively

0.00864

Number

S.E.

Number

S.E.

Number

S.E.

Licensees fishing

320.663
32.642

11,713

1,434,347

19,086
16,571

8.37,182
213,136

16,475

Licensees fishing exclusively

16,590

Proportion

b.E.

Nuiiit . r

S.E.

Licensees notfishing..

0.109

0.00679

209,29ij

13,038

DISCUSSION

Both the revision in tlie licensing system and tlie increase in license
sales from 1961 to 1968 necessitated c]ian<i-es in sample selection. The
1961 sample population included all resident and nonresident licensees;
as previously mentioned, nonresident licensees were not sampled in
1968 because mailing information was unavailable. In 1961, 1 of each
250 licensees was sampled. Kefleeting tlie half million license increase,
the 1968 sampling ratio, 1/400, produced only slightly smaller samples.
The percentage of response was nearly identical in both survey's.

The 1961 estimates of numbers of anglers were based on the sale of
1.365,410 resident and both annual and 10-day nonresident licenses,
whereas about 23.000 10-day nonresident licenses were not included in
1968 estimates. As before, these estimates do not include effort for per-
sons fishing in ocean waters from public piers and anglers younger
than 16, who are not required to purchase licenses, or for the 203,047
holders of 1968 3-day Pacific Ocean licenses.

Substantial response bias was indicated in the estimate of angler-
days spent on charter or party boats. This estimate of 2.4 million days,
computed from survey reply data, proved about 250^ greater than the
936,000 days totaled from logbook records. "We assume such bias also
exists in other estimates of angler-days; however, because we cannot
show that the bias with respect to other water types is identical, we do
not present those statistics.

Comparison of individual estimates between the two surveys shows
an increase in numbers of anglers in all cases except those fishing ex-
clusively in San Francisco Bay and Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta wa-
ters (Table 3). Proportions of days and anglers changed significantly
from 1961 to 1968. A greater proportion of effort was expended by a
larger percentage of anglers in fresh waters, whereas the proportions
of anglers in other water types and of licensees not fishing decreased
correspondingly. Tests which use large sample formulas and which as-
sume normality indicated most differences in numbers and proportions
were significant at the 0.05 level. The two exceptions were the increase
in number of anglers fishing exclusively in ocean waters and the de-
crease in the proportion of licensees who did not fish.

264

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 3
Changes in Estimates Between 1961 and 1968 Surveys

S.F. Bay and Delta

Fresh water

Ocean

Change

S.E.

Change

S.E.

Change

S.E.

Proportion of:
Angling davs

-0.042
-0.036
-0.020

0.00292
0.01071
0.00333

+0.084
+0.065
+0.071

0.00785
0.01249
0.00955

-0.042
-0.034
-0.034

0 00611

Licensees fishing __ _

0 01607

Licensees fishing exclusively

0.01103

Number of:
Licensees fishing __

+43,253
-17.660

16,776
5,236

+502,892
+308,784

21,705
17.491

+ 195,002
+ 14,701

24 817

Licensees fishing exclusively

19,052

Proportion

Number

Change

S.E.

Change

S.E.

Licensees not fishing

-0.003

0.01059

+56,698

17,121

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We wish to acknowledge many staff members of the Biostatistical
Unit for their assistance in sample selection, mailing preparation, and
response data keypunching and processing.

REFERENCES

Abramson. Norman .J. 1963. Distribution of California angling effort in 19G1.

Calif. Fish and Game, 49 (3) : 174-182.
Clark. Frances N. 1953. California marine and fresh water sport fishing intensity

in 19.j1. Calif. Fish and Game, 39 (1) : 115-125.

Calif. Fish and Game, 55(4) : 265-272. 1969.

WATERFOWL BOTULISM IN THE SOUTHERN
SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY, 1967-68'

JOHN M. PARRISH and BRIAN F. HUNTER

Wildlife Monagement Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

A major outbreak of waterfowl botulism occurred in the Kern River
Delta area of the San Joaquin Valley, southeastern Kings County, Cali-
fornia, during the fall and winter of 1967—68. Approximately 60,000
waterfowl were lost. Some 6,360 sick ducks were treated and survived.
The extensive cooperative control program of the U. S. Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife and the Caiifornia Department of Fish and Game
is described. An estimated 250,000 waterfowl were saved by this pro-
gram. The outbreak was unusual in that it occurred later in the season
than is customary, mid-October 1967 to March 1968.

INTRODUCTION

Over the years botulism, or "westpi'ii duck disease", lias been respon-
sible for the loss of millions of waterfowl and shorebirds along the Pa-
cific Flyway. The Tulare Lake Basin in the San Joaquin Valley has
been one of the areas where sizable losses have occurred periodically.
Some of the worst outbreaks took place in 1941, 1952, 1958, and. most
recently, in 1967. These were described by Mays (1941), McLean
(1946), and Kosen and Bischoff (1953). These serious outbreaks coin-
cide with years of excessive spring runoff from the rivers that drain
into the basin.

EARLY PREPARATIONS

Early in 1967 it was evident that the heavy rain and snowfall during
the winter would provide surplus water in the Kings, Kaweah, Tule,
and Kern River drainages. The California Department of Fish and
Game organized a meeting of state and federal employees, held on May
25, 1967, in Ilanford. California. Twenty-three persons, representing
the Department of Fish and Game, U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife. U. S. Soil Conservation Service. University of California
Agricultural Extension Service, and Fresno Bee (newspaper) were
present.

The purpose of the meeting was to (i) identify the problem, (ii) dis-
cuss preventive measures and make the necessary assignments to carry
them out, and (iii) develop a plan for controlling an outbreak if one
should occur.

The importance of preventing the disease from reaching epizootic
proportions was emphasized throughout the meeting. Areas that were
flooded at that time or likely to be flooded were mapped and assign-
ments to patrol them made. Coordination and communications were
planned. The situation had already been explained to the three major
landowners controlling most of the potentially dangerous area, and all
had promised to cooperate in alleviating the problem. The Soil Conser-

1 Accepted for publication April 1969. This study was supported by Federal Aid in
W'ildlife Restoration Project W-52-R, "W'ildlife Investigations Laboratory".

( 265 )

26G CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAIME

vation Service and tlio A^iriciiltural Extojisioii Service promised to use
tlieir influence to obtain landowner cooi)i'ration. Tlie following prevent-
ive measures were suggested :

1) Disc or liuni barlej^ straw or other vegetative matter before
irrigation flooding.

2) ^Maintain ponded areas at a depth of 18 to 24 inches, avoiding
shallow water and ''feather edges".

3) Move water into another area, by pumps if necessary, whenever
conditjniis indicated that a problem may develop.

4) IT<'r(l waterfowl away ffdiii ]ir()l)lciii areas.

In ]\Iay, most of tlie Kings River floodwater that could not be
diverted north through Fresno Slough was contained in two areas of
approximate!}' 13,000 acres within the Tulare Lake Basin (T 22 S,
li 20 E, Mount Diablo mer.). Kaweah and Tule River floodwater was
concentrated on approximately 27 sections in the Homeland Canal
region soutli of the Tulare Ijake bed proper. After the leveed storage
areas of Buena Vista Lake were full, surplus Kern River water flooded
the Kern River trough area north of Highway 46 to Sand Ridge.

Aerial reconnaissance in May indicated that an estimated 7,200 coots
and 1,700 ducks were nesting in Tulare Lake Basin proper and in
the Homeland Canal area.

FIRST BOTULISM OCCURS

On July 1, the first dead birds were found, and the Department's
Wildlife Investigations Laboratory confirmed that the birds had died of
botulism. Coordinated state and federal wildlife agency control plans
were put into effect immediately. By this time considerable water had
been used for irrigation, and ranchers were able to dry up several
potentially dangerous areas. Excellent cooperation from the ranchers
was doubtlessly responsible for saving many birds and quite possibly
responsible for preventing a serious summer outbreak.

Sec. 13, T 23 S, R 20 E, Mount Diablo mer., Sees. 25 and 36, T 23 S,
R 21 E, M.D.^L, and Sees. 1 through 6 and portions of 7 through 12,
T 24 S, R 21E, M.D.M. were problem areas during July and August.
Airboats were used to pick up sick and dead birds from these areas.
Other birds attempting to use the area were herded aAvay. Losses, espe-
cially of waterfowl, were considered light under the circumstances.
Coots and shorebirds were making extensive use of the area throughout
the summer, and most of the bird loss occurred in these. Migratory
ducks began arriving in August, and in early September an estimated
80,000 ducks were using the Tulare Lake Basin area. By late September
all previous problem areas were virtually dry, and the remaining sizable
water surfaces were large fields that were being irrigated before seeding
crops. These fields were inundated and drained within a period of 5 to
10 days and did not present a botulism problem.

By earl}^ October, bird losses had declined, and responsible state and
federal employees believed that a serious epizootic had been averted
and that any significant outbreak was highly improbable with the
advent of cooler weather.

Approximately 1,400 sick and dead birds had been picked up during
the summer. Of these, 912 were classified by species (Table 1).

WATERFOWL BOTULISM

267

TABLE 1
Birds Lost During July, August, and September, 1967

Species

Mallard, Anas plalyrhynchos

Cinnamon teal, .4. cyanoptera

Pintail, A. acuta

Gadwall, A. strepera

Shoveler, Spatula dypeata

Ruddy duck, Oiyura jamaieensis .
Green-winged teal, A. carolinensis
Ring-necked duck, Aythya cotlaTis

Total, ducks

Species

Number

Coot, Fulica americana... - _ -.

418

Black-necked stilt, HiTtiantopus mexicanus

Avocet, Recurvirostra americana

Western grebe, Aechmophorus occidenlalis

Eared grebe, Podiceps caspicus

Gull fspecies not determined)

Gallinule, Gallinula chloropus

Dowitcher, Limnaromus scolopaceus

Killdeer, Charadrius vociferus

Least sandpiper, Erolia minutilla

Forster's tern, Sirrna forsteri

145

35

25

4

4

2

Sora rail, Porzana Carolina .. __ .

Snowy egret, Leucophoyx thula

Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus

Total, other species

640

MAJOR OUTBREAK

On October 3 5. 19G7, thonsaiids of dead ducks were found in the
Kern Kiver Delta (Figure 1), an area that lieretofore had not been
mapped as flooded (Sections 19, 20, 29, and 30, T 24 S, R 21 E, M.D.M.
and Sections 24 and 25, T 24 S, R 20 E, M.D.M. ). Subsequent investiga-
tions revealed that the landowner Avas forced to take delivery of ap-
proximatel}' 28,000 aere-ft of water that had been stored in Lake
Isabella all summer. The delivery was mandatory in order to provide
flood storage in Isabella Reservoir for the forthcoming winter. Flooding
of four of these sections started on August 31. The remaining two
sections were flooded in October. The duck hunting season opened on
October 14, and ducks concentrated in this area because it was rela-
tively remote and not hunted.

An immediate all-out effort was made to pick up the sick and dead
birds and prevent new birds from using the area. The U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service provided six airboats and crews from refuges as far
away as Nevada and Montana. They also transported Job Corps crews
(13 men) from Oregon to assist in picking up birds. Dead birds were
taken by truck to a dump area for burning. Live birds were treated
in a field hospital and transported to a freshwater reservoir some 30
miles from the outbreak. Treatment of sick birds consisted of a fresh-
water drench, antitoxin injection while the supply lasted, and in some
cases a food drench.

AERIAL HERDING

Considerable difficulty was encountered in herding ducks away from
the Kern River Delta ponded area. Sick and dead birds were subse-
quently found in Sections 1 through 12 and Section 16. Although
there were indications that some of these areas were toxic, it could not
be determined exactly where the birds were picking up the toxin. It
was therefore necessary to try to keep the birds from using the entire
area.

Aircraft from both state and federal wildlife agencies were used to
herd ducks away from the problem area throughout the fall and winter.
These efforts were concentrated on Wednesdays, Saturdays, and Sun-
days, because there was normally a greater movement of ducks on these
days, when hunting occurred on private clubs and public shooting

268

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

areas. The U. S. Air Force provided a helicopter on two occasions; and
late in the winter, when it became difficult to get agency planes, a con-
tract was let with a local flying service to assist with the herding.
Aerial herding efforts achieved varying degrees of success, depending
on several factors. Generally speaking, herding efforts were most suc-
cessful when at least three airboats were coordinated with two aircraft.
Poorer results were obtained when less equipment was available or when
the airboats were not coordinated with the aircraft. There were times
when the eft'ort bv a single aircraft and one or two airboats seemed

0 SOmiles

1 I
Scole

KERN RIVER DELTA

FIGURE 1 — Location of the major outbreak of botulism in 1967-68.

futile. A greater degree of success was achieved when the ducks could
go to an attractive place where they were not harassed.

The fact that many ducks returned to the toxic area at night pre-
sented an additional problem. The local contractor, flying at low alti-

WATERFOWL BOTULISM 269

tudes and switching the landing lights off and on, appeared to be suc-
cessful in frightening ducks from the area in the only attempt at night
herding. Night herding was not continued because of the hazards in-
volved.

Flying conditions were considered hazardous because (i) large num-
bers of birds were in the air, (ii) at times it was easy to lose the hori-
zon over the expanse of smooth water, and (iii) shotguns and cracker
shells were sometimes used from the plane.

FRIGHTENING DEVICES

Several methods were used to keep waterfowl and other birds from
the area. The success of any one method varied from time to time, but
generally speaking a scare device was more effective when first used
or used at a new location. Automatic acetylene and butane poppers
were used througliout the problem area and were relocated from time
to time. Other scare devices used at one time or another included (i)
cracker sliells fired from land, airboat, or aircraft, (ii) cherry bombs,
used chiefly on punk ropes, arranged to go off throughout the day or
niglit, (iii) construction blinkers i)]aced at strategic locations, and (iv)
a 12-volt light used on an airboat. The use of military dyes on the
water and liigli-powered rifles was considered but not effected.

REFUGE CLOSURE

During the latter part of October, field personnel encountered con-
siderable difficulty in keeping watefowl oft' the problem area. It was
apparent that the ducks needed an attractive nearby area where they
would not be harassed. The 4.328-acre Pixley National Wildlife Refuge,
15 miles northeast, allowed no hunting, but was not large enough or
attractive enough to do tlie job.

Kern National Wildlife Refuge, 4 miles south, was open to public
hunting on Sundays, and the decision was made by state and federal
officials to close the refuge to hunting beginning November 12, 1967.
Undeveloped portions of the refuge were flooded to provide additional
resting areas which would make it more attractive. This was made
possible by purchase of 7.000 acre-ft of water by the Bureau of Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife. The complete closure of the refuge improved
the effectiveness of the herding program almost immediately. Most of
the 80,000 to 100.000 ducks using the refuge remained there as long as
the feed lasted. Although the value of the refuge closure diminished as
the season progressed, this greater than usual number of birds using
the refuge started feeding flights to the south into the Buena Vista
Lake area, where rice stubble was located. The refuge was not hunted
for the remainder of the season.

PICKUP OF DEAD BIRDS

Wlien the major outbreak occurred in the Kern River Delta, an all-
out effort was made to clean up the dead birds. This was done to reduce
the hazard to live birds of feeding on toxin-containing blowfly maggots.
The weather was warm, and the carcasses were blown by flies almost
immediately. Hundreds of acres of extremely shallow water made the
pickup quite difficult. The use of pitchforks handled from airboats was

'0

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Ihe most feasible "\v;iy 1(i I'ctricvc iiniiiy nf tin' l)ii-(ls. ])()11i wildlife afzen-
eies hired temporary help to assist ])ermaiieiit i)ers()iiiiel in Ihe pickup.
Kintrs County made $1 ,(!()() available for temporary labor. Ninety-one
man-days Mere made a^■ailabl(' by the Job Corps, and the California Di-
vision of Forestry ])i'()vi<l((l I'l.) man-days of inmate labor from the Mt.
Jbtme Conservation Camp.

The dead birds were tabulated by species for the first few days
(Tal)le 2), but this practice was soon dispensed with to conserve time.
The early species composition is a good general indicator of relative
numbers lost, but some changes occurred later in the season. Losses of
late-arriving divers and shovelers increased somewhat as the season
progressed. Kuddy ducks M'cre virtually impossible to herd from the
area, which contributed to mortality of this species. There was an ap-
parent disproportionate large loss of males, especially among pintails.
No tallv of sex of lost birds was made, however.

TABLE 2
Species Sample from Metjor Botulism Outbreak in the Kern River Delta

Species

Number

Percentage

Species

Number

Percentage

Pintail, ^4 Das acu/a ._ _

1,607

200

7.3

29

17

82.5

10.2

3.7

1.5

0.9

Mallard, A. phtyrhynchos

Gadwall, A. strepera

Cinnamon teal, .4. cyanoptera

Lesser scaup, Aythya aHinin

Eing-neckcd duck, Aythya collark.

Total

12
4

3
1

0.6

Green-winged teal, A. carolinensis.

Shovcler, Spatula dypeata

Widgeon, Mareca americana

Ruddy duck, Oxyura jamakensis -

0.2
0.2
0.2

1,949

100.0

By the middle of November, crews had cleaned up most of the initial
losses, and records were then kept on a daily basis. As the outbreak
continued, loss intensity decreased (Table 3).

By the middle of March, most of the waterfowd had left the area
on their northern migration, and losses had diminished to the point
that the bird pickup operation was suspended. Subsequent checks of
the area indicated that there was a small continuing loss of shorebirds,
but w^aterfowl losses appeared to be negligible. By March 18, 1968, a
total of 57.864 sick and dead birds had been picked up ; 6,360 of the
treated birds apparently survived, leaving the known loss at 51,504.
No effort was made to pick up or count carcasses on much of the
agricultural and native grassland adjacent to the problem area, and
the estimated loss was probably 5.000 to 10,000 more than the count.

TABLE 3
Trend of Bird Losses Throughout the Outbreak Period

Date

Sick and

dead birds

picked up

to date

Interval
losses

Date

Sick and

dead birds

picked up

to date

Interval
losses

Nov. 12, 1967

40,577
46,960
53,769

6,383
6,809
2,711

Feb. 4, 1968

Mar. 4, 1968

Mar. 18, 1968

56,480
57,763
57,864

1,283

Dec. 4, 1967

101

Jan. 4, 1968 —

WATERFOWL BOTULISM 271

LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS

The primary botulism problem area was six sections of Kern River
Delta land containing 28,000 aere-ft of water. This land had not been
flooded previously for 30 years. Tlie flooded sections were adjacent and
formed a ponded area 2 miles wide and 3 miles long, with the deepest
part, in the center, 3 to 4 ft deep. The water gradually became shal-
lower toward the edges, creating a mudflat along the shoreline.

Periodically during the course of the outbreak, observations and
tests were made of the water and substrate to discover where the
botulism toxin was being produced. However, the toxin could be demon-
strated only in the carcasses of dead birds and in blowfly larvae in
and around the carcasses.

The water was clear and free of heavy growths of algae. The only
appreciable organic material in the water was some barley stubble in
parts of Sections 29 and 30.

Dissolved oxygen levels in tlie pond during the day were never below
4 ppm and rose as high as 11 ppm. Water temperatures during the
early p;irt of the outbreak in October were 74 F maximum and gradu-
ally decreased as the fall and Avinter progressed. During the winter a
skim of ice formed around the edges of the ponds during the coldest
nights. The pond water pTI was 7.4.

No explanation of what served as tlic growth substrate for the
Clostridium hofnlinum Type C bacteria can be given at this time. It
is believed that the severe winter outbreak was primarily due to toxin
formed during the fall. It is assumed that there must have been a
tremendous bloom of botulism organisms during late September and
early October. Most of the toxin formed during warm weather would
remain within the bacteria and not be released until autolysis occurred.
Because of the drop in temperature the bacterial metabolic rate would
have been lowered, thus prolonging the time between toxin production
and autolysis and subsequent toxin in sufficient quantities to cause a
late-season epizootic.

This outbreak was quite unusual in comparison with past observed
botulism outbreaks. It started very late in the year and continued in
severity throughout the coldest part of the winter. The average maxi-
mum air temperature during September was 90 F, the average mini-
mum 60 F. By November, average maximums were 72 F and minimums
42 F. December was much colder, with temperatures frequently below
freezing at night, with a low of 20 F recorded.

During the coldest weather the area remained extremely toxic, killing
birds overnight. Autopsied ducks were fat and showed no signs of
chronic illness, unlike those in the usual case of winter botulism.

COST OF BOTULISM CONTROL

The estimated cost of control operations in the Kern River Delta
for all agencies involved was nearly $83,000 (Table 4). Despite this
massive control effort, approximately GO. 000 waterfowl died from botu-
lism. However, it is likely that without these efforts an additional
250,000 or more waterfowl would have been lost.

272 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

TABLE 4

Cost of Botulism Control

Agency Cost
Californin Pop.'irtmonf of Fish and (jJamc

Fiold operations — salaries, wa{;es, expenses $29,293.00

Staff services — research and investigations 8,400.00

Department airplane expense 5,393.00

Contracted aerial herding 808.00

Administrative costs 4,160.00

Total $48,054.00

California Division of Forestry

(inmate labor) 745.00

Kings County (county fine money) 1,600.00

U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife 32,600.00

Total $34,945.00

Grand total* $82,999.00

* Costs do not include wear and tear on equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We are thankful for the assistance of Gene Cofer and Leon Littlefield
of the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for their coopera-
tion. We "would also like to tliank Carrol Faist, William Coston, and
William Clark of the California Department of Fish and Game for
their help in obtaining and supplying data for this report. The authors
are also indebted to personnel of the Kern River Delta Farms for
weather and water movement data.

REFERENCES

Mays, A. S. 1941. Observations on duck disease at Tulare Lake Basin, 1940.

Calif. Fish and Game. 27 (3) : 154-163.
McLean, D. D. 1946. Duck disease at Tulare Lake. Calif. Fish and Game, 32 (2) :

71-80.
Rosen, M. N.. and A. I. Bischoff 1953. A new approach toward botulism control.

Trans. 18th North Amer. Wildl. Conf., 191-199

Calif. Fish and Game, 55(4) : 273-284. 1969.

COMPARISONS OF DISK-DANGLER, TRAILER,
AND PLASTIC JAW TAGS'

STEPHEN J. NICOLA and ALMO J. CORDONE

Inland Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

SurvivaS, condition, tag-induced irritation, and shedding were evalu-
ated for three types of tags in two hatchery pond experiments. Tags
were tested with three varieties of trout: domestic rainbow {Salmo
gairdnerii), Kamloops rainbow (S. g. kamloops), and Lahontan cutthroat
(S. clarkii henshawi). In the first experiment, disk-dangler and trailer
tags secured with 0.012-inch diameter stainless steel wire and 0.015-
and 0.020-inch diameter tantalum wire were compared, in the second
experiment, trailer tags with cellulose nitrate, vinyl plastic, and hydro-
static pennants were compared with plastic jaw tags. Trailer tags at-
tached with 0.015-inch tantalum wire and piastic jaw tags were shed
most frequently. Differences between the various dangler end trailer
tags were slight, but trailer tags of 0.012-inch diameter stainless steel
wire with vinyl plastic pennants were considered best for experiments
with rainbow trout when much growth was expected.

INTRODUCTION

During investigations by the Lake Tahoe Fisheries Study, it became
apparent that a tagging program Avas needed to evaluate returns of
trout planted in the lake. A tag that trout would retain for several
years and that would allow for substantial growth by the tagged fish
was needed. A literature review suggested two promising tags : the disk-
dangler tag and the Swedish trailer or Carlin tag. We decided to test
these plus a plastic mandible tag in a hatchery pond at the old Tahoe
State Fish Hatchery near Tahoe City, California.

The requirements of a successful tag are summarized by Chadwick
(1963). In our experiments, we were primarily interested in determin-
ing (i) the tag's effect on mortality, (ii) the degree of shedding, and
(iii) how well it retained its visibility and legibility. The criteria we
employed to judge the suitability of the tags were (i) survival and
condition factors, (ii) shedding rate, (iii) tag-induced irritation, and
(iv) growth of flesh over tags. This report presents the results of these
tests.

The disk-dangler tag was first described by Calhoun (1953). Since
then it has been used successfully on a variety of freshwater and anad-
romous fishes by the California Department of Fish and Game. Bef6re
our tests, however, it had not been tested on salmonids. The trailer tag
was developed in Sweden to evaluate the survival of Atlantic salmon
(Salmo solar) smolts (Carlin, 1955). Chadwick (1966) describes these
and other tags.

1 Accepted for publication May 1969. This work was performed as part of Dingell-
Johnson Projects California F-21-R and Nevada F-15-R, "Lake Tahoe Fisheries
Study", supported by Federal Aid to Fish Restoration funds.

(273)
2—79160

274 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

As orii;iii<illy dcsig-ncd, tlic dangler and trailer tags have many sim-
ilarities. Both consist of a pennant attached to a double-wire frame.
They can be applied in the same manner and at the same location.
However, the significant feature of the trailer tag is a link connecting
the frame to the pennant. This permits extensive growth of the fish
without obscuring the pennant, and whereas the pennant of the dangler
tag is rigidly attached to the frame, the pennant and link of the trailer
tag oscillate about the frame, hanging down as the fish rests, and
trailing back as the fish swims. Also, the Avirc and pennant of the trailer
tag are considerably smaller tlian those of the dangler. Finally, trailer
pennants are oblong, whereas dangler pennants are circular. For this
study, both tags were modified as described below.

The jaw tag used in this experiment is a coiled, plastic "bandette"
capable of expanding as the trout's jaw grows larger,

METHODS AND MATERIALS
General

Two experiments were conducted. In the first, the dangler and trailer
tags constructed with stainless steel and tantalum wire were tested
with domestic rainbow, Kamloops rainbow, and Lahontan cutthroat. In
the second experiment, domestic rainbow trout were used in compari-
sons of trailer tags attached with one wire type but using three differ-
ent types of pennants. These were also compared with the jaw tag and
an untagged control.

Trout were first anesthetized in tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222),
and then transferred to wooden tagging cradles lined with foam rubber
for tagging. The dangler and trailer tags were applied by pushing
two 20-gauge, l-l-inch h^-podermic needles through the dorsal muscu-
lature at a point below the base of the anterior half of the dorsal fin
and about one-third the distance between it and the lateral line. The
two tag wires were threaded into the hypodermic needles and pulled
through the fish as the needles were withdrawn. The two ends were
then twisted together and the excess removed (Figure 1). The first
needle was inserted perpendicular to the midline of the body, while the
second needle was inserted anteriorly and at an angle such that it
emerged at the same point on the tag side as the posterior needle. This
was recommended by Kimsey (1956) to improve stabilization of the
wares. On the knot side, the two wares were about i to f inch apart.
A spacer was used to maintain this distance. Thus, one or more prox-
imal pterygiophores were encompassed, serving to help anchor the tags.
The link and all twists were about -h to f inch long.

Jaw tags were applied through an incision made in the skin between
the mandible and the isthmus. The coiled tag was spread apart by hand
and one end was pushed through the incision. When the tag was re-
leased it sprang back to its original coiled position in place around
the mandible.

Jaw tags were applied at the rate of about 60 fish per man-hour,
approximately twice as i st as dangler and trailer tags could be applied
(33 fish per man-hour'^. .Vlthough trailer and dangler tags could be
applied with equal speed, trailer tags took considerably longer to fabri-
cate because of the link.

TAG COMPAKISONS

275

The pond in which the tagged fish were held was an earthen-wall
excavation approximately 52 ft long, 18 ft wide, and 3 ft deep. Water,
taken from a spring, ranged from 40 to 45 F and 1 to 3 ft^/sec the year
around. All fish were fed commercial dry pellets twice daily at a some-
what higher rate than recommended by Leitritz (1959), in order to
produce rapid growth. The pond was checked daily for shed tags and
dead fish, and appropriate observations and measurements were made.
At tagging and upon each examination, lengths and weights of the
trout were recorded and the condition of the tag and tag wound was
noted. All trout were measured to the nearest 0.1 inch fl and weighed
to the nearest 0.01 lb.

r=>e t-J »^ .^"^-i"!"

FIGURE 1 — Diagrammatic dorsal view of disk-dangler tag (left) and trailer
tag (right) in attached position (head of trout toward top).

Experiment I

The dangler tag was identical to that described by Chadwick (1963)
except that the pennant was oblong instead of circular. The trailer tag
we used resembled the original Swedish or Carlin tag only superfi-
cially. The framework was triangular rather than rectangular, and
the pennant was much larger. Basically, our trailer tag is much heavier
than the original Swedish type and might best be described as a disk-
dangler modified by the addition of a link. We needed the capacity of
the larger pennant to hold the legend we anticipated using in the
field. Also, we assumed it would not burden the relatively large trout

276 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Ave would be tagging (8 to 12 inches). The Swedish tag is customarily
applied to small salmonids (4 to 6 inches).

The pennants for both the dangler and trailer tags were constructed
of laminated green vinyl plastic and were j inch wide, f inch long, and
0.05 inch thick. Soft stainless steel 0.012 inch in diameter and tantalum
0.015 inch and 0.020 inch in diameter were the wire types tested with
each tag type and species.

Tagging began on March 25. 1963. and was completed on June 10,

1963. A total of 297 trout was tagged.

Experiment II

The trailer tag witli 0.012-inch stainless steel wire was tested with
pennants of green vinyl plastic identical to that used in the first ex-
periment, laminated white cellulose nitrate, and the Einar Lea hydro-
static pennant. Cellulose nitrate pennants had the same dimensions as
those made with vinyl plastic. The hydrostatic pennants were identical
to those developed for the original Einar Lea hydrostatic tag (Rounse-
fell and Everhart, 1953) and were If inches long by ye inch in diam-
eter. The blue jaw tags were If indies long by yjV inch thick.

One hundred of each treatment group were tagged on August 12,

1964. Controls were marked by removal of the adipose fin.

Evaluation

Fish tagged in experiment I were examined on November 21, 1963,
July 31, 1964, and August 23-24. 1965. Experiment II fish were not
examined again until August 23-24, 1965. Both experiments were ter-
minated at that time.

Growth of the fish over the tag and displacement of the tag in the
flesh was determined by noting how far each side of the tag had been
covered by the flesh or how far each side of the tag had shifted out of
the flesh. These were judged quantitatively by assigning numerical
rankings according to the length of tag visible. The score for each fish
was the sum of the rankings for both the tag and knot sides. Observa-
tions were made of tag wounds on both sides of the fish to determine
the amount of tag-induced irritation. The wound area was measured
in mm- and rankings were applied according to the degree of serious-
ness. Again, the total score for each fish was a sum of the tag- and
knot-side rankings.

'^o'-

RESULTS

Experiment I
Survival and Condition

Each species of trout tested exhibited different rates of survival and
condition in the hatchery pond. Domestic rainbow had the highest
survival, with Kamloops showing intermediate survival, and Lahontan
cutthroat showing the poorest (Table 1). Differences in the percentage
survival between each examination period were not statistically signi-
ficant. However, differences in the overall survival from tagging to the
end cf the experiment were highly significant ('/^ = 20.69, P < 0.01).

The effects of the various combinations of tag, wire type, and wire
size on survival were not distinct nor consistent between examination

TAG COMPARISONS

277

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278 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

periods or species. Tliis indicates tliat tag and wire effects were not
signilicantly different from one anotlier, and tliat the species effect
liad a greater influence on survival. The group with the best overall
survival for the domestic rainbow was the trailer 0.020-tantalum group
(Table 2). This group, however, gave tlie poorest results for cutthroat.
Tlie best survival for this species, and the Kamloops rainbow as well,
was the dangler 0.015-tantalum group.

The mean condition factor for cutthroat was significantly lower than
tlie factors for the rainbow. However, this difference occurred only at
the time of tagging and was not detectable at subsequent examinations.
Thus, it appears that the tag and wire types tested had no significant
effect on the condition of the trout.

Growth of Flesh Around Tags

The cutthroat trout grew very slowly (Table 1) and thus showed the
least amount of growth over the tags. Domestic and Kamloops rainbow
exhibited considerable growth over the tag, but there was little dif-
ference between them. Figure 2 shows how the flesh of a domestic rain-
bow trout grew about half way over the pennant, in this case, of a
dangler tag. When the ranking data for the first and second examina-
tion dates were compared, the trailer-tagged trout consistently showed
less growth over the tag than their dangler-tagged counterparts, except
for the cutthroat on July 31, 1964. Considering only rainbow trout,
we observed that the flesh did not begin to grow over the pennant of
the trailer tags until the final examination date, when the average
length of these fish had increased from 11.6 inches at tagging to 17.1
inches. Growth of the trout over the dangler tags, however, began at
about the time of the first examination, when the average length of
these rainbow had increased from 11.9 inches to 13.6 inches. Corre-
sponding Aveight gains for these groups were 0.78 to 1.21 and 0.76 to
2.13 lb, respectively.

FIGURE 2 — Pennant of disk-dangler tag in the process of being covered by dorsal

musculature of domestic rainbow trout. This fish was 12.8 inches (0.91 lb) at

tagging and when photographed 14y2 months later (July 31, 1964) was

20.6 inches (4.38 lb). Pbofograph by A/mo J. Core/one.

TAG COMPAKISONS 279

The majority of the trout examined exhibited growth over both the
tag side and knot side of the tags. In contrast, growth apparently took
place only on the knot side of disk-dangler tags attached to striped
hass, Roccus (now Morone) saxatilis (Chadwick, 1963).

Degree of Irritation

In general, there was a substantial increase in the amount of tag-
induced irritation from November 21, 1963, to July 31, 1964, but by
the final examination date most wounds had healed, "We found no
significant differences in the effects of each of the treatment combina-
tions on tag-induced irritation. Internally, there was little evidence of
irritation with either the stainless steel or tantalum wires.

Shedding

At least six different causes of shedding were observed during the
experiment (Table 3). The trailer 0.015-tantalum group experienced
the highest rate of shedding, which was significantly greater than that
of any of the other groups (x- = 2-i:.oG, P < O.Ul). Breakage of the
link was the main cause of these losses. "Pulling out" was the next
most frequent cause of shedding, occurring with greatest frequency
in the trailer 0.012-stninless steel group. Actually, those that became
"untwisted" also pulled out. Untwisting of the knot occurred only
with stainless steel. This is probably due to its greater resiliency and
smoothness compared with tantalum.

Dangler 0.015-tantalum and dangler 0.012-stainless steel had the
best tag retention. There was no significant difference in the shedding
rate between trout strains.

Experiment II

The noticeably lower survival of the hj^drostatic and jaw-tagged fish
(Table 4) was not significantly different from survival of the other
groups. Nor were there any significant differences in mean length and
condition factor at the end of the experiment.

Differences between growth of the flesh over the tags and tag-induced
irritation for each tag group (except the jaw tagged trout) were insig-
nificant. Jaw tags could not be directly compared with the trailer tags.
However, they did cause considerable irritation, and in virtually every
instance the mandible showed a definite constriction and an open wound
at the tag site.

Only 8 of the 400 tags applied in this experiment were shed during
the year in the hatchery pond (Table 4). Seven were plastic jaw tags, of
which 5 broke and 2 pulled off but remained intact. One hydrostatic
tag was shed as a result of a broken wire. Differences in the observed
shedding rates (control group excluded) were highly significant
(X- = 15.00, P< 0.01).

The cellulose nitrate-tagged trout gave overall results similar to the
vinyl plastic-tagged trout. Pennants of the former, however, became
illegible due to periphyton growths,

DISCUSSION

The most significant basis for evaluating the performance of the
different tags and wire types was found to be the shedding rate. The
effects of the tag and wire types on survival and condition, the growth

>80

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

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TAG COMPAEISONS 281

of the flesh over the tag, and tag-induced irritation are relatively minor
and are overshadowed by differences in these characteristics inherent
within the species. These results are not surprising when the similarity
of the tags and the method of application are considered. Chadwick
(1963) used three wire types in tests with disk-dangler tags on striped
bass: 0.020 stainless steel and 0.020 and 0.025 tantalum. He found no
significant differences in the returns of 0.020 and 0.025 tantalum, but
the 0.020 stainless steel and 0.020 tantalum gave variable returns in
three different years. He also found little difference in the irritation
caused by 0.020 stainless steel and 0.020 tantalum, with greater, though
not significant, irritation caused by 0.025 tantalum.

Saunders (1968) tested Swedish trailer tags with three types of
attachment "wires": stainless steel, polyethylene filament, and surgical
suture. He found that tags attached with stainless steel wire caused
severe abrasion on Atlantic salmon smolts, but the percentage recapture
of this group was significantly higher than that of filament- and suture-
tagged smolts. He could not determine whether this difference was due
to higher survival of stainless steel-tagged salmon or higher shedding
rate of the other groups.

Shedding appears to be independent of any species influences and
entirely dependent on tag and wire type, with trailer 0.015 tantalum
suffering the greatest loss. It is likely that oscillation of the trailer tag
at the link caused tlie tantalum wires to break. However, only 0.015
tantalum was involved, since the differences between trailer and dangler
0.020 tantalum, and trailer and dangler 0.012 stainless steel, were not
significant. Although Skinner and Calhoun (1954) found that there
was no significant difference in the proportion of stainless steel and
tantalum wire Petersen tags returned from striped bass, they did
observe that repeated bending caused 0.0.32-inch tantalum wire to break
much more readily than soft stainless steel of the same diameter. This
would explain why the dangler and stainless steel tags broke with much
less frequency, but would not explain why the trailer 0.020 tantalum
links did not break with greater frequency. It is possible that had the
experiment been carried on longer, the trailer 0.020 tantalum wires
would have begun breaking at the link, since their greater thickness
probably would require a longer period of wear before breaking. This is
supported by the fact that 10 of the 15 trailer 0.015 tantalum tags were
not shed until between the second and third examinations (14-27
months). In fact, a general increase in shedding rate with time was
observed for all tag t\T)es, with 57% of the total shed between the
second and third examination dates. Chadwick (1963) working with
striped bass, also found an increase in shedding rate with time.

The second major cause of shedding was the tag simply pulling out
of the flesh. To what degree oscillation of the link in the trailer tag
contributed to shedding is not known, but there was a slightly greater
tendency for trailer tags to pull out of the flesh than dangler tags.
Those tags that pulled out were found with the wires close together,
indicating that they had worked through the flesh and come together
before being shed. There was no evidence, however, that loose tags
caused internal hemorrhaging or infection any more than tightly-held
tags.

282 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

High retention of both the dangler and trailer tags illustrates the
suitability of the frame shape. Dissection of the tag area on a large
number of trout tended to confirm Kimsey's (1956) recommendation
that i)lacing the "wires in a trianguhir shai)e ratlier than a rectangular
shape would improve stabilization and reduce internal irritation. No
pockets of necrotic tissue were found, and there was only slight
evidence of localized necrosis along tlic wires. However, although the
wires seemed to stabilize well, some initi;il displacement occurred. The
anterior ware stabilized in a position ii| (proximately perpendicular to
the midline of the body, and the posterior wire stabilized in the form
(if a loop on tlie knot side, extending ventrally and posteriorly and
lurmiug a shallow angle with the anterior wire on the tag side. On the
other hand, the conventional Swedish trailer tag utilizes the rectangular
frame, and nothing w-as found in the literature to indicate a stabilization
problem.

Because the only difference in the trailer tags tested in experiment
II was the type of pennant, it is not surprising that there were no
significant differences in the effects of these tags on the trout. The
hydrostatic pennants appeared less suitable than the vinyl plastic and
cellulose nitrate pennants because they caused lower survival and
greater irritation. It was thought that the greater irritation may have
been caused by the continual motion of the buoyant pennant. However,
Chadwick (1963) compared disk-dangler tags with conventional and
hydrostatic pennants and found that irritation was much reduced with
the latter, and j^robably would have been significantly less had there
been more recaptures to analyze. He attributed the lesser irritation to
the lower resistance of the pennant in water, having a specific gravity
nearl}- equal to that of water itself. However, the striped bass he
tagged were considerably larger than the trout we used. The continual
motion of the hydrostatic tag, it seems, w^ould have a more serious
effect on smaller fish.

"While the cellulose nitrate pennants were similar to the vinyl plastic
pennants, their tendency to become covered with periphyton would
make them less suitable, especially when tags are to be returned by
fishermen.

Although the jaw-tagged trout experienced the lowest survival and
highest shedding of any other group, they gave better results than
those reported in some other studies of jaw tags (Kimsey, 19.56; Whit-
ney, 1958; Eschmeyer, 1959; Xelson. 1960), the most important cri-
terion being the shedding rate. However, the fact that jaw-tagged trout
grew the least, suggests that these tags would seriously retard the
growth of the trout in the wild. Therefore, it appears that the plastic
bandettes, while they will expand as the fish grows, will not offer much
advantage over other jaw tags.

It is unsafe to assume that pond test results will be duplicated in
the wild. Although there was no indication in experiment II that
trailer tags retarded growth, tags of both the dangler and trailer type
are known to do so under fiield conditions (Chadwick, 1963; Saunders
and Allen, 1967). The question of wounds is even more complex.

We observed few serious wounds in the pond tests, particularly
for the two rainbow species. AVounds tended to be small, and then

TAG COMPARISONS 283

healed as growth progressed. Subsequent field trials of trailer and
dangler tags in Lake Tahoe indicated no serious wound problems. How-
ever, although wounds did not develop under hatchery conditions,
Saunders (1968) reported a high incidence of severe wounds from
chafing of the pennant (trailer tag) against the side of Atlantic salmon
smolts in the wild. Of returning adults, Saunders wrote, "'On the side
of the fish from which the growth sector protruded, there was always
a wound, ... in the form of a crater . . ., probably formed through
action of the tag label, which caused the growth sector to describe a
conical path in its movement. Dr. Carlin (personal communication)
suggests that when wounds occur at the point of attachment, the cause
may be that the tag was attached too low." Recently, a very similar
type of wound was reported from angler-caught rainbow trout stocked
in Shasta Lake, California. Tlie tag used on these fish was identical
to the trailer tag with stainless steel wire used in our pond studies.
This implies that the performance of a tag in one body of water may
not necessarily be attained in another.

Very similar results were obtained with both the dangler and trailer
tags. For tagging experiments with rainbow trout, the trailer tag would
be more suitable when a large amount of growth is anticipated. How-
ever, if little or no growth is expected, the dangler would obviously be
the best choice. Because of less breakage, stainless steel wire is recom-
mended over tantalum. Vinyl plastic pennants were superior to both
hydrostatic and cellulose nitrate pennants. There was greater irritation
with the hydrostatic tags and periphyton gro^vths were a problem with
cellulose nitrate. Also, tlie cellulose nitrate pennants were more expen-
sive and more difficult to obtain because of the extreme fire danger in-
volved in their manufacture.

The poor survival and growth of the cutthroat trout, we believe,
was independent of any tag effects. The Lahontan cutthroat is very
difficult to raise in California hatcheries beyond the fingerling stage.
It is not possible to state from these results whether the shedding rate
and irritation of these tags would be different from that observed for
the rainbow trout, but the trailer and dangler tags with stainless steel
wire should also be suitable for cutthroat captured and released in
the wild.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Sterling P. Davis assisted in the design of these studies and proc-
essing of the fish. Harold K. Chadwiek provided advice and guidance
in all phases. In generous response to our many inquiries. Dr. Dwight
A. Webster supplied valuable counsel regarding the Carlin tag.

REFERENCES

Calhoun, A. J. 1953. Aquarium tests of tags on striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game,

39 (2) : 209-218.
Carlin, Borje. 1955. Tagging of salmon smolts in the River Lagan, p. 57-74. In

Inst. Freshwater Res., Drottningholm, Ann. Rept. 1954. Rept. No. 36.
Chadwiek. Harold K. 1963. An evaluation of five tag types used in a striped bass

mortality rate and migration study. Calif. Fish and Game, 49 (2) : 64-83.
1966. Fish marking, p. 18-40. In Alex Calhoun (ed.) Inland Fisheries

Management, Calif. Dept. Fish and Game.
Eschmeyer, Paul H. 1959. Survival and retention of tags, and growth of tagged

lake trout in a rearing pond. Prog. Fish-Cult., 21 (1) : 17-21.

284 CALIFORNIA PISII AN'D GAI\TK

Kimsoy, J. B. 195G. Largemouth bass tagging. Calif. Fish and Game, 42 (4) : 337-
34G.

I.t'itrifz, Earl. 1959. Trout and salmon culture. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish
P.ull. 107. 1G9 p.

Xclson. Wesley C. 1960. A comparison of the losses of jaw, cheek, dart, and
.spaghetti tags; and their effects on the survival and growth of trout under
hatchery conditions. Colorado Dept. Game and Fish, Denver. 20 p. (Mimeo.)

Kounsefell, George A., and W. Harry Everhart. 1953. Fishery science, its methods
aiul aiijiiications. John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New York. 444 ]i.

Saunders. Richard E. 1968. An evaluation of two methods of attaching tags to
Atlantic salmon smelts. Prog. Fi.sh-Cult., 30 (2) : 104-109.

Saunders, Richard E., and K. Radway Allen. 1967. Effects of tagging and of fin-
clipping on the survival and growth of Atlantic salmon between smolt and adult
stages. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 24 (12) : 2595-2611.

Skinner, John E., and A. J. Calhoun. 1954. Field tests of stainless steel and tan-
talum wire with disk tags on striped bass. Calif. Fish and Game, 40 (3) : 323-328.

Whitney, Richard R. 1958. Numbers of mature walleyes in Clear Lake, Iowa,
1952-3, as estimated by tagging. Iowa State College Jour. Sci., 33 (1) : 55-79.

Calif. Fish and Game, 55(4) : 285-297. 1969.

DISTRIBUTION, SIZE COMPOSITION, AND RELATIVE

ABUNDANCE OF THE PIUTE SCULPIN, COTTUS

BELDINGII EIGENMANN AND EIGENMANN,

IN LAKE TAHOE'

PHILLIP H. BAKER = and ALMO J. CORDONE

Inland Fisheries Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

Piute sculpins were collected in Lake Tahoe mainly with otter and
sled trawls. Night otter trawls caught significantly more fish than day
trawls, in rocky areas along the shoreline, fish were taken with rotenone.
Sculpins were taken from very shallow water to depths of 700 ft.
Largest concentrations occurred at depths less than 200 ft. The substrate
appeared to affect sculpin densities considerably. Largest numbers were
found in rock and rubble and on the steeper slopes. Sandy or muddy
bottoms with little gradient usually yielded the fewest. Significant varia-
tions in year-class strength between different lake areas suggested that
the Piute sculpin is not far ranging. Species composition of otter trawl
catches indicates that the sculpin is one of the most abundant fishes
in Tahoe. Only the tui chub {Gila bicolor) was captured in greater
numbers in trawls at depths less than 300 ft. At depths of 300 ft and
greater, the sculpin was the most abundant.

INTRODUCTiON

This is one of a series of papers reporting: the findings of the 6-year
Lake Tahoe Fisheries Study. The study, initiated in 1960 as a coopera-
tive effort between the California and Nevada Departments of Fish and
Game, investigated the lake's fisheries, the life histories of its fishes,
and certain aspects of its ecology. This paper presents the findings
relating to the distribution, size composition, and relative abundance
of the Piute sculpin. Ebert and Summerfelt (1969) discuss other
aspects of its life history.

Eigenmann and Eigenmann (1891) originally described the Piute
sculpin from Tahoe specimens. It has since been found throughout the
Lahontan Basin of California and Nevada, and in the Bonneville and
Columbia River drainages as well (La Rivers. 1962). Portions of the
sculpin 's life history in Tahoe have previously been described by Miller
(1951). His study was based mainly on shallow water collections and
stomach analyses of piscivorous fishes. This report confirms many of
his findings and presents additional data.

Lake Tahoe, located on the California-Nevada border at an altitude
of 6,229 ft, is a large, deep, and extremely oligotrophic alpine lake. It
covers 123,300 surface acres, and has maximum and mean depths of
1,645 and 1.027 ft, respectively. Dissolved solids generally range be-
tween 60 and 65 ppm, and Secchi disk readings are usually 75 to 100 ft.
McGauhey et al. (1963) describe the physical and chemical features
of Lake Tahoe in detail.

1 Accepted for publication June 1969. This Ts-ork was performed as part of Dingell-
Johnson Projects California F-21-R and Nevada F-lo-R, "Lake Tahoe Fisheries
Study", supported by Federal Aid to Fish Restoration funds.

* Now with Region 2, California Department of Fish and Game.

( 2S.5)

286 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A number of methods were used to sample the diversity of fishes and
habitats in Lake Tahoe. These included otter, sled, and midwater trawl-
ing, bottom and open-water gill netting, minnow trapping, seining,
and rotenonc treatment. Of these, otter trawling was the most effective
method for collecting sculpins, particularly from depths of 100 to 500
ft. Nearly 98% of the 7,390 sculpins collected were taken by this
method. A small sled tra^i described by Linn and Frantz (1965) was
very effective in capturing sculpins in shallow water. Unfortunately,
this trawl was used very little, since its value did not become apparent
until late in the study. Approximately 60 sculpins were taken by this
method. Virtually all of the remaining sculpins were obtained by rote-
none treatment in the shallow shoreline areas. This procedure was
described by Baker (1967). Lastly, two sculpins were captured in
bottom gill nets.^

The semiballoon otter trawl used in this study was made by the
Marinovich Trawl Company of Biloxi, I\Iississippi. The width of its
mouth was 25 ft measured along the hcadrope. Tlie mesh sizes in the
body of the trawl and in the cod end were 1^ and -J inches (stretch
measure), respectively. The former was made of No. 9-thread nylon,
and the latter was of cotton. In addition, a skirt of l-|-inch mesh No.
15-thread nylon protected the cod end. ]\Ia]iogany trawl doors, 15 by
32 inches ; 1,800 ft of gVincli trawl cable ; and 100-f t long, -|-inch diam-
eter trawl bridles were the other major items used. A converted 24-ft
commercial fishing boat powered by a 180-hp inboard engine towed the
trawl.

Otter Trawling Areas

After extensive exploratory trawling, two areas, Agate Bay and the
south end of the lake (hereafter termed South Tahoe), were selected
as suitable otter trawling sites. The bottom at these locations was rela-
tively flat and free of obstruction, facilitating contour trawling and
decreasing the chances of fouling and tearing the net.

The Agate Bay trawling area was located on a large, gently-sloping
shelf midway between Flick and Stateline Points. (For a map of Lake
Tahoe see Weidlein. Cordone, and Frantz. 1965.) Here, the depth con-
tours were located nearly parallel and adjacent to one another. The
substrate, as surmised from materials picked up in the trawl and ad-
hering to the doors, graded from sand and rubble at 100 and 150 ft
to mud and clay at 400 and 500 ft. Substantial amounts of vegetation,
including Char a. filamentous algae, mosses, and liverworts, were trawled
from depths of 200 to 350 ft, with lesser amounts from 100, 150, and
400 ft. No plants were taken from 500 ft. Frantz and Cordone (1967)
describe these deepwater plant beds in greater detail.

At South Tahoe, the conditions differed somewhat from those at
Agate Bay. The trawling contours were staggered and farther removed
from one another. The 100-ft contour was located northwest of the
mouth of Taylor Creek, off Baldwin Beach. The 200- and 300-ft con-
tours were located several miles to the east, off the Upper Truckee Kiver
marsh. The 400-ft trawling contour was initially located off the mouth

8 Neither was actually gilled ; both had been rolled up in the net, presumably as it
was dragged along the bottom during retrieval.

PIUTE SCULPIN IN LAKE TAHOE 287

of Taylor Creek, but was moved several miles to the east midway
through the sampling program. The bottom types found at South Ta-
lioe were similar to those observed at Agate Bay, except that only sand
was encountered at the 100-ft depth. The vegetation, although qualita-
tively similar to that in Agate Bay, was taken in smaller amounts and
appeared to be more uniformly distributed witli depth. Also, the bot-
tom topography was generally steeper and less uniform than in Agate
Bay. As a result, contour trawling at South Tahoe was considerably
more difficult.

Night Versus Day Trawling

The relative efficiency of night versus day trawling was determined
by comparing the catches of 23 matched pairs of niglit and day otter
trawls. These trawls were made over a period of 4 months (i.e., Septem-
ber 1963 through December 1963) at depths from 100 to 400 ft at both
Agate Bay and Soutli Tahoe. In all instances, night catches of sculpins
exceeded those made during the day (Table 1). Night trawls caught
95.8% of the total catch of the paired trawls, with values of individual
pairs ranging from 66.7% to 100%. The differences in the catch rates
were tested statistically using a method for paired observations (Li,
1957; p. 96) and were found to be highly significant (t — 10.49, 22
d.f. ; t.oi = 2.82). The data were normalized using a log (y -\- 1) trans-
formation. Similar tests on tui chub and Tahoe sucker {Catostomus ia-
lioensis) catch rates also indicated significant differences between night
and day trawls. Night trawls also took 94.5% of the total tui chub
catch of the pairs (t = 6.10. 9 d.f.; t.oi = 3.25), and 96.7% of the
Tahoe suckers (t = 3.58, 13 d.f.; t.m ■= 3.01). No tests were made for
the other fish species captured because of insufficient sample sizes.

These data were the basis for the termination of day trawling in
December 1963.

Trawling Procedures

From September 1963 through September 1964, one series of night
trawls was usually made each month in each of the two trawling areas
previously described. However, inclement weather or boat breakdowns
prevented trawling at South Tahoe in November 1963 and in both areas
in July 1964. Substitute trawls were made the last day in July and
early in August for those missed earlier in July. (To avoid confusion,
these substitute trawls will hereafter be considered July trawls.) The
regular August trawls were made as usual, but nearer the end of the
month.

Trawling contours in both areas were located at 100-ft depth inter-
vals between 100 and 400 ft. In addition, supplementary trawls were
made at depths of 150, 250, and 350 ft in Agate Bay because of the
large horizontal distances between adjacent trawling contours. From
June through September 1964, after the installation of a larger capacity
winch aboard the boat, trawls were also made in Agate Bav at a depth
of 500 ft.

Tows were generally 10 min long, but a few were of shorter duration.
Catch rates of the latter were expanded for comparison vdth the 10-
min tows. Similarly, catch rates were combined and averaged for com-
parison with the standard 10-min tow in those few instances when
two or more companion trawls were made in the same location in one

288 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

montli. Tlie tr;nvl net was towed at an engine speed of approximately
I.IUO rpui, giving the boat a speed of about 1^- ft per second (sliglitly
less than one knot). Tlie linear distance covered during a 10-min tow
was approxiniatel}' 900 ft.

Tliree operational changes were required during the sampling year.
Trawls at 100 ft in Agate liay were discontinued in November because
of frequent fouling on rocky obstructions. Trawls in 150 ft were re-
duced to 5 min in April for the same reason. Even so, these trawls
fouled frequently, resulting in extreme variations in catch rates. Foul-
ing also occurred occasionally at other deptlis in Agate Bay, and at
South Tahoe as well. Unfortunately, some of these trawls were not re-
run because the extent of the fouling was not considered serious at the
time. However, during data analysis a number of these trawls were dis-
carded when it became obvious tliat serious fouling had occurred.
Lastly, in June the 400-ft trawling contour at South Tahoe was re-
located to an area where the bottom topography was less variable.

DISTRIBUTION
Spatial Distribution

The Piute sculpin appears to be widely distributed in Tahoe, having
been collected from numerous locations around the lake, and from a
wide range of depths. From September 1963 through September 1964,
5,471 were taken by otter trawl at Agate Bay and South Tahoe at
depths ranging from 100 to 500 ft. Also, substantial numbers of sculpins
were taken at depths of 15 to 300 ft during exploratory otter trawling
in a variety of lake areas. Large numbers were also taken with rotenone
and the sled trawl in shallow water at a number of locations, in some
cases at depths less than 5 ft.

Sculpins also occasionally range into extremely deep water. A single
specimen was captured in a bottom gill net at a depth of 700 ft, the
greatest recorded depth for this species.

The numerical distribution of sculpins in Tahoe appears to be
very heterogeneous, reflecting the variety of lake environments and
their compatibility with the sculpin. In Agate Bay the mean catch per
trawl at the 200-ft depth was 129.2 sculpins, compared with 27.5 for
the same depth at South Tahoe (Table 1). Conversely, in 400 ft the
mean catch per trawl at Agate Bay was only 19.8, compared with 51.5
at South Tahoe. The mean catch rate in 300 ft at Agate Bay, however,
was nearly identical with that at South Tahoe; i.e., 12.2 and 12.4
sculpins, respectively. These differences were tested using analysis of
variance procedures, and were found to be highlv significant for 200
ft (F = 54.87**, F 01 = 9.65), significant f or ^400 ft (F = 8.68*,
F.0.5 = 4.84), and not significant for 300 ft (F = 0.52, F.os = 4.84).
The data were normalized using a log (y -]- 1) transformation, and
the degrees of freedom were 1 and 11.

Despite this variability, the largest densities of sculpins generally
occurred at depths of 200 ft or less in both trawling areas (Figure 1,
Table 1). At South Tahoe, monthly catches in 100 ft varied between
12 and 315 sculpins per trawl, and were generally larger than those
for other depths in that area. In 200 ft at Agate Bay, monthly catches
ranged from 32 to 244 sculpins per trawl, and were consistently larger

PIUTE SCULPIN IN LAKE TAHOE

289

than those from deeper depths. Moreover, data from trawls in 100 and
150 ft in Agate Bay, although incomplete and quite variable due to
fouling of the net, indicated even larger densities of sculpins than at
200 ft.

TABLE 1

Otter Trawl Catch Rates of Lake Tahoe Piute Sculpins,
September 1963 Through September 1964

Number per 10-min trawl'

Month Location

100 ft

150 ft

200 ft

250 ft

300 ft

350 ft

400 ft

500 ft

122 (0)
106 (1)

66 (12)

i2

33

26

44
125
103

65
315
202

1

10

378

154

'e

190
'2
1

32 (1)
2 (0)

98 (0)
4 (0)

93 (1)

197 (18)

13 (3)
244

74
130

20
146

60
147

19
137

19
132

26
111

17

37

41
123

18

24

17 (2)

76

22

38

42

20

30

61

18

26

4 (0)

5 (0)
57 (1)
10 (0)

7 (0)

ii

15 (1)

10

14

5

5
10
11
13

5

6
20

0
24

2

4

8

9
30
33

27
21
20
26
29

'e

19
"6
18

ie

122 (0)
49 (3)
92 (2)
10 (5)
33 (1)

ie

42 (1)

8
117

4
63

0

101

14

89

1
79

1
14

1

4

2
10
10
26

South Tahoe

October Agate Bay -- -

--

South Tahoe

November Agate Bay

--

South Tahoe

Deceffiber Agate Bav

--

South Tahoe

January Agate Bay

South Tahoe

February Agate Bay

--

South Tahoe

March Agate Bay .

--

South Tahoe

April Agate Bav - -

--

South Taiioe

May Agate Bav --

-

South Tahoe

.June Agate Bav

"i

South Tahoe

July Agate Bav

0

South Tahoe

August Agate Bav _

'o

South Tahoe

September Agate Bay

"i

South Tahoe

Meari^ Agate Bay_ ._ ..

122.0
99.7

93.5

129.2
27.5

34.0

12.2
12.4

18.8

19.8
51.5

0.5

South Tahoe

■ Day trawl catch rates are shown in parentheses; all others are from night trawls.
2 The September catch rates are averaged to give equal weight to all months.

The major difference bet-\veen the two distribution patterns was
the exceptionally large catches in 400 ft at South Tahoe during the
winter and early spring, which contrasts with the uniformly low catches
at this depth throughout most of the year at Agate Bay. These large
catches may be manifestations of a seasonal migration into deep water.
However, the simultaneous drop in catch with relocation of the trawl-
ling contour in June suggests that there are density differences between
the two locations. Related to this is the possibility that sculpins may be
more abundant on steeper slopes, which would account for the higher
catches at the original location. The atypically high catches from Sep-
tember through November in Agate Bay at 400 ft may also be the
result of initial adjustments in the trawling locations.

An anomaly in the depth distribution pattern for Agate Bay scul-
pins was the apparent decrease in densities at 300 ft, relative to ad-
jacent trawling depths. The mean monthly catch for this depth was
12.2 sculpins per trawl, compared with 34.0 and 18.8 for depths of
250 and 350 ft, respectively. It is believed that the plant beds, which
are especially abundant at this depth, reduced the efficiency of the
trawl. A mean of 35 lb of vegetation (range : 7 to 94) was taken with

3—79160

290

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

2

200-

^n

J

■- — ■

300

^-1

1

FEET

■ -

/

^V

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0-

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^

^^^^

::^-4=-^

^

fe:^

u^

r^

>

100

SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP

FIGURE 1 — Night otter trawl catch rates of Lake Tahoe Piute sculpins, by area,
September 1963 through September 1964.

the trawl during 10-min tows at this depth, excluding plants caught
around the mouth of the trawl and on the otter doors. Since significant
amounts of vegetation also occur at 250 and 350 ft (means of 8 and 24
lb, respectively), catches in these depths may likewise be slightly de-
pressed.

PIUTE SCULPIN IN LAKE TAHOE

291

Seasonal Distribution

Although sculpm catches for given depths changed throughout
the year, there were no definite indications of seasonal or spawning
migrations. Moreover, these changes were not consistent between areas.
According to Miller (1951) and Ebert and Summerfelt (1969), spawn-
ing occurs from early May to late August in shallow rocky areas. We
could find no evidence that sculpins spawned in the 100- to 500-ft

o

8

h-

o

7

UJ

o

6

<

1-

2

P)

lU

o

a:

1 1 1

4

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

FIGURE 2 — Length frequencies of Lake Tahoe Piute sculpins taken during night otter trawling
at Agate Bay and South Tahoe from October 1963 through September 1964,

20'^

CALIFORXIA FISn AND GAME

trawlinir znno. Tlio trawl catclies also did not domnnstrato a sprin*]^
migratiuii into shallow water. Sampling variability and the difficulties
of trawling in depths under 100 ft probably prevented detection of
such movements,

SIZE COMPOSITION

Tiie size of sculpins sampled during o11or trawling oi)erations from
October 1963 through September 1964 ranged i rmii 0.7 to 5.0 inches tl.
However, only 3 of the 5.200 measured were 4.0 inches or longer. The
mean lenglli of sculpins from both areas and all depths was 2.37 inches.
The largest sculpin reported b}' Miller (1951) was 4.9 inches tl.

The mean length of sculpins sampled at depths of 200, 300, and 400
ft in Agate Bay was 2.33 inches, compared with 2.44 inches for the
same depths at South Tahoe. This ditference. although small, was found
to be highlv siiinificant when tested statistically by analysis of variance
(F = 160.i6**, d.f. = 1, 2817, F.oi = 6.64).

The size composition of sculpins sampled in the two areas was also
quite dissimilar, suggesting that little, if any, intermingling occurs

OCTOBER -DECEMBER

_AGATE BAY_

(604 SCULPINS)

SOUTH TAHOE

( 384

SCULPINS).

<

I-
O

UJ

<

lU

o
tr

LU

a.

15

14
13

12

I I

10

9

I. 8
O

JANUARY- MARCH

AGATE BAY

(1,138 SCULPINS)

12 3 4

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

I 2 3

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

FIGURE 3 — Length frequencies by season of Lake Tahoe Piute sculpins taken during night
otter trawling at Agate Bay and South Tahoe from October 1963 through March 1964.

PIUTE SCULPIN IN LAKE TAHOE

293

1^

1 1 1

JULY -

SEPTEMBE

1 1

14
13

m

A

1?

AGATE

BAY

I

II

10

h-

2 8

( 567 SCULPINS)
1 1 ^~"^N.

^

h.

I

1— "

Li.

O 7

•

1 ' '

isOUTH TAHC

UJ

^ 6

P

'' I (742 SCULP

-A

/

O

h

1''

r

LU ^
Q.

■I

r

} 1

\

2

1

1

•

\

•

/J

\

i

\}

A^i

1 1

t4

12 3 4

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

12 3 4

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

FIGURE 4 — Length frequencies by season of Lake Tahoe Piute sculpins taken during night
otter trawling at Agate Bay and South Tahoe from April 1964 through September 1964.

between these populations. Proportionately, more large and small scul-
pins were sampled at South Tahoe (Figure 2). For example, 13.5% of
the sculpins sampled at South Tahoe were larger than 3.0 inches, while
only 1.3% of the Agate Bay samples were in this range. In addition,
22.4% of the sculpins from South Tahoe were smaller than 2.0 inches,
compared with 11.2% from Agate Bay. The variances of the two dis-
tributions were compared statistically with the F-test, and the difference
was highly significant (F = 3.25**. d.f . = 2222, 2987; F.oi = 1.00).
Area differences in year-class strength are probably responsible. In
Agate Bay, it appears that the 1963 and 1964 year classes were weak
compared with those sampled at South Tahoe (Figures 3 and 4). How-
ever, in Agate Bay the 1962 year class, and possibly one or two earlier
year classes, were strong. Samples taken at Agate Bay in November
1962, during exploratory otter trawling, revealed a strong 1962 year
class in the 0.8- to 1.5-inch size range (Figure 5). This length frequency
distribution was similar to that sampled at South Tahoe during the fall
of 1964 but, here again, the older year classes appeared weak.

294

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

<

h-

o

I-

u.
o

UJ
<

z

LU
O

q:

UJ
Q_

9

I

H (695 S'CULPINS)

Q

A^Afl

7

M

6

5

rV

4
3

— 1

A.

\

2

1

-]

I

1

/

V \jv

,^

.-A

FIGURE 5-

12 3 4

TOTAL LENGTH IN INCHES

-Length frequency of Lake Tahoe Piute sculplns taken during exploratory
trawling at Agate Bay in November 1962.

Length frequency distributions also indicate that proportionately
larger number of small sculpins are found in shallow water. The largest
percentage of small sculpins sampled by otter trawl was taken at South
Tahoe in 100 ft. Over 28% were less than 2.0 inches long. Moreover,
39.2% of the sculpins sampled by rotenone were in this size range.
Finally, some very small sculpins were taken in September 1963 (0.8
to 1.1 inches), July 1964 (0.3 to 0.7 inch), and August 1965 (0.5 to
0.8 inch) by sled trawl at depths of 10 to 50 ft. These collections may
reflect the dispersal of young-of-the-year sculpins from the rocky near-
shore areas. Miller (1951) and Ebert and Summerfelt (1969) both
observed incubating sculpin eggs in water less than 4 ft deep.

RELATIVE ABUNDANCE

Like most other sampling methods, otter trawling is selective, cap-
turing an unknown segment of the fish population in its path. The frac-
tion taken undoubtedly does not provide an index of true species
abundance and composition. However, for certain species the indices

PIUTE SCULPIN IX LAKE TAHOE

295

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296 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

obtained may be sufSeiently accurate so tliat substantial changes in tlie
fish population -would be detectable by duplicating the sampling scheme
and using the same methods and materials.

Tlie otter trawl collections provide an index of species composition
and relative densities for both Piute sculpin and tui chub taken in the
100- to 500-ft zone (Table 2). These species were taken in much greater
numbers than the remaining species: mountain whitefish (Coregoniis
wiUiamsoiii), lake trout (Sah'rlinus nnmnycu^h) , Tahoe sucker, and
Lahontan speckled dace {Rhinichthys osculus rohustus). Many factors
could be responsible for the low numbers of these species. The domi-
nance of cliubs and sculpins appears real, however, since minnow trap-
pinf^- and gill netting in this area uncovered no nmisual concentrations
of the other species.

In the 100- to 500-ft zone, chubs were the most abundant species,
comprising about 53% of the total, followed by sculpins at 43%, and
suckers at 3%. The remaining species each comprised less than 0.3%
of the total. Kelative densities of chubs and sculpins may be biased be-
cause sculpins tend to move more slowly and are more closely associated
with the substrate than chubs. Nevertheless, sculpins are clearly more
abundant than chubs in water deeper than 300 ft, while the reverse is
true for depths less than 300 ft.

Sculpins also appear to be important in tlie shallow littoral zone of
Lake Tahoe. Baker (1967) noted that sculpins comprised about 7% of
the fishes taken in shoreline rotenone collections, and about 32% of the
sled trawl collections taken in the 10- to 50-ft depth zone.

DISCUSSION

Miller (1951) mentioned the distribution of Piute sculpin in Lake
Tahoe: "The freshwater sculpin, Coitus hrldingii, inhabits the littoral
slopes of Lake Tahoe where gravels and boulders provide it some shel-
ter. "While it is frequently seen among the rocks in extreme and moder-
ate shallows, the fact that it occurs in 50% of the mackinaw trout
stomachs leads to the assertion that this fish abounds at great depths."
Shoreline rotenone and sled trawl sampling confirmed their presence
in the littoral zone, and otter trawling demonstrated their presence at
depths to 400 ft. Only two were caught, how^ever, at 500 ft and one (in
a gill net) at 700 ft. It appears that sculpin numbers decline appre-
ciably at depths approaching 400 ft and apparently few invade the
profundal zone of Lake Tahoe.

According to the otter trawl samples and other information, greatest
sculpin concentrations occur in boulder and rubble areas. It was not
possible to sample specifically the steep slopes in Tahoe ; however, the
evidence suggests that they occur here in large numbers also.

ACKNOWLEDGA/,ENTS

W. Donald Weidlein was in charge of the field work from its in-
ception in 1961 through February 1963, and Sterling P. Davis from
March 1963 through May 1964. (The senior author was in charge of
the field work thereafter, until its conclusion in January 1965.) Vincent
A. Catania fabricated the gill nets, repaired all netting, and trained
field personnel in the use of sampling gear. Ernest W. Murphey, Laird

PIUTE SCULPIN IX LAKE TAHOE 297

E, Marshall, and Charles C. Young, Jr. designed and constructed the
power gear used to handle the collecting equipment aboard the research
boat. Harold K. Chadwick helped with statistical analysis of the data.
Alex J. Calhoun and Robert F. Ehvell helped in the planning and
editing of this report. The following provided berthing for our research
boat and other services to the project : John B. DeMaria, Obexer's Boat
and Motor Sales, Tahoe Boat Company, Sierra Boat Company, Logan
Shoals Marina, Lakeside Marina, and the California Department of
Parks and Recreation. To these, and to others not mentioned who have
contributed to the study, we offer our sincere thanks.

REFERENCES

Baker, Phillip H. 1967. Distribution, size composition, and relative abundance

of the Lahontan speckled dace. Rhinichihys osculus i-ohiistiis (Rutter), in Lake

Tahoe. Calif. Fish and Game, 53 (3) : 165-173.
Ebert, Verlyn W., and Robert C. Summerfelt. 1969. Contributions to the life

history of the Piute sculpin, Coitus beldingii Eigenmann and Eigenmann, in

Lake Taboo. Calif. Fish and Game. 55 (2) : lOO-lliO.
Eigenmann, C. H., and R. S. Eigenmann. 1891. Coitus heldhigii, sp. nov. Amer.

Naturalist, 25 : 1132.
Frantz, Ted C, and Almo J. Cordone. 1967. Observations on deepwater plants

in Lake Tahoe, California and Nevada. Ecology, 48 (5) : 709-714.
La Rivers, Ira. 1962. Fishes and fisheries of Nevada. Nev. St. Fish and Game

Comm. 782 p.
Li, Jerome C. R. 1957. Introduction to statistical inference. Edwards Bros., Inc.,

Ann Arbor, Mich. 553 p.
Linn, Jack D., and Ted C. Frantz. 1965. Introduction of the opossum shrimp

(Mysis relicta Loven) into California and Nevada. Calif. Fish and Game,

51 (1) : 48-51.
McGauhey, P. H., Rolf Eliassen, Gerard Rohlich, Harvey F. Ludwig, and Erman

A. Pearson. 1963. Comprehensive study on protection of water resources of

Lake Tahoe Basin through controlled waste disposal. Prepared for Lake Tahoe

Area Council, Engineering-Science, Inc. 157 p.
Miller, Richard Gordon. 1951. The natural history of Lake Tahoe fishes. Stanford

Univ., Ph.D. Dissertation. 160 p.
Weidlein, W. Donald, Almo J. Cordone, and Ted C. Frantz. 1965. Trout catch

and angler use at Lake Tahoe in 1962. Calif. Fish and Game, 51 (3) : 187-201.

Calif. Fixh and Game, 55(4) : 29S-30C. 19G9.

CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEYS, 1968'

FRED C. SIBLEY'
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service

ROBERT D. MALLETTE
California Department of Fish and Game

JOHN C. BORNEMAN
National Audubon Society

RAYMOND S. DALEN
U. S. Forest Service

The fourth annual California condor {Gymnogyps californianus) survey
was conducted October 16 and 17, 1968. Seventy-seven sightings were
reported from 18 of 66 stations manned on October 16, 1968. One
hundred seventy-four sightings were reported from 20 of 66 stations
manned on October 17, 1968. These sightings, by an evaluation of field
reports, were reduced to minimum counts of 33 and 52 individual birds,
respectively, for the 2-dey survey. The evaluation procedures have been
the same for all four annual surveys. The results are considered mini-
mum population counts. At least seven young birds were reported in
this year's survey.

An experimental baiting program utilizing deer carcasses was con-
ducted to determine its usefulness as an alternate survey method to the
annual condor survey. The first bait<ng survey was conducted May 6—8,
1968. During this time condors were observed at three of the six bait
stations, with eight sightings reported. On the second baiting survey
October 22—24, 1968, condors were observed at five of the stations
manned during the 3-day period, with 154 sightings reported. Thirty-
two individual birds were seen on October 24. Prebaiting and bait loca-
tion were very important in producing bait acceptance. Care was taken
to select bait stations which insured the safety of condors while they
were at the bait station.

INTRODUCTION

Cooperative California condor surveys have been conducted annually
in October since 1965. The Fourth Annual California Condor Survey
was conducted October 16-17, 1968. Survey' procedures are coordinated
by a Condor Survey Committee representing the California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U. S. Forest
Service, National Audubon Society, University of California, and other
conservation interests.

As the annual surveys were reviewed, the Condor Survey Committee
recognized the need to investigate alternative survey methods. It was
suggested that an experimental baiting survey be conducted in addition
to the regular annual survey. Condors have been baited with varying
degrees of success and it was hoped this would provide another census
method.

1 Accepted for publication June 1969. A contribution from Federal Aid in "V^'ildlife

Restoration Project W-54-R, "Special Wildlife Investigations".

2 Prepared for and with approval of the Condor Survey Committee : Chairman Ben

Glading, former Chief of Wildlife Manasrement Branch, California Department of
Fish and Game ; A. Starker Leopold, Professor of Zoology, University of Cali-
fornia ; William P. Dasmann, U. S. Forest Service ; Clinton H. Lostetter, U. S.
Fish and Wildlife Service ; John C. Borneman, National Audubon Society : Fred
C. Sibley, U. S. Fish and "Wildlife Service ; and Robert D. Mallette, California
Department of Fish and Game.

( 298 )

CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEYS, 1 968 299

In 1968, the Condor Survey Committee authorized studies to deter-
mine the feasibility of baiting as a reliable survey method. Objectives
of the baiting survey are similar to those for the annual survey: (i)
establish periodic condor population counts to detect population trends,
(ii) gain an indication of the young birds entering the population,
based on the age classification of birds observed, (iii) obtain more infor-
mation on the distribution of condors, (iv) foster public aw^areness of
the precarious status of the species and problems related to its protec-
tion, and (v) gain other knowledge of condors and raptors as inciden-
tally provided by such survey.

The first experimental baiting survey was conducted on May 6-8,
1968; a second baiting survey wns conducted on October 22-24, 1968,
to compare results with those obtained during the annual survey on
October 16 and 17, 1968.

METHODS

Annual Survey

The survey methods and evaluation procedures were essentially the
same as reported for the 1965-67 surveys (Mallette and Borneman,
1966; Mallette et al., 1967; Sibley et al., 1968). Operational changes in
the 1968 survey involved minor shifts in station locations. Two stations
were eliminated because of inaccessibility. Three additional stations
were established in Kern County to aid in the evaluation of condor
movements in areas where there is a concentration of birds.

Baiting Surveys

Based on prior knowledge of condor distribution, six bait stations
were selected in key locations of the condor range. On the May baiting
survey, stations were located at: (1) Salisbury Potrero, Santa Barbara
County; (2) Snedden Eanch, Kern County; (3) Bald Mountain, Ven-
tura County; (4) Tejon Eanch, Kern County; (5) Ellsworth Kanch,
Kern County; (6) Grouse Valley, Tulare County. Stations 3, 4, and 5
were shifted 1 to 2 miles for the October baiting survey and station 6
at Grouse Valley, Tulare County, was moved to the Tejon Eanch, Kern
County. This made two stations on the Tejon Eanch. Station 5, on the
Ellsworth Eanch, was prebaited but was not operated because an auto-
mobile accident prevented observers from manning the station on the
October baiting survey.

"Eoad-kill" deer carcasses were used for condor bait. Deer was
considered the preferred food, based on reports of earlier authorities.
Preliminary baiting indicated that stations prebaited 1 week before
the survey would increase the chance of birds finding the bait. Some
baiting sites appeared to be unacceptable to condors, although carcasses
placed a mile away were quickly consumed. Stations were selected in
isolated protected areas to minimize possible harm to condors while
they were in the vicinity of the bait station.

Sites were chosen where two-man observer teams could maintain close
surveillance from good vantage points ^ to f mile from the bait station.
Observers manned the observation stations from approximately 8 a.m.
to 5 p.m. each day and recorded all observations of condors and other
raptors feeding on the bait or in the general area. A second deer carcass
was placed at each baiting station early the 1st day of the 3-day survey,
thus insuring an adequate food supply for birds in the area. Each

300

CAr.IFORXIA FISH AND C,.\^U)

observer was equi])i)c(l A\itli ])iii()culars of 7 powci- or greater, and each
observation slat ion was ('(luijiixMl witli a l2()x spotting scope.

WEATHER

Annual Survey

The weather on both days of the annual survey was generally fair
and wvarm, with easterly winds of 4 to 18 mph prevailing over much
of the area (Table 1). Some stations reported strong winds with gusts
up to 50 to GO mph at times during bolli days of the survey. Before
the survey, an inch of rain fell in southern portions of the condor
range. This made road conditions difficult in some areas and neces-
sitated relocation of two stations. However, weather during the survey
provided good soaring or tlying conditions for condors.

Baiting Surveys

The weather during both baiting surveys was favorable for condor
flight. Winds varied from 5 to 15 mph and temperatures were normal

TABLE 1

U. S. Forest Service Lookout Stations Reporting Weather Information *

(Readings Were Taken at 2 p.m. on October 16 and 17, 1968)

Looliout
station

County

Average

wind

velocity

(mph)

Direction

of

wind

(from)

Temperature
(F)

Pielative
humidity

!6

17

16

17

16

17

16

17

Thorn Point

10
4
6
6

18

8
4
6
4
12

XE

SE

NE

W

NE

XW

SE

XE
SW
XE

52
69
53
72
65

58
71
60
76
75

24
26
61
24
50

16

Nordhoff

Ventura

25

McPherson

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara

San Luis Obispo...

39

17

Hi Mountain

27

' Lookout stations were also condor survey stations.

TABLE 2

U. S. Forest Service Lookout Stations Reporting Weather Information

in Baiting Survey Area

(Readings Were Taken at 2 p.m. on October 22-24, 1968)

Lookout
station

County

Average
wind

velocity
(mph)

Direction

of

wind

(from)

Temperature
(F)

Relative

humidity

Ventura

22

23

24

22

23

24

22

23

24

22

23

24

Thorn Point

6
8
8
6

8
8
8
6

6
8
8
6

s

SE
SW

•

SE

E

S

SW

SE
SW
SW
SW

70
77
70
80

70
80
75
84

75
79
76

87

12
19
15
18

12
15
10
10

10

Nordhoff

Ventura

19

McPherson..

Figueroa

Santa Barbara

Santa Barbara

13
9

' Data not available.

CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEYS, 1 968

301

for the two survey periods. Weather had no known adverse influence
on condor movement preceding or during the surveys. Table 2 presents
weather data for the October 22-24 baiting survey. Data were not
available for the May 6-8 baiting survey.

RESULTS
Annual Survey

On October 16, 66 stations were manned by 137 observers and 77
condor sightings were reported from 18 stations (Figure 1). The eval-
uation of these reported sightings reduced the individual condor count
to 33. The age classification breakdown was 18 adults. 5 young (1 sub-
adult, 2 immatures, 2 juveniles), and 10 unknown. The observers also
reported 1,553 other raptors, of 15 species (Table 3).

On October 17 the same 66 stations were manned by 136 observers
and 174 condor sightings were reported from 20 stations. By an evalua-
tion of these sightings, 52 individual condors were seen. The age classi-
fication breakdown was 43 adults, 5 young (1 immature, 4 juveniles),
and 4 unknown. A total of 2,671 other raptors of 15 species (Table 3)
were recorded.

TABLE 3

Raptor Sightings Reported During Annual Condor Survey
October 16-17, 1968 *

Date reported

Species

Date reported

Species

Oct. 16

Oct. 17

Oct. 16

Oct. 17

Turkey vulture, Cathartes aura

Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos

Bald eagle, Haliaeetus leucocephalus

975

113

1

1

31

40

275

4

3

2,115

127

1

0

29

36

255

6

0

Ferruginous hawk, Buteo regalis

Red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus,.-

Pigeon hawk, Falco columbarius

Sparrow hawk, Falco spanerius

Prairie falcon, Falcx) meiicanus

Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus

White-tailed kite, Elanus leucurus

Marsh hawk. Circus cyaneus _

2
2
3

55
4
0
0
8

36

2

1

1

49

Sharp-shinned hawk, Accipiter striatus .

Cooper's hawk, Accipiter cooperii

Red-tailed hawk, Buteo jamaicenis

Swainson's hawk, Buteo sivainsoni, . _

2
1
2
1

Rough-legged hawk, Buteo lagopus

Miscellaneous raptors

Totals

43

1,553

2,671

* These sightings were not subjected to the same evaluation process as condor sightings.

Baiting Surveys

The first experimental condor baiting survey was conducted on May
6-8, 1968. Condors were observed at three of the six bait stations, with
a total of eight sightings (Table 4).

The baiting failed to concentrate condors at the bait stations or to
hold birds for extended periods, as was hoped. Condors fed at station
1 only, and this was the only location where condors remained for more
than a few minutes. Based on these results, several changes in bait
location were made for the second baiting survey.

Bait acceptance by condors was very poor during the first experi-
mental baiting survey. Evidently this was due to an abundance of
other food and the improper location of some bait stations. At some
stations no scavenger species fed. At three stations, the bait was moved
a short distance and/or additional bait added during the survey to
correct imagined or real flaws in the location of the bait. None of these
moves produced acceptance by the condors.

302

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

San Luis Obispo

H
i

\ Santo
IBarbara

• ^.

t)-f Q j^Q_ © y_!^*'^

25

*= 4 Son'o

C I Borbaro

30 ' C

■•Vtnfura

Scolt in M I Iff

(99)

Lo* Angciti

CONDOR SURVEY 1968

© Observation sfotions of which one or more
condors were sighted on October 16,1968

© Observotion stations ot which one or more
condors were sighted on October 17,1968

O Observation stotions af which one or more
condors were sighted on October 16 and 17, 1968

• Observation stations at which no condors
were Sighted

[:"'^t| Condor Sanctuaries

I I I I I I I Condor Range

FIGURE 1 — Locations of condor survey observation stations and sightings on
October 16 and 17, 1968. Drawing by Cliff a Corson.

CALIFORNIA CONDOR SURVEYS, 1 968

TABLE 4

Results of Condor Baiting Survey
May 6-8, 1968

303

County

Individual condors seen

Station

May 6

May?

May 8

1 Salisbury Potrero

Santa Barbara

0

0

1 adult
1 unknown

0

0

0
2

0

0

1 adult

0
0

0
1

2 adults*

2 Snedden Ranch

Kern..

0

3 Bald Mountain

Ventura

1 adult

4 Tejon Ranch

Kern.

0

5 Ellsworth Ranch

Kern

1 immature

6 Grouse Valley

Tulare

1 unknown
0

Total...

5

* Denotes birds observed feeding on bait.

At station 6, two to seven turkey vultures passed over the bait eacli
day, but headed for some other destination. A similar behavior pattern
was noted for four condors at station 3. At station 5, one immature con-
dor came over and inspected the observers but did not inspect the bait.
At station 3, observations were continued after the baiting survey and
on May 9 one bird fed momentarily before being flushed off by a sonic
boom. On May 10, ten sightings were made of seven condors over the
bait area, but none of these birds deviated from its glide path to inspect
the bait.

The second condor baiting survey was conducted on October 22-24,
1968 (Figure 2). Condors fed at four bait stations and 32 individual
condors were seen at five stations on October 24 (Table 5). Twenty-six
condors were observed at station 4 in southern Kern County in the same
area where 22 condors were reported during the condor survey a week
earlier.

Bait acceptance was good on the second experimental baiting survey.
This was thought to be due to placement of bait in areas where condors
had been observed the week before and at proven feeding sites. "With
prebaiting a week prior to the survey it was still the 3rd day of the
survey before condors came in any numbers to feed on the bait carcass.
Observers at station 4 noted that a number of condors passing near the
bait had full crops on the 2nd day of the survey and it was apparent
they were feeding on a carcass elsewhere. A longer prebait period may
be necessary to allow condors in the area time to accept the bait.

The age of the bait carcass apparently had no influence on its accept-
ability. Birds readily ate flesh from fresh carcasses as well as those
1 and 2 weeks old.

No correlation was attempted between the baiting and annual sur-
veys. At least another year's data are needed for any meaningful
comparisons.

304

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 2 — California condors observed at a baiting station. On October 24, 1968,
32 birds were observed at five baiting stations. Photograph by Fred C. Siblsy.

TABLE 5

Results of Condor Baiting Survey
October 22-24, 1968

County

Individual condors seen

Station

Oct. 22

Oct. 23

Oct. 24

1 Salisburj' Potrero-- - -

Santa Barbara

0
1 adult

1 adult*

3 adults*
(1 fed)

2 adults

1 juvenile

7 adults
1 juvenile

2 adults

0

1 adult*
1 juvenile*

9 adults
1 subadult

6 adults

19 adults

1 subadult

2 juveniles

2 adults*

2 Snedden Ranch .

Kern

Ventura

1 adult

3 Bald Mountain

1 adult*

4 Tejon Ranch

Kern . _

1 juvenile*
23 adults*

6 Tejon Ranch

Kern

1 subadult*

2 juvenile*

1 adult*

Total

1 unknown
28 adults

1 subadult
3 juveniles

Note: An additional adult condor was observed on October 24 between 12:30 and 1:30 p.m. at Hi Mountain, San

Luis Obispo County.
* Denotes birds observed feeding on bait.

CALIFORNIA COXDOR SURVEYS, 1 968 305

DISCUSSION

The survey results are not fully comparable with those of previous
surveys because of changes in survey effort, station locations, and
weather conditions ; however, survey observations do not indicate any
major changes in the total condor population. Survey reports reveal
that five young birds (comprising at least seven individuals) were
seen each day of the survey. This is below the 25 to 30% young that
Koford (1953) estimated were needed to sustain the condor population.

]\Iolt data from the young condor presently in captivity at the Los
Angeles Zoo reveals that prior aging methods may not be reliable. This
captive bird was approximately 3 years old in May 1969. It still pos-
sesses a color pattern once thought to be that of the juvenile or 1st year
age class. This underwing pattern has been used in previous surveys
(Mallette et al., 1967) to predict the number of young condors fledged
in the previous year. These predictions may not be valid, based on
current molting studies on a single captive condor.

Indications are that condors continue to concentrate in southern
Kern County in October. A similar distribution pattern was evident
in the three previous condor surveys. On October 17, 1968, approxi-
mately 63% of the birds observed were east of U. S. Highway 99,
30% were in the area between U. S. Highway 99 and State Highway 33,
and 7% were west of State Highway 33 (Figure 1).

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on four years of condor survey observation reports, and in an
effort to minimize survey expenditures without adversely affecting sur-
vey results, the following recommendations are made.

1) Approximately 20 nonproductive observation stations should be
eliminated from the survey effort in the northern portion of the condor
range. Distribution of the major portion of the condor population at
this time of year has been determined through previous years' surveys;
consequently, elimination of nonproductive stations would not signifi-
cantly affect the survey results. U. S. Forest Service and California
Division of Forestry lookouts in these areas would be retained as
observation stations to monitor condor movements.

2) A complete review should be made of the observation station
locations and the number of observers needed. In areas of condor con-
centrations additional stations, minor location changes, and additional
observers at key stations would be advantageous in monitoring bird
movements.

3) Observer field training sessions should be eliminated for qualified
observers. New observers and those needing additional training would
attend training sessions on Mt. Pinos. Kern County.

4) All observers participating in the survey should attend the train-
ing session the day before the survey to review condor and raptor
identification and survey procedures.

5) Baiting surveys should be continued. Baiting techniques and the
location of bait stations should be refined, based on the intensive field
studies currentlv being conducted.

306 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Tlie Condor Survey Committee again wishes to thank all of the
persons who participated in the condor survey. The return of many
observers who participated in earlier surveys increases the reliability
of the survey results. The continued cooperation of the National Audu-
bon Society. U. S. Forest Service, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
California Department of Fish and Game, California Division of For-
estry, Sequoia National Park, and interested ranchers and conserva-
tionists is greatly appreciated.

REFERENCES

Koford. Carl B. 1953. The California condor. Katl. Andiibon Soc, Res. Kept. No. 4.

]r)4 p.
:Mallette, Robert D., and John C. Borneman, 1966. First cooperative snrvey of the

California condor. Calif. Fish and Game, 52 (3) : 185-203.
Mallctte, Robert D., John C. Borneman, Fred C. Sibley, and Raymond S. Dalen.

1967. Second cooperative survey of the California condor. Calif. Fish and Game,

53 (3) : 132-145.

Miller, Alden H., Eben McMillan, and Ian McMillan. 1965. The status and welfare

of the California condor. Natl. Audubon Soc, Res. Rept. No. 6. 61 p.
Sibley, Fred C, Robert D. Mallette, John C. Borneman, and Raymond S. Dalen.

1968. Third cooperative survey of the California condor. Calif. Fish and Game,

54 (4) : 297-303.

Calif. Fish and Game, 55(4) : 307-316. 1969.

REDESCRIPTION OF PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS (BOEV

AND SCHULS, 1950) IN CALIFORNIA DEER,

WITH STUDIES ON ITS LIFE HISTORY

AND PATHOLOGY'

OSCAR A. BRUNETTI

Wildlife Management Branch

California Department of Fish and Game

The nematode Elaphostrongylus odocoifei Hobmaier and Hobmaier
(1934) {Parelapbostrongylus, Boev and Schuls 1950) is described from
recent specimens taken from a black-tailed deer. These are the first
specimens since the holotype was described. Measurements and descrip-
tion agree with those of the Hobmaiers, except for the corpus guber-
naculi and the dorsal ray of the bursa. These nematodes were in the
musculature posterior to the shoulders and in the larger blood vessels
of the lung. Parasites from the California mule deer represent a new
host record. Deer were experimentally infected with fourth-stage larvae
from infected snails and slugs. In heavy infestations extensive tissue
damage occurred in lungs and lymph nodes due to granulomatous
changes surrounding ova and first-stage larvae. Reference is made to
the apparent erroneous original description of the corpus gubernaculi
and the variations in the structure of the dorsal ray of the male bursa
and its probable implication in the speciation of the parasite.

INTRODUCTION

Hobmaier and Hobmaier (1934) described a lungworm disease of
black-tailed deer (Odocoileus hemionus columhianus) in California;
placed the parasite in the genus Elaphostrongylus; and proposed the
name Elaphostrongylus odocoilci (sp. n.). Since the original descrip-
tion no other specimens of this parasite had been recorded in California.
In the course of autopsies of deer by the Wildlife Investigations
Laboratory of the California Department of Fish and Game, lungs of
deer commonly were found parasitized by the ova and larvae of a
nematode. Since these ova and larvae were similar to those described by
the Hobmaiers, a careful search was made of the blood vessels and their
connective tissues for adult nematodes without success. This was done
in a substantial number of cases.

In March 1961 a 12-month-old female black-tailed deer was found
in Butte County in a moribund condition and was brought to the
laboratory for autopsy. The deer was in poor physical condition but
with the exception of the lungs no gross abnormalities or disease were
noted. The cut surface of the lung was granular in appearance and
when slices of the tissue were examined with the aid of a dissecting
microscope innumerable small nodules which contained what appeared
to be nematode ova and larvae were seen. Scrapings from the cut sur-
face showed enormous numbers of a very active larval nematode. All

1 Accepted for publication June 19C9. This study was supported in part by Federal
Aid in Wildlife Restoration Project W^-52-R, "Wildlife Investigations Labora-
tory".

(307)

308 fAi.iFokxiA FISH and game

parts of the lung examined showed the same condition. The primary-
cause of death -svas an over-whelmin*; parasitemia of the lunn^s with
ova and hirvae indistinguisliable from those described for E. odocoilci.

Lymph nodes contained masses of ova and a few larvae embolized
in dihitions of afferent and capsular vessels and in the peripheral
sinuses. Those involved included superficial and deep infjuinal, aortic,
rumenal, tracheal, and bronchial nodes. No ova were present in the
Ij-mph nodes of the intestines and mesenteries, nor in those of the
axilla, neck, or head. Dissection of the blood vessels and their con-
nective tissues of tlie spine, intercostal vessels, and those of the major
branches of the hind legs was negative. Adult nematodes were present
in all of the musculature except the shoulder, neck, and head regions.
No nematodes were found in the cranial cavity or the spinal cord.

Dissection was carried out with tlie use of a dissecting microscope.
Small strips of muscle were shredded and separated with small scalpel
blades and needles. The muscle was separated with a tearing action,
causing the nematode to bridge the separated space. Nematodes were
found in several situations. Most of them were in the lumen of lym-
phatic or capillary blood vessels which wound in a tortuous manner
through the tissue, making it extremely difficult to extract entire speci-
mens. Others were coiled in muscle fascia and connective tissue. Males
and females were often in close proximity and one female was found
with a male partly coiled about the caudal end. No nematodes were
associated with the larger blood vessels with the exception of the lung,
where six adult females were in the lumen of these vessels. In one case
the vessel wall was penetrated and the nematode was partly in the
lung parenchj-ma. In subsequent autopsies occasional hemorrhagic
areas were noted in the musculature. These varied from very small
areas to others approximately 1.5 cm in diameter and were deep as
well as subcutaneous. In these areas one to several nematodes were
found. In all autopsies the nematodes were in similiar areas of the
animal's musculature; occasionally a mass of ova was found between
the muscle fibers.

Lung scrapings taken from California mule deer, 0. h. calif ornicus,
in 58 of 59 samples revealed the presence of ova and larvae which
were identical wuth those described. In 1963 an adult female and a
12-month-old male California mule deer contained adult nematodes
in the musculature in the same situations as in the black-tailed deer.
These nematodes were identified as Elaphosfrongylus {Parelapho-
strongylus) odocoilei. This represents a new host record for this species.

DESCRIPTION

These nematodes are long and slender, w^ith a very delicate cuticle.
Each end is slightly attenuated and no teguminal sheath is apparent.
The anterior end is covered by a thickened cuticular cap roughened on
the internal surface (Figure 1). Six reduced lips, each bearing a
papilla, are present. Papillae of the external circle are represented by
two dorso-laterals and by two ventro-laterals. The oral opening is
bordered by a cuticular ring and leads into an infundibuliform sym-
metrical stoma, the walls of which are sclerotized. The dorsal stomatal
plate is continuous with the esophageal lining and in the ventral areas
the posterior ends of the plates are inserted into the body of the corpora.

EEDESCRIPTION OF PARELAPIIOSTRONGYLUS 309

-

%.
ft

1

i

'^'iJfJ!!:}&j',.'iA^m2.*'&i^k^^^tk<''^^''<<i^ -

FIGURE 1 — The anterior end of female P. odocoilei, lateral view.
Pbofograph by William E. Schafer.

The esophagus is muscuhir and chib-shaped. The excretory pore is
prominent, with a sclerotized Y-shaped duct which drains two elongated
excretory glands. The intestine in fresh specimens varies from bright
green to brown and tends to be somewhat tortuous.

The male bursa is simple and symmetrical (Figure 2). Ventral rays
are relatively short, originating from a single stem and directed anteri-
orly ; the externo-laterals are separate and longer than the ventrals ; the
medio- and posterio-laterals originate from a common stem; the ex-
terno-dorsal is long and separate. The dorsal ray is mound-like and
variable in structure. The various forms are figured (Figure 3). The
form described hy the Hobmaiers as typical (two stems with two
papillae on each) was the least common of the variations.

Spicules are relatively stout, with a capitulum set off from the shaft
by a constricted neck. The shaft is slightly curved dorso-ventrally and is
uniform in thickness except for the tapered distal extremity. The shaft
bears prominent dorsal and ventral pectinate alae. When viewed from
a dorso-ventral plane the terminus of the shaft bears an accessory

310 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

curved point which forms one side of a spoon-shaped structure; the
other side is formed by an extension of the dorsal alae.

Tlie gubernaculum has a corpus and two lateral crura (Fij^ure 4).
Tlie corpus is an elongated structure widening anteriorly from the
crura and tapering to the anterior end. The posterior third of the body
is split ; the crura are lateral to the termini of the body and above each
is a dome-like projection. The lateral edges of the corpus are thick,
becoming thinner at midline. When viewed laterally it has a bow-like
structure with pointed ends and appears to be made of longitudinal
fibers. Dorso-ventrally it is granular in appearance. The crura are

*^*fe .

1 ■^-»**.

i

FIGURE 2 — Caudal end of male P. odocoilei, lateral view.
Photograph by William E. Schafer.

REDESCRIPTION OF PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS

311

FIGURE 3 — Drawings showing variations In structure of the dorsal ray of the male bursa,

P. oJocoi/e/. Drawing by Cliffa Corson.

FIGURE 4 — ^View of gubernaculum, P. oc/ocoi/ei.
Photograph by William E. Schafer.

312

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

r

^t'".

FIGURE 5 — Caudal end of female P. oc/oco;7ei, lateral view.
Phoiograph by Will'iam E. Schafer.

TABLE 1
Principal Measurements of Males

Length

Maximum width

Length of esophagus

Maximum width of esophagus

Nerve ring from anterior end

Excretory pore from anterior end

Length of excretory duct

Length of spicules

Length of crura

Width of crura

Length of corpus gubernaculi

Width of corpus gubernaculi at widest point
Bursa

Range

(23. 8-32. 6) mm
(108.5-122.5) n
(675-795) y.
(70-87.5) n
(87.5-92.8) PL
(70-82.3) (I
(70-87.5) ;i
(157.5-175.0) (i
(18.0-21.0) SI.

(75.3-87.5)11

REDESCRIPTION OF PARELAPHOSTRONGYLUS

313

triangular in outline and when flattened and viewed dorso-ventrally
definite notches (4 to 6) are observed, giving a segmented appearance.
The caudal end of the female does not show significant differences
from E. tenuis (Dougherty, 1945) as described by Whitlock. The vulva
is sclerotized and protrudes; the anal plate is also sclerotized and flat
(Figure 5). The tail has a sac-like dilation which is apparently cuticle
and the tail itself ends in a small papilliform projection. Principal
measurements of the nematodes are given in Tables 1 and 2.

Ova and Larvae

Ova are embolized in the lung, where embrj'onization takes place.
Freshly deposited ova are spherical, with a thin shell enclosing a
a central dense mass; average diameter is approximately 40[.i and
no segmentation is apparent.

FIGURE 6 — First stage larva, P. odocoilei, lateral view.
Drawing by Cliffa Corson.

TABLE 2
Principal Measurements of Females

Length

Maximum width .

Length of esophagus

Maximum width of esophagus

Nerve ring from anterior end

Excretory pore from anterior end

Length of excretory duct

Vulva from posterior end

Anus from posterior end

Length of ovijector

Average

Range

49.5

(44. 5-56. 2) mm

183.3

(154-217) ^L

878.5

(788-1050) yi

84

(70-96.3) n

85.2

(64.8-103.25) n.

88.4

(75-112.5) PL

80.4

(68-92.75) n

160.1

(110-191)^1.

50.1

(40-61.25) y.

1344.4

(1140-1508) iJL

314

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

First-stage larvae average 367. 5[x in length and have an undulating
tail, with a very small dorsal spine (Figure 6). The larvae are very
active and can be found in great numbers in the lung both in the
nodules and free in the alveoli. Larvae are coughed up and swallowed
and may tlien be found in the intestines and in the mucus coating the
fecal pellets. First-stage larvae are resistant to changes of external
environment. Larvae remained alive at least 12 months in refrigerated
water. Larvae frozen at 0 F were viable after 165 days and larvae
allowed to dr}' on fecal pellets at room temperature were viable after
7 montlis. Tliis seemed to be related to the amount of mucus coating
the pellets, whicli apparently had a protective effect. Washed larvae
survived drying for only 16 days. It is apparent that first-stage larvae
could survive after being passed by deer for extremely long periods
of time in what might amount to a free-living stage.

PATHOLOGY

Although adult nematodes cause only a small amount of damage in
the muscuh^ture, a great deal of pathology is produced by ova and
larvae in the lymph nodes and lungs. The ova and larvae are in
granuloma-like nodules scattered throughout the lung tissue. These
granulomas seem to be produced by proliferation of septal and inter-
stitial cells. Occasional giant cells are seen. Capillary hyperemia occurs
in the alveolar walls. Ova and larvae occur individually and in groups,
surrounded by a fibrous tissue.

FIGURE 7 — Section of deer lung showing granulomas containing ova and
larvae of P. odocoilei. Photograph by WiHiarn E. Schafer.

REDESCRIPTION OF PARELAPHOSTROXGYLUS 315

Granulomas were variable in size, from small ones containing one or
two ova to those which were over 1 mm in diameter with 10 to 20 ova
in various stages of development including unsegmented ova and
morulated and larvated stages, as well as first stage larvae (Figure 7).
The effect on lymph nodes was different. Embolization of ova occurred
in the afferent lymphatic vessels, the capsular and trabecular vessels,
and in the peripheral sinuses. There was little tendency toward pro-
duction of granulomatous structures as in the lung. Masses of ova were
surrounded by and enmeshed in fibrotic tissue, with some areas of
lymphocytic proliferation and occasional groups of giant cells with
nuclei in a peripheral position. Many ova in these masses were under-
going degeneration; however, some embryonization was occurring and
a few first-stage larvae could be seen, some of which had migrated
into the l^^mphoid tissue. Masses of ova which were deeper in the tissue
tended to have more degenerate forms that those on the periphery.

LIFE CYCLE

Little is known of the life cycle of these parasites, regarding the
phases which occur in the host. Forms which occur in the eastern white-
tailed deer (0. virginianus) migrate into the central nervous tissue. In
the original description by the Hobmaiers, there was no evidence of
these nematodes in tissue anterior to the shoulders. The same condition
was found in this study. Careful dissection of the brain, cord, and mem-
branes failed to reveal nematodes.

The life cycle of this parasite involves an intermediate host. The Hob-
maiers successfully infected various species of snails and slugs and
were able to parasitize a deer by feeding it the infective larvae. After
an interval of 4 to 5 months, they recovered first-stage larvae from the
feces. In this study several species of snails and slugs, Helix aspcrsa,
Agriolimox agrestis, A. campestris, and Planorhis sp., were successfully
infected with first-stage larvae from the lungs and fecal pellets. Two
black-tailed deer free from natural infection were experimentally in-
fected by feeding snail tissue containing fourth-stage larvae. The in-
fected deer passed first-stage larvae after an interval of 2-1 months.
Larvae persisted for about 6 months and then disappeared. Subsequent
experiments produced the same results. One of these deer died of un-
related causes and dissection of the musculature produced a number of
adult nematodes identical with those found in the original deer. In the
wild the parasites are obviously acquired by deer from the ingestion of
infected gastropods on the vegetation. A limited search for naturally
infected snails or slugs was negative.

DISCUSSION

The Hobmaiers gave only a few measurements of their specimens.
Those given are not greatly at variance with those of the present speci-
mens. They made no mention of the variable structure of the dorsal
ray of the bursa. It is possible their description was based on a single
specimen.

Specimens in this study came from the same type host and locality
as those of the Hobmaiers and were found in similar localities in the
body of the host. There is no doubt that these are the same as the type
species.

316 CAUPORNIA FISH AND GAME

In 1950 Boev and Seliuls placed 1 l()l)iiiaiers' (1934) species in a new
genus on the f ollo^ving basis :

Elaphostrongyhis Cameron, 193J — (Jubcrnaculum simple, one part.
One bifurcated dorsal ray.

Parelaphostrongylus Boev and Schuls, 1950 — Gubernaculum consist-
ing of paired corpus and paired crura. Two well-developed dorsal
rays, each divid(vl into Uxn lnMnches.

The Ilobmaiors' description of the gubernaculum was as follows:
"The wall of the ductus genitalis nearby is strengthened by two small
chitinous ribbons which measure 67 |.i in length."

As can be seen from the description of the gubernaculum of the pres-
ent specimens, it is a different structure from that described by the
llobmaiers. Because of the thickened edges of the corpus it was appar-
rent that examination of the structure with the spicules in place could
lead to an erroneous picture of the gubernaculum. This leaves the
speciation of this parasite in some confusion. All of these closely re-
lated nematodes have marked similarities of structure. Anderson (1956)
described nematodes from the cranial case of white-tailed deer and
concluded that his specimens were E. odocoilei, based on similarities to
the specimens described by the Hobmaiers. It is now known that these
were Pneumostrongylus tenuis (Dougherty, 1945), as were AVhitlock's
specimens (1959).

In 1963 Anderson described the life cycle of Pneumostrongylus ten-
uis in the white-tailed deer. He experimentally infected deer with in-
fective larvae reared in a variety of snail species and described the
development of the nematodes in the tissues of the central nervous
system.

Marked similarities to the above w^ere found in the studies made
with Parelapliostrongylus. The morphology of the adults is, wdth the
exception of some measurements, remarkably similar; the ova and lar-
vae are indistinguishable ; their development in gastropods is the same.
These nematodes seem very closely related; the major difference be-
tween them is in the tissue in which they localize. Comparative studies
will have to be made of the specimens from various hosts to resolve the
question of speciation.

REFERENCES

Anderson, R. C. 1956. Elaphosirongylus odocoilei Hobmaier and Hobmaier, 1934
in the cranial case of Odocoileus virginianus borealis Miller. Canadian Jour.
Zool., 34 : 167.

. 1963. The incidence, development, and experimental transmission of Pneu-
mostrongylus ienuis Doutrherty (Metastrongyloidea : Protostronjiylidae) of the
meninges of the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus lorealis) in Ontario.
Canadian Jour. Zool., 41 : 775.

Boev, S. N., and R. E. S. Schuls. 1950. Dokl. Acad. Xuk. SSSR, N.S., 70 (2) :
355-358.

Dougherty, E. C. 1945. The nematode lungworms (Suborder strongijlina) of North
American deer of the genus Odocoileus. Parasitology, 36 : 19{>-209.

Hobmaier, A., and M. Hobmaier. 1934. Elaphosirongylus odocoilei sp. n., a new
lungworm in black-tailed deer {Odocoileus columbianus) . Description and life
history. Proc. Soc. Expt. Biol, and Med., 31 : 509.

Whitlock, J. H. 1959. Elaphosirongylus, the proper designation of Neurofilaria. Cor-
nell Vet., 49 : 3.

Calif. Fish and Game, 55(4) : 317-322. 1969.

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF LARVAL CESTODES IN THE

WASHINGTON CLAM, SAXIDOSAUS NUTTALU,

AND THE GAPER CLAM, TRESUS NUTTALU,

FROM DRAKES ESTERO, CALIFORNIA'

STANLEY C. KATKANSKY, RONALD W. WARNER, and RICHARD L. POOLE ^

Marine Resources Operations
California Department of Fish and Game

Larval cestodes (plerozercoids), identified as belonging in the genus
Echeneibothrium, were observed to be encysted in the foot and free in
the lumen of the intestine of the gaper ciam, Tresus nuttalli. Encysted
larvae were not noted in the Washington clam, Saxidomus nuttalli,
although several clams were observed with larvae irt the lumen of their
intestine. A ciliated embryonic form was observed in sectioned material
from the intestine of the gaper clem, and two larval stages, apparently
intermediate between the ciliated embryo and the plerocercoid, were
noted in the intestine of a Washington clam.

INTRODUCTION

Larval cestodes have been reported from clams by MacGinitie and
MacGinitie (1949), Hyman (1951), Sparks and Chew (1966), Cheng
(1967), Katkansky and Warner (1969), and Warner and Katkansky
(1969a. 1969b). MacGinitie and MacGinitie (1949) reported a species
of Anthohofhrinm from the foot of a gaper clam, Schizothaerus { =
Tresus) nuttalli, but remarked on the lack of infestation in Washington
clams of similar size and occurring in the same bed. They speculated
that Washington clams must ingest cestode larvae, since they feed in
the same manner as gaper clams.

During routine examinations, we observed cestode larvae encysted in
the foot of gaper clams and free in the lumen of the intestine of gaper
and Washington clams. Larval forms which we consider to be pre-
cursors of the plerocercoid stage, were noted in both clams. Since the
complete life cycle of this genus of cestodes is unknown, it seems ap-
propriate to report our observations as a contribution to the life
history of the genus EcJieneihothrium.

METHODS AND MATERIALS
Monthly samples of not less than 10 Washington and 10 gaper clams
were collected from Drakes Estero, about 30 miles north of San Fran-
cisco, California, from April through December 1968. A 5-mm cross
section from the foot of each clam was fixed in Davidson's solution
(Shaw and Battle, 1957, p. 326), processed using standard histological
techniques, and stained with hematoxylin and eosin. Cysts were recov-
ered from the visceral mass of gaper clams; the plerocercoids were
excysted. examined, . and photographed. Living larval cestodes were
removed from the intestinal tract of Washington clams, examined, and
photographed.

■^ Accepted for publication May 1969. A part of this study was made in conjunction
with investigations by research contract No. 14-17-0001-1909 with the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries, U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

2 Present address: 1937 Sea Crest Drive, Lummi Island, Washington 98262.

(317)

318

CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

'••„^,.5^

0 3 Tim

-*«•-

*>^-

\ ''Si^*!

'*>>.

FIGURE 1 — Plerocercoid larvae encysted in a gaper clam, Tresus nuftalli.

i

*»

■.■7'.

■

1

0.2r

^ ^^*

FIGURE 2 — Plerocercoid larvae free in the lumen of the intestine of the gaper

clam, Tresus nuffalli. Similar larvae were noted from the intestine of a

Washington clam, Saxidomus nuffalli.

LARVAL CESTODES EST CLAMS

319

0.3mm

W"

H ^

FIGURE 3 — Plerocercoid larva excysted from a gaper clam, Tresus nuttalli.

.1

FIGURE 4 — Cross section through the ciliated embryonic cestode in
the intestine of a gaper clam, Tresus nuttalli.

320 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

RESULTS

Microscopic examinatioii of histological jirpparations from gaper
clams revealed plerocercoid larvae encysted in the foot of nearly every
clam examined (Figure 1). A few gaper clams -were observed with
plerocercoids in the lumen of their intestine (Figure 2). Similarly,
plerocercoids were noted in the intestinal lumen of several Washington
clams; however, encysted cestodes were not observed.

The live plerocercoids from the intestine of the Washington clams
matched the description of Echcncihoihrium maculatinn given by
AVardle and McLeod (1952). The plerocercoids excysted from gaper
clams (Figure 3) could not be identified, since the number of loculi
on their bothridial surfaces exceeds that of any species described.
Difficulty in identifying E cliencihoihrinm to the species level was noted
by Warner and Katkansky (1969a). They concluded that such diffi-
culties were caused by possible intraspecific variations in taxonomic
characters and by the number of undescribed species.

Cheng (1967) points out that the life cycle of Echcneihothrium has
not been determined. We have observed larval stages in the intestine of
both Washington and gaper clams which are apparent precursors of
the plerocercoid stage. A ciliated cestode was found in the intestine
of a gaper clam (Figure 4). Examination of the intestinal contents of
several AVashington clams has revealed two additional stages which
appear intermediate between the ciliated embryo and the plerocercoid.

0.2

FIGURE 5 — A "pre-plerocercoid" larva from the intestine of a
Washington clam, Saxidomus nuftalli.

LARVAL CESTODES IN CLAMS 321

One form appeared as an oval bodj^ slightly pointed at one end with
an opening at the other. We considered this to be a developing plero-
cercoid, with the opening representing a rudimentary myzorhynchus.
Unfortunately, photomicrographs of this form are not available. A
more advanced form (Figure 5) resembles the plerocercoid with the
exception of the missing bothridia. It is probable that the bothridia
are the last anatomical features to develop.

DISCUSSION

Since the complete life cycle of any species of Echeneihothrium is
unknown, we only can speculate on the exact meaning of our observa-
tions. It appears that the clam ingests either the egg or the ciliated
embryo of the cestode. If the egg is ingested, it hatches into the ciliated
embryo in the intestine of the clam. The embryo penetrates the intes-
tinal tract of the host, develops, and encysts as a plerocercoid. Plerocer-
coids have been noted in the intestine of the gaper clam. We may
speculate that the larvae were unable to penetrate the clam's intestinal
epithelium and metamorphosis occurred in the intestinal lumen. Since
encysted cestodes have not been observed in Washington clams, we
conclude that this clam is not a suitable host and penetration is some-
how prohibited. It is possible that the plerocercoids in the intestinal
lumen are voided from the host after a period of time.

The definitive host for the cestode found in these clams is probably
an elasmobranch. MacGinitie and MacGinitie (1949) and Sparks and
Chew (1966) implicated the bat stingray, Myliobatis calif ornicus, as
the definitive host for larval cestodes they found in clams.

The cestode figured by MacGinitie and MacGinitie (1949) as Antho-
bothrium is very similar to the cestodes we have identified as belonging
in the genus Echeneihothrium. MacGinitie and MacGinitie apparently
were not sure of the taxonomic position of their cestode since they
labeled it as '^Anthohothrium sp. ?". The genera Echeneihothrium
and Anthohothrium are separated by the structure of the bothridia.
Echeneihothrium possesses bothridia which are transversely ridged or
compartmented, while Anthohothrium possesses bothridia which are not.
Wardle and McLeod (1952) indicated that the bothridial surfaces
of Anthohothritim may have the appearance of compartmentation under
certain conditions of expansion. Eees (1943) indicated that "indefinite
loculi" are noted in the contracted bothridia of Anthohothrium auri-
culatum. He further stated that these were not true loculi, since the
intervening walls are formed from longitudinal muscles passing from
the peduncle. Examination of the bothridia as figured by Eees reveals
no similarity to the bothridia of the cestodes we observed. We have
examined living plerocercoids under conditions of expansion and
contraction, and definite compartmentation is present (Figure 3).
Examination of fresh material, as well as fixed, sectioned material,
reveals definite compartmentation. We therefore concluded that the
plerocercoid identified as Anthohothrium sp. by MacGinitie and Mac-
Ginitie is, in fact, Echeneihothrium sp.

322 CALIFORNIA FIRII AND GAME

REFERENCES

Cheng, T. C. 19G7. Jlnrine inolhiscs as hosts for symbiosis witli a review of

known parasites of coniniorcinlly inii>"i'lant sjicfics. Advances Marine Biol., 5.

424 p.
Hyman, Lihliie II. 19.~)1. The Inver(ol)rates : Platyhplininthes and Rhynchocoela.

The acoelomatc Bilatoria. Vol. 2. ]Mc(h-aw-IIill Book Co., New York. ^50 p.
Katkansky, S. C, and R. W. Warner. I!)(i9. Infestation of the rongh-sided little-
neck clam, Proloihaca laciniata, in Morro Bay, California, with larval cestodes

{Echcncihothrium sp.). Jour. Invert. Patliol., 13 (1) : 125-12S.
MacGinitie, G. E., and Nettie MacGinitie. 1949. Natural history of marine

animals. I\IcGraw-Hill Book Co.. New York. 473 p.
Bees, G. 1943. The anatomy of Antholjothrium auriculatum (Rud.) from Raja

haiis L. Parasitology, 35 : 1-10.
Shaw, Barbara L., and Helen I. Battle. 1957. The gross and microscopic anatomy

of the digestive tract of the oyster Crassostrea virginica (Gmelin). Canadian Jour.

Zool., 35 (3) : 325-347.
Sparks, A. K., and K. K. Chew. 19G6. Gross infestation of the littleneck clam,

Vcncrnpis stamiiiea, with a larval cestode (Echeneibothrium sp.). Jour. Invert.

Pathol., 8 (3) : 413-416.
Wardle, R. A., and J. A. McLeod. 1952. The zoology of tapeworms. Univ. Minn.

Press, Minneapolis, Minn. 780 p.
Warner, R. W., and S. C. Katkansky. 19G9a. Infestation of the clam Protothaca

sfaniinea by two species of tetraphyllidian cestodes {Echeneibothrium spp.). Jour.

Invert. Pathol., 13 (1) : 129-133.
. 1969b. A larval cestode from the Pismo clam, Tivela stultoruvi. Calif.

Fish and Game, 55 (3) : 248-251.

NOTES

VERTEBRAL COLUMN DEFORMITY AND OSTEONECROSIS

OF PELVIS AND FEMUR IN THE

CALIFORNIA SEA LION

On December 18, 1966, during a trip to Ano Nuevo Island, 40 miles
south of San Francisco, with Stanford Research Institute biologists, a
male California sea lion, Zalophus calif ornianus, in extremely poor
condition was collected under permit in order to investigate tbe nature
of a large swelling of the lumbar region. The specimen weighed ap-
proximately 300 lb.

The lumbar region of the vertebral column was deformed. Grossly it
resembled a kyphoscoliosis of the spine. The specimen was fleshed and
the complete skeleton was taken for study. No abscesses or lesions were
noted anywhere on the carcass. A high level of helminth parasitism,
however, was noted not only within the stomach and the intestines but
also in the lungs and diaphragm, as well as in muscles of the abdominal
wall, anterior serratus, intercostalis, and subscapularis muscles.

FIGURE 1 — Ventral view of the last thoracic vertebra and five lumbar vertebrae. The

second lumbar vertebra, third from the left, shows complete necrosis of the centrum.

The spinal cord, though still housed by the neural arch, was somewhat pinched and

formed a sigmoid curve. Photograph by Morton Boss.

(323)

324

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

,#„■

'P

J

FIGURE 2 — Left side view of the pelvis, sacral vertebrae, and left femur, s'nowing near

complete necrosis of the left ilial crest, acetabulum, and capitulum and trochanter

of the left femur. Bony sequestra, remnants of the ventral edge of the ilium,

are seen at lower left. Photograph by Morton Boss.

A search of the literature did not reveal a previous record of this
anomalous condition. The curvature of the spine in the region of the
lumbar vertebrae was apparently caused by complete osteonecrosis of
the second vertebral centrum and its accompanying intervertebral discs.
All that remained of the second lumbar vertebra, therefore, was the
neural arch with its associated spine and zygapophyses. as well as the
transverse processes. Subsequent bone repair involved fusion of post-
zygapophyses of the second lumbar vertebra to the prezygapophyses of
the third lumbar vertebra and fusion of the right transverse process
of the second limibar to the anterodorsal face of the centrum of the
third lumbar (Figure 1). The spinal cord was undamaged, but it was
markedly displaced in a sigmoid curve.

Near complete necrosis of the left ilium had taken place, involving
also loss of the acetabulum and approximately one-third of the proximal
end of the femur. Osseous sequestra were all that remained of the an-
terior ventral edge of the left ilium (Figure 2). The right side of the
pelvis and right femur were unaffected (Figure 3). The mandibular
fossae and the articulating condyles of the mandibles of the skull also
indicated considerable necrosis.

NOTES

325:

FIGURE 3 — Normal right side view of the pelvis, sacral vertebrae, and right femur,

showing little effect of the condition seen on the left side.

Phoiograpb by Morfon Boss.

The cause of this anomalous condition was not determined. Although
the bone damage resembles Pott's disease or tuberculosis of the spine
as described for humans (Homans, 1932; Boyd, 1943), the lack of
typical tubercular lesions in surrounding tissues and the lack of evi-
dence of a primary lesion would seem to preclude tuberculosis as the
cause. Actually, there are a number of conditions related to disease,
nutrition, or injury which produce bone lesions without surrounding
tissue reactions.

Abnormal tooth wear on the anterior faces of the upper incisors and
the tips of the lower canines (Figure 4) may indicate that this animal,
no longer able to swim fast enough to catch fish, had been feeding
extensively upon rock-dwelling mollusks. Similar tooth wear has been
reported by Hildebrand (1954) for the sea otter, Enhydra lutris. This
tAT3e of abnormal tooth wear, for the sea lion, has been noticed on skulls
of carcasses of old California sea lion bulls that wash up on beaches of
Ano Nuevo Island and vicinity. Perhaps due to old age or illness these
animals resort to other means of food capture to survive.

326

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 4 — Unusual wear on the anterior surfaces of the upper incisors and tips of

lower canines, probably caused by feeding on encrusting mollusks.

Photograph by William E. Ferguson.

REFERENCES

Boyd, W. 1943. A textbook of pathology. Fourth ed., Lea and Febiger, Philadel-
phia. 1008 p.

Hildebrand, M. 1954. Incisor tooth wear in the sea otter. Jour. Mammal,
3.5 (4) : 595.

Homnns, J. 1932. A texbook of surgery. Second ed., Charles 0. Thomas,
Baltimore. 1231 p.

— G. Victor More John, Moss Landing Marine Laboratories, Moss Land-
ing, California 95039. Accepted Fchriiarij 1969.

OCCURRENCE OF THE NEMATODE, PHILOMETRA

AMERICANA, IN THE ENGLISH SOLE, PAROPHRYS

VETULUS, IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY

Several species of nematodes belonging to the genus Philometra occur
in the body cavities and tissues of freshwater and marine fishes in
North America. The nematode P. americana was first described by
Kuitunen-Ekbaum (1933) from a starry flounder, Platichthys stellatus,
collected at Departure Bay, Vancouver Island. He also observed this
nematode in the rock sole, Lepidopsetta hilineata, the black prickleback,
Xiphister atropurpureus, the saddleback gunnel, Pholis ornatus, and
the northern clingfish, Gohiesox meandricus.

This is the first reported occurrence of P. americana in the English
sole, Parophrys vetulus. Infections were found in 9 of 359 juvenile
sole (80-120 mm) collected by otter trawl in 40 to 50 ft of water on
the west side of Treasure Island in February 1966. One of 250
juvenile fish collected in this area in November 1966 was found
infected. During December 1966, we collected 500 juvenile English
sole on the east side of Treasure Island in 40 to 50 ft of water. One
was infected. The number of worms ranged from 1 to 22 per fish and
characteristically they were located under the skin at the bases of
fins. In all cases, the nematodes were blood red females, but only those
collected in November contained live embryos in the uterus. In no
case was a male worm found.

Although the complete life cycle of these parasites is not known,
it is believed to involve a planktonic intermediate host, possibly a
eopepod. Kuitunen-Ekbaum (1933) suggested that the female worm

FIGURE 1 — The immature nematodes are barely visible at the base of the dorsal fin.

(327)

328

CALIFORXIA FISH AND GAME

FIGURE 2 — The nematodes are clearly distinguishable.

FIGURE 3 — The nematodes are approximately 50 mm in length, blood red,
and exhibit vigorous movement.

bores her way through the skin of the host and extrudes the larvae into
the seawater, where they are eaten by plankton and undergo partial
development. Development is completed in the definitive host when
the plankters are eaten.

An indication of the development rate of the female worms in
juvenile English sole was gained by observing a fish in captivity
(Figures 1-3). The fish was collected on February 4, 1966, on the
west side of Treasure Island, was kept in a jar of filtered seawater
at approximately 20 C, and fed brine shrimp, Artemia salina. On

NOTES 329

February 24, 1966 (Figure 1), two immature nematodes were barely
visible as pale red foci at the base of the dorsal fin; by March 9
(Figure 2), the nematodes were clearly distinguishable; and on May
11 (Figure 3), the nematodes had reached approximately 50 mm in
length, were characteristically blood red, and exhibited vigorous move-
ment. Grossly, there appears to be little tissue damage or host response
in the vicinity of the worms in juvenile fish.

On March 6, 1967, the Department of Fish and Game vessel Nautilus
took 322 adult English sole (300-400 mm) in an otter trawl approxi-
mately 6.5 miles south of Seal Rock, 2.2 miles offshore in 90 ft of
water. None of these fish was infected with these nematodes nor were
there any signs of previous infection. However, considering the ap-
parent low incidence of these nematodes in juvenile fish, larger samples
of adult fish must be examined before conclusions may be drawn re-
garding the occurrence of nematodes in adults.

REFERENCE

Kuitunen-Ekbaum, E. 1933. A case of dracontiasis in Pacific coastal fishes. Con-
trib. Canadian Biol, and Fish., 8 (13) : 163-168.

Joseph J. Di Conza, Division of Parasitology} and Robert C. Cooper,
School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. Ac-
cepted April 1969.

1 Present address: Department of Parasitology, Univer.sity of Queensland, St. Lucia,
Qld., Australia.

MORTALITY OF COMMON MURRES ALONG THE
NORTHERN CALIFORNIA COAST

During the months of July through September 1968, mortality of
common murres {TJria aalge calif ornica) occurred along the northern
California coast from Monterey Bay north. Both mature and immature
birds were found. Counts and observations at various localities along
the North Coast were made by the author and others (Table 1). The
area covered represents only a small portion of the coastline.

Specimens collected from Salmon Creek beach, Sonoma County, and
Shelter Cove and Mattole River beach, Humboldt County, were autop-
sied. Twenty specimens examined by pathologists at the Veterinary
School at the University of California, Davis, did not reveal positive
diagnosis for pathogenic bacteria or abnormality in the organs or
tissues.

A paralytic shellfish poison similar to that produced by the dino-
flagellate Gonyaulex catenella was suspected. An attempt was made by
the author to extract an alkaloid poison from the gut contents through
the use of a diphasic, organo-aqueous, extraction technique. Two mice
injected with the extract in an aqueous diluent died within 5 minutes;
however, this test .was not conclusive for alkaloid poisoning.

Tests run by the Pesticides Investigations project, California Depart-
ment of Fish and Game, revealed what is suspected to be above normal
concentration of DDE in the brain tissue of the six common murres
examined. However, such findings are not conclusive evidence that this
was the cause of death.

330

CALIFORNIA FISn AND GAJIE

List o

f Dead and Dying Common Murres Found

in 1968

Date

Number

Locality

Observer

July 16

July 30

July-August'—
Aug. 5

31'

302

19
10

15

31

12

2

500

1

6

52

Moss Landing, Monterey County . _. -. - --

Robert .Tones and .Jim Faro,

Shelter Cove, Humboldt County....

10-milc radius, St. George Reef Light, Del Norte County.
Shelter Cove, Humboldt County

Humboldt State College

Richard T. Burge,

Calif. Dept. Fi.sh and Game

Lt. Wayne Klein,

Calif. Dept. Fish and Game

Carl F. Miller,

Aug. 11

Aug. 12

Mattole River to Cape Mendocino, Humboldt County. ..
Salmon Creek Beach, Sonoma County .

Calif. Dept. Fish and Game
Jones and Faro
John Bodle

Aug. 1.3

Horseshoe Cove, Sonoma County..

John Bodle

Aug. 1.3

Salmon Creek Beach, Sonoma County

John Bodle

Aug. 14

Horseshoe Cove, Sonoma Countv

Janet Bodle

Aug. 15

Bob Sikora

Aug. 18

Aug. 19

Beach north of Mattole River, Humboldt County

Horseshoe Cove, Sonoma County . .

Jones and Faro
John Bodle

Sept. 10

Sept. 12

Samoa Peninsula to Little River, Humboldt County

Eel River to South Spit of Humboldt Bay, Humboldt
County

Jones and Faro
Jones and Faro

' Other dead birds found were 18 sooty shearwaters, 5 western grebes, and 13 gulls.

2 Dead and dying common murres were reported from Punta Gorda north to Crescent City.

3 Se%-eral to more than 100 dead birds were observed during daily patrol of offshore waters by the patrol boat "Rain-
bow" from mid-July to late August.

* Number discovered after searching 100 yards of the mile-long beach.

Tests for clilorinated hydrocarbons are continuing both on specimens
found dead and specimens collected in November by shooting.

Researchers at the University of California Bodega Marine Labora-
tory observed a similar mortality at about the same time in 1967. This
suggests that such mortalities may be of seasonal occurrence.

In the event a future mortality occurs, a concerted effort should be
made to identify its cause.

— John E. Bodle, Department of Zoology, University of California,
Davis, California. Accepted April 1969.

ADDITION OF MISGURNUS ANGUILLICAUDATUS
(CANTOR) TO THE CALIFORNIAN FAUNA

On April 12, 1968, the senior autlior discovered loaches in a portion
of the "Westminster flood control channel. Orange County. This was the
first verified record of free-living loaches in California.

The location of the first observation was adjacent to the south bound-
ary- of the Pacific Goldfish Farm on Bolsa Avenue between Edwards
and Golden "West Streets in Westminster. Subsequent surveys have
revealed that the range extends west to Graham Street, and northeast
to a railroad overpass west of Central ]\Iemorial Park. We found
loaches in approximately 3 miles of the 9.5-mile long channel. It appears
that their range has been presently limited to this section because of
tidal action to the west and intermittent water flows to the east.

Carl liubbs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, identified the
loaches as Misgurnus anguillicaiidatus , the Japanese weatherfish. Speci-
mens have been deposited in the Scripps fish collection (SIO 68-213).

NOTES

331

Five surveys were made during the period April 12, 1968, through
July 20, 1968. The following 12 species of fishes, 3 species of exotic
snails, and 1 species of exotic frog were found :

Japanese weatherfish — Misgurnus anguillicaudaius

Guppy — Lebistes reticulalus

Swordtail — Xiphophorus helleri

Sunset variatus — Xiphophorus varialus

Platy — Xiphophorus maculatus

Molly — Poecilia sphenops

AngeJfish — Plerophyllum sp.

Zebrafish — Brachydanio rerio

Mosquitofish — Gamhusia afUnis
Carp — Cyprinus carpio
Goldfish — Carassius auratus
BluegiU — Lepomis macrochirus
Mystery snail — Ampullaria cuprina
Papershell snail — Lymnaea auricularia
Japanese livebearing snail — Viviparus malleatus
African frog — Xenopus laevis

We believe that the place of origin of the loaches and other exotics
is the Pacific Goldfish Farm. All of the exotics collected are handled by
the farm. Joe Akiyama, owner of the farm, informed us that loaches
were reared in an outdoor pond during the 1930 's and that some
escaped into the channel. Although loaches are no longer reared in
ponds, a few could escape from the indoor tanks, since waste water
from the farm still flows into the channel.

We collected approximately 300 loaches, which ranged from 16 to
224 mm tl. Numerous others were observed but not collected. The large
number present in this channel, and the evidence of reproduction dem-
onstrated by the size range, denotes that the present population did
not result entirely from escapement.

The Japanese weatherfish is native to northeastern Asia southward to
central China. Its appearance and way of life correspond very closely
to those of the European weatherfish, 31. fossilis. The ability of Mis-
gurnus to breath atmospheric air, allowing it to survive in waters of
low oxygen content, is described by Sterba (1966) : "Intestinal repira-
tion is commonly made use of; the fishes come to the surface, swallow
air and force this into the richly- vascular hind-gut. At almost regular
intervals the exhausted air then escapes in large bubbles from the
vent. ' ' These loaches also exhibit a characteristic of burrowing into the
substrate. These characteristics make it difficult to eliminate them,
should this be desired. M. anguillicaudaius is now established in Michi-
gan (Schultz, 1960).

Loaches reportedlj^ are being used as a bait fish in other waters;
therefore, the possibility exists that the species will become introduced
into sport fishing waters. The relationships of this fish with game fishes
are as yet unknown.

We conclude from our observations that M. anguillicaudaius is now
established in California.

REFERENCES
Schultz. Edward E. 19C0. Establishment and early dispersal of a loach, Misgurmis
anguillicaudaius (Cantor), in Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc, 89 (4) : 376-
377.
Sterba, Gunther. 1966. Freshwater fishes of the world. Studio Vista Ltd., London,

879 p.
— James A. Si. Amani and Franklin G. Hoover, Inland Fisheries,
Region 5, California Deparimeni of Fish and Game. Accepied
April 1969.

DIFFERENTIAL STREAMER AND DISK TAG LOSS BY
SURFPERCH IN HUMBOLDT BAY, CALIFORNIA

A tagging program was initiated in 396G-67 in Humboldt Bay, Cali-
fornia, located about 250 miles north of San Francisco, to determine
movements of six species of surfperch, Embiotocidae : redtail surfperch,
Amphisticlius rhodoterus, shiner perch, Cymatogaster aggrcgata, striped
seaperch, Emhiotoca lateralis, walleye surfperch, Hyperprosopon argcn-
fcnm, white soaperch. Fhancroclon furcatus, and pile perch. Rhacochilus
vacca. One objective of this program was to determine the most effec-
tive type of tag to use on surfperch. The following report is a discussion
of the findings related to this particular objective.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Surfperch for tagging were collected by otter trawl, beach seine, and
hook and line.

The fish were tagged with modified streamer and Petersen disk tags.
The streamers, made from vinyl "spaghetti" tags, were 4 to 6 inches
long, and each had a 0.25- to 0.5-inch piece of 0.026-inch diameter single-
strand stainless steel wire in one end. This wire fit snugly inside the
hollow streamer and was bent to form a hook for attachment (Miller,
Odemar, and Gotshall, 1967). The Petersen tags were 0.56-inch diame-
ter plastic disks attached with stainless steel wire pins (Figure 1).

liii|'i(ilii«|!Mi|a»jii«|i«()t«i|iitl(i«)niii!WiiiBijiiinini|iiiijiiBiiiiii-

FIGURE 1 — Petersen disks with pin and streamer tags with needles.
Photograph by Cecil C. Smith

( 332 )

NOTES 333

Streamer and Petersen disk tags were used, even though each has
known shortcomings (Davis, 1959; Chadwick, 1963; Kruse, 1964).
These tags were alternated on the fish with the exception of fish smaller
than 150 mm fl, which were tagged with short streamers.

The surfperch were identified, measured, and sexed at the time of
tagging. Initially, the fish were anesthetized with MS 222 (McFarland,
1960), but this proved to be unnecessary. The Petersen disks were
applied between the insertion of the dorsal fin and the back of the
head. This area is relatively free of movement and allows the pin to
pass through the extension of the supraoecipital bone of the skull
(Carlisle, Schott, and Abramson, 1960). Streamers were attached to
the fish below the anterior end of the dorsal fin. The blunt end of a
0.09-inch diameter stainless steel needle was inserted into the end of
the tag opposite the hook. The needle and tag then were passed through
the fish so that the tag angled toward the caudal fin. The hook of the
tag was tucked under the skin and scales and pulled gently until it
caught on the pterygiophores. The needle was then twisted free of
the tag.

I expected to get tagged fish returned from the sport fishery, the
commercial fishery, and sampling by Humboldt State College personnel.
Posters explaining the program were put up in fishing tackle stores
and at sport fishing locations on the bay. An article appeared in both
of the local daily newspapers near the start of the tagging program.
I also contacted commercial fishermen, floormen of fish buying plants,
and the California Department of Fish and Game. A total of 817
surfperch was tagged, with 30 (3.7%) returned during the first 20
months.

DISCUSSION

Two factors which could affect tag loss must be considered before the
problem of tag loss itself can be properly examined. One is incomplete
tag reporting, which can result from either failure to report tags or
overlooked tags. However, I believe that in this study nearly all the
recovered tags were reported.

The second factor is tagging mortality. This may be caused directly
or indirectly by the tag. I attempted to estimate tagging mortality by
observing 22 tagged surfperch, representing 5 species, for 95 days in
a 500-gal marine aquarium. Two surfperch died in about a month.
These had been injured before tagging and their wounds were con-
tinually picked upon by other surfperch ; however, the actual tag
wounds of the two fish were almost healed when the fish died. Two
other surfperch were held for a year and were still alive at the conclu-
sion of the study. Their tag wounds had completely healed. As a result
of these observations, I believe that mortality resulting from tagging
was probably low.

Tagging mortality of surfperch was also considered low in two other
studies. Alan J. Beardsley (Oregon State UniA^ersity, pers. comm.) and
Morgan (1961), working in Yaquina and Siletz Bays. Oregon, respec-
tively, felt that mortality caused by tagging surfperch with dart tags
and Petersen disks was not an important factor affecting tag recovery.

Observations of surfperch (under 150 mm fl) in aquaria revealed
that most fish tagged only with streamers lost their tags. Two small

33-1 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

surfpereh caught b}' hook and line during tagging operations had
streamer tag sears. The tag losses of smaller fish both in captivity
and in the Avild indicate the futility of using streamer tags on small
surfpereh. Disk tags were not used on these fish because of the tag
■\vei.iiht and size in relation to fish size.

Two larger fish, one in captivity and one in the wild, also lost
streamer tags. I observed no loss of disk tags.

A greater streamer tag loss is indicated by a difference in return of
the two tag types. Of 657 fish over 150 mm fl, 349 were tagged with
streamers and 308 with disks. Eleven streamer-tagged fish (3.2%)
were returned as compared with 19 disk-tagged fish (6.2%), even
though a X" test failed to show a significant difference. Of the 14 re-
captured fish that were at liberty over 30 days, 12 were tagged with
disks.

Beardsley and ]\Iorgan in their studies also experienced considerable
tag loss by surfpereh. Beardsley found a 60% loss of dart tags from
surfpereh over a 3-month period. Morgan observed a number of re-
captured fish with scars from lost disk tags. These disks were placed
near the junction of the spinous and soft dorsal fins and thus the pins
did not pass tlirough any bony structure, as did the pins for this study.
This may have been the reason for the considerable tag loss by the
Siletz Bay surfpereh.

According to the results of this study, and those of Beardsley 's
study, surfpereh shed tags of the streamer type to a considerable
extent. I recommend the disk-type tag as one more suitable for these
fishes.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Several Humboldt State College students helped directly with this
study. They are j\Iary Nordstrom, Terry McBee, and Fred Smith. Dan-
iel W. Gotshall, J. Gary Smith, and L. B. Boydstun of the California
Department of Fisli and Game contributed data, help, equipment, and
references for this project.

REFERENCES

Carlisle. John G., Jr., Jack W. Schott, and Norman J. Abramson. 1960. The

barred surfpereh {Amphistichus argentetis Agassiz) in southern California. Calif.

Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 109. 79 p.
Chadwick, Harold K. 1963. An evaluation of five tag types used in a striped bass

mortality rate and migration study. Calif. Fish and Game, 49 (2) : 64—83.
Davis, William S. 1959. Field tests of Petersen, streamer, and spaghetti tags on

striped bass, Roccus saxatilis (Walbaum). Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc, 88 (4) :

319-329.
Kruse, Thomas E. 1964. A comparison of spaghetti and Petersen tags used on

steelhead trout at Gnat Creek, Oregon. Oreg. Fish Comm. Res. Briefs, 10 (1) :

57-66.
McFarland, "William M. 1960. The use of anesthetics for the handling and the

transport of fishes. Calif. Fish and Game. 46 (4) : 407-431.
Miller, Daniel J., Melvyn W. Odemar, and Daniel W. Gotshall. 1967. Life history

and catch analysis of the blue rockfish (Sehastodes mystinus) off central Cali-
fornia, 1961-1965. Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Marine Resources Oper. Ref.,

67-14. 130 p.
Morgan, Alfred R. 1961. Siletz Bay surfpereh tagging. Oreg. Fish Comm. Res.

Briefs, 8 (1) : 5-13.
— Allan K. Smith, Humholdt State College, Areata, California (now

at Walter Reed Army Institute of Research). Accepted February

1969.

OCCURRENCE OF THE SPOTFIN SURFPERCH
IN OREGON WATERS

A spotfin surfperch, Hyperprosopon anale Agassiz, was collected
from the surf near Seal Rock, Oregon (lat. 44° 29' 55" N, long. 124°
04' 56" W) on June 26, 1968, extending the reported northern limit for
this species approximately 425 sea miles. The recorded range is from
Blanca Bay, Baja California, northward to Bodega Bay, California
(Tarp, 1952; Roedel, 1953; Miller, Gotshall, and Nitsos, 1965). This
specimen was taken by hook and line along with redtail surfperch,
Aniphistichus rhodoterus (Agassiz), and silver surfperch, Hyperpro-
sopon ellipticum (Gibbons).

The specimen was a 161-mm sl (199-mm tl) female, weighing
142 g, and in her 4th year of life based on scale analysis. This is
larger than the mean standard length of 98.5 mm (50.0 to 136.5 mm)
for 50 specimens reported by Tarp (1952) and the length "to 6 inches"
given by Miller et al. (1965). The female contained 20 embryos with
a mean standard length of 38.4 mm (50.6 mm tl) and a mean weight
of 1.41 g. Based on their morphology, the embryos were judged to
be near term.

Possible failure to report this species north of Bodega Bay could
be because of its small size and because it is seldom taken by hook and
line. The spotfin can be easily separated from the other two sj)ecies of
silver-colored surfperches (the silver surfperch, H. ellipticum (Gib-
bons), and the walleye surfperch, H. argenteiim (Gibbons) ) common to
the central coast of Oregon by a characteristic black spot on its spinous
dorsal and a smaller black spot on its anal fin. The specimen was de-
posited in the ichthyological collection of the Department of Fislieries
and Wildlife, Oregon State University — accession number OSU 2568.

REFERENCES

Miller, Daniel J., Dan Gotshall. and Richard Nitsos. 1965. A field guide to some

common ocean sport fishes of California. Second revision. Calif. Dept. Fish and

Game. 87 p.
Roedel, Phil M. 1953. Common ocean fishes of the California Coast. Calif. Dept.

Fish and Game, Fish Bull 91. 184 p.
Tarp, Fred H. 1952. A revision of the family Embiotocidae (the surfperches).

Calif. Dept. Fish and Game, Fish Bull. 88. 99 p.
Richard S. WydosJci, Oregon Cooperative Fishery Unit, Marine Science
Center, OSU, Newport, Oregon. (Now with Washington Cooperative

Fishery Unit, 106 Fisheries Center, University of Washington,

Seattle, Washington 98105.) Accepted May 1969.

OCCURRENCE OF PRIONOTUS STEPHANOPHRYS
OFF THE COLUMBIA RIVER'

A specimen of the lumptail searobin, Prionotus stephanophrys
Lockington, was among fish in trawl catches of the M/V Nestucca
during June 28 and 29, 1961. Catches were made 11 to 17 miles off
the Columbia River mouth between North Head and Leadbetter Point
at depths of 53 to 56 fathoms. The junior author, then an employee

(335)

336

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

of the Fish Commission of Oregon, identified the specimen and pre-
sented it to Orr-gon State University. This is the first known occurrence
north of California. Ilubbs (lOA'i) reviewed the California distribution,
noting it to be southward from San Francisco. Fitch (1951) lists speci-
mens from off Point Fermin and from Santa ]\Iaria Bay, Lower Cali-
fornia, and Radovich (1961) mentions additional collections from
southern California.

Our specimen (OS 1294 » is I-',! mm long ''Table 1), much smaller
than the one discussed by iJuMi- ']'Jl')j and slightly smaller than the
type specimfii 'T.or-kinL'tou. 1~-1 . < ounts are as follows: dorsal fin
X-12; anal fin T. 10; r-aufln! fiu 1 1 : jM-ftoral fins 13; gill rakers 4 -f 20;
brancliiostegals 7 : ];).tijr;il lino por(_'.s 51.

1 Technical Paper No. 2.S97, Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.

TABLE 1

Morphometry of the Prionotus stephanophrys Specimen
Taken off the Columbia River

Character

Tlioasandths of
standard length

SI

Body d%pth

Cauda! p^lunde depth

Body vridth at st-apular spines

Snout to end of opercular membrane.

Snout to end of opercular spine

Snout to otciput

Head dejjth

Snout width

Snout length

Eye

Bony orbit

Interorbital

Preopercular spine

Upper jaw

Dor?^l spines: 1

2

3

4

Anal rays:

Spine

Soft rays 1

2

Longest '^7th)

Caudal rays:

Short«!t

Longest

Pectoral rays: 1

7

9

11

Pelvic fin

221

65

160

358

356

225

217

139

146

73

89

70

62

152

106

159

179

broken

36

76

103

150

225
254
319
437
442
344
273

REFERENCES

Fitch. .John E. 1951. Studies and notes on some California marine fishes. Calif.
Fi.sh and Game, 37 (2) : 111-120.

Hubbs, Carl L. 1945. California searobin (Prionotus stephanophrys), a fish new
for the fauna of southern California. Calif. Fish and Game, 31 (4) : 195-200.

Lockington, TV. N. 1881. Description of a new species of Prionotus (Prionotus
stephonophnjH) . from the coast of California. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mu-s., 3 : 529-532.

Radovich, JoLn. 1001. Relationships of some marine organisms of the northeast
Pacific to water temperatures particularly during 1957 through 1959. Calif. Dept.
FLsh and Game, Fish Bull. 112. 62 p.

Carl E. Bond, Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Oregon State
University, Corvallis, Oregon, and Bohert B. Herrmann, Weyer-
haeuser Company, Longview, Washington. Accepted April 1969.

BOOK REVIEWS

Poisonous Snakes of the World

Granville M. Moore, coordinator and principal editor; U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 1968, viii + 212 p., profusely illustrated In black-and-white, plus 8
color plates. Sold by Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C., 20402. $3.25.

Although Poisonous Snakes of the World was designed for use by American mili-
tary forces, who these days find themselves stationed, fighting, and visiting in coun-
tries where snakebite poses an additional, and often constant, threat to their safety
and well-being, the volume likely will find its greatest acceptance among stay-at-
home herpetologists, nature lovers, and book collectors. Those responsible for pro-
ducing this manual appear to have fulfilled all their stated objectives with room to
spare, but they have used such high quality paper in its printing that I seriously
doubt the book can withstand exposure to tropical humidity for even a short period.
Since poisonous snakes of the humid tropics pose the greatest threat to our military
personnel, the coated stock it is printed on limits its effectiveness as "a manual for
use by U. S. amphibious forces".

Several introductory chapters are priceless for the information they contain on
precautions for avoiding snakel)ite, recognition of snake venom poisoning, first aid
and medical treatment, and recognition of poisonous snakes. The bulk of the text,
however, is taken up with descriptive details on various poisonous snakes in-
cluding their scientific and common names, recognition characters, distribution, be-
havior, size, and life history. Each such account is concluded with a notation as to
the specific antivenin (if such is available) that should be used in case a bite is
involved, and most accounts are accompanied by a clear photograph of the species
in question.

To facilitate identification, this portion of the text (Chapter VII) has been divided
into 10 sections, each representing a "natural" geographic area. All poisonous
snakes known to inhabit each area are keyed out and discussed as noted above. Al-
though some of the keys leave much to be desired (e.g., those for the family
Elapidae), this shortcoming more often reflects inadequate knowledge of the fauna
than ambiguous or poorly selected key characters.

There is a separate chapter on sea snakes, and 12 pages are devoted to a listing
of antivenin sources alphabetically by country. Included in this tabular presentation
are details regarding the antivenin producer, the name of the product, venoms used
in its preparation, and miscellaneous comments regarding use, side effects, etc.
Finally, there is a glossary, a list of general references, an index, and eight color
plates depicting more than 50 kinds of poisonous snakes. At $3.25, Poisonous Snakes
of ihe World is one of the best bargains of the decade, and its purchase could be
instrumental in saving a life. — John E. Fitch.

Applications de I'Electrieite a la Biologic et a I'Amenagement des
Peches Continentales

Symposium under the direction of R. Vibert (Belgrade, 1966); Institut National de la
Recherche Agronomique, Versailles, and F.A.O., Rome, 1968; 276 p. 35 F paper. [In
French]

Unusual Aquarium Fishes

By Alan Mark Fletcher; J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1968; 143 p., illustrated.
$4.50.

Fletcher proposes ". . . to tell aquarists some of the unusual facts about their
pets, and to inspire others to take up a fascinating hobby." Experienced aquari.sts
already are familiar with most of the 47 species mentioned. Some little known gems
of information are brought forth, however. For example, at one time the betting on
Siamese fighting fish, Betta splendens, became so intense that entire families were
bet into slavery. Another anecdote involves the South American lungfish, Lepidosiren
paradoxa, which can tolerate a buildup of body wastes as high as 20,000 ppm during
estivation.

(337)

338 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

No book on iiniisun] fishes would be complete without the notorious piranha.
Having obser\c(l and cau,i;]it the piranha in ils iiali\o watt'rs, Flotc-Iier fomniouts,
"Surely in all the world there is no more clfipi(Mit biting animal than the South
American piranha." Some of the ofhor interesting creatures in(>ntioned include the
sea horse, Amazon leaf lish, mudskipper, and sargassum fish.

Von den Nieuwenhuizen, Wolfsheimer, and the author deserve compliments for
the GO some excellent black-and-white photographs.

Unusual Aquarium Fishes is not particularly suited as a reference source, but
does provide an interesting introduction into the fascinating ways of fishes. —
James A. St. Amanf.

Hawaii Goes Fishing

By Jean Scott MacKellar; Charles E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Rutland, Vermont, 1968; 160 p. +
photographs. $3.50.

The flyleaf of this little volume slaies, "There is adventure in these pages for
everyone who finds adventure in fishing and especially for the reader who believes
that Hawaii possesses a magic all its own." If the statement was inverted to
emphasize the magic of Hawaii, and a phra.se added to indicate the pages contained
a history of Polynesian fishing methods, the reader might have realized the purpose
of this book more easily. For, in my opinion, there is far more information concern-
ing the history of fishing techniques in the "enchanted isles" than the average fisher-
man of today would find relevant to planning a trip to Hawaii.

Mrs. MacKellar prepared this manuscript after World War II while an employee
of Honolulu's Board of Public Works. There are many references to the "Territorial
Government" and to people who were active, in that government prior to Hawaii's
statehood in 1959. The Territorial form of government is gone, as well as many of
the people who were involved. However, the author chose to ignore this and failed
to revise the mantiscript since preparation of the preface in 1955.

If one is looking for some light reading and can ignore these shortcomings, this
book offers an evening or two of entertaining reading. — Williani L. Craig.

Fish Migration

By F. R. Harden Jones; St. Martin's Press, New York, 1968; viii + 325 p., illustrated. $21.

F. 11. Harden Jones states in his introduction: "In this book, an attempt will
be made to determine whether or not enough is known about fish migrations to ac-
count for the facts, and should the facts themselves prove inadequate, to suggest
what further observations and experiments are required." He does the above quite
well. The book is a must for anyone planning any fish migration studies.

The author has collected and analyzed information on a large subject and
condensed it into a 325 page book. Two introductory chapters cover the biological
aspects of migration and the methods of studying fish migrations. There are long
chapters on the migrations of various economically important groups of fishes,
the studies that went into determining those migrations, the weak points in the
studies, and the information needed to prove or disprove various theories, including
some which are generally accepted but which Harden Jones feels have not been
proved, and others not commonly accepted which he feels have never been dis-
proved. Included are chapters on : "Salmon and Trout", "The Eel". "The Herring"
(58 pages), "The Cod", and "The Plaice". Conspicuous by their absence were the
tunas and the mackerels. (The author explains that the tuna literature is so
large that it would have taken another two or three years of study to prepare
him to write about that group.)

After the discussion of the fishes themselves, there is a change in the basic
organization of the book. There are chapters on : "The Reactions of Fish to Stimuli",
"Movement Without Reference to Local Landmarks", and "Homing and the Use
of Local Landmarks". Earlier in the book I had felt exasperated by important
omissions from the chapter on salmon and trout. ^luch of the "omitted"' material
turned up in the three chapters just listed.

The "References/Author Index" includes an awesome 900 titles but a quick
reading of the list did reveal the absence of a moderate number of works I would
regard as being at least as important as the bulk of the references included. The
subject is indeed a large one.

There is a subject index and a geographical index. — Donald H. Fry, Jr.

REVIEWS 339

The Farming of Fish

By C. F. Hkkling, Pergamon Press, Inc., New York, 1968; vii + 88 p. $3.50 cloth, $2.00
paper.

This little book contains much basic scientific information on physical and chemical
characteristics of water managed for fish production. It is written in nontechnical
style and is composed with easily understood words. The 12 chapters cover these
subjects: "Introduction", "A Historical Digression", "The Primary Source of Mate-
lial and Energy in a Fi.sh Pond", "The Water Supply", "The Quality of the Water",
"The Basis of Fish Farming", "The Pond Soil", "The Biology of a Fish Pond",
"Fish Farming", "The Stocking of Fish Ponds", "Fish Farming in the Sea", and
"Why Not More Fish Farming". Treatment is generalized throughout.

I hoped to find some practical information on building ponds, laying out water-
works, and specific information on feeding fish. These items were not found. I also
failed to find management information on stocking rates and methods of harvesting
and processing fish lu-oduced at fish farms. Obviously, some things could not be
included in such a small book, and it is to the author's credit that he found space
for as much detail as the book contains. — J. H. Ryan.

Reservoir Fishery Resources Symposium

Presented by the Reservoir Committee of the Southern Division, American Fisheries Society;

Southern Division, A.F.S., 1968; viii + 569 p.. Illustrated. Orders, accompanied by

remittance payable to the Southern Division, A.F.S., should be sent to the Secretary,

Southern Division, A.F.S., through Dr. Robert F. Hutton, Executive Secretary, American

Fisheries Society, Suite 1040, Washington Building, 15th Street and New York Avenue,

N.W., Washington, D. C. 20005. $10 paper.

This publication is a collection of pajiers given at the symposium April 5-7, 19G7.

Following the welcoming address, there are four papers representing viewpoints of

the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, the U. S.

Bureau of lieclamation, and the states. The next 34 papers cover a plethora of

topics relating to reservoirs, their management, productivity, water quality, fishery

resoui'ces, and recreational aspects. A summary completes the book.

There is a wealth of information in this publication. I can't conceive of a fresh-
water biologist who would not be interested in some, if not all, of the papers
presented. The Reservoir Committee did an outstanding job of putting together a
well-rounded program, and in obtaining experts in the various disciplines to prepare
the papers. New insights into reservoir ecology which question or contradict some of
our long-held beliefs are presented. They should spur additional research to better
manage our reser\oirs. — Leonard Fisk.

Systematics, Distribution, and Abundance of the Cpiplanktonic Squid (Cephalopoda,
Decapoda) Larvae of the California Current, April, 1954— March, 1957.

By Takashi OkutanI and John A. McGowon; University of California Press, Berkeley and
Los Angeles, 1969; v -f 90 p.. Illustrated. $3 paper.

Any scientist who has tried to research cephalopods knows painfully well that
there is a comparatively large vacant space in the scientific literature concerning
the taxonomy and biology of the squids. Okutani and McGowan's paper is an excel-
lent step toward filling the aforementioned void.

The paper is composed of two sections. The first deals with the systematics and
descriptions of the larval stages of 14 species of decapod cephalopods. Two squids,
LigurieUa sp. and Octopodoteuthopsis sp., were previously undescribed. Each species
covered in the text is accompanied by a thorough written description and excellent
drawings. The species are so well described that this paper may be used as a key,
although it is not intended for that purpose.

The second portion of the paper is concerned with distribution and abundance and
includes the distribution of the adult stages. Five species, Cienopicryx siciihi,
Chiroteuthis veranyi, Pyrgopsls pacificus, Teuthoicenia megalops, and Helicocranchia
pfefferi, were previously not known from the California Current System. Three
species, Loligo opalescens, Meleagroteufhis heteropsis, and Ahraliopsis felis, are
endemic to the California Current. Two species, Pferygiofeuthis giardi and Onycho-
teuthis hanksii. are nearly cosmopolitan, while one species, Gonaiiis jahricii. is found
only in the Northern Hemisphere. The final squid discussed is the Rhynchoteuthion
larva. This larval form is not linked to an adult species and no distribution is given,
nor is any distribution given for the two undescribed species, other than that they
do occur in the California Current.

340 CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

The material on abundance of larvae is sparse at best, due to the difficulty in
sampling pelagic species. However, the abinulance of the more common larvae is
cyclical in nature and suggests seasonal spawning.

The paper is well written and quite readable. The text is followed by a list of
309 references on octopod and decapod cephalopods. The references would be an
excellent research focal point.

I can find no fault with this paper, other than the fact that there are many adult
species known from the California Current whose larval forms were not covered.
This can only be remedied by time and effort spent in collecting and research. I trust
that the authors will keep up the good work. — Jerome D. Spratt.

The Fertile Sea

By A. P. Orr and S. M. Marshal!; Fishing News (Books) Ltd., London, 1969; 131 p., illus-
trated. £2 15s. Od.

Dr. A. P. Orr delivered the Buckland lectures in 1957. Unfortunately, he died
before the manuscript was completed. Dr. S. M. Marshall, a colleague of his at
Millport, undertook the final preparation of the book.

The productivity of the oceans as an eventual food source for man is the central
theme of the book. Such a narrow outlook certainly detracts from an appreciation
of the varied forms of life found in the oceans, many of which are of little impor-
tance either as primary or secondary food sources. But this only points out again
that mankind's immediate concern is with feeding an ever-increasing world popu-
lation.

The book is really more of an outline of the many factors affecting the produc-
tivity of the oceans from the essential nutrients up the food chain to the shellfishes
and fishes. The authors, in covering such an extensive subject in 130 pages, barely
touch on the many facets involved. As a result, people working in biological ocean-
ography will find few things in the work tliat will lie new to them. The book,
however, is written so that those with little biological background can read it and
gain some understanding of the complex web of life whose end products are becoming
an increasingly important food source. Anyone wishing to gain a cursory knowledge
of the oceans' productivity would do well to read the seven chapters. — John J.
Geihel.

More Free-for'the-Eatinj Wild Foods

By Bradford Angier; Stockpole Books, Harrisburg, Pa., 1969; 192 p., illustrated. $4.95.

As indicated by the title, this liook is a sequel to an earlier publication by the
author on edible wild plants. The index, labeled "Directory of Wild Plants", reveals
the large number of plants which are discussed in the text. Readers in all parts of
the country will find that some of the wild foods listed are available within a short
distance of their homes — pei'haps as close as the vacant lot across the street.

Only a few decades ago, many of the plants described in the book were commonly
used and enjoyed by people who relied on the countryside rather than a supermarket
for much of their food. It is not the author's purpose to discourage shopping by
reviving an interest in Nature's free-for-the-taking food supply. Rather, he wishes
to share the pleasure he receives from his hobby of preparing tasty dishes from wild
foods. The detailed recipes are easy to follow and a garnish of historical informa-
tion makes the description of some of the plants more than just a botany lesson.
(Did you know that the prairie turnip helped the Sioux defeat Custer?) This book
will appeal to those with a keen interest in the outdoors and an appetite for unique
food. — George H. Warner.

History of the Sierra Nevada

By Francis P. Farquhar; University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969;
xiv + 262 p., illustrated. $2.65 paper.

This is the fourth printing and first paperback edition of Francis Farquhar's
authoritative and at the same time charming and thoroughly readable account of
the Sierra Nevada. A full review was published in California Fish and Game, 52
(3) : 224, 1966.— Leo Shapovalov.

REVIEWS 341

Sportsman's Guide to Game Fish

By Byron Dalrymple; The World Publishing Company, New York and Cleveland, 1968; xvi +
480 p., illustrated. $6.95.

Althoiifjh a nonprofessional, the author has clone a very creditable job. The book
isn't quite as informative as stated on the front cover flap (". . . all the necessary
facts on every game fish in the United States — ") but enough material is presented
in a flowing, readable style to make it a worthwhile purchase for any serious
fisherman. An account is given for each species or group of related species. Tackle,
fishing methods, and life histories comprise the main substance of these accounts.
The book has two piirts, one on freshwater and the other on saltwater game fish.
Sturgeon, salmon, and American shad are described in the freshwater section and
striped bass are included in the saltwater section.

As might be expected, inconsistencies and technical errors detract from the book's
reliability. The following are a few examples: (i) all sturgeon are given one scien-
tific name, (ii) paddlefish are included in the catfish group (however, their differ-
ence from this group is acknowledged), and (iii) the golden trout ". . . in its
celebrated original form and color exists only at western altitudes of 9,000 to
12,000 feet." Some statements, such as the following, are unfounded : "The black
bass is our top game fish, with the various trouts second."

The color plates are rather crude and substitutes should have been provided.

In spite of these shortcomings, the book is still superior to the usual sportsman's
publication. — John W. Emig.

Mulberry Trout

By Ogden Bigelow; Charles E. Tuftle Co., Inc., Rutland, Vermont, 1969; 213 p., illustrated. $5.

This is the first book for the author, a retired banker and a weekend angler.
Athough an ardent fly-fisherman himself, it was refreshing that be did not dwell
on the .superiority of this "pure" form of art, and did not belittle those who
might have other preferences.

Essentially, Midherry Trout is a collection of stories about some of the author's
experiences. These occur in various parts of the U. S., Canada, England, and Chile.
The fact that I\Ir. Bigelow is the goat in many instances adds to the delight of
these stories.

The print is large and easy to read, and the illustrations are well done. This
book is good for several evenings of light and entertaining reading. — Leonard Fisk.

The Tule Elk: Its History, Behavior, and Ecology

By Dale R. McCullough; University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1969; vii
+ 209 p., illustrated. $6.50 paper.

This publication provides the most authoritative information on the history,
behavior, and ecology of the Tule elk. It is most timely, .since this subspecies is
listed as a rare species by both the report on Rare and Endangered Fish and
Wildlife of the United States, and the International Union for Conservation of
Nature and Natural Resources.

The management of the Owens Valley herd, which includes closely regulated
hunting from time to time, has been the subject of inten.se controversy. The author
conducted a 2-year full-time field study in the Owens Valley and conducted limited
studies of the Cache Creek and Tupman herds. This work makes a significant
contribution to the knowledge of Tule elk and brings out several points that .should
be considered by all zoologists in conducting life history studies on herbivores.

Dr. McCullough provides substantiated evidence that elk and red deer are a single
species and that the Tule elk, as are the other forms of elk, are a subspecies.
The history of Tule elk, including their decline and recovery and the various
transplants, is well covered. The major portion of this publication is devoted to elk
in the Owens Valley, where the largest group of Tule elk is located. Life history,
behavior, range relationships, and population dynamics are given a thoroughly
professional treatment.

An extremely valuable section is the one on the management and preservation
of Tule elk. This section should be of particular interest to all who are interested
in Tule elk.

In my opinion this pulilication reports on one of the finest wildlife studies to
be produced by the University of California in recent years. — Wallace G. Macgregor.

342 CALIFUKXIA FJ.Sli AKD GAME

The Natural History and Behavior of the California Sea Lion

By Richard S. Peterson and George A. Bartholomew; Special Publication No. 1, The Amer-
ican Society of Mammoicgists, Secretary-Treasurer Dr. Bryon P. Glass, Department of
Zoology, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74074, 1967; x'l + 79 p.,
illustrated. $3.50.

In recent .vear.« with (lie r:ii)i<l iniM-eiise of ('.ilirnriii;! se.-i lions. Zdhiiilnis cnli-
joniiavuH, filons the California coast, there has been a coiTesiioiidiii}; increase in
interest and concern over these animals. IIf)we\-er. nnfil recently little was known
of these animals. I'lililished accounts were fi'ajiiiiciitar.v and were often coiicei'ned
with isolated snhpopnlations.

The Nafural History and lirJiarior of Ihr Ciilifoni in Sea Ijion is the fli'st dr'l.iilr(|
account of the natural history and hehavior of Zdlopliiis from the California coast.
The hook presents results of studies conducted on San Nicolas Island, California.
duriuK the spring and summer of lOti.l.

pjm])hasis is placed on individual mannerisms and social hehavior of the ('alifornia
sea lion. Behavioral patterns are classified as nonrei)rodnctive hehavior, reproductive
hehavior, mother-youufc relations, and ontogeny of pup behavior. These subjects are
well covered and the text is well supplied with excellent lihotographs depicting the
various behavioral aspects of Zalophus.

Other topics covered to a lesser degree are general biology and population
dynamics. This is unfortunate, because of the ever-present controversy concerning
the effects of California sea lions and other pinnipeds on the commercial and sport
fisheries along our coast. "Jliis contro\ersy jioints out the need for more studies
on the biology of Zaiophus, including food habits, as well as studies on the population
size and distributi(jn along our coast.

This publication is a valuable contribution (o tlir nuderstauding of the natural
history and behavior of the California .sea lion and hopefully will give impetus to
further studies into the relationship of this important and interesting marine
mammal to iii.-ni ;inil the marine enviroiiiinMit. Mclri/n II . Oilciiiar.

Methods for Assessment of Fish Production in Fresh Waters

Edited by W. E. Ricker; Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford and Edinburgh, 1968; 328
p. (IBP Handbook No. 3). Available in U.S. from F. A. Davis Co., 1914 Cherry St.,
Philadelphia, Pa. 19103. $6.50 paper.

The Internal iomil liiological l'rogramm(>. a worldwide ])lan of research concerned
with "the biological basis for productivity and human welfare", has sponsored a
series of handbooks to Ite used by biologists around the world who are participating
in the Programme. This volume is one of four concerned with methods of studying
productivity in fresh waters. The remaining volumes, which are in preparation,
will consider jirimary and secondary productivity and chemical methods.

Each of the l■^ chapters is authored by internationally prominent biologists expert
in such .sul)jccts as : capture, sampling, and examination of fishes ; fish identifica-
tion; tagging and marking; age and growth; iiojuilatiou dynamics; causes of mor-
tality ; and others.

The detail of the several subjects varies. The chapter on capture, sampling, and
examination of fishes by Karl F. Lagler is excellent. His description of gear and
its u.se is, alone, worth the price of the book. Generally, the subject matter is meant
to complement other works, particularly those in The Binlofjical Basis of Freshivater
Fish FrodHctioit, a presentation of papers given at the lOGG IBP symposium. One of
the tasks at the symposium was to initiate this series of handbooks.

The title of this handbook could be amended somewhat, since the scope is limited
to icild fi.sh production. Fish culture and management are not specifically covered,
although one need not tax his imagination to discover the application of many
of the techniques.

This book will make a valuable suppplement to a fi.shery biologist's lilirary. It is
not for popular reading. — Larry K. Puckctt.

INDEX

343

INDEX TO VOLUME 55

AUTHOR

Abramson, Norman J., and Catherine L.
Berude : Distribution of California
angling effort in 1968, 260-2G4

Baker, Phillip II., and Almo J. Cor-
done : Distribution, size composition,
and relative abundance of the Piute
sculpin, Coitus heldingii Eigenmann
and Eigenmann, in Lake Tahoe, 285-
297

Berude, Catherine L. : sec Abramson and
Berude. 2G0-2G4

Bodle, John E. : Mortalit.y of common
murres along the northern California
coast, 329-330

Bond, Carl E.. and Robert B. Herr-
mann : Occurrence of Priouotus stcp-
hanophvijs off the Columbia River,
335-336

Borneman, John C. : see Sible.v, Mal-
lette. Borneman, and Dalen, 298-306

Bottroff, Lawrence, James A. St. Am-
ant, and Wayne I'arker: Addition of
Pylodictis olivaris to the Californian
fauna, 90

Brunetti, Oscar A. : Eedescription of

Parchiphostrongi/lus (Boev and Schuls,

1950) in California deer, with studies

on its life history and pathology, 307-

316

Bryan. C. F., and T. R. Sopher : Xew
nortliei-n record for the threadfin shad.
Doiosoma pefenense (Giinther), in
coastal waters of California. 155-156

Bybee. James R. : Effects of hydraulic
pumping operations on the fauna of
Tijuana Slough, 213-220

Carlisle, John G., Jr. : Results of a six-
year trawl study in an area of heavy
waste discharge : Santa Monica Bay,
California, 26-46

Chadwick. Harold K. : An evaluation of
striped bass angling regulations based
on an equilibrium yield model, 12—19

Clemens, Harold B., and Glenn A. Flitt-
ner : Bluefin tuna migrate across the
Pacific Ocean, 132-135

Collins, Robson A. : see Wood and Col-
lins, 141-148

Cooper, Robert C. : see Di Conza and
Cooper, 327-329

Cordone. Almo J. : see Baker and Cor-
done, 285-297 ; see Nicola and Cor-
done, 273-284

Dahlstrom, Walter A. : see Katkansky,
Dahlstrom, and Warner. 69-74

Dailey. INIurray D. : A survey of hel-
minth parasites in the squid, Loligo
opalescens, smelt, Osmerjis mordax,
jack mackerel, Trachurus symmetri-

cus, and Pacific mackerel, Scomher
japoniciis, 221-226

Dalen, Raymond S. : see Sibley. Mal-
lette, Borneman, and Dalen, 298-300

Di Conza, Joseph J., and Robert C.
Cooper: Occurrence of the nematode,
PhUomeira americnna, in the English
sole, Parophri/s rcfiihis. in San Fran-
cisco Bay. 327-329

Earhart, Caroline 'M. : Tho influence of
soil texture on the structure, dura-
bility, and occupanc.v of muskrat bur-
rows in farm ponds. 179—196

Ebert, Verlyn W., and Robert C. Sum-
merfelt: Contrilm lions to the life
history of the Piute sculpin. Coitus
heldingii Eigenmann aud Eigenmann,
in Lake Tahoe. 100-120

Evans, Douglas II. : Life history studies
of the Lahontau redside, Richard-
son ius egrcgius, in Lake Tahoe, 197-
212

Flittner, Glenn A. : see Clemens and
Flittner, 132-135

Gordin. Ilillel : see Wilkie and Gordin,
227-236

Gotshall, Daniel W. : Stomach contents
of Pacific hake and arrowtooth floun-
der from northern California. 75-82

Gregory, Paul : The addition of the
mirror dory, Zeuopxis nehulosa (Tem-
minck and Schlegel), to the Califor-
nian fauna, 243-245

Herrmann, Robert B. : see Bond and

Herrmann. 335—336
Hobson, Edmund S. : First California

record of the Guadalupe cardinalfish.

Apogon guadalupensis (Osburn and

Nichols), 149-151
Hoover, Franklin G. : see St. Amant

and Hoover, 330-331
Hulquist, Robert G. : see St. Amant

and Hulquist, 252
Hunter, Brian F. : see Parrish and

Hunter, 265-272

Jackson, John M. : Additional record
of a troll-caught king salmon. On-
corhguchus tshaicyischa (Walbaum),
with spawning features, 157

Kajimura, Hiroshi : Northern range ex-
tension for Paralepis aihiniica Kroyer
in the eastern North Pacific, 246-247

Katkansky, Stanley C. : see Warner and
Katkansky, 248-251

Katkansky, Stanley C. Walter A. Dahl-
strom, and Ronald W. Warner : Ob-

344

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

servations on survival and growth of
the European flat oyster, Osh-ca
cdiilis, in California, G9-74
Katkansky, Stanley C, Ronald \\'.
Warner, and Richard L. Poole : On
the occurrence of larval cestodcs in
the Washington clam, Saxidomus
iiuttalli. and the gaper clam, Tresiis
nuttalli. from Drakes Estero, Cali-
fornia, 317-322

Koski. Robert T. : see Strachan and
Koski, 47-52

Lee, Richard S. : The filetail catshark,
Pannaturus xaniurus, in midwater in
the Santa Barbara Basin oE Califor-
nia, S.S-90

Linn, Jack D., and Ronald L. Stanley :
TDE residues in Clear Lake animals,
1G4-17S

Mallette, Robert D. : see Sibley, Mal-
lette, Borneman, and Dalen, 29S-30C

Mensch, Jerry L. : Desert bighorn (Ovis
canadensis nelsoni) losses in a natu-
ral trap tank, 237-238

Miller, Richard : see Valentine and Mil-
ler, 20-25

Mitchell, Charles T., Charles H. Turner,
and Alec R. Strachan : Observations
on the biology and behavior of the
California spiny lobster. Panulirus
interrupttis (Randall), 121-131

Morejohn, G. Victor : Evidence of river
otter feeding on freshwater mussels
and range extension. S3— 85 ; Occur-
rence of a Pacific ridley and a young
northern fur seal in Monterey Bay.
239-242 ; Vertel)ral column deform-
ity and osteonecrosis of pelvis and
femur in the California sea lion, 323-
326

Murphey, Russell W. : An alligator
snapping turtle, Macrochelys iemmin-
ckii. from California's inland waters,
85-86

Nicola, Stephen J., and Almo J. Cor-
done : Comparisons of disk-dangler,
trailer, and plastic jaw tags, 273-

284

Parker. Wayne : see Bottroff. St. Amant.

and Parker, 90
Parrish, John M., and Brian F. Hunter :

Waterfowl botulism in the southern

San Joaquin Valley, 1967-68, 265-

272

Plant, Richard : Migrations of striped
bass occurring in Tomales Bay, 152-
154

Poole, Richard L. : see Katkansky,
Warner, and Poole, 317-322

St. Amant, James A. : see Bottroff, St.
Amant, and Parker, 90

St. Amant. James A., and Franklin G.
Hoover: Addition of Misgurnus an-
guillicaudaius (Cantor) to the Cali-
fornian fauna, 330-331

St. Amant, James A., and Robert G. Hul-
quist : Pnlaemonetes paludosus col-
lected in the Rio Hardy and Colorado
River, Baja California, 252

Schott, Jack W. : A technicpie for pro-
ducing and mounting otolith wafers
for age determination, 86-88

Scott, James Michael : Tuna schooling
terminology, 136—140

Sibley, Fred C, Robert D. Mallette,
John C. Borneman, and Raymond S.
Dalen : California condor surveys,
1968, 298-306

Smith, Allan K. : Differential streamer
and disk tag loss by surfperch in
Huml)oldt Bay, California, 332-334

Sopher, T. R. : see Bryan and Sopher,
155-156

Stanley, Ronald L. : see Linn and Stan-
ley, 164-178

Stoner. Emerson A. : Bird banding in
California, 4-11

Strachan. Alec R. : see Mitchell, Turner,
and Strachan, 121-131 ; see Turner
and Strachan, 53—68

Strachan, Alec R., and Robert T.
Koski : A survey of algae off Palos
Verdes Point, California, 47—52

Summerfelt, Robert C. : see Ebert and
Summcrfelt, 100-120

Turner, Charles H. : see Mitchell,
Turner, and Strachan, 121-131

Turner. Charles H., and Alec R. Strach-
an : The marine environment in the
vicinity of the San Gabriel River
mouth, 53-68

Valentine. David W., and Richard sill-
ier : Osmoregulation in the California
killifish, Fundulus parvipinnis, 20—25

Warner. Ronald W. : see Katkansky,
Dahlstrom, and Waruer, 69—74 ; see
Katkanskv, Warner, and Poole, 317-
322

Warner, Ronald W., and Stanley C.
Katkansky : A larval cestode from the
Pismo clam. Tivela stultonim, 248—
251

Wilkie, Donald W., and Hillel Gordin :
Outbreak of cryptocaryoniasis in ma-
rine aquaria at Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, 227—236

Wood, Richard, and Robson A. Collins :
First report of anchovy tagging in
California. 141-148

Wydoski, Richard S. : Occurrence of
the spotfin surfperch in Oregon wa-
ters, 335

INDEX

345

SCIENTIFIC NAMES

Aechmophorus occidentalis: 165

Agarum: 51

Agelaius

sp.: 186

tricolor: 7
Agrioliniox

agrestis: 315

campestris: 315
Atnphistichtis rlwdoterus: 332, 335
Ampullaria cuprina: 331
Anas

acuta: 7-9

carolinensis: 7, 9

cyanoptera: 7-S

platyrhynchos: 7, 9

anguiUa: 21

rostrata: 21
Anjsafcis: 224-225
Anodonta californiensis: S3
AntJiolothrium: 317, 321

auriculatum: 321
sp.: 321
Aphelocoma coerulescens: 9

Ap?2/sia

californica: 50

vaccaria; 50
Apof/on

atricaudits: 150-151

guadalupensis: 149-150
Apristurvs hninncus: 88
Archoplites iiiterriiptus: 165
Argyropelecus: 89
Arfemia salina: 328
Atherestes stomias: 75

Bonihy cilia cedrorum: 10
Brachydanio rerio: 331
Uranto

canadensis: 7, 9, 186

nigricans: 8
Buio virginianus: 9
Bucephala clangula: 165
Buteo jamaicensis: 9

CalUanassa californiensis: 21
Calliarthron: 51
Callithamnion: 50
Callorhinus ursinns: 240, 246
Candona tahoensis: 102, 104-106
Capitella: 36
Capitella capitata: 36
Capnm sp.: 102, 104-106
Carassius auratus: 331
Carpodacus mexicanus: 7. 11
Catostomus tahoensis: 108, 201, 287
Cephaloscyllium i-entriosuni: 89
Cetorhinus sp.: 139
Chaetopterns: 37
C/iara; 286

C/iara sp.: 101. 102. 104-106
Chelonia mydns: 239
C7ieM hyperhorea: 7, 8
Citharichthys stiqmaeus: 30
Clostridium hotulinum: 271
Codium: 51
Columha fasciata: 7-9
Conger conger: 21
Contracaecum: 223
(7onfracaec«»i

osculatum: 223

sp.: 225
Coralliiia: 51
Coregonus ivilliamsoni: 296

hnirdii punctulatns: 118

ieldingii: 100, 102-106, 201, 285, 296
Orassosfrea

angulata: 73

jr;fifr7,s: 71

virginica: 73
Cryptocaryon: 227, 229-230. 232-235
Cryptocaryon irritans: 227. 228
Cyanocitta stelleri: 9
Cyclothone: 89
Cymatogaster aggregata: 332
Cyprinus carpio: 331
Cytoserra: 50

Dasyrhynchiis: 223
Delphinus delphis: 139

10

Dendroica auduhoni:
Desmarestia: 51
Diaphus: 89
Dictyopteris: 51
Dioptra ornata: 36
Diphyllohothrium: 222
Diplogonoporus: 222
Dorosonia petenense: 155
Dosidicus gigas: 222
Dujardinia: 225

Echeneihothrium: 250, 317, 320-321
^c/i eneiho th ri u m

fallax: 250

maculatnm: 320

myzorhynchum: 249—251

sp.: 321
Echinorhynchus: 225
Elaphostrongylus: 316
Elnphostrongylus

( Parelaphostrongylus ) odocoilei: 307,
308, 316

tenuis: 313
Emiiotoca lateralis: 332
EngrauUs mordax: 27, 141
Enhydra lutris: 325
Erolia minutilla: 9
Euphagus cyanocephalus: 10

Fulica americana: 9, 186

346

CAIJFORNIA FISII AND GAME

FinifJiihifi

chri/sotiis: 2.'?
heferoclifiis: 23
ninjaliK: 2.3
pnrriiiiiiiiia: 20, 24
xi III His: 28

Gadiis rireiis: 21
(Ininhiisia (iffiiiis: .3.31
del 1(1 ill hi: HO
a Ha

hi col or: lOS, 2X5

(Siphateles) hicolor: 2(ll, 207. 212
GircUa iiiffricaiis: 22S
(lohieso.r iiiediidricus: '.V21
(loiiijitiilex cateiiella: .320
(hjniiiogongnts IcpfopLi/lliin: nS
(jijmnogijpH ealifoniiaii us: 2!).S

Ifclix (ispcrsa: .315
Jfcferodoiifiis frfiiicisci: 120
Hi/allcla: 102-10<i
llijdroprogne cuspiii: 0
Ih/lochlrlild giittdfa: ]()
II ijperpioxiipoH

an ale: .3.3.5

argeiiteiim: .3.32

eUipticiiiii: .3.3.5
ITgpsi/pops riiliirinithi: 220

Tccliiiiis qiiadriseriafiis: 30
I chthijophthiriiis

marinus: 227

III lilt ifiJis: 227
Icfdliiriis

rat us: 105

iiehulosus: 105. 201
^/e«; 50

■fasus Iiiliiiidii: 124
Juiico oregaiius: 7, 11

Lain iiiiirld: .51
Ldiupaiigcfus: SO

calif oniicus: 0

delairarcnsis: 9

spp.: 105
Lavinia e.iilicaudii: 105
Lehistes reticulatus: 331
Lecithochirium magnaporuiii: 224
Lrpidochclgs oliraeea: 230
Lcpidopsclta hiliiicdta: 827
-Le/)0)H/.s'

cyanellus: 1G5

macrochirus: 381
Leuroglossus: SO
Lf^)//a sij..- 100, llS-119
Listriolohus: 86
Lithophijllum: 51
Litliotlianniiuiii: 51
Logigo opalescens: 221-222
Lophius piscatorius: 21
Lophortyx californicus: 9

Lutra canadensis: S3
Lijmnaea auricularia: 331
Li/opsetfa e.nilis: .30
T,!iihr!ipiiiis: 2.32

Mdcrochch/s tciiiniinckii: 8.5
Mdcroci/stis: 8S, 47-4S
]\Iacrocystis pyriiera: 47. 51
Mdgnisudis: 247
M di/iiisiidis harysonid: 240
Mdicca dvirriciiiiii: 7
Melospiza mclodiu: 7. 1 1
M erg us merganser: 105

-l/D'/f/Of'/f/.S

hiliiicaris: 70

productiis: 75
3licropfcrus sdlinoidcs: 105
Mimus polyglottos: 10
.1/ /.vr/ )/;■«(/. s-

diK/uillicd uddttis: 3.30-.331

/O.S.S///.S-: 331
MolofJirus afer: 7, 10
Myiarchiis cinerascens: 9
Myliohutis cdliforiiirus: 321
llyojoccplialus

Oct odeci III spill OS us: 21

scorpius: 21
Mytilus califoriiidiiiis: 21

Nereis procera: .36
Notrinigoiius crysoleucis: 201
Nothrid clcgdiis: 30

Occdiiodroiiid Icurorhou: 7

heinionus californicus: .30S
heiiiionus coluiiihianus: 307
rirgiiiidiius: 315

Oiicorhyiichus tshaicytscJia: 21, 157

Ondatra xihefhica: 179

Oprgiister s}).: 224

Ortliodon microh'pidotus: 165

Osmerus iiinrdax: 221—225

0,s-/rcrt erf(///.s; 60

Oi'/.s- canadensis nehoni: 237

ruldeiiioiictcs pdludosus: 252
I'aliuuridae: 124
I'diiddlus Jordan i: 75
Pannlirus

argus: 124

gut tat us: 124

interrupt us: 121

Idericduda: 124

longipes: 124

japonicus: 12.5
Paralcpsis atlantica: 240—247
Pareldphostrongylus: 307, 316
Parelaphostrongylus odocoilei: 309-314
Parmaturus xaniurus: 88
Parophrys retulus: 327

gdmheli: 9
inornatns: 10
rufescens: 10

INDEX

347

Passerella iliaca: 11
Phaiierodon furcatus: 332
PhUoinvini: 327
Pliilonictra americana: 327
Pholis oniaius: 327
PhyUophora: 50
Petrochelidon i)i/rrhonof(i: 7
Pimeloiiu'toiioii iiulrliniiii: 12(i
Pipilo

erythrophihalmus: 11

fuscus: 11
Pisciclium sp. : 102, 104-106
J'ldiiorhis sp.: 315
J'Idlirhlhi/s sleliaiiis: 327
Plcoiwsparium: ~>0
PJistophora: 100, 118-119
Plocdiiiiiini: 51

J'iiciiiiiostioii(j!/h(s tciiiii.s: 31()
PdecUUi sphoiops, 331
J'oly.siplionia: 50
Ponioxis nigromdculnl iix: 105
J'oriehthi/s iiotatKx: 30
Ponocaecinii: 223, 225
Porrocaecuni

dccipiens: 223

sp.: 223
Potd iHOficfoii pcrfliidtiis: 1S4, 252
J'rioiiot IIS strphiniophri/K: 335
I*rosoplinn iriUiainsoni: 201
I'terophiiUurii sp.: 331
J'l/lodictis oUraris: 00
Pi/rii III icDcrplidhis: 222

/iV(/V( hiiioriiUiid: 250
liapli iduxcuris: 225
Regulus calendula: 10
I'hdoorhiliis vacca: 332
lihiidiiioihijiichus: 224
l\Ji iiirodoii sp.: 139
Rhinicliflii/fi

osculus: 207. 212

osriihis rohiixtiis: 201, 290
L'liodi/iiiciiid: 50
Riclididsoiiius

buUcatus: 200

egregius: 197, 207, 212

TJOCCMS

saxaiUh: 12. 152
(Moronc) naxdiUh: 279

claykii henshaici: 273
gairdnerii: 119, 198, 201, 273
gairdneiii kamloops: 273
salar: 273
fr«f^a.- 119, 201

fontinalis: 201

«a))(fl//c».s/i; 108, 198. 296
Saiigiiinolaria nuituUi: 217
Sardhiops caeruleus: 141
Saxidomus nuitalU: 317-318. 320
Schi;:othaerus (Tresus) iiiittalli: 317
Scirpus spp.: 180

pleiiroiiecfis hilociilaris: 222-223

pobjiiioiphun inillociihiris: 223
Scoiiiher japoiicus: 221, 224
Sc.vliorhiuidue: 88
Sebastodes jordani: 245
Sepia officiualis: 222
8(7^/

canadensis: 10

carolincnsis: 10
Solen rosaceiis: 217

pin us, 7, 1 1
psaliria: 7
tristis: 7, 11
Spisella passerina: 11

graffmani: 138-139

longirostris: 138-139
kiirongylocenirotuH

franciscanufi: 51

piirpuratiis: 51
Slitniiis vulgaris: 7, 10
Stygobronius: 101-107
Syiiijihurus atricauda: 30

Tagelns californ ianns: 217
Tlioiiiotnys hottae: 193
Tliryonumes bewiclcii: 10
iVi (/«)(», s-

aJahniga: 247

obesus: 247

tliyinuis: 132
Tivela stultorum: 248
Toxostoma redirirum: 10
Trachurns symmetricus: 221-222
7'r('SHS nuttalli: 317-319
Turdus migralorius: 10
r(//j''a 1 at i folia: 180
Tt/Zo a?7uf.- 9

Unibrina roncador: 230
L'r/a ddlgc californ ica: 329
Lrolophus lidllcri: 54, 250

T'erwtrora celata: 10
J'iriparus iinilleaius: 331

Wilson ia pusilht: 7

A'cHopMS laevis: 331
Xiphisfer afropurpiirais: 327
Xiphophorus

heller i: 331

maculatus: 331

variatus: 331

Zalophus californianus: 323
Zenaidura macroura: 7-9
Zenopsis: 245

Zenopsis nebulosa: 243-244
Zonaria: 51

atricapilla: 7, 11
leucophrys: 7, 11

348

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

SUBJECT

Acanthocephala : infecting squid, smolt,
and Pacific and jack mackerel, 221-
226

Age: California spiny lobster. 125. 130;
Lnliontan rcdside in Lake Tahoe.
207-210. 212; Piute sculi>in in Lake
Tahoe. 108-112

Algae : effect of pollutants on growth.
37—41; in Piute sculpin diet, 101-
lOS; near Ran Gabriel River mouth,
5.3-68; survey off Palos Yerdes Point,
47-52

Amphipods : in Piute sculpin diet. 101-
108

Anchovy, northern: tagging. 141-148;
taken by trawl in Santa Monica Bav.
27

Angling: distribution of California an-
gling effort in 1968, 260-264; effect
of pollutants- in Santa Monica Bav.
37-38, 41

Bait : harvest of ghost shrimp by hy-
draulic pumping. 213-220

Banding: California birds, 4-11

Bass, kelp : sport fishery near artificial
reef, 38

Bass, largemouth : TDE residues, 164-
178

Bass, sand ; sport fisherv near artificial
reef, 38

Bass, striped : evaluation of angling
regulations. 12-19; migrations be-
tween Tomales Bay and the Sacra-
mento-San Joaquin Delta. lo2-l.")4

Blackfish, Sacramento : TDE residues
164-178

Blood : freezing point for selected ma-
rine teleosts, 21

Bottomfish : trawl studv in Santa Mon-
ica Bay, 26-46

Botulism : in waterfowl in southern
San Joaquin Valley, 265-272

Bullhead, brown : TDE residues, 164-
178

Burrows : muskrat. 179-196

California, Baja : collection of fresh-
water shrimp, 252

California, northern : food habits of Pa-
cific hake and arrowtooth flounder,
75-82

Cardinalfish. Guadalupe : first Califor-
nia record, 149-151

Catfish, flathead : addition to Califor-
nian fauna, 90

Catfish, white, TDE residues, 164-178

Catshark, filetail : in midwater in the
Santa Barbara Basin, 88-90

Cestodes : infecting clams, 317-322 ; in-
fecting Piute sculpin, 118-119; in-
fecting squid, smelt, and Pacific and

jack mackerel, 221-226; larvae in
Pismo clam, 248-251

Cbiroiioniids: in Piute sculpin diet,
101-108

Chtib, tui : in Lake Tahoe, 285, 296

Ciadocerans : in Piute sculpin diet,
101-108

Clam, gaper: infected by ces-todes, 317-
322

Clam, Pismo: infected bv larval ces-
tode, 248-251

Clam, Washington : infected by ces-
todes, 317-322

Clear Lake: TDE residues in animal
inhabitants, 164-178

Condor, California : 1968 survey, 298-
306

Copepods: in Piute sculpin diet. 101-
108

Crappie, black: TDE residues, 164-178

Cryptocaryoniasis : in marine aquaria
at Scripps Institution of Oceanogra-
phy. 227-236

Cyprinids : hybridization in Lake Ta-
hoe. 207

hy nema-

Dcor. l)lack-tailed : infer-tod
tode, 307-316

Diseases : cestodes in clams, 317-322 ;
cryptocaryoniasis in marine aquaria
at Scripps Institution of Oceanog-
raphy, 227-236; European flat oys-
ter, 69-74 ; helminth parasites in
squid, smelt, and jack and Pacific
mackerels. 221-226; larval cestode in
Pismo clam, 248-251 ; nematode in
California deer, 307-316; nematode
infecting English sole, 327-329; par-
asites of Piute sculpin, 118-119; ver-
tebral column deformity and osteo-
necrosis in California sea lion, 323-
326 ; waterfowl botulism in southern
San Joaquin Valley. 265-272

Distribution : Lahontan redside in Lake
Tahoe. 19S-199. 211 ; Piute sculpin in
Lake Tahoe, 285-297

Dory, mirror: added to Californian
fauna, 243-245

Drakes Estero : European flat oyster
survival and growth experiment, 69-
74

Ducks : affected by botulism, 265-272

Eagles : sighted during California Con-
dor survey, 301

Elkhorn Slough : European flat oyster
survival and growth experiment, 69-
74

Falcons : sighted during California con-
dor survey, 301

Fecundity : Lahontan redside, 206, 211 ;
Piute sculpin in Lake Tahoe, 116-118

INDEX

349

Fishes: food habits, 75-82; in diet of
northern California marine fishes, 75—
82 ; infected bj- cryptocaryoniasis,
227-236; in Piute sciilpin diet, 101-
108 ; near San Gabriel River mouth,
53-68; TDE residues, 164-178;
trawled in Santa Monica Bay, 26-
46 ; tuna schooling terminology, 136—
140

Food habits : arrowtooth flounder, 75-
82 ; Lahontan redside in Lake Ta-
hoe, 210-212 ; northern fur seal, 246-
247 ; ocean fishes, 75-82 ; Pacific
hake, 75-82 ; Piute sculpin in Lake
Tahoe, 101-108 ; purple sea urchin,
51 ; red sea urchin, 51 ; river otter,
83-85 ; sea hares, 50

Gastropods: in Piute sculpin diet,

101-108
Goby, arrow : in Tijuana Slough, 218
Goldeneye, common : TDE residues,

164-178
Grebe, western : TDE residues, 164-178
Growth : California spiny lobster, 124—
125, 130; effect of pollutants on algae
in Santa Monica Bay, 37-41 ; Euro-
pean flat oyster in California, 6D-74 ;
Lahontan redside in Lake Tahoe, 207-
210, 212 ; Piute sculpin in Lake Ta-
hoe, 108-112
Gulls : TDE residues, 164-178

Habitat : filetail catsharks in midwater
in the Santa Barbara Basin, 88-80

Hares, sea : feeding, 50

Hawks : sighted during California con-
dor survey, 301

Helminths : infecting squid, smelt, and
Pacific and jack mackerel, 221-226

Hitch, Sacramento : TDE residues, 164-
178

Hybridization : Lake Tahoe cyprinids,
207, 212

Invertebrates : in diet of northern Cali-
fornia marine fishes, 75-82 ; in Lahon-
tan redside diet, 210-211 ; in Piute
sculpin diet, 101-108; near San Ga-
briel River mouth, 53-68; taken in
Tijuana Slough, 213-220

Kelp, giant: in Santa Monica Bay, 38-
41 ; off Palos Verdes Point, 47, 51-52

Killifish, California : osmoregulation,
20-25

Length-weight relationship : Piute scul-
pin in Lake Tahoe, 113-114

Lobster, California spiny : biology and
behavior, 121—131

Mackerel, jack : parasites, 221-226
Mackerel, Pacific : parasites, 221-226
Merganser, common : TDE residues,
1&J-178

Methods : California condor survey,
299-300 ; capture of filetail catsharks
in midwater in the Santa Barbara
Basin, 88-89 ; evaluation of striped
bass angling regulations, 13 ; observa-
tions of survival and growth of Euro-
pean flat oyster in California, 69 ;
producing and mounting otolith wa-
fers for age determination, 86-88 ;
study of biology and behavior of Cali-
fornia spiny lobster, 122 ; study of
cestodcs in clams, 317 ; study of cryp-
tocaryoniasis, 227-229 ; study of food
habits of Pacific hake and arrowtooth
flounder, 75-76 ; study of I>ahontan
redside in Lake Tahoe, 198-199;
study of nematodes in California deer,
308 ; study of osmoregulation in the
California killifish, 20-21 ; study of
I'iute sculpin life history in Lake
Tahoe, 100-120 ; study of striped bass
migrations, 152 ; survey of algae off
Palos Vei-des Point, 48 ; survey of
helminth parasites in squid, smelt,
and Pacific and jack mackerel, 221 ;
survey of marine environment near
San Gabriel River mouth, 54-55 ; tag-
ging and recovery of northern an-
chovy, 141-148 ; tagging surfperch,
332-333 ; to compare fish tags, 274-
276 ; to determine distribution of Cali-
fornia angling effort, 260-261 ; to de-
termine effect of hydraulic pumping
operations on fauna of Tijuana
Slough, 219; to determine TDE resi-
dues in Clear Lake animals, 165-167 ;
trawling in Santa Monica Bay, 27

Midshipman, plainfin : Santa Monica
Bay trawl study, 30, 35, 40

Migrations : bluefin tuna, 132-135 ; Cali-
fornia spiny lobster, 126-127, 130 ;
striped bass, 152-154

Mites, water : in Piute sculpin diet,
101-108

Model : hypothetical equilibrium yield
used to evaluate striped bass angling
regulations, 12-19

Molting : California spiny lobster, 123-
124, 130

Morphometries : California spiny lob-
ster, 127-129, 130

Morro Bay : European flat oyster sur-
vival and growth experiment, 69-74

Mortality : common murre. 329-330 ;
desert bighorn sheep losses in a nat-
ural trap tank, 237-238; European
flat ovster, 69-74 ; striped bass an-
gling, 'l2-19 ; waterfowl, 265-272

Murre, common : mortalities along the
northern California coast, 329-330

Muskrat : burrows near farm ponds,
179-196

Mussel, freshwater : as food of river
otter, 83-85

350

CALIFORNIA FISH AND GAME

Xtiii.itoflcs : infecting California (leer,
;?(i7-.*ilt; : infecting' En-lish solo. Wl'i-
3l.".»; iiifcctiiiK si|iii(l, smelt, and I'a-
cific and jack mackerel, 221-226

Oli^ocliaetes : in I'iute scul|iiii dii't. Id]
108

Osmoregulation: in ( ';iliforiii;i killili-h.
20-25

O.stracods: in I'iiilr .^ciilpin diet. 101-
108

Otoliths: to study age and growth of
I'iuto scidpin, 108-112; iiroducing
and mounting wafers for age deter-
mination, SG-88

Otter, river: food hahits and range ex-
tension, 83-85

Oyster, European flat : survival and
growth in California, G9-74

Palos Verdes Point : algal survey, 47-
52

Puraleu'is uihnttica: northern range ex-
tension, 24G-247

I'arasites : cestodes in clams, 317-322 ;
cryi)tocaryoniasis in marine aquaria
at Seripps Institution of Oceanogra-
phy, 227-23G ; in European flat oy-
ster, G!J-74 ; in Piute sculpin, 118-
119; in squid, smelt, and jack and
Pacific mackerels, 221-226; larval
cestode in I'ismo clam, 24.8-251 ; nem-
atode in California deer, 307-316;
nematode in English sole, 327-329

I'elecypods : in I'iute sculpin diet, 101-
108

Perch, Sacramento : TDE residues, 164—
178

Pesticides : TDE residues in Clear Lake
animals, 164-178

Plankton : taken in tows near the San
Gabriel River mouth, GO

Plants: in Lahontan redside diet, 210-
211 ; in Piute sculpin diet, 101-108

Plecopterans : in Piute sculpin diet,
101-108

Pollution : trawl studv in Santa Monica
Bay, 26-46

Polychaetes : in Santa Monica Bay, 36 ;
near San Gabriel River mouth, 53-
68

Protozoa : infecting Piute sculpin. 118-
119

Range, geographic : alligator snapping
turtle, 83-85; flathead catfish, 90;
freshwater shrimp, 252 ; Guadalupe
cardinalfish, 149-151 ; Japanese
weatherfish, 330-331; lumptail sea-
robin, 335-336 ; mirror dory, 243-245 ;
northern fur seal young, 239-241 ;
Pacific ridley, 239-241 ; Paralepis
atlantica, 246-247 ; river otter, 83-
85; spotfin surfperch, 335; threadfin
shad, 155-156

Redside. Lahoiil an : life history in J-ake
Tahoe, 197-212

Reiiroduction : California s])iny lobster,
123 124. 130; Lahontan redside, 201-
•-'<!<. L'l I : Piute sculpin in Lake
Taho.'. in; 118

Reviews: A flora of Kern County. Cali-
fornia. 93-94 ; Applications de I'elec-
tricite il la biologic at il I'amenage-
ment des pGches continentales, 337 ;
A Sand County almanac and sketches
here and there. 92; P.ackyard ban-
dits, including California raccoons
and other exciting patio visitors.
254 ; California mission recipes, 92 ;
Caril)bean reef fishes, 158; Desert
wild flowers. 95 ; Farming the edge
of the sea, 91-92 ; Fisheries biology :
A study in population dynamics, 253 ;
Fishing Avith electricity : Its appli-
cation to biology and management,
94 ; Fish migration. 338 : Flora of
Alaska and neighboring territories : A
manual of the vascular plants, 91 ;
Further studies of Alaska sockeye
salmon, 255-256 ; Hawaii goes fish-
ing, 338 ; Human influences on the
zoogeography of Panama, 92 ; Mam-
mals of southern California. 94-95 ;
Methods for assessment of fish pro-
duction in fresh waters, 342 ; More
free-for-the-eating wild food, 340 ;
Mulberry trout, 341 ; Multilingual
dictionary of fish and fish products :
Dictionnaire Multilingue des Pois-
sons et Produits de la Peche, 255 ;
Mushrooms and other common fungi
of southern California. 159 ; Poison-
ous plants of Hawaii, 91 ; Poisonous
snakes of the world, 337 ; Reservoir
fishery resources symposium, 339 ;
Sea otters and the China trade, 93 ;
Sportsman's guide to game fish, 341 ;
Systematics, distribution, and abun-
dance of the epiplanktonic squid
(Cephalopoda, Decapodaj larvae of
the California Current, April, 1954-
March, 1957, 339-340 ; Taxonomy : A
text and reference book, 158 ; Ten-
year index to the Journal of Wildlife
Management (Volumes 21-30. 1957-
1966), 254-255; The Atlantic sal-
mon: A vanishing .species?, 93; The
biological basis of freshwater fish
production, 94 ; The biology of popu-
lations, 92; The farming of fish. 339;
The fertile sea, 340; The fishes of
New Guinea, 256 ; The hunters bible,
253 ; The life of rivers and streams,
254; The life of the pond, 160; The
natural history and behavior of the
California sea lion, 342 ; The preser-
vation of natural history specimens.
Volume 2, 159 ; The Salt water

INDEX

351

aquarium manual, 256 ; The sockeye
salmon, 159-160; The Tule elk: Its
history, behavior, and ecology, 341 ;
Unusual aquarium fishes, 337-338 ;
Wildfowl 19, 254
Ridley, Pacific : occurrence in Monte-
rey Bay, 239-241

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta : striped
bass migrations, 152-154

Salmon, king : with spawning features,
taken in ocean troll fishery, 157

Sanddab, speckled : Santa Monica Bay
trawl study, 30-33, 40-41

San Gabriel River : marine environ-
ment near month. 53-68

San Joaquin Valley: outbreak of wa-
terfowl botulism, 265-272

Santa Barbara Basin : capture of filetail
catsharks in midwater, 88-89

Santa Monica Bay : trawl study, 26 — 16

Schooling : tuna schooling terminology,
136-140

Scuba : algal suvey off Palos Verdes
Point, 48-50; marine environment
survey off San Gabriel River mouth.
53-68 ; to collect California spiny
lobster, 122

Sculpin, Piute : consumed by lake trout
in Lake Tahoe, 119-120; distribution,
size composition, and al)undance in
Lake Tahoe, 285-297; life hist(H-y in
Lake Tahoe, 100-120

Sculpins : in Piute sculpin diet, 101-108

Sculpin, yellowchin : Santa Monica Bay
trawl study, 30, 32-34, 40

Sea lion, California : vertel)ral cohunn
deformity and osteonecrosis, 323-326

Seal, northern fur: feeding on Paralepis
atlantica, 246-247 ; occurrence of
young in ilonterey Bay, 239-241

Searobin, lumptail : range extension,
335-336

Shad, theadfin : range extension, 155-
156

Sheep, desert bighorn : losses in a natu-
ral tap tank, 237-238

Shrimp, freshwater : occurrence in the
Rio Hardy and Colorado River, Baja
California, 252

Shrimp, ghost : effect of hydraulic pump-
ing operations in Tijuana Slough,
213-220

Shrimp, ocean : as food of Pacific hake
and arrowtooth flounder, 75-82

Smelt: parasites, 221-226

Sole, English : infected by nematode,
327-329

Sole, slender : Santa Monica Bay trawl
study, 30, 35-36, 40

Spawning : king salmon with spawning
features taken in ocean troll fishery,
157 ; Lahontan redside, 201-207, 211 ;
Piute sculpin. 116-118

Squid : parasites, 221-226

Stingray, round : near San Gabriel
River mouth, 54, 57

Sunfish, green : TDE residues, 164-
178

Surfperch : tagging in Humboldt Bav,
332-334

Surfperch, spot fin : range extension. 335

Tagging : bluefin tuna, 132-135 ; com-
parisons of disk-dangler, traihn-. and
plastic jaw tags, 273-284 ; northern
anchovy. 141-148; striiicd bass, 152-
154; surfperch in Humboldt Bay,
332-334

Tahoe, Lake : Lahontan redside life his-
tory, 197-212; Piute sculpin life his-
tory, 100-120, 285-297

TDE: residues in Clear Lake animals,
164-178

Tijuana Slough : effect of hydraulic
pumping operations on fauna. 213-220

Tomales Bay : P^uropean flat oyster sur-
vival and growth experiment, 69-74 ;
striped bass migrations, 152-154

Tonguefish, California : Santa Mcuiica
Bay trawl study, 30, 32, 34-35, 40

Trawling : capture of filetail catsharks
in midwater in the Santa Barl)ara
Basin, 88-90 ; in Santa Monica Bay,
26-46; off San Gabriel River mouth.
53—68; to take Piute sculpin in Lake
Tahoe, 286-288

Trematodes : infecting I'iute sculpin.
118-119; infecting s(|uid, smelt, and
Pacific and jack mackerel, 221-226

Trout, cutthroat: fish tag comparison
test, 273-284

Trout, rainbow : fish tag comparison
test, 273-284

Tuna, bluefin : migrations across the
Pacific Ocean, 132-135

Tuna : schooling terminology, 136—140

Turtle, alligator snapping : taken in
California, 85-86

I'rchin, purple sea : feeding, 51
Urchin, red sea : feeding, 51

Vulture, turkey : sighted during Cali-
fornia condor survey, 301

Waterfowl: affected by botulism. 265-

272
A^'eatherfish, Japanese : established in

California waters, 330-331

Zooplankton : taken in tows near the
San Gabriel River mouth, 00

brinted in California office of state printing

79160 — 800 7-69 5,300

Notice is hereby given that the Fish and Game Commission shall meet on
October 3, 1969, at 9 a.m. in Room 1138, New State Building, 107 So.
Broadway, Los Angeles, California, to receive recommendations from its own
officers and employees, from the Department of Fish and Game and other
public agencies, from organizations of private citizens, and from ony inter-
ested groups as to what, if any, regulations should be made relating to fish,
amphibia, and reptiles, or any species or subspecies thereof.

Notice is hereby given that the Fish and Game Commission shall meet on
October 31, f969, at 9 a.m. in Room B109, State Building, 1350 Front Street,
San Diego, California, for public discussion of and presentation of objections
to the proposals presented to the Commission on October 3, 1969, and after
considering such discussion and objections the Commission, at this meeting,
shall announce the regulations which it proposes to make relating to fish,
amphibia, and reptiles.

Notice is hereby given that the Fish and Game Commission shall meet on
December 5, 1969, at 9 a.m. in the Main Auditorium, Resources Building,
1416 Ninth Street, Sacramento, California, to hear and consider any objec-
tions to its determinations or proposed orders in relation to fish, amphibia,
and reptiles, or any species or subspecies thereof for the 1970 sport fishing
seasons, such determinations and orders resulting from the hearings held on
October 3, 1969, and October 31, 1969.

Fish and Game Commission
Leslie F. Edgerton
Executive Secretary

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