jij Zz TT ti Zi tii ittiviviivssss tity Zi Le Li LL LES Lee Gp EE EEE: LILLIE 55 LG Ze GLE Al LALLA ANY \ \\ \ WAG \ \\ AK Awww \\ WN WN \ \\ Sey b4 Be ae EY Pie aK ae 7 : A . 8 5 Ss . Y ee an oF Tih COW WRN Yo ORLA SRS ROR REIN RE HET Ne CURT NS Occ ING Oe Cae Nn CA YAY at ¥ < tN s/s Eg e EX PASS TT) DIA ES Jt SSS 2 LES Dp de ROE Oo Of re JO, Ae seen aS Oy NCS, SIAR ay Wb O. 72x RAYS nos a - eal oy : S x { ve cS w OR Y ys ih (Be epee. © LS 8 fy AA ) O 4 @ be eos ce é = CS SUA SOS ‘ BBO Wh Ke Ves » SSSA Ry) cS ek ROOK . s ) : ee S 4 ay SA ay Assit ahh mie I ERS LES UR | a ; BISA ORY 0 (SAY RYU ea RAY Se (J 1% nN aS se Wer A) y ce VA WD | > YO g Sy LJ ay SS Vo ees PIN ees Ne ee S) COL ECO,_ MEO MESS: ame cceae RK ) OX \ Br a ae et e y aoe er << me ae he Voy Bw ae Lorn Brave 3 DIS EEN I oR FOE elie y ae LS See PLOY IG Poy FO) a ate GROIN PRECOIN CSeONs ay eve Actual size; photographed in Santa Cruz in January. THE LOGANBERRY, A CALIFORNIA HYBRID, BY J. H. LOGAN.—See page 4oo. DEE BALIFORNIA FRUITS AND HOW TO GROW THEM. A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS; WITH LISTS OF VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE hy) / BY EDWARD Jo/WICKSON, A. M. Professor of Agricultural Practise in the University of California, and Horticulturist of the Agricultural Experiment Station; Author of ‘‘California Vegetables in Garden and Field;’’ President of the California State Floral Society; Horticultural Editor of the ‘‘Pacific Rural Press’’ of San Francisco, etc. “« The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, And verdant olives flourish round the year; The balmy spirit of the western gale Eternal breaths on fruits untaught to fail; Each dropping pear a following pear supplies, On apples, apples, figs on figs arise; The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, . The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow.”’ —Pope's Hom, Odys. Bh. VII. THIRD EDITION: LARGELY REWRITTEN. PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, PUBLISHERS ’ SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. x 1900. 44381. ENTERED ACCORDING TO ACT OF CONGRESS, IN THE YEAR 1899, BY EDWARD J. WICKSON AND PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF CONGRESS, AT WASHINGTON. TWO COPIES RECEIVED, \ q Sy ut 17 1899) ur ee / eter of Cop se SECOND copy, “SAS Gek (4-9 9 ~ Se TO LUTHER BURBANK, OF SANTA ROSA, WHOSE CREATIVE HORTICULTURAL GENIUS HAS, BY NEW COINAGE OF “BLOOMING, AMBROSIAL FRUIT OF VEGE- TABLE GOLD,” AMPLY REQUITED THE WORLD’S GIFT OF THE CHOICEST FLOW- ERS AND FRUITS FOR THE ADVANCE- MENT AND ADORNMENT OF CALIFORNIA | —THUS BESTOWING NEW HONORS UPON THE STATE AND NEW RICHES UPON MAN- KIND—THIS WORK. IS’ ‘CORDIALLY — IN- SCRIBED AS AN EXPONENT OF ESTEEM AND APPRECIATION. » % PREFACE (PO ; THIRD’ EDITION The writer desires to express sincere gratitude for the cordial wel- come and patronage which the two earlier editions of this treatise have received, not only in California, but in other semitropical countries. At the time of the preparation of the first edition in 1889 there was no thought that it would find foreign fields of usefulness; it was merely the earnest hope of the writer that it would win its way as a safe guide to the extension of the fruit interests of California; and to that end no effort was spared to constitute the work an explicit and truthful state- ment of natural conditions attending fruit growing in California, and accurate descriptions of the practises which best minister to success under these conditions. The generous patronage bestowed upon the work by Californians for a decade is a demonstration that this purpose was attained, and it is largely owing to their cordial commendation that the work has extended so widely into foreign fields. It is profoundly satisfactory to the writer to have the assurance that the acceptance of the treatise as a faithful guide to practise in California has actually fore- shadowed its popularity wherever the same fruits are grown; and, in- versely, its acceptance abroad is indirect evidence of its accuracy and helpfulness in California. With such inspiration as naturally proceeds irom these facts, the writer has for two years devoted such time as could be spared from other pressing duties to a thorough revision of the work, condensing portions which were diffuse or merely of passing, local interest, and expanding other portions which are of deep and lasting importance and in which California experience and experiment really involve knowl- edge new to horticultural literature and of the widest applicability. The revision has required a rewriting of the most important chapters and a study of original data nearly equal to that involved in the preparation of the treatise in the first instance. The illustrations have also been largely replaced and the work brought up to the beginning of the cen- tury. As was done in connection with earlier editions, the writer desires to extend to all readers an exhortation to correction of any ‘statement which may seem unwarranted from their points of view and experience. The subject is varied, multifold, and involved, every new fact is impor- tant and will be welcomed. EDWARD J. WICKSON. University of California, Berkeley. By the Same Author California Vegetables in Garden and A Manual of Practise With and Without Irrigation CONTENTS: Chapter I. Vegetable Growing in California. II. Farmers’ Gardens in California. III, California Climate as Related to Vegetable Growing. IV. Vegetable Soils of California. V. Garden Irrigation. VI. Garden Drainage in California. VII. Cultivation. VIII. Fertilization. IX. Garden Location and Arrangement. _ X. The Planting Season. XI. Propagation. XII. Asparagus. XIII. Artichokes. XIV. Beans. XV. Beet. XVI. Cabbage Family. XVII. Carrot, Parsnip, and Salsify. XVIII. Celery. XIX. Chicory. Large Octavo; 336 Pages; Corn. Cucumber. Egg Plant. Luttuce. Melons. Onion Family. Peas. Peppers. Potatoes. Radishes. Rhubarb, Spinach. Squashes. Tomato. Turnip. Vegetable Sundries. Field Vegetables for Canning and Drying. Seed Growing in California. Garden Protection. Weeds in California. 12 Full-Page Plates Price $2.00 Including Postage to Any Part of the United States PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, Publishers () Market St., San Francisco, Cal. CHAPTER Ih 1 III. IV. Ne VI. CON Ee. PART: FIRST: GENERAL. PAGE The Climate of California and Its Local Modifications.... 9 Why the California Climate Specially Favors the Growth (0) 04) 86s I KR ag NOR rs etsy A Me cea rh YAN ee 1g hey Enuits Soils ;of, California aaseeee ete feb: cee eens 27 hes Waldaknmtsvor Californiageem ner cack ars (emis 38 CalifogniayVlisston Einuits «scree ROSEN any ey MNS 44 Introduction of Improved Fruit Varieties ................ 48 PART SECOND] CULTURAL: CGleaninonBancitor Hiriliscewec cies race tie oes reas 57 BIE PM ENEUCSESEAY | aftks oy cai ohn bar tcl eee aS Sc cot Re AD erator stat 66 Buacine: and: (Grane... sin Swan aee Ge eoe At stot | / 70 Breparationscon nr laintiniott tc. seen. ea ae eet cei sian tein cigider st go Plant oath Ire eSe np sthsekscch sere tapartesseetncch oe il cwsyaisiei ars 6 109 Pruning Orchard Trees and Thinning Fruit.......0. 2.2205. ini CUUTIGSIN ETON Rea ey got Oe nent he es A TL BRP EY co O IEE aN Pad a 138 Fertilizers for Pruit Trees and) Vines. :2 22.2. 6- vote se ees 154 Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines....... Bae tice ma Atte ech 167 PART THIRD: ORCHARD FRUITS. ‘lates WaN oye) KOR ah raSitcic ke id cio Ble era aCe eee ae Oi Cheeni 187 BRST CO tire er tench mane Arete sre ais ens sania accel Seas ie coP Se ays arts 200 ‘Mires €henrywe ss ee DUN De ae Re Nicd asa sts ehasetela sepa No ot ees 214 dinne Reachieegr code cast asap acres ie ats eit aR, ae 228 MehesINeChamie mnt cic rs sl Re ae Shale hare aent ore athe eect 245 ADMIRER RY oe, Lael Sh Geel Sea eM SC SeE an nEiats & AOE Rhee raiaaiies Sones ety 248 PMI Stat wEnUMeSria es eo att aioe ke ks SS oialeve aie eee 261 ANNE OW INCE Ge SS Been COO BRIDE Gn heise nator 278 PART FOURTH: THE GRAPE. Witte e 1Opavanen anh lantine) <2 co. 5). vy veces cece 3 281 Prinine and sere Oleibe VINE. 3... asa. stan cect sae- ss. 298 GrapenVanletieswmn Calitonniaas seit ccas Jake an er ek en 309 PART FIFTH: SEMITROPICAL FRUITS. AIRED Daten tienes near ey ok nea ee ete RE EA ly 316 Pre aC RIO NASA, Valet «cerca nta ciate mainte e aie | abe Sl a giaieele ees Boi Vili XXIX. XXX. XXXII. XXXII. XXXII. XXXIV. XXXV. XXXVI. XXXVI. XXXVIII. XXXIX. XG. Contents. Thec@divie (y wing halen drs Saaie cele taee ise atc elec ce bag aca Ieee ee rede 333 ‘The @ranee kent jans eeiecrteted naan: alee cies el eae ee 351 The Iwemons Wine; et@inssee acer ss ony caste oe eee a72) Minor. Semitropical Prigts 2)... fenc.. .8 a) occ eee 381 PART SIXTH:. SMALL FRUITS. Berries and: Currants): se see ie cisesh tee seein eee rc ols Laer 389 PART SEVENTH: NUTS Nut. Growing: in’ Caltformiays stein. a: ter ce ete 406 PART EIGHTH: FRUIT PRESERVATION. Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Drying............... . 420 PART NINTH: FRUIT PROTECTION. Injurious Htisects:/. <4 2 camblndn Ree dec sae alco. 434 Diseases of Dreesiands VilneSess..ce a. ce ee ie een eee 456 Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds.............. 460 Protection from: Winds andiiiostsi: ec ae ae 465 PART TENTH: MISCELLANEOUS. Wtilizationvof MiruitWastesmicritavsvsce tat ies tere 469 END EX. ye os core ds leyete, €or exe fo dlvca ceaudt Sperone e cae peasy eer ete eee 471 CALIFORNIA FRUITS. PART FIRST: GENERAL: CHAPTER as CALIFORNIA. E 5 é 5 a z 2 Oye lis es Red Btufi........:..- AeAL A. 2) 48962 | E-G.| TOO” | La 5| 2.4. |v aaiaes Sacramento......... Bay, 13-5 (2570 |. Le§) | OlaiOs | Lat | 2.0'| 2.8.12 30 Sav erAanciscO...<4) 4-9 eds ,|04.2. 13.8: | 4.37 eaezo 03-5. | 3-31-3268 1400 BLeESMO «..4:..05 +2000. Bia AeeQ” ae Oo) Ts5+)|\VOLe Ogi eT.A (a2 2.821221 San Diego.......s.. 4.8 [4.4 15.3 | 4.8 | 43 | 3.9 | 3-7 | 3-8 | 3.3 |4.2 EASTERN. Roehester; N-fY:.|'6.6"| 5.4- | §:2):| 4.9/4.6 | 4.6 | 4.9 | 6-0 |-7.6: 15.5 New York, N. Y.| 5-5. | 5-3. | 5-2 | 4-9 | 5-0 | 4-9 | 4.7 | 4.9 | 5-2 |5.0 Philadelphia, Pa.) 5.6 | 5.4 | 5.1 | 5.0 | 5.0 | 4.9 | 4-8 | 4.7 | 5.2 |5.0 Baltimore, Md.....) 5.4 | 5.1 | 5-1 | 4-9 | 4.8 | 4-9 | 4.7 | 4.6 | 4.9 |4.9 Steveland, @hio..|'6:4. | 5-341 4:9 || 46 Wae3 1-4-3 |-4.0) 15-7) 7315.3 Grand Haven, M.| 6.2 | 5.4 | 4.8 | 4.6 | 3.8 | 4.0 | 4.4 | 5.6 | 7.5 |5.1 Nacksonville; Fla.|'4.2 4-1 |\4.7, |5.1 | 4.8 | 4.9 | 5.0 | 4:2 | 4:5 |4.5 New Orleans, La.} 4.8 | 4.8 | 4.3 | 4.7 | 4.9 | 4-7 | 4.3 | 3-5 | 4.5 |4.5 RELATION OF ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY TO THE GROWTH OF ST REES- There is another important condition of the climate of Cali- fornia which is intimately related to those which have been con- sidered, and which is to be credited with no small influence in the perfection of our fruits, and that is the low percentage of humidity which our atmosphere contains. In California the per- centage of humidity is high in the winter and low in the sum- mer; in the East the condition is just reversed. For this reason summer heat is far more oppressive in the East than in Califor- nia, and for the same reason certain serious fungoid diseases which prevail at the East, though found here in less injurious degree directly on the coast, are wholly unknown in the interior where the air is drier. The dry air also favors the access and action of light and heat, for Tyndall says that a sheet of vapor acts as a screen to the earth, being in a great measure impervious to heat. It is not necessary then that there should be clouds to lessen the chemical effects of sun heat in fruit ripening. Not only do clouds intercept sunshine, but watery vapor in the air—when to the eye the sun is bright as ever—can absorb a large quantity of 24 Value of Dry Air. the effective sun rays, and so retard fruit ripening. Hence an apparently sunny country which has much invisible watery vapor in the air, may prove defective in fruit-ripening qualities. It is true that air free from humidity allows rapid escape of heat by radiation as well as free access of it, and in dry air frost is more severe, but at the time of the greatest fruit growth, from June to October, radiation down to a frost point is prevented by other natural agencies. In the early spring and late autumn the humidity percentage rises again and checks radiation just at the time of the year when it is most desirable to have it checked. The following table, compiled from the records of the United States Weather Bureau, shows the prevailing relative humidity in the East and South and in California :— NorMAL RELATIVE HUMIDITY AT EASTERN AND CALIFORNIA POINTS, 1888 to 1896, FROM THE RECORDS OF THE U. S. WEATHER BUREAU. vo EASTERN = EA g = 2 2 43 2 ges STATIONS. £ s fas = < # fe) 2 \ sl ouaa 4°64 Jacksonville, Fla.) 72.3 | 73.0 | 77.6 | 78.6 | 80.9 | 82.9 | 79.8 | 82.2 | 78.3 Philadelphia, Ba::|(63:471/'689))|/Go.2 (6868 | "7-25 75e28 Or tn 7oeonl fost Rochester; IN. Y:-| 67.8) |/68.6 | 69:1 |[67.3° || 70l7 ||75:2 |) 75ro) 70:20 lez Grand Haven; Ms) 70.9 | 71-4: || 73-7. | 69:04|/ 73s) 1175.0. 1:75:70) 79-Lule gene St) Louis,.Mo.2. 6347) 267-8 «| 68.8 (66:3) 1167. 3))/)70-2) 65-9) |) 7k | momeo New Orleans; La.) 76:0 |'74-2 || 781 78.3" | 78:8) 77-3) | 740) 79:4 fosO Galveston, Tex.:.| 84.6.| 78.0 |.79.3 | 77:4 | 78.1 | 77.2 | 75.6.| 80.4 | 78:5 CALIFORNIA STATIONS. Los Angeles:.*..... 7OTe W75eay le 2eOul 75:4 7Os2 72290) al7/4e su kOO-Onl mens Nresno) Bessa scyssece 59.3° | 52.7 |'42.4) | 34:71 24-7 | 43:6 155.5 G48 anaes Sacramento........ 67.6 | 67.6 | 66.1 | 59.8 | 59.8 | 59-0 | 62.4 | 66.8 | 63.6 Red aBhufi tei2s0-- 61.9 | 56.8 | 43-7 | 35-6 | 35-3 | 43-6 | 51-6 | 60.7 | 488 THE THREE POINTS COMBINED: The three great advantages of the California climate,— abundant heat, continuous sunshine, and dry air,—taken in con- nection with the fitness of the soil and the great length of the growing season, insure the characteristic excellence of California fruit, and the early maturity, great growth, and abundant fruit- age of our trees and vines. Heat, sunshine, dry air, and a rain- less summer also minister directly to the curing of fruits in the open air. All things considered, it is doubtful whether any area of the world excels California in possession of natural adaptation to fruit production and preservation. A Long Growing Season. 25 A RECAPITULATION OF CALIFORNIA’S CLIMATIC ENDOWMENT. 'Through the multitude of local observations, which seem perplexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly dis- cern certain general conditions of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Californian. Of these, perhaps the most striking is the length of the growing season. Take, for instance, the peach in a good peach region. The bioom appears in February, followed by the grand foliage ex- panding to a leaf-size, marvelous to one unused to such peach leaves. The shoots of new growth rush out with vigor, prom- ised by such a leaf, and yet the fruit below expands as though it would burst its skin in rapid enlargement—and still it grows. The new shoot, apparently weary of its several feet of extension, stops for a rest, and then, reviving, starts out its laterals—while still below the peach is growing. The laterals push out a foot or more—all carrying large, fresh leaves. While these are in full vigor, the fruit ripens, after having a full half-year’s joint work of root and foliage, if it is a late variety. Is it any wonder it weighs a pound? fut still the tree is active. It forms its termi- nal buds, and then all along the new main shoots and their lat- erals are formed the leaf and blossom buds for the following year. Still the foliage holds green and active, if the moisture below be adequate, and the leaves seem loth to fall in the ninth month from the time of blooming. Is it any wonder California peaches are large and the trees require pruning and thinning to enable them to carry the weight produced in such a season of growth? And what has been said of the peach is true of other trees, ac- cording to their nature and habits. The trees themselves are more eloquent of California’s conditions for growth than descrip- tions or statistical tables can be made. But the quality of the light and heat, if the term is admissi- ble, is a factor as well as their duration. The air, free, not alone from clouds, but from the insensible aqueous vapor which weakens sunshine in its effort to serve vegetation in a humid climate, has a clearness and brilliance from its aridity which makes each day of the long, growing season more than a day in other climates, and thus adds to the calendar length of the grow- ing season. The surplus light and heat also act directly in the chemistry which proceeds in’ the tissues of the plant, and we have not only size, but quality, color, aroma,—everything which makes the perfect fruit precious and beautiful beyond words. It is true that for commercial purposes it is not possible to allow this process to go too far, for its later effects are higher sweetness, accompanied by such juiciness that the fruit cannot endure transportation. But go to the tree to apply the only test 3 26 Luportance of Moderation. which can be fairly put to a juicy fruit, and the demonstration of the service of clear, unobstructed sunshine through an ade- quate period is complete. But if this can not be done, place the judgment upon the mature peach carefully sun-dried and intel- ligently cooked, or upon the ripe peach skilfully canned, and the distinctive adaptations of California for fruit production will dis- play themselves. But there are other agencies involved in the perfection of fruit than intensity and duration of heat and light. Without adequate moisture in the soil, the air which we have credited with such benign power in carrying heat and light for perfection of fruit would transmit the same as agencies for the destruction of the tree which bears it. If this moisture comes from rainfall, it descends at the time of the year when the tree is least active, consequently is least retarded by a clouded sky and moisture- laden air, and least affected by atmospheric disturbances. Strong storm winds find the tree with reefed sails, and able to endure pressure which would tear it to pieces if they came upon its grand spread of foliage on branches heavy with fruit. It is a priceless horticultural endowment that no tornado can pierce our protect-_ ing mountain-barriers, and that it is exceedingly rare that our local winds disturb the confident swaying of the branches and leaf movement beyond the activity which ministers to the sap flow. And if the adequate moisture is not from rainstorm, but by irrigation, the same facts remain, for the water reaches the tree without interrupting its aerial activity. Temperature is maintained, light is unobstructed, and the tree is refreshed with moisture without the chill and darkness which favor fungoid parasites. Of all the ways by which moisture could come to soils supporting fruit tree or vine, the natural by its time, and the artificial by its method, endow California with the best. The characteristics of the California climate which have been especially pointed out in this sketch are not propitious to fruit culture when they exist to excessive degree, as in some in- terior or continental climates. Local conditions of altitude, distance from the sea, and exposure to the sweep ot arctic winds, induce sudden and great weather changes, which are serious in their effects. Excessively low percentage of atmospheric humid- ity, in connection with desiccating wind, often produce greater evaporation from the leaves than the roots can supply. Exces- sively dry air admits a parching sun heat at one time, and at another facilitates radiation of heat, until the rapid decline in temperature makes killing frosts frequent. It is evident that California has these agencies constantly held in check by her insular situation and protecting environment, and owes her won- derful adaptation to growth of tree and perfection of fruit not more to the possession of certain conditions than to the fact of their existence in moderation. Crear hee THE FRUIT SOILS OF CALIFORNIA. The favoring characteristics of the California climates, which have been described, find their fitting complement in the adaptation of the California soils to the perfect development of fruit-bearing tree and vine. In their wonderful variety and con- “sequent great range of special adaptations within narrow limits of area, our soils also resemble our climates. As a man may sometimes find within the boundaries of an ordinary-sized farm such a difference of atmospheric conditions that the same fruit will thrive in one spot and not in another, so he may find ditter- ences in soil which will tend to produce the same results. For this reason the precise spot in which to plant any given fruit must be chosen with regard to both soil and exposure. In the chapters devoted to the several fruits, there will be an attempt inade to describe the soil requirements of each, so that the inex- perienced planter may not err seriously in choosing the location for each kind of fruit he desires to grow. While this is true, it will also appear in these special chapters that the choice of roots upon which to bud or graft gives the planter a certain latitude and independence. This is of greatest value in the planting of home orchards, or orchards for local markets, in regions where the soil is not what is usually preferred for fruit production. With proper choice of stocks and wisdom and diligence in culti- vation, one need hardly despair of growing good fruit on any soil which will support any laudable plant growth. And yet in commercial orcharding, the secret of which is producing most abundantly and cheaply, too great attention can not be paid to choice of specially-adapted soils. It is an interesting fact that more complete and exact knowl- edge exists of the soils of California than of any other State of the Union, and for this knowledge the public is indebted to E. W. Hilgard. Professor of Agriculture, and Director of the Agri- cultural Experiment Stations of the University of California. For the last twenty-five years he has given all the time he could spare from many other and pressing duties, to the examination, and, when needed, the analysis, of representative soil specimens, and to practical expositions of their nature, adaptations, and re- (27) 28 Light and Deep Soils. quirements in the event of exhaustion from too long cropping. This information must be sought in a number of publications, and no condensed outline of the work in its present state is avail- able. Professor Hilgard has now (1899) in preparation a general treatise entitled “Soils: Their Formation, Properties, Composition and Relations to Climate and Piant Growth,” which will natu- rally include the results of his long study of California soils and climates. It is the purpose of the writer to undertake a compila- tion, from these sources, of information which especially relates to the fruit soils of California, now known and used as such. The plan will be to collate the descriptions of the soils and their composition with the practical deductions therefrom, rather than the detailed analyses, for which the reader must be referred to the original source. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF (CALIFORNIA SODES: One of the most interesting and important recent achieve- ments in soil investigation consists in demonstrating distinctive differences between soils formed under arid and under humid climatic conditions.* In the development of this subject certain distinctive characters of California soils clearly appear and they are of direct relation to the thrift, productiveness, treatment and longevity of fruit trees. These characters are: (a) lightness and consequent permeability and ease of cultivation;:(b) depth, ad- /mitting exceptional root extension and penetration; and (c) rich- ness, containing some kinds of plant food in considerably greater amounts than are found in the soils of humid regions. These characteristics as demonstrated by Professor Hilgard may be outlined in this way with special reference to their relations to fruit growing. Lightness—California soils predominantly exhibit the sandy, silty or pulverulent nature of all soils formed under arid condi- tions, save in case of pre-existing clay formations of former geo- logical epochs, as well as back-water deposits of the present epoch, all of which are substantially independent of climate. While “sand” in the humid regions means virtually quartz grains only, in the arid country it means very largely grains and pow- der of the other soil-forming minerals as well. While, therefore, in the humid region, sandy land as a rule means poor land, in the arid, on the contrary, sandy lands are at least as desirable as heavier ones, both on the score of high productiveness, dura- bility and ease of cultivation, together with ready resistance to drouth. ; Depth.—Another point of great importance is that the dif- ference between soil and subsoil, which is so striking and im- * Rep. Cal. Exper. Stations, 1803-4, p. Ioo. Value of Lightness and Depth. 29 portant in regions of abundant rainfall, is largely obliterated in - arid climates. Very commonly hardly a perceptible change of tint or texture is found for depths of several feet; and what is more important, material from such depths, when thrown on the surface, oftentimes subserves the agricultural uses of a soil nearly or quite as well as the original surface soil. The uncon- cern with which irrigators proceed to level or otherwise grade their land, even though this may involve covering up large areas of surface soil with subsoil from several feet depth; the rapidity with which the red loam of the placer mines of the Sierra Nevada foot-hills is re-covered with the natural forest growth of the re- gion, etc., are examples familiar to the residents but surprising to newcomers, who are accustomed to dread the upturning of the subsoil as likely to deprive them of remunerative crops for several years, until the “‘raw” subsoil has had time to be “vital- ized” by the fallowing effect of the atmosphere, and to acquire the needful amount of humus or vegetable mold. Thus the sur- face soil, which in the humid regions supplies the bulk of the nourishment, becomes here of minor importance, serving chiefly as a mulch to prevent waste of moisture; while the active process of nutrition occurs in the deeper portion of the soil stratum, whose composition, as well as condition of disintegration and aeration, is substantially the same as above. The second foot is rarely found to differ materially from the first, even as to humus content; for the latter, being almost exclusively derived from the humification of roots, the leaves and herbage on the surface being mostly oxidized away under the intense heat of summer; it not uncommonly happens in very porous soils that the first six inches of surface soil are poorer in humus than the second foot. Practical Results of Lightness and Depth—The “lightness” and perviousness of the prevailing soils of the arid region per- mit of the penetration of roots to depths which in the humid region are inaccessible to them on account of the dense subsoils, which prevent the needful access of air. This deep penetration enables even annual plants to avail themselves directly of the stores of moisture in the substrata, at depths which in the humid region are scarcely reached save by the tap-roots of some per- ennials and trees; while the latter themselves reach depths never approached by them in the region of summer rains. Professor Hilgard has personally found the ends of the roots of grape-vines at a depth of twenty-three feet, in a gravelly clay-loam; and from ten to fifteen feet are ordinary depths reached by the root system of fruit trees. Such depth of rooting, when conservation of moisture is secured by proper surface cultivation, enables decid- uous fruit trees to grow thriftily and bear fine fruit through six months of drouth while as many weeks of drouth may bring 30 Soil Classification. distress and loss of fruit to surface-rooting trees on the shallow soils of the humid region. Richness.—The foregoing conditions are rendered the more significant and effective through the third characteristic of soils formed in arid climates. The average aggregate amounts of piant-food ingredients are markedly greater in the arid than in the humid soils, wherever their derivation is at all generalized. Among the agriculturally important ingredients contained in larger average amounts in the arid soils than in the humid, lime stands foremost; its percentage in soils not derived from cal- careous formations being from twelve to fourteen times greater in the arid than in the humid soils. Magnesia follows lime in this respect, but the average difference is only about half as great. The average content of potash in the arid soils exceeds that in the humid in about the proportion of one to three or four. But no such constant difference exists in respect to phosphoric acid. As regards humus, and the nitrogen of which it is the carrier and reservoir, its amount is usually considerably less than in the humid soils; but the total nitrogen percentage does not differ widely, because the humus of arid soils contains, on the average, from three to five times as much nitrogen as is found in the humus of humid soils, and therefore, the supply of soil nitrogen is very nearly the same in both regions, while from several causes, the humus-nitrogen of arid soils is more available to plants. : CLASSIFICATION OF CALIFORNIA SOILS. Any attempt to classify the soils of California upon scientific lines or even to describe them in their wondertul variety, accord- ing to their geographical. occurrence, would lead beyond the limitations of a treatise upon the practise of fruit growing. Rather let an attempt be made to designate certain grades of soil with brief characterization of their leading features as they are related to the growth of fruits. By such a course it may be made to appear that though the soils of the State are pre- dominantly light, deep, and rich and thus eminently fitted for fruit growing, there are many degrees in the possession of these characters or any of them, in local soils, and upon this individual manifestation they rate all the way from perfection to defective- ness. Let a classification proceed then upon a descending scale. Light, Deep Loams.—Admixture of clay with enough coarse materials to secure permeability to air and water, ease in culti- vation, deep root penetration and free drainage of surplus water, produces soil of the highest adaptability to the growth of fruit trees and vines. These soils are popularly known as loams. They are designated as sandy loams, medium loams and clay Northern Valley Loams. Tatas ‘loams, according to the proportion of clay commingled with the sand or coarse materials. Professor Hilgard has devised the following nomenclature of soils based upon their content of clay: Sandy soils, less than five per cent of clay; sandy loams, from five to ten per cent; ordinary or medium loams, from ten to fifteen per cent; clay loams, from fifteen to twenty per cent; clay soils, from twenty to fifty per cent of clay. The coarse materials are sand grains of various sizes or rock particles in various degrees oi disintegration. The fine materials are clay and rock powder, commonly designated as fine silt. Loam soils may result from deposits by flowing water or may consist of debris but little removed from local rock disintegra- tion. They include a wide variety of materials but agree in the possession of striking adaptability to fruit culture. Some of the leading instances of such soils may be cited. Loams of the Valley Plains——On the east side of the Sacra- mento Valley low ridges and swales at right angles to the river’s course come in from the foot-hills, forming a gently undulating plain with a fall of from fifteen to twenty feet per mile, some- times right up to the river channels. Nearly all the soils of the east side have a reddish tinge, showing the admixture of the red foot-hill soil, and demonstrating, by the way, that all these lands are well drained. In cuts ten to twelve feet deep, made by the sloughs, the reddish plains loam is seen to reach from six to ten feet depth, being then underlaid by gravelly substrata. The width of this class of profusely fertile valley land, east and west, varies considerably, according to the meanderings of the rivers. Away from the water courses, the higher lands of the valleys are largely red or yellow loams, sometimes clayey and difficult of cultivation unless taken just in the right condition, sometimes gravelly and apt to dry out unless the natural water supply is supplemented by irrigation, but mostly a free-working, fairly re- tentive, light loam, very satisfactory for some kinds of fruit. The soils of the San Joaquin Valley have, as a rule, a much greater admixture of sand than those of the Sacramento Valley; there is also a more distinct subdivision of the valley lands into upland or “bench” lands, and lowland or alluvial lands proper. Upon the upland or plains soils, especially of Fresno and Tulare Counties, wonderful progress in fruit-growing by irriga- tion has been made during the last few years. Though its sum- mer aspect is most forbidding and almost desert-like in lack of vegetation, the application of water has shown exceptional quickness of growth, early bearing, and lavish productiveness of tree and vine. These plains loams vary in appearance, and are from this fact locally,named, “‘reddish loam,” “white ash,” and 32 Southern Valley Loams. “sand hill.” All are distinctly calcareous. Even in the case of the latter, which is the lightest and is made of almost ninety per cent of inert sand, it is so deep and has its plant food in such highly available condition that it is producing very large crops of fruits where there is no rise of the bottom water to prevent root penetration. In the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada there are some loose loams of light color resulting from the decompo- sition of granite, but they are as a rule inferior to the red foot- hill soils, which are more clayey, and will be mentioned among the clay loams later. The soils prevailing in the valley of southern California, from Redlands at its head to Los Angeles at its opening out toward the sea, consist chiefly of granitic sand, which at some points on the slopes forms the soils exclusively, but everywhere con- stitutes a prominent ingredient of the valiey and mesa lands. These mesa lands are conspicuous for their orange-red tint, and the red sandy loam of which they are composed, to depths vary- ing from ten to as much as eighty feet, is evidently the choice soil for orange culture. It is manifest that at some remote epoch it filled the entire valley. Of the middle portion much has been washed away, but islands of it form red-land tracts of greater or less extent all over the region, traversed by and more or less commingled with, the granitic wash from the valleys and cafi- ons of the Sierra Madre. The latter frequently consists largely of gravel, and were it not for the luxuriant natural vegetation borne by these gravel beds, few would have thought of devoting them to the costly experiment of orange planting, which, never- theless, has proved eminently successful even on these unpromis- ing-looking masses of debris. In the upper valley (San Bernar- dino Valley proper) the red loam is conspicuous, and gives its name to the flourishing settlement of Redlands, on the terminal slope; but the heavy flow of water from the upper canons, nota- bly trom that of the Santa Ana River, has scoured it out of the -valley itself, and left there, at least on the northern portion, gray and blackish granitic loams of great depth and productiveness, underlaid, and therefore underdrained, by the enormous gravel beds that hold the artesian water of this favored region. The reddish mesa soils prevail through the smaller southern California valleys as weli, and are similar in character, as they are derived from similar geological formations. Where the surface descends gradually to the seashore, and not in bluffs, there are, as in Los Angeles and Orange Counties, coast flats several miles in width, where the soil is a dark-colored sandy loam, glistening with scales of mica, and more or less affected with alkali in the lower portions. Similar soils are found in tracts of greater or less extent up the coast as far as PRUNE ON PEACH ROOT NEAR NILES: SHOWING DEEP ROOTING OF CALIFORNIA TREES,—See page 29. Alluvial Sorts. 33 Santa Barbara at least. As a rule, these seashore lands are very productive, but fruits for them must be chosen with reference to their low level and exposure to coast influences. The light loams of the so-called desert region of southern California are not inferior in productive capacity to some of the best soils of the great valley, which it greatly resembles, save in the scarcity of humus, or vegetable matter. Only a detailed survey, however, can determine the tracts having an arable soil, as against those overrun by arid sand. The soil of the Colorado River bottom is highly productive, easily worked, being quite light. It is a highly calcareous soil, and is likely, whenever the water of the Colorado River shall be made available for irriga- .tion, to yield rich returns for cultivation. The valleys of the seaward slope of the Coast Range have mostly gray, light, and silty, rather than sandy soils, quite sim- ilar in appearance from Ventura to Humboldt County, though differing considerably in composition, those of the southern region being more calcareous, and apparently richer in phos- phoric acid; as the coast region consists for the most part of low ranges with intervening valleys, the valleys are, as a rule, small, though a few show considerable area. In such a country the soil surface shows wide diversity within smaller areas than on the vast stretches of the great interior valley; consequently, so far as soil goes, the coast farms are often suited to a wider range of fruits than the interior valley farms of similar size. ALLUVIAL OR SEDIMENTARY LOAMS. These soils have been considered from the earliest plantings by Americans as par excellence the fruit soils of the great valley of central and northern California. They occur along the courses of existing streams, and extend back to variable dis- tances, until they merge into the valley loams, or adobes. These deposits are considerably higher than the present beds of the streams, and are sometimes described as “next to river bottom.” They consist of fine alluvium, with seldom any admixture of coarse materials. These river soils are usually very deep, and they are naturally well drained. These deposits cross the valley in somewhat irregular courses; they are of greater or less width according to the drain- age area whence they have come. They vary also in depth, and taper down on either side to the level of the red loam or adobe upon which they have been deposited. Such strips are first chosen by the fruit planters of the district in which they occur. In the valleys of the rivers crossing the eastern side of the San Joaquin Valley, there are, bordering the streams as well as Tulare Lake, considerable areas of brown to blackish 34 Clay Loanis. loam varying from heavy to light, but for the most part easily tilled and exceedingly rich. Considerable fruit has been grown for years on these situations, and some kinds do well on these bottoms which do not show adaptation to the plains. Some even of the higher lying portions of these “black lands” support thrifty orchards without irrigation. ‘The wider stretches of allu- vial soils in the upper part of the valley, as in the Mussel Slough country and the Visalia region, for instance, are notably well adapted to fruit growing. The occasional intrusion of alkali, which must be carefully avoided, is the chief obstacle to the gen- eral approval of these alluvial lands for fruit purposes. Soil of similar character is found in some small valleys con- sisting of an alluvial wash from the bordering hills which in some places reaches a depth of thirty feet or more without notable change in character. Such soils have proved very fertile and durable. In the coast valleys of the State there are also very exten- sive areas of alluvial soils which are largely used in fruit produc- tion, as well as upland loams formed in place by the disintegra- tion of local rock formations. The famous fruit region extending from Oakland southward nearly one hundred miles, including the Alameda and Santa Clara Valleys, has very large areas of alluvial soil, ranging from deep, rich blackish loams used for vegetables and small fruits, to lighter loams resulting from inter- mixture of sediment brought by streams from adjacent hill- sides with the clay of the valley bottom. It is to these deep, rich alluvial deposits that the region owes its great reputation in fruit lines. Below the “river banks” sedimentary soils, which is another name for the soils previously considered, lies the rich river bot- tom, adjacent to the beds of the main rivers and sloughs of the valley. It is usually a dark, rich, and moist soil, easily tilled and not subject to baking and cracking. It is largely used for the growth of vegetables and alfalfa, but considerable areas have been planted with fruit trees, especially with pears, which do not suffer from submergence of their roots for considerable time. CLAY LOAMS. Of loams containing sufficient clay to render them some- what heavy and tenacious, there is also a great variety in Cal- ifornia. Their suitability for different fruits depends upon selec- tion of roots adapted to their character and upon the depth and degree of retentiveness of the soils themselves. They are more difficult of tillage than the free loams, but offer some compénsa- tion therefor in their richness and durability. Clay Sozls. 35 Clay Loams of the Foot-hills and Valley Border.—The soils of the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, throughout its course along the great valley, vary from a moderately clayey loam to a heavy, though not uncommonly gravelly, often orange-red clay. This character seems to be sensibly the same, whether the soil be derived from the decomposition of the ancient slate bed- rock or directly from the dark-colored granites, thus creating a presumption that the two rocks are closely related. The soils are highly charged with iron to the extent of from seven to over twelve per cent, which being finely divided, imparts to them the intense orange-red tint. The soils of the foot-hills agree with the soils of the valley in having a good precentage of lime, while the supply of potash and phosphates, as well as of organic mat- ter, is smaller, and sometimes low, though never apparently inadequate for present productiveness, in the presence of so much lime. Along the base of the foot-hills of the Sierra there is in Fresno, Tulare, and part of Kern County, a belt of reddish or brown loam soils, corresponding to those similarly located in the Sacramento Valley, but generally more clayey, and hence frequently designated as adobe by contrast with the very sandy soils of the valley at large, although properly they should be classed simply as clayey loams. This belt is eight to ten miles wide in middle Tulare County, and narrows to the north and south. Here these lands have a gentle slope of ten to twenty feet per mile from the base of the foot-hills, and appear to be underlaid at a depth of twelve to fifteen feet by water-bearing gravel. The soil is a reddish, more or less sandy, loam, chang- ing little in its aspect for several feet. Its adaptation to fruit is shown by the products of the Porterville region. GrAwe SOMES: Thus far a very small area of true adobe* soil has been employed in horticulture. There is a great difference in the character of what is known as adobe in different localities. Its color varies, as the popular terms “black waxy,” “black,” “brown,” and “gray” adobe indicate. Its physical condition and chemical composition also vary greatly. The black adobe of the east side of the Sacramento Valley is easily tilled as com- pared with the gray adobe on the west side, which is very refrac- tory and often largely impregnated with alkali. To render soil of adobe character useful for fruit growing, this tendency to dry out and crack, thus allowing evaporation from below as well as * This name has been erroneously applied to the loam commonly used in the construction ot cae houses. Agriculturally, it means ‘‘a heavy clay soil,’’ such as could not be used in uilding. 36 Defective Soils. from the surface, must be overcome. The discussion of this point belongs to the chapter on “Cultivation.” Adobe soils are, as a rule, rich and durable and therefore promise long fruitful- ness to trees and vines with roots adapted to heavy soils, but difficulty of cultivation, excessive retention of water, and other evils are always present. Some suggestions on the treatment of such soils will be given in the chapter on fertilization. DEFECTIVE SOILS. Although California soils are predominantly of the depth, lightness and richness best suited to the growth and bearing of fruit trees and vines, it should always be borne in mind that there are marked exceptions, and failure to observe this fact has resulted in considerable disappointment and loss. There is in California much land which is bad from a horticultural point of view and it is apt to occur even in the vicinity of lands | of the highest excellence. It is, therefore, necessary to advise that the closest examination be made before investment be made in the planting of fruits. Although there are instances of deficiency in plant food in California soils and considerable areas of land sterile through excess of saline and alkaline salts, these are usually indicated by the local reputation of the tracts, if the newcomer will take pains to make inquiry. It is rather the more obscure, subsoil condi- tions which lead to loss or failure, and they may be unknown even to men who have owned or farmed the land for years for ordinary field crops. These defects are, in the main, three:— Hard-pan.—Good loams.- may be underlaid near the surface by hard-pan or by layers of heavy clay. These prevent root penetration; they also limit moisture reception to the shallow surface layer, which is apt to become water-logged for lack of drainage during the rainy season or by excessive irrigation, and to quickly lose its moisture by surface evaporation in the dry season, with no compensation from the tight layer below. In such a situation, then, the plant may suffer severely from excess of water at one time of the year and lack of it at another. Such lands may serve well for some of the small fruits, but not for trees or vines. Under certain circumstances the defects of these soils may be corrected, as will be suggested in the chapter on preparing lands for planting. Leachy Sub-soiis—Good loams are also occasionally under- laid by layers of coarse sand or gravel, through which water flows away beyond the reach of roots which will only make measured progress through such materials. Trees in such situ- ations are apt to come into distress in the dry season and can only be comforted by frequency and volume of irrigation and How to Find Defects. Gy fertilization, which are out of proportion to the returns they are able to make. Rise of Ground Water.—Good fruit lands are also occasion- ally rendered defective by the rise of the ground water toward the surface so that only a shallow layer is Jeft for root extension —the evil being aggravated by the iact that a temporary fall of the ground water induces deeper rooting, which a subsequent rise of the water destroys, and decay of the roots ensues. This trouble has occurred over large areas where excessive irrigation, or the course of leaky ditches, on higher lands, has filled the lower levels to such an extent that there is actual outcropping of swamps in the swales. The cure for these conditions is, obviously, drainage, which it is not always possible to secure at a warranted outlay. AlkaliimConnected with this rise of the ground water the alkali evil may intrude. But little trouble arises from this cause in the high-lying, sandy tracts, where irrigation or the natural rainfall carries the soluble salts annually into the country drain- age; but in the low-lving and less pervious soils of swales and valley troughs, which are at the same time intrinsically the richest in available mineral plant food, the accumulation fre- quently causes considerable trouble and difficulty.* Prospecting for Soil Defects—The University Experiment Station at Berkeley, undertakes to advise planters concerning the character of the land they propose to use. For subterranean prospecting, Professor Hilgard commends a steel rod not less than a quarter of an inch in diameter (round or square, prefer- ably the latter), well pointed at one end, and provided at the other with a stout iron ring for the reception of a stout cross- handle, such as is used for post-hole augers. With such a prod, or sounding-rod, not less than five feet in length, the explora- tion of the subsoil for hard-pan or dense clay layers becomes a matter of a few minutes. It is easy also to detect thus the pres- ence of underlying layers of quicksand, gravel, or other loose materials through which irrigation water would waste, or which would prevent the rise of bottom water within the reach of plant roots, by the large interspaces between their grains. Any remaining doubts as to the nature of such underlying materials at particular points can then quickly be solved by the use of a post-hole auger or by digging, as thorough inspection and the taking of samples for each foot of depth may be found desir- able. * University publications on alkaline soils and their treatment may be had by application to Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley. CHAPE RR ivi THE WALD, FRUIZS OF CALTBORNITA. The wild fruits of California are numerous, and for the most part peculiar to the region, being either of local genera or local species of more widely distributed genera. Very few are identical with the wild fruits common to great areas of the con- tinent. For this reason our wild fruits constitute a very inter- esting subject for botanical study, and they are now, perhaps more widely than ever before, attracting the attention of botan- ical pomologists. Viewed from the standpoint of practical pomology or horticulture, our wild fruits can not be claimed, on the whole, to have attained any very great importance. A few fruits, as will be noted further on, have demonstrated their culinary or household value, and are locally sought for, but none have any notable commercial value. This may be due to the fact that some of our most delicious wild fruits are very exacting in their choice of conditions, and can not be moved far, even within the limits of our own State, and presumably would not take kindly to longer journeys. Another reason why we have made little of our own wild species is found in the fact that our climate favors the superior growth of the best improved fruits of nearly all parts of the world. Therefore, we have little occasion for recourse to the improvement of local wild fruits, because of superior hardiness and adaptation, as has been done in other parts of the country. Neither fruit planters nor propagators have given any special attention to the wild growths, either for fruit or for stocks, although a beginning has been made in both these directions, which may ultimately attain importance. The horticulture of California wild fruits is a thing of the future. The distributions of our wild fruits is determined by limita- tions of areas of similar climatic conditions. In a general way it may be said that fruits are most abundant in foot-hill and mountain regions, and that our great valleys have always been practically destitute of them, except along stream borders. These fruits are most abundant in the northern portion of the State, but some exist throughout the State, usually thriving at higher elevations as they proceed southward. ( 38 ) Wild Plums and Cherries. 39 Oregon Crabapple (Pyrus rivularis).—This fruit, though more abundant in the more northerly regions of the coast, as its name indicates, is found in the northwest counties of this State. It chooses a moist situation, becomes a tree fifteen to twenty-five feet high, shows white bloom, and red or yellow oblong fruit, about half an inch long. The flavor is rather acid, but the fruit is eaten by the Indians, and was sometimes used for jelly-making by early settlers. Wild Plum (Prunus subcordata)—This must be regarded as one of the most useful of our wild fruits. Even now, when the plum varieties of all the worid have been introduced, residents in some of the Sierra regions, where an excellent variety (Kel- loggii) abounds, prefer it to the cultivated fruit, both for eating and preserving and jelly-making. The typical species is widely distributed over the mountainous regions of the State, and is a low shrub with white bloom and fruit three-quarters of an inch ‘long, of red color and inferior pulp. The better variety has a narrower range, forms a larger shrub, and bears a yellow fruit, larger and better than the typical species. Some attempts have been made to improve this variety by cultivation and selection of seedlings, and the results are promising, as fruit has been shown at our fairs notably better than the wild gatherings. The roots have also been used to some extent as stocks, but seem to possess no marked advantage. Mr. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, reports that grafting an improved plum on the wild stock seems to cause the root to grow to much greater size than natural to it. Observation upon grafted and non-grafted seed- lings in the same nursery row convinced him of this behavior. Other experimenters have condemned the stock because of dwarfing and suckering. In early days the wild plums in the mining regions of the mountains were largely made use of and are highly praised by pioneers. Oso Berry (Osmaronia cerasiformis).—This fruit is sometimes called the “California false plum.” It has a plum-like form, and is of a rich, blue-black color, but is bitter, though not disagree- able to birds and animals, which feed upon it. The white bloom of the shrub has an almond odor. Used as a stock, the plum varieties grafted upon it have been dwarfed. Wild Cherries (Prunus sp.).—Quite a group of wild fruits come under this generic grouping, and they have marked and widely different characteristics. One (Prunus demissa) closely resembles the Eastern choke-cherry, and bears its round, red, or dark purple fruit on a raceme. It is used for marmalade by housewives in the mountain districts. This species has proved of some utility both for its fruit and as a stock for grafting in early days when better cherry stock was not available. Another 40 Wild Grapes and Berries. species (Prunus ilicifolia) has evergreen foliage, and is a useful hedge plant. Of species bearing fruit in umbels, or true cherry style, we have two. Prunus emarginata makes a handsome tree, some- times thirty feet high, but its oval, dark red fruit is quite bitter and astringent. Another species bears bright red fruit, intensely bitter. California Grape (Vitis Californica).—Along our streams the native grape-vine attains large size and fruits freely, the fruit resembling the “frost grape” of the East. The vine frequently covers and sometimes kills large trees with the density of its foliage. Some variation is reported in the species, but it is pos- sible that some of the better kinds are seedlings from some imported species, bird planted. The species has attained some- thing of a reputation as a phyloxera-resisting root for grafting, but it has proved exacting in its choice of soils and situations, and otherwise not desirable, and some Eastern species are now relied upon for this service. Elderberry (Sambucus glauca).—Vhe elderberry makes a fine tree in California, sometimes twenty feet or more in height, and with a trunk a foot and a haif in diameter. The fruit is borne in large quantities and is used to some extent for preserves and pastry. Raspberries (Rubus sp.).—In the mountains of the eastern part of the State is a scarlet hemispherical berry of pleasant flavor, which is called “thimbleberry” (Rubus parviflorus). It seems to have an advantage over a variety (velutinus) of the same species which is found near the coast and has a dry, insipid fruit. Another raspberry, which is found in all hilly and mountainous regions, both on the coast and in the interior, is Rubus leuco- dermis. It resembles the black-cap raspberry of the Atlantic slope, except that it has yellowish-red fruit. This fruit is quite largely gathered for domestic uses, and some efforts have been made to cultivate the plants. Salmon Berry (Rubus spectabilis)—The beauty, size, and delicious flavor of this fruit are highly commended by all who have enjoyed it in the upper coast counties of California and farther northward. The plant makes a strong bush, five to ten feet high, and it delights in woods and shady banks of streams. The praise of all who know the fruit has led to frequent attempts to introduce the plant to warmer and drier parts of the State, but such efforts have thus far uniformly failed. Wild Blackberry (Rubus vittfolius)—This fruit should per- haps be called a ‘“dewberry.” as it has a trailing, or, at most, but partially raised stems, which extend from five to twenty feet. The plant occurs abundantly on banks of streams and other sufficiently moist locations, both in the coast and interior regions Wild Strawberries. Al of the State. Around the margin of Humboldt Bay, on land cleared by fire or axe, blackberries spring up abundantly on the denuded land. Tons of the fruit are said to remain after the local housewives have done their utmost in preserving and jelly- making. In the lowland region around Stockton considerable quantities are sometimes gathered for sale. The fruit, which has been held in high repute ever since pioneer days, is oblong, black, and sweet. The species is variable, and the anomaly, a white blackberry, has been reported from Del Norte County. Wild Strawberries (Fragaria sp.).—We have in California two Eastern species: Fragaria vesca and F. Virgimana. Thus far these have only been reported from localities in the Sierra mountain region. Another has been found identical with a South American species, Chiloensis, and it occurs along the coast, where the fruit is esteemed, and is sometimes abundant enough to gather in quantity. A fourth species is local, and is named Californica. It bears a small round fruit and is partial to the coast region. Recently some cuitural attention has been given to the wild strawberry, and a variety worthy of propagation is reported by growers resident in the Sierra region. It is called “Honey,” and is described by Watkins as small to medium size, exquisite flavor, glowing red color, productive, perfect bloom, and very hardy. Other varieties of the Alpine type have been brought to light in the Sierra region and to some extent dis- tributed. Wild Gooseberries and Currants (Ribes sp.).—Some of our currant species are achieving quite a reputation abroad as orna- mental shrubs, but they bear insipid fruit. The fruit of Ribes tenuiflorum is, however, more agreeable, and is esteemed for jellies, etc., by dwellers in its region, which is the mountain region of the extreme north of the State. We also have a species (bracteosum) which has something of the black currant flavor and a fair-sized fruit, black with whitish bloom, and very sweet. : There are also several species of Ribes which are classed with the gooseberries, but only three bear edible fruit. One of these (Ribes divaricatum) is peculiar to this coast; another (Ribes cxyacanthoides) occurs at an elevation in the Sierra Nevada and thence extends eastward beyond the Rocky Mountains. The berries are small to medium, of pleasant flavor, and well armed with spines. Another species (Ribes quercetorum), common in San Luis Obispo and Kern Counties, resembles the flavor of the cultivated gooseberry, and is free from spines. Cranberries and Huckleberrics (Vaccinium sp.).—We have several species belonging to the same botanical genus as the Eastern cranberry, but quite different from it both in growth 4 42 Other Wild Berries. of plant and character of fruit. The fruit of two species is red- dish, but insipid. Other species (V. ovatum, &c.) have dark blue or purple fruit. Some of these are locally esteemed, and the argument drawn from them is that the cranberry of commerce would succeed. It should be stated, however, that the situations in which these plants thrive are not at all according to the re- quirements of the bog cranberry. A huckleberry (Vaccimwm ovatum) is largely gathered in the redwood region of northern California, for canning and pie-making. The berries are juicy and delicious, and the preserved fruit has a very agreeable flavor. Other Berries-—Vhere are many small, wild fruits, com- monly designated as berries, which are of considerable botanical interest. The fruit, too, may be said to be edible, judging by the taste of Indians, birds, and wild beasts, but not likely to be much more than ornamental in the eyes of white people. They may be briefiy enumerated :-— The “manzanita” (Arctostaphylos manzanita), the “little apple” of the Spaniard, bears a rather dry but sub-acid fruit. The “bear berry” (Arctostaphylos uvaursi) is esteemed by Indians both as food and medicine. The “western buffalo berry’’ has small acid edible fruits. The “‘salal’”’ (two species of Gaultheria), small fruit, either red or purple, is also a favorite of the aborigines. Of “barberries’’ we have three species of berberis. One, aquifolium, is called the “false Oregon grape,” chiefly notable for its handsome bloom, which has been chosen the State flower of Oregon. The fruit is dark blue, and the root is said to be a febrifuge. Another species (nervosa) has a larger fruit, which is esteemed in cookery; and a third species (pinnata) bears a small, pleasant-flavored fruit. It is the Lenya amarilla of the Spanish-Californias. Our “service berry” (Amelanchier alnifolia) is from a quarter to a third of an inch in diameter and of a purple color. The “lemon berry” is a fruit of Rhus integrifolia, and is coated with an acid exudation which is said to dissolve in water and make a pleasant drink. The fruit of Rhus tri-lobata is said to have both a sweet and an acid coating. The berries of the “toyon” or “tollon’” (Heteromeles arbuti- folia), or “California holly,” are said to be eaten by Indians, but they serve the white people a better purpose in Christmas dcora- tions. The “jujube” of commerce (Zizyphus jujuba) has a local rel- ative in Zizyphus parryi, which is, however, dry and mealy, rather than juicy. _The “beach strawberry” is the fruit of Mesembrianthemum equilaterale, a relative of the ice-plant. The good-sized fruit is Wild Olive and Almond. 43 gathered along the sea-shore, and remotely suggests a straw- berry. Wild Olive (Forestiera neo-Mexicana).—This is a tall willow- like shrub, found in springy places on the borders of the Mojave Desert. It bears an abundance of small fruits which, from their botanical relationship to the olive, have attracted some attention. Experiments to determine its standing as a possible root for the olive have been suggested. Wild Nuts of Califorma.—The wild nuts of California are of very little commercial importance. The wild almond (Prunus Andersonit) of the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada is only of botanical interest, and little more can be said of the California filbert (Corylus rostrata, var. Califormca), which has none of the quality of the improved filberts nor even of the wild hazelnut. Our chestnut (Castanopsis chrysophylla) has a sweet kernel, but a hard shell, almost like a hazelnut. Our native walnut (Juglans Californica) is better in flavor than the Eastern black walnut, but its hard shell makes it of little commercial account in competi- tion with better, cultivated nuts. The one native nut which is regularly sold in the local market is the “pinenut”—seeds of several species of Pacific Coast pines. Their flavor is somewhat resinous, but is agreeable. The seeds of two species of palms, Washingtonia filifera and the Lower California Erythea armata, are sought for by the In- dians, who also eat the sweetish fruit of the Yucca Mojavensis, which somewhat resembles in shape the banana, and in flavor the fig, and is called the “wild date.” The Indians also use the acorns of several species of Cali- fornia oaks as food, extracting the bitterness by soaking in water, and then making a rude bread of the acorn meal. The “jajoba” (Simmondsia Californica) is a low shrub, the fresh fruits of which, deprived of their seed-coats, are eaten like almonds, and when dried by fire and ground they are used as a beverage, in the form of tablets made up with sugar, or as a simple infusion. Fire-dried seeds contain 48.30 per cent of fatty matter; the oil is suitable for food and of good quality, and pos- sesses the immense advantage of not turning rancid. In Lower California it is prepared by boiling with water. The French are recommending it for cultivation in their North African colonies. Cactus—The common cactus (Opuntia Engelmanni) bears a sweet edible fruit which the Indians dry in large quantities for winter use. By long boiling they make a sauce, which, after slight fermentation, they consider especially nutritious and stim- ulating. CHA PAR NV. CALIFORNIA MISSION FRUITS. Cultivated fruits were first brought into California from the south. Mission work among the Indians of Lower California was actually begun by the establishment of the mission at Lo- reto by Salvatierra, October 19, 1697. The following years horses and cattle were brought from Mexico, and from this intro- duction came ultimately the vast herds which roamed the hills and plains of California. Probably the first seeds and plants of cultivated vegetables and fruits came about the same tinre, for there was a small garden and a few fruit trees at Loreto in 1701. But Loreto was not fitted for horticulture, and in the same year an expedition in charge of Father Ugarte, who is called the founder of agriculture in Lower California, crossed over the mountain to a more suitable location at the mission of Vigge Biaundo, which had been destroyed some time before by hostile Indians. Ugarte restored the mission, made irrigating ditches, and planted fruit trees and vines. This effort was successful from a horticultural point of view, for in 1707 Ugarte made more wine than would suffice for mission use, and sent some to Mex- ico in exchange for other goods. Thus began the export trade in California wine. The Jesuits continued their establishment of missions in lower California until there were fifteen missions, at five of which there were vinevards, and presumably as many or more which had gardens with fruit trees. The variety of fruits grown in Lower California was small. They had figs, oranges, citrons, pomegranates, plantains, and some olives and dates. There were no North European fruits, with the exception of a few peaches, which, however, did not appear to thrive. The Jesuits were supplanted in Lower California, in 1768, by the Franciscans. The Franciscans, led by Junipero Serra, at once pressed northward, and entered the territory which is now the State of California. Their first establishment was at San Diego, in 1769. Thence they proceeded northward, brav- ing many perils, and undergoing great hardships, establishing missions through the coast region of the State. Credit is given (44) Fruits at the Missions. . 45 to the secular head of the expedition to San Diego, Don Joseph de Galvez, representing the king of Spain, for ordering the car- rying of seeds of fruits, grains, vegetables, and flowers into the new territory, and from the planting at San Diego the same varieties were taken tc the twenty missions afterwards estab- lished. Kinds of Fruit at the Missions.—It is of no little interest to ascertain how great a variety of fruits was grown in these mis- sion orchards. Vancouver, in 1792, found a fine orchard at Santa Clara, with apple, peach, pear, apricot, and fig trees, all thrifty and promising. He also describes at the mission of San Buena Ventura apples, pears, plums, figs, oranges, grapes, and peaches and pomegranates. Robinson described the orchards connected with the Mission of San Gabriel as very extensive, having among their trees oranges, citrons, limes, apples, pears, peaches, pomegranates, and figs. There were also grapes in abundance. Edwin Bryant noticed at San Luis Obispo Mis- sion the orange, fig, palm, olive, and grape. At the Mission San Jose he found an inclosure oi fifteen or twenty acres, the whole of which was planted with trees and grape-vines. There were six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance and in full per- fection. The quality of the pears he found excellent, but the apples and peaches indifferent. E. S. Capron, in a general enu- meration of the fruits grown at the missions, includes cherries.’ Early Planting by Others than the Padres.—Though the ear- lier Spanish population had the example of successful horticul- ture before them for half a century at the missions, they did not seem inclined to emulate the efforts of the padres upon their own grounds, except in occasional instances. General Vallejo planted fruit trees in Sonoma Valley as early as 1830, and of his place it is said: “It is an old and well-cultivated place, well known in all the northern portion of California while this State was still Mexican territory.” Exceptions there were, also, at the south. The old fruit garden on the Cumulos Rancho, in Ventura County, has become famous. Fremont, writing of his observations in 1846, says that among the arid, brush-covered hills south of San Diego he found little valleys converted by a single spring into crowded gardens, where pears, peaches, quinces, pomegranates, grapes, olives, and other fruits grew luxuriantly together. Scarcely had six years elapsed subsequent to the settlement of the pueblo of San Jose on its present site, before the inhabit- ants were enjoying the benefits of luxurious fruits. Before 1805 more was grown than could be disposed of in its natural state. Deciine of the Mission Orchards.—The decline of most of the mission orchards and gardens followed the secularization of the 46 Planting by Early Settlers. establishments in 1834. There were a few exceptions, where the mission lands fell into enterprising Spanish or American hands. During the years of neglect, the more tender trees died, and the more hardy survived. The pear and the olive vied with the vine in withstanding drouth and the trampling and browsing of the cattle that roamed unmolested through the deserted gardens. These pears, as will be described presently, were turned to good account by the early American settlers; the olive and the vine furnished cuttings for most of the plantations made during the first twenty years or more of American occupation. But it seems that not all the mission orchards were per- mitted to fall into decay after the secularization. In 1846 Bry- ant found at the Mission San Jose two gardens inclosed by high adobe walls. The area was from fifteen to twenty acres, all of which was planted with fruit trees and vines. There were about six hundred pear trees and a large number of apple and peach trees, all bearing fruit in great abundance, the quality of the pears being excellent, the apples and peaches indifferent. Other visitors to some of the mission orchards between the events of secularization and American occupation speak of being regaled with pears and milk, a dish which seemed to them ambrosial after the weary journeys overland across the deserts, or after months of ship fare. Planting of Mission Fruits by Early Settlers—There were quite considerable plantations, chiefly of mission grapes and oranges, by early settlers in the neighborhood of Los Angeles. General Bidwell says he saw in Los Angeles in 1845 the largest vineyards that he had seen in California, and the vines were the most thrifty. Wine was also abundant,—even the Angelica. Los Angeles had orchards, also, mostly of oranges. The largest orange orchards at that ume were those of Wolfskill, Carpenter, and Louis Vigne. Among the early planters of mission fruits in the northern part of the State was Yount, who planted vines in Napa Valley in 1838, and other fruits later. John Wolfskill, of Winters, saw grapes and peaches at Yount’s in 1841, and J. M. Pleasant took peach pits from Yount’s over into Pleasant’s Valley, Solano County, in 1851. Dr. Marsh, on his place at the base of Mount Diablo, had, in 1842, a mission grape vineyard more than an acre in extent, and in good bearing. The vines were planted about 1838. Mr. Wolfskill planted a few vines on Putah Creek in 1842. Partial Revival of the Mission Fruit Gardens —After the in- coming of Americans in 1849 some of the old mission trees were secured by enterprising men, and made to renew their youth by pruning, cultivation, and irrigation, that they might Russian Introductions. 47 minister to the great demand for fruit which sprang up among the gold seekers. The trees richly reciprocated the care and attention given them. The first fruits offered for sale in the San Francisco markets were from the pear trees of Santa Clara and San Jose Missions, and from the mission grape-vines of the same localities, and of Los Angeles County. These grapes, packed in sawdust, came up the coast by steamer, and were then re- shipped to the mining camps, arriving for the most part in good condition, and were very popular. It is recorded that one thou- sand five hundred tons of these grapes were sent from Los An- geles County to San Francisco and the mines in 1852. Another instance in which thrift followed neglect is seen in the fact that, in 1858, Don Andres Pico, who succeeded to possession of the orchard at the San Fernando Mission, did a considerable busi- ness in drying pears and other fruits, using the labor of the Indians. At the present time vestiges of the old mission orchards still remain, the pears and olives still bearing, and in some cases the old date palms guarding the desolate scenes, or standing as reminders of the old régime, while the new life of California is surging up around them. , RUSSIAN FRUITS. The second introduction of cultivated fruits to California was by the Russians. The exact date of their planting at Fort Ross on the ocean side in Mendocino County is not known, but is believed to have been as early as 1812. The present owner of the property is Mr. G. W. Call, who says the survivors of the original Russian planting look “‘very old and mossy, and are not very thrifty, but still bear some fruit every year.” They were planted too closely, and have undergone periods of neglect, no doubt. The trees are apple for the most part, but there were also cherries, and some of both fruits survive. The trees are all be- lieved to have been grown from séed, and if this be true some fortunate results were obtained, for there is still grown in Green Valley, Sonoma County, a medium-sized, bell-shaped apple, lightly striped with red, which is called the Fort Ross or Rus- sian apple, and was probably propagated by grafts from the Fort Ross orchard. Seeds were also secured from this source for foe en of apple trees in early days in that section of the tate. CHAP PERV: INTRODUCTION OF IMPROVED FRUIT VARIETIES. The first cultivated fruits of the old era came to California with the padres. The first fruits of the new era came with the American pioneers. Though not a little inquiry has been made, it is not yet possible to declare definitely who brought the first budded or grafted trees upon California soil, and it is hoped that this statement may induce someone to disclose this historic fact, which is of much interest in view of our wonderful growth in fruit production. Perhaps the first improved varieties of de- ciduous fruits arrived in 1846. Bb. M. Leiong, secretary of the California Board of Horticulture, says that it is a tradition in his family that his father, the late Martin Lelong, who came to California as a member of Stevenson's regiment, brought with him a small lot of French varieties of apples growing in a box, and that they were planted in Los Angeles. In the fall of ee W. H. Nash, now a resident of San Fran- cisco, joined with R. Kilburn in ordering from a nursery in western New York a a box of thirty-six fruit trees, which, packed in moss, well survived the journey around the Horn, arriving and being planted in Napa Valley in the spring of 1850. The shipment included Rhode Island Greening, Roxbury Rus- set, Winesap, Red Romanite, Esopus Spitzenburg apples; Bart- lett and Seckel pears; Black Tartarian and Napoleon Bigarreau cherries. Before this intreduction of grafted fruit trees, and, indeed, for several years afterwards, there were many shipments of fruit- tree seeds from the eastern States to California. Mr. Barnett, of Napa, planted Kentucky seed as early as 1847. T. K. Stewart says that he brought to California with him, in 1848, about two hundred pounds of vegetable and fruit seeds, the latter including peach, pear, and apple, all of which were planted on the Ameri- can River, within the present limits of Sacramento, in the spring of 1849. At the same time he planted figs and olives, and, in 1851, seeds of oranges. From all these he secured bearing trees. But these early efforts at improvement of California fruits were but faint forerunners of the zeal and enterprise which fol- lowed the great invasion by gold seekers. As soon as the first ( 48 ) The First Nursery Trees. 49 thought—to get gold directly trom the soil—would admit the second—to get it indirectly, by agricultural and horticultural arts—there came a demand for something better than the wild fruits of the mountains, better and more abundant than the fruits from the mission orchards. At first everything in the line of fruit-tree seed which could be obtained was planted. Thus the immediate vicinity of the mines soon began to show growing fruit trees. But seedlings of any kind would not satisfy the planters, and effort was put forth in every direction after grafted trees of the best varieties. Oregon had a few years the start of California as an inviting field for immigration, and the advan- tage also of winning the attention of those who went out, not as gold seekers, but as agricultural producers. Oregon had grafted trees in bearing, and nursery stock as well, about the time the demand sprang up for it in California. Its introduction was then, however, of very recent date. Up to 1847 the cultivated fruit of Oregon consisted of seedlings introduced by the Hudson Bay Company. In that year occurred the first considerable, if not the very first, introduction of grafted iruit upon the Pacific Coast. The story of that venture has been so often wrongly told that it is well to record its interesting incidents in the words of one quite near to the event, if not actually participating in it. Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, writes :— In 1847 my brother, Henderson Lewelling, crossed the plains from Henry County, Iowa, to Oregon, bringing with him a pretty general va- riety of grafted fruits. He fitted up a wagon for the purpose, selected small plants, and planted them in soil in the boxes, and watered them to keep them alive. He told me that in some places he had to carry water a mile, up the mountains, to save his trees. When he arrived in Oregon, late in the fall, he had something over three hundred plants alive. The same fall William Meek arrived in Oregon with a few varieties of fruit trees. He and my brother put their stock together, and commenced the first nursery of grafted fruits on the Pacific Coast. It was situated five miles south of Portland, just below Milwaukee, on the east bank of the Willamette River. For want of seedling stock they could not increase their nursery much until, in 1850, my brother John and I crossed the plains, bringing with us some apple seed, which we planted that winter. We also found a gentleman named Pugh, in Washington County, Oregon, who had planted some apple seed in the spring of 1850, which had grown well, and we bought his stock. During the winter of 1850-51 we put in about twenty thousand grafts. In March, 1851, I went to Sacramento, taking with mea box of grafts of apple, pear, peach, plum, and cherry, and sold them in Sacramento. I believe I have the honor of being the first to distribute grafted fruit in California. Other Early Introductions-—-The introduction of grafted trees, for sale by Mr. Lewelling in the spring of 1851, was quickly followed by other commercial importations, and by ship- ments by planters for their own use, so that the plantings of 1851-52 were quite large. Still there was great doubt as to the success of the trees. The late G. G. Briggs, after his great 50 Early Fruit Gardens. melon profits of 1851, went back to New York State for his fam- ily, and, returning to California, brought with him, as he says, “with no idea that they would succeed, but as a reminder of home,” fifty peach and a few apple and pear trees. To his sur- prise the trees grew well in 1852, and the next year blossomed and bore some of the best peaches he ever saw. ‘The pears also bore some fine fruit the same year. Besides the introduction of grafted trees which have been mentioned there were others in 1852, for, at a fair held in San Francisco in 1853, there were several kinds of apples, grown by Isaac A. Morgan, of Bolinas, on trees planted the previous year. Apples were also shown from Napa. David Spence, of Mon- terey, showed the first almonds grown in California. During the winter 1852-53 the distribution of grafted trees must have extended widely over the State. Five dollars for a smali tree was frequently paid at the nursery of Meek & Lewelling, in Milwaukee, Oregon, and the trees were carried overland into the mining districts of California, as well as brought to San Fran- cisco for distribution through the valleys. Friit Gardens, not Orchards.—It is interesting to note that much of the pioneer effort was expended upon fruit gardens rather than fruit orchards. Two ideas, at least, led in this direc- tion. One was the popular thought, which, however, was very early found to be erroneous, that frequent and copious irrigation was essential to the growth of fruit in this dry climate. Another was the ambition, which was correct, both from a horticultural and commercial point of view, to secure the fruit just as soon as possible, for the double purpose of determining what was adapted to the novel conditions, and to secure the magnificent prices which fruit commanded in the market. For these ends dwarfing stocks naturally suggested themselves, and were em- ployed to an extent which seems wonderful when it is remem- bered that now hardly a fruit tree in the State is worked upon a dwarfing stock. Very early, say from ’52 to ’58, at-San Jose, Oakland, Stockton, and Sacramento, small areas, which would now only be considered respectable house lots, were turned to great profit with dwarf pear and apple trees. The place of Mr. Fountain, near Oakland, was called, in 1857, “The finest orchard of dwarf trees in the State.” It consisted of three acres set with one thousand six hundred apple and pear trees, all dwarf from root grafts, two years old, and four feet high, and most of them in good bearing. He started the branches from the ground, pruning severely, and heading in during the winter. He claimed that dwarfing gave him better and larger fruit, and from two to three years sooner than with standard trees. He did not irrigate, but plowed frequently, four inches deep, up to the first of June. Landscape Fruit Planting. 51 But though these dwarf-tree gardens were formally declared “to be the fashion,” and though the list of stock of one Sacra- mento nurseryman, in 1858, included ninety-five standard and eight thousand and sixty-cight dwarf pear trees for sale, the foundations of the greater orchards were early laid upon the basis of standard trees. Thus the Briggs orchard, of one thou- sand acres, on the moist land of the Yuba, was planted with trees sixteen feet apart each way, and Mr. Lewelling, and other early planters on the rich lands of central Alameda County, adopted about the same distance. Quite in contrast, too, with the prevalence of dwarf trees, and contemporaneous with it, was the grand plan upon which the pioneer of pioneers, General Sutter, laid out his orchard on Hock Farm, on the west bank of the Feather River, eight miles from its junction with the Yuba, of which the following description was written about the time the trees were coming into bearing :— Several acres were set apart for an ornamental fruit orchard, the trees and shrubs being so arranged as to present a unique landscape garden, nearly every article in which is productive of fruit. The arrangement of the fruit trees is peculiar, a large portion of them being set on either side of the broad avenues opening through the extensive grounds in various direc- tions, imparting to the whole an air of picturesque beauty seldom seen. But neither the narrow dwarf-tree garden plan nor the broad landscape-garden plan has survived. Neither of them harmo- nized with the commercial idea of orcharding—large produc- tion and economy of cultivation, and both are now but curiosi- ties of the early horticulture of California.. Irrigation Abandoned.—The early abandonment of dwarf trees suggests also the early abandonment of irrigation in the valleys of Northern California—as early as 1856. Facilities which had been secured for irrigation of orchards were allowed to go unused, because it was seen that it was better not to use them. One case is reported in Napa County where means to furnish the orchard with thirty thousand gallons of water per day were allowed to lie idle. The substitution of cultivation for water, of course, attended this reflorm. The announcement of a practise, in 1856, “to plow deep, dig wide and deep holes for planting, and work the ground from February to July, allowing no grass or weeds to grow among the trees,” shows that the thorough and clean culture, for which California is famous, is not a recent idea in our practise. Even the abandonment of the plow, and almost weekly use of the cultivator, was the practise of some growers in the San Jose district as early as thirty years ago. In fact, the descriptions of orchard management in that day include nearly the whole variety of methods which now pre- 52 Tne first Over-Supply. vail. The experience of the last decade has shown that irrigation facilities are more valuable even for deciduous fruits than was once thought possible. This proposition will be discussed in the chapter on Irrigation. ; Early Wisdom and Enterprise-—It is evident to anyone who studies the records, that California was very fortunate in num- bering among the early settlers so many men with horticultural tastes, skill, and experience. The rapidity with which fruit trees were multiplied, and the confidence with which these early com- ers entered upon the nursery business, shows their training. Although there were many trees brought here from the East and from Europe, they constituted only a very small per- centage of the plantings of the first few vears, but the orchards, with the exception of a very small number of trees introduced to furnish grafting and budding stock, were the product of the soil. When this is borne in mind, it becomes all the more won- derful how so much could be done in a new country, in a distant part of the world, in so very short a time. It was an observa- tion which was put upon record as early as 1856, that “some varieties of fruit are much improved by change to this State, and some are not benefited.”” The test seems to have been that if a variety was not better than at the East, it should be discarded. The First Oversupply—The wonderful stimulus given to the fruit interest by the results attained in growth and in marketing, soon induced larger plantings than the demand warranted. In 1857 it was publicly stated that “there are single farms in this State, containing each over half a million fruit trees in orange and nursery—one person owning enough trees, when fully ma- tured, to produce as much fruit, other than grapes, as will be sold this year throughout our State. ‘The day is not far distant when fruit will be an important crop for raising and fattening swine.” This was, to a certain extent, a statement of a croaker, for plantations continued, rare varieties were brought from the East, the South, and from Europe; the growth of some fruits continued to be very profitable, and the nursery business, con- fined to fewer hands, was profitable also. The idea that quality rather than size should be striven for led to more discrimination in propagation and better treatment of trees. The decade from 1858 to 1868 was one of quiet in the fruit interest of California. Many of the too hastily and carelessly planted trees died from lack of proper cultivation and pruning, and the borer wrought sad havoc. In 1860 and 1861 there was serious depression. It is recorded that peaches were worth but one cent a pound, and many were allowed to yo to waste as not worth gathering. The flood of 1862 destroyed many trees along the Sacramento Rivey, and replanting was slow until prices be- Overland Shipment. Sie) gan to improve, as they did soon afterward. The rapid devel- opment of the mining interest in Nevada, and the construction of roads across the Sierras, opened the way for the disposition of much fruit grown in the foot-hills and in the region around Sacramento. The imports of dried and canned fruits were large, and growers were exhorted to take steps to secure this trade for themselves. Something was done in this direction, for by 1867 the local product of canned fruit was equal to the demand. Dry- ing did not advance so fast; for two years later there were im- ports of six thousand barrels of dried apples, while the hundreds of thousands of bushels of the fruit were rotting under the trees in our orchards. The decade under review was also notable for the first appearance of cured raisins and prunes at the State fair of 1863. The raisins were from the Muscat of Alexandria grape, and the report states that so-called raisins exhibited previous to that time were merely dried grapes. Dr. J. Strentzel, of Martinez, was the first exhibitor of Muscat raisins, and he exhibited also dried grapes of four varieties to show the contrast between a raisin and a dried grape. J. R. Nickerson, of Placer County, exhibited the dried prunes, which were of the German variety. Though this decade was one of uncertainty and doubt, there were rich lessons of experience learned, and the foundations for coming greatness were well laid. Many of our leading lines oi production trace their beginnings to this period, and their later developments have been beyond any anticipations then cher- ished. The New Era.—Another era in California may be marked as beginning with the year 1869, because then the first fresh fruits were sent East over the newly-opened overland line. This period of our growth is too recent to warrant prolonged discus- sion. The incidents, many of which are not pleasant to recall, are within the memory of many. The first season’s shipments amounted to thirty-three tons of pears, apples, grapes, and plums; in 1870 seventy car-loads, or about seven hundred tons, were sent. The Eastern shipment of fresh fruits began its new era with the year 1886, when the first full train load of fifteen cars of fresh fruit from deciduous trees went overland. Shipping train loads of oranges from southern California began at an earlier date. During the present decade shipments of fruit and fruit prod- ucts have increased until a very large aggregate in weight and value has been attained. The volume of shipments beyond State lines is shown by the following statement, compiled from the records of the State Board of Trade. Our Surplus Fruit Products. + Ww ze ‘S Cr 6 I z OI wees sees cesses ¢ I vz 19 6¢z Jejeyr avl oot gle ‘1 obg‘t zSo'v 6 I (6; 8 es 88 ZLlt Lob rénifl 946 zg ‘tr goS‘b 7ST ¢ Perec sec sewees: can Sol OgI zgI Sov O10‘T 69z ‘I LOI‘ eee eereesessses see eeeees cesses. se eeeseesee coe eee e ewe cesees see ecw ese seeees "www ene seeseevree |, ee eee es seseeee Pee eeereescenes se eee wee ceeeee ee eee eres eneee: . Oa tee ea) 20 (0 fs peace rae sues sesh 2 TAT ser SUOUWILUISIS F eater (ser as sce ante OTILIEI ION eee eee seeeee Soe A oo ei | Peewee reece eee secer res sound eeevcees sajddy po ssn eicIebons chet SC OUEISUG) Rue mecsaher ser ie ORCUTT, poses Sete Guyer ee eee ewes ereeee SO ry Oe eee oeen seeesese emcee ree eee eee seeene Or ccvcee seers coccces sodein eee sees eeese Hes woe en ese nnssavvcceee soyoeog * ELaNte Wietehcenaa racer eoncTa ‘SINANAIHS LINX SNOAGIDAC HSAYY AO NOILVOMISSVID ALVWIXOUddy o'zlo'et o'PSz'gt 8° L6g‘9 g bel'Y 9g 6EP of 0°609‘L £°Q19‘T 1°Lzo0‘6z vy LSc'Sp 890‘ gfSg't L:gvr‘ee L-bzg‘€v G°f99'Z 9°989'P vplz1e S926 ‘or ‘6029 ‘9 b'g46'9 8802 ‘Lz g'z£g'Sz e-Lbe Ez Speo]-1e9 [PIO L z*z69 ‘QI “SpeO|-se9 "Apurlq 29 OUT AN |r *speoj-aeo ‘satqeyjasa A, *ese°8**SDEOl-IEO jenby 0°96¢' Foe | z'1Lz‘06z o- Leh bee 6'brL z1¢ LYgr'eL 9°g0g'S 8 Sgo0'6e L6S1‘SL o'LbS ‘36 zoSf‘cl 6:9bS‘Sh g'zl6'b g Per're S-7zS'oP 0°9S1‘66 €°9fQ ‘LS Co: S6e ‘IP LYyec'’ I 06£ ‘ov P-9gt‘t9 ¢ Szg‘Sr1 g PSz‘99 9*zS¢'og Co eS6'¢e b'pS6'ob o'QzQ'is 0'hg96'9S z'z69‘06 z°990'Llz t°gzg ie S-96L'1 6 60h ‘LE zZ'9QE'SP o LSL‘og £*Z11 ‘0g € zz6‘gg1 “alee sertrs en > STON TIO: LE CHES Ges 6"190‘z b-¢L9 ‘gz zt ‘zgl‘6z ¢ LSg'be C-PLe‘6S o-S6L'ze 6-gSe'T I 6LL‘zz 06 6'ze b-1z6‘ob 6°gbhS‘oS Heeeeeeee SUNT DaUUeD) Saaer seeteseeeeecey eeetenees GaN) AT rateeeeeeeeeseee SUISIE MT agoranteee “s SIMA Pa 9602 ‘he Bee ewww eee eeween “Suny snajyig o-cvo'pe snonptdep ‘yso.y L68i 9681 S681 V68l C681 c68I 1681 0681 "SANIYW Od ‘SATEVLIAOAA GNV AGNVUG ‘ANIM ‘SLINYY VINYOAIIVD AO ‘VHS Ad GNV TIVY Ad “SAVOT-AV) NI GNV SANNOg 000‘ 4O SNOJ, NI ‘SUVEA FAILAIASNOZ ANIN ‘ALVLS HHL 40 LNO SLNAWdIHS At the Close of the Century. 55 The Fruit Interest in 1899.—The fruit interests of California have reached the calm, deep waters which lie below the rapids. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the contest with injurious insects and plant diseases, and, in fact, in all things which contribute to success. It is true that there are problems still unsolved, and there have been grevious losses to individ- uals who have proceeded upon too great expectations or have erred in location for various fruits. Such mishaps will be less frequent in the future. At present there is a disposition to pro- ceed more cautiously and to profit by the lessons which have been learned, many of which will be mentioned in their proper places in later chapters. Some dimensions of the present fruit interests may be sug- gested by the following summaries and estimates based upon the returns of the County Assessors to the State Board of Equal- ization of the latest available date :— NUMBER AND ACREAGE OF FRuIT TREES AND VINES IN CALIFORNIA MARCH 1, 1898. FRUIT. Bearing Non-bearing. Total. Acreage. 9) 01 oracle aa eee 1,068, 362 532,067 1,600,429 21,339 BNP PICO Us iecess ac is0s-scssceccs 1,279,510 835,691 2,115,201 28, 202 WETC IY trres-ntecnesansedvensartn: 303,923 122,467 426, 390 5,685 Reese Stctsadensbsvcasscccseociec 143,331 63,619 206,950 2,759 NEPA CNN oss secs vent vais ses 488, 885 865,044 1,353,925 18,052 Orange AcDOSCSCHESODBDOaHPSC ee 2,318,481 1,608, 202 3,926, 683 52,355 METI Ace asceccesecosce ceeeeces 250 100 350 g ROMElO™....0..sccsscssees =>. 2,233 222277, 24,460 326 OU Sree ee ccc cecscabiceseuaotsces 420,791 782,570.| 1,203,361 16,044 Peach nancceeeeceeceoeer sreceeees 3,514,429 1,695,124 5,209,553 69,454 PIC GrAM TS ie). vecesestnsace a: 15,625 257 15,882 212 OUNCES eiciee se scns sober teres 4,988 692 5,680 56 POAT ie cewane catusse secscaciens. 1,086, 194 487,984 1,574,178 20,989’ GUN eC wEenCh ..2.cscear sree 4,612,293 2,295,633 6,907,926 92,105 TMS, OUREL..:-..2..c6 65 : 573,729 400,649 974,478 12,993 JE] GN Guo etnapea tee eep rere 7,632 4,406 12,038 160 UNMOMGa2c.scens conse acs coeees 959,179 538,378 1,497,557 19,967 ROP PUATI Ey taco e c= veins. ce 5 cba 282,381 257,733 540,114 19,289 Wclassified * oc. 55. s..c0ca2 123,284 133,243 256,527 2,565 Grapes acres\.c-.cs-2.0.c000. 144,070 MGM TAT \Kereeecsmon eres 159,844 MR OLALGH eames tesa eres 17,205,500 10,646,086 | 27,851,586 542,399 * From the records of March 1, 1897. It is customary to add about 20 per cent to the summaries from the assessors’ reports, because their figures are likely to be below the facts. There have been, however, so many reduc- tions of area during the last two years, either from natural 56 Thirty Millions tn Fruit. causes or of disappointment in returns from the trees, that it is doubtful whether the eftective acreage of fruits should be counted any higher than that given. VALUATION OF A YEAR’S HORTICULTURAL PRODUCTS. The California State Board of Trade estimates the gross value of a year’s shipments beyond State lines as follows:— KINDs. | Pounds. Selling price Value. | per 1b. Biresht }decidtious:cc-cuess->. ssceeceadeenees | 139,464,400 2c $ 2,789,288 (Ci AUIS REAR sea rec eA conasaticarta ortega ce Seales Olea 7 GOO 2c 7,226,356 Dreds deciduous Ave... <.--cs-s+soneceese 153,325,400 4c 6,133,016 RRAISINIS) sscnescrecteedeeette sees nese eoheceeee 95,592,600 334C 3,584,723 INUUIES Vice bed coaseewaciacatins to ssleccncseaeestaceae 11,631,600 6c 697,896 Canned; (deciduousii..-....+2-24ns-0 Ae A re a pod ae ES > Hem Oe See ee eee em Rd called cell boll loll coll lv ar | fF ll a@eihboeaoaa: petgtiinn: Double Squares. Alternating Squares. Methods of Marking Off. 93 There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares available for planting at long distances, with growths between, which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees. VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES. Marking with a Plow.—This method was used in laying off some large orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two-horse turning plow is rigged with a “marker,’—a light wooden bar extending at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the desired distance between the rows of trees. ‘On the end of this bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds. When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to indicate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the furrows. Measure and Sight.—Another method which is quite com- monly used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combination of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plasterers’ laths pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will fill, After these are in place, measurement can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sighting through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as directed by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man has a good eye and patience enough. Marking off with a Wire-—A measuring wire or chain is, perhaps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length 94 To Find a Square Corner. of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and one-half inches in diameter, to be slipped over stakes; some use a larger ring, say three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the dis- tances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wires is made of small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diam- eter, made of several strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become kinked than the large wire, and can be easily measured and marked off to represent the distances at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed. This is done by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires to- gether again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slipping. In this way the same wire can.be easily arranged for planting vines or for the trees requiring the greatest distance be- tween the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretching can be taken up by retwisting, which can not be done with the stretching of a single wire. Finding a True Corner.—To use the measuring wire for lay- ing out trees on the square, itis necessary first to get one corner true, and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched parallel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the distance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting-point and measure off sixty feet along this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then from the starting-point measure off eighty feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point the temporary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hundred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the outside lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he desires, if care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire—providing the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. Quincunx Planting. 95 Rows on Hillsides—Laying off orchard or vineyard on hill- side too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in placing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill; thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little between the rows, then allowed to drop down hill one step, and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule will apply to vines. ; QUINCUNX PLANTING. There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean He @ Quincunx. “the arrangement of things, especially of trees, by fives in a square, one being placed in the middle of a square.’’ Trees set in quincunx would stand as shown in the accompanying dia- gram. To locate them in this form it is only necessary to pro- ceed as already described for planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the measuring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other. Near one end of the 96 Planting in Triangles. wire place another mark just half way between the end and the first tree mark; that is, if the trees are to be twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each twenty-four- foot mark. Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of put- ting the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there. Put stakes now at each twenty-four-foot mark again to locate the trees in that row. In the next row put the end of the wire at the first stake and proceed as in the first row. There- after using the end of the wire and the twelve-foot marks alter- nately, the stakes will be set in quincunx ali over the field. If the midway stakes are now pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about seventy-eight per cent more trees upon any given arca, but it brings the trees at irregular distances from each other, and except in furnishing a way to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary trees, there does not seem to be any advantage in it. PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES. This is the arrangement generally implied when the term “quincunx” is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant from each other, and thus the ground as equally divided as possible. The arrangement admits fiiteen per cent more trees to the acre than the setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three differ- ent directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities for irrigation. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does not admit of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is sometimes desirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving through the orchard. Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompanying sketch. oe a a ae It is termed hexagonal because, rees Planted in Hexagons. - . ote as the figure consists of six trees in- closing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because seven trees enter into its figure. An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the / Distances for Hexagonals. 97 measuring wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half-distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must be placed at different distances apart. Mr. H. A. Brainard, of San Jose, gives the following useful table, showing the distance for side stakes to reach desired dis- tance between the trees, and the method of calculating the num- bers of trees to the acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement :— Trees set Sextuple. Check-stakes should be TOMEESH APAaTtrwtacdscscccts sito ceceareeet seas Sit. 8. in. 1 I ie AO, DEST AN EEO 85 O- TOte AC2-5 oe Tele oma Gl art de scaccsssceds © seapeceake ese on To WOM Le bh wet esac acsteudsieneseeeercsstectees Tee LO are 18 . , sioes'oe parishes sites acta otee ce cae rig BURG: re 20 or Ys Sas oda eaten cote es cencsecsaees 7p Oe rl i. DIG tpt ah aac cents aos: ccctasccesr seeeiess ieee Nef ahs D2 arm Maer ect Ases cast on csolsesswasacees TOM 7 ‘‘ PAA, WinU Esa ic.csoae0-: 4.82 Daae, .20 m2 2.29 Chestnuts {z..........+. 9.52 B67. | 1.20 1.58 6.40 HUIS Sheed crelcescss cones: 7.81 4.69 | 85 .86 2.38 IGTAPES ee eacace scene sc5-- 5.00 Feo 25 ayia 1.26 WEGIMONSiacecdecrcincs core: 5.26 2.54 | 1.55 SO ln wt, Leek OIVESHaeeecscnecsnceseass 13.50 g.II 2.43 1.25 5.60 OA ES ee ace ecccesases 4.32 Pity 97 153 1.83 REACHES case casscoesese 5-30 3.94* LA BSc 1200 | ELEENIES) a8 SUES DO SPREE ECORED 2.50 1.34 .19 34 .9O Prunes, French...... 4.86 3.10 “22 .68 1.82 Peli Seyscccesee<-s cat's <- 5-35 3.41* | sais SIGE 1.81 WET OUI pactereaeneesaae 12.98 8.18 1.55 1.47 5.41 t Including hulls. * Estimated. FIRST AID TO THE INJURED SOIL. Based upon the clear characteristics of California soils as already indicated in the chapter on that subjcct, and supported by wide observation of results of fertilization, Dr. Hilgard gives these general suggestions :— Any large-scale fertilization should begin with phosphates and nitrogen, and, should this not prove fully satisfactory, then with potash also, this being the order in which these substances are likely to become deficient in most of our soils under cultiva- tion. Inthe course of time potash fertilization will become widely necessary in this State. Under continuous heavy cropping with small fruits, such as strawberries. potash fertilization has already, as a matter of fact, become necessary at some points, and will gradually become more so. On the gray soils of the foot-hills of Amador and Placer Counties it is necessary from the very outset, these soils being as poor in potash as Eastern lands. The same is true of some of the sandy lands of the interior. AVAILABLE SUPPLIES OF PHOSPHATES. Phosphatic manures are now being supplied to fruit growers by importers and manufacturers located in various California cities, and results attained by their use are such as to warrant continuance. They are bone and rock phosphates, which are 158 Potash Fertilizers. transformed into superphosphates, and, with nitrogenous matter added, serve as good applications both for growth and fruiting. Home-made Bone Manures—Much good bone manure can be made by collecting bones, heads, horns, feet, etc., from butchers’ shops or elsewhere. How to make such material avail- able, by simple proceedings, is described by Professor Hilgard as follows :— 1. Bones put into a well-kept (moistened) manure pile will themselves gradually decay and disappear, enriching the manure to that extent. 2. Raw bones may be bodily buried in the soil around the trees; if placed at a sufficient depth, beyond the reach of the summer’s heat and drouth and cultivating tools, the rootlets will cluster around each piece, and, in course of a few years, consume it entirely. 3. Bones may be packed in moist wood ashes, best mixed with a little quick-lime, the mass kept moist but never dripping. In a few months the hardest bones will be reduced to a fine mush, which is as effectual as super- phosphate. Concentrated lye and soil may be used instead of ashes. In this process the nitrogen of the bones is lost, going off in the form of ammonia, the odor of which is very perceptible in the tank used. For neither of these processes should the bones be burned. The burn- ing of bones is an unqualified detriment to their effectiveness, which can only be undone by the use of sulphuric acid. 4. Bones steamed for three or four hours in a boiler under a pressure of thirty-five to fifty pounds, can, after drying, be readily crushed in an ordinary barley-crushing mill, and thus be rendered more convenient for use. Practically, very little of the nitrogen (glue) of the bones need be thus lost. : POTASH. Though, as already stated, potash is commonly in good sup- ply in California soils, it is very desirable to guard supplies well, because, as the fruit analyses already given show, the use of this substance by fruit trees and vines is very large. Recent ex- periments also show that potash ministers directly to the quality of the fruit in some cases. Ashes from wood fires are the most available source of potash, but it is a mistake to regard wood ashes as valuable only for their potash contents. Professor Storer has found by analysis of a number of samples of house ashes, that selected samples contain 8’ per cent of real potash, and 2 per cent of phosphoric acid, or say 4%2 pounds of potash and one pound of phosphoric per bushel. Hence there is enough potash and phosphoric acid to make a bushel of ashes worth twenty or twenty-five cents, and besides that, some ten or fifteen cents additional may be allowed for the “alkali power” of the ashes, 7. ¢., the force of alkalinity which enables ashes to rot weeds and to ferment peat. These facts suggest to the fruit grower that he should care- fully preserve all home-made wood ashes and apply them to the soil at once, or, if stored for future application, be sure that they are kept dry. Leached ashes from the lye barrel, or ashes from Nitrogen and Gypsum. 159 open piles, leached by rains, are hardly worth handling. Coal ashes are almost devoid of fertilizing properties, though, if finely divided, as in the case of coals burning completely, their use is beneficial, mechanically, on clay soils, in the same way that fine sand would be. The chief supplies of potash salts are now brought from Ger- many and are in the hands of local dealers, but there are exten- sive deposits in Utah, New Mexico, and elsewhere in the interior, which can be employed when railroads make them available. NITROGEN. Nitrogen ministers directly to the vegetable activity of the plant and is a wonderful stimulant of wood growth and foliage. Supplies of this substance can be had from animal manures as far as available, but the most convenient, and at present cer- tainly the cheapest and most available, source of nitrogen at command of the farmer is Chile saltpeter, which contains about sixteen per cent of nitrogen, in its most effective form. From one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds per acre is the usual dose. Sulphate of ammonia is the other most available source of nitrogen obtainable in commerce; a good commercial article contains twenty per cent and over of nitrogen. It does not, however, act quite as rapidly as the Chile saltpeter. A sug- gestion of caution in the use of nitrogenous manures will be given presently. LIME, GYPSUM, AND MARL. Lime is another substance usually abundant in California soils, but still often desirable as an application. This is, notably, the case on our heavy clays or adobes, where, as has already been mentioned in another connection, the use of lime as a top dressing, at the rate of six hundred to one thousand pounds to the acre, not only makes the heavy soil more friable, but acts upon and makes available the large amount of organic matter which such soils usually contain. Lime also renders inorganic materials more available for plant food, corrects acidity, and may destroy insects and fungi. Application of lime is also desirable after applications of barn-yard manure have been made for several years; and it is especially valuable wherever, in alluvial _ soils rich in vegetable matter, there is an excessive growth of wood and leaf. Usually light soils are not materially benefited by the use of lime. Ground limestone is sometimes proposed as a fertilizer, and has ever been offered on the market. It is insoluble and inert carbonate of lime, and is not worth the cost of hauling any dis- tance. It cannot take the place of burned limestone. 160 Barn-yard Manure. Gypsum.—Gypsum, or land plaster (sulphate of lime), occurs in considerable quantities in this Siate and Nevada, and is now being mined and ground at a low price in the San Joaquin Val- ley. It acts directly in correcting soils made alkaline by presence of carbonate of soda. Applied to soils not alkaline, gypsum sets free potash, magnesia, and ammonia, which may be present in insoluble form; and it also causes potash to be transferred from the upper to the lower layers of the soil, so that roots can every- where find a store of it. Hence its special value when applied to deep-rooting plants. The reason why gypsum is so capricious in its action, which was long a mystery, is now held to be clear, because upon soils that are tolerably rich in fixed potash it will do good service, while upon soils poor in potash it will not. In any event gypsum is to be regarded as an excitant rather than as a form of plant food. Of the several uses of gypsum, probably its chief value lies in its power as an absorbent. If added to manure in excess it delays fermentation, and it is, therefore, not a desirable addi- tion to the compost heap. But for covering fermenting manures or scattering around moist places in horse and cow stables to absorb odors and fix volatile manurial substances it is of value. Marls.—Mar]l is a calcareous earth, and is called shell marl, rock marl, earthy marls, etc., according to its origin and mechan- ical condition. A number of samples from different parts of the State have been analyzed by Professor Hilgard, and some of them commended for local application to soils needing lime, but not valuable enough to warrant hauling far. BARN-YARD MANURE AND COMPOST. Where fruit growing is carried on with stock growing, there are abundant supplies of manure available, but this combination is not characteristic of California, though prevailing to some ex- tent, and likely to be more prevalent as fruit planting extends farther from the centers which are wholly given to it. But even in the fruit centers there are certain amounts of material avail- able from the animals that are kept for cultivation and hauling, or to be had, often, for the expense of hauling from adjacent towns. As already stated, coarse, unrotted manure can seldom be used to advantage in this State unless it be in heavy soils in regions of ample rainfall, or on lighter soils, perhaps, if well irri- gated; and even in such situations either finely-divided or well- rotted manure is infinitely superior. Corral scrapings, which are usually the first recourse when the idea of manuring springs up in a neighborhood, are not always well decomposed, but they are finely divided, and therefore decompose readily as compared Treatment of Compost. 161 with coarse straw, which, it is said, has been found practically unchanged even after lying two years in a dry, loose soil. It is, therefore, of the greatest advantage to prepare barnyard manure with care for use in this State by some such method as will be described below, which includes composting, thereby turning to account nearly all organic material likely to be available:— Clean up all the manure on hand just before the fall rains, putting the same on the land, and either cultivate it in or plowit under. What manure accumulates during the winter pile in a snug heap some five or six feet in depth, and throw it over some three or four times during the winter to keep it from burning, as well as to thoroughly mix it and thereby hasten decomposition. Put horse, cow, hog, chicken, and every other kind of manure that can be had, all together. Never burn anything that will rot, but haul to the pile corn-stalks, roots, and all squash, melon, tomato, and potato vines, etc., as well as weeds of every description, in fact, anything and everything that will decay and make vegetable matter. Use fresh horse manure mostly to hasten the decomposition of said vines, weeds, etc., alternating as the heap is made. By so doing there will not be a weed seed left with vitality enough to germinate. It it well to have manure piles under a roof to avoid leaching during the longest and most excessive rains, but so situated that some of the rain falling on the barn can be easily con- ducted to the piles, giving them just the amount of water necessary to wet thoroughly without leaching, and no more.* Treatment of Manure without Composting.—Even when com- posting all refuse vegetable matter with the manure is not thought worth the time and trouble, it is just as important to properly treat the manure when stored alone. This can be easily done by some such plan as is described below :— Collect the stable manure in a large bin and keep it wet enough to prevent burning or ‘‘fire-fanging.’? With a bin, say ten or twelve feet square and five or six feet high, built convenient to the barn, the manure can be placed therein and watered daily with much less trouble than it can be composted with other material. This, of course, presupposes the abil- ity to run the water in through a hose or by natural flow. Care must, of course, be taken that too much water be not supplied, causing the sub- stance to be leached from the pile. But in my own experience I find the danger is at the other extreme, and when I open my pile I sometimes wish I had used more water. In filling the bin leave one end or side open as long as possible, for convenience of filling. t Barn-yard manure and compost carefully prepared in some such way as described, and applied before the rains or early in the rainy season, to be turned under at the first plowing, will be in condition to be readily assimilated, and will not injure any soil. Sheep Manure.—The proximity of the orange orchards of southern California to extensive sheep ranges led to large use of the manure from the sheep corrals until supplies were practi- cally exhausted. Recently large deposits in the San Joaquin *Ira W. Adams, Calistoga. +B. C. Brown. 162 Value of Waste Products. Valley have been opened, and the material, which has shown value by analysis in one case of above $14 per ton, is finely ground and placed upon the market in a business way. ‘The deposit mined by George C. Roeding & Co., of Fresno, is sev- eral acres in extent and at some points the material is ten feet deep. Sheep manure is usually counted richer and quicker, though not so lasting in its effects, as stable manure. Being highly ni- trogenous, too free use of sheep manure tends to excessive growth of wood, especially on young trees. Old bearing trees may be benefited by such a stimulant. VARIOUS WASTE PRODUCTS. The care advised in saving and treating barn-yard manure, hen manure, bones, ashes, etc., should be extended to other waste products of the farm. Soapsuds should be allowed to run to adjacent trees unless used in the flower garden. Peelings and corings of fruit, cut for drying, should be fed to pigs and the resulting manure secured. It is not wise to corral the swine in a dry run in the summer and allow the manure to be sluiced out by the winter rise of the stream. Prunings.—Prunings of the orchard and vineyard should be burned between the rows, in small piles, so as to distribute the ashes well. Danger to adjacent trees may be avoided by using portable, home-made tin shields on the sides of the fires. It is not wise to carry all the prunings to the side of the highway and burn them there and allow the ashes to be lost. Vineyard prun~ ings are sometimes cut up with an arangement like a straw- cutter, which reduces them to bits about an inch in length. They are then scattered over the surface of the ground, turned under at the next plowing, and soon decay. Where, through light- ness of soil and short rainfall, the woody fiber does not readily decay, burning upon an iron sled about ten feet long is practised. At its front is a V-shaped iron rod, to which a horse can be hitched. On the sled are flaring sheet-iron sides and perforated bottom. This is filled with brush, a fire kindled, and as the horse moves forward fresh brush is added, while the ashes by its motion are sifted out very evenly all over the vineyard. Refuse from Wineries—TYhe fermented husks, stems, and seeds, all containing valuable fertilizing properties, are often spread on the road and in holes, where it is of no account what- ever. If scattered over the vineyard, much valuable substance would be returned to the soil. In some soils application of raw refuse would be undesirable because of the acidity developed. It is usually safe on calcareous soils, and for other soils should be a tii ih ners flow to Apply Fertilizers. 163 ‘ composted with lime or wood ashes to facilitate decay and neu- tralization of the acid. Oi winery refuse the lees are especially valuable because of the supplies of potash they contain, but they are now being largely used in the manufacture of tartaric acid. Other Waste Products-—There are available from various manufactories different waste products which.can not be specified. When any such material comes to the notice of the fruit grower, he should seek advice from the Agricultural Experiment Station, at Berkeley, as to the probable value of the material, and its special uses. CAUTION IN USE OF FERTILIZERS. Besides the injunction already given against application of fertilizers when the soil is already quite rich enough to produce good fruit and plenty of it, it should be noted that manures un- duly rich in animal matter should be used with caution, as they may oOverstimulate the plant, delay or reduce fruiting, injure the quality of the fruit, and possibly engender disease in the tree or vine. Excessive size and puffiness of oranges is clearly due to excessive use of nitrogenous manures. The effect, of excessive use of stable manures, or other manures very rich in nitrogen, upon the products of the vine has been frequently noted. METHODS OF APPLYING FERTILIZERS. Suggestions concerning proper application of barn-yard manures, both to young trees at planting and to bearing trees and vines, have already been given. The same conditions which cause slow decomposition of stable manures apply to any fertil- izing material which is not readily soluble in water. All such material should be in a finely-divided state. Surface applica- tions of ground bone, will, in the dry climate of California, lie practically unchanged for a long period. Ground bone should be plowed in as deeply as can be done without injury to the roots of trees and vines, and then, if the surface is kept culti- vated, it will lie in moist strata and decompose, or be seized by the searching rootlets. On the other hand, superphosphate, or other really soluble chemical fertilizers, will produce immediate results, and can be most economically used on light and easily permeable soils, on which falling water sinks and does not flow over the surface. In leachy soils a part of such fertilizers might be carried down beyond the reach of shallow-rooting plants, but there is little danger of this in the case of trees and vines. When superphosphate is used on irrigated ground, it is sometimes drilled in to prevent its being carried along with the running water. One way is to run a chisel-tooth cultivator 164 Fertilizers in Irrigation Water. ahead of the grain-seed drill and to distribute and drill in the fertilizer as deep as feasible to do without injuring the roots. Manures with Irrigation Water.—Distribution of fertilizers by using the flow of irrigation water is described by A. S. Chap- man, as follows :— We shovel sheep thanure into the irrigating ditches, allowing each tree to receive about twenty-five pounds at each separate irrigation. Our basins cover the entire surface of the ground. We make no effort to choke such weeds as clover, alfilerilla, and the like; but the irrigator with his hoe destroys the obnoxious nightshade, hoarhound, and nettle. In the fall of the year we follow with copious liming—about three bar- rels of unslacked lime to the acre—applied in the following manner at the head of our irrigating ditch: We plant a box about three feet wide, six feet long, two feet deep, and six inches under the surface of the running water. In it we place a barrel of the lime. It slacks and swells to twice its orig- inal bulk. A man stands on this with his hoe and sees that the water car- ries it off evenly. With an irrigating head such as we use, a man will run into the ditch four barrels a day, or about three barrels to the acre. We have a considerable fall, and the water runs very rapidly; but it takes up all the lime, and the water runs white, like milk. We now leave the orange orchard till spring, when we plow under weeds, manure and lime. We thus aim to supply our soil with nitrate of lime, potash, and magnesia. Carbonic acid gas is absorbed by the water and attacks the inert plant food in the soil; hard-pan is prevented both by the mechanical effects of the vegetable matter and the lime. The basin method of irrigation, to which allusion is made, will be more fully described in the following chapter. FERTILIZING MATTERS IN IRRIGATION WATER. Water used for irrigation may carry in solution injurious substances, as, for example, alkali, as will be noted in the follow- ing chapter; or it may carry very valuable fertilizing properties. These facts can only be determined by analysis. Professor Hil- gard has found that the water of one creek in Alameda County carries to the land it irrigates about half a grain of potash in each gallon, which means that if twelve inches of such water were used on the ground during the season, each acre would receive therefrom about twenty pounds of fully available potash. At Riverside a crop of oranges requires about forty-two pounds of potash per acre, of which the amount of irrigation water gen- erally used contains thirty-five pounds besides other matters re- quired by plants. These things have a definite cash value in the market; and this value the irrigator gets as a free gift in addition to the water. Even in the case of the Nile, the sediment is only part of the sum of fertility conveyed by the river. GREEN MANURING. Green manuring consists in plowing under a growth of weeds or a sown crop to secure by its decay a contribution of a te ge Pe ee — Green Manuring. 165 humus to the soil. All plants by their decay in the soil add or- ganic matter to it, and this matter is of nitrogenous character, but leguminous plants do this and a great deal more, for by their exclusive ability to use atmospheric nitrogen, There is also special value in deep-rooting legume in soil amelioration. There is now reason to believe, as has already been stated, that where moisture is ample for both alfalfa and trees we shall come to using this plant for a permanent cover of orchard ground as a substitute for a part of the clean culture which is now observed. This is, in fact, already being done to some extent. It is also probable that alfalfa can be used for a certain time even where its permanent stand is not desirable, for it is not difficult to de- stroy alfalfa with a well-sharpened plow although the roots may have attained considerable thickness. Of course this, as already stated, depends upon moisture supply; where that is not abund- ant clean culture for moisture conservation is unavoidable. But where moisture in excess of the needs of the trees is available it will be used in future indirectly for their benefit in ways we are only just beginning to discern, and one of these is likely to be the summer growth of legumes in the orchard. This is, however, largely a matter for future determination, and under ordinary conditions may never be practicable. The wider problem is to secure a leguminous plant which will make a heavy growth during the winter months, so that it can be plowed in early in the spring, and the ground put in shape for the thorough surface pulverization to prevent evaporation of moisture during our long, dry summer. For this reason we can- not use many plants which are used for green-manuring in humid climates. Crimson clover, cow peas, etc., do not make good winter growth. They make exuberant growth for a time in the spring when heat is adequate and moisture abundant, but at that time it is too late to grow crops for plowing under because the soil is too dry for their decay and their presence tends other- wise to the loss of moisture and makes it very difficult to secure a good surface tilth. The greatest care must be had not to allow a growth of weeds to stand too long or its covering will do more harm than good. These tender legumes may have some local value on moist lands in the summer time, but hardy legumes are the desideratum both for winter forage and green-manuring. The common “bur clover’ (Medicago denticulata) is proving very satisfactory in some parts of the State, and the “Canadian field pea” is coming into quite wide use in some of the southern citrus orchards. Experiments are also in progress with the lupines which may yield valuable results. Adu) UOH VIAVIIATV AO HIMOUD YALNIM “spurlysiH seq “10istd “W *‘M Ad ONTYONVW N Sal Ne a8 ill cal kee: On Va ERRIGATION OF FRUIT. TREES AND. VINES. Whether fruit shall be grown with irrigation or not is a local and specific question, and it must be answered with due regard — for several conditions, among which are: First, the minimum local rainfall; second, the character of the soil and subsoil; third, the situation and environment of the ground on which the fruit is to be grown; fourth, the kind of fruit which it is desired to produce. These conditions are all correlated, and a knowledge of them all is necessary to an intelligent decision as to correct prac- tise in any given locality. For example, the amount of rainfall which is adequate in one locality, or in one situation, even, may be quite insufficient in another, because, first, one soil may be deep and fairly retentive, into which roots can penetrate and find abundant moisture; second, another soil may have sufficient depth, but be so porous as to lose its moisture by evaporation, or so leachy as to lose it by drainage; third, still another may be shallow, and quickly dried out under a fervid sun, or quickly drained by reason of a sloping substratum of rock or hard-pan, while another similar soil, differently situated, may receive abund- ant moisture from the drainage of the slope above it; fourth, possibly in all the soils cited there might be adequate moisture for deciduous fruits, but citrus fruits would require irrigation; or enough for young, but not for bearing trees. Thus it appears that even to decide whether a Iccation has sufficient rainfall for the growth of fruit without irrigation, one must pass judgment upon all the conditions first mentioned. It is hardly worth while, then, to discuss such a topic upon theoret- ica lgrounds, or to attempt to answer the general question, Shall irrigation be employed in the growth of fruit?) The true guide is enlightened local experience, and the true test is the growth of the tree and the excellence of its fruit. So iong as the grower is able to secure every year a generous amount of good-sized and excellent fruit by natural rainfall, he need concern himself very little about irrigation; if his tree shows distress, and his fruit, even when properly thinned out, is not up to market stand- ards every year, he may do well to provide himself with irriga- tion facilities, either for constant use or to supplement rainfall when it is occasionally deficient. ( 167 ) 168 When Irrigation ts Needed. Of course it is not commended as a rule of practise that the grower wait until the tree shows signs of distress before applying water. This is a very bad plan of proceeding, but the visible language of the tree is mentioned as indicating once that the tree needs help, either at regular intervals or occasionally, and after such a warning the grower should be able to tell by examination of the soil and by study of the local rainfall record when this need will occur, and apply his water in advance of the need. Recent experience has enabled fruit growers in all parts of California to arrive at a truer conception of the relation of irriga- tion to the growth of fruits. Many who have long scouted the suggestion that irrigation was necessary for deciduous fruit trees in their districts, have during the last few years found that water, in addition to the rainfall, was very profitable, either to enable large, bearing trees to produce larger fruit, or to maintain in full vigor their later summer growth and to make strong fruit buds, which ensure the following year’s production. It has also been widely demonstrated that a tree which is adequately supplied with water, no matter whether it be directly from the clouds or through the irrigating stream, yields fruit of better size, aroma, flavor and carrying quality than a tree which, from any cause, falls even a little short of an adequate supply. It is clear then that neither irrigation nor non-irrigation are in themselves prin- ciples, but are merely methods to be employed when conditions demand the one or the other. The fact that water is sometimes used to excess, and the fruit thus grown is found te be lacking in using and carrying qualities, militates not against irrigation, but against the igno- rance or carelessness of the grower. It has been clearly shown by the experience of our fruit-shippers and canners that wisely- irrigated trees bear fruit admirably suited to their purposes, and that if proper size is not attained with the natural rainfall, by proper cultivation, pruning, and thinning, irrigation should be resorted to. Of course the water should be applied at proper times, in proper amount, and in a proper way. HOW MUCH WATER SHOULD BE USED? This is by its very nature a very elusive question and any attempt to answer it by definite prescription is more apt to pro- duce folly than wisdom. For as it appears that whether irriga- tion is at all needed or not depends upon several conditions which must be ascertained in each place, so the amount of water, which is really an expression of the degree of that need, depends also upon local conditions of rainfall, of soil depth and retentive- ness, of rate of waste by evaporation, of the particular thirst of each irrigated crop, etc. The result secured by the use of water a ee lrrigation for Citrus Frutts. 169 is really the ultimate measure of the duty of water in each in- stance. Jn the case of fruit trees and vines, then, whatever amount of water secures thrifty and adequate wood growth and strong, good-colored foliage, but not excessive or rank growth; and abundance of good-sized and rich, but not monstrous and watery, fruit, is the proper amount for that place and that pro- duct,—and to the ascertainment of that amount, by local expe- rience of himself and others, the grower should employ his most earnest thought and his keenest insight. It is, however, a fact that this rapid generation seeketh per- sistently after a sign, and has more respect for one who declares a recipe than for one who suggests a reason. Evidently some outlines, at least, of a prescription must be attempted, and possi- bly it may serve as some sort of a measure to those who may be beginning without any knowledge whatever on the subject. During the year 1899 the writer renewed his data of the irri- gation practise of California fruit growers by systematic inquiry, and presents in adjacent tables a partial transcript of the results, which may be suggestive to inquiring minds. INSTANCES OF IRRIGATION FREQUENCY, SEASON AND VOLUME. CITRUS FRUITS. Rainfall, No. of Time of Acre-inches* Sans CounTy chon: one irrigations. Mae ese ; Totals. Mare ccs hscssed TOM US efor) Gan Aphilito-Oct 35 54) ZO tO 32 YO NE a ES a ae Sitolto Mar. to. Octz, 76 48 to 60 SEESIIO NM se eas cue nos Santon 7) ApH toxOcte. 2 to 14 Wiemtiitarcss fc... 20% 5 to 6...) Mar. to Oct. 2% 12% to I5 Los Angeles...... year] Junerto; Oct. "6 ta- 46 Lov) tOn27 SYS huysen Guam Io 66 May to Oct.. 3% 21 De cratiars ck Vits)-on es June to Oct.. 4 12 COS ORB 20 3to 4 July toSept. 1% 4% to 6 Behan Rv) ats a 20 ea ttOne 7 ‘ Ste kay Betoun? Ae CT ase BOG ss i vebaeso4 ch CO re 2 4% to 12 SPC AT ot 200) 7, Mar. to Nov. 1% 10% eS Nay Sena Tens Ay Se ee. BEM Ae elo setae) May toOct. 1% 9 PRAM ELED Ls ccice 20% 7 Aprilto Oct.. 1% 10% Seog ene ES; 4 July to Oct. 1% 6 rangers. cewee ss 15.504 Mav to Oct.. 2% Io Ta A eae Io 4to 8 sf cake ih Ss) 8 to 16 CUS Sle ARSE eee E220" tors ae MER Beier ca7 | 24 t0.32 Riverside ......... Pea | May to Nov.. 3 21 ean bac ts x: 70 Apr.to Sept. 1% 10 Ca Ree ae TOs Apr. to Nov.. 3 21 SPEATe cA aacee es rota ye) Apr. to Dec.. BG wee zs o's EL) tO May to Nov.. Beye cl sste ee 10 4 to 6 May toSept. 6 24 to 36 San Bernardino. 12 6 to 7 Juneto Oct... 4% to Io 24 to 31% BON Mi Nan ten oe 4 to 6 May toSept. 6 DAgetORA0 PAMPER: car. tO A May to Oct... 2% 10 Bop arn wee Teoh ys “ tis tran wing 15 AD A eee ak TOs Anto.3S fs Se Nas) 8 to 16 Seated Cece Se LOutOnwes me Gs iat eitaesk 2Aatk tO32 Behe Wie vasdoks iis euler June to Oct.. 3 9 T2 Ty One), x: lrrigation for Deciduous Fruits. INSTANCES OF IRRIGATION FREQUENCY, SEASON AND VOLUME. DECIDUOUS FRUITS. Hi No. of Tim ; Acre-inches* CouNTY Rote ineiges ReBiectincn: TA e Peers, Shasta sviest ue. AOE 63htO0 eA reno UmliMety ccc. 2 6. tonnes Butterercc.seesess 280 Wr February...... 12 12 Colusa a cut,s.c0 £2 Ee OM ee ler NOM rea 12 12 toa Nevada sui-.::.-.« AOnnaL Summer ...... 2% 24 BlaCence iene ose 25 TO May to Oct... 1% 12% Sacramento ..... iS 5 June to Oct... 5 Seite ally Caco Bi tOAy Sve Or SCD twain, 3% to 5 Sep Pia tema a ROMO LO. a Mes LOA Uo wee, Io to 12% Santa Clara...... TOW ent ste? teeta tO] Mlesmae 3. tO meg Bede eie, totus F 209 a wos Mier elvis. ses 12 12 PUNT Nelgieeaye iosth ye) July to Aug.. 4 12 Sarit Ve cae tSak Teak WYIGEERs 5. 8 to Io 8 to 10 SR Se eae Os Jan. to July. 4 12 Monterey ...:..... 1G. 2b tO 4 Meprito June) a 4° ton6 Merced........... 12) 3eton Aes, Sumime:n -s. Datos? 6) tore eC eeeee tale TOM 2itO a4 Sty pan teceselet Bie EORO 6 to 24 Biresnoetes eet cke So sntOm od BES 2% 7% to Io evanscacackenats Sina February...... 12 12 S ehcRc rene Sine Mar. to July.. 6 12 Kain os ste etasee tence 7 2s tO -- A a OUMiIn Cin ctece 4 8 to 16 oa eee a aa Ar Mar.to June. 4 8 Leh fe ea eee ae ee 3% 5 Apr. to Aug. 1% 7% Los Angeles..... 18 I Mar./o1n Apr. 0) 7 tong 62) COWS Spee Mohan ao MeT MUL secstoysescee 6 6 SECU Ania ese 12 2to 3 June toNov. 4 8 to 12 Orangersic-eess LS een tOm (rita SMMC liens cee 2 4.0: tOP 26 PAO cohcme Ue at Teese Nie) ior Dieta 4 8 Riverside ... ..... {5 +37 to -‘6e:' “May'to Sept; 1% 44. to: 79@ ae pe ean Los to ae = Apréte Sept: 224 5 teeta San Diego ........ Sov asmtoO. 15 SUMMEetjens 2 6 to Io ay heise ittsyee S er ie ee 3 9 * An acre-inch is an actual depth of one inch over the surface. The foregoing outline of local practise shows that infinite variety exists and in the nature of the case must exist, and that any definite prescription of the duty of water is impossible. The compilation includes, however, the extremes, and in this way gives a sort of picture of prevalent practise. In some cases cited, in which the amount of water at each irrigation seems small, the fact is due to the use of small basins, while in this computation the contents are reduced to acre-inches which cover the whole surface; in other cases, as, for instance, the frequent irrigations in Sacramento and Placer Counties, the soils are shal- low, overlying bed-rock, and a small amount saturates them. In other places an acre-foot of water is readily absorbed and re- tained in the deep soil. The annual rainfall is also seen to have — little relation to the amount of irrigation, because neither fine — shallow, nor deep coarse soils, can retain the volume of water which falls upon them during the rainy season. Then the vary- Winter Irrigation. 171 ing rate of evaporation, the character of tilth, etc., enter as fac- tors, and it becomes clear that he is fortunate enough who knows how much water to use on his own place. WHEN TO IRRIGATE. The outline of experience which has been given includes times for irrigation as well as amounts of water used, but when to irrigate is governed by local conditions and the needs of different fruits and can not be stated in general rules. There are, however, some principles involved which may be hinted at. Winter Irrigation—On lands with sufficient depth of fairly retentive soil, the grower may artificially supplement a scanty rainfall by thoroughly soaking the land by winter irrigation, and then by careful summer cultivation he will be able to conserve enough water in the soil to carry deciduous fruit trees or vines through bearing and autumn bud formation without further water supply. but there are other situations in which no amount of winter irrigation nor rainfall will suffice for these ends. There are foot-hill orchard areas in which the winter rainfall is two or three times as great as in the valley situations where fruit is suc- cessfully grown without irrigation, and yet water must be applied in summer on those foot-hills or the fruit would be unmarketable and the trees in distress. The forty or more inches of rainfall falling on a shallow soil underlaid by a sloping bed-rock in some cases nearly sluices the cultivated soil from its foothold, and yet the oversaturation in winter avails nothing for summer growth, because most diligent cultivation can not retain moisture enough in shallow soil thus situated to sustain bearing trees in good crops of full-sized fruit. The same is true of valley soils under- laid by hard-pan. In such cases winter irrigation could add nothing but distress to the soil oversoaked by rainfall; and sum- mer irrigation, well-timed and adequate, is the secret of success in the orchard. The same conclusion must hold for soils under- laid by gravel or sand and thus too rapidly dried by leaching. But even this generalization must be accepted only for sit- uations endowed with conditions which justify it. There may be sloping hills with shallow soil where winter rainfall does not amount to saturation. Then winter irrigation to supply such saturation is desirable, and then, too, summer irrigation in proper amount and at proper intervals, will also be demanded. Among the foot-hills, also, there may be localities with depth of - retentive soil in which water enough can be applied in winter to carry trees through the year. Thus we come again to the only safe generalization which can be made, and that is, that everywhere water must be adequate to the demands of the tree at the time it is needed, and whether it can best be applied in 172 Summer Lrrigation. summer or winter, or both, or whether it is not necessary to make any artificial application at all, depends upon existing con- ditions which the grower must ascertain and to which his policy and practise must conform. It is a fact, however, that in all soils, which under good cultivation are fairly retentive, winter irrigation, when water is most abundant, and usually carries most sediment, can be made to go far toward making summer irrigation unnecessary for all deciduous fruits. As to winter irrigation, practise varies, some relying upon a single heavy flooding by using checks on contour lines, by which, perhaps, a foot in depth or more of water is allowed to soak into the soil; others use the same method of application in winter as in summer, and, thercfore, give a number ol irrigations in winter. There is, of course, much less danger of injury by water to deciduous growths in winter, because they are dormant, though an eye should be kept on drainage for excessive irriga- tion as for excessive rainfall. The grape and the pear are known to endure long submergence, but some other fruits are sensitive about it. Summer Irrigation—When this shall begin and when end are to be locally determined. In some places even the-eariiest fruits can not reach satisfactory size and quality without irriga- tion. In others rainfall with winter irrigation will suffice for proper development of early fruits, but not for late. in both cases the iruit may be satisfactory, but the tree unable to hold its leaf vigor until the work of the growing season is properly completed. It is then apparent that ‘local practise must vary in order to reach the universal fact, and that is that all through its active season the tree must have constant and adequate moisture supply. Many evils in lack of bearing, in dying-back, in unsea- sonable activity and the like are due to inadequate, intermittent and, in some cases, to excessive moisture in the soil. Cultivation and frrigation.—With such an extension of irri- gation practise as is now being realized, there is danger that those who have previously trusted so fully upon good cultivation may swing to the other extreme and trust too much to the stream of water and too little to the plow and cultivator. There is a temptation this way when one finds that he can run water in large amounts very cheaply. Not only is there danger of over- irrigation in the growth of tree and fruit, but the ill effects of water upon the soil, when unattended by good cultivation, are constantly threatened. The tree needs air as well as water; it needs a certain free condition of the soil for its best root action. These needs can be amply secured when adequate application of water is quickly followed by soil-stirring. Irrigated soil rightly treated is delightfully mellow and free and of condition to invite Ditches for Irrigation. 173 the fullest activity on the part of the tree. Irrigated ground not properly treated becomes compacted, fissured, cloddy and gen- erally hateful, losing moisture rapidly, setting around the roots like cement and tearing them by its subsequent shrinkage. These conditions do not occur on the lighter soils, and yet even these are best when cultivated in a rational manner. METHODS OF IRRIGATION. There are various methods employed in California for the conveyance and application of water to trees and vines. Some of the principal ones may be enumerated and described as follows :—- Permanent Ditches—Permanent runways for water are be- coming far less popular than they were in earlier days, because it is seen that the trees thrive far better if cultivated. There is, however, on hill lands difficult to plow and cultivate, and prone to wash, a naturally strong temptation to lay out the ditches once fer all on grades suitable for slow running of the water, and trust to seepage and percolation from these ditches to supply moisture to the trees adjacent to them. By this method irriga- tion must be more frequent than by other methods which will be described, because the soil is not so weil saturated, and even the more frequent application takes less water than less frequent application through newly-turned furrows. ‘There is, also, neces- sity for much work with the hoe if the grower pretends to keep down the weeds—which, however, is not always done, and the running water distributes the seeds. Annual Ditches—A modification of this method, which pre- vails to some extent in the foot-hills, consists in giving the or- chard a thorough plowing when the heavy rains are over in the spring, plowing under the winter growth. The surface is kept stirred after later showers. In May shallow ditches are made with a double-moldboard plow nearly along contour lines, which are quickly located with a level. Slight fall is given so the water will flow slowly, and these ditches are used all during that season, and allowed to remain to carry down winter water until the next thorough working in the following spring. This plan makes summer cultivation somewhat difficult, but it may be the best method on the sharp foot-hill slopes. Large ditches are also used between the rows of bearing trees on level land in soils which readily absorb water and the roots are widely extended. It is chiefly used on lands adjacent to rivers, from which water is pumped in large volume. For example, along the Sacramento River, on land that is apt to bake by flooding, or by the large check system, soon to be described, large ditches are plowed out in the centers between the tree rows 174 The Furrow System. and they are kept full of water, often for ten days at atime. This is done twice for fruits that ripen before August 1, and once afterwards for late fruits. The ground between the ditches and the trees is cultivated frequently. Fresh Furrows.—lIrrigation by freshly-turned furrows is the most prevalent method in this State, and is popular in all our irrigated regions where the soil is such that water freely dis- tributes itself laterally, and does not flow directly downward, as in some soils. The furrow system, as practised at Riverside, will serve to illustrate the method :— Along the head of the tree rows is placed a flume of wood or cement into which the water comes from the measuring box of the water company. This is made large enough to carry water sufficient for all the furrows, and opposite each proposed stream is a little gate or outlet. A marker or irri- gating plow has prepared the land to receive the water by making from 4 to 6 shallow furrows in each space between the tree rows. Into this the water is allowed to slowly run—that is, if the irrigator be an expert. If he be not a good irrigator he will turn into each furrow a head sufficient to push the water through in a hurry, and in so doing wash down to his neighbor or back into the river the best of his soil. Some boast that they can run water a week without running off their land 2 per cent .of the amount received; but these are few in number. The hasty application of water has a tendency to form a ‘‘slickens’’ that seems to prevent the water from penetrating into the soil as it does when it moves slowly. Given time, it will soak so deeply that one may sink a hoe-handle its length in the deep and fertile soil. It is only occasionally that the conditions are so favorable that it is well to allow the furrows to be over 60 rods in length, although eighty is the more common distance. The ideal distance is about 4o rods, where the grade is perfect.* Building Flumes for the Furrow System.—These are made in different ways, but well-made lumber flumes are best on all ac- counts. The following are explicit suggestions for construc- tion :— Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer. The sides of the flume should be of 8-inch lumber throughout, nailed to the side of the bottom, making 7 inches high inside. This size will carry about 75 inches of water. Reducing the flume in size, and keeping it nearly on a level, will give you the same pressure throughout. This is very important in regulating the streams. Place the first length about half its depth in the ground, and as it goes along and comes up too high, put in a drop of 2 or 3 inches or more, if necessary, and so on through the length. The first section, how- ever, should be about 2 feet wide, narrowed to the size of the flume so as to control the stream. Collars should be put around the flume every 8 feet of distance; that is, one in the center and one to cover the joints at each end. These collars should be 2x3-inch stuff on the bottom and sides and 1x3 on top. This makes a strong, durable flume. The width of the flume should be reduced so the stream will decrease as it goes along; say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10, 8-inch—the sides being the same throughout or reduced so as to have Io-inch sides on the 16-inch bottom and 8-inch sides on the rest— nailed to the side of the bottom. Two-inch holes are none too large, in order to keep them clear of trash, such as.leaves, etc. By lifting up the *E. W. Holmes, Riverside. Flooding, Checks and Basins. 175 slide of the gate it will wash out. I generally shut the gate down the thick- ness of my finger. In this way each gate can be regulated very nicely. All flume material should be of the best soft redwood, as the hard warps and cracks. * At the Lower End.—As all conditions have to be very favor- able if there is no overflow at the lower end of the furrow-face and as the water has less chance to penetrate there it is common to tun cross-furrows or to make cross-checks which will retain water at this point until it soaks in. Others locate an alfalfa patch below the orchard into which the overflow passes and is utilized. The Number of Furrows.—There is a wide variation in prac- tise in the number of furrows employed for different soiis and different ages of trees. This must be determined by local ob- servation. Flooding, Checks, and Basins.—These are different methods of bringing the water to bear upon a broad expanse of surface, and are best fitted for deep, leachy soils, in which, from the di- rect downward course of the water, the distribution by furrows would be very imperfect. Flooding, as the tern implies, consists in allowing the water to flow over the whole surface of the ground, dirt being, how- ever, drawn up around the tree to prevent access of water to the bark, which is a cause of serious disease. Flooding is done by running a considerable head of water broadcast down each sev- eral row, shifting it from one to another as soon as the stream has run through. To use this method the ground must be quite | level, or serious washing is likely to ensue, and the soil must be of rather a porous character, for the water is not held in con- tact with the soil, as in other methods. It is obviously a bad method for soils disposed to run together, and is so uneven in distribution that it has been widely replaced by the check sys- tem, which is more rational. The Check System.—The check system aims to hold a cer- tain depth of water, until it is absorbed, upon all parts of the surface except the fraction occupied by the banks or small levees which inclose the checks. It requires considerable displacement of soil, which necessitates hard work and constant attention while the water runs, which is not the case with the furrow system. The compensation must be found in the fact that, when well done, there is certainty that each tree has received a certain ade- quate amount of water in all parts of the soil-mass which belongs to it. There are various ways of practising the check system, ad- vancing in character from the simple plowing of furrows each * A. S. Bradford, Placentia. 176 Flow to Make the Checks. way between the rows to the construction of well-defined and strong banks with suitable implements which reduce the cost to a minimum. The following method, as practised in Orange County, is of the latter class:— The ground is deeply cultivated, say about five inches deep, so as to be able to throw up a high ridge; then with a four or six-horse ‘‘ ridger”’ run once each way between every row, if it is a citrus or deciduous or- chard, and twice should the trees be walnuts, as the larger checks require better banks orridges. After this is done run entirely around the outside of the piece to be irrigated, so as to have as perfect a ridge as possible on the outside. Then, with one horse attached to what is locally known as a ‘‘go-devil,’’ proceed to close up one side of the checks. The practise generally followed is to close up the high side of the checks, if the land does not cut by running water, but if it cuts, close up to the lower side. After closing up the checks the ditches are plowed out, and then what is known as a “ V’’ is run twice through them to perfect the ditch. On lands inclined to cut, it is advisable that the length of the rows to be irri- gated should not be over 250 feet, but in heavy land this distance can be considerably increased, if necessary, without danger of cutting the ridges by too long a run of water. If the checks have been closed on the low side of the ridge, it is better to run the water to the ends of the ditch and water the last row first; but - if closed on the high side, water the row nearest the gate or main ditch, as the case may be, first, as in each instance there will be dry earth to work with, if necessary, when closing up the checks. The water is run down the row to the end tree, and as soon as the last check is filled it is closed up, and so on till all are filled and closed, when the water is turned down the next row.* The “ridger’” described is a sled with the solid plank “run- ners” set farther apart at the front than at the rear. With t'e weight of the driver this takes in much loose earth in front, which is crowded up as it proceeds to the narrow space behind, and is left as a well-defined ridge. The passing of this “ridger” in crossing the first-made ridges breaks them down, and as many as it is desirable to close are quickly fixed by the ‘“go-devil,” which is a large horse-hoe, or sort of square scoop, fitted with thills for the horse and handles for the man. Coming to the gap in the ridge the man lifts on the handles and the earth is placed to restore the ridge, all but a little touch with a shovel afterwards. Sometimes the checks are filled one from another, beg:n- ning on the high side; sometimes a centrai ditch is formed by running the “ridger” twice; finished with the V, and the water is admitted to each check from this central ditch. In this way the men can work down one side and up the other, and finish at the point where the water is to be diverted to the next set of checks, of which several sets should be fixed in advance of the water if possible. Weak places in checks or ditches, in soils disposed to cut, can be strengthened by old grain sacks opened out and weighted down with soil. *Sydmer Ross, of Fullerton. IRRIGATION BY THE FURROW SYSTEM IN A RIVERSIDE ORANGE ORCHARD.—See page 17 The Basin Method. lore Basins.—This word is often used to indicate the check sys- tem, but should now have a narrower signification to distinguish between enclosures which cover nearly the whole space, or only a fraction of it. The latter are properly basins. On some slopes they are useful because they can be scooped out so as to give a very high barrier on the low side. They are also useful in using a very small continuous stream without a reservoir. They aie defective in not widely distributing moisture and thus inducing reot extension. They are usually made by hand labor and often filled with a mulch of straw or manure to prevent cracking of the soil and to reduce evaporation. Whenever they are used they should be broken up and the soil thoroughly tilled at least “once a year. DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER. It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to at- tempt an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practises. The enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All these matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed in this work. As, however, it has been the aim of the writer to aid the inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a little space will be given to suggestions as to how a planter may develop and use such small water supply as may be derived from spring, small creek or well, on his own land without employing an engineer. Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches——How far to go up a creek in order to bring water out tpon a given piece of land .is a question which frequently arises in individual practise. There is also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water which it is desired that it should discharge, and upon the width and depth with which it is intended that the water should flow. It may also be dependent upon the charac- ter of the soil in which the ditch is to be constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water itself. A strong current in soft soil may cause mischievous erosions. Water carrying much sediment must never be allowed to move sluggishly, as clear water sometimes may. It is best to state the requirements to a competent engineer and act on his suggestion, or secure the counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with similar soil and water. Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point at which water can be taken out of a creek to be brought to a certain piece of land is found by commencing with the point at which the water is to be delivered (generally the highest point 178 Running Lines for Ditches. * of the land to be irrigated), and running up stream a line which has the inclination intended for the ditch. To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the way, use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as fol- lows :— With sound, straight-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in the sketch. The three pieces, 4 B, 6feetlong, B C, 12 feet long, and C A, 4 feet long, are made fast to each other at FAROE: and Ci. The board; A D. is fastened to the triangle at right angles to Be C. Near A, on the board, A PD, a plumb-line is made fast. The plumb, like a mason’s plumb, hangs ina hole at Ff, so that when 4 J is vertical, the string hangs very near the surface of the board, A D. A Home-made Leveling Instrument. It will be seen that when 4 D is exactly vertical, 8 C is exactly hori- zontal, if the angles at DY are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter’s. square used in the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accu- racy in the position of A D. In marking on the board, A DP, however, the line in which the string of the plumb will hang when B C is exactly horizontal, more care is required. Two pegs are driven, as far apart as & and C, for these points to reston. The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about the center line of the board, 4d D. WHaving marked this position of the plumb-line, the triangle is reversed so that the end & rests on the peg where before we had the end GC, and vice versa. Should the | plumb-line be in a position at variance with the first one marked on the board, then the correct position for the 4 C horizontal will be exactly in the middle between the two found by the aid of the two pegs. It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked offon & C. Holes inthe pieces 4 B& and C A at £ £, or handles, will make the triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it. To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, calculate the amount which your line should rise between each two pegs. Drive a peg at the starting-point with its top say six inches from the general surface of the ground. Hold one end Use of Leveling Triangle. 179 of the levelling apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount which the line rises per each instrument-length (6 C), and swing the other end around into the direction from which the ditch is to come, until, when level, it is just six inches above the ground. Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six inches high, and proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the top of each peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be hori- zontal when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount which the line rises per level-length, above the preceding peg. It will be found convenient to use a carefully-prepared block to hold on the top of each stake at the rear end of the level in- stead of trusting to measurement each time.* Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches. —This work can be done with the aid of the level above de- scribed. For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal ele- vation), as required in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until its top has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot. Rest one end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other around until when B C is horizontal this other end has exactly the same elevation trom the ground as the top of the peg. At this point drive a second peg and proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs be chasen as the height of the levee, they may be retained as grade stakes as well as line stakes for the embankment. Storing Water from Small Sources.—For individual uses quite a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from apparently mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well. Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per second, is equivalent to a three-inch stream, and would be suf- ficient for several acres in fruit trees. To derive the greatest benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is necessary, in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a longer period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as re- quired. It is by using water in driblets that many springs are wasted. A spring supplying even one and a half inches of water would be wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hun- dred feet of its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumu- lating it in a reservoir and discharging at intervals in a volume four times as large, it would more than cover eight times the surface. A spring flowing two quarts per second will discharge forty-three thousand two hundred gallons in twenty- four hours. This would require a reservoir forty by twenty * C. E. Grunsky, C. E.,in acific Rural Press. 180 The Small Reservoir. feet, and seven feet deep, or double that width if the depth is — decreased one-half. The shallower it can be made the better, for many reasons, but especially on account of the temperature of the water. That of springs is generally too low in summer for immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by being raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the air. — This is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A reser- voir can be constructed entirely in the ground where the slope will admit of it, and by lining the bottom and sides with clay well puddled, will answer for most purposes. Some are built of adobe, backed with earth and plastered on the inner side with hydraulic cement. Concrete of lime, sand, and broken stone, is, however, the best material, where lime can be readily obtained, and any person with ordinary mechanical skill can construct them. The following hints on a dirt reservoir may be suggestive :— A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to be irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large area as not to affect the utility of the landtrom which it is taken. With a levee all around 5 feet high, 4 feet of water could be carried safely. The slopes ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square and 4 feet deep would hold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the reservoir should be measured 2 feet from the bottom, or half way up the 4 feet of water; consequently to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,coo gallons, put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other sized one take 8 feet off the same asin this. A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750 gallons and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square would hold 27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 35 feet square--27 at the bottom—will hold 36,000 gallons; one 4o feet square—32 on the bottom—will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an acre would be alittle more than 134 inches of rainfall. Almost any loam soil will hold water with a little puddling. The cheapest way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the intended reservoir, including at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very wet, put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barley, a little at a time, so as to make them not only walk around but root for the barley. A half sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make a good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily the water could be taken off and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand mixed one part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be cov- ered slowly. A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and with the mixture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 134 — inches. This would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from the bottom, so that the lift would never be more than the height of the surface .* Loss of Water by Secepage-—The great loss of water by seepage during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the use of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe _ by the irrigation companies of southern California; also, where the slope is rapid, paving ditches with rock has been resorted The Current Wheel. 181 to. Similar efforts naturally suggest themselves to the user of a small water supply to save his flow from loss. Where lumber is cheap, the use of a board flume is the most available means of saving water. Irrigation from Wells ——A considerable area of orchard is irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State. Nearly everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well- borers who have kept records of the strata traversed in their work and can estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method. Wells to supply pumps will be incidentally mentioned in connection with a later paragraph on pumping. They consti- tute a great and a growing feature in our present irrigation devel- opment. Naturally the availability of wells for irrigation must End View of Irrigating Wheel. be locally determined. Recent experience shows that even deep wells can be profitably used with proper pumping appliances. Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Siream.—Where a stream has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to dis- tribute the water over a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current wheel which is largely used in this State. The engraving gives an end view of such a wheel. Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat buckets like those of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub rotating on metal bearings. At either end or both ends of each bucket are fixed wooden or tin water boxes which fill themselves on entering the water, and on being brought to the highest point of rotation empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough sup- plies the distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed that it comes under the projecting buckets of the wheel without 182 Pumping for Lrrigation. a interference with the motion of the arms. The current of water in the channel underneath forces the buckets down stream, the latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. By using a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the water may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. Ageia Tete cee en DAs. Sa eae Sewer Ia.c ter ee >, RONG DOK Bictipiieimer............ x x Pm, hs ats Acts 2.5 Gooks Seedling... 62.2)... 2.0 f XK cise AL aera ke Beha ioe ct Paeiwitanvest +o... 22. Xs 5 x xX x RMA OUR AM DEL EY ts oe cists cil'se fers wie Sel a's eis wrote Dea | ee Re HS x Esopus Spitzenburg..... XX x xX OK 5¢ ERIS Se De tera ee DO Se Seater x MMe Th ch ciaia backhoe cere a a Was eae. x Rosa Rovapdee Pucak ised Gravenstein............ REX ee Sex: x bene: be Hoover . 2... .... 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Pippin.. xX SEX: 50,6 XX Xx Yellow Transparent..... Kitcga Fadl teveayasvancte licasha feos vone ae aU Seale SME ee a York Imperial BC coal Rann eRe MS Hesaeiy, dete ie Mater gs These remarks are applicable not alone to the apple but to other fruits for which tabulations will be given in subsequent chapters :— CHUA PRB ONE THE APRICOT. California has peculiar adaptations for the growth of the apricot. It has often been pointed out that such adaptations are exceptional, and that nowhere else does the iruit attain such perfection nor possess such commercial importance. Although the apricot has been grown here from the earliest days of the American occupation, and though since the opening of the export trade in canned and dried fruits, the planting of apricot orchards has proceeded with great rapidity, present indications are that our distant patrons are only just beginning to recognize the desirability of the fruit, and that their demands will make it well-nigh impossible for us to extend our production beyond profitable limits. Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is gen- erally regarded as one of our healthiest and most vigorous, as it certainly 1s one of our most beautiiul orchard trees. It is long- lived and attains great size. On the old Routier place, on the banks of the American River, near Sacramento, are some apricot trees that were set out in the early fifties. They have a height all of fifty feet; the main trunks like forest oaks, and the first branches or limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The smaller limbs and foliage were at least fifty feet across; a half dozen of them shaded an acre of ground and their average an- nual crop per tree has reached a ton of choice fruit. On the ranch of F. Hubert, near Burson, in Calaveras County, a seed- ling apricot tree planted March to, 1857, has a trunk seven and one-half feet in circumference, and has yielded one thousand five hundred pounds of fruit of good quality in a season. At Haywards, Alameda County, on the orchard of the late Judge Blackwood, are apricots worked on peach stock in 1857, which are still in good bearing. His observation was that the apricot gives longevity to the peach root, for the peach trees of the same age not worked with apricot have disappeared. But forty years of life and vigor is only a part of the career of the apricot in Cali- fornia, if it is fair to judge by the vigor of trees in New Mexico, which were found growing there by the early trappers and front- iersmen, and were, apparently, old trees fifty years ago; and in Europe trees said to be two hundred years old are still bearing, ( 200 ) |: SKINNER’S PIPPIN: A CALIFORNIA SEEDLING —See page 197. Localities for the Apricot. 201 and trees are said to be at best age for fruit bearing between ten and fifty years. Intelligent treatment of the trees to secure growth of new wood, which will be mentioned presently, seems to give it almost indefinite productiveness. The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and from eight to fourteen tons to the acre has been reached for several years in succession, in Judge Blackwood’s old orch- ard of Royal apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties which are uncertain bearers, are large and vigor- ous growers, and have warranted the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot tree for a windbreak for the protection of other trees. The trees may be planted near together in strong land and make a windbreak that will pay its way without regard to such fruit as it may incidentally produce. LOCALITIES. FOR THE APRICOT. In speaking cf localities for the apricot, reference is, of course, only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree with- out protection of any kind. it shows even in California that it does not forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late frosts in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable; and Lake County, just back from the coast, can not be commended for the apricot, except in protected situations. It is also sensitive to too great elevation on the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, theugh it thrives in the lower foot-hills. In the depressions of the great interior valleys the crop is often lost by frost. In the small valleys, apricots usually do better on the hillsides than cn the floors of the valleys, because there is less frost at the slight elevations. It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean influences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many ob- servers that the apricot “points its best branches to the ocean, in the very teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs bend up and endeavor to reach in the same direction. This is patent in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking.”* This is taken to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of the coast. It is well enough to interpret it that way, providing one does not lose sight of the perfect success ot the apricot in the interior as well. It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher color, and the less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat easier to handle, but the earlier ripening in the interior, coupled with freedom from fog and constant sunshine for drying, are points of the highest industrial import- *S. R. Thorpe, of San Buena Ventura. 14 202 Stocks and Soils for the Apricot. ance. The iact is that the apricot has a very wide range in Cal- iiornia, and though the trees have been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because too frosty locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has seemed to be locally more de- sirable, for one reason or another. In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the crack- ing of the fruit on the sunny side. ‘The alternation of sunshine and fog seems to have something to do with this, for in favor- able years, when fogs are few, the fruit is sound. Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen with reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in the chapter on that subject. Ina general way, it may be said, in regions directly subject to coast influences, both in northern and southern California, the apricot is late. On the west side of the Sacramento Valley, in small, hill-locked valleys, the earliest apricots have been grown for years. Protected situations in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern rim of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the production of the earliest ripening fruit. There is, probably, about a month’s. difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest in- terior situations and in the coast valleys of both northern and southern California. In the interior of southern California, in irrigated situa- tions, on the west side of the so-called Colorado Desert, and in Arizona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys of interior northern California. STOCKS, AND SOILS FOR THE APRICOT. Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to different soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on the light, warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights. The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives the tree quick growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the gopher does not like the peach root is a con- sideration with some planters. In growing stock, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach should be secured. For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Some- times, where cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San Joaquin Valley there are situations in Lxposures for the Apricot. 203 which the apricot seems more productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the moister parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in southern California the apricot root has re- cently advanced in popularity. When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the plum root. Only a non-suckering plum stock should be used. For this purpose the Myrobalan has been considerably used. Some growers complain that the root has a dwarfing ef- fect on the tree, and object to its use. The manner of securing Myrobalan stocks has been described in the chapter on propa- gation. Apricot on Almond.—Yhe almond should as a rule be re- jected as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that the scion never made a good union with the wood of the stock, but was knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken off by the wind. Jt may grow well and some- times gets to be two or three inches in diameter before it breaks off, thus wasting much time for the orchardist. Whole orch- ards worked in this way have been a loss and disappointment. A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it with the idea that it gives larger fruit. J. J. Shaner, of Los Gatos, advocates the almond stock for the Royal apricot in dry soils. He proceeds, however, by root grafting, instead of bud- ding, using the side graft. He cuts off the top of the stock about four to six inches above ground, scrapes away the dirt, bends the stock, and, with a sharp, thin knife, cuts into the root to the center, making the cut perpendicular, so that the graft will be that way when inserted. The scion should be made wedge- shaped. After insertion, draw the loose earth around it, and the work is done until the graft has made a growth of eighteen to twenty-four inches. This is given as a record of experience, but still caution is urged against the use of the almond as stock for the apricot. In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for differ- ent soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot seems to thrive better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough sand to make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better and gives signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all during the season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be planted on undrained situations. EXPOSURES FOR THE APRICOT. The apricot blooms early; it follows the lead of the almond. Thus it runs greater risk than other fruits of frost injuries dur- 204 Planting the Apricot. ing blooming. And in the parts of the State most subject to frost, exposures should be selected in accordance with the principles laid down in Chapter I, which treats of topography as related to fruit growing. In securing the advantage of the earliest ripening even in the earliest districts, elevation is of great importance. The first apricots of the Season for a number of years have come from an elevated ridge, rising in the center of Pleasant’s Valley, in Solano County. This ridge has higher hills but a short distance away on both east and west, which protect it from cold winds, and on all sides there is low ground, to which cold air can freely descend. In this spot apricots and other fruits ripen several days earlier than on other lands but little removed. PLANTING THE APRICOT. The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty-four feet each way is certainly a minimum distance for so large and long-lived a tree, and some orchards have been planted at thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be with reference to subsequent removal of part of the trees. Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double the distance, or such an arrangement as proposed by H. D. Briggs, of Azusa, should be adopted:— In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to goo square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x20 feet; then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course taking them out diagonally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick. When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside, it is quite evident that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half the trees is worse than wasted. I have cut roots 40 feet from a nine-year-old tree. The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one year’s growth is all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old tree, and cases have been reported of trees from dormant buds outgrowing yearling trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard care should be taken to develop a short trunk, with properly- spaced branches, by pinching the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dormant bud and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed very unsatisfactory form, and have, in some situations, lost their lower branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head, but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, and miore elasticity to the branches. The Apricot Needs Attention. 205 PRUNING THE APRICOT. Of all California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in need of the constant aitention of the orchardist to give it proper shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous haste for size and fruitage it overreaches itself and becomes the prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their fruit, and being torn by winds. of only ordinary velocity. Thousands more have been rescued from such a fate by bolting the branches to each other. This excessive growth and consequent weakness of the apricot is greater in some parts of the State than in others, because of the difference in degree of forcing conditions, but everywhere the apricot needs watch- fulness and timely aid in building up its strength. The general principles to be observed in securing branches strongly attached to a short trunk have already been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. There has been a very marked change during the last few years of the pruning of the apricot. Summer pruning, imme- diately after the fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter pruning has proportionally decreased. The new practise is certainly more rational than the old. Young trees are winter pruned to promote low branching and short, stout limbs; bearing trees are summer pruned to promote fruit bear- ing and check wood growth—the excess of bearing shoots be- ing removed by thinning during the winter. The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum; also upon the new wood, like the peach. This fact has to. be borne in mind when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken. A very clear record of procedure by which J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, Orange County, has built up one of the best apricot orchards in the State is as follows:— Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment, which can only be formed by experience and observation of the habits of the tree. Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously and fre- quently two or three shoots from one bud. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one bud, nor be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree. It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the limbs are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head balanced. 206 Pruning the Apricot. The pruning of the second year should be done in January, as the tree will not be dormant until then, if it has been kept in a thrifty condition. The first year’s growth should be cut back to within five to ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young pe than to take the risk of splitting down when the tree begins to bear rult. When the shoots start for the second year’s growth, take off all that come on the under side of the limbs and thin to one, two, or three, as may be needed to balance the tree, bearing in mind that an apricot tree always inclines toward the coast breezes in this locality. The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in order to keep off suckers and ail lateral growth that may start on the under side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright as possible. The remark on heading back holds good for the second year also. The trees will become dormant earlier the second year than they did the first, but should not be trimmed earlier than December, and a month later is preferable, as the ends of the limbs are not exposed to the drying winds so long before the sap begins to flow, and consequently will heal over bet- ter. The second year’s growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the central stem, which may be left twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be thinned down to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that tend to turn down or out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs. The trees will need to be gone over about three times before July to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly irrigated and cultivated,the trees should now be large enough to begin to yield fruit. The object in trimming during the first two years and the first half of the third year has been to growa vigorous upright tree, with strong limbs, capable of carrying a heavy load of large fruit, and to get the fruit as close to the body of the tree as possible. There will be a few specimensof the fruit the third year, and as soon as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become mod- erately dry so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one-half of all this season’s growth allover the tree, using the same judgment as before with reference to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed. The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so vigorously, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get so old that they need the old wood taken out. This can be more readily done without damage to the trees where from 24 to 30 limbs are grown, than in the old method of leaving only eight or ten large limbs. When it becomes necessary to take out old wood—as the best fruit grows on new wood—a few limbs can be taken out each year until a full top of new wood is again made. Winter Prwning.—The evident defect of many old apricot orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket Renewal of Old Apricot Trees. 207 of brush near the ends oi long bare limbs. Such trees need renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should Se - Se - 7 >. Siam Pee ee) acd Sparks Mammoth sé. 2:20. tse occ. abou Cadgnatiosocteiness|) acendcerschonanes x Sti Aum broise oie ssesssceatees ee aw actenockl es celteweeeeettees 1) ea ieee Basiaes In the following statement the arrangement is approxi- mately in the order of ripening, and the descriptions are from Downing, with additions and changes to meet local observa- tion :— VARIETIES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN. Large Early.—A French variety; fruit of medium size, rather oblong and compressed; suture deep, skin slightly downy; pale orange in the shade, fine bright orange with a few ruddy spots in the sun; flesh separating readily from the stone, orange colored, rich and juicy; kernel bitter. This variety is especially popular in the southern coast counties, but in most situations has proved an uncertain bearer. Ripens before Royal. Early Golden.— Origin unknown; small, roundish oval, with suture well marked and extending half way around; skin smooth, pale orange; flesh yellow, moderately juicy and sweet, with very good flavor; separates from the stone. This variety is reported favorably from some counties, but gen- erally otherwise, and is not largely grown. Ripens before Royal. Royal.—A French variety, and at the present time the leading Califor- nia apricot. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens evenly, when well grown; a favor- ite with the canners and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large. oval, slightly compressed; skin dull yellow with orange cheek, very faintly tinged with red, and a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich vinous flavor. There is a variety somewhat grown in Sacramento and Solano Counties, sometimes called ‘‘ White Royal,’’ which is not liked by canners, because of its lack of color and flavor. Varieties of the Apricot. 211 Blenheim Apricot, Grown in University Orchard. Large Early Montgamet.—Large, orange yellow, reddish on “ae side, firm. Oullin’s Early.—Early form of Peach apricot, large size, delicious flavor. Ripens in Amador County four weeks earlier than Peach. Luizet.—Large, oval, distinct suture, one side higher than the other; orange with crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, firm, rich. Especially approved in the upper San Joaquin. Blenheim or Shipley.—This is a valuable variety in this State and seems to surpass Downing’s description both in vigor of tree and size of fruit. John Rock modifies Downing’s description to suit California experience with this variety, as follows: ‘‘A very good variety, above medium, oval; orange, with a deep yellow, juicy, and tolerably rich flesh; vigorous grower and regular, prolific bearer.’’ This agrees perfectly with the behavior of the variety in the University orchard at Berkeley, where it is the best of twenty varieties. It is not reported so constant a bearer in some other parts of the State. Fruit runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed on the tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety has been approved by canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal. Early Moorpark—Very popular in southern California, where its iden- tity has been long in dispute, and is not yet fully determined. The Early Moorpark of Thomas Hogg is as follows: Roundish, inclining to oval, with very deep suture on one side, extending from base to apex. Skin yel- low, mottled, and dotted with crimson on the exposed side. Flesh in all respects resembling Moorpark. Stone oblong, with a covered channel along the back, which is pervious. Kernel bitter. Ripens three weeks earlier than Moorpark. St. Ambroise.—Large, early, compressed, deep yellow, reddish on sunny side. Juicy, rich, and sugary, with firm flesh when grown in the in- terior; apt to be coarse and to lack flavor near the coast. Condemned by 212 Varieties of the Apricot. canners for not processing well, and by dryers for loss of weight and for white color around the pit. It has served well as a shipping variety. LergettiirAn undetermined variety introduced by Mr. Bergetti and widely distributed under his name in the San Joaquin. Closer comparison May prove it to be St. Ambroise. Hlemskirke.—A fine English variety quite widely grown in California; ripens later than Royal, described by Downing as follows: ‘‘Fruit large, roundish, but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides; skin orange, with red cheek; flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly than the Moorpark, with rich. lucious, plum-like flavor; stone not perforate, rather small, and kernel bitter.’’ Esteemed in California because the tree is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly on both sides. Peach.—A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides, with a well-marked suture; skin yellow in the shade, but deep orange mottled with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich, and high flavored; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark and has bitter kernel. This is a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State especially, and is a favorite in the Sacramento Valley. It ripens just ahead of the Moorpark. Moorpark.—A standard of excellence and an old variety which origi- nated in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diameter each way; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other; skin orange in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked with numerous dark specks and dots; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculiarly perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed through; kernel bitter. In California the Moorpark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which leads to its rejection by most planters, though some growers cling to it because of its size and quality and occa- sional grand crops. The San Jose districts lead in the production of this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uniformly. The same behavior is reported from localities in the upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer. The variety is almost wholly rejected in southern California. VARIETIES OF CALIFORNIA ORIGIN. Newcastle.— Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer County, in 1881; size full medium, round; rich golden yellow, with brilliant red cheek in the sun; freestone; flavor sweet and rich; not quite as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but prettier, being more highly colored —the coloring being nearly equal on all sides, except that it is rather darker on the side to the sun. The tree is an early, regular and good bearer, a medium grower, being rather more upright in its habit than the Royal. Its time of ripening is seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden and twenty-five days earlier than the Royal—the three varieties being in the same orchard within a few yards of each other, and treated in the same way as to culture. Routier’s Peach.—Originated with Hon. Joseph Routier, near Sacra- mento. Large, yellow in shade; deep « range, mottled or splashed with red in the sun; flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a week later than peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. Sparks’ Mammoth.—Popular in Ventura County. Largest size, even larger than Moorpark, pale yellow, very tender, juicy andsweet. Recently quite widely distributed in southern California, but its bearing habit is in question. dV HILSVOMAN FHL ‘ONTIGAAS VINYOATTVO V—L CEUAP ERS OV LET: THE CHERRY: Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small as compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of California. The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter cf pride with residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related that one of the most distinguished Eastern pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard during picking-time, could not recognize the varieties, though he had himself propagated and shipped to California the very trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far surpassed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate with size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the fla- vors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the rich- ness and excellence of the California cherry have never been im- peached. Recently the shipment of cherries to eastern markets and the extension of the canning interest have considerably en- larged the opportunity for profitable growth of the fruit. Famous Old Trees—TVhe longevity and productiveness o: the cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries were planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State and are still in full vigor. One of the most famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which was brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by him in 1854, on land now owned by Robert Hector, in Placer County, just below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American River, about eight hundred feet above sea level. It is described as seventy feet in height, the branches cover- ing a space between seventy and seventy-five feet in diameter. The trunk branches about six feet above the ground, and at that point has a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop has been kept, as follows: 1886, two hundred boxes, of ten pounds each; 1887, one hundred and eighty; 1888, three hun- dred; 1889, two hundred and twenty; and 1890, three hundred boxes. Since that date this yield has not been exceeded. The trees are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung (214 ) Localities for the Cherry. 215 in swings from such ladders or the forks of the trees. Mr. Hec- ter has about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees are to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oro- ville and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton of fruit in favorable seasons. LOCALITIES FOR THE CHERRY. There has been an idea that the areca adapted to the growth of the cherry is quite limited. The great valley was generally condemned, though at some points the trees were very produc- tive, and at other points grew well but did not bear. Southern California, both on the coast and in the interior, was announced as unsuited for the cherry. Later experience is recording suc- cessful growth and fruitage of the tree in many places where it has long been regarded a failure, and it now seems likely that early disappointment resulted chiefly from lack of attention to. the soil and moisture conditions which best suit the tree. How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control influence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be fully determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the un- satisfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sun-burned foliage, on the plains of the interior valleys, although the soil is kept moist enough. There is, however, still the hope of securing varieties of the fruit which have been developed under conditions similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. Professor J. L. Budd believes that the Russian cherries, which are largely grown in a region subject to high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California where the varieties originating in west Europe fail. SOILS FOR THE CHERRY. The cherry thrives in free, deep soil, in which water does not stand within about fifteen feet from the surface. It delights in deep deposits from old water courses, and does not dislike a moderate amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy sub- soil is acceptable, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its unfitness by the early failure of the trees, while those on deep loam near by have remained vigorous and profitable. On the foot-hills it thrives in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower lands; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that surplus water from winter rains can escape and water is at hand to guard against summer drouth. But this is merely a suggestion for garden growth of the cherry. Commercial orchards should have a good depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great 216 Requirements of the Cherry. cherry trees of Mr. Hector, in Placer County, which we have mentioned, are growing right on the bank of the American River, where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet deep, as proved by an old shaft once dug near. the center of the orchard. But though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about its water supply and insists upon enough, its require- ments being greater than some other trees. During the dry years 1898 and 1899, trees came into distress where they had never suffered before, and many large, valuable trees died. The only new condition they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the soil, it is still very exacting in its require- ment of an adequate supply. If this can not be retained in the soil by cultivation, irrigation must be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous Willows district, of San Jose, “ usually find it an advantage to give their trees an irrigation be- tween the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit, and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered. These facts show that the cherry must have enough water or it will not succeed. On the other hand, there must not be ex- cessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by moisture. Cherry trees in southern California, planted with orange trees and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the cherry should be planted on well-drained land, which could be irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of water), rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likeli- hood of excessive moisture in such situations. More recent experience has declared mellow, well-drained soils of the higher lands well adapted to the cherry, and on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries have done well without irrigation at Pasa- dena, Pomona and elsewhere. The commercial cherry prod- uct of southern California comes, however, from mountain val- leys and high plateaux—the chief regions being the Yucaipe Valley above Redlands and the Mesa Grande region in the in- terior of San Diego County. In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may succeed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems especially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail utterly. Late Fruiting of Cherry Trees—Though the cherry in favor- able situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making marvelous wood growth, and this apparently sup- Exposures for the Cherry. 217 presses the fruiting function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their exuberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner by root pruning. digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and severing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning of twig ends. Because of this overgrowth, growers give such soil to the apple or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of the cherry is inexplicable. Though everything seems to be right, and the blooms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. Some think it is due to lack of association of different varieties and cross fertilization. It is held at Vacaville that keeping bees in the vicinity of cherry orchards has increased the bearing. EXPOSURES FOR THE CHERRY. Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to protection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The cherry blooms early; it is almost as venturesome as the almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold northerly winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about a month of good weather after the biossoming will ripen an early cherry. The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from their old homes in Napa Valley, because they could gather and market cherries in their new locations before the same varieties were ripe in Napa. They chose places protected on the north and west by steep hills. Vhe two things to secure are, apparently, protection from the sweep of cold winds and elevation above the deposit of cold air, which occurs in depressed places. In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties should not be planted except for family use. arly varieties are comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they will reach the market alongside of better later sorts from earlier districts. The place for the cherry in the later: districts is on the most proper soil, according to the requirements which have been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind- swept spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by elevation or intervention of hills and windbreaks. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY. In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of growing cherry seedlings. California cherry trees are al- most exclusively propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Mazzard. The planting of the cherry is covered by the general con- siderations already given for the planting of orchards. The 15 218 Planting the Cherry. distance which cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among planters. Mr. Hector, drawing the suggestion from his niammoth trees, would plant them eighty feet apart on such soil as his, and thinks forty feet near enough on any good soil. This is the extreme of all distances which have been named, and looks to the needs of the trees a generation ahead. This is farther in the future than most growers care to calculate, and would prefer to let the coming generation cut out some of the trees if necessary. Still trees should not be set too close. When planted twenty feet apart the trees have interlaced their branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between the rows have been covered in like colonnades. In the Haywards region the branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight feet apart have nearly reached each other, though continually cut back. Much depends in the matter of distance upon the manner of handling the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer together by continuous pruning than where the usual way of cutting back for the first few years and letting the tree take its natural growth after that, is followed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande, San Diego County, practises close planting and cutting back. He says :— I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant thus closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this facilitates gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the trees headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as it does tall trees. Thus it appears that one may fix his distance in planting according to the method of pruning he proposes to follow, re- membering, however, that the cherry is naturally a large tree, and most old orchards are now overcrowded. As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one year’s growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually get, then, a straight switch with well-developed buds all the way down, and the head can be formed as desired. For garden planting, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to advantage. PRUNING THE CHERRY. All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head for the cherry, and all aim to have the trunks from the ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves, which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In plant- ing, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved—not to be grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when they have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe Pruning the Cherry. 219 the tree with a covering of its own foliage. This was early in- sisted on by the late Mr. Geiger, of San Jose, and as we have mentioned it, we will proceed first to describe his method of growing the cherry tree, as shown by the following illustration. =~ S y ) é \ f y y SY), q, ) YY WY yb \) J 0 ~ VS ‘A No % Aa bd ny, ZA ¥e 3 Y= \ 4 4 Wy —~“\) | V7 4 J 7 MM AP = Wy) WY N ra r= ; f Ms x ; y 1% NN n ( " = WY 44 NV WV yj N : A, LEY 4 NY) i] NaN Fae yp Ze = " ) WZ PPV 2 YF S | \ ~y We ww We A sD, ZAY WW), ~ S\ BX q Oo Ws yo Q 0 we Wie ee 4 Ze p ) RING A . a 4 = Ve SX BX Wits age & VOM» iW) o> WHE , WDAT Qa nif = a > Pe 0 YYZ fo ( o =a aay, ke _ N - > 7 b 3 iy LW) ) -Qqh FAY We () 4 { ~ 4) h wz, ~/ ag } FING 7 ES We 0 J i A A | (= WA es ai Ow) “KAYWGS —— N Ee AG oS \\ === se wD PSA ) DEn S Pt) \ Pi yee va co | et | PAH eo ) - la Ve 7 SSA 0 NS S| Zi e = | # F TR == | soe Fare SS o SN (om “Ss KO > Natural and Trained Growth of Young Cherry Tree. The first figure shows the way unpruned young trees usu- ally grow in this State, shooting upward quickly and exposing their stems to sunburn and borers. The second figure shows Mr. Geiger’s method of developing spurs from the ground up to the head. These spurs not only furnish leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit spurs and bear well. But this fig- ure also shows Mr. Geiger’s way of shaping the upper part of his tree by carrying up a leader with a regular system of side branches. He heads back at planting to two feet, pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allowing the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they too are all pinched 220 Pruning the Cherry, except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long as it pleases during the summer. About February or March, for Mr. Geiger does not believe in pruning the cherry until the buds begin to burst in the spring, he cuts back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches from its starting-point and cuts back the side branches to about six or eight inches. This is done year after year, cutting back and thinning out the side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allowing the leader to grow, never interiering with it until the spring pruning, and always letting it predom- inate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is increased, but at the end of six years the tree goes into fruit very rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit, it decreases in wood, and by the time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some judgment and experience, to know where to cut, how to cut, and when to cut. Jo shorten in, never cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very difficult to get healthy wood out of such; but whenever you can find last year’s wood, there you can cut with safety anything that is less than one inch in diameter. This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant pinching during the summer-time. It should commence when the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any cir- cumstances. After these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or fifteen days, or until the branches in the top get a good start. Then pinch everything clean but the leader, in every main branch in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through the growing season, to prevent the effects of over-pinching or checking growth. If only the side shoots are kept back, the leader or head of the branches receives the current or flow of sap and maintains and carries on life and vitality in the tree. One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back surplus wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and branches into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can produce, not allowing it to grow at the tree’s expense, and then have to cut it off. And another object in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree produce fine large cherries, all closely nestled around the big wood, and no long, slim branches hanging down like weeping willow. All such branches are always more or less sunburnt on the top and full of worms, one of the evils tending to the destruction of the tree. Mr. Geiger’s method is commended to those who like a tree with a central leader, and are willing to give their orchards such constant attention as he does. His orchard near San Jose shows that his system is practicable; in fact, he followed it for a life- time, and his orchard is still famous. Common Practise with the Cherry. 2 LS) lal THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY. As we have said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in aiter treatment, the usual method is quite different from that we have described. It follows the vase or goblet form, which has been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the ap- plication of this method to the cherry, W. W. Smith, in an ad- dress before the State Horticuitural Society, said:— The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit trees until it is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except when necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay), and should be avoided as much as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low heads not to exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches; fifteen inches is better. From three to five branches are enough to form the head of the tree; all others should be removed early. Three are better than five; two makes a forked tree, which is likely to split down in after years. At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to five branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back from six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce two branches each (no more); then, at the end of the second season from planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen inches—according to the amount of growth the tree makes—the less the growth the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the following winter, treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is about five years old; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry well established. After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the ground, they should be removed during the summer. At this age the tree, ifwell grown, will have top enough to shade its body from the sun, and there is no further need of branches on the main trunk. If necessary to remove large branches it should then be done in mid- summer, as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We make it a rule to go over and dress up and prune our cherry orchard immediately after the crop is gathered—which in our part of the State is the last of May. All wounds made then by the removal of branches or other- wise will heal over the same season. All large wounds made at any time, however, should be coated over with paint. The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which probably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped. In the cherry there should be the same observation as to cutting inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the outside bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upright growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swelling at the base of the limb is especially important, also the covering of the wound to prevent checking of the wood. GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY. Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has 222 Grafting the Cherry. been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal Ann (a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the fa- vorite. Other white sorts are also used for canning. This rise in favor of the white cherries has vastly increased their propor- tionate production as compared with the choice black and red varieties, which are still popular as table fruit. It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing the smaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. J. W. Cassidy, of Petaluma, advises grafting be- fore the sap begins to fiow in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the buds are well advanced or the tree in bloom. He has trees which were over thirty years old before they were re- headed, and they now have fine tops of new and healthy wood, and produce abundantly. PESTS AND DISEASES OF THE CHERRY. The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the “gum,” or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting to explain the cause or causes of the unhealthy exu- dation, it may be said that prompt treatment of certain mani- festations is desirable, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow. Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin outer bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumulation of gum and sap removed, and the wound painted with lead and oil paint. Mr. Geiger used for this purpose a mixture of two parts of resin and one of shellac melted together, adding a small piece of tallow to the melted mass. Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when softened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three limbs come out close together a kind of cup is formed, which will hold the gum from one year’s end to another, and, in its soft state, leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stick and hang, and sometimes the mass becomes so foul that the stench can hardly be endured. By this collection, also, a nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs, and worms. An- other evil in letting the gum stay on is, if rain does not wash it off clean, it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad, and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injuri- ous to the tree. Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting the young cherry as advocated in the chapter on pruning. Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and Diseases of the Cherry. 223 at wide angles seldom gum: those which are crowded together or emerge at acute angles gum badly. In shaping young trees a gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those branches selected to remain which start out more nearly at a right angle; in older trees there is nothing to do but keep the fork clean, as already described. There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has been stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds being cut down with the hoe. Some trees which per- sisted in making rank wood growth, and bearing no fruit, have been made fruitful by the same treatment. As a rule, however, the cherry thrives with good cultivation. Die-back of the Cherry.—The dying back of cherry branches is more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the dying back of other fruit trees. This might have re- sulted from standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition may result from lack of sufficient moisture. Anything which causes destruction of the root hairs is apt to cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top. Early vegetative activity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also to occasion die-back in some cases. Fortunately, this can occur without injury to the rest of the tree, though it is sometimes and in some places destructive to the tree in the end. The only treatment is removal of the affected wood, and if this can be done during the growing season, as soon as signs of injury ap- pear, it is all the better. The Gopher.—One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, and killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a tree is seen to wilt suddenly, the probability is that a gopher has girdled it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but net usually. Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter. VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY. Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and many have been abandoned from one cause or another. Those most frequently starred in our table are the survivors in public esteem. As our reports have come from those who grow for market, possibly some sorts too tender for shipment, but excellent for family use, are omitted, but will be included in the descriptions which follow the table. The claims to value upon which a variety is judged are several: Extra earliness, an im- portant consideration in early districts for shipment, and else- 224 Varieties of the Cherry. where for local sale or family use; firmness to withstand mechanical injury by jarring in transit and durability to escape decay during the long journey to distant markets; firmness and fixed color to stand processing in the cannery and to prevent coloring the juice; lateness to extend the cherry season. In classification of cherries it was originally considered that there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were the firm-fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and blended together by hybridization that no distinct line can now be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of these, whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the tree. ural division, really constitute but one class. The Duke and Morello cherries, also wanting a nat- CHERRY VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS. Interior | Mountain Mia aie Psat aes valley valleys | Southern é ; and and California. se a aa region. | foot-hills. | plateaux. INAVANCE pees sactetsene ste asee: x K: x X! | (CHR eeaeenees Bin giesesccve saa ncess Joceomieeees x x x Xi) | (ri 'lebdeneeeeenee Black Fleart (cosas caseealace-seaasceect Kil fl eaacetaeee za Sea taeneeueel lGeeeeee emma Burris) Seed lition ss earscsess||--ceeset avs eee] XE besssasesee Mlacoestenscccel | Gece Centennial......... ra PeraeneNctll eta cece onesies Raters x x x Chapman ttt: -ferc.e.ssesen gt dds anc ee | PGS ed | Set dsecsacerea || chektemnaces bees. Saadeceee Early Purple Guigne...... OX ler Sexe xx Lok x PEON eas bee Doone eset ali aenssees ess Xo ec sckw rca | X y |schteeenecment Gabted ake UBeh alls) bes eanasennoe | cdecdcusecead| | ameccenseces XK» |echssiswas das's $e) eoaeeeeeeeeet Lewelling (.i2,.2245.0..0shice. xx x sex x) 10 (Ve see Mie Zeleesei ya cxehe.< dass insane: xx SOX: KIC Ll sen vh abies ae el ee eae ears Napoleon (Royal Ann)... XX XX XX xx xx POntlaG: a fessadeicecerscnest asd eta oke ses ral eatenemees Ki: Wee seallsebenece|| Meeeaemeee fos ROCK POKtsisc.c stecen sense bel weuesteareeces x XK. ~~ Vacweeecsecdscesl eaeeeeteeeenewre Sic) oy ach Ke A Rasa ane ane SER ie aR Aa eons tal Renmenerarons | leadeceere rena ieaacadencad.c)||ccauon necnacc Spanish (Yellow) .......... > a PREAPERSd eae heer Boeeeecon sata iicncs cosca-nc Tartariani(Black)\ jews... XX Sore SOX XX XX Wood (Governor).........- x xe x a x May Duke \ccc.cscasicecceaee| Peete: see os Me Xx x xX Morello feiivevction totcteeceeriecl tore accacieces x x x xx Olive tease) bei eel eee tease Seb lee eee Ki VV eases Richim onc esses. ere x x x Xs x It has been attempted to arrange the varieties approximately in the order of their ripening. The brief descriptions of stand- ard varieties are in the main condensed from Downing, modi- fied, however, in some respects, by reference to experience and observation of California growers and nurserymen. In addition to the old standard varieties, a number of Varieties of the Cherry. 225 Pacific Coast seedlings have become popular, and others are very promising. Special description of these seedlings will tol- Icow the standard sorts. BIGARREAUX AND HEARTS. Early Lamaurie.—Fruit large, dark purple; flesh rich, juicy, excellent. Downing says a week earlier than Early Purple Guigne. Has proved the earliest cherry in the University collection at Berkeley, and in Vacaville district. Not fully tested as to regular bearing. Guigne Marbree.— Fruit medium large, round, skin dark red; flesh purplish red, tender, juicy, delicate flavor.”,—Gzlet. ‘‘A better bearer than Early Purple Guigne.’”’—W. W. Smith. Baumann’s May (Early Black Guigne).—Rather small, deep rich red, pecoming rather dark when fully ripe; tender, juicy, tolerably sweet and good. Early Purple Guigne.—Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and sweet. This variety is considered the earliest good cherry. It is reported a shy bearer in some localities. Belle d’ Orleans. —Above medium size, roundish, heart-shaped; whitish yellow, half-covered with pale red; very juicy, sweet and excellent. Early White Heart.—Below medium size, rather heart-shaped, skin dull whitish yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; flesh melt- ing, sweet, and pleasant, when fully ripe. White Tartarian.—Fruit of medium size, obtuse heart-shaped; skin pale yellow; stalk slender; flesh whitish yellow; half tender and very sweet. American Heart.—Fruit pretty large, heart-shaped, often nearly four- sided and irregular in outline; borne in clusters; flesh half tender; skin strong and adhering to flesh. Werder’s Early Black.—An early variety, moderately productive; tree vigorous, spreading; fruit large, black, tender, sweet and excellent. Knight's Early Black.—‘‘ Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and ex- cellent; high flavor; a shy bearer until the trees attain age.” Rockport Bigarreau.—Large; pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun; half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry; good bearer; highly esteemed for canning and shipping. Coe’s Transparent.—Medium size; pale amber, red and mottled next the sun; tender, sweet and fine. Cleveland Bigarreau.—A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and pro- ductive; large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich. Black Tartarian.—Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous, erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black cherries. Governor Wood.—Large; light yellow shaded with bright red; flesh nearly tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very productive. Elton.—Large, pointed; pale yellow, nearly covered with light red; juicy, with a very rich and luscious flavor; one of the best. Black Eagle.—A very excellent English variety, ripening in June; large size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high-flavored juice. American Amber.—Fruit medium sized, roundish, heart-shaped; skin thin, smooth, light amber, delicately mottled and overspread with bright red; flesh tender and juicy, but not high flavored. Yellow Spanish (Bigarreau Graffion).—Large; pale yellow, with red cheek in the sun; flesh firm, juicy, and delicious; one of the best, most beautiful, and popular of all light-colored cherries. 226 Varieties of the Cherry. Mezel, Monstrueuse de (Great Bigarreau).—A foreign variety of the ' largest size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late. FPontiac.—Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable. Burr's Seedling.—Large; yellow, shaded with red; sweet and rich; vigorous and great bearer; apparently does better near the coast than in the interior. Oxheart.—Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; skin dark red; flesh red, half tender, with a pleasant juice of second quality. Napoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann).—A magnificent cherry of the largest size; pale yellow, becoming amber in the shade, richly dotted and spotted with deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree a free grower and an enormous bearer. Tradescant’s Blackheart (Elkhorn).—Large, heart-shaped; deep, glossy black; very solid and firm; dark purple, moderately juicy. Schmidt’s Bigarreau.—‘A new German variety lately introduced. The largest of all the Black Bigarreau cherries. Skin of a deep black color; flesh dark and very juicy, with a fine flavor.’’—/ohu Bidwell. DUKES AND MORELLOS. Early Richmond (Kentish).—An early, red, acid cherry; valuable for cooking early in the season. May Duke.—An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicy, subacid, rich. Arch Duke.—Fruit large, obtuse, heart-shaped; bright red becoming dark; flesh light red, melting, juicy, rich, subacid flavor, very good; tree more upright and vigorous than May Duke. Late Duke.—Fruit large, flattened or obtuse, heart-shaped; white, mottled with red, becoming rich dark red when ripe; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy; hangs long on the tree. Reine Hortense.—‘It is one of the very largest of cherries; a beautiful, glossy red, or deep pink, when fully ripe; heart-shaped; a universal bearer, and when hanging on the tree no fruit is more beautiful; excellent for can- ning, but too soft and juicy for shipment.’”’—W. W. Smith. English Morello.—Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid, productive and late. Guigne Noir Luisante (Black Spanish).—Fruit medium size, round, heart-shaped, glossy, blackish red; flesh reddish purple, tender, juicy, rich, acid. Belle Magnifique.—Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a fine bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly subacid flavor; one of the best of its class; a fine table fruit when fully ripe. PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS. Lewelling—Black Republican (Black Oregon).—‘‘Seedling by Seth Lewelling, Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in 1860; first fruited in orchard in 1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple flesh; ripens ten days after Black Tartarian.’’—/ames Shinn. “Large, late black cherry, good flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well. Seems to succeed better on foot-hills than in the valley.’’— Robert Wiltiam- son. ‘Supposed to be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian, having the solid flesh of the former and the color of the latter; very late.’’—/ohn Rock. “I am of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln came from the seed of the Black Eagle, but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed with.’’—Seth Lewelling. Bing.—Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican. “Fruit large, dark brown or black, very fine; late; a good shipping variety.’’—Seth Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Varieties of the Cherry. 227 Centennial.—A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry Chapman, in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates, of Napa, in 1885. It is larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable keeping quality. Described by Committee of American Pomo- logical Society (1885) as follows: ‘‘Size large, slightly oblate; amber, with dark crimson marbling; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; quality best; condition excellent (after crossing continent by mail), showing its good shipping qualities.”” The Centennial has been little planted recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann. California Advance.—Originated by W. H. Chapman, of Napa, propa- gated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Seedling of Early Purple Guigne, ripens one week earlier than its parent; is larger and more obtuse, rounded form, and said to be a heavier bearer; dark purple turning black; rich and sweet, and of good degree of firmness. The Oregon.—Seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, by H. W. Prettyman, of East Portland, and named by Oregon State Horticultural Society in 1888; described as larger than Napoleon; firm; dark red; “‘fit to eat earlier than Napoleon, but coming to full maturity somewhat later.’’ Introduced in 1888, by W. S. Failing, Portland. Oregon has been prolific in originating new varieties of the cherry which are locally popular, but only a few have established themselves in California. CTW Pha eT Xk) AEE EARS ET. The peach was for many years the leading orchard fruit of California, but the recent large planting of prunes has relegated the peach to second place. ‘he peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees brought here by the early American set- tlers, and the magnificence of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from ‘the mine and the. “gold from the tree were very nearly “related. In old Coloma, where gold was discov- ered, there was a peach tree which bore four hundred and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the crop of one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit. LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA. There are many other facts to establish the claim that the peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for with any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in Cali- fornia. California is too young to mark the limits of its dura- tion, but there are numerous instances in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach trees above forty years old are still vigorous and productive. In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in the root than in the top, and sometimes triumphs over neglect by discarding its old, wind-broken, sun-burned and _ bark-bound branches, and forms a new head of its own. This is the reason why the intelligent system of pruning which is now prevalent, ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree, aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its exuber- ance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood on which to grow its fruits and foliage. But while these are facts, there is some difference of opinion as to the point at which an old tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the Sacramento River some count about a dozen good crops as the ( 228) Localities for the Peach. 229 limit, and thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. This is a point which may vary greatiy, according to local condi- tions. Early Productiveness—Quite as important as the longevity oi the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early pro- ductiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small shoots are not pruned away from the main branches, and during the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have been secured from considerable acreages. These facts are stated to show what the peach of good variety may do in a good situation and soil and with the best of care. Of course they are not to be taken as average results, although greater than those given are sometimes attained. LOCALITIES FOR THE PEACH. Nearly every county in California reports the possession of peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter kill- ing, and lower still careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid frosts at blooming-time—the peach in such places be- ing subjected to some dangers which beset it in the eastern States. Below these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of the foot-hills of the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excellence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness, and delicacy of flavor, hrmness, which endures carriage to the most distant markets, are all characteristics of the foot-hill peaches of Caliiornia. In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper condition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives, the tree making a wondertully quick and large growth, and the fruit attaining great size. In the smail valleys on the west of the great valley and on the eastern slopes of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit for a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit of these districts, with the foot-hill district on the east side of the Sacramento Valley and special locations in the upper San Joaquin Valley, has been quite close. In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success 1s greatest, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences. Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which 230 Soils and Exposures for the Peach. do well by protecting the trees from harsh winds, and by seek- ing elevation above depressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of curl-leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered presently. In the coast counties north of San Francisco Bay the danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions increases as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen with greater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for home use and local markets can be successfully grown. South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, choosing, however, elevations, and avoiding broad, wind-swept areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some varieties of peaches are notably excellent. The general rule holds with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences retard ripening and the season of the fruit is late. In the valleys and at elevations in southern California the peach is largely grown and high excellence attained. SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH. Though the range of soils for the peach can be somewhat extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be considered presently, its range is narrower that that of the apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel, providing it contain also needed elements of fertility; for the rapid growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutrition. Though it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, it relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial location than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedi- mentary deposit bordering the creek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots deep to secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether along existing streams or de- posited by prehistoric water courses, which have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained, and delight the peach. At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and where the underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and affording escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes are partly excavated in these rotten rocks, as in the soft sand rock on the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. Peach Propagation. 231 The superior warmth of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt a greater iactor to the end. The influence of comparatively slight difference in eleva- tion is very marked. E. R. Thurber, of Pleasant’s Valley, Solano County, has a plat of peach trees on a natural terrace about seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On the terrace his peaches ripen and are disposed of before the same varieties ripen in the orchard below. As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so on the hills too great percolation trom higher ievels is unde- sirable. Of course natural defects of this kind can be corrected by adequate under-drainage. Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to the peach, the tree can be weil grown for home use or local markets on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but drainage must be insisted uppn, for thousands of trees have perished during the last few years because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline soils should, how- ever, be avoided, as the peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all fruits most sensitive to alkali. As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage. Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also iow gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to escape serious injury. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING. The chapter on propagation gives the general method of growing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, pref- erence is usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow peaches, at least for working on the same colored truit, while others use pits of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will use only pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the peach is usualiy so healthy and vigorous, and the “yellows” not known, and less care may be needed in selecting pits; still, there is certainly nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock. The hard-shell sweet aimond has long been used as a stock for the peach. It is held that it gives a hardier, stronger root, in dry soils especially. When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits its own roots, the St. julian plum is used. The Myrobalan has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not favor this stock. 232 _ Peach Planting. The so-called “peach-almond” has been used to some extent. It is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the pericarp of an almond, that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced gocd trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there over the State. Mr. Burbank has pro- duced a hybrid of the Wager peach and the Languedoc almond. Distance in Orchard.—Distance observed in planting peach orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers. Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant be- tween apricot, pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slower-grow- ing, larger trees, the trees may be set comparatively close; that is, with the latter trees at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach planted quincunx, and to be removed at the end of ten to fifteen years. If the peach is to have the ground to itself, some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral triangles, or twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present tendency with the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room than was the custom a few years ago. Age of Trees—In planting peach orchards yearling trees are generally used, although far more are planted in dor- mant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to make a tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once into a full outfit of laterals. Some growers employ this disposition to form a head the first year in the nursery. When the bud has grown out eighteen inches, pinch it off at the top and force out laterals, which make long growth the same season. When planted out in orchard the following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this any one can get a yearling with the equiv- alent of a two-year-old head on it. The common practise is, however, to let the growth from the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the yearling is set in orchard, cut back to a single bud, laterals which are desired to form the head and removing others. The development of form from a vearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in chapter on pruning. Recently preference has arisen for smaller trees for trans- planting and, especially in the foot-hills, June buds, described in the chapter on propagation, are largely employed. Planting Dormant Buds.—The chapter on planting describes the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W. Butler, of Placer County, as follows:— Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard in early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees _—s 2 Sue "“BRheJY V ws S444 SE “IVS? IJOGOEA IIH VNI IUAAS VINGAWsILivw v Selecting Peach Trees. eae are in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be planted in haif a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches from the trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels, one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many of the roots; and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be planted, and take from it only a few atatime. Put themina basket or box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the ground. On planting, place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife, and not with shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree, when it will take in moisture and not heal readily. Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until growth has started out well on the dormant bud. Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout must be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Suc- cess with dormant buds is notable. In good hands they com- monly outgrow yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of loss from failure of the bud to start 1s very small. Of course every bud should be examined before planting, to see that it has a healthy color. In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy root only should be taken. During recent years there have been a good many young roots affected with knots or swellings from some obscure cause. Such trees should be burned. Ii planted, the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top growth ts made. PRUNING THE PEACH. As has been advised for other trees, the peach should be given a low head, developed as described in the chapter on prun- ing. In its after-treatment, it has been the universal experience that constant “heading in” is essential to the strength and health of the tree. This also has been considered in an earlier chapter. The peach is a pressing instance of the necessity of regular pruning, to renew and regulate the amount of bearing wood and to promote profitable longevity in the tree. Illustrations oi the pertinence of these remarks are found in the practise of the most successful peach growers in all parts of the State. A few instances will be given:— The peach, fruiting only on wood of the previous year’s growth, bears fruit farther away from the body of the tree each year, and the small shoots of from one-eighth to three-sixteenths in diameter begin to decline when the fruit is removed. To have healthy growth, all of these small branches must be removed the first winter following their fruiting, when there is a greater tendency to form small new growths, which may fruit the following 16 234 Pruning the Peach. season. In the peach, it will seldom be found necessary to remove any in- ‘terior branches, except suckers, until they have produced a crop, when they will begin to decline and should be removed. “T would certainly not cut peach trees back less than one-half of the new growth in the winter pruning, and our trees are getting too large for their age even with that amount of pruning. This has suggested, in other locali- ties, summer pruning or shortening in, with success in some places. So far my own experience is favorable. It will be noticed on trees kept growing rapidly that the fruit buds are near the ends of the shoots, and it seems to take away too many of these buds to cut back one-half in the winter prun- ing, but by cutting back about one-halfthe new growth in August, fruit buds are developed lower down, and where they would not be developed with- out the summer pruning.” —H7. Culbertson, El Cajon, San Diego County. “Prune the peach every year, cutting back and thinning out the center, using great care not to cut out too many of the little fruit shoots of new wood growing on the main branches, but removing the slender branches of the old wood, leaving as many branches of the new growth as the tree will sup- port. In this case judgment must be used as to what the tree will support. The soil may be wet or dry, rich or poor, the grower must be the judge. To grow small fruit, prune lightly; to grow large fruit, prune with care and judgment. To get this judgment you must have some practical experience. I prefer doing the work when the sap begins moving in the spring of the year. All cuts heal over better then and the pruner can see how the buds are setting and use his own judgment as to how much wood he wants to cut out.”—2&. C. Kells, Yuba City, Sutter County. “Cutting back the peach must be more severe, as the growth of the new wood diminishes. Not more than five or six fruit buds should be left ona shoot, and if the fruit all sets, it must be also thinned. The trees should be trained low and their vigor encouraged by permitting a reasonable amount of young shoots to grow around the lower part of the main limbs. When this method is continued systematically every season, the trees will bear large crops of fruit, of good quality, for many years. When they are allowed to overbear for one or two seasons, the fruit will decrease in size, and soon become almost worthless; the trees will be enfeebled, and in con- sequence very liable to be attacked by disease. The only thing to be done in this case is to cut off the whole top of the tree, allowing it to form a new head. I have seen old peach orchards thus renovated, and the results are often very flattering, but it is far better not to allow them to get into a condition where this desperate remedy is necessary.’’—Leonard Coates, Napa. Cutting Back the Peach Is not Shearing—Some undertake the annual pruning of the peach by a shearing process, treating a fruit tree as one would a hedge—cutting everything to a line. There has been a good deal of this done in California, but it is wrong nevertheless. Shortening in the new growth of the peach each year is proper practise. It is the first step toward preventing overbearing of small, unmarketable fruit and saving the tree from profitless and injurious effort. Thinning the shoots by removing all but one when two or three start from the same point is also working toward large fruit and regular bear- ing in the tree. This shortening and thinning of the new wood must also be followed by thinning of the young fruit just after the natural drop and it is seen that the tree carries too many. Proper pruning can not be done by shearing because it is apt to shorten the strong shoots too much and the weak shoots too Thinning Peaches. 235 little. Each shoot must be cut by itself according to its growth ana its ability to carry more or less fruit. Shearing, too, does not thin out the shoots but continually multiplies them until the tree is as full of brush as a hedge. THINNING PEACHES. Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of obtaining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with prun- ing in preserving the health and future production of the tree. The importance of thinning has been urged in a previous chap- ter, but the following is a very strong statement, by Mr. Cul- bertson :— In my experience there is no single operation in connection with fruit growing of more importance than thinning. The past season, in order to test the difference in expense of preparing large and small peaches for dry- ing, I timed the cutting, and found it took double the time; hence, double the expense, which meant a difference of about $15 per ton of dried fruit. Add tothis a difference of two cents per pound in price makes $55 per ton. Suppose an orchard under good treatment produces a ton of peaches to the acre, then $55 would represent the difference in profits. Unthinned or small fruit is certainly undesirable. As to how much thinning should be done there are diverse opinions. Some take off one-half, others three-fourths. Some growers thin to meet a certain ideal, but find it difficult to explain in words. The common rule of leaving a specimen of fruit every four or six inches is a safe rule; that means many must come off. Different conditions of soils, climates and irrigation vary the amount to thin out more or less. More may be left where the tree is on land giving a strong, vigorous growth. In thinning peaches I have been practising a method that gives good results and is easily learned. The peach bears on three sizes of branches, that are one-eighth, three-sixteenths, and one-fourth of an inch in diameter. The first has two peaches, the second three, and the third four; this, of course, after there has been a judicious course of pruning and the trees under irrigation; trees on dry land should have only one-half as many left. To reach this result often a dozen may have to come off, allowing only two to remain. The more there are the greater necessity for thinning. The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are likely to remain on the tree and which will drop of their own accord. WORKING OVER PEACH TREES. The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according to the demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit. The grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, less productive, or, for other reason, less desirable than others. There is, therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Budding is often resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old wood, providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood buds from young trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but because of greater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is common to take wood and fruit buds to- gether from bearing trees. A larger cut of bud and adjacent 236 Grafting the Peach. bark is taken when working in old bark than for use on seed- lings. When a branch is budded, it is sometimes broken at a distance beyond the bud and allowed to hang, the idea being to furnish the bud some but not too much sap. Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches, allowing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing processes ot the tree. These branches and those in which buds have not taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond is successfully grafted over with the peach, and this course has been followed with thousands of unproductive almonds. Grafting the Peach—Grafting the peach by the ordinary top-grafting with a cleit graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, of the University Experiment Station, near Pomona, as follows:— Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away with all difficulties arising from splitting and there is no cavity left in the heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the de- sired place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides of the crevice will be trimmed smocthly at one stroke; this operation re- peated on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a solid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where totrim. If he is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discoloration, he can make a fresh surface by placing his knife parallel to the edges and shaving off a thin slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper, which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of bark is. The inside bark of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over considerable length and will make a much better start than if the union is at only one point, owing to the enlarged surface through which the sap is transmitted. One of the most important points in grafting is to have good wax and go over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them. DISEASES OF THE PEACH. Curl-Leaf.—The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first planting of peach trees by Americans, nearly forty years ago. Only recently has it been conceded to be due to parasitic fungi, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal character demon- strated. The treatment will be described in the chapter on tree diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated as follows :— Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others, and in one place than another in the same section, and some sections are practically free from it. Some varieties are Diseases of the Peach. 237 much more subject to curl-leaf than others; generally speaking, some curl nearly everywhere, others curl in one place and not in another, others are practically free from curl in all situations. Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem to injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and sometimes the tree itself. ‘he disease is almost always at its height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the curl is “bad,” the fruit will fall to the ground, there not be- ing healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however, the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and some- times none of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well known, is of brief duration, say twelve to twenty days, after which the trees resume a healthy appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been able to survive the ordeal, it also ap- pears to grow and become as perfect as if no check had been given to its growth. Mildew.—This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally affects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and Characters in the Leaves of Peaches. occurs on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from the coast to the Sierra foot-hills. Observation in this State has fully affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, gland- less-leaved varieties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf stems are free. The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varie- ties with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has 238 Varieties of the Peach. been found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although sub- ject to mildew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth whi-e to combat the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which will be described in a later chapter. As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in others. VARIETIES OF THE PEACH. Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in Cali- fornia, and, as with other iruits, it has been found that varieties must be chosen with reference to their success in special loca- tions. Choice has also to be made according to the purpose of the grower, whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late region is killed by competition with better middle season sorts from the earlier regions. In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting sea- son. The peach season in interior districts begins at the first of June with the Alexander, and continues to the end of Novem- .ber with local seedlings—giving six months of peaches. Of course the very early and very late sorts are only of use for marketing as table fruit. The most important series is a fine succession of mid-season peaches, suitable either for canning, drying, or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made from the tables and descriptions which will be given later. _ Color is a most important item in the peach. While can- ners and Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, the fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of the yellow-fleshed varieties and clingstone. The yellow peaches are in greatest demand. The color about the pit is also an important point. Canners demand a peach, whether white or yellow, which is almost free from color at the pit, because the extraction of the red color dyes the juice; in drying, the demand just now is for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors give the dried fruit a more attractive appearance. Of course there is a market for dried white peaches, but the preference is for the yellow. In the enumeration following the table only those seed- lings which are now commercially propagated are included. Many which were prominent ten years ago have been dropped by this test. The writer has record of many others, some of them likely to rise to important place, which are reserved until after further trial. The Most Popular Peaches. 239 PEACH VARIETIES APPROVED BY CALIFORNIA GROWERS. Upper Central Evert Mountain VARIETIES. ey Coast nee valley eee and i California. valleys. valleys. Foothills: region. 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MON ekderedeccee ee Ueto Seber ce XX 240 Varieties of the Peach. The following are the peaches chichy grown in California, arranged approximately in the order of ripening :— Briggs’ Red May (California).—Originated as a chance seedling in nursery row, on the tarm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from Yuby City, about 1870. It was found to be about ten days earlier than the Early Tillotson, which was then the stand-by for an early peach. Fruit medium to large, round; white skin with rich, red cheek; flesh greenish white, melting, juicy, rich, firm enough for shipment; stone partially free, a standard early variety; subject to mildew. Alexander (Illinois).—Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit partly free. Amsden (Missouri).—Resembles preceding, but averages smaller; claimed by some to be slightly earlier; rather less liable to curl-leaf. Early Imperial (California).— Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most growers find it no improvement on St. John. Yellow St. John (New Orleans).—Earliest yellow peach; averages smaller than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large; roundish, orange yel- low with deep red cheek; juicy, sweet, and high flavored; freestone. Hale’s Early (Ohio).—Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish, mostly covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich and sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; freestone. Strawberry (New Jersey).—Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk; suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with . deep red; flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate; tree healthy. Foster (Massachusetts).—Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight suture; stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy; color deep orange, dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and productive; very widely grown in California and popular. Ripens before Early Craw- ford, which it sometimes resembles, but is of better quality. Crawford’s Early (New Jersey).— Very large, oblong, swollen, point at the top prominent, suture shallow; skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yel- low, rich, and excellent; freestone; tree very healthy and productive ; probably the most largely planted variety in California. George the Fourth (New York).—Large, round, deeply divided by broad suture; sides unequal; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red cheek; flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good. Somewhat troubled with curl-leaf. Snow (American).—Large, globular; skin clear, beautiful, almost wholly white; flesh white to the free stone, juicy, rich and sprightly. Marys Choice (New Jersey).—Large, yellow, resembling Early Craw- ford, but ripening later. Red Cheek Melocoton (American).—Large, roundish oval, swollen point at top; yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow, red at stone, which is free; juicy, good flavor. Approved in Humboldt and San Benito Counties. Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi).—Wrongly called ‘“‘ Tuscan” and ‘Tustin’? Cling in this State; largely planted in interior valleys and foot- hills; very large yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valuable for early shipping. Ripens with Crawford’s Early. Oldmixon Free (American).—Large, roundish or slightly oval; greenish or yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy and rich; high flavor. Honest Abe (California ).—‘ Originated at Healdsburg, Sonoma County. Large, yellow, with red cheek; best quality; ripens between Craw- ford’s Early and Late. Does not curl.’’—James Shinn. ONIIO LIAAGOW HHL WOAITVO V es Varieties of the Peach. 241 Morris White.—Large, oval; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe; flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet, and rich; especially good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf. Wager (New York).—Lemon yellow tinged with red; flesh yellow, rich, juicy, sweet, and excellent, having much the appearance and flavor of apricots; stone small and free from the flesh; quality best. Muir (California).—Originated as chance seedling on place of John Muir, near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W. Thissell, of Winters. Fruit large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer and strong grower, if on rich roil, to which it is best adapted; free from curl in Vacaville district; fruit a good shipper and canner and peculiarly adapted to drying because of exceptional sweetness and density of flesh; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds fresh. One of the best California seedlings. Claimed by some to be identical with Wager. Wheatland (New York).—Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded with crimson; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality. Elberta (Georgia).—Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden- yellow, faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree prolific; perfect freestone. sNewhall (California).—‘‘ Originated with Sylvester Newhall, of San Jose. Very large; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and a rich, vinous flavor; ripens about one week before Crawford’s Late; tree very hardy, healthy, vigorous, and not affected by curl; free- stone.’’—/ohn Rock. Stump the World (New Jersey).—Large, strong; skin creamy white, with bright red cheek ; flesh white, juicy and high flavored. Commended for family use by Southern California Nurserymen’s Association. Curls somewhat in some localities ; freestone. Crawford's Late (New Jersey).—Very large, roundish, yellow with dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excel- lent; a popular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities; freestone. Lemon Cling stone (South Carolina).—Large, lemon-shaped or oblong, having large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin fine yellow; flesh firm, yellow with rich, sprightly, vinous subacid; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firmly. Orange Clingstone.—Large, round; suture distinctly marked and ex- tending nearly around the fruit; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Cling- stone; deep orange color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat subject to mildew. Though largely grown, this vari- ety has been largely supplanted by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it. Sellers’ Golden Cling (California.)—Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden color; tree healthy ; one of the very best of clings ; ripens with Late Crawford. Runyon’s Orange Cling (California).—‘' Originated with Mr. Sol. Run- yon, on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Runyon’s Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek; rich, sugary, and vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento region and elsewhere.’’—/ohn Rock. Nichols’ Orange Cling (California).—Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles, introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek; flesh yellow and good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer. Peck’s Orange Cling (California).—‘‘Originated at Healdsburg, So- noma County. Improved seedling of Orange Cling, of Downing. Large, 242 Varieties of the Peach. handsome, yellow-fleshed, free from curl, hardy, vigorous, productive, superior for market or drying; planted more extensively in Santa Rosa Val- ley than in any other.’’—Luther Burbank. Stilson (California).—‘‘ Originated at Marysville(?). Perfect in shape; very large; red cheek with crimson stripes; yellow-fleshed, more highly colored than Susquehanna; table and market quality excellent; ripens after Crawford’s Late; treestone.’’—P. W. Butler. Susquehanna (Pennsylvania).— Large, nearly globular; suture half round; skin rich yellow, ncarly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular. ; McCowan’s Cling (California).—Originated with Dr. McCowan, of Ukiah. Yellow cling; round, smooth outline; no suture; no red at pit, which is small; flesh firm, fine-grained, and sweet; not much subject to curl; fruit apt to run small unless carefully thinned; reported an irregular bearer in Alameda County; liked by canners; approved in Placer County. Phillips’ Cling—A California Seedling. Lovell (California). —Originated as chance seedling with G. W. Thissell, and named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yel- low freestone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine, text- ure firm, solid, clear yellow to the pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning and shipping, and dries well. Said to curl in some places. ‘The richest peach I ever saw on a tray.’’—£. A. Bonine, Los Angeles County. Mc Kevitts’ Cling (California).—Originated as chance seedling in apri+ cot orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt, Vaca Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white clingstone; flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit; skin strong and fruit excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in growth and free from disease. Widely distributed. Varieties of the Peach. 243 Wylie Cling. —An old seedling, increasing in popularity in northern Sonora County as superior to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. A fine peach for canning and drying. General Bidwell (California).—Originated from a shoot from a peach root upon which an apricot had grown and died, on Rancho Chico. Named by State Horticultural Society, September 4, 1886, and commended for cul- tivation. Ripens one week later than Late Crawford and ahead of Salway and Piquet’s Late. About the shape of the Orange Cling, but larger; very yellow with reddish cheek; flesh very solid, juicy, and rich; freestone and a small pit. California; syn. Edward’s Cling (California).—‘‘Originated in Sacra- mento. Very large, round, regular; orange, nearly covered with dark, rich red; flesh deep yellow; flavor delicate, rich, vinous..’—C W. Reed. Picquet’s Late (Georgia).—Large to very large; round, sometimes a little flattened; yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fragrant; freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. Smock Freestone (New Jersey).—‘‘Large, yellow, mottled with red; mod- erately rich and juicy. A better drying peach than Salway.’’—£. A. Lonine. La Grange (New Jersey).—Large, oblong; greenish white, some red on sunny side ; not desirable in coast regions ; freestone. Salway (English).—Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extend- ing beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; freestone; a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy. Phillips’ Cling (California).—Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter County; propagated by J. T. Bogue, of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, no color at pit, which is very small; exceedingly rich and high-colored; de- scribed by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best peach he ever used. Persian’s Cling (California.)—‘‘ Originated in Visalia, probably from seed of Heath Cling, and a few days earlier than its parent. Large; clear white skin and flesh, the latter very sweet; commended for canning.’’— 7. #7. Thomas, Tulare County. Heath (Maryland).—Described by Downing as the most delicious of all clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red; flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor; best adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl. Steadly (Missouri).—‘‘ Large to very large; white skin; flesh white at the pit, firm, rich, and good flavor; freestone. Produces very heavy yield of dried fruit.’”,—/. H. Thomas, Tulare County. George’s Late Cling (California).—‘‘ Originated in Sacramento. Large; white flesh, colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed with bright red; a very heavy and uniform bearer; a good shipper, and at its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the grower so much profit.’—P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew in some localities. Yellow Tuscany (Dura cini, Tuscany).—A very large yellow cling; prop- agated by G. Tosetti, formerly of San Leandro; tree a strong grower and free from curl-leaf. very productive. On the basis of its behavior at the University Experiment Station at Pomona, this variety has recently been largely planted in southern California. It is counted the best yellow cling for canning in that section. Ripens with Lemon Cling. Albright’s Cling (California).—“Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placerville. Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in qual- ity and flavor. Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor. better shape, and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange Cling.’’— P. W. Butler. Endures long shipment well even after being well colored. McDevitt Cling.—‘‘Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uniformly large; rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe; flesh very 244 Relative Ripening of Peaches. se and solid, superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regular Galeton Staley (California). Very large; eleven and one-half inches in circum- ference; somewhat elongated and flattened laterally; rich, creamy white with very faint touches of light red; suture shallow, but almost continuous around the peach; stone small and perfectly free, cavity considerably longer than stone; flesh white to the pit, very juicy, fine, tender; flavor delicious. Originated as sucker from peach root from which prune had been broken off in Selma, Fresno County. Ripens twenty days after Salway or four weeks after Susquehanna. A high-class white freestone. Introduced by F. M. Nevins, Selma. Levy's Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia).—Above average size, yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Bilyeu’s Late October.—‘‘Large; greenish white with red cheek; flesh whitish, freestone; tree a rapid grower and attains great size; prolific bearer; fruit ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place; does particularly well in the foot-hills.’—P. W. Butler. Decker (California).—Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in Sutter and Butte Counties. DATES OF RIPENING OF LEADING VARIETIES. _The relative ripening of a large number of peach varieties, as noted at the Univer- sity Experiment Station, near Pomona, will be useful to planters in determining proper Succession of varieties. VARIETY. First flower. Full flower. Ripe. Briggs’ Red May ....cs-uscesneveanne: WIRY AV Bsc Manche 2Aerevess June 16 Amsden’s JUne.2.2..cssjecsvencesanaece March io: .cstee Maron 25 /.2cs:3 June yorg Alexan detec a. ts.c. geese Marchign7escecs: Marchisaiueesss: une a7; Barge Early, Vonks -.-eeese seer Watchers Marehi8" .3,3- July 15 Yellow ’'St.. Jolin’: ..ccsscee cere Marchy Agrees: Marchi g-sse ‘July. ay Crawford's: Marly <...scaiessesmertecs VMiarchige2 aes: <- March 15 ...... july en ELOSTEI oss sscavsscucroneseeenaamete teens Manchi Agiees= =: Marehy 5 ccna. July 21 Oldmixon, Pree t..-<..-4ieses- seats? March: 25.04; Warehy ven cose Aus, sot Stump themvVoriceeccer.-s-ccteesnes Marchipi2eees MianchishtGmesss. Aug. 12 TG VEUMe oe: wae took few scapes avon does Febs “728i: Matchi9)".....5; AUS pe Nichols’ Orange Cling.............. Matchwerdnsesee WWigWelen WU Gosche Aug. 14 Seller’s' Cling, Bocec Heese eter Marehivaeesset: Manche 4 terse Aug. 14 McDevitt’s. Cling: cscevssaspteaupescees March. 2..;:.. March) 18 |. ce. AUS. ee McKevitt’s Cling ......... baeeauacaant March ia2oirctes. March Io ...... Aug. 19 Wilkins? Cling. ou. csonsessesseeaerecs March. 2) vs siea- March’ T4sncs.: Aug. 20 Indian Bloods. =. ecsstncscansneeeere Martens (5, eae Matchs25 ass: Aug. 20 Yellow Tuscany Cling |. ..2.....-<. March 5. <. a ANITA QGuva “f TO “VW ‘aAYXOod eased 392S— ONSA YHA “ERE Varteties of the Grape. 313 tomentose below; bunch very large, shouldered, rather loose; berry round, large, black, with firm and crackling flesh, ripens rather late; a very hand- some and productive variety, of good quality, but not adapted for long shipment.’’—A/usmann. Moscatello Fino; syns. Moscatello Nero, Black Muscat.—‘‘ Leaves of medium size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses, glabrous above, slightly downy below, and very hairy on the veins, teeth long and sharp; bunches large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, and winged; berries very large, on long, thin pedicels; skin well colored, thin but tough; flesh soft and juicy, with delicate Muscat aroma. An excellent table grape.. It is a heavy bearer, and produces very fine-looking bunches of dark-colored grapes. Rather late.’’—Azo/etti. > Purple Damascus ; syn. Black Damascus.—‘‘Vine a medium grower; wood light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed; leaf round, five- lobed, smooth, light green above, tomentose beneath; stem reddish, large, long and woody; bunch large, loose, shouldered; berry very large, oblong, dark blue, covered with lighter bloom, meaty, skin thick, ripens late.’’— FHlusmann. Purple Cornichon,; syn. Black Cornichon.—‘‘ Vine a heavy grower, with thick, light brown, short-jointed wood; leaves large, longer than wide, deeply five-lobed, dark green above, and lighter and very hairy below, coarsely toothed, and with short, thick petiole; bunches very large, loose, on song peduncles; berries large, long, more or less curved, darkly colored and spotted, thick-skinned, and on long pedicels. Desirable on account of its attractive appearance, curious shape, excellent shipping qualities, and late ripening.’’— Bioletti. White Cornichon.—Resembles Purple Cornichon in shape and flavor, put has very thin and tender skin, which makes it better for the table, but boorer for shipping. Leaves not deeply cut; smooth on both sides. Emperor.—‘‘Vine a strong, vigorous grower; leaves very large, with five shallow lobes, short, obtuse teeth, glabrous above, woolly beneath, light green in color; bunches very large, long, conical, loose, with large, dull purple, oval, firm berries.’’—Azolettz. An excellent shipping grape, largely grown by R. B. Blowers, of Woodland, Yolo County, by whom its merits were first announced. Pronounced unsatisfactory because of irreg- ular setting and non-ripening in localities near the coast in northern Califor- nia, and generally condemned in southern California. Seems best adapted to early interior situations. Black Ferrara.—A large black grape; large bunches; berries cling well to the stem, thick-skinned, flavor superior. An excellent local market variety and long-distance shipper. Gros Colman, syn. Dodrelabi.—“ Vine strong-growing, with dark-brown- ish wood; leaves very large, round, thick, very slightly lobed, shortly and bluntly toothed, glabrous above, close-woolly below; bunches large, short, well filled, but not compact; berries very large, round, dark blue, with thick but tender skin. Remarkable as having the largest berries of any round- berry variety known, and is probably the handsomest black table grape grown. The grapes have good keeping qualities, except that they are liable to crack.’’— Bio/e ttt, Black Morocco.—‘‘Vine a strong grower, with thin, spreading canes; leaves under medium size, very deeply five-lobed, even when very young, the younger leaves truncate at base, giving them a semicircular outline, with long, sharp teeth alternating with very small ones, glabrous on both sides; bunches very large, short, shouldered, and compact; berries very large, round, often angular from compression, fleshy, of neutral flavor, dull purple color or colorless in the center of the bunch. Remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. Late in ripening and of very fine appearance; a fairly good shipping grape, but 21 314 Varieties of the Grape. difficult to pack on account of the size and rigidity of the bunches. The grapes are of an agreeable crispness, but lacking in flavor.’’—A4zoletti. Vine quite subject to root knot. Verdal,; Aspiran Blanc.—‘‘Vine of medium vigor and rather hardy; canes somewhat slender and half erect; leaves of average size, glabrous on both surfaces, except below near the axils of the main nerves, sinuses well marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes; teeth long, unequal, and somewhat acuminate; bunches large to very large, irregular long-conical, without any or with small shoulders, well- filled to compact; berries yellowish-green, large to very large, crisp, with thick but tender skin, agreeable, but without marked flavor.’’—Aio/etti. Largely grown as a late table grape; in good condition ; insome regions as late as November. Almeria.—‘‘ Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round, and slightly or not at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical; berries from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and taste- less.’’— Bioletti. The grape cultivated at the University experiment stations under this name is one of the several varieties which are shipped in such large quantities from Malaga and Almeria packed in sand or cork-dust. The grapes ripen late and attain about 20.0 per cent of sugar. They have remarkable keeping qualities. Vine needs long pruning, and is only adapted to hot, interior situations. There are many other vznzfera varieties which are grown to a limited extent either for raisins or for table use. Among these are the Canon Hall Muscat, the White Tokay, White Champion, Cinsaut, Sabalskanski, etc., for table use; the White and Black Corinth, for drying. With grapes, as with other market fruits, the planter usually confines his attention to a very few popular kinds. EASTERN GRAPES. Though many of the improved varieties of the grape species indigenous east of the Rocky Mountains, and of the hybrids be- tween these species and the winzfera, have been introduced in California, their growth for table fruit is almost of insignificant proportions, and does not constitute even a respectable fraction of one per cent of our grape area. The popular taste decidedly prefers the vinzfera varieties. There is, however, a variety be- lieved to be of local origin, which is worthy of mention, as follows :— Tsabella Regia.—‘‘A remarkable, giant-leaved, and very prolific sport of the Isabella, originating by bud-variation with Mr. J. P. Pierce, of Santa Clara. The berries, like the leaves, are of extraordinary size, and when ripe the fruit is exceedingly sweet and strongly aromatic. It is, therefore, acceptable as a showy, perfumed table grape, much liked by some, but readily surfeiting those who are accustomed to the vinifera grapes. The berries are too soft for shipment to any distance, but, all things considered, keep fairly.” —Ailgard. WINE GRAPES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA. Progress is being continually made in the propagation of varieties yielding the best qualities of wine, and in the manu- Popular Wine Grapes. 315 facture thereof. The hosts of considerations involved in this effort are beyond the scope of this work, and in great part be- yond the knowledge of the writer. It will be interesting, however, to introduce lists of the grapes more or less widely grown in this State for the various _kinds of wine. DRY WINES. Red (Claret and Burgundy).—Zinfandel, Carignan, Mataro, Mourastel, Petite Sirah, Petit Bouschet, Alicante Bouschet, Grenache, Valdepefias, Cabernet Sauvignon, St. Macaire, Beclan, Mondeuse, Blue Elbling, Refosco, and Barbera. White (Sauterne, Hock, etc.).—Semillon, Sauvignon Blanc and Vert, Johannisberg Riesling, Franken Riesling, Traminer, Chasselas Dore (Gutedel), Chauche Gris, Berger, Folle Blanche, Feher Szagos, Green Hungarian, Palomino, White Pinot, Thompson’s Seedless. SWEET WINES. Ports.—Mission, Malvoisie, Grenache, Trousseau. Sherry and Madeira.—Mission, Palomino, West’s White Prolific, Verdelho, Feher Szagos, Sultana, Thompson’s Seedless. Angelica, Muscat, etc.—Muscat of Alexandria, Muscatella, Furmint (Tokay wine). Other varieties are also grown, but this list includes those most largely used at present. PART FIVE: SEMITROPICAL: PRUEES: CHAP TERT 2X Vil Ty THE DATE: The date palm (phoenix dactylifera) was brought to Cali- fornia by the padres, and the oldest date trees in the State are the survivors of their early plantings. These trees are found at the San Diégo Mission, as shown in the engraving. ‘hey are conjectured to be a century old, and they have survived drouth and neglect, making unsuccessful eftort at fruiting, for, accord- ing to common report, the fruit does not ripen, but whether owing to the unfavorable conditions indicated, or to lack of fertilization of the bloom, is not known. There are trees at Ventura, on the site of the garden of the old mission of San Buena Ventura, about forty feet in height and ten feet in cir- cumference at the base, with long, graceful, tern-like leaves, which put forth about thirty feet from the ground. The ill success of these old trees in the direction of fruit bearing probably long prevented further attention to the date as a profitable growth. Still there were date palms grown trom seed of the commercial date planted here and there for orna- ment or out of curiosity, and in due course of time the fruit appeared. The first public exhibition of California dates known to the writer was made at the Mechanics’ Institute Fair, in San Francisco, in September, 1877. The fruit was grown on the scuth bank of Putah Creek, the northern boundary of Solano County, the situation being slightly above the level of the plain of the Sacramento Valley, which lies east of it. The plants were grown by the late J. R. Wolfskill, from seed of commercial dates purchased in San Francisco, and planted in 1858 or 1859. The seed germinated readily, and the young plants were set out in a row about one hundred feet south of Putah Creek, on a rich, fine, sandy loam, lying about twenty-five feet above the bed of the creek. The plants received good cultivation but no irrigation. This treatment was continued after the property passed into the hands of the late S. C. Wolfskill, the plants being (316) Old Mission Dates. B17 allowed to remain in the row as originally planted, and they have attained great size, considering their crowded condition. They are approximately six feet apart, have trunks about two feet in diameter, and are twenty-five feet or more in height. Date Palm at the San Diego Mission. Another bearing date palm stands about a mile eastward of the situation just described, near the residence of J. R. Wolf- skill. It was grown from seed of the date of commerce, which was planted in 1863, and the tree bore its first fruit in 1880. In the plate which shows this tree there also appears upon the left a taller date palm, which bears staminate bloom, as will be mentioned presently. This latter tree was originally one of the row previously described, and was successfully moved to its present situation after attaining considerable size. 318 Propagation of the Date. The iruit of these two bearing palms differs notably in ap- pearance. That of the first-mentioned tree is of bright yellow color and angular outline; that of the second tree is wine red, with stnooth surface. During recent years the date has iruited at many places in California and Arizona. ‘There is little doubt that it will succeed in any of the interior regions which have a sufficiently high sum- mer temperature, and even the so-called Colorado Desert may be dotted with groves of date palms, as portions of it now are with groves of the majestic fan palm of California. Soils and Waters for the Date—In California thus far the date palm has only been planted on good orchard land, but, according to experience in date-growing countries, the tree does not require rich soil, but, on the contrary, will thrive in a soil poor in humus—too peor and too purely mineral for any other fruit tree; and it produces the finest and _ best-flavored dates, nourished by water too alkaline for man and beast to drink. These observations should lead to trials of the tree in situations not adapted to other fruits. PROPAGATION OF THE DATE. The date palm grows readily from the seeds of the dried date of commerce, and, as has been intimated, the trees now fruiting in this State have been obtained in this way. By the use of seed, one gets, however, only seedlings, and the chance of thus securing a really fine variety is probably not greater than with other fruit-tree seedlings. In date-growing countries the best varieties are propagated by rooting the off-sets, sprouts, or suckers which appear at the base of the old palms. To secure the best foreign varieties such plants must be imported. The first successful enterprise of this kind was accomplished in the summer of 1890 by the United States Department of Agricul- ture, under the direction of Proiessor H. E. Van Deman, then chief of the Division of Pomology. The plants were divided between New Mexico, Arizona, and California. The plants for California were sent to the Department of Agriculture of the University of California, and were planted at the experiment stations at Tulare and at Pomona. Upon fruiting a number of these plants, it appears likely that they are only seedlings and not the best foreign varieties, as represented. The United States Department of Agriculture undertook arrangements in 1899 for a new importation, hoping to reach better results. A full ac- count of the earlier effort and its outcome is given in Bulletin 29, of the Arizona Experiment Station. Growing Plants from Seed.--The seed germinates with great readiness: in fact the young plants spring up as volunteers where date seeds have been thrown during the rainy season. Blooming and Bearing of the Date. 319 The seeds may be sown in open seed-bed, if slightly protected by cloth or lath frame, and the plants reset in nursery row to be placec in permanent position after attaining more size. They transplant well if a ball of earth is taken up with the roots. It grown in boxes, which is, perhaps, preferable, because more easily watered and cared for, they may be afterwards potted for a time, but the plant should not remain long in the pot because of the circular growth soon assumed by the roots. Large date ' plants can be readily transplanted by removing the outer leaves and taking as large a ball of earth as can be handled. Rooting Suckers Suckers taken off in warm weather and watered freely usually take root readily. Care should be taken not to let the plants dry. Professor Toumy, in the Arizona Bul- letin already cited, says a sharp two-inch chisel and a mallet are good tools to use in removing suckers. The leaf stalks should be cut away, exposing the bulb of the sucker, care being taken not to injure the bulb in removing. One should cut in rather deeply at either side, not being afraid of injuring the old plant, cutting out a V-shaped poriion extending from the base of the bulb downward for a foot or more, and being careful to secure in uninjured condition all the attached roots. Mr. J. W. Mills, foreman of the Pomona substation in California, has the best success in removing suckers by banking earth about the stem of the plant so as to cover the bulbs, a number of weeks prior to removing them. A good system of roots is established by this method. In growing plants from suckers one gets fruit much sooner than from seedlings. Bearing Age of the Date.—There is, however, much differ- ence in the ages at which the seedlings have come in fruit in the hands of different growers. Fruit has been reported on seed- lings six years old and even on plants four years from the seed. Such early maturity must not, however, be generally expected. Blooming of the Date.—The date palm is dioecious, and, its staminate (male) and pistillate (female) blooms appearing on different trees, it requires the association of the two for perfect fruiting. Growing plants from seed leaves the grower in doubt as to the sex of his plants until they bloom. Usually one ob- tains a large preponderance of male plants. In propagating from suckers the new tree is of the same sex as the parent. It is advised to have about one male to twenty female trees. The pollen can be transported long distances and maintains its vital- itv for a long time. Artificial fertilization of the bloom of the bearing palm has been found of advantage in this State, and was probably first practised by J. R. Wolfskill. Though the staminate tree was but a few feet awav from the pistillate, the male bloom was broken in pieces and hung to the leaves of the female tree near 320 Beauty of the Date Palm. to the pistillate flowers. It was found’ that the parts of the date cluster which are nearest to the suspended male blooms have more perfect fruit than the more distant parts. Other Califor- nia date growers have had similar experience. In Winters the bearing palms bloom in April and May, and the fruit ripens in November. Beauty of the Date Palm—tThe date palm in fruit is a beau- tiful sight. The glaucous green pinnate leaves arch outward. Retween two of these emerge the bright orange-yellow polished fruit stalks, which divide into a spray of slender bright yellow stems a foot or so in length; and thickly set upon these in clus- ters are the coral red date berries, covered with a rich bloom. It is a sight not easily forgotten by a lover of nature, and es- pecially by one reared in a northern zone, the characteristic vegetation of which is so different. i Tau ey Gaba? FER Xak TL). CHE FG: The fig is, perhaps, the grandest fruit tree of California. Its majestic size and its symmetry make it a crowning feature of the landscape, and its dense foliage renders the wide space embowered by it a harbor of refuge from midsummer heat, both for idlers and for the industrious. On adjacent farms in Pleasant’s Valley, Solano County, there are large fig groves; one serves as a shelter for the packers of fruit from the contig- uous orchard, and the other incloses and shades a croquet ground. Measurements of large trees are abundant, for old trees are numerous in the intericr of the State, both in the val- ley and on the slopes of the Sierra foot-hills. At Knight’s / Ferry, in, Stanislaus County, there is a fig tree sixty feet in height, with branches of such length as to shade a circle seventy feet in diameter. The trunk at the base is eleven feet around, and nine feet at a distance of ihree feet from the ground. A little higher the trunk divides into seven or eight large branches, each of which is nearly five feet in circumference. At thirty feet from the ground the limbs are seven and eight inches through. The largest grove is in the neighborhood of Knight’s Ferry, and consists of fifteen massive black fig trees, which, though set sixty feet apart, mingle their branches overhead and form a network through which, in the summer, hardly a beam of light can pass. Such groves are frequently seen in the older settled parts of the State. Perhaps the most interesting single fig tree is that on Rancho Chico, quite near the residence of General Bid- well. It was planted in 1856, and has attained a marvelous growth. One foot above the ground the trunk measures eleven feet in circumference; the widespreading branches have been trained toward the ground, and, taking root there, banyan- like, they now form a wonderiul inclosure over one hundred and fifty feet in diameter. ‘The tree is loaded every year. The crop on these large trees is proportionate to their size, and, entering their area in the morning during the ripening sea- son, one can scarcely step without crushing figs, though the fruit is gathered up each day and placed in the sun for drying. ( 321 ) 322 Situations and Soils for the Fig. REGIONS SUITED FOR THE FIG. Though there are still many fine points to be determined as to what situations and conditions favor the production of the very finest figs, and there are indications that there is possi- bly much difference, it may be truly said that a very small part oi the State is really unsuited to its growth. If one shuns the immediate codst of the upper part of the State, where the sum- mer temperature 1s too low for successful ripening, and keeps below the altitude of the mountains where winter killing ot the tree is possible, he can grow figs almost anywhere. Selection of varieties adapted to particular situations has much to do with the success of the fig, as with other fruits, and, therefore, a broad statement of adaptability must be received with such an understanding. ‘The intrusion of the coast influ- ences borne eastward by the winds of summer, as described in Chapter I, give a night temperature too low for ripening of some varieties, which turn sour upon the trees. Present indi- cations are that the finest dried figs, having the thinnest skin and the nearest approach generally to the fig of Smyrna, the commercial standard for dried figs, will be produced in the drier portions of the valleys and foot-hills. Even in southern Cali- fornia fig-scuring is quite prevalent and selection of locations must be circumspectly made. More time is requisite for the final demonstration of these matters, although years have_al- ready been devoted to the problem. SOILS FOR THE FIG. As it must be left with the future to determine the mooted point as to the influence of special situations upon the bearing of the fig, and the more minute characteristics of the fruit, so more experience is needed to demonstrate the comparative effects of different soils. It might seem, from the fact of the age of our trees in different parts of the State, that time enough had elapsed to determine these points, but it must be remembered that all our oldest trees are of the very hardy variety found at the missions, and conclusions drawn from them as to all vari- eties are unsafe. The fig will thrive in any soil that one would think of se- lecting for any of our common orchard trees, and, in fact, the fig succeeds on a wider range of soils than any one of them. One is safe in planting figs for family use, or for marketing, wher- ever the summer teniperature is ‘high enough to ripen the fruit well, and the winter temperature high enough to preserve the life of the tree. This applies merely to the successful growth of the fig; to secure ripening at a time when the fruit can “be profit- ably sold for table use, is another question. Growing Fig Cuttings. 323 The selection oi soils especially suitable to the production of the best figs for drying involves more considerations than rule in the growth of table fruit. For drying, the fig should at- tain a good size, but should not contain excess of moisture. In some parts of the State the first crop of figs in the season has been found unfit for drying. ‘The second, and, in some localities, the third crop, appearing later in the season, when the moisture supply of the soil is reduced, dry well. This condition of the first crop is, however, affected by local conditions, for there are places in the Sierra foot-hills where the soil moisture has to be replenished early in the season by irrigation to prevent even the first crop froin falling prematurely, and subsequent irrigation brings to perfection the second and third crops. The fig tree needs plenty of moisture in the soil» but not too much. As with other fruits, if the soil does not retain the needed amount nat- urally, it must be supplied by irrigation wisely administered. PROPAGATION OF THE FIG. The fig grows very readilv from cuttings, and this is the chief method of propagation. Cuttings.should be made while FIG. 2. } FIG. 3. Fic. 4. * Growth of Fig from Cuttings—Lelong. the tree is fully dormant, in the winter, of well-matured wood of the previous season’s growth, giving preference to stocky, short-jointed shoots, and making the cuttings about six to eight 324 Budding the Fig. inches in length. ‘The cut at the lower end should be made at the joint, or where solid wood is found. The planting and care af the cutiings is essentially the same as of vine cuttings, already described. If well made and cared for, a very satisfactory erowth is made the first season, and the trees are ready os planting out in permanent place the following season. Single-bud Cuttings —-lf one desires to multiply a new vari- ety very ” rapidly, single-eye cuttings will make plants. This is, also, analogous to “single- eye grape cuttings, as already de- scribed. The engravings show diiterent styles of fig cuttings. Fig. I is the cutting usually employed, and its start in bud and roots is shown in Fig. 2. Fig. 3 is from the tip of a shoot, and Fig. 4 is a single-eye cutting. Budding the Fig—The foregoing means enable one to prop- agate a fig so rapidly that recourse is not had to budding, as in propagating other trees; still, budding is feasible, either on small plants or on young shoots of old trees which it is desired to over. The fig may be budded by the common shield method, as used for ordinary fruit trees, and described in Chapter IX, but owing to the tendency of the fig bark to shrink in drying, the bud should be closely bound in with a narrow waxed band, to exclude the air. As the bark is thick, it is often desirable to cut out.a little of the edges closest to the bud when in place. A better method of budding the fig is by annular or “ring budding,” a method also relied upon with the walnut and chest- nut.* Annular budding, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2, is done in the fall. A circular ring of bark is taken off from the stock, as shown in the first figure on the left, which operation is done by the aid of a budding knife, by running two circular cuts around the stock. and a longitudinal one between the two circular cuts, the ring of bark taken off having the appearance shown in Fig. 2. This ring must be at least one inch wide, and from that up to two inches. A like ring of bark is taken off in the same manner from a scion of the variety to be budded in, and from a branch of the year, or preceding one, well in sap, and having about the same diameter as the stock. This ring should have on it one or two buds. It must fit exactly the space (a) seen on Fig. 1, and more particularly at the lower circular cut (b), so that both barks will exactly unite at that point. When the ring is too long, a little bit of it might be cut otf with a very sharp knife till it fits well; if the ring is too large forthe stock, a lon- citudinal strip would be cut out, and if too narrow, such a strip, if with a bud on so much the better, will have to be used to * Felix Gillet, Nevada City, in Rural Press. Budding the Fig. 325 fill up the empty space. One must be very careful while draw- ing the knife around the stock not to go too deep into the werd to injure the cambium layer, or to weaken the stock. Tie a bandage pretty firmly over the whole. After two or three eek the bandage has to be taken off, and, in the ensuing spring, the top of the stock or limb is cut down three inches above the budding. Another way of working such trees is by “whistle budding,” which is done iv the spring, when the sap is well up. Figs. 3 and 4 show this method. The stock and scion must be both of the same size and well in sap. The top of the stock is cut down to several inches from the ground; a circular ring of bark is then taken off, and a corresponding ring from the scion, but without Annular and Whistle Budding Illustrated. a longitudinal cut, is put in its place. In inserting it care should be taken that the top of the stock, which is to receive the ring from the scion, be very smooth, and the latter is then easily pushed down around it and bandaged. In the case of the fig, it is especially desirable to use the latter method when the sap is up, because if the top of the stock is not removed, the exuda- tion from above sours around the bud and prevents the union of stock and bud. To prepare an old fig tree for budding over, the limbs may be cut back in February within two to six feet of the trunk, covering the ends with paint or grafting wax. Allow two shoots to start near the end ot each of these amputated limbs, and rub off all other shoots. Bud the shoots when they attain the thick- ness of one’s finger, taking green buds from the growth it is desired to introduce, or let them grow and bud in the fall, which- ever is most convenient; or bud in the growing shoot, and rebud in the fall where buds have failed. 326 Grafting the Fig. Grafting the Fig—The fig can be grafted by the cleft-graft method, as described in Chapter IX, but the cleft should be made to one side of the stub and not through the central pith. Especial care must be taken, in excluding the air. Fill the cleft between the scions with warm wax, which will run in and fill the cavity. Then bind’ the stock with wax bands, taking the greatest care to cover the exposed wood surface, the cut end of the bark (which in the fig is very prone to shrink and draw back), and as far down the stock as the bark has been split. Another method is to make slightly outward and down- ward cuts into the stub with a sharp chisel, so as not to cause a split, but rather deep, clean cuts, into which the wedge-shaped scions are firmly pushed and a cord wound around the stub to hold all strongly in place before waxing thoroughly. The form of side-graft as described in the chapter on the peach is also available. A form of bud-grait, that is, budding with a large shield into old bark, is also successful. Judge Rhodes, of San Jose, describes his method, both with the olive and the fig, in this way:— Cut the shield from a limb of about % inch in diameter, length of shield about 1% inches, its thickness from % to ¥ inch, and its bud near the m d- dle of the shield. Do not remove the wood from behind the bud. Makea cut in the stock, through the bark and into the wood, its length and width a little greater than those of the shield. Insert the shield into the cut, so that the inner bark of the top of the shield and cut will coincide, so that one side of shield and cut—and both sides, if practicable—will coincide. Place the flap of the cut over the shield (removing a part of the flap so the bud will not be covered), and fasten flap, shield and stock together very firmly with twine, and protect them with paper tied around them. They may be grafted in that mode, whenever dormant buds are found, for the shields. Twenty-four shields were inserted at several times, during one spring, and there was only one failure. Seedling Figs.—Figs are readily grown from the imported fig of commerce. Dr. Gustav Eisen, of San Francisco, our lead- ing writer on the fig, gives the following explicit directions for growing the fig from seed:— Cut open imported Smyrna ‘figs; wash out the seeds in warm water, those that float are empty and worthless; those that sink are generally fertile. Sow these in shallow boxes of sand and loam mixed, and place in a frame under glass. In three weeks they will be up and must be very sparingly watered. Set out next season in nursery row. In three years from the seed such plants will be found to bear. Do not throw away plants until six to eight years old, as some may develop, or show their qualities late. The tendency of the plants grown from Smyrna figs is to revert to the wild type, and there is a small chance of securing good varieties. Pruning the Fig. 327 PLANTING AND PRUNING THE FIG. The chief point to observe in planting fig trees is to get them far enough apart, because of the great spread of branches which they attain. Of course they may be planted twenty feet apart if the owner intends to remove alternate rows, but to plant at forty feet, or even farther apart, with other fruit trees or vines between, on the plan of alternate or double squares, described in Chapter X, would be the best way to lay out a fig orchard—the intermediate growths to be removed as the figs require more room. Very handsome effects are produced by planting the fig along avenues to inclose orchards ot other fruits. In transplanting fig trees extra care must be taken to keep the roots from drying. After planting, the stem must be dili- gently guarded from sunburn, to which it is liable in the warmer parts of the State. Pruning the Fig—The fig requires very little pruning after its shape is outlined. There is difference of opinion and practise as to the height at which the head should be formed; some head as low as already advised for common orchard trees; others, having in mind the immense thiciness attained by the limbs, and their disposition to droop, head as high as four to six feet, which is the better way to proceed. In shaping the tree, branches should be brought out at a distance apart on the stem, so that there may be room for their expansion without crowding each other, and care should be taken not to leave too many main limbs. Three limbs, well placed arourd the stem, are enough. The branches putting out on the under side of these limbs should be suppressed, and those growing upright, or obliquely upright, retained. After getting the general shape of the tree fixed, there is little need of prun- ing except to remove defective branches or those which will cross and interfere with each other and to prevent the interior of the tree from becoming too dense. It is better to remove branches entirely than to shorten them; or, in shortening, always cut to a strong lateral. Stubs left at pruning are very undesir- able in the fig. Cultivation —Young fig orchards are cultivated as are other fruit areas. Old trees which completely shade the ground are usually left to themselves, without cultivation, except cutting out weeds. Irrigation is governed by local conditions, as al- ready stated. Bearing Age of the Fig.-—The fig often, and, perhaps, usu- ally, begins its bearing very early, in the most favorable situa- tions in this State. Some fruit is often had the second year, and a crop worth handling the third year. Still, it is wiser not to 328 Caprification of the Fig. calculate definitely upon such rcturns, ior four or five years sometimes pass without a satisfactory crop. We _ have, also, instances of “barren fig trees,” which persist in “dropping their untimely figs,” year after year, during their youth. tow much of this is due to variety, and liow much to locality, is not defi- nitely known, but successfui iruiung has becn secured by graft- ing over barren trees, using scions from bearing trees growing adjacent to them. CAPRIFICATION. Caprification consists of suspending the fruit of the wald or Capri fig in the branches of the tree of improved variety, that the pollen may be carried by an insect trom the former to the latter. Caliiornia has never heen able to produce dried figs equal to the fig of commerce or the Smyrna fig. This was, at first, thought to be due to lack of the Smyrna variety. After painstaking effort this variety was introduced. Trees grew readily from the cuttings; fruit appeared upon them and dropped before maturity. Doubt then arose as to whether importers had not been deceived, and other efforts were made which re- sulted in other importations. These also cast to the ground their immature figs. Discussion turned then upon the fact of caprification—the necessity of having the fruit ot the Capri or wild fig adjacent to the fruit of the Smyrna fig so that insects from the Capri might visit the fruit of the improved variety and pollinate its inclosed flowers, which, appearing upon the inner wall of an almost closed cavity, could net be reached by ordi- nary visiting insects. The wild trees had already been intro- duced and were freely growing near the others, but this fact availed nothing—the figs fell just the same from the Smyrna trees. In 1890 Mr. George C. Roeding, of Fresno, essayed to demonstrate the fact that the lack of the pollination was the secret of failure, and he succeeded in introducing the Capri pollen into the eye of the Smyrna fig, and secured thereby the retention of such pollinated figs upon the trees, and when ripened and dried these had the Smyrna character. [he demonstration was complete that California could not grow Smyrna figs without the pollinating agency found to be essential to success in Smyrna, which is a minute wasp called the blastophaga—an in- sect so minute that it can make its way through the mesh of ordi- nary cheese-cloth and can enter the almost closed eye of the young fig—so minute that a magnifying-glass is necessary to give one any clear idea of its outline. For years constant effort has been made by various parties to secure the introduction of this insect. Urgent appeals were made to the United States Department of Agriculture, after private undertakings failed, to secure the insect alive or otherwise in form for permanent resi- Enemies of the Fig. . 329 dence. In 1899 the fact was accomplished. ‘The living insect appeared in large numbers at Fresno—the offspring of those brought to California in April, 1899, by the United States De- partment of Agriculture. Foes of the Fig—The fig is freer from insect pests than other fruit trees, and yet it is a mistake to consider it wholly free. The writer has seen the leaves well covered with a lecan- ium scale, and has found a moth larva boring in the pith of the young shoots; still, practically, the fig tree in California has not yet suffered from insects. The gopher’ has a pronounced appetite for fig roots, and their presence should be carefully watched for. Swine have a liking for fig bark. The trees of the grand grove planted at Hock Farm, on the Feather River, by General Sutter, were completely girdled from the ground as high as a pig could reach by standing on its hind legs. Figs make good food for hogs, and plantations have been made with this in view, but if the hogs are to be harvesters, it will be well to protect the stems of the trees from them. VARIETIES OF THE FIG. The fig presents what may be termed an aggravated exam- ple of the confused momenclature which pervades California fruits. Dr. Eisen has made a commendable effort to bring order out of chaos by a study of foreign records and locally- grown fruit. and has published a catalogue of varieties chiefly grown in California, with descriptions of the characteristics of each in Bulletin 5 of the Division of Pomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, from which the following is chiefly drawn :— Adriatic.—Size medium, roundish; neck medium; stalk short; ribs ob- scure; eye open, with red iris; skin very thin, greenish in the shade, yellow- ish in the sun; pulp bright strawberry red or white, with violet streaks in the meat; varies in quality according to location. This has been found very useful in California, but is not of fine flavor when dried. It requires rich soil, with considerable moisture and a very large percentage of lime. This variety is zo¢ identical with that known in Italy as Adriatic. Agen.—Medium size, roundish; skin bright green, cracking longitu- dinally when ripe, showing white bands; flesh deep red, very rich; a good bearer, but very late, requiring a Jong hot season. Angelique ; syn. Angelica.—Medium, pyriform; ribs prominent; yellow- ish white; pulp white, with rose-colored center; leaves five-lobed. A very good variety in some of the coast valleys. Athens ; syn. Marseillaise.—Small, roundish or turbinate, with indis- tinct ribs, depressed at apex; skin rough; color whitish yellow, pulp red, opaline. Very sweet, and one of the best drying figs both in France and California. Bourjassotte, Black; syn. Barnissotte, Black.—Medium, broader than long, flattened at apex, with no neck and an uneven cheek; ribs distinct, even; eye small, sunk, closed; skin waxy, black with violet blush; bloom 22 330 Varieties of the Fig. clear blue, wanting at apex; meat pink, pulp blood-red. A most excellent fig for the table. It requires rich, moist soil. Bourjassotte, White; syn. Barnissotte, White.-—A fig related to the former, but larger; eye larger, sunk; skin waxy, green; pulp bright red. A very fine fig. Tree very large. Brown Turkey.—Large, turbinate, pyriform, with hardly distinct neck; stalk short; apex fattened; ribs few, slightly elevated; eye medium, slightly open, scales large; skin smooth, greenish to violet-brown in sun, with darker ribs; pulp dark rosy red, quality good, and tree a good bearer. Brunswick is frequently confounded with this fig. Brunswick.—Very large, pyriform, with swollen cheeks, one of which is larger than the other; apex very obtuse; neck and stalk very short; ribs distinct, but not much elevated; eye medium, open; skin pale amber, with violet tint; pulp amber. An early, large fig, but with no flavor. Very common; requires rich, moist soil. Celeste, Blue; syn. Violette.—Small, ovate, turbinate; ribs few, but distinct, especially near apex; eye raised, rough; color dark violet amber, without reddish blush; bloom confined to the neck; skin thin; pulp deep rose ; meat amber, sweet, but lacking in flavor. Col. de Signora Bianco.—Medium sized, pyriform; long, ribbed neck; skin green, changing to yellow; flesh deep red, very rich and luscious; a. strong grower; late, suited for a warm region. Dottato.—Medium ovate, pyriform; neck well set; stalk very short or none; ribs low; skin smooth; eye medium; skin thin, yellowish green, meat white; pulp yellowish amber, sometimes with violet flush. One of the best figs for drying; tree a strong grower, requiring moist, rich soil. Lately introduced into California. Drap d@ Or.—Large, pyriform, with very low neck and stalk; ribs elevated; apex obtuse and concave; color light violet-reddish amber, not dark; pulp rosy red. A fig of very fine quality; especially useful for con- fections and crystallizing; not identical with Brunswick. Du Roi.—Above medium; round, pyriform; stalk very short; eye large or variable, with scales standing out; skin smooth, pale bluish green; pulp amber, with rosy streaks and exceedingly minute seeds. Related to Mar- seillaise and Athens, and one of the very best figs in California for drying. Early Violet.—Small to very small, round, turbinate; neck distinct but short; stalk medium to long; ribs distinct, elevated; skin rough; violet- brown, with thin pearl-colored bloom; pulp red. This variety bears almost continuously and is preferable to the Ischias and Celeste. Genoa, White.—Above medium, pyriform; neck small; stalk short; ribs. indistinct; skin downy; eye very small; skin pale olive-green; pulp pale rose. One of the better figs, quite distinct from Marseillaise. Gentile —Very large; ovate pyriform; neck short but distinct; stalk very short; skin uneven, with ridges; eye very large, open, with projecting scales; color greenish yellow, spotted with white; pulp amber, streaked with rose; seeds few but very large. Only the first crop of this variety ripens. Itis of the San Pedro tribe. One of the best early figs. Grosse Grise Bifere.—Medium ovate pyriform; neck very short; stalk short; ribs distinct; eye small; skin downy, dark violet amber, pale olive in shade; the bloom is separated by a distinct line from the apex; pulp deep red. A tender, good fig. Flirtu du Japon.—Medium size, roundish with long stalks; skin very dark; flesh opaline; quality best; very prolific. Ischia, Black.—Small; neck short; stalk medium; skin smooth; color dark violet black, greenish around the apex; neck dark; eye medium, open; bloom thin, dark blue; pulp red. Of fair quality but small size. Ischia, White.—Size below medium, round, with small neck; stalk very short; eye open; skin smooth, bluish green with brown flush; pulp rosy red. Common in California, but hardly worthy of cultivation in that State. : . % . Varieties of the Fig. 331 Magdalen.—Below medium, round; ribs distinct, rough, disappearing around the eye; stalk longer than the fig; eye open, large; skin greenish yellow; pulp amber white. A very delicious fig, superior to the Ischias and Celeste. Not synonymous with Angelique. Marseillaise, Long.—Large, longer than wide; skin thick, with brownish shade; pulp dull red. Requires moist soils. A fair fig, which dries well. Not related to either Black or White Marseillaise. Marseillaise, White—Medium ovate, pyriform; neck short; stalk medium; ribs numerous and distinct; apex flattened; eye large, open; skin downy, pale yellowish green, mottled with white; pulp amber, with a few large seeds. One of the best figs for drying. Requires sandy, rich soil. Mission, Black.—Medium to large, turbinate; neck long; stalk short; ribs distinct; eye prominent, open; skin rough, deep mahogany violet, with red flush; pulp not fine, red, but not bright or brownish amber; sweet, but not high-flavored; common in the Southern States, California, and Mexico. The oldest fig in this country. Monaco Bianco; syn. White Monaco.—Large, rounded, turbinate, flat- tened; neck small but very distinct; ribs numerous; eye very open; skin dark bluish green, with thin bloom; pulp dark-red rose. A most excellent fig for table, one of the best in California. Pacific White.—An unknown variety found growing on a farm in Placer County. Medium size, fine-grained, very sweet, dries well, but the skin is thicker and more tough than the imported fig. That and its small size are the only objections to it. It is quite widely distributed in southern Cal- iforna. Fastiliere.— Large, 3 inches by 1%; elongated, pyriform, with long neck; stalk short; eye closed, surrounded by an elevated iris; skin rough, hairy, with blue bloom; pulp red. Fine for preserves. Ronde Noire.—Large, round, but irregular; neck distinct, short; eye small; skin smooth, waxy, dark violet brown; pulp amber. Greatly to be fee ened as a table fig. Is not related to Black Ischia or Osborn Prolific. San Pedro, White; syn. Brebas.—Very large, round, flattened at apex; stalk and neck short; eye open; skin thick, tender, of a bright yellow color or greenish in the shade, without bloom; pulp amber. A remarkable and handsome fig. Only the first crop matures without caprification. Suited only for table use. Requires moist, rich soil. San Pedro, Black.—Very \arge, elongated ovate, with no stalk, but with well-set neck; skin smooth, violet black with green neck; pulp red, coppery, tinted violet. For table use. The largest fig known. Smyrna (Fig of Commerce, Drying fig of Smyrna).—Of several attempts to secure the true Smyrna fig, or the variety which produces the well-known Smyrna fig of commerce, that made by the San Francisco Bulletin, and managed by G. P. Rixford, has achieved most prominence, and is now generally conceded to have proved successful. Fourteen thou- sand cuttings were obtained through United States Consul E. J. Smithers, in 1882, and a large part of these were distributed throughout the State. A later direct importation of fig cuttings from Smyrna was made by the Fancher Creek Nursery, of Fresno. These trees have already borne fruit, as has been described in a preceding paragraph on caprification. In the summer of 1890 cuttings imported from Smyrna by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture were sent to several parties in this State. If the fig insect fully establishes itself, as anticipated on a previous page, this variety will establish itself as the leading drying fig here as a Smyrna, and a very important industry will be established upon it. Other figs called Smyrna in this State are misnamed. Verdal, Round.—Below medium, round pyriform, without stalk or neck; skin smooth, waxy, bluish green; eye closed; pulp dark, blood red. A small fig, but valuable for canning and preserves; better than the Ischias or 332 Outlook for the Fig. Celeste. It does well in the Santa Clara Valley, but is inferior in the in- terior of the State. There are many undetermined varicties of the fig grown here and there in the State. Some may be finally identified, others may be new. Some of them yield an excellent dried fruit and should be more carefully experimented with. During the last decade there has been a marked decline in interest in the fig because of the failure to secure the Smyrna type in the dried fruit and because so many varieties soured before drying. The outlook rests upon successful caprification, although recently there has been increased success in profitable drying of other varieties. CELA TER oe, THE OLLVE: The olive is another of the old mission fruits which has recently risen to a high place in the public mind. Though the tree and its products have been constantly under discussion since the American occupation, and though experimentation has been constant, it was not until 1885 that the tide of popular favor turned strongly toward the olive. For twelve years thereafter planting proceeded with enthusiasm amounting almost to infatuation. until the acreage now in olives has reached such a figure that the most enthusiastic question the wisdom of further planting. This is all the more serious because the future of the products of the olive is by no means clear. The competition of olive oil with cheaper salad oils works greatly to the disadvantage of the higher-priced article, apart from the fact that the cheap oils are sold in the guise of the olive, and can only be stopped by general pure-food legis- lation, which is now so greatly desired. The difficulty of pro- ducing pickled ripe olives with good keeping qualities is also vastly greater than anticipated. In addition to these troubles the sterility of the trees in some situations, through frost or other agencies, is discouraging many growers. It is probable that for the next few years, the uprooting of trees will exceed the planting and that the olive acreage will decrease until pres- ent difficulties are clearly shown to be surmountable. The olive tree has survived a temperature of 14° Fahren- heit in California, but the fruit is injured by a slight fall below the freezing point. This may render unprofitable the late varie- ties which carry their fruit-ripening into the winter months. The olive tree will thrive throughout the larger part of Cali- fornia, and it has been shown that it will grow in a soil too dry even for the grape-vine, and too rocky for any fruit tree, but the growth of the tree and the bearing of fruit will be propertional to the amounts of plant food and moisture. On foot-hill slopes the trees bear fruit earlier than in the rich valleys, although in the latter the trees attain larger growth.. Trees in the interior bear sooner than on the coast, and ripen their fruit earlier in the season. 334 Propagation of the Olive. The olive tree is now thriving in California in a great vari- ety of soils. It is productive, if frosts are not too severe, on moist valley lands, while on hillsides, even where excavations had to be made between boulders, or into disintegrating rock, the tree has exhibited thrift and content with the situation. But the conclusion should not be drawn that the olive relishes poor soil. It may thrive with loose rock or boulders, but it finds among them the elements it needs. It is not to be inferred that the olive will succeed on sterile soil. The relations of soils to the qualities of oil has been investi- gated by the University of California Experiment Station and the publications can be had on application. We have not had experience enough in this State to dem- onstrate the influence of soils on the quality of the oil, but oil thought to be good has been made from fruit grown on some of our best valley fruit soils. deep and naturally well drained, as, for example, on Putah Creek, where the tree is said to have attained a girth of six feet at twenty years from the cutting. At present olive planting is proceeding on all kinds of land and in all situations. From these plantations our children may gain wisdom. PROPAGATION OF THE OLIVE. Olives are propagated from seed, and irom cuttings of vari- ous kinds and sizes. The growth from seed is seldom practised in this State, because growth from cuttings is easy, and furnishes the variety desired without grafting. Growing Olives from Seed.—The olives should not be planted with the pulp, but cleaned oi this either by letting them rot in a pile or by putting them into an alkaline solution to cut the oil. A simple way to hasten germination is to break the pits, taking care not to hurt the germ. An instrument similar to the nut cracker has been invented in France which is said to work very well. When the kernels are deprived of their shell, they are kept moist in a compost, or mixture of cow-dung and sandy soil, and are sown thickly in the month of April. If it is thought to be too much work to take the kernels out of the pits, they must be soaked in a solution of one-fourth pound of concentrated lye to the gallon of water. Most of the seeds sprout the first year. Planting the naked kernels gives the quickest result.* Without using this artificial means the seeds may remaiir dormant at least for two years. Large Cuttings—There are two chief methods of prop- agating the olive from cuttings now practised in California. One uses well-matured wood, and the other young wood which has just passed out of the herbaceous state. Practise with hard “Small Olive Cuttings. 335 wood proceeds by taking cuttings of sound wood about a foot long and one-half to one inch in diameter, and rooting them as already described for vine cuttings, in Chapter XXIV. These large cuttings sometimes remain dormant for a year or more, and recent propagation has been aimost exclusively by the small-cutting method. Propagating the Olive by Small Cuttings. Small Cuttings—Propagating by small cuttings has in- creased rapidly during the last few years. It serves an excellent purpose in rapid multiplication of the new varieties which are being secured from abroad; it enables the grower to handle a large number of plants in a small space, and the plants from small cuttings have a symmetrical root system quite resembling that from a seed. These cuttings are made from very small shoots and both the tips and the lower cuts are used. In the 336 Budding the Olive. engraving the figure on the left is a tip cutting; the next, a cut- {ing lower down the shoot, and the figure on the right is a tip cutting as lifted from the sand to show its manner of rooting. These figures are about natural size, and show clearly how the cuttings are made. They are placed closely in boxes of sand about four inches deep, and after a few months are potted in small pots, or may be reset farther apart in boxes of soil or in the open ground. If the cuttings are made in January or Feb- ruary, when the wood seems to be in the best condition in Berkeley, the trees will be of good size for planting in per- manent place the next winter. It is very important to take the small cuttings just when the wood is in the right condition, not too soft nor too hard. How to determine this point can not be described; it must be learned by experience. Growing Trees from Truncheons—New varieties secured from the south of Europe generally come in the shape of truncheons, which are long sticks of hard wood. They may be planted entire, or be sawn and split into large cuttings (for olive cuttings, even in firewood shape, will grow if properly treated), though better trees come from small cuttings. If the truncheons are bedded a few inches below the surface in moist, warm soil, shoots will appear which can be worked up into small cuttings when they reach the proper condition. BUDDING THE OLIVE. Since a large area of Redding Picholines has been planted, and the fruit found different from that anticipated, there has been a demand for working over the trees into better varieties. The method of budding commonly employed with fruit trees does not usually yield a high percentage of success wita the olive, and other ways have been adopted with much _ better results. Budding may be performed at any time of the year when the sap flows freely. If done late in the summer, the buds lie dormant through the winter. Best results are obtained when the buds are inserted early in the spring, as the operation can be performed to a much better advantage, and the buds will grow to some height before winter. When inserted in large orchard trees, or in limbs of large trees, the shoots from the inserted buds‘are allowed to grow until they have attained such a size as will iustifv in the removal of the entire top. Twig Budding.—Twig budding, as first published in this State by B. M. Lelong, secretary of the State Board of Horti- culture, is very successful. The bud is cut deep into the wood, in order to give the bud as much bark as possible. The leaves are partly cut off, then, with the sharp point of the budding Twig-Budding the Olive. aa7 knife, the greatest part of the wood inside of the bud is _ re- moved, as shown in Fig. 1, which shows large and small twig buds. If part of the wood is not re- moved, then the bud can not take, as the wood in it prevents thetwo 4 barks (the inner bark of the bud and the inner bark of the stock) from uniting. When the wood has been partly removed from the bud, the bud is inserted into the stock, as budding is done in the regular, ordinary way, and tied Hobie heetts-the:-,end».of ..three weeks the string is removed, and part of the top of the stock is cut back to force the bud to start. As the bud grows, Fic. 1. Twig Buds. the foliage of the stock is gradually re- moved, until the bud is able to take up the entire flow of sap; it is then left to grow, and trained as shown in Fig. 2, which also shows the manner of inserting the bud in the stock. When the bud has grown out strongly, what remains of the stock above the bud is cut smooth, close to the bud, to allow it to heal over. Fic. 2. Growth of a Twig Bud. © GRAFTING THE OLIVE. Grafting is also used in working over both large and small olive trees. Good success can sometimes be had with 338 Grafting the Olive. the ordinary method of top grafting, as described in Chapter IX, using scions not larger than a lead-pencil and inserting them in ‘April. The olive can also be successfully grafted in the bark according to the method shown in Chapter IX. This graft is used for working in the top of the tree, but it may also be used at the surface of the ground, covering the cut surfaces with earth when the scions are in place. The shield grafting to which allusion is made has already been described in the pre- ceding chapter, as it works well with the fig. Judge A. L. Rhodes, of San Jose, gives the following explicit account of his success with this grait:— The stock, where cut off, may be from half to two and one-half inches in diameter; the scion about one-quarter inch in diameter, the lower end to be formed by an oblique cut of about one and one-half inches. Split the bark of the top of the stock about one inch, raise the bark at the sides of the split slightly, insert the point of the scion between the bark and wood of the stock, at the split, and press it down the length of its oblique cut. Fasten it by binding twine around both stock and scion, about ten times, very firmly. Apply grafting wax to top of stock and scion. If the bark of the stock be three or more years old, make two slits in it, about one and one-half inches in length, the width between them equal- ing the width of the oblique cut of the scion, raise the bark between the slits, cut off about half of it by a sloping cut, then insert the scion and press it down, and bind with twine and apply grafting wax, as above directed. Cotton wrapping twine is of sufficient strength. Stocks the diameter of one inch or more should receive two or more scions. Scions gathered a short time before their insertion are the most successful. The twine around the stock and scion should not be loosened until it indents the bark of the stock. Protect the graft from sun and wind. Wrap paper around stock and scion, the paper to extend a few inches above the scion—or place the paper, in the form of a bag, over scion and stock— and secure the paper with twine, tied around the stock in a slip-knot. Bark grafting may be performed at any-time when the bark of the stock can be readily raised—whenever the bark will ‘‘slip.” I grafted in that mode in each week of April and May and the first of June, and in September. Failures not 5 per cent. Twelve scions inserted about the middle of last September are all growing. Shield grafting is the most successful in the spring. I prefer the bark grafting, as the shield buds may not start for months, or even for a year. Cleft Graft on Siiali Wood.—A satisfactory cleft graft can be made with an oblique cut, which is superior to a split of the stock, becatise on a small stock the split is apt to continue farther than desirable when the scion is pushed in. With the slanting cut in the stock the scion can be firmly pushed into place without splitting. The union of inner barks of scion and stock must be made on one side when the stock is larger than the scion. This graft is tied in and waxed, or a waxed band may be used. In working small wood at the ground surface, the earth should be drawn up around the graft. This modifica- tion of the old cleft graft is also desirable for use on ordinary fruit trees. * Olive Planting and Pruning. 339 PLANTING THE OLIVE. There is nothing gained by planting out the olive too early in the spring. Both cuttings and rooted plants will do better if planted after the soil becomes well warmed, and after the heavy rains of the winter are well over. Of course the timé when this condition comes is different from year to year, and varies, also, according to locality and situation. During the first summer the young plants will need occasional watering in some situations; in others, merely mulching, or keeping the sur- face finely stirred, will suffice. Olive trees are planted at different distances, but the rul- ing intervals are twenty to twenty-five feet. This will allow the trees to bear a number of years before they crowd each other; and then removing alternate trees gives ample distance for future growth. But it is clearly the part of wisdom to hold the olive to a low growth in order that the fruit may be cheaply gathered, and this” may be done by proper pruning. PRUNING THE OLIVE Pruning policies, as insisted upon in Chapter XII, have direct bearing upon the commercial growth of the olive. The development of the tree according to principles there laid down is practicable and desirable. After proper low form is secured, satisfactory hearing will depend upon regular pruning to secure new bearing shoots and thmning to prevent the tree from becoming too dense and bushy. The olive bears upon wood which grew the preceding year, and upon no other. It is just as important, then, to secure a good supply of such shoots as it is to secure new bearing wood for the peach, and the ways to do it, by cutting back and thinning out, are much the same. Keep the tree from running out of reach of a step-ladder; prevent it from becoming a brush-heap, for both these acts are essential to the growth of good bearing wood, low down. Trees which have been allowed to form umbrella-like tops may be brought down to business again by cutting back the main limbs and making selection from the many new shoots which appear, but by proper, regular pruning a tree can be so trained that the removal of large limbs is seldom necessary. The time to prune the olive is just after the gathering of the fruit. Developing the Vase Form—Explicit suggestions as to the development of a low, vase-form tree may be helpful to inex- perienced growers. The following is from a foreign writer, whose illustrations are presented herewith :— When the young tree has attained some height. it is the practise to cut off the top, so that the main stem shall be about four and a half feet in rich soil, or three feet in poor soil or in locations exposed to strong e 340 How to Reach the Vase Form. winds. Six or eight branches are left to form the head. The process of shaping the tree then proceeds, as shown in the engravings. Fig. 1 shows the young tree to be cut off at the point marked by the dotted line C. Six branches, three on each side. are left, and the lower twigs shortened. Each of the branches left develops, during the year, as the one shown in Fig. 2, which is then cut at C again, and the shoots B and D are short- Fic. 1. Fic. 4. The Vase System of Pruning as Applied to the Olive. Gathering Olives. 341 ened. This process starts out the upper shoot, and it appears the follow- ing year as A in Fig. 3, and it is again cut at C. This causes the two upper shoots to develop, and at the end of the year they appear as shown at BB in Fig. 4. Thus they stand at the fourth year’s pruning, and each of them is cut at C, and 4 is shortened and D allowed to develop. By this time the tree has a spherical or vase form, and exposes much sur- face to the sun, which is desirable. The young branches that spring in the form of a cross on the more vigorous branches, bear only wood buds; the others, which are weaker, bear fruit buds on their whole length and burst into blossom at the spring of the second year. The latter never blossom again in the same place, but the shoot extends itself and forces two lateral ones. These new shoots bear the following spring, and so on. It must therefore be always borne in mind that the olive bears only on the two-year-old wood. Ii the new shoots are formed every year, the olive will bear annually; but in years of good crops, the sap employed to nourish the fruit only pro- duces a number of very diminutive shoots, and the next crop is a short one. The pruning ought to favor the growth of young lateral shoots, either by shortening the terminal ones, suppressing the ‘‘gormand,” or fruitless shoots, or by reducing in a certain proportion, each year, the fruit-bearing shoots, if we wish for a crop every year. The shortening of a branch is made immediately above an outside bud in an oblique direc- tion, the interior one being suppressed. The suckers at the root of the tree should be continually cut off. ° Concerning the time for pruning, the best season is said to be when the winter frosts are well over and just before the sap starts in the spring. By early pruning the sap is made to act upon the buds unfavorably situ- _ated on the tree, brings them out, and also develops latent buds on the old wood. Thus one is enabled to prevent the tree from becoming coy- ered with naked limbs. ‘ THE FRUIT AND ITS PRODUCTS. The agricultural experiment stations of the University of California have been occupied for many years in the growth of olives and close examination of olive products both by labora- tory and practical test. The publications of the stations consti- tute the fullest compendium of exact knowledge on this subject in the English language. All who wish to go into the matter deeply should secure this literature, so far as it is now available. lor the purpose of this treatise outlines will be drawn from these sources. Gathering the Fruit—Qlives should be picked carefully and at the right time. For green pickles they should be picked very soon after they obtain full size, but before they have begun to color or soften. For ripe pickles and for oil making the fruit should be gathered when it contains the maximum amount of oil. This is soon after the olives are well colored, but before they have attained the deep black which signifies overripeness. If the olives are gathered too green the oil will be bitter; if too ripe, it will be rancid. When they can be easily shaken from the tree they are ripe enough. If they commence to fall with- out vigorous shaking they are overripe. For whatever pur- 342 Flow to Make Olive Oil. poses the olives are to be used they should be carefully gathered by hand, and imperfect, immature, or bruised fruit rejected. Sound fruit is required for high-grade oil or for handsome pickles with good keeping quality. THE MANUFACTURE OF OLIVE OIL. Olive oil is made in this State with apparatus of both Cali- fornian and European design, and, as a rule, there is made only one, and at most but two, pressings of the pomace, which is then used for fattening swine. In the frequent working over of the pomace, and the close extraction of the oil, as practised in Europe, we have done little as yet. Olive oil is made on a small scale by a number of parties who use home-made contrivances, or small, portable cider machinery for the crushing and pressing. During the last few years quite a number of mills have been erected, some being “custom” or “co-operative” mills for using the olives produced by small growers. Drying.—Extraction of oil from fresh olives gives the best oil, but is somewhat troublesonie, and it is customary to partially dry them. This partial drying is also useful to keep the fruit for some time or for shipinent before crushing. Place the olives in lavers not more than three inches deep, on trays that are stacked in a dry, well-aired room, protected from the wind and the direct rays of the sun. Turn daily until the fruit becomes well wrinkled. This requires about eight or ten days, according to the degree of temperature. The partially-dried fruit may be stored in a dark room where the temperature does not rise above sixty degrees Fahrenheit, for three or four weeks without any serious deterioration of oil. To hasten the drying process, artificial driers, constructed on the same principle as the fruit or hop driers, are sometimes used. The olives are placed in a single layer upon trays, and the drier is kept at a temperature of about one hundred and twenty degrees Fahren- heit; at over one hundred and thirty degrees Fahrenheit the quality of the oil may be impaired. The drying takes about forty-eight hours—-more or less—according to the nature of the fruit. Crushing.—The olives are usually crushed by heavy stone rollers revolving in a circular depression in a bed of masonry into which the fruit is placed. Crushers with corrugated bronze cr bronzed metal rollers are now made that perform their work in a very satisfactory manner, breaking up the flesh and pits very thoroughly. As they are all of metal, they absorb no oil and are easily cleaned. Tt is very essential that the flesh should be crushed thoroughly in order to break up the cells and permit flow to Make Olive Oil. 343 the oil-to be pressed out. Mr. Cooper formerly used a stone, but has substituted two iron crushers, one following the other over the fruit. Mr. Kimball works his crusher and his presses by steam: power. Mr. Cooper uses horse power, and has the apparatus so geared that the horse works outside the building, which is an advantage in point of cleanliness and otherwise. Pressmg.—When the revolving crusher has reduced the olives to a mass, the pomace is shoveled up from the bed of the mill and prepared for pressing. Instead of the fabric of woven esparto grass which is used abroad, coarse linen cloth is used. A certain amount of the pulp is put in each cloth, so that when the cloth is folded back it makes a cheese about three feet square and three inches thick. Ten or more of these cheeses are placed one above the other, with slats between, and the pressure applied gently at first. From the liquid which runs - out first is made the very finest oil, known as “virgin oil.” The pressure is then increased very gradually until the full power of the machine is reached. This presses out the second quality of oil, which is generally mixed with the first. After obtaining all the oil possible by the first pressure the “cheese” is taken out, thoroughly broken up in hot water, and again pressed. This yields the third quality, which is very much inferior to the first and second. Sometimes the “cheese” from the first pressing is thoroughly broken up with cold water and pressed again before being treated with hot water. In this way a little oil is obtained that differs little from the second qualitv, and may be mixed with it. After this a certain amount of oil still remains in the “cheese,” hut it can be extracted only by very powerful hydraulic presses, or by chemical means, and then is of very inferior qual- ity, and suitable only for burning or for soap making. Settling and Clarifying —The liquid from the press is dark colored, and it is conducted into a receptacle for settling. Much of the foreign matter quickly separates, the oil appearing on the top. The oil is removed to other receptacles in which it can stand from two to five months for perfect separation of undesirable sediment. These settling tanks may be made of well-tinned metal. or of cement lined with glass or other imper- vious substance. The first settling is cenveniently made by means of a funnel-shaped apparatus, which by its conical shape facilitates the rapid deposition of sediment. After standing for twenty-four hours in this apparatus the major part of the sedi- ment is deposited and can be drawn offi at the bottom. It is well, before running the oil into the settling tanks, to pass it through two or three inches of cotton wool. This is accom- plished by means of a funnel with a perforated, horizontal cross partition, upon which the cotton is placed. It takes, generally, s, g about one month for the oil to settle sufficiently in the first tank, 344 Pickling the Olive. after which it should be drawn off carefully into the second, and so on until it is sufficiently bright. Three rackings are usually sufficient. Olives are sometimes ground and pressed in portable cider mills or ground in barley crushers for oil manufacture on a small scale. As the above description shows, oil making is a simple process, and may be carried on at home with rude devices. It is, however, a process requiring care and cleanli- ness, and intelligent personal attention. PICKLING THE OLIVE. Olives are pickled in a green state, as is the case with the imported olives; or in a ripe state, as largely undertaken in Cali- fornia. No one had any conception ten years ago of the diffi- culties attending the production of pickled ripe olives which would have the keeping quality demanded in an article of com- merce. It is now clearly seen that treating ripe olives to extract the bitterness and to secure firmness, good flavor and keeping quality is one of the most difficult propositions in our horticul- tural manufacturing, and we can but admire the wisdom of the Spaniard in teaching Anglo-Saxons to enjoy green olives. To succeed with the ripe olive requires the utmost patience, experi- ence, and intelligence, and one who undertakes it must not get weary of the most exhaustive study of difficulties that may arise and how to meet them. When the most careful picklers with the best appliances sometimes lose hundreds of dollars worth in spite of all they know about it, the difficulty of the matter may be appreciated. The following is an outline of the pickling of ripe olives as drawn from the University publications :— The Lye Process—The vats or other receptacles used for pickling should be perfectly clean, odorless, and tasteless. Earthenware is the dest material, but it is cheaper to use wooden receptacles thoroughly treated with boiling water and soda until they are sterilized and all taste of the wood removed. Metal receptacles must not be used. The vats should have a plug below to draw off the liquids and should be covered to exclude air. They should be shallow, so that the layer of olives should not be much over a foot in thickness. 1. Place the olives in a solution, composed of two ounces of potash lye to each gallon of very pure water, for four hours. Repeat this once, or twice if necessary, to sufficiently remove the bitterness. If the olives are soft at first, or if they are of a kind that softens rapidly in the lye, use brine from the beginning, adding two ounces of lye and four ounces - of salt to each gallon of water. As the lye acts much more slowly when used in combination with salt, it may be allowed to stay on the olives for a longer time without injury, eight to twelve hours or even more. 2. Rinse the olives thoroughly and replace the lye solution with fresh water. Change the water twice a day, until the lye has been removed from the olive, as judged by the taste. Use weak brine if the olives are too soft, changing once in two days. Pickling the Olive. Al 3. Replace the water with brine composed of four ounces of salt to a gallon of water and allow to stand two days. 4. Put in brine of six ounces of salt to a gallon for seven days. 5. Put in brine of ten ounces per gallon for two weeks. 6. Put finally into a brine containing fourteen ounces of salt to the gallon of water. Much depends upon having pure water. Ditch or stream water should be boiled before using. Pure-Water Process—The best pickled olives are made without the use of lye, but this process is only practicable with olives whose bitter- ness is easily extracted, and where the water is extremely pure and plenti- ful, and even then it is very slow and tedious. It differs from the last process only in omitting the preliminary lye treatment. The olives are placed from the beginning in pure water, which is changed twice a day until the bitterness is sufficiently extracted. This requires from forty to sixty days or more. The extraction is sometimes hastened by making two or three shallow, longitudinal slits in each olive, but this modifica- tion, besides requiring a large amount of expensive handling, renders the fruit peculiarly susceptible to bacterial decay and softening. Alto- gether, the pure-water process can not be recommended for California, as it is too expensive and uncertain. : Green Pickles —Green pickled olives are made by essentially the same processes as are used for ripe olives. The extraction of the bitterness requires the same care. The olives are pickled soon aiter they have at- tained full size, and before they have shown any signs of coloring or softening. They contain at this time comparatively little oil, and are in every way much inferior to the ripe pickles in nutritive value. They are not a food but a relish. They are rather more easily made than the ripe pickles, as there is less danger of spoiling. VARIETIES OF THE OLIVE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA. Many varieties of the olive have heen brought to California from southern Europe during the last twenty years. Fifty- seven varietics have been analyzed and elaborately reported upon by the University experts, and of these about fifteen varie- ties have risen to commercial account, as shown by the state- ments of their operations which leading propagators have kindly furnished for this work. It is an interesting fact, how- ever, that in spite of all the efforts put forth to secure a better olive than the old Mission variety, this old sort comprises three- hfths of all the planting which has been done during the last few years—that is, the Mission has received fifty per cent more orders from planters than all other sorts combined. The fol- lowing is the list of the varieties now growing in California on a commercial scale, arranged approximately in the order of their present popularity :— Mission, Oblonga, Manzanillo, Pendulier, Nevadillo, Polymorpha, Rubra, Pendulina, Uvaria, Regalis, Columella, Lucques, Sevillano, Macrocarpa. Oblitza, 23 346 Varieties of the Olive. These may be taken, then. as the varieties to which atten- tion should be given. Of course the next few years’ experi- ence may produce marked changes in this list. The Mission Olive.—By this name is signified the variety found grow- ing at the old missions in California. Samples of the fruit and leaves sent by F. Pohndorff to Don Jose de Hidalgo Toblada, a nected Spanish authority on the olive, led to the classing of our mission varieties with the Cornicabra-Cornizuelo varieties of Spain, and its value was con- firmed. It has long been known that the so-called Mission olive em- braced several varieties, or sub-varieties at least. Common or Broad-Leaved Mission Olive—The variety of olive most generally known as the Mission; ovate, oblique—sometimes very much Mission Olive of California (Single Olive Natural Size). so—the pit straight or slightly curved, fruit very variable in size, growing singly or in clusters of two or three, or even five; time of ripening, late, in the coast region sometimes not belore February, but generally in December; in warmer localities, in November. Redding Picholine—Imported by the late B. B. Redding. A perfect cval in shape, ripens early, several weeks earlier than the common Mis- sion; dark purple or black when ripe; in pickling the pulp loses the bit- terness quickly, the fruit being very pleasant. This variety has been propagated extensively in the State, and, until fruiting, was supposed to Varieties of the Olive. 347 be a large pickling variety. It has produced oil of good quality. The smallness of the fruit is its irreniediable defect. Oblonga—Imported by John Rock from France. An olive of a pe- culiar, club-like shape, being narrow at the stem end, broad at the point, rounded and strongly oblique; generally pointed at both ends. The pulp Manzanillo Grown by G. C. Roeding, Fresno. (Reduced.) loses its bitterness comparatively quickly in pickling. This olive ripens quite early—at least two to three weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission; color, dark purple. Pendoulier.—Large, oval, slightly curved at apex end; very desirable 348 Varieties of the Olive. for pickling; early ripening in October in the interior valley and in No- vember in coast valleys. Manzanillo No. 1.—Impotted by F. Pohndortf from Spain, large regular rounded oval; pit straight, strongly pointed at the apex, nine- sixteenths of an inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch thick. Ripens early, several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission. The fruit grows on long stems. The pulp parts readily with its bitterness, and is exceedingly rich when pickled. Exceilent in the San Joaquin Valley both for oil and pickles. Manzanillo No. 2.—Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. As the name (‘‘small apple’) indicates, this variety is nearly round, with a pit of rounded oval shape, rather squarely cut off at the base. This variety ripens early—several weeks earlier than the Broad-leaved Mission olive; the fruit grows generally singly on long ‘stems. Rubra.—Imported by John Rock from France; ovate, slightly ob- lique, looks a good deal like a small Mission olive; pit straight, pointed; ripens three to four weeks earlier than the common Mission variety; is of a jet black when ripe. This tree begins to fruit quite young, and is a prolific bearer. Very hardy and prolific even in dry situations. Oblitza as Grown by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno. Uvaria.—Imported by John Rock from France. Oval, regular, and rounded on both ends; pit straight, heavy, late; later than the common Mission olive; color dark purple or black when ripe. The name, “grape- like,” is well chosen, the fruit growing in clusters, as many as seven to- Varieties of the Olive. 349 gether, and in shape themselves resembling the grape. Very prolific. Pendulina.—Imported by John Rock from France. This variety_is of an even, oval shape, rounded at both ends, quite variable in size, many fruits remaining small and undeveloped; pit has small, sharp points often at both ends. Fruit grows in clusters of from two to five; the pulp parts very readily with its bitterness. Larger and more ovate than Pendou- lier. Tree a strong grower; fruit desirable both for oil and pickles. Columbella—Imported by John Rock from France. General form, broadly oval; very even in size, remarkable for the peculiar pale yellow color which all the fruit assumes before turning fully ripe and becoming dark purple; pit small: straight and sharp-pointed; the pulp contains little bitterness; flavor very rich; ripens late, later than the Broad-leaved Mission. Tree hardy in dry places and a prolific bearer. Polymorpha.—Imported by John Rock irom France. Very large, ovate, oblique, and pointed; light colored; pit square at the base, strongly pointed at the apex: flesh firm; ripens very early; fruit grows on strong stems in clusters of two or three. Tree not a strong grower, but pro- ductive. Lucques.—A variety specially adapted for pickling, though producing oil of good quality; strong-growing tree and hardy; sometimes shy bearer when young; fruit shiny black, curved; product called ‘Crescent Olive.” Nevadillo Blanco—Imported by F. Pohndorff from Spain. Oval, slightly oblique, pointed, resembling somewhat a Mission, but is gener- ally more elongated in proportion to its diameter than the latter; pit small, curved, and generally pointed at both ends; the fruit is borne in clusters of three to five; ripening not much earlier than the Mission; a fine oil olive, largely planted, but disappointing in some regions as a shy bearer and subject to frost injury. Oblitza.—Imported by the late N. Milco from Dalmatia; resembles the Pendoulier, and may be identical; fine in the San Joaquin Valley and pronounced by Geo. C. Roeding, of Fresno, the largest olive so far fruited by him; oval, but broad and rounded at both ends; grows in clus- ters; tree a good grower, hardy and productive; fruit excellent for pickles; ripens in November in the interior—about the same as the Mis- sion. Sevillano.—Recently largely planted as the variety exported from Spain as the “Queen olive.” The largest of all olives; only useful for pickling; when ripe, bluish black; clingstone. Tree a strong grower, leaves deep green, greenish white underneath. Described by Mr. Roed- ing as a regular bearer, but requires deep, rich, well-drained soil and will not stand much cold. The foregoing enumeration and description of varieties is only partial and mainly restricted to varieties which have been more or less largely planted. Many more have been experi- mentally fruited and data are available at the University, as al- ready stated. The following are the leading facts as to size, pit, and oil contents of the varieties which have been most largely planted, and a few others :— 350 Characters of Leading Olives. AVERAGES OF OLIVE VARIETIES, DETERMINED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Number of Oil, per cent, VARIETY. Olives Pit, per cent. in per pound. whole fruit. IMISSTOME Fee uteant carienees eoeaee dace neece cee oes I1I.6 17.2 17.56 INevadilloiBlancosscescscsrseceeesecell T5703 73 | 19.21 NE an za illO ces sos caassenagacssecbtangenrs scene 106.6 14.7 16.94 Redding PicholinG...%.202-eccwe sess | 206-2) >| 23.0 16.18 Wivatiast Are Pe ee, Lee areas ZROFyLAt well 25.5 13.71 Riulbraiesccd.ccposeneseeasacawsnesenstyeceane: 196.1 17.9 18.58 Oblafiouc ws ts setae. - sible after cutting. Peaches are dried both peeled and un- peeled, but drying without peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing. Clingstone peaches are cut with a knife invented by G. W. Tarlton, of San Jose. It consists of the blade of any common knife (like a shoe-knife), with a short U-shaped blade set in at the point of the main blade. In cutting the peach in halves, ‘ Drying Peaches. 429 the curved blade skims around the stone, completely severing it from the peach. This device has enabled the grower to pit clings as easily as freestones, but owing to the strength required in the wrist, the pitting of clings can best be done by men. ~ bhe Tarlton knife works admirably, both with mellow and quite firm fruit, and is, therefore, vastly superior to the spoon-shaped knife, which can only be used on soft fruit. A strong, active man can pit five hundred to seven hundred pounds of clings in a day. { The Tarlton Knife for Pitting Clingstone Peaches. The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruit may require six or seven pounds. Nectarines.—Nectarines are handled like peaches; the pro- duction of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skilful use of sulphur. Plums and Prunes.—Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product is increasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot- power “‘pitters.” More rapid and capacious machines are being brought out by inventors. Prunes are one of our greatest and most promising prod- ucts. Several varieties which dry sweet with the pit in are used in making prunes, as already stated in Chapter X XII, but the prevailing variety is the Prune d’ Agen. Prunes are gathered by shaking from the trees, usually upon sheets spread beneath. Several gatherings are made by light shakings which cause only the ripe specimens to fall. Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home- made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than prunes; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bot- tom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Other grading devices are made with wire screens or riddles of different sizes of mesh. Some of them work on the principle of a fanning mill, three to four riddles, placed above one another, each with a slight incline, and a spout on the side where each gerade drops into abox. Some have along riddle, say twelve feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. This riddle 430 Curing Prunes. is hung upon four ropes with an incline; the prunes are thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt through, and no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes after drying. There are now several excellent manufac- tured fruit graders on sale in this State. Their work is very sat- isfactory, and they have largely displaced home-made contriv- ances. The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying process. Ina large caldron lye is made with one pound of concentrated lye to each twenty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boil- ing lye for about a minute, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance, then the basket is plunged into clean cold water to rinse off the lye. This rinsing water must be frequently changed, for it soon becomes very alkaline. Some begin with a stronger lye solution, one pound to ten gallons of water, claiming that a very short dip in stronger lye is better than longer exposure in a weaker solution. After this dipping, the prunes are placed on trays. In the sun the prune dries sufficiently in from one to two weeks, according to the situation and weather. A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them to roll over needle points has also been employed to some extent. There are now manufactured very capacious appliances for continuous dipping, rinsing, puncturing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit is handled in large quantities at a mini- mum cost. In no branch of our fruit industry perhaps has there been greater advance in labor-saving devices than in prune handling. When sufficiently dried, the prunes are put through the “sweat,” which takes from several days to two or there weeks, and then are ready for grading, finishing, and packing. In grad- ing, the prunes are separated by the use of a grader, as already described, into a number of grades, the largest, forty prunes to the pound, and so on, fifty, sixty, etc., to the smallest, which may run one hundred or more to the pound. Finishing consists in exposing to steam, in dipping in clear hot water, or hot sugar syrup, or in dipping in boiled juice of ripe prunes, or peaches or apples, etc. Although there is a great variety of materials used for “glossing” prunes by different producers, the prevailing prac- tise is to rely upon hot water, to which pure glycerine is added at the rate of one pound to twenty gallons. Some growers also add a little brine (having first dissolved the salt and skimmed — Curing Raisins. 431 off the impurities). This final hot dip kills insect eggs, and the fruit, after drying off away from the access of insects, should be packed tightly in boxes. Raisins —The varieties of grapes used for raisins are de- scribed in Chapter XXVI. The production of raisins has reached such an extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a description of them can not be attempted. Besides, there is now available an excellent special treatise on this subject.* However, in beginning the commercial production of raisins, one should visit the raisin farms and packing-houses during the harvest. The following description by T. C. White, cf Fresno, gives an outline of practise in the vineyard:— In Fresno picking commences about the first of September, although there have been seasons when it occurred as early as the 20th of August. The grapes under no circumstances should be picked for raisins until they are ripe. There are three ways by which to ascertain this fact: First, by the color, which should be a light amber; second, by the taste; and third, by the saccharometer, which is by far the most accurate. A grape may be ripe, and not have the proper color, when grown entirely in the shade. The juice of the grape should contain at least twenty- five per cent saccharine, to produce a good raisin. The method of drying is with trays placed upon the ground ‘The almost entire absence of dew in our locality greatly facilitates this method. The trays are usually twenty-four by thirty-six inches, which hold about twenty pounds of fruit, and should produce from six to seven pounds of raisins. The product of a vineyard depends largely upon its age and favorable conditions, varying from two to nine tons of grapes per acre. The trays are distributed along the sides of the roads, from which they are taken by the pickers as they are needed. As the grapes are picked from the vines, all imperfect berries, sticks, and dead leaves are removed from the bunches, which are then placed upon the trays, right side up. A cluster has what is called a right and a wrong side, the wrong side having more of the stems exposed than the right side. Great care should be used in picking, so as to handle the branches only by the stem. If the berries come in contact with the hands, some of the bloom will be removed, which will injure the appearance of the raisins. The trays are placed, after filling, between the vines, one end being elevated so that the grapes may receive the more direct rays of the sun. Too rapid drying is not desirable. The grapes are left upon the trays until about two-thirds dry, which, with us, will be in from six to eight days. They are then turned. This is accomplished by placing an empty tray on top of the one filled with partially-dried raisins, and turning them both over. Then take off the upper or original tray, and you have the raisins turned without handling or damage. After turn- ing, curing will proceed more rapidly, and frequently is completed in four or five days. During this time they should be carefully watched to prevent any from becoming too dry. When it is found they are dry enough, the trays are gathered and stacked one upon another as high as convenient for the sorting which follows. This protects them from the sun and prevents overdrying. Stacking should be attended to early * “‘ The Raisin Industry,” by Dr. Gustav Eisen, large 8vo., 255 pp., fully illustrated. 432 Curing Raisins. in the morning, while the stems and berries are slightly moist and cool from the night air, as they will retain this moisture after being trans- ferred to the sweat-boxes, and assist in quickening the sweating process. As the raisins are taken off the trays, some of the berries on the bunches will be dry enough and a few will not be sufficiently cured. To remove the moist ones would destroy the appearance of the cluster, and to leave it out longer would shrivel the dry oues, hence the sweat- box. The moisture is diffused through the bex, some being absorbed by the dry raisins, and the stems also taking their share are thus ren- dered tough and pliable and easily manipulated when ready for packing. Sorting and grading require care and judgment, and although a tedious process, it greatly facilitates rapid packing. The sweat-box is a little larger than the tray and about eight inches deep, and contains about one hundred and twenty-five pounds of raisins. Heavy manila paper is used in the sweat-boxes, one sheet being placed in the bottom, and three or four more at equal distances as the filling progresses. The object of the paper is to prevent the tangling of the stems and con- sequent breaking of the bunches when removed for packing. The sorters have three sweat-boxes, one for the first, second, and third qualities. as the grade will justify. The bunches should be han- dled by the stem and placed carefully in the sweat-boxes to avoid break- ing the stems. thereby destroying the symmetry of the clusters. Any found to be too damp are returned to the trays and left a day or two longer in the sun. To ascertain if the fruit is perfectly cured, take a raisin between the thumb and forefinger and roll it gently until softened, when either jelly or water will exude from the stem end—if water, it recuires further drying. When the boxes are filled, they are taken to the equalizer. This should be built of brick or adobe, and as near air- tight as possible. but provided with windows to allow ventilation when necessary. The windows should have shutters to keep it dark. The filled boxes are placed one exactly upon another to a convenient height, and should remain from ten to twenty days or more, when they will have passed through the sweating process. When the raisins are suffi- ciently equalized, the sweat-boxes are removed to the packing-room, which is provided with tables, presses, scales, etc. The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters. Loose raisins are now being produced in increasing quantities. Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, and the grader, by separating according to size, de- termines the grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has increased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with very ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins promise to constitute a considerable portion of the product. A considerable quantity of dipped raisins are also made of the Sultana grape and of loose or inferior Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound of potash to twelve gallons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays. During warm, dry weather in the interior, the raisins are dried in the shade by leaving the Dipping Ratsins. 433 trays in piles, but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber color. An oil-dip is also being profitably used with Thompson's Seedless :— One quart olive oil; 34 pound Greenbank soda and 3 quarts water are made into an emulsion, and then reduced with 10 gallons water in the dipping tank, adding niore soda to get lye- strength enough to cut the skins, and more soda has to be added from time to time to keep up the strength. The grapes are dipped in this solution and sulphured to the proper color. Drying of wine grapes for sale at the East or in Europe is practised. They can be profitably produced at quite a low price, in much the same way that raisins are made but with less care. GRAPE SYRUP. The manufacture of grape syrup, which was formerly of con- siderable prominence as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has recently received less attention because cf low prices in com- petition with the vast amount of syrup available from the sugar refineries. As the source of sugar is now so largely the beet, grape syrup inay again be profitable in the future. Open evap- orating pans are chiefly used. PART NINTH?°FRUIT, PROTECTION: CHAP PER DOS. INJURIOUS INSECTS. The California climate, which so favors tree and plant by a long, mild growing season, also enables some insects to multi- ply much more rapidly than they do in wintry climes, some having several distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and destruction of plants nearly the year round. If, however, as now seems likely, a good part of the repression of injurious insects may be trusted to other insects, parasitic or predatory, the climate will favor the multiplication of friend as well as foe, and thus carry its own compensation. This result has been promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other parts of the werld. It is also a fact that California fruit growers have invented methods and appliances for re- pression of injurious insects which have demonstrated notable efficiency and value. In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way, the grouping will be based upon the character of the work they do, an arrangement which has been followed by other writers, and which is better than attempting to group the insects which prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious in- sects seldom restrict themselves to a single food plant. There- fore the grouping will be as follows: (1) Insects destroying foli- age; (2) insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit; (3) insects boring into the twig, stem, or root; (4) insects boring into the pulp of fruits. The literature upon the subject of insect pests in California is quite extensive, but much of it is beyond the reach of the general reader. There are, however, a number of publications which should be on the shelves of every fruit grower, and these are the bulletins and reports of the experiment stations of the University of California, at Berkeley; of the State Board of Horticulture, at Sacramento: and of the Division of Entomology, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, at Washington. The ( 434 ) in Cut Worms and Canker Worms. 435 study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruc- tion are, however, continually progressing, and one can only keep himself informed of this progress, and profit by improve- ments, by diligent reading of California periodicals devoted to practical horticulture. INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE. Army Worms.—Smooth caterpillars about an inch or more in length when fully grown, prevailing color black, with light- colored stripes on the sides; moving forward in large ediee: hence the name; six forward legs; eight central legs; two rear legs; usually most destructive grass and grain, but invade vineyards and orchards. Most available remedy is spraying the leaves with Paris green, one pound to two hundred gallons of water on most growth but not stronger than one pound to two hundred and fifty gailons on peach trees. The progress of the worms can be caninorely arrested by plowing furrows in dry ground outside the planted area and treatment of them by burn- ing or crushing outside this barricade. | Cut Worms.—Smooth, plump, dull-colored caterpillars de- stroying buds and leaves at night and hiding by day in loose dirt at the base of the plant. Remedy: Paris green as above, or used upon bunches oi alfalfa or other vegetation placed at the base of the plant as a trap, or uncovering and collecting the worms, or using the bran and arsenic remedy which will be mentioned later for grasshoppers. Canker Worms.—Siim caterpillars of different colors, mov- ing by a looping gait, and often completely defoliating trees very early in the season. Remedy: Paris green spray, and Canker-worm Moths; a Male, 4 Female. banding of the trees with paper on which is spread a mixture of printers’ ink and molasses, to prevent the wingless moth from ascending the trees to deposit eggs on the twigs. “In this mild climate these bands must be put on in December and main- tained through the winter. The use of a trap has largely super- seded these bands as follows: Take No. 16 or 14 wire cloth in strips six inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the tree over a bandage of cloth two inches or less wide which is put on first to make the joint tight. The lower edge 436 Web or Tent Caterpillars. flares out half an inch or more from the tree all around. This will prevent the moths getting up, and will need cleaning about once a week for four weeks or more. Probably not one trap in ten will need touching. Tent Cater piilars.—Several species of hairy caterpillars called “tent caterpillars,’ or “web worms,” from their spinning covers of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large colonies; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, Larve, Pupz and Moth of Web Worm. or by spraying the foliage with Paris green. The pest can be reduced by carefully collecting and burning the egg clusters while pruning. The egg cluster encircles the twig, as shown in the adjacent engraving. Red-humped Caterpillar and Moth. Red-Humped Caterpillar—sStriped caterpillars, not hairy, but having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in clusters: of reddish color with yellow and white lines; a short distance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which are four black spines; black spines are also scattered over the body, but smaller than. those on the back. Spray with Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies. The Tussock Moth. aa Caterpillar of Tussock Moth.—A conspicuous caterpillar with four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes at the front, and one at the rear of the body—see en- graving. This leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum, and -sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars can be killed with a Paris green spray. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent buildings or fences, and the female, after emerging from the Cocoon, Moth and Eggs of Tent Caterpillar. cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of it. The engrav- ing below shows the wingless moth and cocoon with the mass of eggs deposited upon it. The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized and prevented from wide injury. It can be reduced by destroying the egg-masses during pruning, as they are wiiite and very conspicuous. Tussock-moth Larva, Wingless Female and Cocoon with Eggs. Pear and Cherry Slug.—A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating the upper surface of the leaves but usually not making holes through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air-slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime of the worm and destroys it. On a large scale a Paris green spray is best. 438 Saw-Fly Slugs and Worms. Saw-Fly Worms.—There are several larvae of saw-flies which do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear The Pear and Cherry Slug (a) and Saw-fly Worm. being about half an inch when fully grown. Its general appear- ance and work are shown by the engraving. The most avail- able remedy is a Paris green spray. . Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines.—The grape-vine is often seriously injured by the attacks of very large ieaf-eating worms two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, Sphinx-moth Larva on Grapesvines. Or spine, sometimes without. They are larvae of several species of Sphinx moths or humming-bird moths, and of swallow-tail butterflies (papilio). The worms can be killed by Paris green Leaf Lice and Thrips. 439 spray or by hand-picking. The numbers of worms can be re- duced by killing the large moths, which are abundant at night- Caterpillar of Swallow-tail Butterfly. fall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. These worms are related to other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco, tomatoes, etc. ; Leaf-Eatwg Beetles—There are many beetles, large and small, which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of Paris green, or those which drop to the ground when disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread below. INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES OR FRUIT. Leaf Lice——Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple an1 plum, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of dif- ferent colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are the resin wash and the kerosene emulsions which will be given later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. Very often these pests are effectually cleared out by lady-birds and other insects which devour them. The en- graving shows the general form of the aphis tribe. The Aphis or Leaf Louse. Thrips—Very minute insects infesting leaves of pear, causing them to wither and fall off—the leaves usually being covered with black dots. - Remedies the same as for leaf lice. Vine Hoppers.—Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects infesting grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying 440 Red Spider and Other Mites. rapidly. They exhaust the sap from the leaves, causing them to turn yellow and fall, exposing the grapes to sunburn. There are two kinds of vine hoppers. One in the Fresno region rises in a cloud when the vine is disturbed; the one at Florin, and at some points near the coast, drops to the ground. There is yet no satisfactory way to catch the insects that rise into the air. The ones that drop to the ground are handled quite satisfactorily by using wide, shallow pans in which half an inch of water with a little kerosene oil is put. These pans are made half round on a circle about a yard in diameter. Two men take pans and both come up to the vine quickly from opposite sides and push the pans under it. Thus the two pans largely cover the ground under the vines and the bugs drop into the kerosene. Some growers have saved their crops in this way. Treatment should begin early in the season, before the vines run out so far that it becomes so difficult to drop the hoppers in the pans. False Chinch-Bugs——Small, grayish-brown insects (about one-eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is dis- turbed, and may be caught as just described for vine hoppers. Grasskoppers.—These pests olten invade orchard and vine- yard, and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely de- foliating them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of the arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as follows: Forty pounds of bran, fifteen pounds middlings, two gallons of cheap syrup, twenty pounds arsenic, mixed soft with water; a table- spoonful thrown by the side of each vine or tree. Cost per acre for trees, twenty-five cents; for vines, fifty cents. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten riay be afterward gathered up and saved. Complete success has resulted from the use of this remedy, as the grasshoppers eat it readily and die in their tracks.* Red Spider and Other Mites—vVery minute insects, usually discernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their _ inroads upon the leaf suriace. The red spider and yellow mite are conspicuous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially the almond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby-red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast numbers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs are very hard to kill, and treatment is most effective when applied in the spring and summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough dust- * For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them upon adjoining fields. Publications describing such devices may be had free by addressing the Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. , Se ee ae oer) The Woolly Aphis. 441 ing of the trees with suiphur, after spraying with cold water. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower. On a small scale it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines, er shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at the end of a pole. Some growers prefer a spray to sulphuring, and the following, recom- mended by G. P. Hall, of San Diego, is very cheap and satis- factory: Take 20 pounds of sulphur, mix it to a paste—not sloppy—with cold water, in a barrel; then add to this wet sul- Red Spider: Young and Mature, Highly Magnified. phur to pounds of caustic soda 98 per cent, and it will boil the sulphur just like lime slaking; have 20 gallons of water to add to it as it boils to prevent its burning. This is a stock solu- tion, and when ready to spray put 40 gallons of water in another barrel, and take one-half galion of the stock solution and add to it, straining it to prevent sediment from getting into the spray. Phylloxera—This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom — Woolly Aphis and Injured Roots. seen. No remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXIV. The insects are recognized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets. 29 442 Scale Insects. The Woolly Aphis.—A louse oi dark red color, occurring in groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the bodies of the insects. Jn the engraving, a is the gall or swelling produced on the rootlets by their presence; b is the insect, showing the outgrowth of wooliy matter; c is the winged female. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are prac- tically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the fruitfulness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The use of wood ashes around the tree close to the trunk has been bene- ficial. Kemoving the earth from the root-crown and applying from two to five pounds of tobacco dust—a refuse from cigar factories—destroys the insects at this point and prolongs the effective life of the tree. The insect on the branches and twigs can be reduced by spraying with the summer washes soon to be given for scale insects, or the clusters oi the insect can be touched with a swab dipped in kerosene, but the kerosene should not be allowed to spread upon the bark. Ladybirds often clear away the wooily aphis of the tree above ground. Much attention is now being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used here as in Australia. Scale Insects —This is a large group of pests which occa- sion greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are apparently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit grower should study their life history and classification as laid down in the works on entomology. It will only be possi- ble in this connection to introduce a few engravings, by which some of the most prominent pests can be recognized, and to give some of the remedies which are now being most success- fully employed against them. San Jose Scale (Aspidiolus perniciosus)—This was formerly one of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to friendly insects which prey upon it, has become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disappeared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work of this species is generally readily distinguished from other spe- cies of scale by the red blotches which are formed wherever it stings any part of the tree-—either branch, leaf, or fruit. These red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. Se ee ee EE oe Te San Jose and Greedy Scales. 443 This scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot is apparently proof against it; certain varieties of cher- ries and plums are but little affected. The engravings show a pear affected by the scale; also the insect, natural size, on a twig; San Jose Scale on Fruit and Twig. Young Scale and Mature Female. also the form of the young, and the mature female, found by lift- ing the scale, the color of the insects being lemon yellow. The scale of the female is about one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, with a yellowish center, and gray or black margin. The Greedy or Pear Scale (Aspidiotus rapax).—This species affects many kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one-sixteenth of an inch in length; form, ovoid; color, drab; female, bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. It infests, chiefiy, pear trees, hence its Pear Scale on Twig, and Mature Female. name. It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus perni- ciosus by its whitish-yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. Generally this scale has only one brood in the sea- son, and, as compared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its slow-breeding propensities. 444 Various Scale Insects. Oyster Sheli Scale of Apple (Mytilaspis pomorum).—This is one of the few insects which the northeastern States have in common with us. Like the preceding one, it has only one brood during the season. It affects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the scales to exterminate. It can be easily recognized by the engraving, which shows a piece of bark covered with it. : Rose and Berry Scale (Diaspis rosae).—This scale has such striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the male. The rose scale intests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy: For raspberries and blackberries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emulsion, recommended under the head of gen- eral remedies for scale insects. Oleander Scale (Aspiditus nerit)—This scale is small, flat, yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially ever- greens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is sometimes completely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a scale is found, a green blotch shows its appearance. Red Scale of Orange and Lemon (Aonidia aurantu).—This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The apearance of trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resem- bling those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf presenting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale contrasting with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, be- comes completely covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale gradually becomes sickly and languishes. Other Citrus’ Tree Scales-—Two scales more _ recently brought into this State from Florida are the “purple scale,” Aspidiotus citricola, and the “long scale,” Aspidiotus gloverit. The red and purple scales of citrus trees are only treated suc- cessfully by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treat- ment is an elaborate one, requiring special appliances which are fully illustrated and described in Bulletin 122, which can be had The Lecanium Scales. 445 free by application to the Agricultural Experiment Station at ’ Berkeley. The Black Scale (Lecanium oleae)—This scale is almost a universal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley conditions. It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, which renders tree and fruit unsightly; but this smut ac- companies other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially troublesome on the clive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On citrustrees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a grievous pest, and should be fought unceasingly. Soft Orange Scale (Lecanium Hesperidum).-——This scale is a pest of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at one end than the other; length, from one-twelfth to one-seventh of an inch; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown surrounding margin; it has two indentations on each side, and one on posterior end. The engraving does not bring out these characters well, but shows the way in which the _ scale is seen on the leaf. It fortunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. Brawn Apricot Scale—The apricot tree, though defving the most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by scales of the lecanium family. The black scale is one and the brown apricot Brown Apricot Scale of Deciduous Fruit Trees. scale another. It is Lecanium Armeniacum. This scale is boat- shaped; when reaching maturity, wrinkled; the color is a shiny brown, darker in the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized ee z se 3 t3 z. Orange Scale (L. hesperidum). Filbert Scale (ZL. hemusphericum). Frosty Scale (ZL. pruntosum). GROUP OF LECANIUM SCALES FROM THE UNIVERSITY COLLECTION. Mealy Bugs. 447 scale has a length of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one- eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of decid- uous fruits, but especially the prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it also. Other Lecaniums.---There are several other lecaiiums on fruit trees: The filbert scale (henusphericum), which is common in greenhouses and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees; the frosted scale (prumosum), very large, oval and convex, cov- ered with deuse, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. Cottony Cushion Scaie or Fiuted Scale (/cerya purchasi).—This promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid increase and wide range of food - plants, but it was speedily reduced by an Australian ladybird, Novius (Vedaiva) cardinalis, introduced by Albert Koebele, with stich success that specimens are now rarely seen. Mealy Bugs.—Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs (species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally covered with a whitish meaiy powder, hence the name. The common species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the Mealy Bugs, Chiefly upon Citrus Trees. world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite trouble- some. Unless checked by natural enemies, the mealy bugs mul- tiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black irom the fungus growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush presents the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifer the appear- ance of the mealy bugs, as shown in the engraving, can be read- ily recognized. Remedies for Scale Insects—Though most of the scale in- sects are attacked by parasitic and predacious insects, as already stated, these natural agencies have only in certain cases proved rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and in- secticides have to be employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good 448 Remedies for Scale ‘Insects. work if thoroughly applied, which is usually the secret of suc- cess. A few which have proved of specia! value will be given herewith :— A WINTER WASH FOR DECIDUOUS TREES WHEN LEAFLESS. Lime, Salt and Sulphur Remedy.—The following formula has been used with great success throughout the State: Forty pounds of un- slaked lime, twenty pounds of sulphur, fifteen pounds common stock salt, water to make sixty gallons. Boil ten pounds of lime and the twenty pounds of sulphur in twenty gallons of water for an hour and a half, or until both lime and sulphur are dissolved. The sulphur must be thor- oughly dissolved and mixed with the lime: the mixture will then be of an amber color. Then slake in an empty half-barrel thirty pounds of lime with soft hot water, using enough water to thoroughly slake the lime, and while it is boiling add fifteen pounds of common stock salt. When the salt is well dissolved, add the contents of the half-barrel to the hot mixture in the boiler and boil the whole for half an hour and add water enough to make a total of sixty gallons of spraying material, which will then be a thin whitewash. The material should be strained, after being thoroughly mixed, through a fine wire strainer. Apply the wash milk-warm or warmer, with a spray pump. Use only when foli- age is off the tree. WASHES FOR ALL TREES WHEN IN LEAF. Kerosene Emulsion—Take kerosene, two gallons; common soap, or whale-oil soap, one-half pound; water, one gallon. Dissolve the soap in the water and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mix- ture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream which thickens on cooling. Dilute before using, one part of the emulsion with nine parts of cold water. To obtain this emulsion in proper form violent agitation is necessary, the time required depending on the violence of the agita- tion and temperature of the mixture. Professor Cook’s formula is this: “Dissolve in two quarts of water one-fourth pound of hard soap by heating to the boiling point, then add one pint of kerosene oil and stir violently from three to five minutes.” This is best done by use of the force pump. This mixes the oil permanently, so that it will never sepa- rate. Add seven pints of water and the wash is ready for use. esin Soap.—Take twenty pounds of resin, two and one-half pints of fish oil, three and one-half pounds of caustic soda (98 per cent), and enough water to make one hundred gallons. Place all the ingredients together in the boiler with water enough to cover them three or four inches. Boil from one to two hours, occasionally adding water until the compound resembles very black coffee. Dilute to one-third the final bulk with hot water, or, if cold water is used, add very slowly over the fire, making a stock mixture to be diluted to the full amount as used. When spraying, the mixture should be perfectly fluid and without sedi- ment. This mixture can be used twice or three times as strong on de- ciduous trees when dormant. INSECTS BORING IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT. The Common Borer.—An insect which has done vast injury in this State is the “flat-headed apple borer’ (Chrysobothris femorata). It affects chiefly apples, peaches, and plums, which have been injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with , DY, PP ee Various Borers. 449 a brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence. The best remedy is prevention by Flat-head Borer and Beetle. Sun-scald Peach Moth and Its Boring Larva. Borer. protection from sunburn, as described in Chapter XI. When- ever a borer is removed, the debris and dead wood should be en- tirely cleaned out and the smooth surface left, taking care to pre- serve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if seriously at- tacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it. Sun-Scald Borer—Another borer which delights in sun- burned trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin-hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus a«ylographus). The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, for this precedes the attack of the beetle. Peach Twig-Borver—This grub is the larva of a moth (Anarsia lineatella), about half an inch in length when fully grown, and of a light reddish color. The moth, the worm (nat- ural size and enlarged), and the manner of its working in the peach, prune or apricot twigs, are shown in the engraving. The first brood of worms bore into fresh young shoots of peach trees, the second into the fruit. Any infested shoots should be cut off and burned, and no hiding-places for the insects allowed. It is in the spring that they show their work most plainly by the withering young shoots. These must be cut off and destroyed. The most effective treatment, however, is winter spraying. The value of the lime, salt and sulphur wash for this purpose has been long known, but why it was successful was not known until Ed. M. Ehrhorn, horticultural commissioner for Santa Clara County, found that the larvae passed the winter ensconsed in shallow burrows in the crotches of the limbs all through the 450 Twig Borers. trees. The wash penetrates the borings which cover them, and kills. If it is nct desirable to use this wash for scales or fungi in addition to the peach moth, kerosene emiulsion, diluted with one part of the stock emulsion to six parts of water, is a cheaper treatment. It can be used from December onward through the winter. ‘he kerosene reaches the worms in their winter quar- ters very successfully. The Olive Twig-borer and Its Work. The Olive Twig-Borer.—A reddish brown beetle boring into twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils of the leaves. The insect is shown in the engraving, some- what enlarged, as the line on the right shows the natural length Of the insect. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may spoil the shape of a young tree. Remove the af- fected branches below the burrow of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to replace a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the hole stopped up—this to prevent decay and a weak branch following. Spraying with ill-smelling solu- tions may prevent their attack, but the insect has not been suf- ficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far. Peach Crown-Borer—A grub boring into peach trees just below the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. The insect, which has become quite troublesome in Santa Clara County, resembles the Eastern crown-borer of the peach, but is a distinct species (Sannania pacifica, Riley). The ———-—- = Crown Borers. 451 best methods of supressing this insect are two. A preventive treatment consists in coating the base of the tree a few inches below the surface and a foot above with a whitewash, with a pint of coal tar to each five pounds of quicklime, put in while California Peach-borer. the lime is slaking. This should be done in April. A killing treatment which has proved effective and safe to the tree is car- bon bisulphide, when wisely used. Mr. Ehrhorn gives these precautions :— : Carbon bisulphide should not be applied when the soil is wet or just before a rain, nor just after cutting out borers and putting on lime and other preventives. Avoid putting it on the bark of the ‘tree. Procure a machine oiler which will hold about eight ounces of carbon bisulphide, remove the soil around the trunk of the tree about six inches wide and six inches deep, being sure to detach all soil adhering to the trunk of the tree. After this is done, fill in this space with loose soil to the level again. Now squirt the liquid a few times from one to one and one-half inches away from the bark around the tree, and cover im- mediately with six inches of soil. Borers have been killed in from twenty hours to three days; after they are found to be dead, the soil should be removed from around the trees so that any remaining fumes of bisulphide can be dissipated. Sirawhberry Root-Borer.—The larva of another clear-winged moth (degeria impropria), boring into the root of strawberry Strawberry Root-borer; Pupa, Grub and Moth. Currant Borer (enlarged) and Moth. plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing consid- erable damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much 452 The Codlin Moth. earlier than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say four of five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all the larvae would be killed. Currant and Gooseberry Borer—A white worm eating out the central pith of currant and gooseberry plants-—the larva of another clear-winged moth (Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale-oil soap after the crop is gathered. pruning out and burning in the fall of all old wood which can be spared, will re- duce the evil. INSECTS DEVOURING THE PULP OF FRUITS. The Apple Worm.—The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is one of the great pests of the State. Its appearance and man- ner of work are sufficiently shown by the engraving. It preys chiefly upon the appie and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes invaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossoming of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit, or on adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty days Codlin Moth in Various Stages in Fruit, and Wintering in Rough Bark. its full growth is attained, and it goes out through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinneret. reaches the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding-place under the ioose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The egg is laid all over the fruit, and especially at a point where two fruits touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but _ Treatment for Codlin Moth. 453 % more often three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the increase from the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in storehouses, or in any available dry place. There is one sovereign remedy for the codlin moth, and that is the spray of Paris green. Its efficacy, when properly done and pure material is used, is demonstrated beyond ques- tion. It is possible to secure from 80 to 90 per cent of sou id fruit where, without treatment, net ro per cent would escape the worms. It is essential that the poison go from a fine nozzle in a mist or cloud, and as soon as the mist covers the fruit and leaves with a film of moisture stop the spray on those surfaces. Let the fine particles of poison be planted by the medium of the mist upon every point of the surface. There must be constant stirring of the water in which the poison is suspended. An occasional stirring will not prevent settling and unequal distribution. One spraying may suffice for an early apple or pear, but medium or late fruit should have two or three sprayings to reach the offspring of later broods of moths. The first spraying should be done, as a rule, later than was formerly advised, be- cause it is now known that-the moth does not visit the blossom, but the fruit after it has attained some size. It is a fact, however, that the little worms, on emerging from the eggs, generally seek the calyx or eye of the iruit for entrance, and it is important to have poison there. For this reason the first spraying should be done before the sepals close over the eye of the apple. The worm will make its way through these tur ned-down sepals and its poison should be ready for it inside. It is easier to thor- oughly poison fhis cavity if the spraying is done while the little fruit still stands upright. Subsequent spravings must be done, however, without regard to the position of the fruit. The later hatchings of the worms are more apt to enter through the sides of the well-grown fruit, especially at the point where the fruits are in contact with each other, and it is necessary to have the fruit continually covered with a film of the poison while these later broods are hatching out, spraying at intervals of three or four weeks, to be continued, less or more in number, accord- ing to the lateness of maturity of the variety. Paris green often contains an undue amount of free arsenic, which is likely to injure the foliage seriously. For this reason a formula which guards against it is desirable: Stir one pound of Paris green and one pound of powdered lime, with a little water, into a thin paint, and then thoroughly mix this paint with cold water, so that the strength shall be one pound of Paris green to 160 galions of water. “o 454 Killing Yellow Jackets. $ The Peach Werm.—As already stated, the larva of the peach moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is some- times found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the importance of saving the fruit by proper winter treatment of the hibernating worms. ANTS AND’ YELEOW JACKETS. These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit dry- ing. Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pour- ing in a couple of ounces of carbon bisuiphide and closing again with earth. Yellow jackets also nest in the ground in old squir- rel or gopher holes, and they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling species. Yo destroy yellow jackets by trapping and poison is also feasible. W.F. Moyer, of Napa, proceeds in this way:— Make a thin fruit syrup by mashing the boiling ripe fruit, strain it and add a little sugar. Place the syrup dishes on the drying ground where the “jackets” are thickest. When the top of the syrup is cov- ered with drowned and drowning “jackets,” scoop them out with the hand, and crush them with the foot. They won’t sting unless you pinch them. As the syrup evaporates All up the dishes with water. Ifa day or two should elapse when no fruit is cut, be sure the traps are well cared for, as they will swarm around them thicker than ever, especially if the weather is hot. For dishes to place the syrup in, cut kerosene cans so as to make two cans, each about six and one-half inches deep. Poisoning to carry destruction to the young brood is also practicable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this way :— * I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man’s fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bend- ing the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the little insects busily working at the fragrant liver. The insects carried pieces of the liver to their nests, and besides causing the death of those that had been destroying my fruit, the next generation of yellow jackets was also destroyed, and so complete was the destruc- tion that there were not enough of the little pests in that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. There 1s no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat. The Diabrotica.—-A light green beetle with twelve spots on his bacis (Diabrotica soror), is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blossoms. As the insect attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is impossible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous Treatment of Nursery Stock. 455 spray. Sometimes the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around the orchard. The Dried Fruit Worm-—Dried fruit is often seriously in- jured after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth not yet determined.. The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in the packing-house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by dipping in boiling water, or by heat- ing in an oven and after that preventing the access of the moth. Infested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor, the method being the same as described for nursery stock below. DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK. Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from insects by inclosing in a tight box er cask and placing a saucerful of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect life in forty minutes. Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale is done by Alexander Craw, State quarantine officer, in this way:— Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled lin- seed oil +o make it gas proof. The canvas must be perfectly dry before it is rolled up, or it is liable to be destroyed by spontaneous combustion. To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dormant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water, then the sulphuric acid. and place it well under the canvas, the edges of which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, and the tent is immediately closed, and re- mains so for one hour. It is hoped that this chapter will convey useful hints in the warfare against insects. Whenever questions arise which are not met thereby, appeal should be made to the University Exper- iment Station at Berkeley. 4 ) tie Bes Se Brown Apricot Scale (L. avrmenitacum). Soft Orange Scale (L. hesperidum). Frosty Scale (ZL. pruntosum). Filbert Scale (L. hemisphericum). GROUP OF LECANIUM SCALES FROM THE UNIVERSITY COLLECTION. Mealy Bugs. 447 scale has a length of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one- eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of decid- uous fruits, but especially the prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it also. Other Lecaniums.—--There are several other lecaiiums on fruit trees: The filbert scale (henusphericum), which is common in greenhouses and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees; the frosted scale (prwinesum), very large, oval and convex, cov- ered with dense, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. Cottony Cushion Scaie or Fiuted Scale (cerya purchast).—This promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid increase and wide range of food - plants, but it was speedily reduced by an Australian lady bird, Noviws (Vedaiia) cardinalis, introduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens are now rarely seen. Mealy Bugs.—Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs (species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally covered with a whitish meaiy powder, hence the name. The ‘common species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the Mealy Bugs, Chiefly upon Citrus Trees. world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite trouble- some. Unless checked by natural enemies, the mealy bugs mul- tiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black irom the fungus growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush presents the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the appear- ance of the mealy bugs, as shown in the engraving, can be read- ily recognized. Remedies for Scale Insects—Though most of the scale in- sects are attacked by parasitic and predacious insects, as already stated, these natural agencies have only in certain cases proved rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and in- secticides have to be employed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good 458 Various Blights. Toadstool Destruction.—Trees are often destroyed through invasion by toadstool fungi from decaying roots or wood with which their roots come in contact. The injury is often not detected until the tree is ruined and it is too late for treatment. Ii only part is aftected, the disease may sometimes be arrested by cutting away the diseased parts and disinfection of the ex- posed tissue with the Bordeaux Mixture. Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark.—It has been clearly shown by investigation at the University Experiment Station that the growth of moss, etc., upon the bark of fruit trees is a decided injury. All trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sul- phur mixture already prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda or potash, one pound to six gallons of water. Bhghts and Decays.—Vhere are several blights which are traceable to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible . as are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, because they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black- heart of the apricot, etc., are instances. Cutting back to healthy wood and burning all removed parts is the best treatment which can at present be prescribed. A local disease which has been den:onstrated hy Newton B. Pierce, of Santa Ana, is the bacteriosis of the English walnut. The disease is recognized by black sunken spots on the hull of the voung walnut; generally worst at the blossom end and usual- ly first seen there early in the season; later the spots run to- gether and encompass considerable areas of the surface. As. the disease progresses the nut is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and young wood. The fallen nuts and leaves should be plowed under deeply or gathered and destroyed. The tree should receive careful pruning to remove all diseaséd parts. It may be well to spray young trees in the winter with the Bor- deaux Mixture for the purpose of disinfecting the tree as per- fectly as possible. DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS. There are a number of prominent troubles which are not traceable to parasitic invasion of any kind, and yet may be in some cases promoted by bacterial growth invited by preceding conditions. Sour Sap.—There is a fermentation of the sap, quite notice- able by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the roct to the topmost twigs; sometimes in one part and not in another. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing Die-Back, Gum and Root-Knot. 459 water in the soil, and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus af- fected make an effort to grow and then the young growth shriv- els. Severe cutting back of the top to reduce evaporation until the roots can restore their feeding fibers is the only treatment of the tree, and its success depends upon the extent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cut- ting back the diseased parts, as soon as discovered, to sound wood, is the proper treatment. Die-Back.—Dying back of twigs or branches may occur witheut parasitic invasion through root-weakness or partial fail- ure. . It may be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The treatment is cutting back to sound wood and cor- recting the soil conditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be needed to advance vigorous growth,in the tree. Guinmosis.—This is a convenient term to designate the gum- ming which is seen on many kinds of trees. As has been said of die-back, gumming may result from excess of water or of drouth in the soil. Gumming is, therefore, not considered in itself a disease, but rather an indication of conditions unfavora- ble to the thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found by investigation that trees in perfect condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive, are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this statement does not whollv apply. There is very much in this connection which is not fuliy demonstrated as yet. Many treatments are pro- posed. It is a good thing to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark—cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with paint or wax to exclude the air. Some report success with an antiseptic wash—diluted crude carbolic acid and the Bordeaux Mixture have both been used, and reported upon favorably. Root Knots——These are excrescences upon the roots or at the root crown of various trees and of grape-vines, and they have been a serious trouble in this State for a good many years, Although the knot has been studied by experts in plant pathol- ogy, no exact cause of the trouble has vet been found. A satis- factory treatment has, however, been discovered. If the knot has not increased in size sufficiently to seriously interfere with the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound treated with the Bordeaux Mixture, and the knot will not reap- pear at the same place. Success has also been had with boring a hole into the knot and filling the hole with bluestone solu- tion. Bluestone can be used with least danger when the tree is dormant. CHAPTER X2OQvITT. SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS. The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are some- times such grievous trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of them burrowers, as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is injury done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hunters and the dogs. RABBITS. Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrow- ers. This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving them, with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into a narrow, fenced inclosure, where they are killed with clubs. During the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way, and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large to vex the fruit planter, and he must protect himself against them. Rabbit Fences—The surest protection against rabbits is a fence which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit-proof by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of but about two inches between them. - A barbed wire, with barbs about two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent scratching under. The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and wire netting, or of perpendicular slats interwoven with wire. Such materials are sold in large quantities. A very effective combination of barbed wire and netting, which is used in the upper San Joaquin Valley, is described as follows :— The tall posts are regular split redwood posts. The intermediate small ones are made by sawing in two the regular posts and splitting ( 460 ) y } : ' : Reduction of Rabbits. 461 them into eight small posts, or rather, large stakes. The netting is of galvanized wire, No. 19 gauge, and one and one-half-inch mesh. This netting is stapled to the posts and stakes on the inside, or toward the field. This is of prime importance, as it will not serve the purpose if it is placed on the outside. The bottom of the netting is to come down to the ground, and the ground must be left hard, and not plowed, to prevent burrowing or scratching the dirt from underneath, which can be easily done if the dirt is softened up. It is not at all necessary to A Rabbit-proof Fence in Successful Use in Miramonte Colony, Kern County. set the netting below the ground. In the sketch are shown three barbed wires, with barbs two and a half inches apart. These wires must be placed on the outside of the posts. This position is also a prime necessity. The lower wire is stretched just clear of the surface of the ground. The middle wire is one inch higher than the top of the net- ting, and the top wire, which is intended only as against cattle, is at a height suitable for thd purpose. The rabbit-proof portion is comprised in the netting and the two lower wires. Hence, if cattle are not feared, and rabbits are the only foe, the top wire can be dispensed with, and the posts can be all short with a greater proportion of stakes, having only enough stout posts to stand the strain of the wires. The theory of this construction is that a rabbit can only pass the fence over the top or under the bottom of the netting, and this is effectually prevented by the barbed wires, which tear the animal if it attempts either to leap or climb over, or to scratch under. Smears Distastefui to Rabbits—Where the expense of a fence can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with sub- stances distasteful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Commercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. A tea made by steeping quassia chips is said to produce the same effect. Rancid grease, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have been approved as a daub for tree trunks, but the efficacy is only of limited duration. Rabbit Poison.—Pieces of watermeion, cantaloupe, or other vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strychnine and then scattered around the orchard. Rabbits will not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is effective, for the rabbit never gets far away from it. The same results can be attained by the following mixture. To one hundred pounds of wheat take nine gallons of water and one pound of phosphorus, one pound of sugar, and one ounce oil of 462 Sguirrels and Gophers. rhodium. Heat the water to boiling point and let it stand all night. Next morning stir in flour sufficient to make a sort of paste. The rabbits eat it with avidity if scattered about. Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strychnine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the poison, which kills great numbers. : GROUND-SQUIRRELS. Ground-squirrels are poisoned by the use of the poisoned wheats which are sold in the markets, or by use of bisulphide of carbon, or “smokers,” which are arranged to force smoke into the holes. A small quantity of bisulphide of carbon poured into the hole, and the hole closed with dirt, is probably the most effective squirrel killer, when the ground is wet, so that the vapor is held in the burrow. Smokers are also most effective when the soil is moist. When the ground is dry, poison is the best means of reducing squirrels. The following is an exceedingly effective preparation, of which a few grains should be placed in or near each hole:— Take strychnine, one ounce; cyanide of potassium, one and one- half ounces; eggs, one dozen; honey, one pint; vinegar, one and one- half pints; wheat or barley, thirty pounds. Dissolve strychnine in the vinegar: and you will have to pulverize it in the vinegar, or it will gather into alump. See that it is all dissolved. Dissolve the cyanide of potas- sium in a little water. Beat the eggs. Mix all the ingredients together thoroughly before adding to the barley. Let it stand twenty-four hours, mixing often. Spread to dry before using, as it will mold if put away wet. To keep squirrels from gnawing fruit trees, or climbing and getting the fruit, tying a newspaper around the trunk of the tree, letting the paper extend out four inches at the upper edges, is said to be effective. The rattle of the paper when the squirrels attempt to get over it will frighten them. GOPHERS. Gophers can often be destroyed by the use of poisoned wheat, especially if prepared with a little‘oil of rhodium, which seems to be very attractive to ail rodents. Pieces of fruits or vegetables into which a few grains of strychnine have been in- serted by making a cut with a knife-blade and then squeezing it together again, are also handy conveyors of death to gophers. There are two ways to put poisoned materials into a gopher run- way. One is to look for fresh open holes and put in the poison as far as possible with a long-handled spoon; another is to take a round, pointed stick and shove it in the ground near the Traps for Gophers. 463, gopher mounds until it strikes their runway, then drop in the poisoned bait. Close up the hole with some grass; level down mounds, so that if the poison does not kill all the gophers, you will soon discover their new mounds. If there are many mounds, put the poison in a number of places. Bisulphide of carbon is also successiully used in killing gophers, while the ground is wet, using an injector which is furnished with the poison to force the vapor through the long burrows. Trapping Gophers—Some are very successful in using gopher traps, of which there are several styles sold. Gophers come to the surface in the night, and generally close their holes soon after daybreak. They frequently emerge again about noon, and a third time late in the afternoon. It is best to set the trap in an open hole; still, the holes may be opened if the dirt is still fresh, with a good prospect of the gopher’s return. Therefore, the trapper may make his rounds three times a day, as above indicated. Care should be exercised in preparing the hole for the insertion of the trap, a straight hole for a distance ot at least ten inches, with no lateral branches, otherwise the gopher in pushing out the dirt will likely enough thrust the trap to one side, cover it up, or spring it, without being exposed to its grasp. The trapper should be supplied with at least two varieties of traps—one for the larger gophers, and the other for the smaller ones. The common iron gopher trap, which springs downward, is excellent for the former, and the small wire trap, which springs upward, is generally successful with the latter. The size of the hole is indicative of the size of the gopher. Either trap should be inserted nearly its full length into the hole, pressed down firmly, and alittle dirt piled at the outer end to prevent its being easily pushed out. After the trap is set, it is well to cover the opening with some grass or weeds. Sometimes the holes re- quire a little enlarging, but care should be taken to make the fit as close as possible, that the body of the gopher may be kept near the center, and thus more exposed to the prongs of the trap. In the fourth place, the trapper should have a small spade and a little gouge-shaped implement for trimming the hole. Gopher Pitfalls—Il{ gophers are abundant, large numbers can be captured in this way: Dig a trench around the orchard or vineyard about the width of a spade and from fourteen to sixteen inches deep. In the bottom of the ditches, about a hun- dred feet apart, sink five-gallon oil cans, leaving the tops level with the ditch bottom. The gophers migrate in the night, and in attempting to come into the inclosure will fall into the ditch and then run along the bottom until they drop into the cans. Of course the ditch must not be wider than the cans. As many as fifteen live gophers have been found in one can. The cats 464 Poisoning Birds. soon learn to help themselves out of the cans. The ditch must be kept clean, and if any roads cross the tract, set up a board at night, to compel the gophers to tumble in the ditch. This ditch should be constructed about the first of June, when the outside feed begins to dry up, and the pests rush for the cultivated ground. With such protection from the outside, and the use of poison and traps inside, the trees and vines can be saved. DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS. Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectivo- rous birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in disbudding the trees in spring-time, and in destroying ripe fruit, that productive measures have to be adopted against them. The so-called “California linnet,’ which is not a linnet, but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the English sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most grievous pests, though there are other de- structive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is protected by law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must be abandoned. For the killing of the smaller birds poison is usually em- ployed, and it is best administered in water. Poisoned water made of one-eighth ounce strychnine to three gallons of water and placed in shallow tin pans in the trees, has been widely ap- proved. Cutting oranges in halves, spreading strychnine over the cut surface and empaling the half-oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hun- dred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of this plan is that one kills linnets and not other birds, while poison kills both friends and foes. CEAP DE Rie Xe XS. PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS. Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the protection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some _ other parts of the world have to provide, there is often advan- tage in securing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit industries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys at right angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds, has also been urged with great force. ‘These greater enterprises and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather concerning the planting of trees to shelter individual possessions that a few suggestions will be offered. It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly depend- ent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong cur- rents of air which will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower should plant windbreaks, and will find himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the success- ful production on the protected area. In the interior valleys there is also need of shelter from occasional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some cases long lines of sheltering trees have been cut down because they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater than would have been incurred by retaining them. What Kind of Trees to Plant—This is a question concern- ing which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the growth of trees planted to test their suitability, and the future planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which are now most widely grown. ( 465 ) 466 Trees for Windbreaks. The most widely-planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus, or Australian biue gum. It is a rapid grower and yvo- racious feeder, and wonderiul for root extension, for which it has been roundly abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is desired, the planting of eucalyptus and Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) is a common practise. The latter also attains good height, but its broad. thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a thick, low growth, is the pepper tree {Schinus mollc). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. Trees planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper is not only a good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher. Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not become laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and there- fore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the cypress for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior valleys, make, probably, as periect a wall of foliage all the year round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, some- what subject to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places is objected to on that account. A number of other species of eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being found more hardy than the blue gum. The _ fpolyanthema, amygdalina, and vimunalis are of this character. The Monterey pine (Pinus insignis) is a rapid, high-grow- ing tree, and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A native white cedar (Libocedrius decurrens) has also been employed as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as rapid a grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. it stands well in the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the earth, and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be less subject to frost injury than the Monterey cypress and pine. All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford protection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many which may be well employed. The California black 3 . Fe et ee ee ae ee ee eee ee ee Protection from Frost Injury. 407 walnut makes a very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast, and is largely used ior roadside planting. The California broad-leaved maple (Acer macrophylla) is very beau- tiful, rapid in growth, and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder (Acer negrundo), but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast regions. Of the poplars, the Carolina (Populus monilifera) is best, because of its breadth, density of foliage, and comparative freedom from suckering. The locust (Robinia pseudacia) is used to some extent, but its suckering is very objectionable. Quite a number of the larger-growing HOSES fruit trees are used to some extent along ‘the exterior lines of orchards for the protection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chest- nut, seedling almonds, and apricots are especially commenced for such use. Growing Trees from Seed.—Much that has been said in Chapter VIII will be sug ggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply worked and the young plant well planted and cared for. Cultivation of Shelter Trees.—lf one desires rapid growth of shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thoroughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from allowing roadside trees to shift jor themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into the cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and enrich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefiy on the waste land. At the same time the roadside will be pre- vented from producing vast quantities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will have a name tor neatness, which is too rare even in California. PROTECTION FROM FROSTS. Much attention has been given during recent years to the protection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of de- ciduous fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occa- sional fall of the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a temperature of 28° if the ground surface is wet and the exposure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the same temperature. About the same result has been secured by checking radiation of heat by covering the or- chard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Both these pro- 468 Best Way with Freezes. tective measures fail when the temperature falls a few degrees below 28° or when such freezing temperature is continued sev- eral hours. During the last few years, at Riverside, systematic invention and trial of frost prevention has proceeded, and the most satisfactory results are thus described by E. W. Holmes:— Satisfactory results have been gained by the use of soft coal, burned in wire baskets suspended under or between the trees. When twenty to forty of these to the acre were used, we occasionally raised the tem- perature from three to five degrees. More has been claimed; but this is all that I am sure has been achieved. However, in a section where the temperature would not go below twenty-five or twenty-six degrees for a few hours, this method was ample. The outfit costs about ten cents a basket, or four dollars an acre if forty baskets are used, and the coal about two and one-half dollars an acre per night. The objection is the labor of replenishing the baskets in case of their being used the second night. because even if kerosene is poured upon the kindling, it is no easy task to light four hundred fires with a torch. Four men will be required to do this in proper time. Still, this is the system more generally approved here, and because definite and certain results have been achieved through it. This refers to the protection of citrus fruits, the value of which as the crop is maturing will warrant the cost. With de- ciduous fruits thus far only smoke and steam clouds from burn- ing piles of damp rubbish have been employed, except in irn- gated regions where, if the frost threatens while the ground is dry, the limited efficacy of running water is resorted to. There is ample field for farther experiment in all lines of frost pre- vention. Wiere there is trouble from early activity of deciduous trees the trees may be kept dormant for a limited time by winter spraying with whitewash, which reflects heat and thus prevents activity. Experiment has shown that heat upon the aerial parts of the tree start the growth; it does not come from the root as was formerly supposed. ee ee Se. PART TENTH: MISCELLANEOUS. CHAPTER “2c: UPLEIZATION OFFFRUIT) WASTES. Some progress has been recently attained in the securing of horticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There is a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees of the wineries in central California. In southern California citric acid factories are largely using lemons | rejected in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits have been secured in smali quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit countries. There has arisen also a profitable demand for fruit pits and apricot and peach pits, which formerly were burned, are now selling profitably—machinery for cheap extraction of the ker- nels having been contrived by California inventors. The ker- nels are bought by agents of European manufacturers of oils and essences. The disposition of waste fruit by growers must, however, always lie chiefly in the line af feeding animals, and refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits have nutritive value which should not be iost. A statement of the value of various fruits as compared with various cattle foods: has been prepared by Prof. M. E. Jaffa, of the University Experiment Station, in the table upon the next page. A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by prunes. Using the equivalents in the table below for computa- tion, it appears that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would be worth as a substitute $3 per ton; likewise, if cotton- seed meal is selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At the market price of oat hay, the figure for fresh prunes should be nearly $3 per ton. The dried fruits naturally rank tar above the fresh material as stock feed. Of the dried iruits represented in the table, raisins lead in food value; containing one and one-fourth to one ( 469 ) 470 Value of Waste Fruit for Stock. and one-half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respectively; 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the same quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fiity- nine pounds respectively of rice bran and cotton-seed meal. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF FRUITS, AND HAy, GRAINS MEALS, ETC. Y 100 Pounps FRvIT EQUIVALENT TO POUNDS OF (EPS |e) Sel a) aia) eee BPR Oe) ao te) Bos eee - = ae) [om © : p BP Fo) gy l|Psl@s olga Mak el Va of TOC Mel % (ee los aie in et ewe os |) 4 » | FRESH FRUITS. #5. 0} 0) LES NAR EPCS 24) 20) 24 15) 15). 17) 16l) 18\) 16) ers avons OFangies rs ceases 33] 19.23) 14) 214) 16) 15)" 17)" 25) nae B@Aars 24 shel e i kleceésckbe. 40| - 23} 30] 17|' 18] 20] Io} 20) ‘19] 15] Ta} 15 Blt Six.peso tet aneeeuectonne 50| 30] 36] 22): 24; 25) 24) 26] 24) 20| 14/20 TINGS) Sactccnsteceenceccotee 46) 27) 323) aol 221-2231) 22h) 24) 5020) a5 eee INDTICOlSeasctacteess sce one ee 40] 23), 29) 17\\ 418) 20), 19) -20})) 79) 7s oan mas INectaninesi rset .ces-nre 43|°' 26))30| ‘x9 20). -22]<° 20) 23)" 20) aegis enter IGS boii rabid osdnde hoseee 50| -30] | 37] 23/' 24) 26), 25| 27] 25] 20) 14) 20 Grapes)scse- sees csewecssecks 50] 30| 37] 23} 24| 26) 25] 27] 25] 20] 14] 20 Watermelons............. 22|\ 131) -16|TO)* TO) so 01). Tal) el) ee ee ee Nutmeg Melons ......... 19] UU) 913) 8) 9) ) Ohe ol eTO|ei. oO) 7s ee DRIED FRUITS. Dried prunes*.cts esc. 175| 104] 125] 78) 82] 88] 84] 92| 84) 67| 48] 68 Dried apricots:<-:2::.<.- 194] 115| 138} 86| 90) 97| 93] 102/ 93] 74| 53] 76 Dried ‘peaches...2..:-.... 190] 113) 135| 85} 88) 95) 91| 100) 91 72) 51) 74 IDriEd f1gSisescss cone scesecas 186] I10} 132) 83} 85] 93] 89] 97] 89] 71) 50) 72 RAISINS ss .<: Sessa Mase sees 216| 128] 153] 97| oo] 108) 103) 111) 103) 82) 59) 84 Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they contain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a feeding stuff with wheat bran, that is, the unsalable dried apricots are worth to the orchardist about fifteen dollars per ton tor feeding purposes. Prune-fed or raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so much interested in the case as to carry hit his regular figs three times daily. Gradually, he grew so fat that his eyes closed en- tirely and he was blind and helpless. INDEX. PAGE PNBOUMISHRCGID lO cceucrvasecddencacacecowerssaces sles ceceecess 43 | Rome Beauty Palla inne! Soi] Secese cect teas -es gece acne dececeeoceree Hort coo aaascesp - ae tu nco sre 172 taken from GitChes.......-..-\0scnscee-ences-seunenes 173 wells and pumpS fOF.......-:::seeeeees serene 181, 182 WiheEelSpfOTe. cats cssessreracsrattnncasscesesitersestresaes 181 when desirable.. 17I SUID TN) cep eR ea HO ERE CELED CoepECL reece HOTACr OSS NED Crea 171 Jen loloztecaseicencrecees ecco 4G Jujube of commerce ............ -383 Jujube, mative........ccccccesseree ceccerceeeeencreeeeesess 42 KAT CAPD] Crecrcnsencsccacienrerelee Knife for cling peaches... Lemon, The ........-.sssesseseeceeeeree ees curing .. Priel eeuetastneesunseeese planting and pruning. propagation... situations and soils for VARIETIES: /ntroduced. Villa Franca... : VARIETIES: Californian. BOMMLG Bia Cicetacerecercs ccaersctexensace¥iatngamnaties 380 Ste aettems sadeapeaeteeeoneneteren: peeece coameaeener 379 Lemon berry..... meee Meee NIG EY Oseehocn tencso coco bonce 42 (ime WN Gpesascescsceveacearccsnasances VARIETIES: /ntroduced. IWIEXUGARI ecassnecccciesctescevs scheenunecwacerecsacrenns Imperial ..... Lime, uses of...... Loganberry......... Wogtiatye DlGsesscacsuncacssjnnesceersmarecvecdersnectensceeme Mane GATC Olteesacrset-.concheveesty=antercdeusanensest 160 Manuring at planting Manzanita Dbernies..... ....-....---<.: Map of orchard and vineyard ............+2ss0008 Mar Siene-siecesesnasesen Bre Mealy bugs... Melon shrub Melon tree Mission fr uits Moisture lost by weed growth retained by cultivation Morning g lory, killing Mulberry, The... co Mulching after planting. Index. PAGE. instead Of Cultivation’ ..c--<---c spoubdsccn aco 247 WordGNapiens..:..s-csesscesccevsesaseoccaeeerseenenee 246 ING Wah be iaretac.cvencestsicersovicesscs +247 Stanwickiiss.ccscces +6247 Nitrogen for fruits... NUTSETY.....5.1ceee cececseeeseees eee eeenee ceseee ene . 66 growing seedlings........ 72 OG} laying out and plantiug, beat ice pruning in.. wane . 84 selection of site for..... a =» OF, soil, preparation Of............0...65 . 68 soil, proper for........... « 66 PrEESH AMES Ofeeesa: wenvenseateeseocnesseeeare . 84 trees; diggings <2) 2c. sic-c: sscoesesenceuesniaeereanes 104 trees; disinfecting... :.s22...24 .--dereeseeeees 454 trees, SelECtiNg...........00. sce sceeeseeeeneeeerentes 103 when to plant in.... Gs Nuts growing in Californ .406 PTO WINS fr OM) SCCG..cecsnce cos c-seesarenvoueees 2 A (OSES AGAa coo eccitceeecconecenas cototy soc 2333 at old missions ... . 46 bd Ginga ei rencceadscere 336 Climate foOrencsnre.s 334 frOm) GULtIN Sy. 273 Red Magnum Bonum.... .. -.. 5... ...:273 Robe delSerseant, S3-e- a. ose see 276 ROyaleveauhy.eiasnjes sce olele sien ceceten tenes 271 Sather crcts sree apices AN Me HS SerS SImMOmMe af. cio salle cea vnc deaesda ae etait 270 WiCtOniate cs eee < tessa eee tee Maas 27/5: Washinvtons 2%). 3.00. bs. on ete lee eee Wicksomyy qe (2.18 «cote oe eee 272 Yellow Egg.. a) ee alegele area VARIETIES: Pacific Coast. Burbank’s Seedlings...) Jo-.0-. eee 360 California Red Hi5.5 “oc... oaiesto cee eee 271 (yma an Fete aotopeiets) selsnrcltinsierels st eee 270 Gilanthc.0) eine ecipces satan aeons 1 Rees 275 Golden! prunes ar kek vss ecigece «eee 276 Silver prune? se. nfich shian toe aoe Splendorer ein -. Mtee ee oe oe seem are Sugar prune Sie bie Ubfolalonetatese; fede eas Tragedy prune.. 5 /stidtiee eee AS eRe |"Pomeptanates The: acsuanu eeneeenee aaa 385 Pomelo renown erioe Bens Sd 2 Te Potash.. ae a Note Note. Mp eae ea 158 Prickly Pear.. aajere cle hisistel pa ee Pruning..... af, Users siketaiaren se eet Seteeeae 113, bearing {EEeS: fob se cece eee 126 California style. ..... Baim As ofa 1S) effects Of Sst) Widget teaser esate teres Seeman 115 gathering DruSBit.oihcs cicsys we olen eee 133 influenced by location’ ......../.2. sesue 117 low, advantages Of. 22. < 05 <0. oanestee eee 114 MULSOLY sce cess ciew 8) = ayahe ies (elelsteha ater 84 PuNpOSES Of! : 2/5... 0 e Aous eee oe II4 Saws, Californias...

HOBacg 446 (ek abe ap aeRactoad ahooebaep ool Rico -buannae 443 PR ANIC Seer ae erecaterstneicic® eats Mein aimee slab eynre, ©) po 444 orange, red... -444 OLAN GE SOL Taare tte ciewiante eel qoas 445 IM GRETES DELI Maa vte nay nye cictorrae iole anictsaiclae ote 443 ROSCLANOMDEUL Vinca velslol isinistews selon vies = ssaieiees 444 SE JeCSSsaemcl Scboe Cone as Uesccone moore 443 HEMICGICS LOT eed mae oe oo os) an tee as ace tape fs aioe 446 Salmon berry: eiremeeve shears « Yalegers oe nese nate 40 Sapota, white........ SIT eto soicie sa aerte ere 387 TOU SCATCIOfst ec acramiacrasec mice, SzivcuinesieNs 79 QaEIOT Cin ec CeaGaR Enno COORRETSesaoIae 80 Seed, growing trees from.............+-0+- 70 Seedlinessimported sy.) .% leis. cloetnimien cdae 72 DIGRUIC ENGL caster cje isis ices ce ss elatsia's thn 42 Gicnl Sa forms) Rehan ane ouceaccaeedcor EromBde 27 AGA) Naar ye (alae Sata wintarg Sialerey Natethey Esyeieishcimie si)ors 35 TUKEY cea B eto ACR DoCObB AC ace Aro Bene crete 37 ENUM SAN) Samet col ietrAelet a cveranetan hatage Shere sevetete hcl ths 32 Bed-rock0r Hard=pary sce sasltics vc clsie nie clove 36 Characteristics of California.............. 28 GlASSH CALION) Ole. 5.5)c)-1e/siolo'sia'-) sy piolareistels vena 20 30 RIEKT céeisc) Gunso bode sopcnn eh os pEbomucednon 35 WIGLEGEIVGr te dciee e ssisk os See ctroehite sp ogtasec 36 PREATIUDIE Bee ssis fee <(e. — 44 P— <5 Srcellence sn 4 = ILIVER'S is giNATIO —aAPy OLIVER'S ORCHARD and VINEYARD Plows are Everywhere Acknowledged to be the BEST. ‘They are Strong, Durable, Light Draft, Easy to Handle, Made of the Best Material, and First- Class in Every Respect. We Supply Perfect Fitting Duplicate Parts BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. ‘Take none but the genuine, made only by the Oliver Chilled Plow Works, and sold only by our authorized agents. ie, Os Gliver Chilled Plow Works 13 and 15 Nain St., San Brancisco, Cal. FANCHER CREEK NURSERY FRESNO, CALIFORNIA Offer a Complete Line of Deciduous Fruit, Olives, Citrus Trees, Ornamental Trees and Grape-Vines. A well-selected assortment of Palms, Roses, and Greenhouse Plants We Offer Many New and Valuable Novelties Send for Price List and Descriptive Catalogue % & GEO. C. ROEDING, Proprietor OTASH er is as necessary to plants as bread is to man. Some crops need more potash than others, | but none can do without it. & C5 The character of soils must also be con- = J sidered, some soils being more deficient in plant food (potash, phosphoric acid and nitrogen) than others. Every farmer should read our pamphlets containing full particulars of the large i number of experiments made by Experi- ment Stations with fertilizers on different GERMAN KALI WORKS, 93 Nassau St., N. Y. Messrs. Meyer, Wilson & Co., of San Francisco, Calif., are our agents for the Pacific Coast soils and crops. & -- These pamphlets can be had free on application. This is a Plow And a GOOD ONE, Too It will do better work and more of it than any other tool ever put into the ground. Lightning Weeders get all the weeds. We have ’em 6, 8, 10 ft. cut. DON’T FAIL to see our California Special ‘‘Handy” Fruit and Farm Truck. We make a specialty of tools for orchard cultivation Write or call Aitieom: Nett & Go, 222 MISSION STREET vron Jackson = «= Machine Works 625: Sixth St? San Praneisco,Gar BREREREREERERERE RREREEREEREE BYRON: SAGKSSy MACHINE WORK S; Wrought Iron Frame Supporting Motor, Direct Connected to 8-inch Jackson Pat- ent Balanced Vertical Centrifugal Pump. os Manufacturers of ! Sd CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS Single and Compound, both Vertical and Horizontal, for city water works, irrigating, reclaiming, mining, dredg- ing, pumping rocks, pulp, etc. We make special pumps either Single or Compound, Vertical or Horizontal, for direct con- nection to high-speed electric — motors or water wheels, for any speed, capacity or head. Our pumps are all fitted with our Latest Improved End Thrust ...Counter Balance... requiring no collars or thrust bearings on either Vertical or, Horizontal Pumps. Our Pat- ent Self-Oiling Bearings, either Vertical or Horizontal, are just adapted for Centrif- ugal Pumps, Dynamos, Water Wheels, or line shafting, and require no attention after once filled with oil. Send For Catalogue.... California Stump Puller IS ECONOMICAL AND RAPID FOR CLEARING OLD ORCHARDS In the improved form in which it is now offered to the public, it is universally admitted to be the most practical, powerful, and successful machine of this kind in America, and the only machine in existence that can be successfully operated on hill-land. This stump puller is doing good work in many places throughout the Pacific States and “Territories, Mexico, Central America and the Hawaiian Islands. FIRST PRIZE AWARDED AT ALL PATENT STEEL SNATCH BLOCKS EXHIBITIONS PATENT STEEL DRAFT HOOKS An Illustrated Catalogue with full particulars will be sent for the asking. A. BARNES, [anager 16, 18 Zoe St., San Francisco PACIFIC —— umentittt on NURSERIES | | Office and Greenhouses and Sale Yard BAKER and LOMBARD STREETS San Francisco, Cal. THE LARGEST STOCK on the Pacific Coast of Azaleas, Camellias, Rhododendrons, Roses, Palms, both hardy and indoor varieties; Araucarias and Ferns, Evergreen and Deciduous Shade Trees and Shrubbery for parks and gardens, in the best varieties. ‘Coniferous trees consisting of Cypress, Pines, Spruce, Abies, Ju- niperus, Taxus Arbor Vitas, Cedrus, Retinosphora and Crypto- merias in small and large specimen trees. F. LUDEMANN 2740 Lombard St., San Francisco, Cal. GHAMPION Spray and Whitewash PUMP The cut herewith illustrates our spraying pump—the *‘Cham- *pion”—and its adaptability to the work for which it is espe- cially designed. As will be seen from the illustration, the pump is very complete and strong. It is perfectly double acting and has a brass-lined cylinder. The motion of the piston is horizon- tal. The handle is so arranged that the leverage is very power- ful, and the movement is easy and natural. ‘The air chamber is unusually large, aamitting of the continuous discharge necessary for good and thorough spraying. We carry everything connected with spraying; also many other pumps. Send for special catalogue. Webster 2 1-2 Horse-Power 2: Gasoline Engine $185 2% H. P. Simplest and Cheapest Gasoline En- gine made. It requires no engineer. All expense stops when engine stops. Ready on five minutes’ notice. No Ashes, Smoke or Dirt. Engine can be left alone, while running, for hours. It is designed for running Pumps, Printing Presses, Blowers, Grinding Mills, Fanning Mills, Machinery of all kinds—in fact, for general farm and other pur- poses. This size engine with the proper size pump will irrigate from 10 to 20 acres of fruit. Send for Special Catalogue and Prices—Mailed Free. We carry 5, 8, 12 and 15 Horse-Power Gaso- line Engines in Stock «.-SEND FOR CATALOGUE r Send for Catalogue Mailed Free With Ball- bearing Bed Plate and Divided Boxes TANKS—AIIl Sizes Send for Our Catalogue—Mailed Free We also carry Tanks, Iron Pipe and Fittings, Brass Goods, Horse Powers, Deep Well Pumps, Power Pumps, Electric Pumps, Hose, Etc. 312 and 314 MARKET STREET WOODIN & LITTLE, San foaest Spat es Me INCORPORATED 1884 500 ACRES CALIFORNIA NURSERY CO. Niles, Alameda Co., Cal. TREES and PLANTS—Fruit Trees, Nut Trees, Wine, Raisin and Table Grapes, Ornamentals, Shade Trees, Evergreens, Shrubs, Roses, Climbing Plants, &c. SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS: OLIVES —A large collection of French, Italian and Spanish Varieties ORANGE AND LEMON TREES of All Leading Sorts For Complete List, Send for Our Catalogues mH JOHN ROCK, Manager California Nursery Co., Niles, Alameda Co., Cal. The Sun Always Shines on the Fruits and Flowers which COME LONI... BURBANK’S EXPERIMENT FARMS For the whole world of horticulture acknowledges their great value. No establishment, public or private, since the dawn of history, has produced so many Vegetables, Trees, Plants, Grasses, Fruits and Flowers of ACKNOWLEDGED UNIVERSAL VALUE The BEST are yet to come Catalogue FREE to all a Luther Burbank Santa Rosa, Cal., U. S. A. COMMERCIAL MACHINE WORKS .- Lhe California Wine Press.. (Patented) Crushers and Stemmers Combined ae OLIVE OIL MACHINERY Shasiaiee & TOULOUSE & DELORIEUX Manufacturers Continuous Wine Press—Saves its cost the first season. 620-622 Commercial St., San Francisco, Cal. its P de This plant consists of a ‘“‘Union’’ gasoline engine with SPRAYING LAN oil tank, battery circulating tank and pump, complete; also a plunger pump for forcing the spraying mixture For Trees and Vines into the receiver—or compression chamber—a pressure gauge, a solution tank and pipes and fittings, all on a galvanized iron pan fastened to a wooden base, ready to be put on a wagon and connect hose. This outfit will do the work of a dozen men at trifling cost. Any desired pressure up to 250 lbs. may be had. ‘The engine can be taken off and used for other purposes. It is a 2% h. p. with sensitive governor and all latest improvements. : ad . WRITE.. FOR PARTICULARS 316 Howard St. S. F. SAN FRANCISCO. —_—_ a an Tas aT gi" Tu 4 2 y mu f _ Vy = line. Scr S Ss = i) i Pacific Reversible Disc Harrow Showing Extension Head and Low Down Leyers .. California. . Circular Orchard Harrow ' HOOKER & Ge 16 and 18 Drumm: St. San Francisco f 1 A DMS AY FPA) i rea mae Wong ' CRes Y RA opp, Y Se ; Sse DENS ay So epBleERtS cop. iC SRSA DESI LORIE ee, Pe Se Oe . Gio ce ane PICEA e- eileen PCR Se, FET OL ACT ONE Pete ey . 45 SS o » = e i : O's ( ING; @) f ? ESE Wie A) s SOEGUASEEM SEEM Oe Be SO eS AO 5 a Ko eee LARS C 4 a is! Weeetie Oz nis: a NG tal, Se, tam Ci “Sr ed: tax St eS sss BANGED OSE D iN @2n\e QOS DEORE DIORIS ee Sk E EN. 8U NOs. < rn 4 y \ Gets press p ae pay 4 Cie Ge RANG wscece AV SF SM (OU rcicee see AISI AA isc OU re ; oe, C 1 MS : erat. p yO 4) Y N EA Ya ¢ oe. fae is he Pn Yoo \ Dox xt | ened SAS o2 re i aye / aa. SO, 3 Px Prt RA ; rx LYS WACK : ass ee OP a47 7 | a {7} Xi Qi SS 3 . Lae A. 4 N (7 > ne a: BA, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS iii) INT 00009297384