eeeetititersecreecoes = ease cunBeUeENReuTertiererPecrreceeebeaeeeee ler ere rreserer en Acceneidreis nine ietsNEIAsdnpniteOnmecsemereiarseariebarararararsiantormistatarsetoneneene, —- ee — (tine D(A cine thas eenmieaeessnieninnieimishs |Teksnorsie ofiadagessasataesneenoaeslaseans ans goeuinesntesseagaecenrseass spensiasaretonapeltentgiparentelspaastentDlaset! pebasatens brs tenscoonsniassentniepts isnot rpljigeopete- tha sitdejajapeccttocesnted ed: Wababbhelsensdadbahenanesaethte nese Goprightne FA COPYRIGHT DEPOSE: S87 sea of prune blossoms. Plate I.—California homes submerged in a (See page 17.) THE CALIFORNIA FRUITS AND HOW TO GROW THEM A MANUAL OF METHODS WHICH HAVE YIELDED GREATEST SUCCESS, WITH THE LISTS OF VARIETIES BEST ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT DISTRICTS OF THE STATE By EDWARD J. WICKSON Professor of Horticulture Emeritus in the College of Agriculture of the University of California; Author of “California Vegetables in Garden and Field,” ‘California Garden Flowers, Shrubs, Trees and Vines,’”’ One Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered,’ and “Second Thousand Questions in California Agriculture Answered”’; Editor of Pacific Rural Press. The branch here bends beneath the weighty pear, And verdant olives flourish round the year; The balmy Spirit of the Western gale Eternal breathes on fruits untaught to fail; Each dropping pear a following pear supplies. On apples, apples; figs on figs arise. The same mild season gives the blooms to blow, The buds to harden, and the fruits to grow. —Pope’s Hom. Odys. Bk. VII. NINTH EDITION—Fully Revised SAN FRANCISCO PACIFIC RURAL PRESS NINETEEN HUNDRED AND TWENTY-ONE Copyright, 1921, By E. J. Wickson and Pacific Rural Press. Published, October, 1921. Ooae27614 NOV -4 i397! ABBOTT-BRADY PRINTING CORPORATION SAN FRANCISCO 7H ¢ Ylev, 192] PREFACE The Eighth Edition of this treatise outstripped its im- mediate predecessors in meeting a public demand which covered the available supply much sooner than antici- pated. Because of the desirability of keeping the work abreast of the progress of a constantly changing and developing industry, the publishers have assumed the burden of resetting the type for each edition, resisting the temptation of greater profit which would attend re- printing from plates with minimum revision. There- fore this edition is wholly set anew—the ninth op- portunity for free revision which the writer has enjoyed during the publication of the work, which has reached a total of twenty-five thousand copies since the appearance of the first edition in 1889. Of the quality of the book, it does not become the writer to speak, but he may express his satisfaction at its popu- larity. Its circulation may be cited as a testimonial of its suitability for service in the building up of the fruit in- dustries, and the demand for it may be regarded as rather unique, when it is remembered that the book deals exclu- sively with the fruit growing of a single State which is only one, although it be the greatest, of the agricultural interests of that State. The demand for the book is an exponent of the continued activity in California fruit planting, and its sale abroad indicates the fact that the outside world is watching California’s fruit development, and desires to know the methods by which a product which brought to growers a return of $236,955,000 in 1920—a figure, of course, much below its commercial valuation. The writer repeats the request which he has made in earlier editions that all readers whose observation and work teach them any better way than he has described in this book shall share with him the advantages of such greater wisdom. EDWARD J. WICKSON. University of California, Berkeley, September, 1921. ri ¢ Ns > Chapter I II XVI XVII XVIII XIX XX XXI XXII XXIII XXIV CONTENTS PART ONE: GENERAL The Climate of California and Its Modifications. Why the California Climate Favors the Growth of Fruit. The Fruit Soils of California. The Wild Fruits of California. The California Mission Fruits. California’s Leadership in American Fruit Industries. PART TWO: CULTURE Clearing the Land for Fruit. The Nursery. Budding and Grafting. Preparation for Planting. Planting of Trees. Pruning Trees and Thinning Fruit. Cultivation, Fertilizers for Trees and Vines. Irrigation of Fruit Trees and Vines. PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS Commercial Fruit Varieties. The Apple. The Apricot. The Cherry. The Peach. The Nectarine. The Pear. Plums and Prunes. The Quince. Chapter XXV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX XXX XXXI XXXII XXXII XXXIV XXXV XXXVI XXXVII XXXVIII XXXIX XL XLI XLII XLIII XLIV XLV XLVI PART FOUR: THE GRAPE The Grape Industry. Propagating and Planting Vines. Pruning and Care of the Vine. Grape Varieties in California, PART FIVE: The Avocado. The Date. The Fig. The Olive. The Orange. The Pomelo or Grape Fruit. The Lemon. Minor Semi-Tropical Fruits. SEMI-TROPICAL FRUITS PART SIX: SMALL FRUITS Berries and Currants. PART SEVEN: NUTS The Almond. The Walnut. Minor Nuts. PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION Fruit Canning, Crystallizing and Drying. PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION Injurious Insects, Diseases of Trees and Vines. Suppression of Injurious Animals and Birds. Protection from Wind and Frost. PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS Utilization of Fruit Wastes. Topical Index. CALIFORNIA FRUITS PART ONE: GENERAL CHAPTER I THE CLIMATE OF CALIFORNIA AND ITS LOCAL MODIFICATIONS In climatic conditions affecting horticulture we have in Cali- fornia almost an epitome of all other parts of the United States, with added climatic characters which no other part possesses. We have high mountain valleys with wintry temperature-conditions, where only hardy northern fruits can be grown; we have hot valleys where the date palm confidently lifts its head to the fiery sunshine, while its feet are deeply planted in moist substrata beneath the sandy surface; but we can not claim tropical conditions, because our dry air denies us many strictly tropical growths, although we have frostless sites for them. Intermediate between the cold and snow of the mountains and the heat and sand of the desert, we have every describable modification and gradation, and, naturally, it is between these extremes that our richest inheritance of horticultural adapta- tion lies. When the breadth and scope of our horticultural adaptations are realized, it becomes apparent that an enumeration of the fruits we can grow successfully would be, in fact, a catalogue of the known fruits of the world, except those which are strictly tropical. Wherever there is a northern or southern departure from the equator sufficient to bring energy to mankind, or where the same is accomplished by elevation upon tropical mountainside or plateau, there also are fruits which find a welcoming home in California, and are improved by the intelligent cultivation and selection which here prevail. On the other hand, it has been abundantly demon- strated, during recent years, by official awards at great exhibitions 10 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and by the sharp criteria of the markets as well, that the fruits of wintry regions are quite as much benefited by transfer to proper locations in California as are the people who come to grow them. From north and south alike, then, California makes grand acquisi- tions and includes within her area the adaptations of the whole country, with some which no other State possesses. But while this horticultural scope is claimed for the State as a whole, it is necessary to add that local adaptations within the State must be very narrowly drawn. Our greatest failures have followed ill choice of location for the purpose intended. Whenever certain California fruits have been ill spoken of, they have been produced in the wrong places, or by ill-advised methods. It is possible, then, to produce both poor and perfect fruit of a given kind. It may be said this can be done anywhere by the extremes of culture and neg- lect, but to this proposition it must be added that in California equally excellent methods and care may produce perfection in one place and the opposite in another. One who seeks to know Cali- fornia well must undertake to master both its horticultural greatness and littleness ; and so closely are these associated, and so narrow the belts of special adaptations, that there are many counties which have a range of products nearly as great as the State itself. It is hard for the stranger to realize this. It is difficult for him to believe that the terms “northern” and “southern” have almost no horticultural significance in California ; that northern fruits reach perfection, under proper conditions, at the south, and vice versa; that some regions of greatest rainfall have to irrigate most fre- quently ; that some of greatest heat have sharpest valley frosts; that some fruits can be successfully grown through a north and south distance of 300 miles, but can not be successfully carried a few hun- dred feet of either less or greater elevation ; that on the same parallel of latitude within a hundred miles of distance, from coast to moun- tainside, one can continuously gather marketable Bartlett pears for three months—not to mention the second crop, from belated blossoms, which is often of account on the same trees in the same season. Through the multitude of local observations, which seem per- plexing and almost contradictory, it is possible to clearly discern certain general conditions, of both nature and culture, which may be briefly advanced as characteristically and distinctively Cali- fornian. The climate of the Pacific Coast is described by the meteorologist as “insular or moderate,” as contrasted with the “continental or excessive” climate of the regions east of the Sierra Nevada. The west coast of Europe is also insular in its climate. The northern limit of an annual mean temperature of 50 degrees Fahr. is 50 de- grees and 47 degrees of north latitude on western coasts of Europe and America respectively. But though there is this similarity in mean annual temperature, there is a decided advantage pertaining to our climate over that of west Europe in that our range of temper- ature is less; that is, extremes of heat and cold are nearer together, and changes are therefore much less excessive. This characteristic TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE iBT of our local climates is due in the main to two great agencies, one active, bringing heat, the other passive, shielding us from arctic influences. First: Our proximity to the Pacific Ocean. Professor Alexander G. McAdie, for twenty years in charge of the San Francisco office of the Unted States Weather Bureau, and now Professor of Meteor- ology at Harvard University, says of the mildness of the California climate: “The Pacific Ocean is a great natural conservator of heat, the mean annual temperature of which near the California Coast ranges from 50 degrees to 60 degrees F. The strength of the west- erly winds which prevail on the California Coast for more than half the days of the year is due to the fact that the whole drift of the atmosphere is prevailingly from the west to east. The climate of west coasts is consequently less severe than the climate of east coasts.”* Second: Another agency contributing to the mild climate of the Pacific Coast consists in the mountain barriers upon our northern and eastern boundaries. It was Guyot who first called attention to the fact that the Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Mountains reach the coast of Alaska and bend like a great arm around its western and southern shore, thus shutting off or deflecting the polar winds that otherwise would flow down over the Pacific Coast States, while California has her own additional protection from the north in the, mountain arch which has its keystone in Mount Shasta. CHIEF TOPOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATIC DIVISIONS OF CALIFORNIA California is usually divided into three main areas and climates, each distinct in typical conditions and yet separated by regions, more or less wide, in which these conditions merge and influence each other. Dr. Robertson says :} Isothermal lines which normally run east and west are, as they near the Pacific, defiected north and south, and define three distinct climatic belts. These may be named coast, valley and mountain; and while they resemble each other in having two seasons, they are dissimilar in other respects. These differences depend upon the topography of the country, and are of degree rather than of kind; altitude, distance from the ocean, and situation pecs: reference to mountain chains, giving to each region its characteristic climate. How similar are the conditions which prevail in these belts may be learned from the data shown in the following table, which in- cludes points separated by nearly the whole length of the State, the difference in latitude of the extreme north and south points being seven or eight degrees. Thus, through a north or south distance great as that which separates the States of Georgia and New York, similar climatic conditions prevail in California. In the following *“The Rainfall of California,’ University of California Publications in Ge hy, 1914. TReport of State Agricultural Society, 1886, page 322. : ania 12 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM table the averages are deduced from observations by the United States Weather Bureau observers for a long series of years: Seasonable and extreme temperatures and average rainfall in various Cali- fornia regions from the records of the United States Weather Bureau from beginning of observations to the close of 1920. 9 Ee oe ©, Su Se Ae) io Seale eee “488 he He Ge ge 2 eee STATIONS COUNTY oe ce ch of of Loe 5S he Wo Wh We WH Ra BA BH S £8 86 2 #8 #y Se @2 oe 6 82 98 28) 28 22 SSeS ae QQ < < | 1,621 3,135" 1,776 15 58,738 TRONS ots ae 15,893 2,192 158 231 6,363 2,359 2,496 1,706 19 53,622 LOT A eee: 45,594 2,954 382 166 8,773 2,144 2,725 1,907 49 34,121 KO ts ease 40,011 6,851 392 205 9,563 1,689 2,646 2,225 58 65,326 LOM GEE ene 38,034 7,200 290 164 9,722 1,909 3,701 1,999 106 64,753 LOM Zee can 46,447 7,914 403 330 13,944 2,432 4,802 2,651 66 69,902 ROUSE 17,204 6,331 440 356 16,358 3,137 4,571 2,483 75 50,955 VOLO eats 39,307 10,023 420 335 19,017 2,773 4,248 2,918 49 79,091 Ft 35,547 9,029 312 494 24,065 3,107 4,376 2,533 312 80,777 PRESENT EXTENT OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRY ‘Sl The table does not include apples because they are not handled in the same way as other fruits. The figures of dried and canned fruits and nuts will appear in Chapter XLI. The Fruit Interests of 1920.—The fruit interests of California now constitute the greatest single industry of California, and the fruit output of California is far greater than that of any other State in the Union. Notable progress has been secured in planting, in the growth, preparation and marketing of the product, in the con- test with injurious insects and plant disedses, and, in fact, in all things which contribute to success. Some idea of the dimensions of the California fruit interests may be had from the enumeration of the trees and vines made by the State Board of Equalization for March 1, 1920, and the report of the quantities and valuations of the products to the growers made by the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department of Agriculture for the year 1920, as follows: Acreage of California Fruits: Also Products and Valuation for 1920 Bearing trees Non-Bearing Product Valuation FEUGRIOMEL . «e's. ds's 2 2,711,550 1,872,387 5,500 tons $ 1,980,000 GIES 5 oem Soe 2,276,406 1,149,300 6,000,000 bushels 9,605,000 Apricot 3,336,646 548,054 115,000 tons 9,775,000 lerry ys 750,794 301,917 15,000 do 3,000,000 Hee ckls Perth 543,940 386,024 10,000 do 900,000 (2 22) a 10,708,395 980,403 345,000 do 26,220,000 Bee esa ik tah ara 2,168,198 1,098,668 90,000 do 8,100,000 a ae 1,133,135 261,553 35,000 do 3,150,000 ICT Sic s 2 each 11,829,833 3,329,634 *95,000 do 19,000,000 tange soe. oN 9,978,635 1,490,826 18,700,000 boxes 51,425,000 Ue toy a 2,212,883 531,253 4,500,000 do 2,700,000 OmMeIO: oi. . 3.4 143,423 149,802 325,000 do 893,750 (07 ea 1,150,059 353,199 10,000 tons 800,000 PAIGE evant aos LolsG,123 381,068 21,500 do 8,000,000 Grapes, table. te $64,823 +15,938 160,000 do 12,000,000 Grapes, raisin.... +138,922 $19,814 *180,000 do 55,800,000 Grapes, wine.... 126,357 +10,697 380,000 do 24,700,000 Strawberries .... TAG et ee 10,808,048 quarts 2,540,082 Berries, other... Pec0e mW oa oes 4,650,678 do 931,140 Total valuation on farm (not in market)..................6- $241,519,972 {Indicates acres. *Figures for prunes and raisins are weights of cured products. It was shown by the U. S. Census of 1910 that California led the other States in every fruit except two—the apple and the cherry. California also led in the total value of all fruits produced in all States—producing in fact about one-fourth of all the fruit grown in the United States. Since the census year, 1909, the California fruit interests have notably advanced, and it is anticipated that the census of 1920 will show that California leads in the production of all fruits grown in the United States except the apple. The preliminary re- ports of the Census of 1920 place the farm value of the fruit crops of 1919 at $270,910,705. The less value for 1920, as given above, is due to fluctuations both in production and prices prevailing. 52 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM INFLUENCE OF THE FRUIT INDUSTRIES UPON CALIFORNIA DEVELOPMENT Enlistment in California fruit growing has proved exceedingly satisfactory to tens of thousands of people in the various ways along which they have approached it. The fruit districts are full of cottage homes sheltering families of those who have begun with small investments and have made a good livelihood, and often con- siderably more, from a few acres of fruits grown largely without expenditure for hired labor. The study of the needs of the tree or vine and ministering to them by personal effort has brought new health and new incentive to the worn and weary who have taken up outdoor life and activity in California fruit growing with a wise choice of location, land and fruits, for obviously in all investments one must be wise as well as willing. In large operations hundreds have notably succeeded by pur- chasing good land in large tracts at low rates and making ample investment for its development and improvement. Some of the most delightful of our towns and villages have arisen as a direct result of such employment of capital. Well established communities, well churched and schooled, well provided for in local trade and trans- portation, have followed investment and devoted effort in colony enterprises. Hundreds, also, have purchased large tracts of wild land and have developed fine estates for their own personal gratification, with thriving orchards of all kinds of fruits, rich pastures tenanted with improved livestock, parks, gardens and buildings comparable with the estates of the European nobility, except that California conditions favor freedom and variety in outdoor effort unknown in Europe,and command proportional interest and enthusiasm. Estates for winter residences in California are exceptionally desir- able, not only because of natural advantages and greater possibilities of development, but because of the advanced standing of the State financially and socially. All of these lines of effort, then—home-making in a small way, colony enterprise and private estate development—have yielded on the whole great satisfaction and success. Fruit growing has been the central idea in nearly all of them, but it is obvious that activity in any productive line begets opportunity for other lines, and so all branches of agriculture have advanced and the diversification is highly desirable. Opportunities in manufacture, trade and pro- fessional effort of all kinds have been quickly seized and developed with much originality and success. Fruit growing has created them all and has in turn been advanced by all, for every accumulation of capital promotes it. Successful toilers in all lines become planters. The ancestral delight of the race, to sit beneath one’s own vine or fig tree, is nowhere more enthusiastically manifested than in Cali- fornia, and nowhere else does the emotion of comfort in ownership yield such profound and protracted satisfaction. AN OPPORTUNITY FOR DEVELOPMENT 53 THE OUTLOOK OF THE INDUSTRY The outlook for California fruits and fruit products involves con- siderations of much economic interest. Though the volume is already large and there may be experienced now and then temporary dull- ness or depression in this line or that, the business is, on the whole, brisk and profitable. There is such a wide range in the fruits grown and the products made from them, and such changes in local con- ditions in the many purchasing States and foreign countries with which Californians deal, that there must be some fluctuations in the values of some of the supplies offered in distant market. The result is that first one fruit and then another one seems to be more or less profitable. The fact, however, that all are increasing in volume and the total traffic brings each year more money to the State, is a demonstration of the standing of the collective output. Each year new markets are found, both at home and abroad, and the capacity of old centers of distribution is shown to be greater than anticipated. There is every reason to expect that the products can be profitably multiplied. There have been secured, largely through co-operative efforts of growers, so many improvements in handling and trans- portation that distant shipment has become more safe and profitable and distribution far wider. It is reasonable to believe that further improvement in movement and reduction of cost will be realized and the per capita consumption in the populous parts of our own country proportionately advanced. In spite of all that wintry States can do for local supplies, California can find open markets before and after the short ripening season of the Eastern States for her early and late fruits, and can use her own midseason fruits in the _drying and canning industries, though it is a fact that in the height of the Eastern fruit season a considerable quantity of California fruit will command the highest prices because of its exceptional size, beauty and keeping qualities. The citrus fruits will continue to supply an American product of exceptional quality and freshness, while prunes and other cured fruits and nuts and raisins will not only do this, but will push forward into larger trade abroad. The patriotic service rendered by California fruit producers during the last war, in supplying wholesome foods to the allied armies, has re- turned an appreciative publicity which will be of incalculable trade advantage in the future. The fact is that European countries can not grow fruit enough to supply their own people, and fruit has been largely a luxury. California canned and dried fruits are being wel- comed by the great middle classes and are likely to become a staple of their diet. The development of adjacent territory on the American continent and other Pacific countries may shape the future of California as a fruit-producing State in a way which can at present only be dreamed about. It should be remembered that California has a unique char- acter from a horticultural point of view. Not only does the State have a monopoly of semi-tropical conditions of the United States (excepting small parts of the Gulf States and Arizona), but Cali- fornia has command of the whole of northwest America and the 54 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM whole of northeast Asia, not only in the supply of semi-tropical fruits, but in early ripening of hardy fruits as well. California does not grow tropical fruits, as has already been con- ceded in Chapter I. They must come from the islands and the trop- ical south coast countries. Semi-tropical fruits are, however, vastly more important in commerce than tropical, and a region which suc- cessfully combines northern orchard fruits with the whole semi- tropical class commands the fruit trade of all accessible populous regions which have limited fruit capabilities. Prophets, far-seeing in world courses, declare that the Pacific ocean is to be the arena for commerce greater than the world has yet seen, and the Pacific coast countries are to contain the greater part of the world’s population. This greatest quartosphere with its superlative opportunities and activities will have California as its treasure house of fruits and fruit products. During the long winter the citrus fruits will afford tonic and refreshment, and before hardy fruits bloom in northern climes the same fruits will appear from the early ripening districts of California. In this traffic California: will not only be practically without a competitor, but, sitting beside the sea, there will also be every advantage of water transportation and the sustaining ocean temperatures of the fruits in transit. California dried and canned fruits will render acceptable diet even through the most Arctic stretches along which development may advance in North America and North Asia, while a succession of fresh fruits will flow to all Pacific ports throughout the year. California, too, will be the winter residence for all the North Pacific millionaires and ‘the haven of rest and recuperation for all who are worn by Arctic cold or tropic heat throughout the great circle of the Pacific ocean. Here the arts will flourish, education attain its highest achievements and culture prevail. Then fruit growing both as a commercial enterprise and as a home delight will attain value, volume and perfection, of which present achievements are but a faint foreshadowing. PART TWO: CULTURAL CHAPTER VII CLEARING LAND FOR FRUIT The greater part of the orchard and vineyard area of this State was naturally almost clear for planting. The removal of large trees, which paid the cost of the work in firewood, or the grubbing out of willows on some especially rich bottom land, was about the extent of clearing which our earlier planters had to undertake, and many of them perhaps never had to lift an axe. Still there has always been some clearing done, here and there, ever since the earliest days, especially upon hill lands, the peculiar value of which for some fruits is generally recognized. Though in most cases of clearing by the actual settler himself the problem is merely one of muscle and persistence, using the best appliances one can afford, some few hints may be given from the experience of others which may be useful. Spare time during the summer and fall can often be used to advantage with a sharp axe in trimming up the smaller trees, which are large enough to yield fencing material, and getting out posts from the redwoods and oaks, and rails and pickets from the pines. By thus using the waste material the settler can often get out enough fencing material to in- close his land and thus save considerable expense. Brush, too, which cannot be made use of, can be lopped off—in short, all the sharp axe work can be done in a dry time. The actual clearing, however, should be done in winter, when the ground is wet and soft, and digging is easy or “snaking out” is possible. Partial and Thorough Clearings.—Orchards are planted on both partially and thoroughly cleared land. By the former practice clear- ing enough is done to give space for the tree holes, the debris is burned up, and the trees planted. In this kind of work the stumps are left to be taken out at a convenient season, the object being to get fruit trees to growing as soon as possible. Where one is work- ing with little more than his own muscle, and has no capital, this sort of planting is better, perhaps, than not planting at all, but it must be borne in mind that all subsequent work will be done at a great disadvantage, and as cultivation is likely to be very imperfect, it would be a question whether in the end anything would be gained by such a plan. The encumbered character of the ground will, of course, prevent the use of the horse in cultivation until most of the stumps are removed. Whenever possible the clearing for fruit should be thorough, everything which will interfere with good cul- tivation removed ; roots grubbed so that as little shooting up as pos- 56 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM sible is secured; the ground evened up to obviate standing water, and, where needed, arrangements made for irrigation and drainage, as will be considered later. Removal of Standing Trees and Stumps.—Old methods of hand chopping, digging and burning by which the pioneers cleared their way from the Atlantic to the Pacific have been largely superseded by more efficient and cheaper methods and agencies, explosives, horse and man-power pullers, etc., and descriptions of their use have been published by the government in the interest of develop- ment and settlement of idle lands. Those interested in clearing should apply for such publications before entering upon the work.* Horse-Power Stump Pullers——The use of horse-power devices for tree felling and stump extraction has increased considerably of late. One which has achieved good results is a local invention called a “California Stump Puller.” It is simply a specially designed cap- stan worked by one horse, with a wire cable five-eighths of an inch in diameter, an improved snatch block, chains, and a drafthook to unite the cable with the chains. Power is applied to the capstan with a sweep. It is calculated that with this device, properly ad- justed, one horse is enabled to produce an effect equal to the capacity of 60 horses without it, and that a 1,200-pound horse which can move a dead weight of one and a half tons for a short distance can move a dead weight of 90 tons with the devices employed in the machine. It is so rapidly adjustable that on one trial in Napa county eighteen stumps were pulled in eighteen minutes, long roots coming clear out of the ground with each stump. The Use of Powder.—Another means for the removal both of stumps and of growing trees which has come into quite wide use during the last few years, is high explosives, which have vastly cheapened the clearing of lands, where either large trees or stumps have to be removed. Full instructions for the use of powder are furnished by the agents in San Francisco, and they often send an expert to start the work and give instruction if there is much to be done. It has been estimated that the cost of handling trees and stumps with explosives is less than one-fifth that by hand grubbing, and the ratio of saving increases as the trees are larger, as powder is cheaper than muscle. Removing Shrubs and Brush.—In the case of removing shrubs of a somewhat tall growth, the top is made to help out the roots. This is done either with a good strong rope or a chain. To do this requires two men and a pair of horses, and two chains, each ten or twelve feet long. A chain should be placed around the bush some distance above the ground, to give leverage. If the bush is not removed at the first pull, start the horses in the opposite direction. While the driver is unfastening the chain from the chaparral, the second man can place the other chain around another bush, and the *An up-to-date review of the subject which gives due prominence to Pacific Coast methods is ‘‘Farmers’ Bulletin 974” on ‘‘Clearing Land’”’—which can be had free by ap- plication to the Division of Publications, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. CLEARING SHRUBS AND GRAPE VINES 57 one who gets through his work first should at once assist the other. In this way the horses are kept in constant employment, and neither of the men need lose a moment’s time. This work should be done when the ground is thoroughly wet. Another rig to snake brush and small trees is contrived in this way: Use single and double block or shives with 1-in. diameter rope. On the block you pull from (the double block) use two 10-ft. chains with ring in one end and hook on other. Secure this to a good anchor bush or to three or five of them, enough to hold. Fasten them right down close to the ground so there is no leverage on them. As soon as you have pulled all you can reach in a circle around the anchor trees, take one anchor chain off, or start with one anchor chain, then hook on other, take in big circle on single block end. One to four chains can be used; take two half-hitches as high as possible, make first chain taut; 2nd chain 2 ft. slack; 3rd chain 3 ft. slack, and so on—so your horses are pulling one bush at a time. Chains do not tie in hard knots when horses are pulling on them, as ropes do. A Vine Puller—What is called a “vine puller,’ because it is used to clear off old vineyard, is also available for shrub pulling. Use two wagon wheels, long pole 4x6x12 pine with large strong iron hook on one end. Bolt the hook on, allow the end with the hook on to project over the axle 18 in. Bolt the pole down to axle. This gives you great leverage. Roll right along on the short end over the axle. Use a good five-eighths chain. Take double half-hitch around bush; raise the pole into air, take a short tie on bush; start the horse and out comes the bush. Roller and Plow.—Where manzanita grows upright, as on hills north of the bay, the same methods of extraction can be employed with it, first slashing off enough to allow adjusting the rope or chain a few feet above the ground. Where it grows lower, as, for exam- ple, on the hills of Santa Clara, the manzanita brush is gone over with a roller so as to break it down, and then the land is burned over. The roller should be rigged with a tiller (header fashion) so that the horses can push the roller and walk over the flattened brush. The only object of the rolling is to smash the brush down so that it will burn readily. When the brush is got rid of in this way, the breaking plow is trusted to get rid of the roots. Horses should be shod with a plate of sheet iron between the shoe and hoof to prevent snagging, and not less than four of them used. Much of the Santa Clara county vine belt was cleared in that way. Of course this method only answers for the lighter-rooted growths; tough- rooted chaparral, oak, holly, etc., must be grubbed out, unless the roots are snaked out by the tops, as has been described. Clearing Old Vineyards.—This is done on small areas by grub- bing and snaking as has been prescribed for the larger shrubs. Large vineyard clearings and removal of undesirable fruit trees are, however, much more cheaply done by pulling one after another with the tractor. Two concrete instances of procedure, after the land is 58 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM cleared of the top growth of arms and canes by chopping, may be given: Mr. I. D. Cox of Sonoma county pulled seven acres of roots a day with a tractor and two men nearly as fast as the tractor travels in low gear. Two chains are hooked to the tractor, one man to each—pulling two rows per trip. The end of the chain is fastened to a five-foot iron rod about seven inches from its end. While the chain is still slack, the man pokes the short end of a rod around a vine and catches it over the chain while the tractor pulls out the vine. Then he drops the stump quickly and hooks onto the next one. Mr. I. T. Onstott of Sutter county used a 45-horsepower tractor and a “digger” which looks something like a nursery tree digger, having a U iron fixed to a sled of 4x12’s so its cross bar, shod with a cutting knife, runs deep enough underground to cut the roots below plow depth. A hook or “gopher” follows the cutting edge so that as it slides under the stumps it raises them out of the subsoil. After chopping the stumps off, a furrow was plowed each side of them, the tractor digger lifted them loose, and they were easily picked out and thrown onto wagons. Marketable Products of Clearing—Whether any money can be made from the results of clearing depends altogether upon local markets for wood and charcoal, and the cost of transportation to them. From clearings near large towns enough can be sometimes had to pay for the work and hauling, and along railways wood can often be shipped with profit. This can be learned by local inquiries. Charcoal Burning.—Charcoal can usually be sold to advantage, and wood can sometimes be profitably disposed of in this way when it cannot be marketed for fuel. A considerable acreage of unprofit- able fruit trees has been occasionally disposed of in this way. Char- coal is made from most kinds of wood, and sometimes stumps and large roots are charred. A simple process of charcoal burning is given by an experienced burner, as follows: To burn a pit of charcoal, the prime necessity is to perform the process of combustion with the least possible contact with air. Select a suitable place not too far from the dwelling, because the operation must be watched from time to time by night as well as by day. It is not necessary to dig much of a “pit” in the ground. Choose hard limbs of pine, spruce or what- ever wood is most available of that kind. Dry, dead limbs, if not decayed, take for choice. Set them up wigwam fashion, close together, fitting them as well as they will allow, the apex forming the chimney. Be careful to keep the chimney free, because the fire should be there applied to brisk “kindling” as far down as possible. Build round and round, taking the pre- caution to lay three or four straight pieces, three or four inches in diameter, along the ground from the outside to the center. These may have to be withdrawn to promote the draught. The wood all being in place it is now required to cover it thoroughly. In the absence of turf or sods, it must be thatched with leafy green boughs, or anything that will prevent the earth or dirt that is now heaped on from running through. Pack this soil covering carefully, exclude air as far as possible, except when the port-holes referred to near the ground are needed. The direction of the wind will determine which ones are to be opened. When the fire—after a few hours more or less, according to the materials—has got a good hold, close also the chimney. Visit the pit regularly night and day; lessen or increase the draught as may seem needed; and in a week or SUPPRESSING SPROUTS ON CLEARINGS j 59 ten days the two or three cords of wood should be turned into good hard coal. When uncovered water or dirt should be thrown upon coal that is too lively when spread out on the ground. Cutting to Kill Brush.—Just when to cut to kill depends upon the character of the growth and of the season. One conclusion sedms to be that with deciduous growths the best time to cut is when they have just made their most vigorous growth, and this is in the summer—but the month to be chosen for the work will de- pend upon the location, though August is generally selected as the best time. In the case of evergreens, the cutting should be just before the coldest weather, in which they are the nearest dormant. Ever- greens, however, differ much in tenacity of life, for while most kinds are easily killed, the California redwood will endure almost any abuse with the axe or fire and still spring up repeatedly and per- sistently for years. The Use of Sheep and Goats on Sprouts.—On sprouting brush, there is, perhaps, no cheaper or more effective means of repression than sheep and goats. They are used after the top growth is cleared away instead of grubbing, if one can wait, for by the persistent cut- ting down of growth many small stumps and roots will decay enough in a year or two to be plowed out with a strong team and plow. Sage-Brush Clearing.—Desert vegetation was formerly largely cleared by grubbing or snaking out with a length of railroad iron with a heavy team at each end. Recently for large clearing a steam tractor has been used—the cleared brush being used for fuel. Hitched to the tractor was an outfit consisting of a roller to bend the brush down, cutters to dig it out, and a rake to collect and dump into windrows. The roller is made of iron cylinders about three feet in diameter and seven feet wide. The digger consists of three heavy V-shaped “weed cutters” which run underground, being supported on wheels hitched behind the roller. Trailing behind the digger is the rake, which is about 12 feet wide and runs on 7-foot wheels; it is shaped like an ordinary horse hay-rake. The teeth of this ele- phantine rake plow through the ground some inches deep. Brush cannot get into the wheels, for they are lined inside with sheet iron. Burning of the Debris——However the trees and underbrush may be wrenched from the soil, fire is the final cleaner. Where trees are to be worked up into fire-wood, it should be done as soon as they are felled, for the work is much less than after they become dry and hard. If it is not designed to break the land the first winter, the wood is left to season and it becomes lighter and easier to handle. The brush and roots, if no use is to be made of them, can be left to lie on the clearing to dry out during the following summer, and after the first rains of the following fall the whole area can be burned over. Such stumps as do not burn with the brush must be gathered in piles and re-fred. Burning before the first rain should not be attempted, unless it be in exceptional situations, because of 60 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the danger of communicating fire to the surrounding country, which is a standing danger in our dry climate. Under the present law it becomes necessary to secure permission from the State Forester at Sacramento before starting field fires in the dry season. After the rain, clean up the ground perfectly. First Crop on a Clearing.—It is the opinion of some clearers in the redwood region that the soil is not fit for fruit trees the first year after the original growth is removed, and they grow a field crop the first year. They claim that peas are the best corrective of “redwood poisoning,” and fortunately in the upper redwood dis- trict they have a climate well suited to the pea. Surface Leveling and Draining.—There is often occasion to clear the land of stone and rocks. The latter should be blasted out of the way so that the land may be clear for the plow and cultivator. Once in a while one will come upon a stone wall enclosing an orchard in this State, as trim and true a wall as the most thrifty New England farmer can boast, but walls are not common. Our valley orchard lands are, as a rule, naturally as free from stone as they are from underbrush, but on the hills it is different. Probably the best way to dispose of much of the stone is to dig trenches in the natural water runs, put in stone, cover with small brush, and then with soil deep enough so the plow will not reach the brush. This disposes of the stone for all time, and at the same time helps to drain the soil. Concerning other treatment of the land after the rubbish is removed, P. W. Butler writes as follows: When water runs are wide, lateral ditches should be cut extending entirely through the moist areas. If during the rainy season a run is likely to have more water than can be conveyed properly through a covered trench, it should be left open and graded, so that a team can cross it, and for fifteen feet on each side sow to alfalfa, which will take the place of unsightly weeds, that would otherwise grow at the point that cannot be cultivated. To distribute the work more evenly through the first year buildings can be erected, a well dug, and the trenches done in the dry season, while all the grubbing, leveling, plowing and planting must be done the following season, as soon as the ground is sufficiently moistened. All depressions where water would stand should be filled, and all flat places should be graded until water will readily flow off, and not be retained so near the surface of the ground as to cause it to become soured. This leveling can be best done by one man and a pair of horses. Plow the adjacent elevated land and scrape into the places to be filled. The land is now ready for plowing, and should be done thoroughly, subsoiling to as great a depth as the re- moval of the stumps will allow. It is now well to go over the ground again with the scraper and level all the most elevated points so they can be readily reached by water in irrigating. Then cross-plow as deeply as possible without again subsoiling, harrow and drag, and the ground will be ready to plant. Mr. Butler writes with reference to the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, where irrigation must be practiced. Where irrigation is not used, leveling, or rather grading, may be unnecessary, but it is often quite desirable that there may be no depressions to retain surplus water. The life of the trees and ease of cultivation may demand this unless the soil should be light and deep enough to allow free drainage. CHAPIER Vill CALIFORNIA NURSERY OPERATIONS California nursery stock is unrivaled in growth, health and vigor. This is the verdict of all the visiting horticulturists, and has been formally declared by the victories of California tree growers at the World’s Fairs held in this country, where the highest premiums have been awarded to Californians in nearly all classes in which they exhibited since 1885. The quality of the trees which can be purchased at our nurseries, and the reasonable rates at which they are usually sold, make it little worth while for the orchard planter to try to grow his own trees. In fact, the investment called for to purchase a good assort- ment of well-grown trees will be one of the best which the orchard planter can make. The professional grower, if he is honest and en- terprising, can give the purchaser the advantage of his experience and skill in the choice of stocks suited to his soil, varieties of fruit adapted to his situation, and be of assistance to him in other ways connected with his enterprise; and such helps to an inexperienced planter or to a newcomer are very valuable. To those who may be possessed of limited means, or who may like to use spare time in growing trees, suggestions are offered. There will, however, be very much which can be learned only by actual experience. ' In the selection of a location for a commercial nursery there are matters involved which it is not proposed to discuss. Attention will be paid rather to matters connected with what may be called a farm nursery. The first point will be the selection of a piece of ground, which offers proper soil, exposure, and, in most parts of the State, facilities for irrigation—to be used whenever necessary to get good growth. Proper Soil for Nursery.—The soil should be a mellow loam, easy of cultivation and not disposed to crust and crack. In all re- spects what one would choose as a rich, kind garden soil will answer well for the nursery. The soil should be moist, but thoroughly drained, either naturally or artificially. In this respect a soil which might yield fair crops of some shallow-rooted vegetables would not always be suitable for young trees, which, to do well, must have favorable conditions to send the roots to considerable depth. Good spots are often found in the rich loam along the banks of creeks, as in such situations one finds generally a deep alluvium, well drained by the creek. But such situations, if liable to overflow, should be rejected because standing water is not good for trees, and because the soil will be apt to be soaked with water and inac- cessible just at the time when the trees should be lifted for trans- planting to orchard. 62 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is not always possible to find an ideal nursery spot on every ranch, but still trees may be well grown on less favorable places if attention is given to correcting natural defects. For example, if the soil be naturally heavy, it may.be improved somewhat by repeated plowing and cultivation, during the year before starting the trees. If it be an adobe, its mechanical condition may be greatly improved hy the application of a top dressing of lime at the rate of six hun- dred to one thousand pounds of lime to the acre. For this purpose “lime waste,” which contains both lime and wood ashes, can be had cheaply at the kilns. Old plaster which may have been left from house repairs is excellent. Even builders’ lime would not be very expensive, for but little would be required for so small a plot of land as a farm nursery would need to cover. The lime will increase the availability of plant food in a heavy soil as well as render it more friable. Heavy soil may also be improved by the addition of sand. A few loads of sand will remove the tendency to crack, and will act as a mulch to prevent evaporation of moisture. If the soil be very loose and subject to too rapid drying out, the remedy will be moderate irrigation during the summer, but it should cease early enough to allow the young trees to ripen their wood before the frosts of autumn. Mulches of various light, fine materials, rotted straw and the like, may be used to advantage among the young seedlings in preventing drying out of the soil, if the plot is to be hand-worked, but such materials are apt to be in the way of neat, thorough work with the horse. A mulch of sand is not open to this objection. Land which has been in cultivation for garden or field crops is to be preferred over a newly-cleared land. It is often the case that soil from which old stumps or shoots have recently been removed has become soured from the process of decay in the dead wood. Although the organic matter from decay of woody fiber tends to enrich the soil afterwards, certain acids are formed if the land lies without cultivation. These are not favorable to the growth of young roots. This evil quality in the soil is removed by cultivation and aeration, or may be corrected by the application of lime. This state of soil is most complained of in connection with old stumps and roots of oak trees. Situation and Exposure.—Warmth in the soil is necessary to a good growth, and a good year’s growth is essential to the production of a satisfactory tree. Drainage contributes notably to the warmth of the soil. Exposure is also of importance. Plenty of sunshine and protection from cold winds are to be secured. Sometimes a little elevation is desirable. It would be a serious mistake to seek moist, low land if the piece lies at the bottom of a little valley or depres- sion where the cold air settles during the night and frosts are fre- quent. In such cases choose higher ground. Of course, in broad, open valleys there is not this objection, for such seasonable frosts as may be expected there are not injurious to deciduous nursery stock. The greatest nurseries in the State are in the open valleys, not on the lowest ground, however, in all cases, but on what would GROWING NURSERY STOCKS FROM SEEDS 63 be called good rich valley land. There are, however, situations in the thermal belts in which the temperature does not fall low enough to check growth of deciduous trees and cause the leaves to drop. In such cases it has been found desirable to select lower and colder ground for the nursery of deciduous trees. Preparation for Nursery Ground.—The best preparation for nur- sery ground is the growth, the previous season, of a cultivated or hoed crop. This will secure frequent working of the soil, thorough pulverization of the clods, etc. The produce of the hoed crop should thus pay the cost of putting the land in good condition, at least. Where the retention of moisture is an object, as is in some parts of the State where the annual rainfall is sometimes small and no facilities for irrigation provided, it will perhaps pay better in the end to keep the land in bare fallow during the previous summer; but there must be frequent and thorough cultivation, keeping the surface always mellow, or more moisture may be lost by evaporation than a hoed crop would require for its growth. Properly cultivated fallow soil will have a moisture within a few inches of the surface, while unworked soil adjoining will be baked hard and dry to a depth of several feet. During the winter immediately preceding the planting, the green stuff should be allowed to grow for a time, but should be plowed under before it gets high enough to interfere with perfect turning of smooth furrows. The decay of this green crop is of advantage to the soil. Another plowing in the spring and a thorough harrowing will leave the ground in good condition to receive the pits or root grafts, as the case may be. Growth of Seedlings for the Nursery.—Fruit trees are produced from buds and root grafts upon seedlings locally grown or imported. The kinds of seedlings preferred for different fruits are discussed in the special chapter given to each fruit. It is usual to take seeds from sources where they can be collected with the least trouble. Apple seeds are washed out from the pomace of the cider press; apples and pears from the coring and peelings of canneries and drying establishments; pits of the stone fruits are derived from the same source. Supplies can usually be purchased from such establishments at a moderate cost. The trouble is that from such supplies one is apt to get seeds and pits from all varieties, possessing different degrees of health and vigor. There is just as much to be gained from selecting the seed from which to grow good strong stocks for fruit trees as there is in selecting good garden or field seed. One can generally get good peach pits, for it is easy to have the order filled when the cannery is running on strong-growing yellow varieties, for these are believed to be most vigorous, and yet some claim much preference for pits from vigorous seedling trees, and make extra efforts to secure them. Wherever it is possible, and if one is only to produce a small lot of trees, it is practicable to select from the fruit the seeds for planting. Not only is there great difference in the strength of different varieties, but individual trees vary greatly. If one is taking seeds from an old orchard to start his nursery with, he can take pains to get his seed from his strong- 64 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM est trees, and thus secure also that which is probably best adapted to his locality. Apple and Pear Seedlings.—For a small lot of apple and pear trees the seed can be best sown in boxes. Select plump pips and keep in moist sand, from the time they are taken from the fruit until sowing. Fill the boxes, which should be three or four inches deep, with good garden mold, cover the seed about half an inch, and then cover the soil lightly with chaff or fine straw to prevent the surface from drying out. Be sure that the boxes have cracks or holes in the bottom for drainage, and the whole is kept moist, but not wet. When the seedlings have grown to the height of three inches they can be set out in the nursery rows as one would set out cabbage plants—if the work is carefully done and growing condi- tions favorable. The easier and more common way is to “stratify” or alternate layers of seed and damp sand in the storage boxes and sow in nursery rows in the open ground when the soil is in good condition (in February or March usually) and the seeds swollen or showing sprouts. Cherry Seedlings.—There are different ways of handling pits of stone fruits to prepare them for setting out in the open ground, which will be described. The cherry is grown from pits of two wild varieties; one is commonly called the “Black Mazzard.” It is the common wild cherry of the East, and is the original type of what are known as the Heart and Bigarreau types of cherries. The other is the “Mahaleb,” a European wild species, which is used in the East, where it thrives better than the Mazzard, as it is hardier stock. In this State the Mahaleb does not seem to have much dwarfing effect, as trees on that stock in this State over twenty-five years old are twenty-five inches in diameter of trunk. The Mahaleb, however, ripens its wood earlier, and for this reason may be valuable in the colder parts of the State. It is also freer from root trouble by ex- tremes of wetness and drouth in the soil, and is largely used on low lands. The Mazzard is, however, chiefly used in California. A way of treating cherry stones is that given by W. W. Smith, a pioneer cherry grower of Vacaville: The fruit of the Mazzard should be allowed to get perfectly ripe on the tree, then gathered and let lie in a heap for three or four days, so that they may be partially or wholly freed from the pulp by washing them in water. They should then be spread out in the shade and stirred frequently for about twenty-four hours. This will give the outside of the pit time to dry sufficiently to prevent molding, while the kernel itself will remain fresh and green. They should then be placed in moist (not wet) sand and kept so until the rains set in in the fall, when they can be planted in drills, in good, rich, mellow soil, prepared the previous spring and kept clean of weeds through the summer, ready for the purpose. They should never be allowed to get perfectly dry; and the reason for it is that we have but little or no freezing and thawing weather in this country to cause the pits to open; but if they are kept constantly moist it answers the same purpose as freezing. The seeds of the Mahaleb cherry will sprout with less difficulty, but the same rules for keeping the Mazzards will apply to them. Other stock for the cherry will be discussed in the chapter on that fruit. TREATMENT OF PITS OF STONE FRUITS 65 Citrus Fruits —The propagation of citrus fruits will be described in detail in Chapters XX XIII, XXXIV and XXXV. The Larger Stone Fruits——In handling pits of the larger stone fruits, apricot, peach, plum, etc., the chief requisite is to prevent ‘drying and great hardening of the pit. Some plant in the fall and trust to natural conditions to start the seedling in the spring, but this interferes with the cultivation of the ground, and leaves the seedling to grow in soil which has perhaps been puddled by heavy winter rains. There must also be much hand work done to clear the rows from weeds. It is much better to keep the pits from drying by covering with sand moderately moist, hasten the sprouting by appropriate treatment toward spring, and then plant out in thor- oughly prepared soil, and they will make a satisfactory growth. The following method, by D. J. Parmele, of Vacaville, has given good results: Keep the pits out of the sun until the rains commence in the fall, then put them into a box about a foot deep with openings at the bottom for drain- age, and scatter sand or fine earth through them, putting about two inches on top, and place them under the eaves of a building on the south side, where they will get well soaked every time it rains. If there should be a long dry spell during the winter, water them a little. About March they will open and sprout. Then take a plow and open a deep furrow in loose, mellow ground, and with a hoe pull about two-thirds of the dirt back into the furrow, breaking the clods, and making it fine, the same as you would if you expected to plant onion seed there. Drop the sprouted pits in straight line, and cover two inches. On account of the extra work in preparing the ground, the trees will be large enough to bud in July. Another way is to spread out the pits on a smooth piece of ground and cover with sacks, and over these a layer of straw three or four inches thick to retain moisture. The pits may be planted out as soon as they crack open, although no harm will be done if they are allowed to lie until the sprouts are well out. Another method which has been especially recommended for treatment for almonds is the following: Lay boards upon the ground and cover them with an inch of sand; spread on this a layer of almonds and then another inch of sand, and so on. Keep the pile wet, and in three weeks of warm weather they will burst open. Plant in drills one inch deep and put over them a light coat of rotten straw. If from any cause the pits have become quite dry, they should be soaked in water two or three days before planting. Nut Tree Seedlings.—In growing nut-tree seedlings, much the same methods are followed as with pits of stone fruits. There are methods described in detail by California growers which should be given. As has been said, the nuts may be planted at any time after ripening, in the milder parts of the State, if the grower will under- take the greater care and cultivation. On some light soils where the rainfall is not excessive, this is not much trouble. Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, gives this as his method: The nuts may be planted as soon as gathered, though in Nevada City it is too cold to plant them in the fall, for the frost in winter would surely lift the nuts right out of the ground. For keeping and sprouting walnuts, I 66 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM throw into the bottom of a box one inch deep of sand; then a layer of nuts, put in another inch of sand, and another layer of nuts, and so on to one or two inches from the top. Then water well with a sprinkler and water again during the winter whenever the sand gets too dry. The sand has to be pretty well saturated with water, especially from the first of January down to planting time, which is in February, March or April, according to local- ities. The latter part of March or first week in April is best for Nevada City. The nuts are planted in drills and covered to a depth of two or three inches. In propagating chestnuts it is always better to select for seed the largest, finest and healthiest nuts; in the fall or beginning of winter the nuts have to be planted in a box of damp sand, by layers, the box being kept in a cellar. The nuts may be stored in a hole in the open ground, a layer of chestnut leaves being first thrown in the bottom of the hole, on top of that a layer of nuts, then another layer of leaves, and so on to the top, which has to be properly covered with two or three inches of earth so as to prevent the frost injuring the nuts. In February or March, according to location, the nuts are taken out and planted in drills to a depth of three or four inches; less for smaller seed like American chestnuts. In growing seedlings of English walnuts, Mr. J. Luther Bowers, of Santa Clara, has shown that water-soaking of nuts may make it unnecessary to undertake storage in damp sand, if the nuts are of the last crop. He describes the method as follows: The nuts should be large and thin shelled and should be of last year’s crop. To ascertain this, break a few and split the kernel open at the germ end, or the point where the root starts. If the meat of the kernel shows a clear color they are of last year’s crop, but if the flesh shows any discolora- tion they are old and will not germinate. I have often got hold of a lot that were mixed, old and new together. Never risk a lot of this kind, for failure will follow. After the nuts have been selected place them in some kind of a tin vessel; a five-gallon oil can, with the top removed is just the thing. Then cover them with hot water at not over 110 degrees F. Let them remain in this water for 24 hours and plant at once, keeping them in the water all the time. Do not let them become the least bit dry, and be sure the soil is moist, and put every nut in with the sharp point exactly straight down. The root starts from this point and will go straight down, and if not molested will the first year be about three times the length of the top; that is, if the top grows one foot, the straight tap root will be three feet or more long, and will be from three-fourths to an inch thick where it grew out of the nut,’ tapering both up and down. Tribble Brothers, of Elk Grove, give the following as their prac- tice with native black walnuts: Gather the nuts as soon as most of them have dropped from the trees and put them in a trench. Cover with leaves, and on the leaves put a thin layer of earth, leaving them until sprouted and ready to plant in rows. When ready to plant, assort the nuts according to the growth of the sprouts, and as we find the longest sprouts make the most rapid-growing trees, and by selecting we can get even growth in the nursery rows. In our soil we plant the nuts about five inches deep. Purchased Seedlings.—Formerly a very large proportion of some kinds of the cherry, pear and apple trees produced in this State were worked upon imported seedling stock. These stocks were cheap and being carefully graded by sizes were very convenient and popular. Such foreign seedlings were excluded by the National Quarantine act of 1919 and California grown seedlings are now supplied in ex- cellent quality by those who make a specialty of producing them. TREES FROM SEEDS AND CUTTINGS 67 It is easy enough to grow peach, almond, apricot, and Myrobalan seedlings, but small seeds, like apples and pears, often do not show up well in the spring, especially if the soil is of a kind that crusts over with rain and sunshine. Purchased seedlings are planted in nursery rows in the winter, as has already been described, and budded in the following summer, grafting the next spring where the buds fail. If the seedlings are large they are often root-grafted at once, and then one summer in the nursery gives a tree suitable for planting out. Fruit Trees from Cuttings.—It is feasible to grow a number of kinds of fruit trees from cuttings, but it is not desirable in many cases to do it. Trees grown from a graft or bud in a seedling root are much better. The root system of a seedling is naturally stronger and more symmetrical. The roots from a cutting start out at the bottom and spread out horizontally and irregularly. This style of a root system is expressively named “duck-foot roots,’ and they do not give the tree a deep, strong hold on the soil. Trees can, how- ever, be multiplied very fast from cuttings. Notable instances of this are the Myrobalan plum and the Leconte pear. Cuttings of deciduous trees should be taken from well-matured wood of the previous season’s growth, and planted in rows and in well-prepared soil, as has already been described for the sowing of fruit tree seeds. The cuttings should be taken before the sap begins running in the winter. A cutting about ten inches long, four-fifths of its length buried in the ground, will answer. Be sure that the ground is firmed well at the base of the cutting, but keep the surface loose. Small wood is better than large, though, of course, the extreme ends of twigs should be rejected usually. Cultivation of cuttings is the same as that of seedlings, and budding, when the cuttings are to be used as stocks, is also governed by the same rules. The orange and lemon can be grown from cuttings, but the work is done during the summer while the ground is warm. Cut from wood one or two years old; set in the open ground with partial shade and give plenty of water, but be sure that there is free escape for surplus water. Cuttings started in the warm weather and given partial shade and plenty of irrigation are very apt to succeed. This method of growing these fruits is not, however, in wide use or favor. The propagation of the grape, olive and fig from cuttings will be considered in the chapters on those fruits. Planting Out in Nursery.—For planting out in nursery, the term “spring” is given as the proper time, but in California it must be remembered that spring is not any definite division of the year. “Spring weather” comes from the first of February to the first of May, according to the latitude or elevation or exposure resulting from local topography. Cherries may be ripe in Vaca Valley before fruit trees put out leaves in Modoc county; and between these ex- tremes there are advents of spring in other places according to the situation. These facts are more fully set forth in the chapter on climate. Spring must be detected in the behavior of vegetation and not by the calendar. When the tree buds swell and the leaves ap- 68 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM pear, spring has come for that locality. But whether one can plant his nursery then or not will depend upon the character of the soil and the condition of the rainfall for that season. This varies much, from year to year. As a rule, however, in most parts where fruit is grown at present in large quantities, the heavy cold rains will be over by the first of February, and then nursery operations can com- mence if the soil is in good condition. If not, the planter must wait until the soil is dry enough to work nicely. There will, of course, be heavy rains after the first of February ; but they will only necessi- tate cultivation to loosen the soil, if the nursery ground is well situated for drainage, and if it is not it should not be used for this purpose. Supposing the ground has been deeply plowed and thoroughly harrowed, as has been already described, the laying out of the ground is the next operation. Everything should be done with a view to the use of the horse in cultivation. The rows should be laid out as straight as possible. Some use a plow furrow; some an ar- rangement like a corn-marker, with two cultivator teeth set four feet apart ; some stretch a line, to get the pits or root grafts as true to it as possible, and some trust to the furrow for straightness. No rule can be laid down for means to be employed; the result must depend upon the eye and skill of the individual. Some people can hardly shoot a straight line with a gun. Each must do the best he can in this respect. There is a difference in practice as to distance between the rows in nursery. The usual distance is four feet, but others claim that it is better to make the rows six feet apart, especially where no irriga- tion is practised, as this gives the young trees more room, and if the ground is kept thoroughly cultivated, as it should be, it gives the roots a greater supply of moisture to draw upon. In growing a small lot of trees, where there is plenty of land, it is, of course, desirable to give them every advantage in the way of facilities for growth, but on the other hand, an overgrown tree is not desirable. Thrift and strength must be sought rather than size. At the ends of the rows spaces of about twelve feet should be left as turning-ground for the horse when cultivating, and as a roadway. The length of nursery rows depends upon the taste of the grower. It is convenient to have alleys wide enough for a horse and cart at intervals of three hundred feet, but in small nurseries the head-lands would probably give all the access required. The depth for planting seeds and pits must be regulated by the size of the seed and the character of the soil, as is always laid down by the authorities, and in this State another condition must be made, and that is the climate or weather conditions prevailing in the locality. Where the rainfall is generally light and the soil loose, seed must be planted deeper than where good spring showers are to be expected. In heavy soils seeds must be planted shallower than in light, even with the same rainfall. Suggestions of depth will be found in connection with the discussion of particular fruits. During the spring months the cultivator must be used as often as may be required to keep the weeds from getting too high, or the soil ADEQUATE MOISTURE FOR NURSERY TREES 69 from becoming too densely packed by heavy rains, but the ground should never be worked when too wet. It requires some watchful- ness and promptitude to use the cultivator just at the right time. Nursery Irrigation.—In parts of the State where the rainfall is adequate, cultivation thorough, the soil sufficiently retentive, and atmospheric conditions favorable, the seedling will make its growth without irrigation, and some nurseries are on ground not provided at all with irrigation facilities. In other parts of the State irrigation is necessary. Water should be applied sparingly, and yet enough to keep the seedlings in healthy growing condition. This is shown by the leaves, which should not droop or curl. Excessive irrigation should be guarded against, because a soft, excessive growth is very undesirable. Water is a good thing, and in some cases a very neces- sary thing, but the use of it should be wisely regulated. At budding it is necessary that the sap should be free and the bark slip easily. To foster this condition it is sometimes desirable to give a watering a few days before budding commences. Water should be applied by running it through shallow furrows between the rows, and the culti- vator should follow as soon as the ground is dry enough to work freely. ; CHAPTER IX BUDDING AND GRAFTING If the nursery ground has been well worked and the seed properly handled, the growth of the seedling will be strong and rapid. If an early start was had and other conditions favorable, some kinds will be ready for budding in June, and the production of what are called “June buds,” will be described presently. In ordinary practice, however, budding will come later, and the budding season extends from July to October. The weight of the budding of deciduous trees is generally done in August and September. BUDDING The process of budding, as employed on all the common fruit trees, is very simple. It consists in lifting the bark and inserting a bud from another tree in such a way that the inner bark of the bud shall come in contact with the layer of growing wood in the stock, and then it will be quickly knit to it by the new cell-growth if the bark is closed around the inserted bud closely enough to prevent the air from drying the two surfaces at the point of contact. In the engraving 1 is the cutting or “bud stick” from the tree of the kind into which it is desired to transform the seedling. This cutting is usually made from the growth of the present season, which has well- formed buds at the axils of the leaves, although in some cases older dormant buds may be used, as will appear in the discussion of the different fruits. If buds are desired to mature early, pinch off the ends of the growing shoots from which they are to be taken. Suck- ers and so-called “water-sprouts” should not be used, but rather well-formed wood from the branches of the tree. It is requisite that the buds be taken from a vigorous healthy tree of the variety de- sired. But sticks can be carried or sent considerable distances if packed in damp moss or other material to prevent drying, but care must be taken not to enclose too much water or decay will be pro- moted. Fresh shoots in tight tin boxes without wet packing are safer and carry very long distances. Sealing the ends with grafting wax is also a good precaution against drying out. Budding knives can be bought at all seed stores and cutlery estab- lishments. They have a thin, round-ended blade at one end of the handle, and at the other end the bone is thinned down, or a bone blade inserted. The former is for cutting and the latter for lifting the bark of the stock into which the bud is to be placed. Armed with a bud stick and such a knife, the “budder” starts in upon a row of seedlings. Bending the seedling over a little and holding it between his left arm and his left leg, he reaches down for a smooth place on the bark as near the ground as convenient to work, and makes vertical and horizontal cuts as shown in Figs. 3 and 4 in the engraving, with the bark slightly lifted and ready for the insertion BUDDING FRUIT TREES ILLUSTRATED Ft \ } 2 Cutting the 4 Transverse incision 5 Inserting the bud twisted. 6 Inserted bud ready for tying. 72 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM of the bud. Next he cuts from his bud stick a bud, as shown at 2. This carries with it, on the back, a small portion of the wood of the bud stick as well as the bud and bark. It was once claimed that this wood should be carefully dug out, but in budding most kinds of trees it is not necessary ; in fact, it may be better to leave it in; such at any rate is the general practice. The point of the bud is now inserted at the opening at the top of the slit in the bark of the stock and pushed down into place, as shown in figure 5. To handle the bud, the part of the leaf stem which is left on is of material assistance. No- thing remains now but to apply the ligature which is to hold down the bark around the bud. - There are various ways of tying in the bud. Any way will d which holds down the bark closely, but not too tightly. Different materials are also used, soft cotton twine, stocking yarn, strips of cotton cloth, candle wicking, etc. The last-named is perhaps the best material, on all accounts, although strips of cheap calico bear evenly upon the bark and do very good work. The use of twine is speedy, but the strands bearing upon a narrow surface, and not being elastic, they are apt to do injury by cutting into the bark unless carefully watched and loosened. The fiber from basswood bark was formerly largely used, but has given place to the other materials named, which are more handily obtained. The buds must be examined about a week or ten days after the insertion, and the ligature loos- ened, for otherwise it will cut into the rapidly-growing stock. Some- times trees are badly injured by neglect in this particular. In making June buds, where immediate growth of the bud is de- sired, some growers make a hard knot with the cord around the stock, above the bud, and then use the loose ends to tie the bud. When the binding around the bud is loosened, the hard knot remains on the stock, girdles it, and forces the sap into the bud. Thin wire, known to nurserymen as “label wire,” is also used for this purpose. In going through the nursery row, all seedlings which are large enough are budded at once. In going through the row again to look to the bands, if the bud is seen to be fresh looking, it is considered to have “taken.” In stocks where the first bud has dried up, another is inserted lower down. Sometimes seedlings which were too small to hold a bud at the first working over are given a bud later in the season, or left for taking up for root grafting in the winter. In nursery practice the budder does not stop to tie his buds, but is followed in the row by another man, who carries the tying ma- terial, and does this part of the work. In selecting buds, one must be sure that he gets leaf buds, and not fruit buds only. In taking buds from some kinds of trees which bear on new wood, he may be obliged to take both fruit and leaf buds together. This will work well if care is taken not to rub off the leaf bud. Itis rather easier to work with buds from young trees not yet in bearing, but there is always danger that these may not be of the desired variety. The common method of budding thus described is used on all common orchard fruits. Special styles of budding for special fruits will be described in the chapters treating of those fruits. GRAFTING IN NURSERY AND ORCHARD va i ’ Usually the budded trees are allowed to stand in the nursery row with no other treatment that year than the insertion and care of the bud, the latter remaining dormant until the next spring. Then, as soon as the sap begins to swell the buds on the stock, the top is cut off down to about two inches above the bud, and all growth is kept off except that of the inserted bud. When that has grown out about twelve inches, the stub is cut off to about three-quarters of an inch or less from the bud, and the wood is quickly grown over by the bark. As there are apt to be dormant buds on the stock below the inserted bud, the trees have to be examined from time to time, and all such suckers removed. This is the common practice with budded trees. Exceptions will be noticed presently in connection with defini- tions of different kinds of trees known to the trade. Spring Budding.—What has been said in reference to budding applies to the use of dormant buds. It is also possible to work with what is called a “pushing bud.” This process consists of keeping bud-sticks alive and dormant by burying them in the ground until the sap is starting well in the stock in the spring, and then putting them in, trimming off the top of the stock so as to force the bud into growth. In this way the grower of a rare variety may secure trees for planting out the following winter, or he may secure a stock of buds for fall budding and thus multiply his stock of a desirable variety very rapidly. A modification of this method consists in tak- ing buds in the spring when they have grown out even half an inch, and inserting them by the usual method of lifting the bark, when the sap is flowing well in the stock. Then cut off about half the stock, so as not to give the bud too much sap at first, and afterward, when it is seen to have taken well, the balance of the stock is cut off near the bud. This method gives a tree the first season and saves a year over dormant budding. Shade and protection from dry wind are desirable. Another process of getting a small tree the first summer is “June-budding,” which will be described later. GRAFTING Grafting, like budding, consists in bringing the growing wood (inner bark or alburnum) of the scion into contact with the same layer of the stock. It can be applied to any part of the tree, from the topmost branch to the lowest root, as is the case when new trees are made from scions and root fragments. Thus grafting pertains both to the production of young trees for planting out and to the transformation of old trees bearing undesirable fruit into producers of better varieties. Grafting for the production of young trees is first in order. In- stead of budding the seedling during the first summer of its growth, it may be allowed to complete its season’s growth, and drop its leaves. When thus dormant the young trees are taken from the ground, the roots rinsed off with water if the ground is wet and sticky, or merely shaken free from clinging earth if in a dry time. 74 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Cleft Graft. x if fh} | f a ja ! j Me ] 1 \y NL fl/ h, id VDA! hi | Ml! , Hy } f fn | i itt i { i i | Hi mY | ; | i t Hi l ) { i f Hy \ y il | f ay i 7 i I i} i yy i { Al | : | i | ' qi WW H j ¥ ull ih | | | Whip Graft. Bad and Good Whip Graft. Side Graft. MAKING AND USING GRAFTING WAX 75 Enough trees are dug at once to graft at a sitting. The grafting can be done at the work bench in the tool-house or barn, and if one is pressed with other daylight work, it may be done by lamplight at the kitchen table, if the housewife can be conciliated for the muss it will make. Care of Scions.—The scions should be previously selected, and whether taken from trees on the place or brought from near or dis- tant sources away from the farm, should have been placed as soon as procured in moist earth on the north side of the house or other building, where they will keep cool and damp until one is ready to use them. In parts of this State where the ground is apt to freeze, it is necessary to keep scions in the cellar with their butts covered with moist sand, but over most of the area of California nothing more is needed than to put them down in earth at the base of a tree or on the north side of a building, with, perhaps, a box or barrel inverted over them to keep out mice and other intruders. Care must be taken not to let them dry up. If it is desirable for any reason to keep scions dormant long into the spring or summer, of course storage in a cool cellar is better, for even in ground the scions will burst into leaf after a warm spell of spring weather unless they are wholly buried some depth in the ground which will greatly prolong dormancy. A place must of course be selected where no water will stand in the soil. In selecting wood for scions, as for bud sticks, never take water shoots or suckers that start from the body of the tree and push up through the older branches, but always give the preference to sound, fully-matured wood, from the lower or nearly horizontal branches. Careful experiments have shown that trees grown from such scions are more likely to take on a low, spreading habit than those from the central or upper branches. The scions should be tied in bundles with a stout cord; and a piece of shingle, with the name of the variety written plainly and deeply thereon, should be tied in with each bundle. Grafting Wax.—In grafting, a wood grafting wax is a requisite. The ingredients are mixed in different proportions by different growers. A few recipes which are known to give good results are as follows: Two Ibs. resin; 1 lb. beeswax, 1 quart linseed oil; 4 tablespoonfuls tur- pentine. One lb. beeswax; 5 Ibs. resin; 1 pint linseed oil; 1 oz. lampblack. One Ib. beeswax; 5 Ibs. resin; 1 pint linseed oil; 1 pint flour—the flour aed in after the other ingredients have boiled together and cooled some- wnat. All these mixtures are made with the aid of gentle heat, and during grafting the wax must be kept warm enough to apply easily with a small brush. To do this a heater can be made by removing the top of a five-gallon oil can or a blasting powder can and making a hole for draft in one side near the bottom. A slow fire can be kept going to heat the wax-pot which is suspended from a rod across the 76 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM top. Sometimes a smaller can is used and a small oil lamp used as a heater under the wax container. A wire handle makes this outfit portable. A very neat small wax heater may be made of a common lantern—a funnel-shaped tin cylinder put in place of the glass globe, the lower end being of the same diameter as the bottom of the globe. The top is about five inches in diameter and a small can containing the wax is set down in it. The wax should not be so hot as to run too easily, but just right to spread well. As a substitute for all the old grafting-waxes, asphaltum, “Grade D,” has recently been widely and successfully used. It is kept warm enough to spread well. Many use the asphaltum pure; others prefer addition of resin—one part of the resin to three or four parts of asphaltum, according to different grafters’ experiences. The two substances are melted together over a slow heat. The resin over- comes the running tendency of the asphaltum in hot weather. A good grafting wax is also made by melting together four parts by weight of asphaltum to one of paraffine. Grafting is greatly facilitated by the use of strips of waxed cloth or waxed paper, the latter being quite good enough for grafts, which are set low enough to be protected by a ground covering; also for root grafts. This waxed paper is made by spreading a thin coat of wax, with a brush, upon tough, thin wrapping paper, cutting up the paper, when cold, with a sharp knife, on a board, into strips about an inch wide. Waxed cloth is made by dipping cheap cotton cloth into hot wax, pulling the pieces between the edges of two boards to take out as much wax as possible, and when the cloth is cold, tearing it up into half-inch strips for small grafts or wider strips for larger grafts. When grafting is going on indoors, these strips hanging near the stove are kept in good, soft condition for use. There are grafting preparations which do not require heating, but remain in a semi-fluid state, and then become very hard by contact with the air. The following is a popular French preparation: Melt one pound of resin over a gentle fire. Add to it one ounce of beef tallow, and stir it well. Take it from the fire, let it cool down a little, and then mix it with a tablespoonful of spirits of turpentine, and after that add about seven ounces of very strong alcohol. The alcohol cools it down so rapidly that it will be necessary to put it once more on the fire, stirring it constantly. Great care is necessary to avoid igniting the alcohol. This wax is easily prepared, and when well corked will keep for years, always ready. It is put on the wounded part of the tree, very thin, and soon becomes as hard as stone. Thus it is valuable not only for grafting, but for covering the scars caused by removing limbs in pruning. It is, however, rather an amateur’s recourse, as it is rather expensive for large operations'for which asphaltum is used. Cleft Grafting —Where various-sized stocks are to be used, as will be the case with a bunch of home-grown seedlings, different styles of grafting must be used. Where the stock is much larger than the scion, as is apt to be the case with California seedlings, the cleft graft will be simplest. Cut off the top smoothly above the root crown and then split the top of the stock, as shown in the engraving. METHODS OF GRAFTING DESCRIBED vi, Then prepare the scion by whittling it to wedge-shape at the lower end. Open the slit in the stock with a little wedge and insert the scion so that its inner bark matches with the inner bark of the stock, something as shown in the second figure. It does not matter whether the outside of the scion is flush with the outside of the stock or not; the vital point is to get the growing layers, just inside the barks, in contact with each other, and, to be sure of this it may be well to give the scion a slight diagonal pitch, for if the barks cross each other, this desirable contact is sure to be made. It is well to make the side of the wedge of the scion which goes nearer to the center of the stock a little thinner than the outside. A scion for a root graft is cut longer than for use in the top of the tree, for in planting, the point of grafting is placed a little way underground. Such scions are usually cut with four or five buds. After the scion is in place, it only remains to wrap it closely with a piece of waxed cloth or paper, in such a way that all the cut surfaces are covered, extending the wrapper a little below the split in the root. Paint over the wrapper with warm wax put on with a brush, put a little on the top of the scion, and the graft is complete. Side Grafting—Another method which prevents splitting the stock is the side graft, shown in the accompanying figure. It con- sists in bending the stock to one side and cutting in diagonally with a thin-bladed, sharp knife, a little more than half way through the stock. Into this open cut insert the scion so that the inner barks touch; then allowing the stock to straighten up, hold the scion firmly. Covering with a wax band drawn tight makes a good job, and such grafts make as good growth as the buds set the previous summer. This method can be used with stems or branches up to an inch in diameter, and is essentially the same, as will be mentioned later, as a side graft for working over old trees. In this style of grafting, a stub of three inches or more may be left above the graft, and to this the graft can be tied to prevent blowing out if it makes a strong growth. Afterward the stub is cut back with a sloping cut and waxed or painted to prevent checking. Whip Grafting in the Stem.—Grafting above the root or in the stem of the stock when stock and scion are about the same size, is done by tongue or whip grafting. The accompanying sketch shows a whip graft in the stem of the stock. Grafts up to an inch in diameter can be made in this way, but it is generally used for smaller wood. Care must be taken to secure proper contacts of the inner barks at least on one side of the stock. After pushing the parts together, a wax band holds them firmly in place, or the joint may be simply tied and painted over with wax. A Root Graft—When the root stock and the scion are about the same size, the tongue graft is also used, as shown in the figure. In making this both the stock and scion are given a sloping cut of about the same length, and a secondary cut made in each. When the two are put together the wood “tongues in,” or interlocks as shown in the engraving. The object of this is to make more points of contact 78 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM for the inner barks of root and scion, and at the same time to inter- lock the two more firmly. In putting the two together, if the stock is slightly larger than the scion, be sure to put the scion so that the inner bark contact is made, and this will bring the scion a little to one side of the center. Bind with the wax band, and paint with wax as in the case of the former graft. In large nursery practice expert grafters have come of late years to make this root graft without wax, merely tying in the graft. For amateur work at home it is much safer to use the wax. Grafting in the root, where the root is much larger than the scion, may be done without splitting the root by cutting or sawing out a triangular piece on the side of the root (smoothing the saw-cut with a sharp knife) cutting the scion to fit and trusting to a strong band to hold it in place. This graft is used for grafting in grape roots, also, with root grafting the walnut, and, by some, in ordinary top grafting on other trees. Planting Out Root Grafts.—This root grafting can be done in the winter before it is time to plant out, and the grafts can be made a few at a time, as convenient. The grafts, then, as fast as prepared, should be bedded in moist sand in the cellar, and will make their contact firm, and even start to growing a little. In planting out in the nursery rows be sure the earth is firmed well around the root, otherwise many will be lost. Plant ten or twelve inches apart in the rows. Keep the weeds down and the soil well cultivated and loose on the surface, and the first season’s growth will give a tree fit for planting out in orchard in the coming winter. For irrigation the rules already given for the growth of seedlings for budding: will apply. PRUNING TREES IN NURSERY ~ As for other treatment of the trees (either from bud or root graft) in nursery during the first year, there is some difference of opinion and practice. If the young tree will be content to make a straight switch with good buds in the axils of the leaves, but no laterals thrown out, it will be in the best possible shape for planting in the orchard, and gives the planter a chance to make the head at what- ever height suits him, and to secure uniformity through the orchard. All trees will not, however, be content with this growth, but will push out laterals all along the stem. Even in this case some let the whole growth go for the planter to treat as he thinks best. Another plan is to go over the nursery when the young stock is about two feet high and pinch back the laterals part way, but retaining the leaves nearest the stem to shade the stem. This pinching back is done from the ground up toa height of one to one and a half feet, and above that the growth is left to take its natural course, to be cut as desired when the head of the tree is formed. Pinching back develops buds near the stem and gives the planter a better chance to head the tree lower if he likes. Another practice which prevails to some ex- tent, is to pinch off the terminal bud when the young tree has reached VARIOUS KINDS OF NURSERY TREES 79 a height of about two and a half or three feet in the nursery. This soon forces a growth of lateral branches, which are in turn pinched after they have grown out a couple of feet. The result is the forma- tion of a head on a nursery tree the first year, and when such trees are planted in orchard they are merely cut back on the laterals, leav- ing the head as formed in the nursery. Such trees are difficult to handle in packing, and take much room in shipment. There may, however, be an advantage in such practice for the home grower if he is situated in parts of the State where the greatest season’s growth is attained. Orchard planters generally, however, prefer a June bud or a yearling of moderate growth, without laterals. CLASSES OF NURSERY STOCKS The several classes of stock which are to be had from nurseries are as follows: Root Grafts.—These are seedling roots, or pieces of them, on which scions of the desired variety have been grafted on the bench and the junction healed over in the cellar. No growth has yet started in the scion. If the tree planter wishes this kind of stock, he should plant it out in nursery row in the spring and remove the trees to orchard the following winter. June Buds.—For multiplying varieties very fast, buds may be kept dormant in a cool place; and put into seedling stocks as early in the season as the bark slips well, as already described. It is much more common to use early buds of the current season’s growth and their readiness may be hastened by pinching tips of new shoots from which they are to be taken, which forces development of lateral buds. After budding, the top of the stock is girdled with knife or cord, or partly cut away, and growth is forced on the bud so as to give a small tree at the end of the first summer. This method of propagation is most popular in the foothill districts, where small trees are preferred for transplanting. Dormant Buds.—Trees are sold in dormant bud when they are lifted from the nursery and sent out before any growth has started on the inserted bud. The bud should be seen to be the color of healthy bark. Such trees should only be used when yearlings are not to be had and gain in time is very important. Care must be constantly taken that growth starts from the right bud, and that it be protected from breaking off by wind or animals. A considerable percentage of loss is usual, and extra dormant buds should be planted in nursery rows to fill vacancies. Yearling Trees.—These are trees which have made one season’s growth from the bud or graft. Two-year-olds have made two sea- sons’ growth, and so on. The proper way to count the life of a tree is from the starting of growth in the bud or graft, for this point is really the birth of the visible parts of the tree. 80 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM WORKING OVER OLD TREES Another operation which may be properly considered as a branch of propagation is the working over of old trees. There is much of this being done every year in this State. Old seedling trees are made to bear improved varieties; trees of varieties ill adapted to prevail- ing conditions are changed into strong growing and productive sorts; trees are changed from one fruit to another, when affinity permits. This will be mentioned in the discussion of the different fruits. Working over is also done to secure more valuable and mar- ketable varieties, or to get a succession of varieties to secure a longer working season in which to dispose of them. For all of these reasons, and others, the work of the propagator is continually going on even in our large bearing orchards. As with young trees, so with old, transforming the character of the tree is done both by budding and grafting. Budding Old Trees.—To prepare an old tree for budding, cut back the branches severely during the latter part of the winter, which forces out new shoots around the head of the tree, and in these the buds of the desired variety are set in the summer, just as is done in building nursery stock, except that the budding should be done rather earlier because the sap does not run as late. When the shoots are budded, those being selected which are situated so as to give the best symmetry to the new head, the shoots not budded are broken a foot or so from where they emerge from the old wood, and are allowed to hang until pruning time. At the winter pruning the budding branches are topped off a little above the bud, and when the new shoot starts it is often loosely tied to the stub of the old branch to prevent breaking out in the wind. When it gets strength, the stub is cut away smoothly to allow the wound to heal over. Another way is to insert the buds in the old bark at points where it is desirable to have the new branches start. This is sometimes done by lifting the bark, as in ordinary shield budding, and slipping the bud under, sometimes by what is called plate budding, which consists in removing a piece of the old bark entirely and putting in its place a piece of bark of the desired variety, having upon it a dor- mant bud. With plate budding it is necessary to be careful to have the inserted bark just the size of the bared spot, and to wrap it more closely than when the bud is slipped under the bark of the stock. In all cases in budding old trees, care must be taken to get fully-matured buds, and it is well to take them from large shoots, which have a thicker and firmer bark than may be used in budding nursery stock. It is also desirable to be very sure that the buds are taken not only from a tree of the desired variety, but from a healthy, vigorous and free-bearing tree of that variety. Grafting Old Trees.—Old trees are also renewed by grafting. This is most generally done by the old process of “top grafting.” The main stem or the larger branches are cut square off, and the scions, usually two, but four or more if in the trunk, are shaped and set into clefts in the stock as shown in the engraving. It is better CHANGING VARIETIES ON OLD TREES Q1 to use limbs above the main fork, or head of the tree, than to graft in the trunk, if the old trees are of good size. The following de- scription, which the writer borrows in part from some unknown source, will serve to guide novices in the matter: The outfit necessary for doing the work consists of a small, fine saw, a regular grafting knife, or a pocket-knife with a long, straight sharp blade, wax, light mallet, and a hard-wood narrow wedge. After selecting the limb to be grafted, saw it off—your own judgment will guide you as to the best point, but before the saw gets quite through the limb, cut the bark on the under side of the limb to prevent the liability of peeling down. Next split the stub with knife and mallet and insert the wedge in the genter of the cleft to hold it open. It is usual to cut the scion with two buds, but sometimes better results are had by using scions with but a single bud. Whittle the scion wedge sharp, so that it fits nicely down into the cleft. To do this, hold it in the left hand with the bud at the ball of the thumb, then cut the side toward you; as will be natural, turn it over, and cut the opposite side in the same way, making the wedge a very little thinner on the edge opposite the bud than on the other. This will insure a firm pressure at the points where the bark of scion and stock meet. When set, the bud of the scion will be on line with the outer long portion of the graft, the point to be closely observed in adjustment is to have the inner or sap bark of the scion connected with the same of the stock. Ifa trifle too far in, or too far out, the work will be a failure. Some people set the graft a little out at the top and a little in at the bottom, so as to be sure of a connection at the crossing point, but there will be firmer hold if there is a union the whole length. Our rule has been to have the wood of the scion come exactly parallel with the surface of the stock, and we seldom fail in getting firm adhesions and solid limbs after years of growth. After the scions are set, and two should be put into one limb if large, carefully withdraw the wedge and apply the wax, so that every part of the wood and bark cut and split is well coated. In doing this use extreme care not to move the scions at all from their sittings. If the pinch of the stock is seen to be severe, a small wedge may be left in the center to save the scions from crushing. If there is a large cleft, it may be filled with damp clay before waxing over. Most grafting over of old trees is done by this method, using one or another of the wax preparations described upon a preceding page. If the cut surface of the stock and the split is thoroughly waxed over as low as the bark is split, there is usually little trouble with the growth of the scion and the healing over of the stock. In the warmer valleys in the interior, the sun is often hot enough to melt the wax and cause it to run and bare the wood surfaces. This is prevented by dusting the wax thoroughly with brick dust well powdered; but, by a little experimenting with the recipes already given, one can secure a wax which will stand any heat likely to be encountered. For grafting over trees by working upon the limbs, good work can be done by bark grafting, which does not require the splitting of the stock. There are various ways of doing this. One method is shown in the engraving on a previous page, and consists of cutting the scion as shown, and inserting it beneath the raised bark and then binding well with waxed bands, the preparation of which has already been described. Another method is an application of what the French call oblique side grafting. It consists of making an oblique cut downward 82 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM through the bark of the stock and for a distance into the wood, using a chisel and mallet or even a strong knife. A saw and knife are also used for making this cut, as will be described in the chapter on the peach. A small form of side graft has already been shown earlier in this chapter. In it the scion is held in with a wax band. Some growers remove the top of the stock with a sloping cut about half an inch above the top of the scion, as shown in the engraving, and wrap the waxed band well around and over all the exposed surfaces. Others do not remove the whole of the limb until the scion has started well into growth, and then they cut down and pare the stock and cover with a band or with a wax that will not run in the sun. Several ingenious devices have been patented by Californians for securing uniformity in the incision in the stock and in shaping the scion, but it is so easy to succeed with ordinary tools that such in- ventions have never come into wide use. Machines for the bench grafting of vines have been employed to a certain extent, but not generally. Bridge Grafting.—Trees which have been girdled on the trunks by gnawing of rodents or by blight, may have new connection be- tween root and top by bridge-grafting. It is done by removing the earth so as to expose the upper surfaces of healthy roots and spring- ing-in long scions from proper places on the roots to healthy bark above the injury. Cut scions about three-quarters of an inch longer than the space to bridge over; sharpen each end wedgelike; raise the bark below and above at the edge of the wound and insert scions under the bark; put plenty of scions close together; wax well with a melted wax; wrap tightly with thin cloth and give it another good coat of wax over the cloth, and prune the tree back well. Watch must be kept to remove shoots which may start on the scions, and keep them carrying sap through instead of using it on their own growth. Such bridge-scions are usually less than a foot in length, but have been used in spanning pear blight to a length of four feet. Citrus trees have been kept alive, though girdled by gum disease, by planting seedlings close up and in arching their stems into healthy bark above the diseased zone. TIMES FOR GRAFTING IN CALIFORNIA There is nothing particularly new about the methods or means employed for grafting deciduous fruit trees in California, but the time at which the operation can be successfully done is different from that held to be necessary in other climates. It is not at all requisite that the grafter should work in the “spring time.” Graft- ing is possible much later in the season than is prescribed elsewhere, and it is also possible to begin earlier. In apple and pear orchards it is common to graft in December. The absence of hard freezing saves the graft from injury. As our trees start their flow of sap early, and often when the ground is too wet for comfortable or- chard work, it is the practice of many to get their grafting and prun- ing done before the heavy midwinter rains begin. Of course it CALIFORNIA’S ADVANTAGES IN GRAFTING 83 should be understood that there are parts of the State where the winter conditions are more nearly like those at the East, and practice has to conform to them. As to whether it is better to remove the whole top of the tree and graft all the limbs in one year, there is some difference of opinion. The prevailing practice is to graft over part of the limbs one year and the balance the following year; or else to leave part of the top to shade the bark and take part of the sap flow until the grafts start out well, and then cut it away. When a large amount of grafting is to be done, the limbs may be cut off during the weeks preceding grafting. In this case, the cut should be made a foot or two above the grafting point and a second cut be made at this point, when ready to put in the scions. Whenever old bark is exposed by cutting back for grafting thorough protection against sunburn must be provided with good whitewash, made according to the recipes given at the close of Chapter XI. Newly set grafts should be frequently looked after to see that the wax remains perfect; also to remove suckers from the stock which may rob the grafts of sap for starting and growing. Care should also be taken that growth on grafts is not so rapid as to break away in the wind before the union becomes strong. Such rapid growth should be supported by fastening a lath alongside both stock and graft, or it should be checked by pinching or cutting-back the graft-growth as conditions make desirable. What has been said thus far relates especially to the working over of old trees of common deciduous fruits. Though much the same method will succeed with some of the semi-tropical fruits and with nut trees, the discussion of their propagation and grafting over will be deferred to the chapters devoted to them, and this will also eve opportunity to describe methods especially adapted to these ruits. CHAPTER X PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING The two essentials in preparing land for trees or vines are deep and thorough cultivation, and provision for drainage, unless the sit- uation is naturally well drained. Drainage will be considered in connection with irrigation in another chapter. In this place, how- ever, by way of emphasis, it may be remarked that high land is not necessarily well drained, although the general feature of the sur- face may be an incline, nor is low land necessarily wet, although the surface may be apparently level. For horticultural purposes the drainage of the land must be considered on the hillside as well as in the valley, for reasons which will be more fully set forth in the chapter on drainage. The preparation of land for fruit planting should begin with grading. In irrigated orchards this is essential for the equal dis- tribution of water. Even where irrigation is not anticipated, it is of decided advantage to smooth down hummocks and fill sags which are likely to collect water in the rainy season. As has been shown in Chapter III, this can usually be done on most California soils without danger of uncovering a sterile subsoil. Some intimation of the method of grading is given at the close of Chapter VII. In prep- aration for the irrigated orchard, and irrigation is now widely em- ployed even in regions where formerly rainfall was the sole reli- ance, it is important that accurate grading should be done and the use of the surveyor’s level and grade stakes will be found very de- sirable. All moving of soil should precede the general plowing. For the planting of orchard or vineyard the land must be put in as good tilth as possible, and extra expenditure to secure this will be amply repaid in the after-growth of the trees and vines. If prac- ticable, it will be all the better to have the process of preparation begin a year before the trees or vines are to be set. This is true either with newly-cleared land, as has been described, or with old grain or pasture land which is to be used; leaving the surface rough during the winter, facilitates the access of air to the lower layers of the soil, and in a certain sense may be said to sweeten and enliven it. Following in the furrow with a subsoil plow is very desirable, either at the first plowing or later. Such treatment of old grain land breaks up the old hardpan,* which has probably been formed by years of shallow culture. The preparation should continue during the following summer, and can often be made both thorough and profitable by the growth of a summer “hoed crop,” the culture of which will kill out many weeds and secure good pulverization of the soil. If no summer crop is grown, the land should be kept in cultivation by plowing the weeds under as long as the surface soil *In this connection the term means “plow-sole.’”’ Treatment of true hardpan will be described in the next chapter. PREPARATION FOR ORCHARD PLANTING 85 retains moisture enough to start them. A special advantage of such summer-fallow in regions where rainfall is apt to be short is that by prevention of evaporation, the trees or vines set the following winter will have a good part of the rainfall of two seasons to grow with, and the result will often be very noticeable. If there are supplies of manure available, as are often found in old corrals on our grain or stock farms, it is better to gather and apply this the winter before the planting of the trees. If this is not done, it should be left until after the trees are planted, and then be spread upon the surface during the winter, and plowed in after it has been in part leached into the soil by the rains. Application should be made evenly all over the surface, and not massed around the roots of the trees, un- less it is to be applied as a mulch to the surface after the spring cultivation is over, as will be considered later. If it is thought desirable to plant the land immediately after breaking up, put in the plows as early in the fall as it is possible to ‘do deep work, that is, to plow to a depth of ten or twelve inches, or more. Harrow thoroughly. If it is still early, cross-plow. Thor- ough and deep breaking up as soon as practicable to plow in the fall, and following in the furrow with the subsoil plow, working to a depth of fourteen inches or more, is a good preparation for fruit planting. For this kind of work tractors are now largely used, but, if not available, good teams are needed and the plow should be sharp and bright. If the work is hard for the team, set the plow so as to take less land, but do not sacrifice the depth. Harrow again thoroughly, and the land is ready for the trees or vines. In breaking up alfalfa for fruit planting, it has been found de- sirable to plow at first only about four inches deep to cut off the plants with short stubs, and then to replow deeply somewhat later. Plants cut with long stub roots, as in deep plowing, are more likely to start again than are the short-stub plants. Avoiding Dead Furrows.—Unless dead furrows can be used to advantage for surface drainage in case of heavy rain-storms, it will be of decided convenience in laying off to have the field free from them. This can, of course, be secured by beginning the final plow- ing at a line in the center of the field, turning all furrows inwards. In this case, too, if a right-hand plow is used, the team will always turn on unplowed land, and thus avoid trampling upon and packing the loose soil. The slight ridge in the center of the field formed by the first two furrows can be easily leveled by a couple of back fur- rows, and when properly harrowed the field will be found smooth as a floor for staking out for planting. LAYING OUT FOR PLANTING IN SQUARES It is very desirable, both for convenience in cultivation and for the beauty of the orchard, that the trees should stand in straight lines, and care should be taken to attain that end. Most orchards and vineyards in this State are laid out in squares; that is, the rows 86 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM of trees or vines are all at right angles to each other, as shown in the accompanying sketch. This is the simplest arrangement; and by some of our largest planters is held to be the best. It is true that the trees are not equidistant from each other in all directions, and that, theoretically at least, there is a portion of the ground unused— supposing that the roots occupy a circle, as do the branches. Prac- tically, however, it may be doubted whether the hungry roots of well-grown trees or vines leave any portion of the soil unvisited. There are also forms of double squares and alternating squares available for planting at long distances, with growths between, which are ultimately to be cut out, or for vines between fruit trees. Such mixed planting is, however, but little practiced in California. VARIOUS WAYS OF MARKING FOR SQUARES Marking With a Plow.—This method was used in laying off some of the old orchards in the Sacramento Valley. A common two-horse turning plow is rigged with a “marker”—a light wooden bar ex- tending at right angles from the beam, the bar being as long as the desired distance between the rows of trees. On the end of this bar a crosspiece is fastened perpendicularly, so that it scratches along on the surface of the ground. The line of the first furrow has to be designated by a flag stake, to which the plowman proceeds. When this is done, the team is turned and sent back along the next row, the location of which has been fixed by the marker, and so on for the length of the field, the marker being turned each time to indi- cate the next furrow. Following the same course the other way of the field leaves the trees to be planted at the intersection of the fur- rows. In early days trees were planted nearer together than is now considered desirable and, obviously, the operations of a marker be- come more difficult as the distances increase. Measure and Sight—Another method which is quite commonly used and answers a good purpose in small plantings is the combina- tion of measure and sight. The sighting stakes are usually plaster- ers’ laths, pointed at one end and whitewashed to make them more visible to the eye. In the use of these it is necessary to measure the distances and locate the laths to mark the ends of the rows all around the field. Then locate a line of laths across the field each way through the center, these laths occupying places which the trees of these two central rows will fill. After these are in place, meas- urement can be dispensed with, and the job can be finished by sight- ing through. The man on the ends of the rows has three laths to sight by in each row, and the stake driver places the stakes as di- rected by the sighter. Good location can be done this way if a man has.a good eye and patience enough. Marking Off With a Wire.—A measuring wire or chain is, per- haps, the best means for getting accurate location of trees or vines. It is used either for setting in squares or in other arrangement, as will be described presently. Measuring wires are made of annealed LAYING OFF FOR PLANTING 87 steel wire about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The length varies according to the wishes of the user. If it is desired to lay off the plantation in blocks of one acre, the wire should be two hundred and eight feet nine inches long, for that is approximately the length of one side of a square inclosing an acre of ground. But some use a wire as long as three hundred feet, when the acre measure is of no consequence; and others, in smaller plantings, make the wire just the length of the piece they have in hand. At each end of the wire is fixed a strong iron ring about one and a half inches in diam- eter, to be slipped over stakes; some use a larger ring, say three inches in diameter, because it is easier to handle in pulling taut. Along this wire, patches of solder are placed exactly at the distances desired between the rows of trees or vines, and to these places pieces of red cloth are sometimes fastened so that the points may be easily seen. Another style of measuring wire is made of small wire cable about a quarter of an inch in diameter, made of several strands of small wire. It is more flexible and less likely to become kinked than the large wire, and can be easily marked off to represent the dis- tances, at which rows of different kinds of trees should be placed, by separating the strands a little at the desired points and inserting a little piece of red cloth, pressing the wires together again and tying firmly with a waxed thread to prevent slipping. In this way the same wire can be easily arranged for planting vines or for trees re- quiring the greatest distances between the rows. Another advantage of the cable is that any stretching can be taken up by retwisting, which cannot be done with the stretching of a single wire. Another good style of planting wire is made of 2, 4 or 6- foot links of No. 12 steel wire (including the diameters of the small rings turned at each end of the link,pieces). As all planting will probably be at multiple distances of these link-lengths, the Cloth tags can be changed and the chain thus be marked for any desired distances. Some of the largest recent orchard plantings have been made by the use of the planting-wires described. Guide stakes are placed by surveyors two or three hundred feet apart in lines which accurately represent the distance between the rows. The trees are placed in these rows by the use of the wire between the guide stakes. If the foreman of the planting gang keeps his eye on the work, quite ac- curate lining of the trees in all directions can be secured. Finding a True Corner.—To use the measuring wire for laying out trees on the square, it is necessary first to get one corner true, and then a field of any size can be marked out accurately. Select the side of the field which is to serve as the base of the square and stretch the wire along that, say fifteen feet from the fence, which will give room enough to turn with the team in cultivation or to drive along in picking-time. When the wire is thus stretched par- allel with the boundary of the field, place a stake at each of the dis- tance tags on the wire, and these stakes will represent the first row of trees or vines. To find a square corner, begin at the starting point and measure off sixty feet along this row with a tape line, and put a temporary stake, then from the starting point measure off eighty 88 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM sila Pan ee se ee bene yaa Splegjedde a he Be. i le a a | ses ‘lee. abet tebe. ae “ake. . whe. ie Le L L a ce me, Lu 4 Webel vee Ne Naat be chiles open a eS aaeadaeaae a a a a a a i a ee SLA A ERE Be Be Be A LB a ae ee ee a: or a : ‘ : ‘i eoceeqee . Py ry H aie 4 B &. Be cn %. oe — The Triangular or Alternate system. The Quincunx system. PLANTING ON HILLSIDES 89 feet as nearly at a right angle with the first line as can be judged with the eye, and run diagonally from this point to the temporary sixty-foot stake. If the distance between these stakes is one hun- dred feet, then the corner is a right angle. Now, having the outside lines started at right angles to each other, one can proceed with the measuring wire and lay off as large an area as he desires, if care is taken to have each line drawn parallel with the last, and all stakes accurately placed with the tags on the wire—providing the land is nearly level or on a uniform grade. In locating trees over uneven ground, the measurements will have to be made from tree to tree, with the tape line held as nearly to a level as possible. Rows on Hillsides—Laying off orchard or vineyard on hillside too steep to plow both ways, there is advantage sometimes in placing the rows up and down the hill nearly twice as far apart as the rows along the face of the hill. In planting trees thus the advantage to be gained is by enabling you to keep the team well up the hill; thereby you are able to plow or cultivate the trees close on the lower side of the rows. There is no difficulty in cultivating the upper side of the rows, for the plow or harrow is always below the team. If trees are planted as recommended, the team can be guided up the hill a little between the rows, then allowed to drop downhill one step, and thus one can cultivate the trees close on the lower side. The same rule will apply to vines. QUINCUNX PLANTING There is much confusion in the use of this term in this State. It is, in fact, made to cover almost every kind of arrangement which is not on the square. Webster defines the term to mean “the arrange- ment of things, especially of trees, by five in a square, one being placed in the middle of a square.” Trees set in quincunx would stand as shown in the accompanying diagram. To locate them in this form it is only necessary to proceed as already described for planting in squares, by fixing upon the base line and locating two side lines to it at right angles. Place the stakes on these two lines just half the distance desired between the trees, and have the meas- uring wire long enough to reach across from one line to the other. Near one end of the wire place another mark just half way between the end and the first tree marked; that is, if the trees are to be twenty-four feet apart in the squares, this additional mark should be twelve feet from the end of the wire. Now set the first row with the end of the wire at the corner stake, and set stakes at each twenty-four foot mark. Proceed now to the first half-way stake, and instead of putting the end of the wire at this stake, put the twelve-foot mark there. Put stakes now at each twenty-four foot mark again to locate the trees in that row. In the next row put the end of the wire at the first stake and proceed as in the first row. Thereafter using the end of the wire and the twelve-foot marks alternately, the stakes will be set in quincunx all over the field. If the midway stakes are now 90 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM pulled out along the two side lines, the remaining stakes show where the trees are to be placed. This way of planting locates about 78 per cent more trees upon any given area, but it brings the trees at irregular distances from each other, and except in furnishing a way to arrange an orchard with permanent and temporary trees, there does not seem to be any advantage in it. PLANTING IN EQUILATERAL TRIANGLES This is the arrangement generally implied when the term “quin- cunx” is wrongly employed. By it the trees are all equally distant from each other, and thus the ground divided as equally as possible. Hexagonal planting places the trees as shown in the accompany- ing sketch. It is termed hexagonal] because, as the figure consists of six trees inclosing a seventh, a line drawn through the encompassing trees makes a hexagon. It is also called septuple planting, because seven trees enter into its figure. An orchard can be laid out in hexagonals by using the measuring wire as described for quincunx planting with the distance and half- distance marks, except that the guide stakes in the side rows must be placed at different distances apart. The following table shows the distance for side stakes to reach desired distance between the trees, and the method of calculating the number of trees to the acre by the square and hexagonal or sextuple arrangement: Trees set Septuple Check-stakes should be 10 feet apantt: £. aici AA See Oe ee 8 feet 8 inches LZ PORE RANE cea. < Bhat ake rere Beane 10 feet 42-5 inches. l4teetapacts vet cutie nge te ede rele 12 feet % inches. lo Meetrapant sos. cee cn sce aero healers 13 feet 10% inches. IS feet aparts of) So. Peer ee ue te 15 feet 7 inches. Ap leetiaparts A. Cbs ch SRO. 17 feet 4 inches. Ziteet.apants. sasaki acc cormorant: 18 feet 2% inches. BD SECE AMAT, feat cue atelantoaen Ceres ae: 19 feet 7% inches. Da TEGL ADAP «shies sey ack tse cee See ee 20 feet 9% inches. After the field is staked, each alternate stake in the check rows should be removed. The following table will show the number of trees to the acre by the square and septuple system: Square Septuple 10° feet apart te ore Meee ee AS TE Fave tee 500 2 FES apake sesh Be Aho eee SOB TS te ee 347 14: feet aparts an AG ec pA 2? RE gE PTR eh = 255 1G Teeter abate caches ottaecane eee (Ft pacar Re 2S, She =~ 5 195 £6 T6Qb par fo ay ce Ble 1S Te ROE ert eC hee OSE 154 QOCPGCL Apart. K6 ou Soe eee dees BOR oes ss neo oe aye een 125 Alsteet-apartiinsh wae oa eee 21 RR On ee Se tap Fy | 114 Be Feet Apart sine Aad eee OOK SEG eek eee 103 2a feet apart:.! bss cc dakaie aes PD hhc age aes Rake Cee 86 For any distance not given in the above table, calculate the number of trees to the acre by the square system, and add fifteen per cent. This will give the number if planted septuple. The arrangement admits 15 per cent more trees to the acre than the setting in squares, and the ground can be worked in three dif- PLANTING AT UNIFORM DISTANCES Ol ferent directions. This arrangement also gives better facilities for irrigation. Objections are urged to it, however, in that it does not admit of thinning trees by removal of alternate rows, as is some- times desirable, and that one has to take a zigzag course in driving through the orchard. It is, in fact, much less in use than formerly. Laying Out Hexagonals With a Triangle.—It is possible to lay out an orchard in hexagonal form by working from stake to stake with an equilateral triangle of dimensions equaling the distance re- quired between the trees. One corner of triangle—all being made alike. Take three strips of one-by-two-inch dry pine or redwood, and as long as you wish the distance between the trees. Cut the strips the same length, and fasten the corners of the triangle firmly together by nailing two pieces of pine board six by six inches. If the long strips are set up edgewise, the triangle will be much stiffer and better to carry. Through the corner boards bore an inch hole, making sure that the three sides of the triangle measure exactly the same. If they do, the triangle must necessarily be perfect. Then brace it a little by nailing a lath across each corner, and it is ready for use. Now split out some three-quarter-inch pins, one foot long, from good, straight-grained redwood. Make one hundred pins for each acre you have to lay off. Three persons must now carry the triangle, beginning on one side of the field, say eight feet from the fence, and guided the first time through by a line of stakes. Carry the triangle with its side to the line of guide stakes and its point in. The head man and the inside man will stick pins, while the rear man will slip his corner each time upon the pin set by the head man. After the first time across, the man at the inside point of the triangle alone will set pins, while the other two fit their corners upon the pins in the last row set. Thus one row of pins only is set each time you go across the field. If the triangle is exact, and the first row of pins is set perfectly straight, and the pins are always set perpendicularly, everything will now work like 9? CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM a charm and the job will be perfect; and it is so simple and easy that a man and two small boys can lay off from five to ten acres in one day. Re- member that no guide stakes are used anywhere after the first time through. The Triangle on Hillside——The use of the triangle requires a little nicety in “leveling up” where the piece is hilly. By using a plumb-line at two corners of the triangle, the third corner resting on one of the stakes, leveling the triangle and bringing one of the plumb-lines over another stake already set, the position of the other line would determine the position of the next stake. This method has worked fairly well, even in places where the slope was sufficient to give a fall of six feet between the trees, which were set twenty feet apart. Locating in Triangles With a Chain.—Instead of a wooden tri- angle, a chain has been used in this way: First stretch a chain along one side of the ground, setting by it the first row of stakes. .This forms the base line. Have a piece of chain just twice the length of the established distance between trees, with ample rings on the ends and a joint in the middle. Put one of the rings over the first stake and the other over the second stake. Then take the joint in the middle of the chain and stretch it out reasonably tight. The wire forms a letter V, at the focus of which stick a stake. The point is indicated with precision by the joint in the middle of the chain. Then take the ring off the first stake and put it over the third stake, leaving the one on the second stake where it is. Tighten the chain again, and another point is fixed. Thus continue all the base line, shifting the rings alternately, turning over the chain as one turns a pair of draughtsman’s compasses in his hand when spacing off a line. The second row of stakes being set, set the third row, and so on through the ground. The suggestions given in this chapter should indicate ways enough to lay off orchard and vineyard ground to answer all needs, though there are other good ways not mentioned. It is hoped that the instructions will not be regarded as too explicit. They are in- tended for the guidance of the inexperienced planter, and will naturally seem laden with detail to those who have become familiar with the operations by repeated practice. CHAPEER Xa PLANTING THE TREES After the field has been graded, thoroughly tilled and carefully laid off as has been described, the next step is digging the holes for the trees. ‘How large shall the holes be?’ He was a wise fruit grower who, when asked this question, replied, “As large as the field.” That is to say, it is much better to work the whole ground over deeply than to trust to deep holes and shallow working else- where. Where this is done, the tree holes need only be large enough and deep enough to receive the roots without folding them in or cramping them up. In loose, deep soil, however, one can dig extra deep ‘and broad holes if he desires, and will be repaid by extra growth of the tree; but in a close, tenacious soil a deep hole is not only undesirable, but often positively a danger to the tree unless drainage of the holes is provided artificially. Such holes hold water like a tub, and the loosening of the soil deeply facilitates its gather- ing in the hole. Many have found their trees in such places dwind- ling and dying because their roots were soaking in water. Planting on Some Shallow Soils.—As a rule, trees should have a deep soil, and for these deep, free loams, California is famous, but there are situations where very satisfactory growth and production can be had, even when the hardpan is near the surface and the soil would be called shallow. In such places it is the character of the subsoil which warrants the tree and vine planter in making use of them. Sometimes the hardpan is so thin and near the surface that it can be broken through with a pick in digging the tree hole. Otherwise boring is done. It was about 1875 that Mr. James Rutter, of Florin (on the “bedrock” lands near Sacramento), first noticed that there were vines here and there which grew exceptionally well and bore large crops of fine fruit. He found by investigation that under these vines there were crevices in the “bedrock,” and from this he took the hint to bore through this hardpan in the bottom of the hole where he placed the tree, and in this way he gained access for the roots to the subsoil and egress for the water through the per- meable substratum. He bored a hole two inches in diameter into or through the bedrock and rammed well into it one and a half pounds of black blasting powder. After exploding this, he sometimes bored a three-inch hole about four feet below the blast. Instead of blast- ing in the hole where the tree is to be planted, some bore and blast in the hardpan midway between the rows, placing the holes at “quincunx” with the trees. The shattering of the hardpan between the trees is said to be practicable after the trees are growing and may in certain soils relieve trees which are suffering for lack of drainage. A half-pound cartridge of dynamite has been successfully used for subsoil blasting, and some have reported in favor of ex- 04 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM ploding a quarter-pound cartridge quite near to a tree suffering from standing water, putting in the charge during the dry season. There are many situations where such practice would be bene- ficial, and in some cases mere digging or boring through the im- pervious stratum avails much. There are spots where “lava crusts” overlie gravel, and trees have been well grown by cutting holes through the lava to the gravel, filling with good soil and planting the trees in these holes. Their roots penetrate to the gravel stratum and obtain abundant moisture and nutriment. In certain situations where a shallow layer of soil overlies a heavy clay, trees have been blown over, but when a cut has been made through the clay, the trees have rooted deeply and have withstood the winds. Shooting Holes For Trees.—Upon the basis of these pioneer de- monstrations, California claims priority in the now widely prevalent “dynamite farming.” The most minute descriptions of approved methods are now available in the publications of the powder manu- facturers and their traveling demonstrators give field instructions in materials and appliances to those who ask for them. It is very important to proceed wisely, for if the subsoil is not in the right condition or the charge of powder not properly chosen for the pur- pose, there is danger of making a pot-hole in which water will stand and kill the tree. It is also important to do the blasting some time in advance of planting so that irrigation or an adequate rainfall can settle the disturbed subsoil. The trees planted on a fresh blasting have sometimes sunk a foot by settling after planting and have been _ ruined thereby. Digging the Holes.—Holes for tree planting may be dug at a leisure time after the laying off of the field, even though it is not designed to plant the trees immediately, but our largest planters do not approve the practice. In such cases the sides of the holes should always be freshly pared off before the trees are put in, be- cause the rain and sunshine are apt to cement the sides. In digging holes the surface earth should always be thrown to one side and the | lower soil on another. The object of this is to have the top soil to place in direct contact with the roots when the tree is planted, the lower soil being used to fill up the hole. TREE’ SETTERS No matter how carefully the stakes are placed in laying off the orchard, the trees will not easily come in line unless some handy device is used for bringing the stem just in the place occupied by the stake which was thrown out in digging. These devices are called “tree-setters,’ and there are a number of designs. Two are given, either of which will give good results. Take a piece of board one inch thick, four inches wide, and five feet long; bore an inch hole in the center, and one at each end at equal distance from the center; then cut a piece from one side of the board, marked by a square, the corner resting in the middle of the center hole. Make two stakes, each one foot long, that will easily pass through the end holes. Place TREE-SETTERS AND THEIR USE 05 the center of this board against the stake, where the tree is to be planted; push the stakes into the ground through the holes in the ends, then lift the board from position and proceed to dig the hole. Bar for tree setting. When dug, replace the board over the end stakes in its former posi- tion, then plant the tree with its trunk resting against the center notch in the board, and you have it in just the right place. Another setter is in the form of a triangle: Take three pieces of plain one-inch stuff three to four inches wide and four feet long, and nail them together, forming a three-cornered frame, letting the ends project sufficiently to form a corner, as shown in the drawing. Next make a couple of smooth, hard stakes, well sharpened, and about a foot or sixteen inches in length. When you are ready to set your trees, place the frame flat upon the ground with one corner firmly and fairly against the stake which marks the place where the tree is to stand. Now in the other two corners stick the stakes already prepared for the purpose. This done, pull up the stake Triangular tree setter against which the frame was first placed—the one indicating a place for a tree—remove the frame, being careful in doing so not to move the other two stakes, which must be left to be used while setting the tree. After the hole is dug and everything ready for setting the tree, again place the frame against the two standing stakes, let the tree drop into the other corner, which will help support it while the dirt is being placed about the roots ; and this will bring the tree exactly where the stake was originally. If the stakes are prop- erly put in line, so will be the trees. These setters are described as they are used when the hole is dug and the tree set at the same time. Such is the ordinary practice in 96 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM planting. If one wishes to dig the holes beforehand, it is necessary to furnish more stakes, as two have to be left beside each hole to mark the position of the setter when the planting is done. Besides its use in bringing a tree into line, the tree setter enables one to judge of the depth of setting as compared with the surface of the surrounding ground. It is not easy to determine this with the eye if the hole be a large one. Where the measuring wire is used to set the stakes, it is sometimes stretched across again after the holes are dug, the tags on the wire thus indicating the places for the trees of the whole row. The trouble with this practice is the bother of hav- ing the wire in the way while filling and tramping the earth around the roots. SELECTING TREES In the purchase of trees it is well to patronize nurserymen in your own district, providing they are honest and intelligent men, who keep themselves informed as they should about their business. The advice of such a local nurseryman is often of great value to the newcomer, for he will know by his experience and observation much about the adaptations of fruits and varieties thereof to the region. If, for any reason, local nurseries do not meet your needs, seek some well-established nursery at a distance. It is much safer to deal directly with the grower of the trees than to patronize traveling agents. Where, however, these agents are the accredited represent- atives of well-known establishments, they may save the planter time and trouble by taking his order for him. So-called “tree- peddlers,” who are jobbers in trees and in too many cases send you refuse trees which they pick up cheap wherever they can, and label them to suit, without respect to truth or honesty, should be reso- lutely avoided, no matter what inducements or blandishments they may offer. The California legislature of 1907 passed a law making it unlaw- ful to sell fruit trees representing them to be a certain kind and afterwards to deliver trees of a different kind. To do this is a mis- demeanor punishable by fine and imprisonment. Action may be begun at any time within seven years after the date of delivery of such trees.* The State of California also endeavors to protect planters by enabling them to ascertain responsibility of nurserymen. The law of 1917 requires that any person who handles nursery stock for plant- ing or propagation within this State shall register with the State Commissioner of Horticulture, and all shipments by such licensee shall have his license number affixed to the package. Planters should preserve all such evidence of responsibility in case occasion should arise for reference to it. It is desirable, if possible, to visit the nursery and see the stock which is.to be furnished. The trees should have a good healthy look, with clean bark, and of size enough to indicate a good, free growth. *Statutes and amendments to the Codes, 1907; chapter 229. CTLI 93ed 996)—'u194shs yooyo Aq UOT}ESIA pue sayoyIp JUsUII)—* A] 91"[g -_- : s 5 V¥—'A 218 ( ased 996)— pavyoio ojdde ue preMo] 441e1s Pood y— A P1PId “SOG sate ee ks 6 hee TAKING TREES FROM NURSERY Q7 The matter of size is not the only point to consider, for size of the top is not so desirable as well-matured wood and plenty of roots. Stunted trees are not, as a rule, worth planting. There are cases, however, in which, by extra cultivation in good soil, fine trees have been grown even from “culls” from the nursery. The best rule is to select trees of good medium size, straight and healthy. During the digging season, ask to see samples of the roots as well as the tops, and do not purchase trees unless the roots are healthy looking and free from knots or excrescences. Gnarly and knotty roots in the young tree are a sure sign of insect pests or of unhealthy growth, and planting such trees has occasioned immense loss. Many have been led into purchasing poor trees because they may be had cheap. A tree selected merely because it is cheap may prove the most ex- pensive thing a man can put in the ground. Guarding Against Insects.—The top of the tree should be care- fully examined to discover scale insects if there be any. For this purpose a hand-magnifier should be used. Such a glass should always be in the fruit grower’s pocket. One can be bought at any optician’s for a dollar or two, which will fold into its case so as to be carried without scratching. Our nurserymen by forsaking old infested locations and obtaining new ground, now sell much cleaner trees than they did years ago. But still it is well to be always on the watch for pests. Disinfection of nursery stock is now officially pro- vided. Details of treatment will be given in the chapter on injurious insects. TAKING TREES FROM THE NURSERY Trees should be carefully taken from the nursery rows, so as to obtain a good amount of small branching roots. In lifting from the home nursery, digging with well-sharpened spades, which will sever the long roots cleanly, is perhaps the best method. In the large nurseries tree diggers are generally used. They have two revolving coulters which cut through the surface soil each side of the trees, and a sharp-curved blade, which is drawn through the ground under the trees, loosening the soil and severing the long roots cleanly. The tree is then easily lifted, and has generally a much better root sys- tem than by the old style of “plowing out,” which broke off so many of the small roots and lacerated the larger ones. Whether the tap root should be retained or not is not worth discussing on theo- retical grounds. Asa matter of fact and practice, the tap root cuts no figure at all in California orchard planting, although the discus- sion of the question was formerly very warm in this State, and is still occasionally heard. It is important, howevtr, that the planter should have as many small lateral roots as he can get. The small fibrous roots are usually of little account, as they seldom survive transplanting, and it is better to clip them away, if the time can be afforded, as they often prevent the proper close contact of the soil with the larger roots. Cutting back all roots to short stubs at the base of the stem has succeeded in some instances in California on « 98 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM moist lowlands, but longer roots are far safer in the deep drying of - the surface layer which is to be expected in this State. The roots, after lifting, should not be permitted to dry. Hence, in hauling from the nursery to the farm, the trees should be well covered with wet straw and old sacks, or, if shipped from the nur- sery to distant points, should be well packed. The best way to pack trees is, undoubtedly, to box them in with wet straw, but it costs less and they usually carry well considerable distances if carefully bundled with tules (dry reed stems), the roots packed in wet straw, and the packing and covering bound down tight with ropes to pre- vent drying out. Attention should be paid to hauling away trees from the railway stations as soon as possible after arrival. It is not uncommon for shipments to lie on the station platforms for days, often when a des- iccating north wind is blowing. Such treatment soon takes the life out of ‘trees, and often, no doubt, the nurseryman is blamed for failure of trees which have suffered some such neglect as this, either from transportation companies or from the purchasers. Heeling-In.—On arrival at the farms, trees should be “heeled- in” as soon as possible; even if it is the intention to plant at once, heel them in just the same, for delays arise often in the most unex- pected manner. To heel-in, dig a trench or plow a deep furrow, or a double furrow, in light, moist, but well-drained soil; put in the trees singly side by side, removing all the packing material carefully from the roots, laying the tops all one way, and then shovel the dirt over the roots until they are well covered with loose soil, and be sure that the soil sifts down well between the roots. Ordinarily this treatment will hold the trees in good condition for a considerable time if need be. If, however, they have become dry before arrival, the bundles should be thoroughly drenched with water before heel- ing in. In extreme cases, where the top shows drying by shrinking. and shriveling of the bark, the trees should be drenched, and then they should be covered root and top with earth for two or three days, when, if the trouble has not gone too far, the bark will recover its smoothness and plumpness. It should be very seldom, however, that a lot of trees is allowed to get into such condition by neglect. In heeling-in it will be found a great convenience and a safeguard against possible confusion by loss of labels, if each variety as taken from the packing is placed by itself in the trench. Nurserymen gen- erally attach a label to each small bundle, if the trees are of several varieties, and the novice is apt to lose all track of his sorts when heeling in the trench, unless he heels in each kind by itself, leaving the nurseryman’s label to mark the whole lot of each kind. In heeling-in, the trees should be put in the trench on the slant and not upright. First it is easier to put them that way, because they hold themselves in place for covering the roots, and it is also easier and better for the trees to lift them out than to pull them out. Second, when putting in on the plant the tops should always point to the southern sky, because the sun is low down and its rays hit the trees on the ends and not on the sides. Activity in the top of the DANGERS TO HEELED-IN TREES 99 tree begins from sun heat on the bark and a tree slanting to the south gets less of it than if straight up and very much less than if the slant was toward the north, which would bring the sides of the trees at right angles to the sun’s rays. Therefore a slant to the south keeps the heeled-in trees dormant longer. F Some planters spray the trees with lime-sulphur after heeling-in, both to make sure of disinfection and to whiten the bark against sun-heat. Fungus Injury to Heeled-In Trees.—Heeled-in trees are par- ticularly liable to injury from soil fungus (pythiacystis), which may also attack them in the nursery rows. Professor E. H. Smith of the University of California says: Practically all deciduous fruit trees are susceptible. The cankers may occur anywhere on the trunk, but are very apt to start about the bud union. In the worst cases the trees are girdled and the bark killed and blackened for several inches up, but usually for less than an inch below the union. There may be two or three widely separated cankers on the same tree, each canker two or three inches long and starting on the same side of the trunk, where it has lain in contact with the ground or dirt washed up on it by rain. The most important thing is to prevent soaking of the trees for any length of time during heeling-in. It often occurs merely as an augmented form of water injury. Heeled-in trees and trees during transportation are subject to injuries by frost which may be indicated by unnatural colors in the tissues of the stem or root, revealed by cutting into them. Such injury may usually be prevented in California climates by good packing in transit and by covering with straw or sacks after heeling-in. Cutting Back in the Nursery.—lf the planter has his own ideas of after-treatment of his trees, or if he is a beginner and desires to adopt the suggestions which will be laid down in this book, he should insist that the nurseryman shall not trim up or cut back the trees before packing. Have the trees packed just as they are lifted from the ground. The work towards the shaping of the tree should be done when it is planted in the orchard. PLANTING THE ORCHARD The young deciduous tree should be dormant before being re- moved from the nursery row, and if its leaves have fallen it is good evidence of its dormancy. Such, however, is the effect of the climate of California, more apparent in some years than others, and with some kinds of fruit than others, that the young tree retains a small part of its activity very late, and in such cases it is not practicable to wait for the complete falling of the leaves. Sometimes for con- venience of work, the trees have to be lifted before this takes place, and in such case it is desirable to remove the leaves to lessen evap- oration. It is probably better to transplant in this condition for the sake of early setting in its new position than to wait for all the 100 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM leaves to drop. This statement is not intended to include nursery stock which may be kept growing late in the season by late irriga- tion. Such trees are not always desirable. Time to Plant.—The best time to plant deciduous trees in Cali- fornia is soon after the early rains have deeply moistened the ground. It is not desirable, however, to have a stratum of dry earth below. This can be removed by irrigation when available. Early planting of common orchard fruits is of advantage for several rea- sons. First, an early-planted tree gets the full benefit of the season’s rainfall, whatever it may be, and a late-planted tree, in a year with short rainfall, is apt to suffer during its first season’s growth, unless it can be irrigated. The two main things to observe are the dor- mancy of the tree and the proper condition of the soil, and both of these are most apt to coincide in many parts of California about the first of January, but in heavy loams in region of large rainfall, the soil may then be too cold and wet. There will, however, be some variation from year to year, and different parts of the State dis- agree as to the date. Hence, the general rule must be based on con- ditions of the tree and of the soil. If the novice cannot judge these for himself, he must get the advice of some one of experience in the locality. The dormant period of a tree in California, as has been stated in another connection, is very short. As many cold-climate annual plants become perennial here, so our deciduous trees, in compara- tively frostless portions of the State, evince a tendency to become evergreen. The period of dormancy in the root is also shorter than the inactivity of the top. Trees transplanted early are found to have their root wounds calloused over and new rootlets considerably ad- vanced before the buds swell. Therefore, by early planting the tree begins soon to take hold upon the soil, the latter being well settled around it by the rains, which often follow early planting, and the high winds, which are apt to come in the spring in some parts of the State, find the tree well anchored and ready to maintain itself. Again, the proper condition of soil, if not seized at its first com- ing, may not recur until after the great storms of the winter are over, say in February or March (in most parts of the State), and then often the buds are bursting into bloom and leaf. Planting when cue so is water-soaked and cold is very undesirable, for in such condition it cannot be properly disposed about the roots, the inactive roots may begin to decay, and trees moved at this period are apt to show their dislike of the treatment. If the work has been delayed unavoidably, so that early planting cannot be done, it is better to keep the trees heeled-in until the proper soil condition returns, even if it be rather late, for a little extra attention to cultivation for re- tention of moisture may pull through a late-planted tree. These remarks are of very wide application in this State, but there are exceptions. In our high altitudes, where the climate ap- proaches Eastern conditions in cold and snowfall, practice in plant- ing will also approximate Eastern methods. In regions of very heavy rainfall and on the upper coast where the rainy season and HOW TO PLANT TREES 101 moisture from fogs are prolonged late in the spring, late planting is safer and surer than in the warmer, drier parts of the State. Another consideration, too, is the slope of the land to be planted. Our hillside fruit growers in regions of heavy winter storms some- times plant slopes, which, if plowed deep in the fall, are apt to wash badly during the heavy winter rains. On such slopes it is better to plow late in the winter, after the heavy storms are over, and plant as soon as the soil becomes warm and mellow. Avoid planting during the prevalence of a dry wind, if possible. If, however, it is necessary that planting be done during such weather, the roots may be covered with wet sacks until each tree can be planted and the earth well placed about the roots. THE OPERATION OF PLANTING Tree planting should be carefully and well done, but it need not necessarily be slowly done. With a kind soil deeply worked and just in the right condition for planting, trees may be put in well and rapidly. Two men work together at a decided advantage. Using the straight “tree-setter,’ which has already been described, one takes each end, and as soon as the center notch encloses the tree stake, the setter stakes are pushed into the soil, the “setter” is laid aside, and the two men, taking up their shovels or spades, begin first around the outside of the hole, throwing all the surface dirt on the same side of the hole and leaving the tree stake to be thrown out last, because its remaining serves to center the hole. The lower soil is now thrown to the other side of the hole, and when depth enough is reached, the soil at the bottom of the hole is loosened up to a depth of a shovel thrust, without removing it from the hole. A shovelful or two of the surface soil is thrown into the center of the hole, being allowed to remain higher in the center, because this generally furnishes a cushion about the natural shape of the under surface of the root system of the tree. Now replace the tree- setter upon its end pegs, let one man hold the tree with its stem in the central notth in the setter, and while the other man shovels in the surface earth rather slowly at first, the man who holds the tree with one hand will spread out the roots, pulverize and pack the earth around them, being sure that no cavities are left under any of the roots, but that their surfaces everywhere come into contact with the soil, and that they spread out as widely as possible. The earth is being continuously put in by the shoveler, and when the roots are covered the planter steps in the hole and carefully firms the soil down upon the roots by tramping (especially at the cut ends of the roots around the outer side of the hole), at the same time judging of the perpendicularity of the tree with his eye. When this is done, both men use their shovels and fill up the hole with the earth taken from below, being sure to leave the last few inches at the sur- face pulverized, but untramped, unless the soil be very light so that tramping will not overpack it. Some one said long ago that one should not plant a tree as he does a post, ramming down the earth 102 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM to the very top of the hole. Many trees are doutless ruined by over zeal in this respect. The shovel has been mentioned frequently as the tool to be used in planting. Where the soil is deeply plowed, well worked, and free from stone, the shovel is the most rapid tool. Under other condi- tions the long-handled spade, and in some cases the long-handled spading fork, serves admirably in loosening the soil at the bottom of the holes and in breaking up lumps while filling in. One man with a shovel or spade, and the other with the fork, make a good combina- tion in this respect. As a rule the young tree is planted so as to stand upright, but it is reasonable to give it a slight slant into the prevailing wind if older trees indicate that they are thrown out of plumb by it. Planting in a Furrow.—A practice which has been largely fol- lowed in the Sacramento Valley and which attains greatest speed and cheapness consists in laying off as described in the preceding chapter, and then proceeding with a heavy listing plow, followed by a subsoil plow in the same furrow. The trees are then rapidly set with the least digging. This is all done before the field is plowed. Plowing immediately follows planting. The advantages of this method are ease of work on firm ground instead of a plowed surface, and escape of injury to this surface by men and teams in planting after plowing. It does not, however, prepare the land so well as deep working before laying out. RANDOM SUGGESTIONS The roots of every tree should be examined before planting. All large root ends should have a fresh, clean cut with a sharp knife or shears. Make a slanting cut with the cut surface on the underside of the root. Where a root is mangled or bruised, it should in most cases be cut back to a sound place. The wound made by the cutting away of the seedling stock above the bud should be at the north or northeast, in order that this weak point may be shaded as much as possible from the afternoon sun. If the roots of young trees grow more to one side than the other, place the strongest roots toward the prevailing wind. The use of water to settle the earth around the roots is some- times desirable in sections where the rainfall is light or uncertain. Pour in four or five gallons from the water wagon after the hand work in spreading the roots and in pressing the soil under and around them has been done and the hole partly filled. When the water has soaked away, fill the hole with fine earth without tramp- ing. In irrigated districts leading the water along the line of trees in a furrow to settle the ground at planting is a good practice. It is almost essential in the planting of evergreen trees, which are best moved during the dry season. In early planting in parts of the State where the rainfall is abundant, there may be no need of water- settling ; puddling the roots, or dipping them in thin mud and plant- ing them with this mud adhering, is governed by much the same USE OF MANURE AT PLANTING 103 conditions as water-settling ; it may insure growth of the tree when otherwise it might be seriously injured by drouth. With puddled roots especial care should also be taken to leave the surface loose to prevent evaporation. In making puddle, use loamy soil and never adobe, for in dry time the latter will bake around the roots and may kill the tree. The Use of Manure.—Never put manure in the hole with the tree. Sometimes the injunction is, Never put anything but well rotted manure in the hole. It is better to put in none of any kind. Manure should be spread upon the ground after planting. The rains then leach it out and it may be turned under in the spring plowing. There are, however, light soils in the drier parts of the State where turning under manure in the spring is a disadvantage, as it makes the soil too porous and facilitates evaporation. On such soils, extra care should be taken to have the manure thoroughly decomposed by com- posting, and all applications should be made either late in the spring to act as a mulch in the summer, or if a mulch is not thought desir- able, apply the manure in the fall before the first rains, so that it may be turned under at the first plowing and have the whole winter for disintegration. In this dry climate there is often misapprehension, especially among newcomers, as to what is well-rotted manure. They take the scrapings of the corral, which have been trampled and pulverized, but which, having been kept dry, have never rotted. When this is put in the holes with the tree and then moistened by rainfall or irrigation, it will burn the tree, the first sign of injury being the drying up of the leaves. It is, on the whole, safest and best to put nothing but well-pulverized surface soil around the roots of the young tree. This injunction applies also to the use of commercial fertilizers in pushing the growth of young trees and vines. For this purpose about three pounds of “complete fertilizer” may be used. It should be scattered over a few feet of surface around the tree after growth has started in the spring. For the same pur- pose also one-half to one pound of nitrate of soda or of sulphate of ammonia instead of the “complete fertilizer’—making the applica- tion in the same way and being particularly careful not to use too much and to scatter it well over the space designated. A young tree which is growing pretty well can stand more nitrate than one which is on the point of dying—but it should not be put in the soil around the roots. Depth of Planting.—The depth to which trees should be set has always been a matter of discord among the planters. The safest rule under ordinary circumstances is to get the tree as nearly as possible the same depth it stood in the nursery row; that is, so as to have it stand that way when the ground has settled, or the surface returned by cultivation to its normal level. In planting in loose soil in the drier parts of the State, it is often desirable to plant rather low, because several inches depth of the surface soil become dry, and the roots should be well in the moist layer. But if irrigation is to be practised, it must be remembered that the water level will rise when the soil is saturated and deep-planted trees are apt to suffer. The 104 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM experience of recent years is decidedly against deep planting, which used to be advised because of our dry climate. Thousands of trees have been ruined by planting too deep except in light sandy soil. Speed in Planting—On good soil, well prepared, trees can be put in rapidly and the job still be well done. It is reported that on one occasion, in planting almonds, twenty men finished sixty-four acres from Friday noon to Wednesday night, placing the stakes, dig- ging the holes, and planting the trees. This would be almost three- quarters of an acre per day per man. In planting peaches and apricots an average of one hundred trees per day to the man has been attained. On the mellow loam, in another case, the average was one hundred and twenty-five trees to the man, digging holes two feet square in land which had been plowed twelve inches deep. Such work is only possible on good soil, well prepared, and by men who work well together. Mapping and Labeling.—Where mixed varieties of fruit are planted, the orchard should be mapped as soon as the trees are set. A good durable map is made of the glazed muslin, such as carpenters and architects use for their drawings. The map can be easily drawn to a scale by using a fraction of an inch to represent a foot. After the map is made, it can be rolled on a broom stick and easily pre- served. With sucha record, the grower need not care what becomes of the labels, as he can locate a variety at any time by its row and tree number. If, however, one desires labels, let them be made in this way: Take a piece of common sheet zinc five inches wide. Across this, cut pieces three-quarters of an inch wide at one end and tapering to a point at the other. Near the wider end write plainly with a common lead-pencil the name of the variety. This will get brighter by exposure to the weather. The small end may be coiled around the branch of the tree; it will yield as the tree grows and will do no injury. Such labels will last for a long time. Labels attached by a cord or wire should be removed as soon as the trees are set, for they are apt to be forgotten and the tree seriously in- jured by the cutting in of the ligature. Even when labels are used the map is the only surety, because any kind of a label is apt to be lost by accident or through malice or mischief of intruders. Mulching.—Although early planted trees on deep soils in regions of sufficient rainfall need only good cultivation, after planting, there are cases in which mulching is desirable. Various light materials may be used for a mulch, but nothing is better than well-rcoted straw, in which fermentation has killed all weed seed. Apply it to a distance of two feet around the tree, and to a depth of not less than six inches. It is best done as soon as the tree is planted, and is to be especially recommended when late planting is practised. Even in localities of light rainfall, if the trees are well mulched early in the winter, irrigation may be unnecessary for the young deciduous tree. Trees planted very late in the spring may, by using great care and mulching well, make as great a growth as those set out early in winter. This should not be an excuse for late planting, PROTECTING TREES FROM SUNBURN 105 but where late planting is necessary, mulching will help the trees to pull through. It is a far easier way of keeping the ground moist than by irrigating, but is not a substitute for it where systematic irrigation is necessary, though irrigation may often be lessened, and in some cases obviated, by extra cultivation or mulching, at least until the trees come into bearing. Guarding Against Sunburn.—Newly-set trees should be pro- tected against sunburn. This can be easily done by winding strips of burlap from old grain sacks spirally around the stems beginning just below the ground surface to the points where the young shoots will appear. When these start the strip can be loosened and re- wound so as to protect the bark between the shoots. The top can be fastened with a stitch or two with a twine needle. Manufactured “tree protectors” of paper or rushes which are readily adjusted around the trees are now largely sold. Whitewashing is the most widely used preventive of sun-burning not only for young trees, but for old trees which may have bark ex- posed through pruning, grafting, etc. Sun-burning is not confined to summer time, therefore whitewash should be continually in place and durable whitewash is a desideratum. The following are good preparations: First, slake 62 pounds (one bushel) of quicklime in 12 gallons of hot water. Second, dissolve two pounds of common table salt and one pound of zinc sulphate in two gallons of boiling water. Pour the salt and zinc mixture into the lime and then add two gallons of skim-milk and mix thoroughly. If skim-milk is not handy, four pounds of flour boiled in four gallons of water may be substituted. For use thin with cold water to flow well. Another recipe is this: Dissolve five pounds of salt in six gallons of hot water and use this to slake thirty pounds of lime, stirring in four pounds of cheap tallow (or heavy oil or any other old grease) while the lime is still hot from slaking. Add water to the consistency desired. For use with a spray pump it is necessary to strain through bur- lap or a fine wire screen. The use of white lead and oil paint has seriously injured young bark and is dangerous. Cutting Back at Planting. —Whatever idea the grower may have as to shaping his tree, it must be cut back when planted. Lifting from the nursery has removed a considerable part of the root system of the young tree and the top must be reduced accordingly. The planter who dislikes to sacrifice the fine top will sacrifice future growth and vigor by retaining it. The tree may struggle through and regain strength, but it will for years be smaller than if it had been properly cut back at planting. If the moisture supply should be short the tree may die the first summer which would have sur- vived if differently treated at planting. The manner of cutting back depends somewhat upon the style of pruning to be followed afterward, as will be considered in the next chapter. CHAPTER XII PRUNING TREES AND THINNING FRUIT It is not intended to enter into a discussion of the general theories of pruning. The reader desiring to pursue them is referred to the abundant literature on the subject in Eastern and European treatises. The effort to approve or condemn these theories by considering them in the light of California experience and observation might lead to interesting conclusions, but it has no place in a work aiming merely at an exposition of what appears to be the most satisfactory practice in California fruit growing. It will be found that this practice varies somewhat in the different regions of California, sometimes in degree, sometimes in kind, because of different local conditions, and it might be found that nearly all reasonable theories of pruning could be verified in California experience. Pruning in California is chiefly undertaken as a shaping process. Our fruit trees are naturally so prone to bear fruit that pruning to produce fruitfulness is seldom thought of, and still more rarely practiced, while pruning to reduce bearing wood, and thus decrease the burden of the tree, is quite widely done, to take the place, in part, of thinning out the fruit. Pruning to restore vigor to the tree as in cutting it back to induce a new wood growth, is also rather a rare proceeding, but probably could be much more widely employed to advantage. We prune, then, for shape and for the many practical advantages which inhere in the form now prevailing in California orchards. Some of these advantages are peculiar to our climate; others we share with those who advocate a similar form elsewhere. Our best orchards of the same fruits in adjacent localities are almost identical in form and general appearance of the trees, and those more distant differ chiefly in the extent to which the same principles are applied. And this is not because the trees are allowed to follow their natural inclination, which should secure resemblance, but because their natural bent is resolutely conquered by agreement of growers that they know what is good for the tree; and this sub- stantial unanimity is the result of the experience of the last seventy years. People possessed of the art temperament sometimes com- plain of the depressing uniformity and artificiality of orchard-tree shapes in California. They are apt to lament the fact that systematic orcharding destroys the picturesquesness of tree-growth. They should understand that a picturesque fruit tree has no place in com- mercial fruit growing. The producing tree is an agency to serve certain purposes. The orchardist does not pursue uniformity for its own sake, but rather for the purpose it serves, and the fact that many thinking men have practically agreed upon a certain form as an ideal of producing ability is demonstration that such form is, at least, approximately correct. There is an industrial conception of a tree, which is necessarily and essentially different from a concetion WHY TREES SHOULD BE PRUNED 107 of picturesquesness based upon the wild type. The wild tree is rude and crude from a cultural point of view. PRACTICAL PURPOSES OF PRUNING One of the first things for a beginner to undertake as he ap- proaches the practice of pruning trees and vines is to form a good idea of the purposes to be served. Imitation is not the foundation of intelligent pruning, though it yields many valuable suggestions. Satisfactory work rests upon a correct understanding of the reasons for each act and to the attainment of this, all study, observation and experience should tend. Possessing this, one can proceed capably, modifying method to meet condition, and producing desirable re- sults. Receive all suggestions and then go quietly to the tree and study your problem in its shade. The tree is the best revelator of its needs. Some of the best pruners in California are men who were untrained to horticulture before they entered upon their orchard work. Reading, discussing, systematic instruction are all valuable. They save much time and many errors, but recourse to the tree affords the sovereign test of attainment. These may be counted among the practical purposes to be at- tained by pruning in California: (a) Convenience of the grower; (b) health and strength of the tree; (c) regulation of heat and light; (d) attainment of strong bearing wood; (e) attainment of size in fruit; ({) promotion of regular bearing. Examine trees with refer- ence to their embodiment of these characters and one can hardly fail to secure rays of light upon the subject of pruning which seem dark to so many. Convenience.—Trees which branch near the ground are most quickly and cheaply handled in all the operations of pruning, spray- ing, fruit-thinning and picking. Low trees with obliquely-rising branches are more easily cultivated than any form with horizontal branches, unless the head is carried so high that the animals pass easily under the tree. To do this sacrifices all the other conveniences and economies which actually determine profit, and is really out of the question from a commercial point of view. Sometimes it does not pay to pick some of the smaller fruits like cherries and olives at a certain distance above the ground, when picking at half that distance may yield a profit. Health and Strength.—It is imperative in most parts of this State that the sunshine be not allowed to touch the bark during the heat of the day. This protection is secured even for young trees by low branching and encouragement of small, low laterals. The low tree with properly spaced main branches attains superior strength by virtue of thick, strongly knit, short growth between lateral branches, and by its strong, stiff, obliquely-rising growth sustains weight which brings horizontal branches to the ground, and thus even high- headed trees are liable to continually interfere with cultivation, and the desperate grower has to raise the head of his tree higher into the air and farther above the profit line, while at the same time he 108 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM renders it more liable to sunburn, to bark-binding and to unthrift by forcing the sap to flow an unnecessary distance and through wood and bark which impede its movement. Besides a low tree escapes stress by strong winds which a high tree invites and at the same time is less able to withstand. Pruning for health and strength of tree also includes the removal of unthrifty or diseased parts, which are not only an incumbrance to the tree, but may communicate to other parts the causes of their ill condition. Heat and Light.—The maintenance of strong bearing wood in the lower part of the tree is conditioned upon the proper pruning of the top of the tree. How far the upper levels or the shade-layer of the tree can be safely opened, depends upon the local climate in each fruit region. The rule must be the higher the summer heat the denser the tree; the lower the heat the thinner the tree; but every- where the proper condition of openness must be constantly in view in pruning. Not alone must this be done to maintain thrifty growth below, but it is also essential to the best growth and ripening of the fruit in the lower and interior parts of the tree. Fruit inferior in size, color and quality results, in part, from lack of pruning to regu- late the admission of light and heat, sometimes one, sometimes both, to the shaded portion of the tree. Bearing Wood.—Good fruit develops on good bearing wood and good bearing wood is the product of proper degrees of light and heat, as has just been urged. But bearing wood in the case of some fruits is new wood, and reduction of old wood for the purpose of forcing the growth of new wood must be constantly in mind. Re- newal is more or less a consideration with all trees, and especially the securing of strong new wood. This is a point upon which close study of the bearing tree will yield most satisfactory suggestions. Size of Fruit—The size of fruit, providing the tree is healthy and vigorous, depends upon the character and amount of bearing wood which the tree is allowed to carry. Removal of part of the fruit burden is done by thinning after it is well set, but this labor should always be minimized by antecedent pruning, which aims to retain more or less bearing wood according to the vigor, size and bearing habit of the tree. Thinning out of bearing shoots and spurs, when either are clearly seen to be in excess, should be the constant study of the pruner. Regular Bearing.—This point is largely involved in the preceding and affords an additional incentive. Regulating the amount of fruit borne in one year may involve the profit of two years, because a tree may not be able to produce an excessive amount of fruit and perfect good fruit buds for the following year. It may generally make buds which will bloom, but not always that. If it does make the bloom, it is no guaranty that the bloom will be strong and effective for bearing. Consequently, pruning for reasonable amount of bearing should always be borne in view and should be practised at the close of the year of non-bearing with particular diligence, if the alternate year bearing habit is to be broken up. FORMS OF TREES FOR CALIFORNIA 109 The foregoing are among the practical purposes to be served in pruning. There are others, but these will suffice to emphasize a single point, and that is, that pruning can not be compressed into a single formula, nor can one learn it by a recipe. There are various ends to attain; they may be attained in different ways, although it is not strange that substantial agreement in methods does largely prevail. It is better to try to understand the purposes than to memo- rize the formulae. Get the tree and its interest clearly in the mind; have an ideal toward which to work; be more interested in why a neighbor prunes in a certain way than how he does it. Learn con- stantly by all available means, and at the same time study the visible forms and aim to understand their fullest significance. FORMS OF TREE BEST SUITED TO CALIFORNIA CONDITIONS The form of deciduous fruit tree which prevails with singular uniformity all over the State is the “vase,” or “goblet,” or “wine- glass” form, all these terms signifying a similar shape. There are different ways in which this form is secured and maintained in dif- ferent parts of the State, and with different fruits, which will be especially noted in the chapters devoted to these fruits. The mainspring of success in California is to grow low trees. Low is a term admitting of degrees, it is true, and may imply a trunk six inches up to one or two feet, in the clear. In addition to the convenience of low-trained trees which has been mentioned, there are special reasons for this form in California. Hundreds of thousands of trees have been destroyed by the exposure of a long, bare trunk to the rays of the afternoon sun. The sun-burned sides have given the conditions desired by borers, and destruction has quickly followed. Sometimes young trees have not survived their first season in the orchard, because of burned bark, or this, with the added injury by the borers. It is also found by California experience that growth is more vigorous in the branches when they emerge near the ground. Even where actual burning may not occur the travel of the sap through the longer distance of trunk is undesirable. It is believed, also, that benefit results from shading of the ground at the base of the trees, by reducing evaporation, and by maintaining a temperature of soil better suited to vigorous root-growth. But whatever may be the reasons, the fact is indisputable, the higher the prevailing summer temperature, and the greater the aridity, the lower should the trees be headed. Trees which may do well in the central and upper coast region and adjacent to the bay of San Francisco, with twenty-four to thirty-six inches of clear trunk, would dwindle and probably perish in the heated valleys in all parts of the State. In such situation, both north and south, the best prac- tice is to head the tree fifteen, twelve, and even some hold as low as six inches from the ground. There will always be some difference of opinion as to detail, but the necessity of making the trunk short enough to be effectually shaded by the foliage is admitted by all growers. 110 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Variations of the Vase Form.—There are several variations of the vase form to be found in California orchards. The prevalent is a vase form with short-jointed leaders (secured by systematic cutting- back) which will be described in detail as the “common vase form.” Another, which is gaining in popularity, aims to grow leaders trained along in directions first chosen for them (without cutting back after the low head has been secured), and this may be described as the “vase form with continuous leaders.” The latter method aims to secure more open centers and to produce fruit nearer to the leaders, or, as one may call them, the ribs of the tree—the figure having a rough resemblance to the ribs of an inverted umbrella. These open-center vase forms will be described in the chapters on the apricot and peach, to which fruits they have been chiefly applied. Vase-Form Without Cutting Back.—An interesting experiment in the development and retention of the vase-form without cutting back the main branches after the first year in the orchard has been undertaken on the University Farm at Davis under the direction of Dr. J. C. Whitten, head of the Division of Pomology of the Univer- sity of California. The shaping of the tree begins by cutting back at planting to get a low head, the framework of the tree being secured by selection of three main branches properly placed on the short stem. These branches are cut back during the first winter to 16 to 24 inches in length and are not cut back afterwards—except in the case of excessive extension, when they may be shortened, if necessary, to a lateral which is to continue, as nearly as may be, growth in the same direction. Growth on these continuous leaders Forms of head resulting from cutting back Twelve-year-old apple tree in the writer’s garden in Berkeley, showing forms of head resulting from cutting back for greater and less spacing of main branches at planting. VASE FORM WITHOUT CUTTING BACK 111 is selected the following summer to make desirable branchings—all other shoots being tip-pinched to make a few leaves. After the leaders are well located in sufficient number, cutting back ceases and these main branches are kept properly clothed with bearing wood by thinning out supernumerary spurs and laterals and by pinching undesirable shoots during the growing season.* The method seems to be an improvement and extension to other deciduous fruits of the practice which has long been roughly fol- lowed in this State with apples, cherries, prunes and almonds which have for many years not been cut back after the young tree was properly headed and branched. It does however attach more im- portance to the dominance of main branches proceeding continu- ously and not zigzagging so much as in the common vase form. It also aims to preserve a more open center and by admitting light to the interior faces of the main branches to promote the growth of fruiting shoots or spurs upon them with good foliage which will not only give protection from sunburn, but will serve the future vigor and bearing of the tree much better than the robber-growth of multiple sprouts from cut-back branches. Too dense new growth is eliminated by thinning out shoots rather than by cutting back, and the growth of such supernumerary shoots is checked by summer-pinching. Dr. Whitten’s belief is that by growing such main branches with such development of foliage there will be secured not only more and better fruit, but also a stronger tree to carry it, and at the date of this edition (October, 1921,) he is antici- ‘pating from many orchard trials that his expectations, which are based upon protracted research both in plant physiology and orchard practice, will be realized. In due time, no doubt, the results of his faith and works will be published by the University of California, of which he heads the Division of Pomology. The current danger seems to be that growers of trees may mistake his advocacy of not cutting-back as equivalent to non-pruning, while it is, in fact, a claim for more elaborate, careful and intelligent pruning. Among questions to be decided are the acceptance by the tree of the method as best ministering to its requirements under cultural bondage and the availability of the method to the comprehension of the army of employes to whom the pruning of our vast acreage of commercial orchards must be entrusted. [Evidently the method must be fol- lowed in all essential details of its principles and practices to secure the results claimed for it. Characteristic of the Common Vase Form.—This vase form which has been so widely and uniformly developed in this State that it has been called the “California Vase Form” is a product of French ingenuity in the training of dwarf trees, but it has undergone very marked modification in California, losing much of the accuracy of its outline and gaining vastly in speed of work and in bearing capacity of tree without sacrificing any practical value which in- heres in the design. *An excellent account, with details and illustrations, of starting trees toward a system of “longer pruning” with little cutting back after attainment of bearing age, is given in Bulletin 313, University of California Experiment Station by Prof. Warren F. Tufts. 112 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM This vase form dispenses with the central stem or trunk at a certain short distance above the ground, but this is not done for the purpose of securing a hollow or open-center tree, which is a leading characteristic of the old European vase form. The few branches which are desired to grow from the short stem are pruned when the tree is young to induce successive branching with short interspaces. At each cutting the aim is to get two branches from one, and nearly as possible of equal vigor, so the California tree does not, except, of course, in occasional instances, show the outline of a leader from the bottom to the top, but there is a succession of branchings, turned this way or that by the skillful pruner, occupying available air space, distributing the weight so it comes more nearly over the cen- ter of gravity and at the same time knitting the fibers of the branch so that the weight of the fruit is well sustained. This idea, however, is not allowed to go so far as to wholly close the interior of the tree, but to retain such degree of open interior as is found desirable. When the tree is laden with fruit, the weight naturally expands the top quite enough to admit the sunlight without exposing either the fruit or the branches to danger of burning. Thus it appears that instead of the true vase or wine-glass, with hollow interior and thin walls, we have the general exterior outline of this model, but give a good part of the central area of the figure to bearing shoots, and thus secure a large bearing surface with well-strengthened supports. It has been believed that this many-branching form, developed upon a few main branches well placed upon the trunk, gives a — aa mee — ae f ee Pruning for branch spacing Yearling apple marked to cut back for greater or less space between main branches; also first year’s growth from each beginning marked for first winter pruning. PRUNING THE TREE AT PLANTING 113 stronger tree than can be had by growing a considerable number of leaders, all starting from near the point where the tree was headed at planting, which was common in earlier California practice. Such leaders crowd each other at the point of emergence from the stem, and when laden with fruit, sway outward and break out at this point. A vastly stronger tree is secured by starting but four or five branches from the low trunk and letting them emerge from different sides of the stem, and at different levels, as will be described presently. HOW TO SECURE THE COMMON VASE FORM For the benefit of the inexperienced reader, it will be well to illustrate the steps by which the form of tree so widely prevailing in this State is attained. Cutting Back at Planting.—This has been already mentioned as essential to strong growth of the transplanted tree. It is also the prime act in securing a tree with a low head and strong branches. Formerly trees were cut back farther than desirable and the branches allowed to crowd each other, as has just been stated. It is better to attain twenty-four inches of stem than twelve inches— providing care is taken during the first summer to prevent, by pinching, the growth of too many branches near together. Allow those to grow which are more distant from each other on the stem and pinch the intervening shoots. In this way one can have the lowest branch at six inches from the ground in the hot valleys if desired, or twelve inches in the coast valleys, and the highest branch at eighteen or twenty-four inches. This gives about twice the distance between the mainbranches which was formerly allowed,and it is of vast advantage to the strength of the tree. The illustrations of this fact on preceding pages are from trees planted by the writer in 1887 to test the matter. At this date they are large trees and show the forms of heads resulting from different spacing of branches on the young trees during the first summer’s growth. First, then, cut back the tree just after planting, as shown in the engraving, deciding first at which height you wish trees to form heads, and cut them all back as uniformly as possible and still secure a good bud just below the point of cutting. To preserve these buds the trees should be handled carefully while removing from the nursery and during planting. If the tree has already grown laterals in the nursery where the head is desired, three or four of these properly placed on the stem may be selected to form the main branches, shortened in to the sound bud nearest the stem, and other laterals, not desired to form the head, removed. This treatment is shown in the engraving of a young peach tree well branched in the nursery. If all the laterals on the young tree have been trimmed up above where the head is desired, as is sometimes the case, it may be necessary to remove the whole top, and usually others will start below afterwards. If there are no buds visible on the stem at the place where the head is desired, the 114 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM choice must be made between heading the tree higher up, where the buds are, or cutting back without regard to buds, trusting to the development of latent buds at the right place, or to the growth of a shoot from below, which can be cut back to form a head the fol- lowing year. It is for this reason, among others, that planters prefer a yearling tree which has not branched, but has good buds all along the stem. Peaches and apricots usually branch in the nursery, but usually have dormant buds at the bases of such branches which can be employed in making new growth where it is desired. After cutting back at planting, the shoots desired to form the head are allowed to make their full growth without interference. All shoots not desired for branches are pinched off at the tips, after growing out two or three inches, leaving the bunch of leaves to shade the trunk and contribute to its stouter growth. Constant watchful- ness is necessary to pinch off the tips of undesirable branches all the first summer. First Pruning.—In the winter following planting, the shoots of the previous season’s growth are cut back to about ten or twelve inches from their junction with the stem. Some prefer to cut shorter, but this is apt to huddle the branches too close together when they get old and stout. Growers, however, do not agree on the exact ‘length which these future main branches should be left at first pruning. If, during the first summer’s growth, all shoots except the num- ber desired to form the head have been pinched back, the first winter pruning consists only in cutting back the main branches. If laterals have grown on the parts of these branches which are to be left on the tree, they should be cut back to a bud or two. Some growers practice cutting away all such laterals cleanly because they are too young to bear fruit, but it is better to shorten and retain at least a part of them and, when growth starts, pinch the tips after throwing out a few leaves to shade and thicken the branches, just as the short growths left the previous summer serve the main stem. These leaf- bearing stubs on young trees should generally be cleanly removed at the following winter pruning. Second Pruning.—During the second summer it is usual to allow two branches to grow from each of the main branches cut back at the previous winter pruning, and to pinch off all others, as described. These branches are allowed to run out their full growth, except where excessive growth is made, and then it is repressed by summer pruning. This is done with the apricot in the warmer parts of the State, as will be considered at length in the chapter on that fruit. Usually, however, the main branches are untouched during the second summer’s growth unless some are riinning out so far as to make the tree lop-sided. During the following winter the main branches are cut back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth they have made, and if too many strong laterals have grown below this point, some are shortened, others are removed entirely where they are apt to cross or crowd each other or to interfere with culti- vation. It is not desirable, however, that all small growth should PRUNING BEARING TREES 115 be cleanly removed. Some of these small shoots will bear a little fruit and the leaf action is in any case desirable as a contributor to the strength of the larger branches to which they are attached. Besides, they serve to shade the bark from sunburn. Third Pruning.— When the tree reaches its third winter pruning, its form is well outlined, and early-bearing trees like the peach, apricot, almond, Japanese plum, etc., will give the grower a respect- able crop the next season. To bear this crop greater care should be taken at the third winter pruning to leave the small laterals low down on the main branches, for on them, clustered close in the head of the tree, most of the first crop will be found. Though some trees, as stated, do bear earlier than the third summer, the fruit is not usually considered of commercial account until the third summer. An engraving is given of a peach tree just after its second winter pruning. It is a very good representative of the common vase-form of a tree as grown in California. It has four main branches, each issuing from a different point on the stem, each permitted to carry two main branches, which are not arranged around the circumfer- ence, but some of them tending toward the center. At the third pruning more shoots have been left than are required by the rule, for, starting with four main branches, there are usually sixteen left at the third pruning. PRUNING BEARING TREES Three winter prunings of deciduous trees usually establish their permanent form, and subsequent pruning is chiefly directed toward the retention of that form; for strength of branch and stem; for renewal of bearing wood; for regulation of amount of bearing wood ; for relative light and shade, and for convenience in cultivation and other orchard work. Naturally, these ends are sought according to the needs and habits of different fruits, and the methods of attaining them will be discussed in the chapters treating of these fruits. There are, however, certain general considerations which are proper in this connection : In the case of fruit trees in vigorous growth purning during the active period or allowing the wood to go uncut during the dormant period, have the same effect, viz., the promotion of fruiting. Some trees, like apricots and peaches, which bear upon new laterals, will bear fruit even though heavily winter-cut, if these small laterals are retained on the lower parts of the main branches. Some other trees, like the prune, which bears on spurs, will delay the formation of spurs if heavily winter-cut. These two facts suggest two diverse policies in pruning bearing trees: A peach tree unpruned will reduce its crop for lack or weakness of new laterals; a prune tree too severely winter-pruned will reduce its crop for lack of old spurs. Again, some fruits, or varieties of fruits, bear chiefly upon the tips, others chiefly upon the lateral spurs; shortening one reduces the crop largely ; shortening the other may increase the marketable crop by decreasing the aggregate number. These and other similar facts 116 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM suggest that pruning bearing trees, to be intelligently pursued, must be accompanied with the fullest possible knowledge of the bearing habit of the fruit or variety thereof. Cutting back or “shortening in” should be done in a way which will reduce the burst of new shoots near the cut. This is measurably secured by always cutting the branch at a strong lateral, because the sap flow into this lateral prevents undue pressure and forcing of latent buds in the vicinity of the cut. For this reason the cutting back of all branches to a certain definite height is wrong. Trees shorn across at a certain line become thick as a brush with top shoots which require extensive thinning, or the bearing wood will soon be all at that level through failure of the densely shaded bear- ing wood below. Cut to the nearest lateral below the line you wish to approximate, and shorten the lateral, if desirable, and the result will be fewer and stronger shoots than from a stub-cut. In the treatment of bearing trees the main effort should generally be toward thinning or reducing the number of bearing shoots. This is related to the important work of thinning the fruit to reduce the burden of the tree, and will be mentioned again in that connection. The work has, however, a bearing beyond the size of the individual fruit specimens. It involves the whole future of the tree as a profit- able affair. An unthinned tree becomes a thicket of small, weak, and Yearling peach. Cut back at planting. First summer’s growth in the orchard. These sketches, and those on following pages represent the progress of the peach tree from a branched yearling to bearing form entering the third summer. PRUNING FOR FULL FRUITING we dying laterals and spurs. An attempt to cure this afterwards by sawing out many large branches is only partially successful, though perhaps the best thing that can be done after such condition has been allowed to exist. The only way to keep the interior of the tree full enough of strong, bearing wood is to resolutely and regularly thin out surplus shoots as the tree advances in age and size. This work is as important with trees which are not regularly cut back as with those which are thus treated. It is of the most vital as well as the most generally neglected item in orchard practice. First winter pruning. Second summer growth in orchard. In thinning out lateral bearing shoots seldom leave more than one at any point; select the strongest ; remove the rest close to the branch. When a new shoot springs out at the base of an older one remove the older one; when a new shoot breaks out on the side of an older one cut the older one back to that point. In thinning always reject the older, weaker laterals or spurs. This does not apply to the outbreak of strong suckers or water sprouts; wherever they appear they should usually be cleanly cut away unless a new main branch is desirable. Pruning of bearing trees should always have regard to the re- moval of branches which have become decrepit through sunburn, 118 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM —— Second winter pruning in orchard. Young apple and peach trees, showing branches well spaced on the stems. PRUNING AT DIFFERENT SEASONS 119 blight of disease of any kind, frost injury, or in any form die-back from whatever cause. Such wood is not only of lessened value, but there is also danger of extension of the trouble. Removing such wood and training new wood to take its place should always be in mind. Where cutting of large branches is demanded for any reason it should be remembered that the wounds are most quickly healed and least injury to the tree is to be apprehended if the cutting is done near the beginning of the growing season, and not at the beginning of the dormant period. Weak tree from ill-spaced branches. TIMES FOR PRUNING Some changes of views have lately prevailed as to the times, within the dormant period, during which winter-pruning can be done to the best advantage. Formerly it was thought to be a vital matter that no cutting should be done until the leaves had fallen, and this is still the prevailing practice, and may prove to be on all accounts the best. Recently, however, pruning in autumn has been quite widely practised. Fall pruning.—There is a time near the end of the active season in California when the foliage changes its aspect. There is no marked change in color, perhaps, but there is a certain limpness and drooping which betokens decided decline in activity. It comes first to the early fruits, the cherries and apricots, for instance, and upon old trees earlier than young ones. The buds are well formed; the season’s growth apparently complete. There are no frosts to hasten the fall of the leaf and it remains in place. Does it render any im- portant service? On the conclusion that it does not, many growers begin the winter pruning while the days are longer and the ground dry and firm, rather than delay pruning until the short, dark days and rain-soaked soil of December and January render pruning ex- pensive and disagreeable. Those trees are first pruned which first assume the appearance described, and the work proceeds with other varieties afterwards until the winter pruning may be finished by December 1—about the time when it commonly began under the old 120 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM practice. Not only is more thus accomplished in the same number of days’ work, but the orchard is earlier in shape for the winter spraying and cultivation, and the grower is ahead of his work and not behind it all the season if the season is unusually rainy. Several years’ practice of this method discloses no bad results except in the one item of increasing danger from frost. Vines and trees pruned early in the dormant period have a tendency to start growth earlier than those pruned late in the dormant period. In places, then, where early bloom and fruit-setting are particularly threatened by frost, this practice may be undesirable. Spring Pruning.—Resting largely upon this matter of retarding growth, the practice of pruning very late in the dormant period, or, in fact, at the beginning of the growing season, is also gaining wider adoption where frost injury is especially feared. It is not actual freezing, but a drop of two or three degrees below the freezing point which is feared, and during recent years such a temperature has wrought havoc with some fruits, in early valley regions particularly. Later pruning, even after the bloom and foliage have appeared, has worked no injury to the trees, but it is less conveniently done than when the trees are free of foliage. Summer Pruning.—Summer pruning, to induce bearing, is, as has been previously intimated, but little employed in this State, for the constant tendency of our trees is to bear early and to overbear. Enough has, however, been done in individual cases to show that fruit-bearing is promoted by pruning after the chief growth of the season has been attained. If the pruning results in forcing out laterals late in the season it has been done too early. What is desirable is the strengthening or development of fruit buds, and this will be accomplished after the energy has been too far dissi- pated to make new wood growth. Such pruning of the earlier fruits like cherries and apricots is done as soon as the current crop of fruit is gathered. Summer pruning to check the too exuberant wood growth of some kinds of trees is employed to some extent, chiefly in the warmer parts of the State, where the vegetative process in some trees seems fairly to run riot, and unless checked is apt to ruin the tree by breaking to pieces when the wind and weight of fruit test its strength. The methods of summer pruning employed in different parts of the State for different fruits will be considered in connec- tion with the special chapters on these fruits. Summer pruning to preserve form is another matter, and relates in the main to pinching in, to check undesirable extension and to direct the sap toward shoots in which growth is desired. This prac- tice is approved by most of our orchardists, and is employed by them to a greater or less extent. More people believe in it than practice it, however, because the summer months, with their long succession of fruits to be gathered and shipped or dried, and the additional consideration that there is always a scarcity of labor at this time, give the orchardist so much work to do that he is more apt to con- fine his “pinching” to a little that he may do now and then when he CUTTING TO DIRECT GROWTH 121 has a few moments’ leisure than to do the work thoroughly and systematically. The result is that the regular winter pruning is the main operation for tree shaping in this State. There is such a great difference in opinion about summer pruning that it will be very difficult to make any assertions about it which will not be disputed. Much of this difference comes, of course, from different conditions prevailing in different trees and in different parts of the State, and some of these will be met, as already prom- ised, in following chapters. Leaving these wholly out of considera- tion at this time, it is safe to advise those who wish to secure symmetry of any particular form in any kind of tree, that they can resort to summer pinching with advantage, and can sometimes to advantage remove wood too large for the thumb and finger to sever. Constant watchfulness should be maintained for adventitious shoots starting out on stem on limb at points where branches are not desired. Wherever they start out strongly, they should be pinched, or entirely removed, according to the best judgment to be formed in each case. They should not be allowed to divert the sap from the fruiting wood to make the generally coarse and sterile wood which is characteristic of them. Suckers which properly, according to Downing, are “shoots sent up from the root or from parts of the stem below the surface of the soil,” should be removed whenever dis- covered. In common California parlance the term “sucker” is used as a synonym for “water-sprout” and signifies undesirable shooting from any part of the tree or vine. Early in the growth of these shoots, they can be pulled from the bark, leaving only a clean, round hole. Later they must be cut, for removal by pulling will tear the bark to which they are attached. CUTTING TO A BUD Whatever may be used to make the cut, it is important to sever the twig or shoot at that distance from a wood bud which gives that bud the best chance to grow well, and at the same time facilitates the healing and complete obliteration of the scar. Cutting too far from the bud leaves a stub which dies back, and is likely to carry decay into the pith and thence down into the limb. Cutting too close to the bud or carrying the slope down too far behind it, does not give it enough live wood to carry it, and it makes a weak growth. In cutting to a bud it is desirable to hold the shears so that the cut shall be from the sides of the shoot over the bud. Cutting to inside buds with trees of spreading habit, and to out- side buds with upright growers, or to a side bud when lateral exten- sion is desired, should always be remembered as a means of throw- ing new growth in the direction demanded by symmetry and equal occupation of the space allotted to the tree. This is one respect in which study of the habit of the tree suggests proper practice. COVERING WOUNDS Whenever wood is cut with so great diameter that it will not grow over in one season, the wound should be coated with some- 122 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM thing to keep the wood from checking and decaying. It has been amply demonstrated by California experience that smooth-paring of the cut made by shears or saw is a waste of time. Large wounds should, however, be covered to prevent checking of the wood and drying back of bark edges. For this covering lead and oil paint may be used—a little thicker than for ordinary use, and applied sparingly, so that it will not run down the bark. Asphaltum, “Grade D,” applied warm, is now widely approved. It can be very satisfactorily applied with a brush made by cutting up baling rope into 14-inch lengths, bundling them to the thickness of one and a half inches, and winding with string tightly at intervals of one inch from top to bottom, only one end being frayed out to form a brush. As fast as this end wears off, one of the strings can be cut to give renewed length to the frayed end. GATHERING UP PRUNINGS Gathering up prunings for burning is tedious and expensive, and several efforts have been made to substitute machinery for hand labor. Anderson’s Brush Rake, invented by W. C. Anderson, of San Jose, has been used to some extent. It readily gathers all kinds of tree and vine brush, compresses it considerably and is easily dis- charged of its load by a slight lift while still going forward. It is said to save about one-half the cost of hand raking. Brush is often gathered into windrows by the use of horse rakes borrowed from the hay field. Baling Prunings.—There is a fuel value in prunings which has become more clear since pumping for irrigation is so widely prac- ticed, but loose prunings are too expensive in handling. T. G. Rogers, of Winters, has contrived a “brush baler.” It is a large strong saw-horse inverted, to which is bolted a long, heavy lever. Attached to a cross piece on the lever are four heavy tines bent ina semi-circle. The saw-horse is filled with brush, the lever is then pulled down and fastened by a ratchet brake, the brush is forced into a small, compact bundle, and when bound with wire makes a bundle easily handled by the fireman. Prunings for Fertilizing —Although many propositions for re- turning prunings to the soil and several machines for cutting have been used, such practice has never widely prevailed because of cost of labor involved. Several growers have, however, used a heavy feed cutter, run by a gasoline engine, and both mounted on a wagon-bed, and run through the orchard after pruning. Two men pick up prunings and feed them into the cutter as the wagon slowly proceeds. This waste from an evergreen tree seems to decay very readily in the soil as it is covered in by cultivation. PRUNING TOOLS There is some difference of opinion as to the comparative value of the pruning knife and the pruning shears. The knife, if sharp, and well used, makes a smooth cut, with no bruising of the bark, and HOW TO RENEW OLD TREES 123 such a wound heals over perfectly. The shears, if of good pattern and sharp, also make a very good cut, but there is always some little injury to the bark on the side opposite the entry of the blade. On small cuts, say three-quarters of an inch or less, if the blade is kept very sharp, the resistance does not make sufficient injury to the bark to seriously consider, and the speed with which the shears can be used renders them the main reliance for all the smaller pruning. Nearly all styles of hand shears are used in this State. There are, also, two-hand shears, which are very powerful, and enable one to work very quickly. When kept well sharpened they are very effective tools. There are a number of styles in use, both home-made and imported. Still another arrangement of shears is mounted on a pole, the cutting blade being operated by a cord, and having a spring to throw the blade back. The pole is jointed, so that one or more lengths can be used. With this device one can stand on the ground and shorten in the top shoots of a tree very handily. For larger cuts than can be made with the pruning knife or with hand shears, there are pruning saws of different styles, of which two styles are chiefly used. One has a frame made of the best spring steel, constructed somewhat on the plan of a butcher’s saw, except that the saw blade is much narrower; and instead of being station- ary, it revolves so that the pruner is enabled to adjust the blade to cut at any angle, as is often necessary to do when cutting where limbs grow close together, and where it would be impossible to use an ordinary saw of a wider blade. The blade is only one-fourth to one-half inch wide, and therefore not liable to get pinched in the cut. Strength is imparted by a tension screw under the handle, which tightens the blade. The blade is easily detached by slackening the tension screw, and lifting the blade out of the slot in the clutches at each end. The blade can be thus reversed and made to cut with a push or a pull, as may be desired. Another popular saw is the curved pruning saw, with twelve and fourteen-inch blades, which cuts with a pull. During recent years it has been possible to find quite full assort- ments of pruning tools at the hardware and general merchandise stores in all our fruit districts where these devices can be compared and selection made according to individual preference, for there can be no best tools for all men and all uses. RENEWING OLD TREES Improving and renewing trees by cutting back and grafting has already been considered under the head of propagation. It is often desirable to renew trees of a satisfactory variety, and this is done simply by cutting back when the tree is dormant. Cutting back was formerly done early in the winter, before the rise of the sap begins, but more recently it has been seen that the exposure of large cut surfaces for weeks or months before growth begins, results in drying and shrinkage of the bark and checking of the wood, both of which are avoided by amputation later in the dormant period or during the 124 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM early part of the growing season. In cutting back, of course, those stumps should be left to support new branches which will secure the best balance and symmetry in the new head. When the new growth starts there generally appear many more shoots than are desirable, and selection of the best-placed and most vigorous should be made, the others either being rubbed off in the bud or pinched back when a few leaves are put out. In cutting back trees, the exposed trunk and branch stumps should be wrapped in old sacking, or carefully whitewashed as protection from sunburn. In removing large limbs it is desirable that the cut should be made in the right place so as to secure quick covering of the scar with new growth. Cutting so as to leave a long stub results in an unsightly piece of dead wood on the tree, and this, in decaying, carries the decay deep into the center of the trunk or branch. Cut- ting too close prevents covering with the new bark, and also results in a hole in the trunk or branch. Cutting just to the right mark, which is the outer edge of the little collar or swelling which will be found at the base of all branches, enables the wound to grow over quickly, and if the wound is properly treated when cut, there will be no decay, and the wound will soon be obliterated. Old cavities in trunks or large branches should be excavated of all decaying material down to sound wood and filled with Portland cement, if small, and with concrete made of one part of cement to three parts of sharp sand, if the cavity is of considerable size. The filling should be firmly tamped into place and when it has hardened should be covered with hot asphaltum. Renewal of an old tree must be undertaken with a careful study of its present form and character, and it should be done by an ex- perienced pruner who has a good idea of what good form and thrift are and will work over each tree to meet its individual needs and possibilities. Generally speaking, the main efforts in such pruning are four—(1) to saw off cleanly all stubs from broken branches; (2) to remove branches which are weak or dead or are running across others which are better to keep or which are making the tree too dense and brushy; (3) to shorten to well placed laterals, branches which are growing downward or sidewise so as to interfere with light and space belong to other branches or interfere with cultivation or other orchard operations; (4) to remove, if otherwise possible, branches which are throwing the tree out of shape and likely to induce breakage or blowing over. In amputating large branches, an undercut with the saw should be made first so that the bark shall not be torn as the branch falls. Another good way is to saw off first at a distance from the final cut, and then saw off smoothly at the right place when the weight is removed. Trees sometimes become “hide-bound,” as it is called. The bark gets dry and tough, and apparently cannot expand as the growth of the tree demands. Slitting such trees here and there up and down the trunk and main limbs with a sharp knife seems to have good effect, for often in three months the cut opens half an inch, and a fine, clear bark, with an increase of growth, results. Bark- WHY FRUIT MUST BE THINNED 125 slitting, however, as a cure-all for tree troubles is irrational and probably an aggravation of ill-condition. On old trees, too, there is often a growth of moss and lichens which should be removed. This can be done by scraping off the rough, loose bark and spraying with an alkaline wash, composed of one pound of caustic soda or potash to six gallons of water. If scale insects are present, the lime, salt, and sulphur spray should be used, as will be described in the chapter on injurious insects. This will remove the parasites, give the trees a clean, bright bark and contribute to their vigor. But the renovation of neglected fruit trees is not usually a mat- ter of pruning and spraying alone. Generally, also, success depends upon good cultivation and wise use of fertilizers; also sometimes of irrigation, and sometimes of drainage. SUPPORTS FOR BEARING BRANCHES Props of 1x3 lumber or of light poles are commonly used. A great amount of ingenuity has been displayed by growers in the use of galvanized wire; wiring from opposite branches to each other through the tree; carrying wires from all branches to a ring in the center of the tree; carrying a wire around the tree and stapling each branch to it, etc. No clear preference can be declared in method of wiring, for each grower prefers his own method and condemns all others. On the whole but little wiring is done. Repairing broken trees where one or more main branches has split out from the trunk is feasible if one is a good mechanic and has proper outfit. A single limb can be drawn back to place with a block and tackle attached to remaining limbs and bolted to the trunk. Even when all branches have split down a pole equipped with block and tackle is set beside the trees so the limbs may be raised all at once to their former positions. Two to four bolts will tighten all together; and the limbs additionally supported by wires to staples in limbs on opposite sides. The cracks should be painted, and will heal over. The largest washers that fit should be used, and washers, bolts and staples will disappear as the tree grows over them. Trees thus repaired are still serviceable in different parts of the State twenty or thirty years after the operation. Trees which blow over in the dormant season can also be drawn back to place with team or tractor with block and tackle from proper anchorage and propped in place with scantlings, etc. Such trees have re-established themselves strongly. THINNING FRUIT Intimately connected with the pruning of bearing trees, is the thinning of the fruit or proper spacing of the individual fruits so that each shall have space and sap to allow its attainment of satis- factory marketable size. It has been fully demonstrated that no demand is profitable which will be content with the undersized fruit from an overladen tree. The superior price for good-sized fruit for 126 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM all uses, not excluding drying, is unquestionable; the total weight secured may be variable as between thinned and unthinned trees, but it can be accepted as an indisputable fact that any increase of weight there may be upon an unthinned tree will not be nearly an equivalent for the loss in value. It is the conclusion of our largest and most successful growers that large as is the expenditure re- quired for careful and systematic thinning of fruit, it is the most directly profitable outlay which they have to make for orchard maintenance. Objects in View in Fruit Thinning.—But thinning fruit has objects beyond the value of the visible crop which it makes profit- able. No overburdened tree can discharge the two-fold summer duty of every cultivated fruit-bearing tree, which is to perfect this season’s fruit and lay a good strong foundation for next year’s bearing. If the tree, after fruit gathering, has not the strong, vig- orous foliage to complete the formation of fruit buds for the fol- lowing year, there will either be a lack of bloom or a show of bloom unfit to set, and the tree will work for itself next year, and not for you, because this year you would not work for it. When to Thin Fruit— Thinning of fruit should begin with the winter pruning of bearing trees, as has been already urged in con- nection with regulating the amount of bearing wood allotted to each tree. After this is carefully done, there is the thinning of bloom, which is urged on the ground of least possible loss of energy by the tree in the partial development of fruit to be subsequently removed. Hand-thinning of individual blooms is impracticable on a commer- cial scale, but the removal of spurs or twigs, or shortening of them with shears, is feasible enough. The objection must lie in the fact that profusion of bloom does not necessarily indicate an excessive set of fruit, and any severe reduction of bloom is, therefore, ven- turesome unless one is fully assured by local experience of the habit of the variety under treatment. Reduction of the amount of fruit itself is, therefore, the only safe proceeding, and this should not, as a rule, be taken until the first drop, though lack of pollination, has taken place. Even at greater theoretical loss of energy to the tree, it is better to err on the side of thinning a little too late than too early in order to secure the fullest assurance possible of the perma- nent burden which the tree assumes. Where spring frosts are likely to occur they afford additional reason for delay. If surety of the local conditions comes before the pits harden in the young fruit it is fortunate for the tree, but even after that it is still a greater saving to the tree and assurance of profit to the grower to reduce the fruit to a proper amount than to permit over-bearing. The Practice of Thinning.—If the tree has not been sufficiently relieved of an excess of bearing wood during the winter pruning and has made a very heavy set of fruit, thinning with the shears by cut- ting out whole spurs or short bearing shoots, or even shortening in longer limbs, cutting always to a lateral when possible, is of no appreciable injury to the tree. After all the shear-work possible is THE PRACTICE OF THINNING FRUIT 127 done, the spacing of the fruits on the twigs and branches must be provided for. This was done in early days by beating the tree with a pole, and some still maintain that they can use the pole to advan- tage. The almost universal practice, however, is to use the hand in plucking or pushing off the small fruit. This is done very quickly by experienced workmen. If the trees are low, as they should be, most of the work can be done from the ground. It is best to work in vertical spaces and take all that can be reached from top to bottom without changing position; then move a step or two and take another vertical strip, and so on. In thinning above reach from the ground ordinary fruit-picking ladders are used. Some growers mount a platform above a wagon-bed, working around the tree, and assurance is given that a man will thin off as much fruit from such a platform as two can from ladders. The distance which should be left between specimens depends upon conditions. It is as unsatisfactory to thin by rule of inches as it is to prune by such arule. The space to each fruit depends upon the kind, the age, vigor and strength of the tree, the size and thrift of the lateral or spur, which carries the fruit, the moisture supply, the richness of the soil, etc. It also depends upon what use is to be made of the fruit, because it is possible to have some fruit which is too large for certain demands, though this objection does not often arise. The strength of the shoot is perhaps the most easily appreci- able factor. With peaches, for instance, a shortened lateral one- eighth of an inch in diameter should only carry one peach, while one one-quarter of an inch in diameter might mature four good large fruits. It would evidently be wrong to work for an arbitrary inch- distance on all sorts of shoots, and it will be seen to be just as irrational if it be applied without regard to the other conditions of the tree. If, however, a rule must be had, let it be this, that the distance between the fruit shall be two-and one-half times the diameter desired in the fruit. This would fix an arbitrary distance, then, of four to six inches for apricots and six to eight inches for peaches—with other fruits according to their respective sizes, and the late varieties with greater distance than early. Any such standard, however, considers only the size of the fruit, not the strength of the tree, and therefore stops short of one of the important ends of thinning—to conserve the strength of the tree for next season’s fruiting. Fruits might be thus spaced and still the tree be overladen, because it may be carrying too many bearing shoots. Calculate the burden of the tree in this way, for instance: Peaches which weigh three to the pound are of fair marketable size; sixty such peaches will fill an ordinary peach box of twenty pounds ; ten to twelve such boxes is fruit enough for a good bearing tree six to ten years of age. Now count the little peaches you have left on one main branch and its laterals, which ought to be about one-tenth of the tree, and thin down to about sixty. By doing a few trees in this way and thinking of the relation of the bearing wood to the fruit, one will soon get a conception of the proper degree of thinning, and proceed to realize it as rapidly as the fingers can fly along the branch. 128 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is seldom desirable to divide doubles in peaches ; pull both off or leave both on, as they may be needed or not to make the load of the tree. Clusters of apples or pears should often be reduced to singles, except where size is apt to be too great. All kinds of fruit are clearly subject to increase of size by thin- ning, but it is with only the larger fruits that the practice prevails at present. The dividing line seems to lie upon the prune. With this fruit thinning is only done by pruning the tree for the reduction of the number of bearing branches, while with some shipping plums hand thinning is practised. Growers are still striving for a prune naturally of larger size rather than to have recourse to thinning. The practice of thinning partially at first, trusting to further removal of fruit later if too much of it survives the natural drop and various accidents, is followed by some growers, but the rule is to finish at one operation. The size of oranges on over-burdened trees can be increased by thinning, just as other fruits are enlarged, but it is not systematically undertaken, because it is not so necessary and because it is perhaps easier to get oranges too large and to be discounted for over-large and coarse fruit. Removing part of the fruit from young trees is often done—for the good of the tree, not for the good of the fruit. z eased 99g)—* pavyo10 joorde Sutsweq v yo yoodse yes1rdA],—JA 91¥1d (@AI 5 op WAR AS SRE fg kW gee Plate VII.—Young cherry orchard in good form.—(See page 226.) CHAPTER Xiil CULTIVATION It was demonstrated very early in California experience in fruit growing, that “clean culture” is generally the proper treatment for trees and vines during the growing season, at least. Though the frequent stirring of the soil and eradication of grass and weeds have been advocated by certain horticulturists for generations and have recently been demonstrated to be desirable by careful comparative experiments it has nowhere secured such wide adherence as in Cali- fornia. It may even be held to be an essential to successful growth of tree and vine in most soils and situations of California, and the several advantages of clean culture are intensified under our con- ditions. Chief of these advantages is the maintenance of the soil in a con- dition favoring root growth, and the main feature of this condition is the retention of the moisture, though aeration and regulation of summer temperature in the soil are also involved. Where moisture- retention is not the chief concern, because of ample irrigation facili- ties, and the moderation of soil temperature of greater moment, a summer-growing cover crop may be of benefit to the trees. In irri- gated districts of excessive heat and dry air this policy is successful, but it may always be only the exception to the rule of clean culture for the greater part of our fruit-growing areas. Retaining Moisture by Cultivation—It is a familiar fact that water will rise in a tube of exceedingly small diameter very much higher than the surface of the body of water in which the tube is held upright. The water rises by capillary attraction. A compact soil has extending through it, minute spaces, formed by the partial contact of its particles, which facilitates the rise of water from moist layers below, in accordance with the same principle which causes the water to rise in the capillary tube. This movement is constantly going on in firm soil, and as fast as the top layer is robbed of its moisture by evaporation, the water rises from below and it too is evaporated. During the long, dry summer, the water rises and is evaporated from a depth of several feet in some soils, and the earth, beneath the baking sun heat, becomes “dry as a brick.” When a soil is broken up by cultivation, capillarity is temporarily destroyed through the disturbed layer, because the particles are so separated that the mutual connection of the minute inter-spaces no longer exists. But if it be only roughly broken up, so that the dis- turbed layer takes the form of coarse clods, the air has free access to the upper surface of the firm soil beneath them, in which the capillary condition still exists, and evaporation proceeds in the same way, though in a somewhat less degree, as if there had been no culti- vation. It becomes evident, then, that the pulverization of the dis- turbed layer must be so complete that the particles are separated 130 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and capillarity destroyed, and, further, that the free access of air to the lower point, where capillarity exists, must be prevented. This is accomplished by the fine loose earth which acts as a mulch. When this is attained, only that moisture in the upper surface which comes in immediate contact with the air is evaporated, and the balance is largely retained for the use of the plant. Plants growing, then, in a well-cultivated soil, have the water in the lower soil held for their use, and their supply is replaced from the firm soil below, which re- mains moist and permeable by roots which extend freely, seeking the nourishment they need. Such is a brief outline of the theory which explains the results gained by thorough cultivation of the soil, so far, at least, as reten- tion of moisture is concerned. The practical demonstration is easy. Go into a well-cultivated orchard or vineyard, push aside the soil with the foot, and moisture will be found two or three inches from the surface, or even less in some soils, while on uncultivated land adjacent, digging to the depth of several feet will show nothing but hard earth, baked and arid. In such hard-baked earth, moreover, the sun heat is conveyed or conducted downward very rapidly during a hot day, so that in some cases the roots are seriously injured. When the surface is well tilled, it will act like a blanket, preventing a too rapid conveyance of heat downward, and thus also diminishing the intensity of evaporation. Accurate demonstration of these facts has been secured as the result of many moisture determinations in cultivated and unculti- vated soil by the University of California Agricultrual Experiment Station.* The exact determination of moisture present at various depths of the soil beneath these contrasted orchards in the month of July is as follows: Cultivated. Uncultivated. Depth in soil. Per cent Tons per acre. Per cent Tons per acre. Mirst foot. i... somes 6.4 128 4.3 86 Second foot, .y cies 5.8 116 4.4 88 Third-foot 2a. cr 6.4 128 3.9 78 HourthstGotes.2.)e00 6.5 130 Bs | 102 Bitth, LOotien eerie s 6.7 134 3.4 68 Sixth FOOt aire nietencenews 6.0 120 4.5 90 Totals, six feet .. 6.3 756 2 512 This shows a gain of nearly fifty per cent of soil moisture by cultivation. Rise of Water from Greater Depths.—The foregoing facts apply to _the movement of moisture from the stratum which the roots of fruit trees chiefly occupy—estimated to be to a depth of about four feet from the surface when the soil is hospitable to them to that depth. Formerly it was generally argued that moisture would rise by capillarity from moist subsoils below that depth to replace the exhaustion of moisture from the upper layer and therefore surface cultivation would render all the lower water ultimately available for *Bulletin 121. WHY TREES NEED CULTIVATION 131 the use of the tree. It has recently been shown, however, that the rise of moisture from a deep moist layer to a drier layer above is slow and limited, and the practical lesson is that even with a deep soil and the best of cultivation, irrigation if often desirable for trees which for any reason are not inclined to root very deeply and help themselves to deep-lying moisture. Necessity of Adequate Cultivation.—It has been very fully dem- onstrated by California experience that adequate depth of tilth must be attained. The depth of cultivation, or the thickness of the dust- mulch, as some like to call it, must be sufficient to prevent the access of the dry air to the firm soil below. At the East, where they have a moister air, a thin mulch may answer, but in California, with a thirsty air for such a protracted period, there must be deeper tilth. Two or three inches of dust spread over a hardpan layer formed in some soils by cultivation, will not retain moisture well in California. The cultivator should go twice that depth, ordinarily, and then the result will be accomplished if it is done frequently enough to prevent the re-firming of the surface by atmospheric moisture or by the rise of moisture from below. Loss of Moisture by Weed Growth.—One of the most active agencies for the exhaustion of moisture from the subsoil is the growth of weeds. To cultivate the soil in winter and spring, and then to allow a summer growth of weeds to “shade the soil” is a great error. Although under cover of rank weeds moisture may appear even at the surface and convey the impression of moisture- saving, the fact is, as fully demonstrated by experience and actual experiment, the moisture in the lower layers of the soil is reduced and trees are thus robbed of their supply. Weed growth must be resolutely suppressed during the dry season, if one has to operate by rainfall or desires to make best use of irrigation water. Moisture Storage in the Soil—Conservation of moisture in the soil is not only the surety of the current season’s growth and fruit- fulness, but is the safeguard against injury from the years of de- ficient rainfall which occur now and then in California. The mois- ture supply is equalized by this storage of the soil, and a surplus from the liberal rainfall of one year is held over to supply the lack of the next. Of course, the well-cultivated surface is also well calcu- lated to catch water. While from a hard surface much of a heavy rainfall flows off quickly to a lower level before it can penetrate, a loose soil, if sufficiently deep, retains all that falls upon it, except the excess, which disappears by drainage. It has sometimes been held by California orchardists that plant- ing some tall-growing crop, like corn, so as to shade the young tree and the ground around it, is an advantage. This is a great mistake. Though some rich, moist soils may afford moisture enough to grow both the tree and the corn, it is a fact that in most cases the growth of the corn is made at the expense of the tree, and sometimes almost costs its life and thrift. It has been amply shown by investigation that though shading ground by a leafy growth may make the sur- 132 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM face layer of the soil moister, the lower layers are invariably made drier, and it is in these lower layers, to a depth of several feet, that the tree seeks its sustenance. The young tree should be shaded by its own foliage and protected from sunburn to the bark by white- washing, as has been described in the chapters on planting and prun- ing, and not by a growing plant. GROWING CROPS BETWEEN TREES AND VINES The possible advantage of a cover growth of clover in regions of high heat and ample moisture has been noted at the opening of this chapter. The rule, however, must be to grow nothing whatever be- tween the trees if you desire the full success of the latter. As with all rules, this one may admit of exceptions. Inter-cultures in orchard or vineyard may be allowed under certain conditions of the soil and the purse of the grower. If the soil is deep and moist and rich, the cost of planting and cultivation, and sometimes more, may be made by growing a crop among your trees. Of course, if irrigation is available, much more can be done in this direction than if dependent upon natural supplies of water. There is much difference as to crops in amount of injury they may do to the trees. Growing alfalfa, without irrigation, has been known to kill out an orchard, and yet alfalfa growing in an orchard under certain conditions may be a great advantage in some ways, as de- scribed in the next chapter. Grain is less dangerous, but still is objectionable, both because of exhaustion of soil and moisture, and because of danger to trees from heat deflected from straw and stubble. The crops least injurious, because of their requirements, and because the constant cultivation of them checks the loss of mois- ture by evaporation, are corn, beans, potatoes, beets, carrots, etc., squashes, and other members of the melon family, onions, and other shallow-rooting vegetables. In the growth of these, however, there should be a width of several feet of well-cultivated soil on all sides of the tree, unoccupied. In soils exceptionally rich and deep, and where rainfall is abun- dant, inter-cultures of small fruits or vegetables may be carried on for a long series of years with profit both from the trees and the inter-culture. In similar deep, rich soils, with irrigation, immense crops of small fruits and vegetables, even as high as twelve to twenty-four tons of tomatoes per acre, have been taken from between orchard rows, and one hundred and fifty sacks of onions per acre from between the rows of a strawberry plantation. In Ventura county some fields of lima beans, in favorable years, have paid over $70 per acre—grown between young trees. In other parts of the State considerable amounts of peas for sale to canners ate grown between the rows in young orchards. This crop is especially desir- able when good sale is assured, because the plant is hardy and can make a good part of its growth during the rainy season and the ground be cleaned up and well cultivated early in the summer. As beans and peas are legumes, their roots enrich the soil, as will be noted in the chapter on fertilization. INTER-CROPPING WITH FRUITS 133 How Exhaustion by IInter-Culture May Be Avoided.—But all inter-cultures are a loan made by the trees to the orchardist. The term may be very long and the rate of interest very small in some cases, but sooner or later the trees will need restitution to the soil of the plant food removed by inter-cropping. This may be accom- plished by the use of fertilizers. Still the rule that the trees or vines should have all the ground is generally true. It is also true that on merely ordinary soils, trusting to rainfall, or on shallow soils, trust- ing in part to irrigation, the trees or vines should have the full strength of the land and all the help which can be given them in the shape of thorough cultivation and intelligent cover-cropping. METHODS OF TILLAGE In general terms the main objects of tillage of orchard and vine- yard are two: Winter cultivation for moisture reception, and sum- mer cultivation for moisture retention. Wherever early winter plowing can be done without too great danger of soil washing, it affords the best available means of admit- ting water to the great reservoir in the lower levels of a deep soil. Too frequently large volumes of rain water, enriched by air-washing as it falls and by fine soil-particles as it flows, are allowed to run off into the country drainage, with the double loss of fertility and mois- ture to the fruit grower. Deep penetration of winter rains should be, in all safe ways, promoted. Cultivation for retention has already been strongly urged and is quite generally recognized. To serve these chief purposes there are two main divisions of practice in this State, each of which has variations of greater or less importance. First: Winter plowing followed by frequent use of cultivator and pulverizer in summer. Second: Use of disk or other cultivators at intervals both winter and summer, following, if needed, with pulverizer in the summer. The main features of each division of practice, and some of the claims by which each method is supported by its advocates, will be noted. Plowing Orchard and Vineyard.—There is considerable variation in the practice of plowing orchard and vineyard, in the kinds of plows employed, and the times chosen for the work. Some plow but once, toward spring, whenever the ground is in suitable condition ; and, if there is much growth of weeds and clovers, a looped chain is run from the plow to the end of the evener to aid in drawing under the tall growth. Sometimes, however, the growth gets so rank be- fore the soil is in condition to plow that the weeds must be mown be- fore plowing. Where but one plowing is done, the soil is usually thrown away from the trees and afterwards is leveled back by har- rowing or cultivating. If this practice is adopted, care should be taken that the soil is properly returned about the tree roots, for injury is sometimes done by bringing the roots too near the surface, which is soon afterwards intensely heated by the sunshine. 134 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The use of tractors, which has recently become very common, has greatly facilitated orchard and vineyard plowing and these motors are of incalculable advantage in promoting thorough tillage of fruit lands. It is undoubtedly better practice to plow earlier, when the green stuff gets a good start, but is still not too high to turn under handily. In this practice the weed stems are less woody, and they easily decay and act as a fertilizer. Where early plowing is practised, it is usual to plow again when the second growth of weeds reaches the proper state in the spring. When two plowings are given, the earth is usually thrown away from the trees in the first plowing, and re- turned toward the trees in the second plowing. But this order is sometimes reversed in situations where rainfall is heavy and the soil retentive, so that the dead furrow between the rows may act as a surface drain to carry off surplus water, which is thus prevented from standing around the tree roots. Dead furrows and hollow middles may be avoided by plowing around a row until within two or three feet of the next row on each side. Then plow two or three . furrows around those rows and go to the next one for another big land. This leaves dead furrows close to alternate rows. Cross harrowing levels the dirt in the rows by dragging it into the dead furrows. Next year these rows get the big lands. In all modes of plowing it is desirable that before the summer heat comes, the sur- face be leveled as completely as possible. Too much stress can not be laid upon the importance of plowing when the soil is in good condition and not otherwise. To disregard this is bad enough in all soils, but it is a grevious mistake to work any of the clayey soils when they are out of condition. If too wet, they are puddled by the plow and dry down in hard clods, impene- trable by air, and even resist water itself for a long time. When clods are thus formed, it may require long effort to bring the soil back to a good friable condition. ‘The cultivation of adobe is one of the problems of California agriculture. The more refractory it is, the more particular care is needed to take it when it is in proper condition to work. To work it when perfectly dry is simply im- possible, and if it is plowed when too wet and sticky, it becomes hard, lumpy, and altogether unmanageable. The condition which favors best results by tillage must be learned by experience. Another mistake apt to be made when the orchard or vineyard is but one of the branches of a mixed farm, is to put aside the plow- ing until all the field work is done, and in some seasons the soil in the orchard has become so dry that it turns up in large clods which are afterwards partially reduced by the harrow, but never put in the fine tilth which should be secured for the retention of moisture and otherwise to encourage the growth and productiveness of the tree, Breaking up Hardpan.—Those who advocate the use of the plow, claim several advantages for it. The chief is that more thorough tilth can be secured. In most, but not all soils, there is formed by cultivation an artificial hardpan at whatever depth the implement PLOWING ORCHARD AND VINEYARD 135 attains, if this depth can be kept the same for many successive culti- vations. This hardpan, in some soils at least, becomes impervious to water and is otherwise an injury to the growth of the trees. It occurs in irrigated and unirrigated land alike, but is more quickly formed by irrigation. When continuous summer cultivation is prac- tised, the hardpan will be found at whatever depth the teeth uni- formly reach. The remedy is to plow in winter just below this hard- pan layer and thus break it up, and then by the action of the air and rains it is reduced, and cultivation may proceed as before. Where the hardpan is formed by the plow, the ground should be plowed shallow one year and deeply the next, thus alternating from year to ear. : Where compact layers are found below the reach of ordinary plows a subsoil plow is used, and in some cases excellent results have followed the use of powder—with the charge fitted to shatter the soil without disturbing the trees. Green Manuring.—Another advantage in the use of the plow and the disk is, as has already been mentioned, the turning under of the growth of weeds, grass, and clover as a green manure. In recent years growers have learned the great importance of this, and those who had orchards in which winter growth had been killed out by long cultivation, are now growing a quickly-growing crop which they can sow with the first rains and secure enough to turn under with the winter plowing. This consideration will be further pre- sented in the chapter on fertilization. Plowing Hillside to Prevent Washing.—Where the slope of the land is sharp, there is much danger from washing during the rainy season, if the hillside is not terraced or furnished with ditches care- fully laid out on contour lines to carry the water down on a gentle grade. The old plan of plowing furrows one above another around the hill to check the flow and let the water down easily, is often found treacherous unless one is able to strike good grades, because of the liability to collection of water at certain points and the subse- quent breaking away and washing. Recently some of the foothill growers have adopted the plan of plowing furrows seven or eight feet apart straight down the hill in the direction of its steepest descent. The rainfall is thus distributed over the ground so that not much water is collected at any one place and the harm done by wash-. ing will not amount to much. Hillside work differs according to character of soil and of local rainfall and conference with experi- enced men in the region will usually afford the beginner the best suggestions of method. In some localities, the plowing of a few furrows at intervals to assist in penetration and the growth of a cover crop during the winter to assist in binding the soil, will be found better than any attempt at the early plowing, which may work admirably on level lands. The Best Plow.—For plowing orchards and vineyards many kinds of plows are used, including the ordinary one- and two-horse walking plows, single and double sulky or riding plows, and gang plows of different kinds—largely operated by special forms of 136 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM orchard tractors. Recently disk plows and harrows have become very popular. In several of the leading fruit districts there are plows made in the local shops which are patterned to meet the differ- ent soils prevailing. Which is the best plow is a question which can not be answered ; it must be determined by local conditions, and the best way to get information is to consult the experienced cultivators of the locality and to watch the effects of one’s own operations. Avoiding Injury to Trees and Vines.—The great problem is to use the plow so as not to injure the trees and vines. Injury to the roots is one ground on which those who advocated the banishment of the plow from the orchard and vineyard based their opposition, as will appear more fully presently. It is the usual practice to run the plow shallower when approaching the stem of the tree or vine, and this is easily done when using a riding plow or a two-horse walk- ing plow or a tractor outfit between the rows and finishing up near the trees with a single-horse walking plow. The injury to the bark of the tree or to the vine stump and to the roots is thus minimized. Makers of the special orchard and vineyard plows have recently made them adjustable so that the plow will work either side of the central line of draft, and these improved tools have rendered obsolete the early contrivances for accomplishing the result with common field plows. Extension of disks and of spring-tooth harrows are often made by attaching the parts to the ends of a central piece in such a way that the horses walk in the centers and the cultivators work under the low branches and very near to the stems of the trees. These are chiefly used with citrus trees whose foliage and fruits are permitted to grow very near to the soil surface. All modern implements offered for work in the orchard or vine- yard have adjustments to enable careful cultivators to avoid injuries to the bark of trees or vines, and home-made devices for protection are no longer required—still intelligence in workmen is indispens- able. SUMMER TREATMENT OF ORCHARD AND VINEYARD Where the orchard or vineyard is plowed twice during the win- ter, the land should remain after the first plowing as the plow leaves it. The moistening and aeration during the winter have good effect upon the soil both chemically and mechanically. If but one plowing is done, when the chief rains are supposed to be over, there must be full effort put forth to reduce the soil to good tilth and to level the surface as much as possible. This is done by harrowing with one of the several improved harrows which are now generally available and found very effective. They act in cultivat- ing, clod crushing, and leveling, in a most satisfactory manner. They are too well known to need description. Each has its advocates and its adaptations to certain soils. As with plows, so with harrows and cultivators, the best for one soil may not be the best for another, and local inquiry among experienced fruit growers will be the best guide CULTIVATORS AS SUBSTITUTE FOR PLOWS 137 for the new-comer. In addition to the excellent implements brought from the Eastern States, there are others of California invention and manufacture which have very marked local adaptations, and almost every fruit region in California has some embodiment of local in- ventive genius in the form of implements of tillage. The secret of success in handling the heavier soils in spring work- ing is to secure as perfect surface pulverization as possible without compacting the soil. Light soils need a certain amount of firming after plowing, or else there is too free access of air and too great drying out. For these and other reasons, the grower has to study his soil and learn from observation the methods which succeed best with it. The practice which gave success under certain conditions might not be well adapted under other conditions. The use of the roller is a striking example of this fact. In some orchards the roller is a benefit, in others a decided injury. Its chief effect is compacting the surface layer, which is only desirable on very coarse open soils. The long-tooth harrow accomplishes a very marked compacting of the soil to the depth it reaches, and often settles the lower layer too closely and causes it to run together too solidly if rain follows. The modern cultivators, clod-crushers, disk-harrows, etc., are superior in effect, each in the soil to which its action is most desirable. After working down the soil after plowing, the cultivator is relied upon to kill the weeds, break up the crust which may form after spring rains or after irrigation, and to prevent the compacting of the surface layer of the soil from any cause. CULTIVATION WITHOUT PLOWING There are some orchards in California which have not been plowed for years—in some cases the plow has not been used since the trees were planted. Instances of this kind are to be found both in irrigated and unirrigated land. It depends largely upon the me- chanical condition and disposition of the soil whether the practice will give satisfactory results. It can not be trusted on land prone to develop hardpan, as has already been considered, and yet the term “cultivation” has taken such a wide range in this State, and the tools have reached such efficiency, that there is not as much differ- ence as formerly between the plow and the cultivator, except that the former turns the soil and the latter stirs without turning. For some who oppose the use of the plow, use a chisel-tooth cultivator, cutting to a depth of eight inches in the spring, but at other times of the year they are not more than half as deep. This treatment would tend to dispose of hardpan. However this may be, and whatever the special nature of their soils, there are fruit growers, both in northern and southern California, who have for years trusted almost wholly to the cultivator, cutting to a depth of 3 or 4 inches, and keeping their orchards throughout the year almost in the same state of tilth, never allowing a weed to grow. This practice is, however, becoming less prevalent, and for certain soils the question is practically settled in the minds of nearly all orchardists, while for other soils there is still doubt. For the heavier soils, which continuous shallow cultiva- 138 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM tion is apt to render too compact, it is necessary to have recourse to the plow to open the land for proper aeration and penetration of moisture which otherwise would be largely lost by surface run-off. The lighter soils do not require this and they seem to do well with continuous use of the cultivator. It is beginning to be clearly seen, however, that this treatment tends toward the decrease of the or- ganic matter and the consequent impoverishment of the soil. Its water-holding capacity is also lessened. These facts have induced some growers to change their practice and to take up the plow dur- ing late winter or early spring, to turn under a winter growth of a legume sown for the purpose or to cover in the growth of green stuff which they allow to grow instead of frequently destroying it with the winter use of the cultivator. Either the fall and spring plowing, or both, followed by the summer use of the cultivator, is the most ra- tional and satisfactory practice for most of our deciduous orchards, though there are local conditions and circumstances under which different procedure is preferable. SUMMER CULTIVATION Whatever the winter policy may be, the essential point in sum- mer cultivation is to preserve the surface layer of pulverized earth. It will not do to have a few inches of clods, from the size of a pea to that of a goose egg, resting on a hard surface. The finer the pulver- ization the shallower can be the surface layer, and vice versa, and this is probably one reason why in practice the work of the plow is, in so many situations, found the best foundation upon which to rest the year’s cultivation. In order to secure this finely-pulverized layer, it is sometimes necessary to use what is called a “rubber,” where there are many clods which are merely displaced by the harrow or cultivator. There are different styles, and they are generally home-made. The most common form is made of two-inch plank in lengths of three or four feet, bolted or spiked to pieces of four-by-four-inch scantling running crosswise, the edges of the planks lapped like the clapboards which are used for weather boarding. As these edges are drawn over the surface, the clods are rubbed into tilth if they are not too hard and dry. But this rubbing may be very undesirable if it leaves the surface smooth and polished. It may reflect the sunheat even to tree- burning, and is apt to form an evaporating surface, which is almost to be avoided. The best finish for the land is that produced by a light, fine-toothed harrow, and an attachment of this kind is provided with various clod crushers and cultivators. The result is a surface of loose earth, flat and fine, which approaches very closely an ideal condition. . There is less difference than formerly in the use of the harrow or cultivator during the summer. Still some are content to use the cultivator only as a weed-killer, and after the weeds cease to grow and the spring showers are over, the cultivator is laid aside and the DIFFERENT KINDS OF CULTIVATION 139 land left unstirred until the following winter. This, of course, refers to unirrigated ground, for wherever irrigation is practised a culti- vator must follow, except on hillsides where the surface is left undis- turbed after the irrigation furrows are made for the season. It is a fact, however, that even if no rain falls, the soil becomes compacted to a certain degree, and the best way to imprison the greatest pos- sible amount of moisture below is to run the cultivator at intervals all through the dry season. It should run shallow and only stir the surface layer. The experience of the most successful growers is that frequent stirring without, however, bringing new soil to the air, is the best-paying practice. WHAT, IS THOROUGH .CULTIVATION As clean, thorough cultivation has been approved, it may be desirable to attempt to define the term. It can, however, only be approximately done, because of the great difference in individual views and practices. Some indication of the operations which are contemplated may be had in the following specifications upon which contracts have been let for care of orchard: First, plowing away from the trees, followed by harrowing; second, plowing toward the trees, followed by harrowing ; ten summer workings with cultivator ; three working with shallow cultivator or weed-cutter; five hand hoeings around the trees. The contract intends the most complete and perfect working of the soil and specifies the above merely that there may be no difference of opinion between owner and contractor. With the best team and implement work which can be done there always remain the need of quick hand work in hoeing around the trees. As an offset to the cost is the additional moisture-conserva- tion, for hard ground around a tree sucks out and evaporates much moisture and draws it sidewise from far beyond its own area. Hard soil in contact with the bole of a tree is apt to pinch the bark, pre- vent expansion and perhaps cause gumming. It is also a safe refuge for many kinds of pests which a good stirring may destroy. CULTIVATION FOR WEED KILLING Cultivation for weed killing is a minor consideration in Cali- fornia, because cultivation for moisture conservation effectually dis- poses of most of them, and weeds do not start readily in the earth- mulch during the dry season. There are, however, a few most per- sistent pests which require heroic measures. Johnson grass and morning-glory are the most prominent of these.* The only suc- cessful treatment consists in cutting constantly with a weed-cutter (a sharp horizontal knife), operated so as to pass under the whole surface and run so often that the plant is never allowed to show a shoot on the surface. It is of no use merely to cultivate or “weed- cut” as for other weeds. This spreads the pest more and more; but *Special publications on reduction of morning-glory and_ other running weeds and grasses, can be had by application to the College of Agriculture, Berkeley. 140 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM if the rising shoots are continually cut under the surface, and never allowed to get the light, it will kill the plant surely, but it may take two seasons to do it. Weed-cutting knives of this description are often contrived by local smiths and are attached to sleds or fitted with plow handles, or used with a pair of thills and cultivator handles or other rigging as the operator may choose. The vital point is a blade of sheet steel, very sharp and rigged to run just under the sur- face. These home-made devices are, however, largely displaced by implements of various sizes (for team or tractor), with flat, short teeth. They must be used as often as once each week during the growing season of the plant to be destroyed. MULCHING A SUBSTITUTE FOR CULTIVATION The use of a mulch or covering of the ground with a litter of light materials to prevent evaporation, is practised to a small extent in this State. Though mainly used for berries of different kinds, re- course has also been had to mulching by vineyardists. The materials used are various, such as partly-rotted straw, coarse manure, dam- aged hay, corn-husks, corn-stalks, vine prunings and leaves, and even fine brush from adjacent thickets. The practice has been found of greatest value on hillsides where cultivation is difficult, and dan- ger of washing of loose soil is great. There arecases where vines have been grown several years in this way to the satisfaction of the owner. The danger of fire in our dry climate when the surface is covered to a depth of several inches with a dry mulch is considerable. As a rule, the mulch employed by the California grower is a per- fect pulverization of the surface soil. CHAPTER XIV FERTILIZERS FOR TREES AND VINES It was a popular doctrine among early Californians that Cali- fornia soils would never need fertilization, and that there is some- thing in our soil and climate which would release us forever from repaying anything to the ground for the wealth of produce which we take from it. Such a view was, of course, without foundation, and yet it is not difficult to see how it arose. Early attempts to enrich the soil by the turning under of coarse stable manure, as is done in other countries, was undertaken here on light soil in a region rather short of rainfall. The manure did not decompose, and its coarse materials made a soil, already too light to retain moisture well, so open and porous that its moisture was quickly carried away by evaporation, and crops did not grow so well as upon adjacent land which had not been manured. So the fiat went forth against manure. The corrals became undisturbed guano deposits, and ma- nure piles were fired in dry weather to get the “soil poison” out of the way. Innumerable tons of bones were gathered and ground in San Francisco and shipped away to countries which need fertilizers ! Nature did much to foster the popular delusion, for field crops were gloriously large, and trees and vines grew rampantly and bore fruit the weight of which they were unable to sustain. How could there be more conclusive evidence that manure was a detriment to Cali- fornia soils? A few decades of experience have swept away such fallacies and now California growers, especially those handling citrus fruits, are not only freely investing in commercial fertilizers, but are buying and shipping considerable distances all available animal manures, having cleaned up all available accumulations during the pioneer period of non-fertilization. They are also untiring students of the art of fertilization and the sciences underlying it. It was in re- sponse to that demand that the California Legislature in 1903 passed a fertilizer control law. All dealers are required to register and submit samples of their brands and there is constant inspection to detect departures. Semi-annual reports are published for public in- formation and these, with special instructions for taking samples when purchasers desire analyses on their own account, can be had by application to the State Department of Agriculture at Sacra- mento. The total amount of sales reported under the law for the year ending June 30, 1920, was 58,636 tons. During the last few years the University Experiment Station chemists and bacteriologists have continued studies of California soils and their relation to fertilization and have conducted prolonged experimentation toward the establishment of fundamental facts and the interpretation of their practical significance. In the course of this work they have made notable contributions to the science of 142 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM soils and plants which may be described as revolutionary in their relation to older tenets and points of view. There is good reason to believe that the progressive effort which is now being made for fuller understanding of facts and reasonableness of practice will reconcile the conflicts which have so long prevailed both in scientific doctrine and in horticultural experience and point the way to more efficient and profitable recourses in soil restoration and plant feeding. For the purpose of presenting to fruit growers in popular language con- crete conclusions involving the latest results of thought and research on these subjects Dr. C. B. Lipman, Professor of Soil Chemistry and Bacteriology in the University of California, who is a leader in both philosophy and research, has kindly written for this work all which follows in this chapter and merits the gratitude of the reader for this generous service. OLD AND NEW VIEWS OF FERTILIZATION The popular conception of a fertilizer, held both by the manu- facturer and consumer, and by many experts, is that it is a substance which contains some chemical element or elements essential to plant growth, and which by application to the soil takes the place of similar material extracted from the soil solution* by plant roots or lost in the leaching of soil by rain or irrigation water. By this conception, fertilization constitutes a method for the so-called main- tenance of a somewhat mysterious something spoken of as “soil fertility.” Like most popular conceptions, the foregoing contains a germ of truth, but when taken literally, it is more mischivous than useful and is responsible for much erroneous and unprofitable farm — practice, and an endless amount of loose and fallacious thinking, and expensive and wasteful experimentation. If the purpose of fertil- izers were merely to make good the losses of certain chemical con- stituents in the soil moisture occasioned as above explained, the problem would be indeed a simple one of maintaining the crop- producing power of any soil at a high level; and the very simplicity of the idea is probably what constitutes its attractiveness, and accounts for the tenactiy with which it is held. Unfortunately for the man on the land, however, the matter is not simple, and recent investigations have shown conclusively that while the task just mentioned may be one of those performed by fertilizers, it is probably only a minor one in most cases where fertilizers are used, and in many cases where they are of distinct benefit to plant growth, they may not function in that way at all. Thus, this very attractive popular theory of the function and purpose of a fertilizer must be largely discarded. We are not dealing with a simple mat- ter of subtraction and addition of certain chemical elements to soils, but with a very complicated series of phenomena in the soil and in the plant, which, despite the rapid progress of our knowledge during the last five years, are far from being understood. This is not the place to discuss these important considerations which will form the *The soil solution is the medium in which plant roots and soil bacteria grow and, so far as we know, now consists of most of the soil moisture, which makes a solution of soil salts (nutrient and non-nutrient), and is distributed around and between the soil particles. SUBSTANCES REQUIRED BY PLANTS 143 subjects of future treatises on the interrelationships between soils and plants. Nevertheless, we may, with profit, consider briefly a few essentials to a more rational conception of the fertilizer and fertilization problem than the simple and attractive, but wholly in- adequate, one mentioned above. THE CHEMICAL ELEMENTS ESSENTIAL TO PLANT GROWTH Careful investigation has shown that there are at least ten of the eighty-odd chemical elements known, without any one of which green plants cannot live. These elements are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sul- phur, and iron. The first three of these are supplied from the carbonic acid gas of the air (carbon and oxygen) and from the water in the soil (hydrogen). The air is never short of all the carbonic acid gas which may be needed by plants. A proper supply of water to soils can be readily insured in most cases. The problem of the supply of the essential elements for plant growth in soils, therefore, is limited to the other seven elements named above. Nitrogen is supplied very largely from the soil’s organic matter supply and is transformed from the organic, insoluble, and complicated form therein, to a simple soluble, inorganic form (principally nitrates), by the action of certain micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) which live in the soil. The other six elements are to some degree also furnished by the decomposition resulting in simplification and mineralization of the soil organic matter, but are chiefly derived from the mineral particles of the soil which take their origin in turn from the rocks and minerals originally disintegrated by weathering agencies to form the more or less powdery mass making up a primi- tive soil. Even the small amounts of minerals contained in the de- caying organic matter were derived originally from the purely inorganic, mineral sources upon which the plants initially composing it obtained them. This is also true of nitrogen. In fact, the original rock from which the first soils were formed probably contained no organic matter, and hence the primitive plants which first made their appearance on the rock surfaces of the earth from some unknown source must have subsisted, as do our green plants today, on the mineral elements from which they synthesized organic compounds and, on their death, left organic residues from which more resistant portions have accumulated such organic matter supplies as we find in our soils today. Now, while all of the ten chemical elements named above are indispensable to the life and normal growth of our green plants, every one of them is not needed in the same quantity as every other one for the constitution of plant tissue. Very nearly the entire weight of a plant consists of three elements, viz., carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, derived as above explained, from an ever abundant supply of carbonic acid gas and water. For example 97.4% of the corn kernel consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and in timothy hay the same three elements make nearly 95% of the total substance. 144 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Only a very small proportion of the weight of plant substance, there- fore, consists of the other seven essential elements. The amounts of these substances contained in some of our fruits is shown approxi- mately in the following table, taken from analyses made by Pro- fessor G. E. Colby, formerly of the California Agricultural Ex- periment Station: Quantities of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Fruits Fresh Fruit Total Potash Lime Phosphoric Nitrogen 1000 pounds Ash Ibs. Pounds Pounds Acid Ibs. Pounds Almonds? io isis actos 17.29 9.95 1.04 2.04 7.01 A geteuts,/..cchok sn cee 5.08 3.01 16 .66 1.94 Apples tii, nae hi 2.64 1.40 1 233 1.05 Bahanac tinicsetiacietiee 2 10.78 6.80 10 a7. .97 Ghenries (escort cape? 4.82 217 .20 Ae, 2.29 Ghestrutshs ses oe 9.52 3.67 1.20 1.58 6.40 Byes ee the as make Ge 7.81 4.69 85 86 2.38 Grapes ees te saee 5.00 2.55 Zs 11 1.26 Bemons (0h RO ki es 5.26 2.54 1.55 58 1.51 £0 UN SOBESE IE? Sani Oram 13.50 9.11 2.43 1.25 5.60 PEARS ike re ola seis nig 4.32 PBS 97 53 1.83 CACHES fat iie oe ins rahs o: 5.30 3.94* .14* .85* 1.20* PEATS fe, rte tose 2.50 1.34 19 .34 .90 Prunes, French ....... 4.86 3.10 .22 .68 1.82 LEAR LTT Cte ae OER ray ES 5.35 3.41* Aes or fshs 1.81 Wralatats ee aes have 12.98 8.18 155 1.47 5.41 tIncluding hulls. *Estimated. Why Such Analyses May Not Bea True Guide in Fertilization.— A little calculation on the basis of the data in the foregoing table will make it quite clear that a ten-ton crop of fresh grapes would only remove from the soil about 51 pounds of potash, 5 pounds of lime, 2.2 pounds of phosphoric acid and 25.2 pounds of nitrogen. A very large crop of fresh apricots (about ten tons) would remove from the soil about 60 pounds of potash, 3.20 pounds of lime, 13.20 pounds of phosphoric acid and 38.80 pounds of nitrogen. Now even a very poor soil contains in the upper three feet per acre, which are only a portion of the plant roots’ foraging area, about 12,000 pounds each of potash and lime, about 6,000 pounds of phosphoric acid and about 3,000 pounds of nitrogen. Moreover, some of the portions of the fruit are frequently returned to the soil, and irrigation waters, where such are used, most commonly carry in solution large enough quantities of the essential elements to more than make up for the losses sustained through the removal of the fruit crop. This kind of reasoning, coupled with the fact that even moderately good soils may contain ten times as much potash and lime, twice as much phosphoric acid, and three times as much nitrogen as the poor soil cited, and also the fact that much more than three feet of soil in depth are frequently available for root development, make it very clear that the essential elements are found in nearly all soils in quantities sufficient to last for centuries. Of course, these are definite quantities and if we consider our obligations to posterity we should contemplate ways and means for preventing unusual and WHAT ARE PLANT FOODS? 145 unnecessary losses of the essential elements from our soils, but there must be some other reason or reasons than that for the good effects obtained by fertilizer applications to fruit crops, especially on new or very young lands. The most readily advanced reason, of course, is that while the soil minerals contain the essential elements in plenty, they are not “available.” Let us now study the meaning of this term “available” and see if the consideration of “availability” is adequate to the explanation of the condition in question. “PLANT FOODS” AND “AVAILABLE PLANT FOODS” The term plant food is a misnomer. It is intended to apply to the essential chemical elements above mentioned, which enter into the composition of plant food, and which is a term that should apply only to the starches, sugars, proteins, and fats which really serve to sustain the plant and which are products of the plant’s own activity. The term is, therefore, used incorrectly by most people and should be supplanted by the term “essential elements” to plant growth. With this idea clearly in mind, we may next inquire what is meant by the expression “available plant food.” Here again the term plant food is used erroneously, as already explained. But the term “available,” as commonly used, is intended to mean that the substance to which it is applied is soluble in the water of the soil when introduced there. Recent studies in the chemistry of the soil have revealed the fact, however, that availability of a chemical element or compound from the standpoint of the plant, as well as that of the soil, is not merely the simple question of the solubility of that substance in the soil water, but of something more. A sub- stance, to be available to the plant’s roots, must not only be soluble in the soil water, but it must be so balanced with the other con- stituents of the soil water (soil solution) as to be assimilable, which is by no means always true under soil conditions. Moreover, a substance to be “available” in the broadest sense must not only possess the two attributes just discussed, but, in addition, should not be poisonous at the concentration at which it is found in the soil solution. It follows from what has just been said that a fertilizer salt or other substance does not necessarily become usable and available to the plant merely because it dissolves in the soil water. It may indeed dissolve in the soil water when first applied to the soil, but soon thereafter become insoluble by reacting with some soil mineral and from such reaction a new soluble substance may be formed and a new insoluble substance, which latter contains in it the essential element which it is desired to make available. This leads us to conclude that the application to a soil of a soluble fertilizer salt like nitrate of soda or sulphate of potash does not by any means insure the increased supply thereof by that amount in the soil solution. On the contrary, it may mean no increase of that substance at all in the soil solution available to the plant’s roots. This important fact has been brought out by an investigation recently conducted in 146 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the writer’s laboratory, which proved that lime and gypsum have very different effects on different soils, depending on the kinds of minerals and other substances which are contained in the soil origi- nally. The addition of calcium in the form of lime increased the amount of calcium in some soils, but not in others. This disposes of the belief so tenaciously held by nearly all, soil and fertilizer experts included, that the chief and only function of a fertilizer consists in its furnishing a certain one or more plant food elements which it contains to the soil solution. We can never really be certain when we apply any fertilizer element to a soil that we enrich the solution of that soil with respect to that element. That may occur in many soils, but may not occur in many others. On the other hand, it is likewise true that when a fertilizer element applied to a soil does not enrich the soil solution with respect to itself, it may do so with respect to another element theretofore insoluble. For example, we may apply sulphate of potash to a soil without enriching the soil solution there with respect to potash, but we may enrich it with respect to calcium, magnesium, sodium or some other element which may or may not be needed by the plant. While all this is true, how- ever, the reader will doubtless readily grasp the significance of the general situation, which may briefly be put in another way for emphasis. If fertilizers carrying essential elements to plant growth when applied to soils do not necessarily furnish those essential ele- ments to the soil solution and still benefit the crop, the improvement may be due to the increased supply, through the agency of the fertil- izer, of some other element not necessarily essential, or an essential element heretofore regarded as of minor importance which stimu- lates the plant, not because it furnishes a lacking element, but be- cause it causes increased cell growth in some other manner not now understood by us. This may mean that we shall be able to use many cheap salts or minerals for fertilizers to set free the essential ele- ments already contained in the soil minerals or to stimulate plant growth otherwise. Certainly, it may mean that in many soils we shall be able to obtain an ample supply of soluble potassium in the soil by applying, not potash fertilizers, but some substance which does not contain potash, but which will set it free from its combina- tions in the insoluble soil minerals. The reader will readily see that this situation may effect profoundly the economics of the fertilizer situation. The question that naturally arises next is how to de- termine in practice the proper procedure in soil treatment by fertil- izers. This will be taken up in detail in a special section below, after a few other essential matters have been discussed. THE “SPECIFIC” EFFECTS OF ‘THE ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS ON PLANTS The text books on soils and those on plant physiology teach, so far as | know, with a rare exception or two, that the so-called plant food elements of fertilizers—nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium— are not merely essential to plant growth but that each produces a specific effect on the plant which is outwardly visible. For example, WHAT FERTILIZERS DO FOR PLANTS 147 nitrogen is supposed to stimlate leaf and stalk development; phos- phorus is presumed to increase seed production and to hasten maturity, and potassium is presumed to have a vital connection with early maturation of a crop, and with sweetness and quality in fruit. Many other such statements have been made in the literature with respect to the specific effects of these three chemical elements in plant growth. Moreover, some authors have gone so far as to say that certain colors, textures, or other characteristics of plants in growth indicate a lack of sufficiency of a given one of the three elements in question. There is little or no basis for all such statements and assump- tions, because it is a fact that color of foliage may in most cases be a guide to the determination of whether or not an ample or a deficient supply of available nitrogen is present in the soil or other growing medium. Thus, a deep green foilage is usually an indication of a plentiful supply of available nitrogen. Yellow, or light green foliage is frequently an evidence of a defficiency of available nitrogen. But even those indications are not always correct and particularly is this true of the yellow color of leaves. Likewise, an excess of nitrogen does seem to encourage rank stalk and leaf development, resulting with the cereals even in “lodging,” but this too might be taken as evidence of a badly unbalanced condition of the nutrient medium of growth (the soil solution) rather than a specific effect of nitrogen. It is, nevertheless, true that the encouragement of heavy stalk and leaf production by nitrogen is very marked with some plants and comes nearest being a manifestation of a specific growth-producing effect of an element which we know about. As for the idea of the specific effects mentioned above as being characteristic of phos- phorus and potassium and others found in the literature which I have not mentioned, there is aboslutely no unexceptionable evidence to support it. We have no data upon which to base the common belief that phosphorus hastens maturity of plants; or that a lack thereof manifests itself in some abnormal appearance of the plant which has been definitely recognized and correlated with it. The same statements will apply to the potassium question, and we thus find no justification for the idea that there has been established a certain well-defined correlation between the appearances, colors, or other qualities of plants and a deficiency of any one of the essential elements to plant growth, unless, possibly, it be nitrogen. This does not mean, however, that each of the mineral elements does not per- form a specific function in the metabolism of the plant, for there is some good evidence that it may. It does not even mean that every one of the elements may not specifically affect the plant by its sufficiency or by its inadequacy in such a manner as to be indicated characteristically in the appearance or quality of the plant which human senses can discern. It does mean that if such specific effect or effects for any of the mineral elements except nitrogen exist, we know nothing about them to date. The denials of the common beliefs and of the current teachings in our text-books, which are made above, are not intended, however, as disclaimers of the existence of other visible effects on plants which 148 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM a deficiency of a given mineral element may induce. For example, it is pretty well established now that it is necessary not only to have the nutrient solution of a plant of a certain concentration but also that there be a proper balance among the various constituents there- of. It is clear, therefore, that a plant may show an unthrifty con- dition, due to too low a concentration of its nutrient medium or to an improper balance of the different elements, without giving us leave to correlate the unthrifty condition with a specific effect of a given element. To put it another way, for emphasis, we may assume that a plant will show a stunted condition or an abnormal color which will be removed and the plant brought to a normal condition by the application, let us say, of phosphorus or of potassium. This does not argue that a deficiency of the element applied specifically and characteristically causes the abnormal condition in question, but may merely mean that a deficiency of any element by bringing about an unbalanced condition in the nutrient solution may induce ab- normal growth and development. This statement is intended not merely to deny and disprove the statements on the subject which appear in text-books but also those pernicious assumptions to the same effect which constantly appear in the literature of the fertilizer trade. It is well to understand the following clearly: (1) Certain chemical elements in the soil solution, including at least nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iron and potassium, are essential to normal plant growth. (2) These elements must be present in sufficient concentration and the whole nutrient solution must be sufficiently concentrated. (3) Those elements must, regardless of the total concentration of the solution, be in a proper balance among themselves. Beyond these conditions, we know little about the soil solution which is above question. This is particularly pertinent regarding the specific effects of the individual elements or the characteristics of plants which the human senses can discern. WHAT ARE FERTILIZERS AND WHAT THEIR SOURCES? The problem of fertilizers and their application to soils, as it stands today, is essentially a practical one. The truly scientific phases of it which are being studied have not yet progressed far enough to allow of much application of their results. Of necessity, therefore, most rules and standards in fertilizer practice and in the fertilizer industry must be more or less arbitrary. This includes, of course, the determination of what constitutes a fertilizer material. Nevertheless, it remains true beyond a peradventure that the fina) decision in such matters must remain with the scientific investigator of soil-and-plant problems. The reason for this is that he has delved so deeply into the subject as to be cognizant of the numerous difh- culties and pitfalls which inhere in it, and thus knowing the limita- tions of it can prescribe with much greater precision and justice what should be adopted as a guide or guides. In accordance with MATERIALS FOR FERTILIZERS 149 this conclusion and without bias or prejudice, let it be attempted to draw up a statement as to what constitutes a fertilizer and what materials may be included under that head. A fertilizer is any substance, subject to the qualifications given below, which furnishes to the soil any one or more of the following chemical elements—nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, and calcium ; or which furnishes organic matter. The substances con- taining the chemical elements named must, in addition, possess the following qualifications: 1. They must contain, if they are largely insoluble in water, no less than the following percentages of their respective elements or compounds: 3.0 per cent nitrogen, 20 per cent phosphoric acid, 20 per cent potassium oxide, 20 per cent sulphur, and 35 per cent calcium oxide. 2. They must contain, if they are largely soluble in water, no less than 1 per cent nitrogen (as nitrate or ammonia) and 1 per cent each of phosphoric acid and potassium oxide. Sulphur and calcium materials do not in the present state of our knowledge need to be delimited in accordance with solubility. 3. In either insoluble or soluble form a material to be a fertilizer must not be toxic to plants even when applied in large quantities, such as 1000 pounds per acre for the soluble and ten tons per acre for the insoluble. This does not include sulphur, which should pref- erably not be applied even in the form of flowers of sulphur at rates exceeding 100 pounds per acre. 4. A material to be a fertilizer must, in addition to the foregoing qualities, possess a more or less fine or powdery consistency so as to allow of facile distribution in the soil; and it must be of a nature to allow free handling without danger to man or animals. 5. An organic material to be a fertilizer must either contain the quantities of the elements above indicated in either soluble or in- soluble form, or must be of a nature which is readily decomposed in the soil (four to eight weeks in the summer) and preferably carry- ing a large bacterial population. Even organic substances contain- ing 3 per cent of nitrogen, mostly insoluble in water, must be of a nature to decompose readily as above indicated if they are to be considered as fertilizer material. In accordance with these definitions, the following common sub- stances can properly be regarded as fertilizers or as sources of serviceable organic matter: NITROGENOUS MATERIALS Sodium nitrate Fish scrap Guano Ammonium sulphate Castor pomace Rat guano Ammonium nitrate Horn meal Slaughterhouse tankage Ammonium phosphate Acidulated leather Garbage tankage Calcium nitrate Linseed meal Meat meal Cyanamide Fish meal Hoof meal Cottonseed meal King crab Wood and hair waste Dried blood Rape meal 150 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM PHOSPHATIC MATERIALS Raw ground phosphate Bone ash Steam ground bone rock Basic slag Bone tankage Phosphatic meal Acid phosphate Dissolved bone Raw ground bone Double acid phosphate Apatite Bone black POTASH MATERIALS Potassium chloride Cement plant potash Kelp ash Potassium carbonate Blast furnace potash Dried kelp Kainite Potassium sulphate Plant ash Kieserite Potassium nitrate Brine residues Potassium-Magnesium Double manure salts Leucite or other potash sulphate Carnallite minerals containing at Kelp Char Potassium least 20% potassium Wood ashes Magnesium carbonate oxide Manure ash SULPHUR MATERIALS Flowers of sulphur. Magnesium sulphate Any of the sulphates men- Calcium sulphate Sulphide minerals tioned in the other lists Sodium sulphate CALCIUM MATERIALS Calcium oxide (quick Calcium hydrate (water ‘Calcium carbonate (ground lime) slaked lime) He or air slaked ime SOLUBLE CALCIUM MATERIALS Gypsum Calcium nitrate Calcium cyanamide ORGANIC MATERIALS Barnyard manure Legume straws Goat manure Cow manure Horse manure Green plant tissue Sheep manure Hog manure Sewage sludge Poultry manure It may transpire through present and future investigations that the carriers of other elements than those considered may have to be properly included among fertilizer materials whether those elements be essential to plant growth or not, but thus far, there seems to be no warrant for going farther than as enumerated above. At the same time, the limitations drawn above will rule out such fake materials as bacterized peat, dried peat, solutions carrying fertilizer elements, cultures, etc. THE VARIABILITY OF SOILS Recent studies at the California Agricultural Experiment Station have shown that we must modify to a great extent our ideas relative to all matters pertaining to soils because of the high degree of variability of the latter. Everybody recognizes that, in a given field, soils may show considerable variability, which is evident to the eye and touch of the inexperienced. Few people appreciate to- day, however, that even in a soil which seems entirely uniform there may exist an enormous variability in the smallest distances. Such variability may concern the physical properties of a soil such as moisture-holding power, just as much as the soil’s content of the FERTILIZATION EXPERIMENTS NECESSARY 51 essential mineral elements discussed above. An experiment in -fer- tilization or any other which is carried out on a few trees or vines, therefore, may give results which have little application to a whole orchard or vineyard. Much fruitless work on fertilization and soil management generally, as well as laboratory studies, have been carried out all over the world because of ignorance of this funda- mental fact and it behooves us to take cognizance of it in the work of the future. This is particularly true in its application to orchard and vineyard problems, because of the relatively small number of plants used per acre and hence because according to the laws of chance, we have no opportunity of averaging the effects of the soil’s variability. LONG-TERM FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS One would naturally expect that the results of experiments on the fertilization of soils which have been in progress for long periods uninterruptedly like the celebrated ones at Rothamsted, England, at Wooster and Strongsville in Ohio, and at State College in Penn- sylvania, can be reckoned on as reliable guides for fertilizer practice. Unfortunately, however, these experiments were planned, and have been carried on without reference to the important principles of soil chemistry, plant physiology, and the variability of soils which are discussed above. Their results may, and may not, possess, therefore, the requisite cogency and utility for the average orchardist and particularly as regards California conditions. In none of these ex- periments, moreover, has there been ascertained the magnitude of the errors attaching to the work, and hence increases in crop sup- posedly due to fertilization may, and may not, be significant. Then, too, when the errors are properly allowed for as has been done in a series of studies carried on at the California Agricultural Experiment Station and which will soon be published, the question as to whether or not the increases are sufficiently great to pay for the cost of fer- tilization and allow a good profit, still remains to be settled. This is all true in addition to the conclusion, which follows from the dis- cussion above, that any results obtained in such an experiment have no necessary application on any other tract of land than that on which the experiment is conducted. LEARNING TO USE FERTILIZERS It follows from what has been said above that the best method available to us now of determining the fertilizer needs of an orchard or a vineyard soil is to try fertilization wherever the question arises. It is important, moreover, that the fertilizer be tried on a large tract, preferably no less than three to five acres in size, and that a control or check lot of trees or vines of the same number as in the treated plot be left untreated as a means of determining the effects exerted by the fertilizer. It is the writer’s judgment that this is the only rational method yet discovered of determining the fertilizer needs of a given orchard or vineyard. The fruit produced on the fertilized 152 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM and unfertilized plots, respectively, should be carefully measured and the results calculated from the point of view of the cost of the fertilizer and its application, and the profit accruing from its use. Fertilizers may be broadcasted or drilled in. In any case, an attempt should be made to incorporate them with the soil thoroughly and preferably five or more inches beneath the surface. If this is not done, there is danger, especially where deep and constant summer cultivation is practised, that the fertilizer will remain in the dry surface soil mulch, which is not accessible to the feeding roots. If the fertilizer is broadcasted, it may be cultivated, plowed or disked in. The above precaution relative to thorough and deep incorpora- tion of fertilizers is particularly pertinent and important in the case of the insoluble fertilizers like dried blood, high-grade tankage, rock phosphate and similar materials. Choosing the Fertilizer for the Test——Based on practical ex- perience and observation in the field, the writer believes that under most orchard and vineyard conditions in California and especially in the Great Valley and under the more arid conditions, nitrogenous fertilizers are the most likely, of all the commercial brands, to yield profitable responses. Among these, sulphate of ammonia is, in gen- eral, to be preferred to nitrate of soda, but the latter may be used where heavy rainfall and a tendency to soil acidity is the rule. The organic nitrogenous fertilizers are all suitable, and when nitrogen in that form can be purchased more cheaply than in either of the forms just mentioned, it should be so employed. If it is desired to test other fertilizers, then phosphatic fertilizers should receive second consideration, and then it is well to treat a plot of five acres with nitrogen alone, one of the same size with superphosphate alone, and one with a combination of the two, always having a control plot in addition, as above explained. Sim- ilarly, if it is desired to test potash or sulphur, these fertilizer materials may be used alone or together with the others in much the same manner as described for nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers. The mixed commercial fertilizers are strongly advised against, because much more is paid for every unit of the necessary elements in that form than in the form of the so-called simples like those listed above. Besides, it will be found rare under California orchard and vineyard conditions that potash fertilization, in addition to nitrogen and phosphorus, can be made to pay, and yet the price of potash is very high. How Much Commercial Fertilizer to Apply.—tIn using nitro- genous fertilizers, a fairly safe standard for amounts, in the absence of more definite information than we have now, is the following, which is merely furnished as an example: Nitrate = 74 [> 2 LJ e NEARLY LEVEL Zigzag ditches Large furrow system on hillside with zigzag ditches for distribution, catchment, and redistribution. for many years have used a different system in irrigating all orchards over which I have had control. In my home orchard I have a reservoir on the highest land, from which water can be conveyed as desired to every part. My ditches are run on a grade with a fall from 2 to 3 inches to the rod and from 5 to 8 feet apart. At each irrigation the water is run about thirty-six hours before changing. The round of the orchard is made in ten to four- teen days. None of my small ditches exceed 400 feet in length. When I begin to irrigate a section I turn on from the reservoir water sufficient to cover the section in a few hours, then lessen it until it just reaches the end of each row, but see that it reaches the end of each row if a little surplus passes over. This surplus I take up in the main ditch, to be again used on lower ground. This is continued until the lowest part of the orchard is reached, and very little water is ever wasted. By running on a grade that is so nearly level the water is applied uniformly, even on the driest parts of the hill slopes. I run the main distributing ditches in a zigzag manner, tak- SMALL FURROW IRRIGATION 179 ing water from these ditches to cover the lower sections. I formerly used pipes to lead the water down the steepest grades, but this system I have abandoned and now use open zigzag ditches for mains. From the main zigzag ditches I do not take the water at the turning point, as there is more liability of breakage than if taken when running straight, or at whatever point is necessary to keep the distributing ditches on an average of 8 feet apart. The length of the zigzag ditches varies according to the slope of the hillside. When steep, the ditch, before turning, must be of greater length than where the ground is more level, (See diagram.) I use no gates, but bush the openings with coarse swale hay. I also bush the turning points of ditches as they are in permanent use throughout the season, and after the first few days’ use require but little care to keep them in order. These ditches are torn up during the season of cultivation and have to be renewed every year. I use a level set on a frame 8.25 feet long and about 2.5 feet high (one leg longer than the other) to make any grade desired. Then I drag its length on the ground after getting the level, and can mark the line of ditch nearly half as fast as a man can walk I have used many thousand feet of pipe in irrigating, but found it too expensive to be practicable, and it frequently gets clogged, causing much trouble. The zigzag method of taking the water down hills on the dry ridges, distributing to right and left, picking it up again in zigzag ditches at the end of the rows or system, to be used again on lower ground, brings into use the largest quantity where it is most needed and utilizes it all with- out waste. Irrigating by Small Furrows.—It has already been suggested that recently the small furrow method of irrigation is undergoing certain modifications. The occasion for the change is that in certain of the heavier soils, particularly, the use of water in many shallow furrows followed by cultivation results in the formation of a compact layer, and this prevents the percolation of the water into the subsoil. This discovery led many Southern growers to resort to fewer and deeper furrows, and to new devices to enable the tree to get the benefit of the water. There has been wide use of the subsoil plow, with a wedge-shaped foot attached to a slim standard rising to the ordinary beam. The standard opposes its thin edge to the soil so as to cleave it with the least difficulty, and the foot, passing through or beneath the hardpan, lifts and breaks it. The result of the sub- soiling is to open a way for the water to sink and spread below the hardpan. It is usual to run this plow once through the center of the interspace between the rows of trees, sometimes at right angles to the irrigation furrows. When this is done the water is admitted to the furrows as usual, but instead of flowing along smoothly it drops into the track of the subsoiler and runs there a long time before rising again to continue its course down the furrow. It is the ex- perience of some growers that the water has taken five or six days to reach the lower end of the furrows, a distance which would have been covered in twenty-four hours if the subsoiler had not inter- vened. This has been shown to result in much water for the subsoil and a notable invigoration of trees which had been famishing, although shallow-furrow irrigation had proceeded regularly. Changes in the furrow method at Riverside, California, are de- scribed by Mr. J. H. Reed as follows: The handling of the water in the orchard has materially changed in recent years. Instead of flooding up, basining, or using shallow furrows, deep 180 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM furrows, from 3 to 5 feet apart, are most generally used. In heavy adobe soils more furrows are used than in the more porous granite soils. The most usual length of furrows is 40 rods. Every precaution is taken to have the surface wetted as little as possible. _ The amount of water run at a time is materially lessened. Formerly the common practice was to run 3 inches per acre for twenty-four hours each thirty days. Now 2 incres continuous run for seventy-two hours is found to serve a much better purpose, except on loose soils. The general practice in the valley is to irrigate once each thirty days. A few of the most careful orchardists had found that by intelligent and thorough manipulation of the soil they obtained as favorable results from the application of water every sixty days or more, using the same amount as they formerly did at intervals of half that time. The writer has watched with much interest an eight-year- old orchard that during the three years preceding the present received in all but ten irrigations, the usual amount of water being used only at each four irrigations the first year and three irrigations each the second and third years, with results comparing favorably with those on trees of the same age on the same soil in neighboring orchards that received the ordinary thirty- day irrigations. While there are few orchardists who have the skill and patience required to secure such results, they show the possibilities of im- proved cultivation in conserving moisture, So long as water is abundant and not expensive, more frequent irrigations will probably be generally practiced; but the advantage of running the water for a longer time, in furrows as deep as possible, covering the saturated bottoms as soon as practicabie and keep- ing the surface perfectly pulverized and in loose condition, is being generally recognized. The usual practice is now to have six deep furrows in 20-foot spaces. The number varies according to the character of the soil, but is in any case less than in the small, shallow furrow system which formerly prevailed. The recourse to deeper furrows and to the subsoil plowing has been made in several citrus fruit districts of Southern California. Its success depends upon conditions. There are cases in which too deep use of the subsoiler has admitted the water at a point too low for best results to the tree which grows on a leachy subsoil, and the cutting of roots by the subsoiler has in some cases brought shallow- rooting trees into temporary distress. The general conclusion, how- ever, is that deeper introduction of water favors deeper rooting and is very economical of water by preventing the loss by evaporation from the surface, which, theoretically, is dry, but which actually, with shallow furrows over an irrigation hardpan, becomes too often saturated over nearly the whole space between the trees. Cement Pipes and Flumes for the Furrow System.—The use of cement in the construction of flumes, pipes and outlets for distribu- tion has advanced so rapidly during recent years that in nearly all districts local cement works can be found, at which irrigation struc- tures and appliances of latest design can be studied. Other devices are first described and afterwards regularly advertised in our horti- cultural journals. Analysis of them is beyond the scope of this treatise, but they are none the less important and all who contem- plate laying out irrigation systems, both large and small, should consider them carefully. It is the function of this work to deal chiefly with home-made appliances. The Board Flume and the Furrow System.—Although in the older regions the cement flume is advancing in popularity, important HOW TO MAKE BOARD FLUMES 181 service will always be rendered by the home-made board flume where suitable lumber is cheap. A detailed account of its construc- tion and operation will be widely useful. The following is con- tributed to Mr. A. S. Bradford, of Orange county : I consider the board flume best, because it is in many places cheapest and because it will last fifteen or twenty years in California if made of good soft redwood. The common redwood lumber is generally so, but the so-called flume lumber is hard, generally, and will warp the flume out of shape. Even in the common redwood lumber hard pieces will be found, and these should be avoided. My first flume has been in use nine years and is apparently as good as ever. The first thing to be considered is getting a flume put in properly, as this alone will cause much trouble if not done right. A flume should run nearly on a level. It should be placed about two-thirds in the ground at the commencement, and as soon as it comes out of the ground to about two- thirds of its height, there should be a drop made of 1, 2, or 3 inches, is necessary, and then carried along as before, so as to keep the entire length of flume practically on a level. Sixteen-foot lumber is better than longer, as it is lighter to handle. | prefer 8-inch sides with 18-inch bottom, or, on some cases, 10-inch sides with 16-inch bottom. The first section, however, should be about 2 feet wide, narrowed to the size of the flume, so as to control the stream. Collars should be put around the flume every 8 feet of distance; that is, one in the center and one to cover the joints at each end. These collars should be 2 by 3 inch stuff on the bottom and sides and 1 by three inches on top. This makes a strong, durable flume. The length of the flume should be divided so that the stream will decrease as it goes along. The width should be decreased also, say from 16 inches to 14, 12, 10 and 8 inches, the sides being the same throughout or reduced so as to have 10-inch sides on the 16-inch bottom and 8-inch sides on the rest, nailed to the side of the bottom, making 7 inches depth inside. Two-inch holes should be about 30 inches apart and 2-inch gates placed on the inside instead of outside, as they will collect less trash, the hole through the wood, if uncovered, making a lodgment for leaves, etc. In the narrow and flat flume it is much easier to fix the gates. From 8 to 9 furrows for trees set 24 feet apart is sufficient. The streams should be run from one-eighth to one-half the capacity of the holes in the flume, according to the soil and fall of ground. I commence the stream small and increase it if necessary later on. The streams should be kept as near together as possible, and when the end is reached the gate should be nearly closed down, so as to allow the stream to just trickle to the end, In this manner the soil will become thoroughly wet from one end to the other. The streams should be run very slowly on most of our soils. A great many failures have been made on hard soils by running the stream too large and then reducing it. This seems to “slick” or cement the soil so that it will not take the water, and the consequence is a poor and unsatisfactory irrigation. On the other hand, if the streams are started small and allowed to soak the ground as they go along, it is simply astonishing how much water can be put in the ground. On sandy soils the streams should be larger. A little practice would give anyone the desired information. About three rows of trees at the lower end should be blocked up, pro- vided one has no place where the overflow water could be used. This last provision is the better, however, as there would be only about 10 inches of water run over the last three or four hours, and a thorough job would be done from one end to the other. In making furrows I have an extension made for my cultivator to bolt on each side and use four plows. With this extension I can wet the whole ground thoroughly. The furrows will extend under the limbs of the trees, and by making a slight curve around each tree the ground will become wet in the rows as well as between. As compared with the check system, the furrow method, properly handled, makes the soil light and loose, while the check system is apt to pack the 182 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM soil, rendering it lifeless and leaving it so that it will not retain moisture long. Besides, the cost of ridging and extra labor in handling water in checks for one season will nearly pay for the flume, by which one man can do the irrigating. Two horses will furrow out 10 acres in half a day, and a little hand labor at the flume will connect the furrows. In the check system generally a disk is run first where the ridges are to be made, and then the ridger is run with four horses; then jump scraper is run to stop up one side of the blocks; then ditches must be made; then from 2 to 3 men are required to handle the water by shutting up the checks when filled. Afterwards the ridges must be plowed down before the ground can be har- rowed and got in condition to cultivate. At a glance one can see that it costs fully three times as much to irrigate by the check system as by the furrow system, and with the latter the soil acts more as it does after a rain. OVERHEAD IRRIGATION Although Californians have always been strongly impelled by the desire to get irrigation water away from contact with the air and into the soil as directly as possible, to escape losses by evapora- tion and to maintain a loose soil-surface, sprinkling methods have recently become matters of considerable expenditure. Such systems were installed in the orange orchards of Robert Baird of Porter- ville and R. D. Williams of Exeter. The former has overhead perfo- rated pipes supported on redwood posts; the latter has underground pipes with a stand-pipe rising through the center of each fourth tree and surmounted with a revolving sprinkler. The cost of in- stallation at prices which prevailed before the war in each case was about $150 per acrce. The desirability of such sprinkling methods is still to be demonstrated. In both cases the water is forced into the pipes by pumps. DEVELOPMENT AND STORAGE OF WATER It is, obviously, beyond the limitations of this work to attempt an extended review of irrigation enterprises and practices. The enterprises undertaken by capitalists, or by co-operation among settlers, require the services of competent engineers. All these matters are too great in extent and variety to be discussed in this work. As, however, it has been the aim of the writer to aid the inexperienced planter to help himself in small efforts, a little space will be given to suggestions as how a planter may develop and use such small water supply as may be derived from spring, small creek or well, on his own land without employing an engineer. Running Lines for Irrigating Ditches—How far to go up a creek in order to bring water out upon a given piece of land is a question which frequently arises in individual practice. There is also doubt as to how much fall should be given to the ditch. The fall required by a ditch or canal depends upon the amount of water which it is desired that it shall discharge, and upon the width and depth with which it is intended that the water should flow. It may also be dependent upon the character of the soil in which the ditch is to be constructed, and upon the peculiarities of the water itself. RUNNING LINES FOR DITCHES 183 A strong current in soft soil may cause mischievous erosions. Water carrying much sediment must never be allowed to move sluggishly, as clear water sometimes may. It is best to state the requirements to a competent engineer and act on his suggestion, or secure the counsel of a neighbor who has had experience with similar soil and water. Having decided what fall to give the ditch, the nearest point of which water can be taken out of the creek to be brought to a certain piece of land is found by commencing with the point at which the water is to be delivered (generally the highest point of the land to be irrigated), and running up stream a line which has the inclination intended for the ditch. To stake out this line when no special hindrances are in the way, use a home-made leveling instrument constructed as follows: With sound, stranght-edged lumber a triangle is made, as indicated in the sketch. The three pieces, A B, 10 feet long, B C, 12 feet long, and C A, 4 feet long, are made fast to each other at A, B, and C. The board, A D is fastened to the triangle at right angles to B C near A on the board, A D, plumb-line is made fast. The plumb, like a mason’s plumb, hangs in a hole at F, so that when A D is vertical, the string hangs very near the surface of the board, A D. It will be seen that when A D is exactly vertical, B C is exactly hori- zontal, if the angles at D are true right angles. An ordinary carpenter’s square used in the construction of the apparatus will insure sufficient accuracy in the position of A D. In marking on the board, A D, however, the line in which the string of the plumb will hang when B C is exactly horizontal, more care is required. Two pegs are driven, as far apart as B and C, for these points to rest on. The highest one is driven into the ground until the plumb-line follows about the center line of the board, AD. Having marked this position of the plumb- line, the triangle is reversed so that the end B rests on the peg, where before we had the end C, and vice versa. Should the plumb-line be in a position at variance with the first one marked on the board, then the correct position for the B C horizontal will be exactly in the middle between the two found by the aid of the two pegs. It will frequently be found convenient to have a scale of feet marked off on BC. Holes in the pieces A B and C A at E E, or handles, will make the triangle convenient to carry. Only two men are necessary in using it. A home-made leveling instrument. 184 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM To use this instrument for locating the line of the ditch, calculate the amount which your line should rise between each two pegs. Drive a peg at the starting point with its top say six inches from the general surface of the ground. Hold one end of the leveling apparatus above this peg by exactly that amount which the line arises per each instrument length (B C), and swing the other end around into the direction from which the ditch is to come, until, when level, it is just six inches above the ground. Drive a peg here, which will, like the first, be six inches high, and proceed as before. Care should be taken to give the top of each peg exactly the correct elevation. The level must be horizontal when resting on any peg, and raised exactly that amount which the line rises per level length, above the preceding peg. It will be found convenient to use a care- fully prepared block to hold on the top of each stake at the rear end of the level instead of trusting to measurement each time. Locating Contour Lines for Checks or for Distributing Ditches.— This work can be done with the aid of the level above described. For instance, to locate a contour (a line of equal elevation), as re- quired in the construction of a check levee, drive a peg until its top has a convenient elevation from the ground, say one foot. Rest one end of the triangle on this peg and swing the other around until, when B C is horizontal, this other end has exactly the same elevation from the ground as the top of the peg. At this point drive a second peg and proceed as before. If the tops of the pegs be chosen as the height of the levee, they may be retained as grade stakes as well as line stakes for the embankment. Storing Water from Small Sources.—For individual uses quite a respectable water supply can sometimes be developed from ap- parently mean sources. This can be done by clearing out and opening up hillside springs, and often by tunneling into the hillside to intercept subterranean water-flows, or by pumping from a well. Even a small spring, yielding but two quarts per second, would be sufficient to irrigate several acres in fruit trees. To derive the greatest benefit from small springs, however, a reservoir is neces- sary, in which the flow of twelve to twenty-four hours, or even a longer period, can be accumulated, and then discharged as required. It is by using water in driblets that many springs are wasted. A spring supplying even one and a half inches of water would be wholly swallowed up by a thirsty soil within two hundred feet of its source, when, by arresting the flow and accumulating it in a reser- voir and discharging at intervals in a volume four times as large, it would more than cover eight times the surface. A spring flowing two quarts per second will discharge forty-three thousand two hundred gallons in twenty-four hours. This would require a reser- voir forty by twenty feet, and seven feet deep, or double that width if the depth is decreased one-half. The shallower it can be made the better, for many reasons, but especially on account of the tem- AN IRRIGATION RESERVOIR 185 perature of the water. That of springs is generally too low in sum- mer for immediate use, and its value is greatly enhanced by being raised to an equal or greater temperature than that of the air. This is quickly done by exposure in a shallow pond. A reservoir can be constructed entirely in the ground where the slope will admit of it, and by lining the bottom and sides with clay well puddled, will answer for most purposes. Some are built of adobe, backed with earth and plastered on the inner side with hydraulic cement. Con- crete of lime, sand, and broken stone is, however, the best material, where lime can be readily obtained, and any person with ordinary mechanical skill can construct them. The following hints on a dirt reservoir may be suggestive: A reservoir should be built on the highest part of the tract sought to be irrigated by scraping the earth from the outside and from such a large area as not to affect the utility of the land from which it is taken. With a levee all around 5 feet high, 5 feet of water could be carried safely. The slopes ought to be two to one on the inside. A reservoir 20 feet square and 4 feet deep would kold 12,000 gallons. With the slopes as above the reservoir should be measured two feet from the bottom, or half way up the 4 feet of water; consequently, to lay out a reservoir to hold 12,000 gallons, put the stakes 12 feet square and build. For any other size one take 8 feet off the same as this: A reservoir 25 feet square will hold 18,750 gallons and would be 17 feet square at the bottom; one 30 feet square would hold 27,000 gallons and would be 22 feet at the bottom; one 35 feet square—27 at the bottom—will hold 36,000 gallons; one 40 feet square—32 on the bottom—will hold 48,000 gallons. This spread upon the surface of an acre would be a little more than 134 inches of rainfall. Almost any loam or soil will hold water with a little puddling. The cheapest way to puddle is to build a pen the size of the entended reservoir, including at least a portion of that to be under the embankment, wet it very wet, put some hogs in the pen and keep feeding them barley, a little at a time, so as to make them not only walk around, but root for the barley. A half-sack of barley fed to eight or ten hungry hogs in half a day will make a good puddle. If it did not work satisfactorily, the water could be taken off and the bottom covered about an inch deep with coarse sand mixed one part to five with Portland cement, put in dry, and let it be covered slowly. A barrel of cement may be counted at about 4 cubic feet and with the mix- ture above would cover the first-named reservoir about 13%4 inches. This would make it tight. The supply pipe should come up from the bottom, so that the lift would never be more than the height of the surface. Loss of Water by Seepage.—The great loss of water by seepage during a long run has led to the cementing of ditches, and to the use of miles of large wooden, concrete and iron pipe by the irrigation companies of Southern California; also, where the slope is rapid, paving ditches with rock has been resorted to. Similar efforts naturally suggest themselves to the user of a small supply to save his flow from loss. The lining of ditches to prevent seepage were tested by the California Experiment Station at Berkeley, and publi- cation of results were made.* Where lumber is cheap the use of a board flume is an available means of saving water, when the soilis coarse and leachy. *Bulletin 188 and Circular 144, University of California Experiment Station, Berkeley. 186 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Irrigation from Flowing Wells.—A considerable area of orchard is irrigated from flowing wells in different parts of the State. Nearly everywhere in the artesian districts there are local well-borers who have kept records of the strata traversed in their work, and can estimate closely the cost of securing water by this method. Lifting Water from Flowing Ditch or Stream.—Where a stream has a rapidity of two miles or more per hour, and a lift to a height of six to sixteen feet will give head enough to distance the water over a considerable area, there is nothing cheaper than the current wheel which is largely used alongside streams in this State. The engraving gives an end view of such a wheel. Eight pairs of arms, carrying flat buckets like those of a steamboat paddle-wheel, extend from a hub rotating on metal bearings. At either end, or both ends, of each bucket are fixed wooden or tin water boxes which fill WN ll \\ ait YEAR et Une mite s. End view of irrigating wheel. themselves on entering the water, and on being brought to the highest point of rotation empty themselves into a receiving trough. This trough supplies the distributing ditches, etc., and its inner end is so placed that it comes under the projecting buckets of the wheel without interference with the motion of the arms. The current of water in the channel underneath forces the buckets down stream, the latter delivering in the opposite direction at the top. By using a double set of boxes, one at each end of each bucket, the water may be delivered on both sides simultaneously. A little experi- menting will indicate the proper size boxes, which depends upon the velocity and volume of water in the channel, as well as to the amount to be delivered. Since, however, electric and distillate motors have become common, ruder devices have been largely displaced, though, under certain conditions, still serviceable. WATER MEASUREMENT 187 PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION The use of pumps for irrigation is continually increasing. The capacity of pumps, their ease and cheapness of operation in this land of oil wells and ponderous waterfalls whose power can be trans- formed into electric energy, warrant the conclusion that in many places water can be lifted from below more cheaply than it can be brought long distances by ditch; and that the supply is more con- stant and subject to the users’ command and convenience. In all parts of the State well-boring and digging and pump construction have advanced very rapidly. Pumping plants of all capacities, from the greatest of the gasoline class, lifting five thousand gallons per minute from a depth of twenty-five feet, down to the plant with a throw of three hundred gallons per minute, all styles of motors and pumps are being constantly multiplied. These plants are being placed upon wells in the orchard or in the vicinity, or upon adjacent streams or ponds. Many new designs by California inventors are coming into use. It would require a volume to contain any adequate ~ account of California’s recent progress in these lines. Economic pumping is governed by so many considerations that no general statement would be conclusive in any specific case. Each orchardist must ascertain his own conditions and then confer with trustworthy manufacturers or their agents as to what will meet his require- ments.* WATER MEASUREMENT The Miner’s Inch.—Although the miner’s inch, as commonly measured, is open to objection because of inaccuracy, from an engi- neer’s point of view, it is so easily applied that it must remain a popular recourse. It consists in causing the water to flow through an opening, the capacity of which is known, and which is readily capable of adjustment to the flow in any case. A simple form of this device and its use is shown in the illustration, which represents a board 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and about 8 feet long. The open- ing is 1 inch wide and 50 inches long, and the distance from the top of the board to the center of the opening is exactly 4 inches on the up-stream side. On the down-stream side the opening is beveled so that the hole presents sharp edges to the stream. A sliding board is hung upon the top of the first board, with a strip screwed along its upper edge, this sliding board being wide enough to cover the open- ing on the up-stream side. In the slot there is a closely-fitting block, made to slide on the beveled edges and fastened by a screw to the sliding board. It is obvious, then, that when the sliding board is moved backward or forward, by means of its end, which is extended for a handle, the block moves in the slot and determines the length of the opening. In operation the board is placed in the stream as shown in the figure, so as to dam the flow completely, and the sliding board is *Full details of the cost and flow from pumps drawing from various depths and operated by various motors are given in the publications of the Irrigation Investigations to which reference has previously been made. Also, Circular 117, California Experiment Station; “The Selection and Cost of a Small Pumping Plant,’ by B. A. Etcheverry. 188 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM moved backward and forward until the water is all passing through the slot, the water being kept up to the top of the board, or 4 inches above the center of the opening. The length of the opening measures the number of miner’s inches of water flowing through. If the flow is too great to pass through the opening 1 inch wide, the opening may be made wider, the water still to be kept 4 inches above the center of the opening. The laws of several States provide that in devices for measuring water for sale by the miner’s inch the opening shall be 6 inches high and shall be provided with a slide as shown in the picture. The number of miner’s inches then discharged is equal to the number of square inches in the opening. The assump- tion made that the discharge is proportional to the size of the open- ing is not true, but the error in measuring small quantities is not great enough to be taken into consideration. By converting the results of measurements in miner’s inches to gallons, cubic feet, or some other familiar unit, it may be determined how long it will take EPR LNT eG ay yee 3 AGN LEPINE ace J Ge, uae EE : <~~ ica wv eens ai Ee ws zg ny egal i 3p AR we ei dios ffir ee yet Te FS ee SE ie S711 \ EGE a i Wee ae eas Y ~~ ie eat = EE: ne ue eh, 2 CONN fee ; aos x js res Se Measuring miner’s inches in a small stream or ditch. the stream to fill a reservoir or cover a given field with the neces- sary depth of water. This unit is readily convertible into cubic feet or gallons or acre-inches of water, according to the time the water flows. The following data will be helpful in computations: One miner’s inch, as described above, equals 0.1496 gallons per second, 8,976 gal- lons per minute, 538.56 gallons per hour, 12,925.44 gallons per day; 0.02 cubic feet per second, 1.2 cubic feet per minute, 72 cubic feet per hour. One acre-inch of water (that is, 1 inch in depth over an acre of surface) equals 27,152 gallons, or 3,630 cubic feet, and 1 miner’s inch will supply this quantity in about 50.4 hours. ‘Thus a simple calculation shows that a little stream of 5 miner’s inches will supply enough water to cover an acre 2.3 inches deep in about 23 hours—a fair amount for one irrigation of soil of average character if it has not beén allowed to become too dry before the application. In fact, this is an average amount actually used for an irrigation of shallow-rooted plants like most field and garden crops. IRRIGATION SUGGESTIONS 189 Weir Measurement.—The term “weir” is not always understood by those who use it. The term can properly be used only for struc- tures designed to allow the water to flow over the crest with a con- siderable fall on the down-stream side. There are a large number of forms of weirs, taking their names from the shape of the weir notch, or the form of crest. The triangular weir has a V-shaped notch. The rectangular weir has a horizontal crest with vertical sides. Both of these forms of weir are good, when used by the expert irrigator or engineer who understands the principles and factors which enter into their calculations. Water measurement as practiced by irriga- tion companies is, however, rather more a question of engineering than of fruit growing and cannot be pursued in this connection. Several publications on the subject are readily available.* DANGER OF ALKALI IN IRRIGATION WATER Every since Prof. Hilgard’s original observations on alkali were published, Californians have been aware of the danger of using waters containing alkali for irrigation purposes, but they have not realized, until recently, of how much significance this is. Investiga- tions and observations made by the California Agricultural Experi- ment Station show that many of the well waters used for irrigation purposes in orchards contain so much alkali, usually including common salt, that though beginning with a soil free from alkali, one can readily impregnate it with salts enough in a few years to ruin an orchard. ‘The investigations emphasize further some general alkali problems in orchards, even where fairly good waters have been used, and render the alkali question one of the most important in soil management problems in arid parts of California. The fruit planter should never plan to use water from any source for irriga- tion without having proper samples analyzed and the analysis inter- preted.j River and stream waters are usually found to be purer and better than well waters in the citrus districts, in which the investigations cited were carried out. Nevertheless, recourse to analysis is always a safe guide. RANDOM SUGGESTIONS Without attempting an impossible thing, to-wit, to furnish ex- plicit directions for the practice of irrigation, for much of it every man must learn for himself by experience, a few suggestions may be noted. Usually water should be prevented from actual contact with the trunk of the tree. Citrus trees are especially sensitive to such con- tact, and resent it by “gum disease,” which was formerly far more *Bulletin 247 of the California Experiment Station on ‘‘Some Measuring Devices Used in the Delivery of Irrigation Water’ (Jan., 1915): ‘Farmers’ ” Bulletin 813, U. S. Dept. Agr., on “Construction and Use of Farm Weirs’’ (June, 1917): Circular 36, Utah Experi- ment Station, Logan, Utah, on “Practical Information on the Measurement of Irrigation Water” (January, 1919). : {The ill effects of irrigating with alkaline water are strikingly set forth by W. P\ Kelly and E. E. Thomas in Bulletin 318 and Circular 219 of the University of California, Berkeley, 1920. 190 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM prevalent in the State than now. Care must, therefore, be taken not to set trees which are to be irrigated too low. It is better to raise them up a little and draw the earth around them to prevent ap- proach of the water, but this must not be overdone. If possible, the ditch should be run on the shady side of the tree, because reflected sunshine from the water surface may burn the bark. In examining soil to ascertain dryness, one must dig or bore deeply, for often an upper layer will be fairly moist, if well culti- vated, while lower layers, where the feeding rootlets are, will be arid. Therefore, when trees or vines are suffering, go far down in examining the soil. In irrigating, thorough, deep soaking is necessary, and examina- tion must be made to see if an artificial hardpan which prevents the descent of the water has been formed. Be careful not to continue irrigation too late in the season. It will prevent the proper dormancy of deciduous trees, and if more fall irrigation is given citrus trees than they need for perfecting the fruit, the trees will continue growing tender shoots until they are injured by severe frosts. On the other hand, it is often desirable to give deciduous trees a draft of water after the fruit has been gath- ered, if the soil is so dry that the tree is likely to drop its leaves too soon, and wake from its dormancy with the first rains. Many times the fall blooming of deciduous trees, which is very undesir- able, may be prevented by keeping them growing later in the summer by moderate irrigation. If trees or vines, in regions usually irrigated, are to be grown without irrigation, it is important that the grower be more than usually thorough and constant with his summer cultivation. In trying the non-irrigation experiment, one should, of course, begin with young trees which have not been irrigated, and not usually expect success by withdrawing the water from trees which have been accustomed to it, and have developed a root system accord- ingly. While waiting for an “irrigating system,’ young trees can be kept going with a water wagon. With a galvanized tank on a wagon three men went over a 60-acre orchard three times, taking four days for each irrigation. One man went ahead to scoop out around each tree, and after the water was put on he covered it up, to keep the soil loose and prevent loss by evaporation. He could keep ahead because of the loss of time of the team going after water and return- ing. From the tank ran two large hose, the water being siphoned off at the basin near each tree till about four or five gallons of water were put on. Then the hose was bent back so the water could not flow out, and they advanced to the next tree. SUB-IRRIGATION IN CALIFORNIA The word “sub-irrigated” is freely used in California to describe land which is moistened below by underflow or seepage from streams or springs, or from open irrigation ditches, traversing DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA 191 higher levels. This land is sub-irrigated, it is true, but there is no system about it, except the natural distribution of water, which is to seek its level. Some of our most productive lands are of this character, and where the soil and subsoil are fitted to the movement of this living water, and not apt to retain it up to the point of sat- uration, satisfactory growth of deep-rooting field crops and of trees and vines are secured. But this is not sub-irrigation in the ordinary signification of the term. Several systems of sub-irrigation by subterranean pipes have been devised by California inventors, but none have passed beyond the experimental stage, and no acreage has been continually op- erated. This, of course, has no reference to carrying water in sub- terranean pipes to outlets for surface distribution. Such distribution systems are largely used. DRAINAGE IN CALIFORNIA There was for a long time a very erroneous popular generaliza- tion that California soils do not need drainage; that in a dry state the aim should be to retain the moisture, not to part with it. It is, of course, true that we have vast areas of naturally well-drained soil, upon which any money spent for drainage would be in a great part thrown away, but we have, also, both in the valley and on the hillsides, localities where, by peculiar character and conformation of the subsoil, water is held in the soil until evaporated from the surface, and the result is a boggy, miry condition, which prevents proper winter cultivation, and at the same time injures the roots of the trees or vines. This defective cultivation, added to the puddling effect of standing water, makes the soil dry out completely under the fervid sun of summer, and the result is that the wettest soil of the winter may be the driest in the summer, and plants which are in- jured by soaking in winter suffer again from lack of moisture and sustenance in summer. Thus it is a fact, clearly proven by observa- tion and experience, that thorough under-drainage removes surplus water in winter, and ministers to the retention of moisture in sum- mer. More than this, a soil puddled by standing water can not present its contents in available form for plant nutrition, and be- sides, it loses the fertilizing effects of atmospheric currents, which pass through an open, well-dried soil. Wet land is cold and late in spring, and hot as a baked brick under the summer sun; it is no fiction of the imagination to say that well drained land is warm in winter and cool in summer—that is, cool to a degree which favors quick and free root growth, and cool enough to escape the parching effect of deeply baked soil. These, and a host of similar considerations, which have made under-drainage popular in older countries, are of weight in Cali- fornia. Possibly, as a rule, because of our vast area of deep, kind loams, the proportion of land needing drainage in this State is less than elsewhere, and yet there is a vast extent of country to be im- proved by tiling. There have been large losses of trees from plant- ing upon soils defective in this respect. The evil has resulted from 192 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM excessive rainfall and excessive irrigation, either direct or by under- flow from adjacent irrigations. In some places this latter movement of water has brought alkali to assist in the ruin of the trees and vines. The cure is drainage to sufficient depth and with good outlet for the drainage water. Information on the construction of under-drains is too available through other sources to call for its presentation in this connection.* Drainage and Irrigation.—A special importance attaches to com- plete and systematic drainage in connection with irrigation. There is pressing need of such provision where the soil has become over- loaded by seepage water from irrigation ditches, and it is well that people in such situations are waking up to the need of coupling drainage outlets with their irrigation inlets. Another matter closely allied to this is the action of alkali on soils thus artificially water- soaked. This has been made the subject of a special publication, to which allusion has already been made in Chapter III. Drainage is plainly essential, both in individual farms and in districts where the water level is rising too high, and the striking statements given below by Professor Hilgard should incite all to give immediate at- tention to the needs of vines and trees in this regard: In the valleys and plains of the arid irrigation countries the soils are pre- dominantly of a light, sandy or silty nature, easily penetrated to great depths by water and air, With these the roots of plants also reach to such depths, drawing therefrom not only moisture, but also plant food, which in these soils is, as a rule, very abundant. The plants of the arid region thus are enabled to utilize nearly as many feet of soil mass as in the regions of summer rains inches would be drawn upon; and it is evident that this advan- tage, which postpones for a long time the need of fertilization, should not be lightly thrown away. Each farm in the arid region has several similar ones underground, which with proper management can be fully utilized. But this presupposes that the water, air and roots can all penetrate under irrigated culture as they do in the natural condition. It means that the ground water level shall not be allowed to rise to such an extent as to pre- vent the penetration and healthy life of the roots in the depths of the soil mass. If by intentional or careless over-irrigation, or by the leakage from the ditches, the water level is allowed to rise within a few feet of the sur- face, the wonderfully productive lands of the arid valleys are reduced to the same condition as are those of the humid countries; a shallow layer of surface soil, within which alone the roots can exercise their functions of plant nutrition. The natural result is that this layer soon beconies ex- hausted, and copious artificial fertilization is required to maintain prolific production. And even this is the most favorable case. When, in addition, the upward movement of the soil water carries with it the entire mass of salts of various kinds which exist in all arid soils, and brings them within reach of surface evaporation, these “alkali” salts impregnate the soil to such an extent as to render the cultivation of many crops unprofitable, or sometimes altogether impossible. Summarizing the advantages of systematic land draining it may be said that: 1. It prevents the drowning out of the deeper roots of plants by the rise or fluctuations of the ground water, by which the vineyards and orchards are so frequently rendered unprofitable. *“Farm Drainage Methods” by W. W. Weir, Circular 174 of University of California Experiment Station, Berkeley, Calif. DANGER IN STANDING WATER 193 2. It prevents, or at least limits definitely, the shallowing of the soil caused by high-lying ground water, resulting in the need of early and copious fertilization, which would otherwise not have been called for in many years. The annual cost of such fertilization would soon exceed the first cost of drainage. 3. Drainage does away definitely with the alkali evil. When drainage is established the land can easily be so handled as either to remove all the alkali, or to leave in the soil so much of it as may be rationally considered beneficial, on account of its usual content of valuable and highly available plant food. To prevent the waste of much of this soluble plant food, the use of gypsum is also valuable; but subsequent swamping of the land would cause a return of the black alkali unless drainage were provided for. In view of the facts that water-logged lands are still being sold to the unwary for fruit planting; that sometimes lands are offered with the attractive promise of an irrigation supply when they actually need a drainage system; that on such lands every year of large rainfall brings areas of trees into distress and inflicts consider- able losses, these declarations of Professor Hilgard should be most carefully kept in mind. The only item of his declaration which later researches question is the feasibility of “drainage doing away definitely with the alkali question,” because difficulties have arisen in the effort to make drainage do it, when the alkali is in its worst form and in very large amount—as explained in the publications cited in the footnote on page .... That problem seems to be still pending solution. PART THREE: ORCHARD FRUITS CHAPTER XVI COMMERCIAL FRUIT VARIETIES What fruit to plant, or what kind of a bearing orchard to buy as an investment, are questions which can not be answered, in this treatise. The planters on new land and the investors in improved land must answer them for themselves—forming their judgments after securing facts which seem to them a proper basis for such a business decision. It is the conviction of the writer that all fruits which have demonstrated commercial suitability in California, when properly placed under the soil, temperature and moisture conditions which favor their best growth and productiveness, may be counted as yielding nearly equal net returns, considering the investment in land, water, waiting for bearing and handling of the product. So far as the writer has observed, all our commercial fruits have reached maximum and minimum returns during the last quarter of a century which are practically identical. Therefore to plant good fruit in the best place for it, to handle the trees and products most intelligently, both in production and marketing, holds out substantially equal promise of profit. If it could be demonstrated that any particular fruit had the especial advantage over others in net returns, this advantage would immediately disappear because planters would rush to it and take away this advantage by undue increase of its acreage. Therefore the choice of fruits must remain an open ques- tion for each one to determine by his own experience and observa- tion, at least to the extent of determining his own line of production. It is one of the purposes of this treatise, as they will be disclosed in succeeding chapters, to impress upon the local planters the con- viction that their clearest path toward satisfactory income lies in choosing varieties which have demonstrated two fundamental char- acters, viz.: adaptation to the locality and to the uses of the fruit trade—rather than in choosing novelties, no matter how alluring they may be. It may surprise the casual reader to find that our production proceeds so largely upon old standard varieties. Anyone, however, who is acquainted with commercial fruit growing knows that it is neither wise nor easy to revolutionize an established and profitable industry by the substitution of new varieties for the old standards. It takes several years to determine whether a new variety is really trustworthy and suitable, and it takes much longer to get a large acreage in bearing either by grafting or new planting because people are slow and conservative in making changes. As the period of trial of each novelty passes, however, new varieties are accepted, WHY FEW VARIETIES ARE GROWN 195 if for any good reason found suitable, and become prominent as their merits justify. Another reason why new varieties do not figure more largely in California fruit growing is the smallness of the amateur interest. There is, in fact, almost an absence of pure amateurs—enthusiastic, critical, discriminating, athirst for novelties. Even suburban plant- ers follow the lead of commercial orchardists and plant chiefly that which has shown adaptations to local growing conditions, and few are averse to making what they can by sale of small surpluses. The result is that California fruit growing is almost wholly commercial in spirit, policy and point of view, which is perhaps only natural in a state where the fruit crops yield the growers an annual aggregate value of something like two hundred and fifty millions of dollars. The effect is to concentrate attention upon varieties which have achieved fame for profit, and to repress amateur devotion and in- dulgence. At the same time there is, and has always been, quite a disposi- tion toward trial of novelties among commercial growers, especially manifested in search of specific characters which are seen to be desirable rather than desire for newness for its own sake, which is often a point of pride among amateurs. To this enterprising and discriminating search is due the prominence of some of the leading varieties, which were chance seedlings recognized as meeting special requirements and having grown great because they really did so. The California grower is, therefore, quite certain that he needs not varieties new throughout and of startling characters, but improved varieties which hold the good points of the old and add other points. For instance, he calls for trees resistant to disease, for improvement of the fruit in beauty, flavor and keeping qualities; for varieties, similar in kind, which fill gaps in the ripening season so that he can employ help continuously, and shippers and canners agree with him so that they can keep the cars moving and the cannery plants at work. The grower says he must be careful not to plant something different from what is already growing and selling well in his region, and this is also the advice of the trade to him. He can not risk much on varieties of entirely different types, although most growers are always doing a little experimenting. Nor should he undertake too many varieties, because a profitable orchard is not a pomolog- ical museum. There must be a large quantity of uniform fruit to make any district commercially prominent. For these reasons the number of varieties now planted is but a fraction of what it was a third of a century ago, and, stopping at this point, one might get the idea of the California grower as a monument of conservatism and lacking in enterprise and adventure. The fact is that he has very definite ideas of the suitability and desirability of the varieties which he chooses for planting. From the beginning, California growers and nurserymen have exercised painstaking discrimination and selection to secure varieties which best served particular purposes, and in 1920 they co-operated in organizing a Bud Selection Association in order that commercial propagation might be more widely and systematically directed 196 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM toward increased production of varieties of most serviceable types of the different fruits and the most productive trees of such types, by propagating only from the best trees, which were determined and designated for that purpose. It should therefore be noted by the reader that the preference for certain varieties, which is embodied in this statement, which will close this chapter, does not involve pomological standards as a leading factor. The claim is distinctly not made that these varieties are chosen exclusively on the basis of quality, beauty, hardiness or health. In the case of nearly all the fruits, there are other varieties which might equal or even surpass them in one or more of these respects. The choice is made because they are most profitable to grow ; not alone because they are good, but because they are good for something. This particular suitability or serviceability may involve pomological considerations and commercial and manufac- turing considerations as well. The planter must use these lists in connection with what he may find about the varieties in subsequent chapters, without neglecting to confer with older growers, in the district in which he may plan to plant, as to what varieties produce best and are in best demand in the business of his district. Perhaps an intelligent use of the statement can be concretely suggested by briefly discussing the first group of varieties men- tioned—the apples most approved in California. First comes the yellow Newtown Pippin, and that means that most apples commer- cially grown are winter apples and this variety is, on the whole, the most profitable of them. But a planter in a hot interior valley should usually reject them, for all winter apples are apt to be un- satisfactory, and, if he plants apples at all, should choose early varieties, because they ripen early, thus escaping the highest heat and at the same time being ready for the early market. Similar comments might be made upon the varieties of other fruits. During the year 1921 the writer made a careful review of the experience of growers and propagators to determine which fruit varieties were considered most satisfactory in commercial planta- tions in California, using as a basis of revision the decisions reached at several conferences of fruit growers, nurserymen, and managers of fruit canneries, drying establishments and those engaged in long-distance shipment of fresh fruits. In the chapters devoted to different fruits the decisions of the conferences will be given in more detail. The varieties grouped below are not arranged according to ripen- ing season. Such data will be given in following chapters: Apples—Newtown Pippin, Bellflower, E. Spitzenburg, W. W. Pearmain, Gravenstein, Red Astracan, W. Astracan, Carolina Red June, Skinner, R. I. Greening, Alexander, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Winesap, Stayman, Winter Banana, Grimes, Delicious, King David, Arkansas Black, Baldwin. Apricots.—Royal, Blenheim, Tilton, Hemskirk, Peach, Newcas- tle, Moorpark. FRUIT VARIETIES CHIEFLY GROWN 197 Cherries.—Royal Ann, Black TYartarian, Bing, Black Oregon, Gov. Wood, Lambert, Chapman, Burbank, Montmorency, Purple Guigne, May Duke, Centennial, Black Bigarreau. Free-Stone Peaches.—Muir, Lovell, Elberta, Salway, Mayflower, Alexander, Hale’s Early, Triumph, St. John, Early Crawford, Wheatland, Morris White, Strawberry, Decker, Early Elberta, J. H. Hale. Cling-Stone Peaches.—Phillips, Tuscan, Pedora, Peaks, Al- bright, Levi, Sim’s, Libbee, Albright, McDevitt, Hauss. Pears.—Bartlett, Winter Nelis, Easter, Du Comice, Glout Mor- ceau, D’Anjou, Hardy, Barry, Lawson, Seckel, Winter Bartlett, Wilder, Bosc, Clairgeau, Forelle, Flemish Beauty. Plums.—Climax, Beauty, Hungarian, Tragedy, Wickson, Bur- bank, Kelsey, Yellow Egg, Red June, Giant, Washington, Jefferson, Bavay’s, Gaviota, Damson, Grand Duke, California Blue, President, Santa Rosa Satsuma, Duarte. Prunes.—French, Imperial, Sugar, Robe de Sergeant, Silver. Raisin and Shipping Grapes.——Muscat, Tokay, Thompson, Em- peror, Malaga, Cornichon, Black Prince, Black Morocco, Sultana, Sweet Water, Gros Colman, Verdal, Pierce, Concord. Figs.—White Adriatic, Calimyrna (Smyrna), Mission, Kadota (White Endrich), Brown Turkey, White San Pedro. Almonds.—Nonpareil, IXL, Ne Plus Ultra, Drake, Texas Pro- lific, Peerless. Walnut.—Franquette, Mayette, Concord, Eureka, Placentia, Santa Barbara Softshell. Orange.—Washington Navel, Valencia, Mediterranean Sweet, Paper Rind St. Michael, Ruby Blood. Lemon.—Eureka, Lisbon, Villa Franca. Pomelo.— Marsh. Olives.—Mission, Manzanillo, Sevillano, Ascolano. Blackberries Mammoth, Lawton, Logan, Himalaya, Crandalls. Raspberries.—Cuthbert. Strawberries.— Melinda, Banner, Nick Ohmer, Klondyke, Dollar, Brandywine, Jessie, Arizona, Marshall. This compilation indicates the popularity of varieties in the State as a whole. It should be taken as a guide to planting in any particular district only as it may be revised, for local adaptations and special purposes, by the fuller data for each kind of fruit in the special chapter which will be devoted to it. In these chapters other varieties will also be enumerated—including those now considered exceptionally promising and likely to displace some varieties which appear in the foregoing category. CHAPTER XVII PHEVWAPRPLE During the last decade notable progress has been made in apple growing in California. The old idea that our conditions did not favor excellence in the apple has given away to full assurance that in wisely selected elevations and exposures the very highest points of size, beauty, flavor, keeping and shipping qualities are secured. Even before the wonderfully satisfactory test of both Northern and Southern California apples at the New Orleans World’s Fair, it was clear that the right variety grown in the right place yields an apple in California than which a better can not be grown anywhere, and during the last decade California early apples have been in sharp request for shipment to all regions of the Northwest and British Columbia, and California winter apples have been sold at the high- est prices east of the Rocky Mountains and in Europe. Because of her achievements with other fruits California’s stand- ing in apple production is not usually considered. By the U. S. Census of 1910, California ranked ninth among apple growing states of the country. The crop of 1919, as reported by the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, advanced the State to fourth place, with a product of 8,640,000 bushels. The Pacific Coast leads the country in apples. The largest producing state is Washington and the fourth California; the combined product of these two states being 5,000,000 bushels greater than that of New York and Virginia, which rank second and third, respectively. The relative planting and product-value of apples to other California fruits is shown in Chapter VI. Localities for Apples.—Speaking generally, it may be laid down that the great valleys of the interior are not well suited to the apple; also, there are some situations which are much better than others. In the early regions of the Sacramento Valley and foothills, how- ever, excellent early apples are profitably produced. In the great valley and lower foothill region of the State, the late apple usually lacks character and keeping quality. On the great plains the tree is liable to sunburn, or sun blight, as it is called. Some varieties, because of the character of their foliage, are less liable to this injury than others, and it is possible that this evil may be finally overcome by the selection of varieties with blight-proof foliage, as will be mentioned later. In the great valley, however, on the rich river- bottom land of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin and its tribu- taries, the apple roots deeply, attains good size, bears good fruit, with fair keeping quality, while but a few miles away on the plains it is inferior. On these deep, rich river-bank lands excellent early apples are produced. In the interior, adaptation to the late, long-keeping apple lies at an elevation on the foothills on both the east and west rims of the great valley. Its limits are not well defined, but there are flourish- WHERE CALIFORNIA APPLES GROW 199 ing orchards at an elevation of about four thousand five hundred feet on the slopes of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and from two thousand to three thousand five hundred feet is commonly regarded the best apple region of the mountains. The trees attain larger size and bear heavily, and the fruit, of well-adapted varieties, is large, crisp, juicy and has exceptional keeping qualities. This district, which is practically as long as the State, is still awaiting development in commercial apple production. Along the coast the apple succeeds well from end to end of the State, and very close to the ocean excellent fruit is produced on good soil—usually without irrigation but sometimes advantaged by it. In this coast region are situated the chief commercial apple districts of the State. Named in the order of their acreage in 1920 they are as follows: Santa Cruz and Monterey counties. (Watson- ville district) ; Sonoma (Sebastopol district) ; Lake Mendocino and Humboldt counties (Upper Coast district). As the coast is not an early region, the product is almost exclusively fall and winter apples. There is a certain advantage in elevation in the coast region as well as in the interior, but the advantage is not so marked nor is the required elevation so great. Coast valleys in the central and upper portion of the State, where the soil is suitable, produce most excel- lent apples, but even here the lower hillsides, with deep, well- drained soils, are, perhaps, preferable to the floors of the valley. Departing from immediate coast influences and approaching the interior, with its greater heat and aridity, the greater elevation becomes desirable. The apple, excepting the very early varieties, does not relish the forcing heat which brings such perfection to the peach, but to insure late ripening and long keeping, with accom- panying crispness, juiciness, and flavor, it must have atmospheric surroundings which favor slower development. Localities for apple growing in Southern California are to be chosen with much the same rules as in the upper part of the State. As has already been said, valleys in which coast conditions largely predominate produce good apples, on suitable soils, but away from the coast, proper elevations must be sought, and they should be above the so-called thermal or frostless belts. Good apples are grown on low lands near the coast in Los Angeles and Orange Counties. Sixty miles inland, in San Bernardino and Riverside counties, winter apples fail in the valleys, but are most excellent at a sufficient elevation upon the slopes of the surrounding moun- tains or in elevated valleys like the Yucaipa Valley above Redlands, where a Rome Beauty of excellent quality was grown in 1903 to a weight of twenty-seven ounces and a circumference of fifteen inches. This, however, is not “the record” in apple size for the writer re- ceived a Bietigheimer from Napa in 1921 which weighed twenty- eight ounces and had a circumference of sixteen inches! In the elevated interior of San Diego County, as in the Julian and Smith Mountain districts and in the San Jacinto region of Riverside county, excellent apples are produced in large quantities and profit- ably carried long distances. 200 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Second and Third-Crop Apples.—There is a peculiar behavior of the apple tree, most noticeable when winter temperature is mildest, and that is blooming and fruiting out of season. In the case of early apples the second bloom may appear about the time the first fruit ripens and the third bloom when the second crop is half grown. Even such behavior may be followed by regular blooming the fol- lowing spring. Second crops of apples are not of amount nor regu- larity enough to be of much economic importance, as the second crops of pears and grapes sometimes are. The third crop occa- sionally ripens. An instance is on record at Chino, San Bernardino County, where in 1903 a tree ripened its first crop in June, and its last fruit was picked on Christmas day following. Such behavior, of course, indicates conditions ill suited to the apple. Exposures for the Apple.—The choice of exposure for an apple orchard may almost be inferred from what has been said about localities. In regions with high summer temperature the apple will do best on cool, northerly slopes, and this exposure becomes doubly desirable when the location has high temperature with only moder- ate annual rainfall, or where the soil is not well adapted to the retention of moisture. With such prevailing conditions, the apple will be grateful for the cooler air and the greater moisture of the northerly slope. Where the temperature is moderately cool, and the rainfall adequate, the matter of exposure is of less account, and the grower can make the existence of the best soil the test of loca- tion for his orchard. At elevations on the sides of high ranges where late cold storms are liable to rush down from higher snow fields, protection from the usual course of such storms, or from the course of cold winds generally, must be sought; and directly up the coast, especially in the northern part of the State, in certain places where the peach does not usually succeed, even the apple needs pro- tection, and the benefit of all heat available, and then a southerly or southeasterly exposure becomes desirable. The choice of ex- posure is thus seen to be largely a local question and to be deter- mined by a knowledge of local conditions. A newcomer in a region can best learn these conditions by conference with older residents, or by personal observation of older orchards. Soils for the Apple—Experience with the apple in California confirms what has long been set forth as its choice of soils in older regions. If one avoids an extremely light, sandy soil on the one hand, and a very stiff clay or adobe on the other, he may plant apples on almost any soil which allows extension of the roots to a considerable depth without reaching standing water. The apple thrives in a moist soil, but it must be well drained, naturally or otherwise. A soil which may be called best for the apple is a deep, rich, moist, calcareous loam, but the tree will thrive on coarser ma- terials. The subsoil, whatever its nature, must be sound and open to the passage of moisture. The most unfavorable condition for the tree is a subsoil of clay which holds water. There is some difference in varieties as to choice of soil. The Yellow Bellflower, for instance, will do well on a lighter soil than the Yellow Newtown Pippin. HOW TO ESCAPE THE WOOLLY APHIS 201 PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE The apple is chiefly propagated by root-grafting upon apple seedling roots, either whole roots or root pieces. Budding is also practised up to a certain extent. For dwarf trees the Paradise stock is used. Repeated trials with working the apple on the pear, chiefly by top grafting, have secured growth of limited life but without fruiting. The resistance of certain roots to the woolly aphis has been fully demonstrated by local experience in the use of the Northern Spy and Winter Majetin, chiefly the former. Seedlings of Northern Spy can not be relied upon as resistant to the woolly aphis. It is neces- sary to get a root actually grown from the Northern Spy wood. The best way to get a start is to buy some Northern Spy trees from some reputable nurseryman, specifying that they shall be Northern Spy root and top. With these resistant roots and wood growth for scions or cuttings can be grown. Resistant trees are made by root grafting the scion of the variety which it is desired to propagate upon a piece of Northern Spy root and then being careful that the scion does not send out roots of its own, but is wholly dependent upon the Northern Spy root. It is customary with nurserymen selling resistant trees to save the root pieces which are removed in digging and packing, for subsequent propagation. It is also possible to get a resistant tree by starting from the cutting of a Northern Spy. To facilitate the rotting of these cuttings a small piece of any kind of apple root is put in by side graft near the bottom of the cut- ting. This acts 2s a starter, but the cuting will also make roots of itself. At the end of the first year then the cuttings are taken up, the piece of root used as a starter is cleanly cut away and the rooted cut- ting replanted ; henceforth it is dependent upon its own roots and is resistant. The variety desired is then grafted in a little way above the ground surface so that there will be no danger of its making its own roots. By either of these processes it is more troublesome and takes more time to produce a tree with a resistant root than in the ordinary way, and for that reason trees on resistant roots are sold at higher price, and this may explain why resistant trees are not yet largely used in this State. Other suggestions applicable to the growth of young apple trees are given in Chapters VIII and IX. DISEASES AND PESTS OF THE APPLE The apple is subject to various diseases and insect enemies which must be resolutely fought or they will render the trees unprofitable. Chief of these diseases are the “pear blight” and the apple scab, and the apple mildew. Of the insect enemies the codlin moth, the apple- leaf aphis, the various leaf-cutting caterpillars and several scale insects must be kept in check, and the latest approved means of get bier troubles will be described in detail in Chapters XLII an : 202 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM PLANTING AND CARE OF THE APPLE ORCHARD The chapters on planting, and pruning contain suggestions to which the reader is referred. Care should be taken to obtain trees with clean, healthy roots, not knotted and scarred by woolly aphis. Distance in Planting.—The distance between the trees is of the highest importance. All the old apple orchards are overcrowded. More recently trees have been set at greater distance, and such planting is now generally advised. There is some difference of opinion as to proper distance, but certainly twenty-five to thirty feet is near enough, and some of the best new orchards have been planted at forty feet, the ground being used for a time with other crops or planted with early bearing trees, for which the soil is suited, between them. Berries are largely grown in young apple orchards in the Sebastopol district. Pruning the Apple.—The manner of shaping fruit trees described in the chapter on pruning succeeds admirably with the apple. Year- ling trees are usually planted, and they are regularly pruned until proper form is secured. Mr. C. H. Rodgers, during his life-time a leading apple grower | of the Watsonville district, near the coast in central California, gave the following excellent outline of a simple and economical, yet suc- cessful, method for apple tree building under ordinary conditions. First Year: On planting cut the stem from 30 to 36 inches in height, with the terminal bud toward the southwest. In the spring, when growth begins, strip off all shoots from the ground up to about 20 inches. Above this point let all growth remain during the summer. If for any cause during early summer a bud does not start where wanted, a short transverse cut through the bark just above the bud will cause it to develop into limb. Beginning of Second Year: Cut off all limbs except those selected to remain permanently. Two, three, four, and not more than five limbs should be allowed to remain, the number depending on their position. It should be the aim to distribute them evenly on all sides, and to give all possible space between limbs up and down the trunk. This latter precaution is to give room for expansion of limbs in after years. Cut back the limbs that are to remain, taking off from one- third to one-half of the previous season’s growth. It the tree is of a spreading habit, and it is desired to have it grow erect, cut to inner buds. If desired to spread the top cut to outer buds. Beginning of Third Year: Allow two or three lateral limbs to remain on each of the main branches. Top the tree again, taking off from one-third to one-half the previous year’s growth. Continue this method during the first four years, at which time the tree should begin to bear, and if surrounding conditions are favorable, it will prove strong, vigorous and capable of sustaining a heavy load of apples. The after treatment will consist mainly in keeping the top properly thinned. After coming into bearing there must be intelligent pruning ac- cording to the growth-habit of the variety. Some varieties, like the PRUNING THE APPLE 203 Yellow Bellflower, resent heavy pruning after coming into bear- ing, and slow growers like the Yellow Newtown Pippin, do not need it. On the other hand, varieties like the Winesap and Smith’s Cider are apt to make long slim branches and bear at the ends. This can be corrected by cutting back to secure more short shoots which will bear better fruit. Some varieties, like the Jonathan, will make plenty of short spurs under this treatment, while others, like Rome Beauty and Rhode Island Greening, are persistent tip-bearers, but can be gradually drawn in without reducing the crop too much. The grower must study his varieties not only with reference to this but in forming the tree, cutting to an inside bud all varieties which naturally take a horizontal direction, and cutting to an outside bud varieties which have a tendency to send up tall, straight shoots. By this throwing the new growth upward in the first case, and outward in the second, one can shape each kind to greater symmetry and strength for fruit carrying, and bring up all spreading varieties to a form which admits near approach of the plow and cultivator. This manner of shaping the tree must continue as long as seems necessary to secure a tree which will come to bearing age shapely and strong, and within reach. Bearing trees should not be allowed to carry too many branches, and pruning will largely consists of thinning out surplus shoots and removing interference between branches. It is not desirable to shorten in the apple as is done with the apricot and peach. Some growers do not cut back after the third year. A successful treatment of bearing trees, long practiced in the Sebastopol district, is described by Mr. W. I. Newcomb as follows: _While trees are young, their new growth is cut back one-half to two- thirds. When they become older they are not topped at all to speak of. As long as you cut the ends off from branches, they will grow more new wood; if you leave them alone, their tendency is more to very slow growth and heavier fruiting down on the old wood, When thinning is necessary, cut off the entire branch. Wood is allowed to grow quite thickly in the center of the older trees, but is thinned out to prevent rubbing, however. Fruit spurs are induced to set in the body of the tree rather than far out on the limbs where a heavy load is dangerous to the tree and fruit too. Some spurs on the old trees have borne half a dozen crops each, and will continue. Summer Pruning.—Summer pruning to reduce wood growth and promote bearing is practiced to a limited extent in some districts upon varieties inclined to shy bearing. In regions of the most in- tense summer heat, less pruning is admissible than in the coast and elevated regions. It is necessary that the foliage be dense to protect the tree and the fruit from sunburn. Nor does the tree seem to relish cutting back. Slight thining out if the tree becomes too brushy, seems to be the best treatment in some of the hot valleys. In summer pruning to secure form and earlier fruiting of the young tree, there is much variation in method. Very systematic work is credited to Mr. J. W. Fulton of Yucaipa, San Bernardino County, as follows: 204 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The orchard includes ten acres of Rome Beauties and ten of Stayman Winesap, Arkansas Black, Black Ben, and Vanderpool Red. The summer pruning is done in June and again in August. In June the new growth is eight or ten inches long on the average. It is not cut back, but thinned out to keep the trees open enough, but not to allow sunburn. Suckerous growth especially is removed. The only cutting back at that time is to direct the growth of undesirably-pointed limbs into another direction. Rome Beauty especially is hard to spread enough, so all cutting back is done to an outside bud. The Winesaps naturally spread, and may need direction upward. A branch may be growing in a direction where it would cross another by winter and have to be taken out then. There is much less wasted energy if it is cut out early. Late in August comes the really vigorous pruning, when the new growth is two to four feet long. It is cut back and thinned some more. Then in winter there is only some small brush to cut out. Mr. F. W. Dunscombe of Beaumont, San Bernardino County, has for a number of years promoted bearing in young apple trees in this way: After four years old, there is usually no need to prune an apple tree for increased size. Turn the tree’s energies into bearing instead of wood growth. Do not prune in winter except to cut out dead wood and interfering branches, and to thin out where brush is too thick, Top back the new growth (not heavily) all summer, preferably in August. The stoppage of sap flow will force side buds to become fruit buds and spurs. When enough spurs have been started by a few years’ summer pruning, leave the trees alone except to thin them out and keep them open to the sun for vigorous fruiting and high coloring inside the tree. In cutting back in summer, leave a branch or a promising bud just below the cut. Thinning the Fruit—One of the most important items in the handling of an apple orchard is the faithful thinning out of the fruit of all varieties which are prone to over-bear, and this work is now regularly provided for by the leading commercial growers. Only one apple should grow at a place, and spacing of four to six inches is commended. Although this work is tedious and expensive, it is profitable, because of the improved price which can be had for the larger fruit which will be secured, and it is desirable in the effects of thinning on the tree. It will be relieved from the exhaustion of overbearing, induced to yield annual crops, and often saved from breaking down with a too heavy burden. Cultivation and Irrigation.—AlIl that has been urged in measures to secure adequate moisture supply has full force with the apple. Excepting the early varieties, it is a fruit with a long growing season and therefore requires continuous moisture to secure size and qua- lity. Most California apples are grown on deep, retentive soils in regions of large rainfall and if this is conserved by thorough culti- vation, good fruit can be secured, though irrigation to increase size of fruit is often desirable. It is doubtless true that apples in coast valleys would sometimes be improved by irrigation just as they are in interior and mountain districts where adequate irrigation is es- sential. Fertilizers have been thus far but little used in California apple orchards, but they are manifestly needed. HOUSES FOR STORING APPLES : 205 GATHERING AND STORING APPLES The disposition in this State, as elsewhere, is to allow the fruit to hang too long upon the tree before gathering. It was long ago demonstrated that an apple for long-keeping must be picked a little in advance of full maturity. As late fall weather in California is so delightful, there is more temptation to delay the picking than where the approach of winter admonishes the grower to get his fruit under cover. Picking apples for shipment should be done just when the seeds begin to blacken and when the fruit yields to pressure. If left on until fully ripe, and the seeds all black, the fruit is apt not to keep well. This rule applies to fall apples for shipment to dis- tant markets, or for apples to be stored at home. But this is a rule with exceptions. A. W. Tate of Watsonville does not pick Arkansas Black Twigs until the latter part of November, when they are well sugared but firm and matured—a nice color and very desirable for the holiday trade. The King is often picked too early—before it has the color or size it ought to have. Apples are picked early to escape the drop, but in the Watsonville district canners and driers pay good prices for sound windfalls, and the late picked apples sell at a good price. An Apple Storage House.—Mr. C. H. King of Sonoma County has a storage house with a capacity of 7,500 boxes or more. The building is 40x60 feet, has no refrigerating equipment, but is kept cool by night ventilation. The floor and sides are of sawdust held in place by board sheeting inside and out, 8 inches apart. The ceil- ing has two layers of sheeting and 14 inches of sawdust, above which is six feet of air space, then the regular gabled roof. The air space helps shield the ceiling from the heat on the roof. Along the peak of the roof is a low, open, continuous cupola. On each of two sides are seven doors about two feet square, built like the sides ,and located just above the level of the floor. At night these are opened. A wire screen on each prevents exit or entrance of any codling moths or rodents. At the end of the season, the house is closed tight and sulphur burned to kill any insects which may be carrying over. The fruit is stacked in trays 22 inches square and 3 inches deep. Their bottoms are of eight laths, so spaced that apples rest squarely on them. One lath on each side leaves plenty of chance for ventila- tion. Trays are stacked 30 deep in piles so there is an aisle from each door to the one on the other side of the house. A gentle draft of cold air flows in at night while the warmer air flows up through the cupola. Some Wageners and Yellow Newtowns have been success- fully held until April 15 with less than two per cent of loss by decay. A rather more open house is used in the coast region of Southern California, by Mr. T. W. Ward, of Carpinteria: It is a slat house made of strips 1x2%4 inches, put on one inch apart. The roof is similarly constructed. There are two passages, on either side of which are two shelves, one above the other, i. e., eight in all. The shelves are made of slats placed one-half inch apart, with sides a food high. The 206 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM apples are spread on these shelves a foor or more deep. The floor is made of slats, and there are bins on this also. The first must receive a thorough sprinkling weekly, unless sufficient rain falls. The slats are close enough to prevent birds doing damage, and the whole building is raised six inches from the ground. In the mountain regions arrangements must be made for frost exclusion—a consideration which does not apply to the valley and coast. PICKING AND PACKING APPLES ON A LARGE SCALE Mr. C. H. Rodgers, whose pruning prescription has been cited, gives the best methods of handling apples for market as follows: In the matter of picking, experience has evolved a number of rules which should be strictly adhered to: (1) Do not pull the apple off the tree. By so doing, the stem may be detached from the apple, thus making a second grade of what otherwise would be choice. The proper method of plucking the apple is to grasp it with the full hand, not with the fingers only, and by a gentle twist and lateral movement detach it with the stem attached. Especially must finger pressure be avoided in the picking, as bruises thereby produced injure the value. (2) The apple must n ever be dropped into a receptacle or from box to box, but should be transferred as carefully as so many eggs. : (3) Under all circumstances use vehicles having springs in moving the ruit. Once within the packing-house the more perishable varieties should be handled immediately and forwarded to market, while the long-keeping vari- eties, especially those intended for export, should be held at least a month before sorting and packing. This latter precaution enables the packer to discover and eliminate all diseased and defective fruit—a thing that would be impossible if the fruit were packed at an early date after picking. Three grades or qualities are recognized in the “trade”—first, second and third. First grade includes only perfect fruit. Second grade includes the fruit having a trivial surface blemish or stem absent. The third or cull class includes all wormy, badly bruised or skin-broken apples. Though grading for size varies somewhat in different iocalities, in the Watsonville district, the leading apple-producing center of the West, there are but three sizes recognized. These are 3%, 4 and 4% tier. The unit of size is the 4-tier, which comprises all apples running from 254 to 3% inches in diameter, and derives the name from the fact that when packed in the box there are four rows of four apples each, both vertically and horizon- tally across the end of the box. Apples in excess of 3% inches are classed as 3%-tier size. The third size, 4%-tier, includes those apples ranging between 2% and 25% inches in diameter. Both the 3%4-tier and 4%-tier are packed in the manner known as “diamond” pack or “pear” pack. Apples smaller than 4%4-tier are thrown into the cull pile. The sorter ascertains the size by passing the apples through circular holes in a board. In this state the standard box is made of pine. Redwood boxes are used only for cheap grades of apples packed for the local market. After being sorted, the apples are passed to. the packer, who, before placing them in the box, wraps each apple in a piece of paper prepared for the purpose. The apples must be so packed in the box as to permit the nailing firmly of the lid at each end, and at the same time allow a gradual swell of about three-fourths of an inch at the middle of both top and bottom. On account of the resultant shape of the boxes, they can be stacked up with safety only on their sides. _ The packed boxes, after being neatly labeled, are next transferred to the cars and stacked four or five tiers high. An air space of three or four feet APPLES FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES 207 is left between the top tier and the roof of the car, also the entire space between the doors is left vacant for the better circulation of air. The boxes, after being systematically placed in the car, are so braced with timbers as to prevent any movement. The usual carload consists of about 650 boxes. a fruit cars are employed mainly for apple shipment, but no ice is used. Before packing apples for sale growers should inform themselves fully as to the latest standardization requirements by consulting the county horticultural commissioners. Summer and Fall Apples.—In some regions noted for early ma- turing of fruit, it is profitable to grow early apples, providing there are facilities for reaching profitable avenues of trade. Except to minister to some special local or distant trade which can be thus foresoon, it must be said that very early apples are hardly worth the attention of the commercial planter. These sorts are apt to come into direct contest with the magnificent peaches, grapes and other summer and autumn fruits, and suffer thereby. On the other hand the fall apples, chiefly the Yellow Bellflower and Gravenstein, are so good and profitable in regions where they bear well that they are among the varieties which constitute our chief commercial reliance. Bellflowers are also encroaching on the field of winter apples because they come out so well from cold storage. Winter Apples.—For large ventures in apple growing, in locali- ties carefully chosen for especial adaptations, a few of the finest varieties of winter apples should generally be selected. It is the judgment of the most experienced apple growers, many of whom have old orchards including many varieties, that new plantations of winter apples should contain only about six sorts. Of these, in most parts of the State, two would be the Yellow Newtown Pippin and White Winter Pearmain; the other four would vary in different parts of the State, as can be learned by conference with experienced local growers. Apples for Long Shipment.—There has been for years quite an important trade in shipment of California apples to various ports in the South Pacific Ocean, and recently there has been a sharp demand for Calofornia apples for shipment to the Eastern States and England, and this movement by way of the Panama Canal may be expected to increase greatly. The characteristic size, quality and keeping of the fruit, together with the size and style of package, have strongly commended the fruit. The center of this trade is Wat- sonville, in a coast valley, in the central part of the State. The two apples which are most popular are the Yellow Bellflower and the Yellow Newtown Pippin. It is an interesting fact that these varie- ties have overcome the popular ferver for a red apple, though at Watsonville some Red Pearmains are grown to fill orders which insist on having some color. For the Interior Valleys.—In choosing varieties for the hot val- leys of the State those making a heavy foliage growth are to be pre- ferred. The Spitzenburg, for example, is a failure in the valleys of the 208 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM interior, though satisfactory at points on the valley borders. From experience already had it seems likely that some of the Russian varieties, with thick, large leaves, will prove best for such situations. The behavior of the Astracans, the Duchess of Oldenburg, and others of Russian origin, are illustrations of this fact. Other varie- ties have been on trial for several years, but no great distribution of them has yet been attained. SELECTION OF VARIETIES FOR CROSS-POLLINATION The suspicion long held by growers that productivity of the apple is largely conditioned on cross-pollination, at least in the case of some leading commercial varieties, is being sustained by careful tests by the pomologists of the University of California in the Wat- sonville district. Results indicate that the Yellow Newtown Pippin is self-fertile but is helped by cross-fertilization with the Red Pear- main which is also best for the Yellow Bellflower. Red and white Pearmains are virtually advantageous. The Yellow Bellflower is self-sterile ; also that, though they bloom together, is not satisfac- torily influenced by the Yellow Newtown. In all cases the set of fruit was largely increased by providing hives of bees to act as polli- nating agencies. The present inference is that planters should provide potent pollinizers and not narrow down too closely in plant- ing some of the varieties which the trade seems to require. For the Sebastopol district Mr. O. E. Bremner observes that the Gravenstein, the basic local variety, is assisted in bearing by Esopus Spitzenburg, and Baldwin; while Wagener, and Rome Beauty or Hoover, Rhode Island Greening and Red Astracan, are well adapted for alternate planting. Gravenstein is also advantaged by Delicious and Jonathan Association for cross-pollination can be arranged with a number of our most popular varieties by consulting the following dates of blooming as prepared by Mr. Frederick Maskew based upon ob- servations in the coast region of Los Angeles County: General Varieties. First bloom. Full bloom. fall of bloom. White Winter Pearmain ........... April 11 April 27 May 5 Re@ Ast racaty: vs ho dit: ahs tahoe broken April 17 April 30 May 12 Betitlowern fics sciss noe cise cee nite April 20 April 30 May 16 Mall ip pin sa se ctes vets ceca eee rane April 20 May 5 May 15 Rhode Island Greening ............ April 20 May 5 May 15 Kentucky -Red' Streak 0.0020.5 0.002 April 20 May 10 May 20 Barly Macvest | .i3.3 b -(s4.sje mist SS Greta April 21 May 6 May 12 Shock ligase ste rite vice meeie ee April 27 May 15 May 20 Prat OU Se) iia icin scat kay a e-el eholal Migros cie baa April 27 May 15 May 22 EMR DAVI ST es tact n i yattct eroelt ha waneeR ale April 29 May 15 May 23 WeSAp lt sc aek oe ek- eee avian May 5 May 17 June 1 Yellow: iransparent 4s... diss eee May 5 May 16 June 1 WOME S11 Click Jesus) LA bia tsr'e petraleae sabisuat veal May 7 May 16 June 1 MASSON Eis EU POIN | paler tle tare oe eleva eters Ulery May 10 May 20 June 1 beeen od sie dic Glow 6 alnaeeeee May 15 May 25 June 1 Smiths @iders, dal. sipsrsiceeie ks sie cercehetoeye May 15 May 25 June 6 Transcendent ‘Cxab. oo ctek «ai 5:< 8 ha Mar. 30 April 7 April 22 Fly slop. Grapes apctorwialbe cis etecess rove (clave April 11 April 22 April 30 Montreal "Grab) 202 ee Bees Pe hie April 16 April 24 May 7 APPLES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 209 This is a later range of bloom than will be found in many parts of the State, but the same relation may be expected everywhere. APPLES CHIEFLY GROWN IN CALIFORNIA Of the hundreds of varieties tested in California comparatively few are now grown, as has already been suggested. Those named in Chapter XVI are most largely grown. They are grown in all regions, according to the suitability of their maturing season to local growing conditions and the avenues of profitable trade which have been developed. Including these the following showing is made of practically all varieties which are now being propagated for planting. The arrangement is, approximately, in the order of ripening. Carolina Red June (Southern).—Medium size oval, irregular, inclined to conic; deep red covered with light bloom; slack in small cavity; calyx closed; flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid; core rather large. Early Harvest (American).—Medium size, roundish; straw color with few faint white dots; stalk half to three-fourths inch, slender, set in mod- erate cavity; calyx in shallow basin; flesh very white, tender, crisp, pleas- ant. Early Strawberry (New York).—Medium size, roundish, narrowing to- ward the eye; skin smooth, deep red on yellow ground; stalk one and a half inches, rather slender and uneven, in deep cavity; calyx small, in shallow basin; flesh white, tinged with red next to the skin, tender subacid, sprightly. Red Astracan (Russian).—Large roundish; skin deep red, save greenish yellow in the shade; pale white bloom; stalk short, and deeply inserted; calyx partially closed and set in slight basin; flesh white, juicy and crisp, pleasant acid; tree hardy and vigorous, and an early bearer. The main reliance in California for an early apple. White Astracan (Russian).—Large, roundish; skin smooth and nearly white, with faint streaks of red, and covered with white bloom; flesh white. Considerably grown in the Sacramento Valley and foothills for early ship- ment. Sometimes attains a weight of 29 ounces. Excellent in the Modesto district of the San Joaquin Valley. Duchess of Oldenburg (Russian).—Large, roundish, oblate; yellow, streaked with red; calyx large, nearly closed, set in wide, even hollow; flesh juicy, subacid. Skinner’s Seedling (name approved by California State Horticultural Society, November, 1887); syn. Skinner’s Pippin, Santa Clara King.—Orig- inated with Judge H. C. Skinner, of San Jose. Fruit large to very large; form oblate, conic, slightly mixed; color rich lemon yellow, faintly striped with bright red; flesh yellowish white, very tender, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality best. Season, September and October. Excellent for home use and local sale. Difficult to pick without breaking the spurs. Gravenstein (German).—Large, rather flattened; a little one-sided or angular; broadest at base; stalk short, strong, deeply set; calyx large, closed, in a large basin; skin yellow, freely marked with light and deep red and orange; flesh tender, crisp, highly flavored, aromatic; a strong-grow- ing and heavily-bearing tree; a standard fall apple in this State. Red Bietigheimer (German).—Large to very large, oblate, slightly coni- cal, regular, smooth, whitish or yellowish white, shaded with light and dark red, and purplish crimson in the sun; stalk short, rather stout, calyx closed in large, deeply, slightly corrugated basin; flesh white, firm, juicy, brisk subacid. Declining in favor. Maiden’s Blush (New Jersey).—Rather large, smooth, regular; yellow, with evenly shaded red cheek; stalk short, in rather wide, deep hollow; calyx closed in moderate depression; flesh white, tender sprightly. 210 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Fall Pippin.—Very large, roundish, a little flattened; stalk three-fourths inch, projecting considerably beyond the fruit (which distinguishes it from the Holland Pippin); calyx open, not very large, rather deeply sunk in round, narrow basin; skin smooth, yellowish green, becoming pure yellow; brownish blush and few scattered dots; flesh white, tender, mellow, rich, aromatic. Being discarded by planters, Alexander (Russian).— Very large, showy, conical, greenish yellow, streaked with red in shade, bright red in sun; calyx large, in deep basin; stalk slender, long, in deep cavity; flesh yellowish white, crisp, tender, and juicy. Tree vigorous, but not always a good bearer. Gloria Mundi—Very large, roundish, oblate; ribbed; greenish yellow. A popular show apple on account of great size attained in this State. Fameuse; syn. Snow Apple (Canada).—Medium size, roundish, somewhat flattened; deep crimson, nearly concealing pale yellowish ground; flesh snowy white, tender, juicy, slight perfume; stalk slender, one-half inch, in narrow funnel-shaped cavity; succeeds well in the foothills, but losing popu- larity. King of Tompkins County.—Large, globular, angular, inclining to conic; yellowish, mostly shaded, with red, striped and splashed with crimson; stalk short and stout, in large, somewhat irregular cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh yellowish, rich, juicy, vinous, aromatic; chiefly grown in mountain regions. Popular in Humboldt County. Ben Davis.—Large, roundish, sides often unequal; light red and deep red on yellowish ground; stalk medium, rather slender, in deep, narrow cavity; calyx partially open. Being discarded by planters. Displaced by Black Ben Davis and Gano to some extent. Baldwin (Massachusetts).—Large, roundish, narrowing a little toward the eye; deep bright red over a yellow ground; a few russet dots; calyx closed and set in narrow basin; stalk one-half to three-quarters inch, rather slender, set in deep cavity; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, juicy, sub-acid. Best in northern and elevated regions; coloring varies greatly according to locality. Hoover (South Carolina).—Large, roundish, slightly oblique; yellowish, mostly overspread with red, with conspicuous light dots; stalk rather long, in large cavity; calyx open in furrowed basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, crisp, acid. Sells well in Sonoma County. Rhode Island Greening.—Large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regu- lar; dark green, becoming yellowish green; calyx small, woolly, closed, in shallow basin; stalk three-fourths inch, curved, thickest at the bottom; flesh yellow, fine grained; tender crisp, juicy, aromatic, slightly acid; tree healthy and the variety widely popular. Sells well to apple driers. King David.—Large, deep red, suffusing rich yellow, and delicious flavor. Largely planted for the fall trade, at elevated situations in Southern Cali- fornia. Jonathan (New York).—Medium to large, roundish, conical or tapering to the eye; light yellow, nearly covered with red stripes and deep red in the sun; stalk three-fourths of an inch, rather slender, in deep, regular cavity; calyx in deep, broad basin; tender, juicy, rich, vinous; a great favorite in California; specially commended as a market apple; keeps till midwinter. Winesap.—Medium size, roundish oblong; dark yellow with traces of yellow in the shade; stalk nearly an inch, slender, set in an irregular cav- ity; calyx small, in regular basin; flesh yellow, crisp, high, rich flavor; largely grown; tree a good bearer. Stayman Winesap.—An old improvement on the Winesap now becoming more prominent. Some growers reporting favorably on Winesap have this variety, which is larger and better, and the tree a stronger grower and more productive. Otrley; syn. White Bellflower, etc. (New Jersey).—Large, oblong, green- ish yellow, becoming fine yellow with slight blush; stalk medium, slender, APPLES GROWN IN CALIFORNIA 211 set in deep, acute cavity; calyx closed, set in abrupt+ corrugated basin; flesh white, fine grained, juicy, subacid; disappearing from propagation. Lawver.—Large, roundish, oblate, dark red, covered with small dots; stalk medium, cavity deep, regular; calyx small, closed in medium furrowed basin; flesh white, sprightly, aromatic; late keeping variety, but being dis- carded. Yellow Belleflower (New Jersey).—Very large, oblong, irregular, taper- ing toward the eye; smooth; lemon color, with blush; stalk long and slen- der, in deep cavity; calyx closed, in rather narrow basin; flesh tender, juicy, crisp, with sprightly subacid flavor; keeps well into the winter; tree a strong grower and healthy; one of the universal favorites of California. Esopus Spitzenburg (New York).—Large, oblong, tapering roundly to the eye; smooth, nearly covered with rich, lively red, dotted with distinct yellowish russet dots; on shaded side, yellowish ground with streaks and broken stripes of red; stalk rather long, three-fourths inch, slender, pro- jecting beyond the base and inserted in the wide cavity; calyx small and closed, in shallow basin; flesh yellow, rather firm, crisp, juicy, with a de- licious rich, brisk flavor. A largely grown variety; tree a good, upright grower and healthy; fruit keeps fairly. Smith’s Cider (Pennsylvania).—Large, roundish, oblate conic; yellow, shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots; stalk slen- der, in deep, rather narrow cavity; calyx closed, in broad, shallow basin; flesh whitish, juicy, crisp, acid; tree a strong grower, and fruit keeps till midwinter. Rome Beauty (Ohio).—Large, roundish, approaching conic; yellow, shaded and striped with bright red, sprinkled with ‘light dots; stalk one inch, in large, deep cavity; calyx partially closed, in deep narrow basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, sprightly; fruit keeps late. Particularly fine in the mountain valleys of Southern California, though popular also in northern coast districts. Missouri Pippin (Missouri).—Large, roundish oblate, slightly oblique, somewhat flattened at the ends; shaded, striped and splashed with light and dark red, often quite dark in the sun; many large and small gray dots; stalk short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed or half open, basin rather abrupt deep, slightly corrugated; flesh whitish, rather coarse, moderately juicy, sub- acid. Formerly largely planted, but losing favor for lack of keeping quality in coast valleys. Winter Banana.—Medium to large; golden yellow, shaded red; flavor rich, subacid. Late fall. An early bearer. Northern Spy (New York).—Large, roundish, oblate, conical; pale yel- low, purplish red stripes in the sun; stalk three-fourths inch, slender, in wide, deep cavity; calyx small, closed; flesh white, mild, pleasant; highly esteemed in a few localities, but abandoned in others for shy bearing. White Winter Pearmain.—Large, roundish, oblong conic, somewhat ob- lique; pale yellow with slight blush, many minute brown dots; stalk short, in deep cavity; calyx nearly closed; flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant, subacid, extra high flavor; grown everywhere and fruit keeps late; tree a strong grower and healthy, Greatly advantaged by cross-pollination. Red Pearmain is grown to some extent to fill orders for a red apple. Grimes Golden.—Medium to large; rich yellow with many gray dots; beautiful; flavor good. Late fall. Delicious.—Resembling Bellflower; yellow; almost covered with dark red; very mild acid, quality good; a late keeper. Strongly approved in elevated districts, and recently largely planted. Arkansas Black (Mammonth Black Twig).—Large, round, sometimes oblate and conic; dull green becoming deep yellow, overspread with deep red, obscurely striped with deeper shade. Late fall. Yellow Newton Pippin.—Large, roundish, oblate and oblaque, more or less flattened, yellow with brownish red cheek; stalk very short; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, and with very rich, high flavor. Generally considered the best winter apple in California. 212 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM CRAB APPLES Hyslop.—Fruit large, growing in clusters; roundish ovate; dark rich red, covered with thick blue bloom; stalk long, slender; calyx closed; flesh yel- lowish. Large Red Siberian—Roundish ovate with large and prominent calyx; pale red and yellow skin. Large Yellow Siberian has similar fruit, light clear yellow, inclining to amber, with warm cheek. Trancendant.—Medium to large, roundish oval, flattened at the ends, slightly but regularly ribbed; golden yellow, with rich, crimson cheek, or nearly covered with red; delicate white bloom; stalk long and slender, in open, deep cavity; calyx closed; flesh creamy yellow. Montreal Beauty.—Large, roundish, oblate; bright yellow, mostly cov- ered and shaded with red; one of the most beautiful of crab apples. CHAPTER XVIII THE APRICOT California has nearly four million apricot trees which stand in the open air without protection of any kind and bear large, luscious fruit. That apricot trees can do this constitutes one of the unique features of California fruit growing and proclaims it different from fruit growing in other States, for, excepting a few localities in other parts of the Pacific slope, California has a monopoly of commercial apricot growing, and nowhere else in the world does the fruit attain such commercial importance. Although the apricot has been grown here from the earliest days of American occupation, and though since the opening of the export trade in canned and dried fruits, the apricot has gained in popularity, the planting of apricot orchards has not proceeded recently with great rapidity, although indications are that our distant patrons are only just beginning to recognize the desirability of the fruit, and their demands will make it well- nigh impossible for us to extend our production beyond profitable limits. The reason the apricot has not kept pace with the advance of some other fruits in California is to be found in certain limita- tions of suitable area which will be mentioned presently. Though the apricot has some pests and diseases to contend with, they have thus far proved slight evils, and the tree is generally re- garded as one of the healthiest and most vigorous, as it certainly is one of our most beautiful orchard trees. It is long-lived and attains great size. There were in 1900 here and there groups of trees half a century old with a height of fifty feet; the main trunks like forest oaks, and the first branches of limbs twelve and fifteen inches through. The smaller limbs and foliage are at least fifty feet across ; a half dozen of them shade an acre of ground and they some- times yielded per tree a ton of fruit. But such trees do not meet orchard requirements and are only mentioned to show what the tree may do when it has its own way. The apricot is a rapid grower and an early and heavy bearer in California. In the interior and in the southern coast valleys it yields a paying crop during its third summer in the orchard, and from eight to fourteen tons to the acre was reached for several years in succession, in Judge Blackwood’s old orchard of Royal apricots, in Alameda County. The trees, even of some varieties which are un- certain bearers, are large and vigorous growers, and have warranted the suggestion that there is a use for the apricot tree for a wind- break for the protection of other trees. The trees may be planted near together in strong land, and make a summer windbreak that will pay its way without regard to such fruit as it may incidentally produce. Apricots are chiefly marketed as a dried fruit, and the operation of drying will be described in the chapter devoted to such processes. 214 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The amount used in canning is, in a year of full production, about one-quarter of that used for drying, while the weight of fruit sold fresh to consumers, near and far, is about one-quarter of that used by the canners. It is historically interesting to note that in 1918 apricot pits of the crop of 1917 sold at $32.50 per ton for war purposes. LOCALITIES FOR THE APRICOT In discussing localities for the apricot, reference is, of course, only made to its growth as a standard orchard tree without pro- tection of ony kind. It shows even in California that it does not forget the conditions which destroy its thrift elsewhere, for late frost in our upper coast counties render it, as a rule, unprofitable. Speaking broadly, the quarter of the State lying northward of the Bay of San Francisco and westward of the high ridge of the Coast Range is not suited for commercial apricot growing; though here and there are places where bearing may be regular and abundant enough to make trees satisfactory for home gardens. The mountain regions everywhere in the State above an elevation of 1200 feet are also to be excluded. The lowest lands of the great interior valleys, except here and there, where frosts are prevented by proximity of broad streams or by favoring air currents, are unsuited for apricots, and the bottoms of small valleys whence cold air cannot find drain- age outlet, are also treacherous. It is evident then, that even in regions of general adaptation to the fruit local discrimination must be exercised in selecting land for apricots, and the occurrence of spring frosts, which are usually governed by topography, must be guarded against. This is not the same problem which arises in the selection of land for fruits, because apricots are not open to injury during December, January and February, and consequently they may be successfully grown in places where winter temperatures might injure the evergreen trees of the citrus family. Still, next to the almond, the apricot is most liable to frost injury of all our deciduous tree fruits, and commercial success depends largely upon the selection of a proper place for them. The occurrence of even light frosts during the blooming and setting, or soon after, may strip the tree of its burden of fruit without injury to even the softest twig and leaf; consequently, regular bearing of the apricot can not be expected where the temperature is apt to fall four or five de- grees below the freezing point during the months of March and April, even though the duration of such temperature may be very brief. For this reason the area of California which is well suited to apricot growing is limited when compared with the great area of the State, though when counted by acres it is ample enough to supply all the fresh, canned and dried apricots which the markets of the world can be expected to take at profitable figures. It is often claimed that situations directly subject to ocean in- fluences are best for the apricot. It is noted by many observers that the apricot “points its best branches to the ocean, in the very teeth of the constant breeze, and the landward limbs and twigs bend LOCATIONS FOR THE APRICOT 215 up and endeavor to reach the same direction. This is patent in every tree, and in the long orchard rows is very striking.” This is taken to signify the special liking of the tree for the vicinity of the coast —if spring frosts are not too frequent. It is well enough to inter- pret it that way, providing one does not lose sight of the perfect success of the apricot in the interior as well. It is true that the fruit near the coast attains higher color, and the less rapid growth of the tree makes it somewhat easier to handle, but the earlier ripen- ing in the interior, coupled with freedom from fog and constant sunshine for drying, are points of the highest industrial importance. The fact is that the apricot has a very wide range in California, and though the trees have been cut out at some points it has been chiefly because too frosty locations have been chosen or because some other fruit has seemed to be locally more desirable, for one reason or another. In some valleys in the upper part of the State opening directly to the ocean, there is sometimes complaint of the cracking of the fruit on the sunny side. The alternation of sunshine and fog seems to have something to do with this, for in favorable years, when fogs are few, the fruit is sound. Locations for early ripening of the apricot are to be chosen with reference to the influence of topography, as laid down in Chapter I. In a general way, it may be said, in regions directly subject to coast influences, both in Northern and Southern California, the apricot is late. On the west side of the Sacramento Valley, on slightly elevated places, in small, hill-locked valleys, the earliest apricots have been grown for years. Protected situations in the lower foothills of the Sierra Nevada, on the eastern rim of both the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys, share in the production of the earliest ripening fruit. There is probably about a month’s difference in the ripening of the same variety in the earliest situations and in the coast valleys of both Northern and Southern California. In the interior of Southern California, inirrigated situations, on the west side of the Colorado River and in adjacent parts of Arizona, apricots rival in earliness the product of the famous valleys of in- terior Northern California. Recently a measure of success with the apricot has been attained in irrigated sections of Eastern Washington, Idaho and Utah. If winter temperatures are low enough to keep the tree dormant and yet not low enough to injure the fruit buds and frosts are absent after growth begins, success ought to be attainable. SLOCKS. AND. SOILS. KHOR THE APRICOT Because of the success with which the apricot can be budded on various stocks, it has a wide range in adaptation to different soils. Budded on the peach root it may be grown successfully on the light, warm, well-drained loams in which the peach delights. The peach root is, in fact, largely used for the apricot. It gives the tree quick growth and early fruiting, and the fact that the gopher does not 216 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM like the peach root is a consideration with some planters. In grow- ing stocks, pits of a strong-growing yellow peach are believed to yield more uniform and thrifty seedlings. For deep, rich, well-drained, loamy soils, the apricot on its own root makes a magnificent tree. Apricot roots for budding are easily secured. The pits sprout as readily as corn. Sometimes, where cutting and drying are done in the orchard, the ground the next spring will be almost covered with a volunteer crop of seedling apricots. These little plants, taken up and set out in nursery rows in March, are ready for budding in June or July. Large numbers of trees are sometimes secured in this way. In the upper San Joaquin Valley there are situations in which the apricot seems more productive on its own roots than on the peach, and in the moister parts of the San Fernando and tributary valleys in Southern Cali- fornia the apricot root has recently advanced in popularity. It is, however, rather more sensitive to soil-drouth than the peach root. Formerly in the Imperial Valley the apricot root was regarded: as less tolerant of alkali than the peach root, but recently in the San Joaquin valley the reverse has been held. When it is desired to grow the apricot in moister and heavier soils than have been described, or where a light soil is underlaid by a heavy, retentive subsoil, recourse should be had to the myrobalan plum root. Some growers complain that this root has a dwarfing effect on the tree, but recently its use has increased. It is, however, not adapted to the lighter soils in which the peach root may thrive. The manner of securing myrobalan stocks has been described in the chapter on propagation. Apricot and Almond.—The almond should as a rule be rejected as a stock for the apricot. Hundreds have tried it, and found that the scion does not make a good union with the wood of the stock but is knit to it only by the bark, and is, therefore, easily broken off by the wind. It may grow well and sometimes gets to be two or three inches in diameter before it breaks off. Whole orchards worked in this way have been a'loss and disappointment. A few growers, however, approve the almond and use it with the idea that it gives larger fruit. It has been claimed that the Royal apricot will take well on the almond seedling by root grafting in- stead of budding, using the side graft as described in Chafter IX, but still caution is urged against the use of the almond as a stock for the apricot—except by double working, growing on the almond seedling first a shoot from a peach bud and then working an apricot bud higher up in the new shoot. In addition to the specifications of certain stocks for different soils, it may be remarked, in a general way, that the apricot on a suitable root seems to thrive better on a tolerably heavy soil, with enough sand to make it work easily, than on a very light soil. It does well on soil rather too heavy for the peach. It also enjoys moisture better and gives signs of distress unless its roots are fairly supplied all during the season, but it dislikes standing water and should not be planted on undrained situations. CULTURAL CONDITIONS FOR THE APRICOT 217 PLANTING THE APRICOT The apricot becomes a large tree in California, as has already been remarked, and it should be given plenty of room. Twenty-four feet each way is certainly the minimum distance for so large and long-lived tree, and some orchards have been planted at thirty feet. If nearer planting is done it should be with reference to subsequent removal of part of the trees, which, however, is very seldom done. Twenty feet apart, with later removal of half the trees to double the distance was proposed by H. D. Briggs, of Azusa, in this way: In setting out an orchard it seems advisable to double set the ground, as an apricot twelve to fifteen years old should have not less than 800 to 900 square feet of ground. This can easily be obtained by setting 20x 20 feet; then when nine or ten years old remove every other tree, making them forty feet in the row, with rows twenty feet apart, of course, taking them out diagonally. The trees will very quickly tell the orchardist when they are too thick. When the outside rows have twice the fruit of those inside it is quite evident that the time spent in pruning, etc., on half of the trees is worse than wasted. I have cut roots forty feet from a nine-year-old tree. The apricot makes such rapid growth and so much depends upon giving it proper form, as will be seen presently, that one year’s growth it all that should be allowed in the nursery. Some growers would rather have a dormant bud than a two-year-old tree, and cases have been reported from dormant buds outgrowing yearling trees planted at the same time in the same orchard. But in growing from a dormant bud in the orchard great care should be taken to develop a short trunk, with properly-spaced branches, by pinching the side shoots near the ground. Trees started from dormant buds and allowed to branch from the ground, have developed very un- satisfactory form, and have, in some situations, lost their lower branches by the wind. The tree should have a low head, but a short trunk seems to give a better tree, and more elasticity to the branches. PRUNING THE APRICOT Of all California orchard trees, the apricot seems most in need of the constant attention of the orchardist to give it proper shape and strength. It is a rampant grower, and in its zealous haste for size and fruitage it over-reaches itself and becomes the prey of specific gravity and wind force. Thousands of trees have been ruined by literally breaking to pieces with the weight of their fruit, and being torn by winds of only ordinary velocity. Thousands more have been rescued from such a fate by bolting the branches to each other. This excessive growth and consequent weakness of the apricot is greater in some parts of the State than in others, because of the difference in degree of forcing conditions, but everywhere the apricot needs watchfulness and timely aid in building up its strength. The general principles to be observed in securing branches strongly attached to a short trunk have already been discussed at length in Chapter XII. The adjacent engraving shows their appli- cation to branching the apricot. 218 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM There has been a very marked change during the last few years in pruning the apricot. Summer pruning, immediately after the fruit is picked, has become much more general, and winter pruning has proportionally decreased. Young trees are winter pruned to promote low branching and short, stout limbs; bearing trees are summer pruned to promote fruit bearing and check wood growth— the excess of bearing shoots being removed by thinning during the winter. The apricot tree bears upon old spurs, like the plum; also upon the new wood, like the peach. This fact has to be borne in mind when winter thinning of the new growth is undertaken. Weak and strong branch-placing of apricot tree. A very clear record of procedure is given by J. B. Neff, of Ana- heim, Orange County, who built up one of the best apricot orchards in the State as he describes: Pruning the apricot requires some skill and considerable judgment. Trees of four to five feet in height are preferable for planting, and when planted should be trimmed to a single stem and cut off at eighteen inches from the ground. These will throw out shoots vigorously, and frequently two or three shoots from one point. These shoots should be thinned out, leaving not more than four or five, no two of which should come from one point, nor be directly opposite. The first shoot should start twelve inches from the ground, the others in such a manner as to divide the space and make the branches balance, leaving the top shoot to form the central part of the tree. It will be necessary to go over the trees several times the first year to remove shoots that may start where not wanted, but no general heading back should be done, as it tends to dwarf the tree; though if some of the PRUNING THE APRICOT 219 limbs are making an overgrowth they should be pinched back to keep the head balanced. In the pruning of the second year, the first year’s growth should be cut back to within five or ten inches of the body of the tree, and all forks should be cut out, even if it necessitates forming a new head, as it is much better to lose some growth on a young tree than to take the risk of split- ting down when the tree begins to bear fruit. The second year will require much more attention than the first year, in order to keep off suckers and all lateral growth that may start on the under side of the new limbs, the object being to make the limbs grow as nearly upright as possible. In pruning for the third year the second year’s growth should now be cut back to within fifteen to twenty inches of the old wood, except the cen- tral stem, which may be left twenty-four to thirty inches long, depending on the number of laterals it may have thrown out. When the new shoots start they should again be thinned down to two or three on each limb, and all taken off that end to turn down or out at right angles, but do not take off the fruit spurs. During the third season’s growth, go over the trees about three times before July to remove suckers and lateral growth that may start on the lower side of the limbs, as the tendency in the third year is to make an immense growth of downward laterals, and these must be taken off so as to develop wood that is to be left for fruit. If the orchard is on good land and has been properly irrigated and cultivated there will be a few speci- mens of the fruit the third year, and as soon as these are gathered the trees should be summer pruned for the first time, care being taken that the land shall have been allowed to become moderately dry so that the trees may be partially dormant. If the downward growth of the laterals has been kept cut off, all that remains to be done is to cut off about one-half of all this sea- son’s growth all over the tree, using the same judgment as before with ref- erence to prevailing winds and symmetry of tree. If this is properly done and water at once turned on the orchard, a new growth will be made and the fruit buds for next year fully developed, The only pruning necessary in the following winter will be to take out any cross limbs and sprouts that may have been overlooked in the summer. After the trees begin to produce regular crops they will not grow so vigorously, and the numerous prunings of the first three years will not be necessary, as almost all can be done by summer pruning until the trees get so old that they need old wood taken out. Vase-Form With Less Shortening.—The foregoing is a careful outline of the method of short-cutting of the tree until it comes into bearing which has been generally practiced in California. There has always been variation in practice in the way of less shortening in of main branches. The following is a sketch of the way in which the 140-acre Losse apricot orchard in the Santa Clara Valley was brought to an age of twelve years and notable production: The trees were cut back to 15 or 18 inches when set out some ten or twelve years ago. Three or four main limbs were allowed to grow so as to balance the tree and were cut back to about three feet at the end of the season. About each cut end, several new “leaders” grew out and at the end of the season all but one of these were cut off; and it was cut back a little shorter than the length on which it grew. Only one new leader is left on each limb, because too many would shade and stunt buds inside the chee. In selecting which of many leaders to save, the upright growers are preferred, for the weight of fruit will make them bend over to spread the tree enough. But if there is a space beside that upright leader, and an- other limb grows close to its other side, the upright one is cut back to the old wood and the one projecting into space is reserved. Every effort is made to leave no large openings to the center of the tree; but to fill them thinly 220 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM with fruit-bearing wood. Each leader that is left is cut back according to the vigor of the tree. After a dry year, or a heavy crop, it would be cut back shorter. These leaders of new wood may bloom but are not likely to set fruit that will mature. Their principal business is to put forth new spurs which will fruit the year following. Only enough opportunity for new spurs should be left so all that come may be vigorous enough to support the fruit that sets on them. New growth is left long on young trees in order to get a large surface for fruit bearing as soon as possible. The top of the tree is shaped into a hemisphere to expose a large sur- face to the direct sunlight, and not so thick but that sunlight may filter to the interior quite freely. If the interior is shaded too much, all fruit wood there will die. Mr. Losse believed that his success with the Hemskirke variety was due to not cutting back but simply thinning out interfering, surplus, or weakened branches. He expected to cut them back every five years severely enough to grow new wood. Still Longer Pruning.—Training apricots without cutting back and renewal of old trees which have grown too high is thus de- scribed* by Mr. Aratus Everett of Ventura county: In 1893 I set out about 150 acres three miles west of the town of Moor- park. This locality is subject to spring frosts. I soon noticed that the earliest lower blossoms were often killed by frost when those coming out later, say above ten feet, made a crop of fruit. As I never had approved of the extreme practice of close heading hack of young trees, so I left from three to five main branches to make my trees and headed back and thinned out the inside branches only, An acquaintance of mine set out about 150 acres of apricots near Saticoy the same year that mine were planted. These were set on rich land. He was thoroughly imbuded with the extremely close cutting back system of prun- ing young trees. At the end of five years each main limb of my trees was longer than his whole tree and each of those limbs bore more fruit than his whole tree. From one of my best trees when it was only four years old we gathered over 500 pounds of fine fruit. When this tree was six years old it bore nearly 500 pounds of apricots (green), and it has borne heavy crops right along and is now (1920) in fine condition. When my apricot orchard was about 20 years old I had about one-quarter of the large limbs that were equally distant around the tree cut off about ten feet above the ground. A great many sprouts started at the top and some lower down on their limbs. By breaking off all but five or six of these sprouts while they were small, the rest made a strong growth which was slightly headed back the next year when we cut away another quarter of the main limbs. This plan was repeatéd for five or six years as limbs too small to cut away the first year became large enough after four years more growth. My old orchard is now renewed with bearing top varying in age from one to five years. This orchard has often made 1,000 tons of fresh fruit of good quality. The trees are on apricot roots. Early Fall Pruning.—Fall pruning, as noted in Chapter XII, is the rule with the apricot where summer pruning to repress growth is not followed. It is done in the Santa Clara Valley in September— too late to start new shoots. It is held that though there is a loss of nourishment to the tree by early removal of green leaves, the early pruned trees stay green later and so perhaps make up this ‘loss, besides using the energy more profitably for the grower by filling out the fruit buds. *California Cultivator, Jan. 24, 1920. TO GET SIZE IN APRICOTS 221 Winter Pruning of Bearing Trees.—The evident defect of many old apricot orchards is the failure of the low-bearing wood and the thicket of brush near the ends of long bare limbs. Such trees need renewal of the top by vigorous winter pruning, which should prefer- ably be done toward the close of the dormant season rather than early in the winter as formerly. Old and unprofitable trees have been reclaimed in this way. Winter pruning is still the regular method in some parts of the State where the conditions do not favor excessive growth of the tree and where summer pruning does not seem to be called for. The practice is to remove half or two-thirds of the new growth and thin out, by removing entirely enough new and old wood to prevent the tree from becoming thick and brushy. In shortening the bearing shoots it should be remembered that the larger fruits usually grow nearer to the tip than to the base of the shoot. THINNING THE APRICOT All free-fruiting varieties of the apricot must be thinned to secure size acceptable to purchasers. It is the experience of the oldest growers that though thinning is an expensive operation, it is very profitable. When half the fruit is taken off in thinning, the remain- der reaches as large aggregate weight as though the whole were allowed to mature, and thinned fruit is worth about twice as much per pound. Even if less weight is secured, and in most cases the purpose should be to get less weight, the tree is spared the exhaus- tion of over-bearing and the owner escapes a year of little or no fruit. A discussion of this subject is given in Chapter XII. Where conditions are favorable, the tree will set more fruit than it can bring to full size, and for this reason thinning or spacing the fruit on the twigs by hand-picking, while the fruit is about the size of a pigeon’s egg, is almost a universal practice among the best commercial growers. This is necessary to bring the individual fruits to the diameters required by canners or overland shippers and which they scale in price according to size: Extras, 24% inches; No. 1, 2 inches; No. 2, 2%4 inches. Fruit of less size is hard of sale unless the crop happens to be very small. It has also been found that thin- ning to regulate size is quite as important when the fruit is to be dried by the grower as when sold as fresh fruit. IRRIGATION OF THE APRICOT Whether the apricot shall be irrigated or not is answered in the chapter on irrigation. In many locations, with proper pruning, thinning and cultivation, perfectly satisfactory fruit can be grown with the usual rainfall. In others a single winter irrigation will satisfy all the needs of the tree; in others a single irrigation just after fruit picking and summer pruning will carry the tree through. It is a fact, however, that as the trees advance in age some supple- ment to the average rainfall is often desirable and in dry years 222 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM irrigation is the saving of two crops. Some idea of the amount of water used can be had from the chapter on irrigation. The follow- ing account by Mr. Neff applies to this practice in Orange County, which is an average situation as to rainfall and atmospheric humid- ity, and is as good a general statement as could be made: If rains are copious, winter irrigation may be dispensed with during the first two or three years after planting the orchard, but when the trees reach the age of bearing fruit the rain water should be supplemented by irrigation water until the soil is thoroughly wet 5 feet deep, and in order to do this, at least 20 inches of water, including rainfall, must be put on the land. Three irrigations should be given the trees during the first summer, but it is not necessary to wet more than a strip 5 or 6 feet wide along the tree rows. The orchard should have three irrigations during the second summer and a strip 12 feet wide should be watered, as the roots are reaching farther and the trees require a greater amount of water. The irrigation for the first two years should always be done before the trees show any want of water, so as to keep them going vigorously. All the space between the trees should be watered the third year and afterward; but two irrigations will be sufficient for the summer. The best time for the summer irrigation of bearing apricot trees is when the fruit is about half grown, which is usually about the second or third week in May. If well watered at this time the fruit grows to its largest, and has time to ripen slowly as the ground gradually dries, until it has all the sugar which will go into the fruit. An orchard in full bearing that has been well watered in the winter should now have as much as full 100 inches of water for two hours on each acre (equal to four acre-inches), The second irrigation should be given as soon as possible after the sum- mer pruning is done, in order to start the trees growing and develop the fruit buds for the next year. This will not require so much water as the irrigation in May, but ought to be as much as 100 inches of water for one hour on each acre. Winter irrigation of apricots on deep soils, as supplementary to rainfall and largely reducing summer irrigation, is a very satisfac- tory recourse in some districts. DISEASES OF THE APRICOT Though the apricot tree, as has been said, is regarded as one of the healthiest fruit trees, it is subject to some maladies. Trees perish from being set in unsuitable situations, and in these cases, if the evil be stagnant water in soil, or penetration to alkaline subsoil, the root shows it. Sometimes, however, a branch or a whole tree withers and dies without apparent cause early in the summer, and while the root is still sound. The disease is evidently acute, but its cause is not known, nor a remedy proposed. It is an old trouble of the apricot, and not peculiar to California. Such dying branches should be cleanly cut away. The so-called “gum disease” sometimes causes injury to trees. Some forms of gumming have recently demonstrated to be due to bacterial invasion. When gumming spots appear on the bark the best treatment is to cut away the diseased bark down to healthy wood during the dormant season and cover the wound with asphal- tum or common lead and oil paint, putting on sparingly so as not to flow over healthy bark. DISEASES OF THE APRICOT 223 There are several troubles affecting the twigs, foliage and fruits which are reduced by the following preventive treatment. For bearing trees spray with heavy Bordeaux mixture (6-8-50) or lime sulphur (1-12) between November 15 and December 15, to prevent infection of the buds with the Coryneum (peach blight) fungus and also to clean up, as far as possible, the spores of this fungus and those of the brown rot (Monilia). During winter pruning remove all dead twigs and small branches and as pink-color appears in swelling bloom buds, spray with lime-sulphur (1-10) or with Bor- deaux mixture when the blossoms are opening. For twig injury caused by frost and generally called “sour sap,” a heavy coating of whitewash applied about November 15 and renewed, if necessary, during the winter, is believed to be the best preventive. There is prevalent in some districts a trouble called “black heart”; a pith disease which sometimes does great injury. No treat- ment except that of pruning back to healthy wood has thus far been proposed. Root knot is also a serious trouble of the apricot as of several other trees. It will be considered in the chapter devoted to disease of fruit trees. Until recently the apricot has been generally free from scale in- sects, and it is not affected by those species which are worst on some other fruit trees, but recently it has been seriously infested in some cases with black and brown scales, which will be considered in a later chapter. The ripe apricot is sometimes seriously assailed by the diabrotica, a small green beetle, with twelve black spots upon its wing covers. Driving the insects away with smoke smudges has been used to some extent. Fortunately, the insect only occasionnally occurs in large numbers. VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT Though nearly all standard varieties of the apricot have been introduced and planted in this State, comparatively few are found on the list of the orchard planters. Many local seedlings have been brought to notice and propagated to some extent but finally aban- doned, and the disposition is to restrict planting to a few old varieties. At the conferences of the growers, canners and nurserymen in 1920 (which has been noted in Chapter XVI), the Blenheim, Royal and Tilton were approved for commercial planting, Hemskirke and Routier’s Peach additional for home orchards and Moorpark for drying (in locations where it does well). The canners recom- mended that for the coast districts 100 per cent Blenheim be planted, interior San Joaquin Valley 100 per cent Tilton, interior Sacramento Valley 50 per cent Blenheim, 50 per cent Tilton. The following are now commercially grown in California: Royal.—A French variety, for many years the leading California apricot and now dividing first honors with the Blenheim. Of large size (when well thinned out), free stone, fine color and flavor, good bearer, and fruit ripens 224 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM evenly, when well grown; a favorite with the canners, and an excellent variety for drying. Fruit roundish, large, oval, slightly compressed; skin dull yellow with orange check, very faintly tinged with red, and a shallow suture; flesh pale orange, firm and juicy, with a rich vinous flavor. The Derby Royal is grown in the Winters district; like the standard Royal but two weeks earlier. The Barry is grown in Alameda County as an improved Royal. Blenheim or Shipley.—This is a valuable variety in this State, standing with the Royal in popularity; was described by John Rock as follows: “A very good variety, above medium, oval; orange, with a deep yellow, juicy and tolerably rich flesh; vigorous grower and regular, prolific bearer.” This behavior of the variety was first demonstrated fully in the University or- chard at Berkeley, where it was for years the best of twenty varieties. It is now popular in all parts of the State. Fruit runs a little larger than the Royal, and is usually better distributed on the tree, but it must be well thinned. This variety has been approved by canners. Ripens a little later than the Royal. Losse Bienheim and Knobel Bleinheim are selected strains growing in Santa Clara Valley. Thirty years ago Royal and Blenheim were considered different varieties and distinguishable. At present (1921) they are propagated and sold indis- criminately by many nurseries, and a promological problem of original identity or diversity presses for solution. Hemskirke.—A fine English variety quite widely grown in California; ripens later than Royal; described by Downing as follows: “Fruit large, roundish, but considerably compressed or flattened on its sides; skin orange, with red cheek; flesh bright orange, tender, rather more juicy and sprightly than the Moorpark, with rich, lucious, plum-like flavor; stone not perforate, rather small and kernel bitter.” Esteemed in California, because the tree is more hardy and a more regular bearer than the Moorpark, and the fruit ripens evenly on both sides. Sometimes drops worse than other varieties. Peach.—A variety from Piedmont of the largest size, about two inches in diameter, roundish, rather flattened, and somewhat compressed on its sides, with a well-marked suture; skin yellow in the shade, but deeply orange mottled with brown on the sunny side; flesh of a fine yellow, saffron color, juicy, rich, and highly flavored; stone can be penetrated like Moorpark, and has bitter kernel. This has been a very successful sort in the warmer parts of the State especially, and a favorite in the Sacramento Valley, but is now in less favor because of rapid ripening and inferior appearance in canning and drying. It ripens just ahead of the Moorpark. Routier’s Peach.—Originated with Joseph Routier, near Sacramento. Large, yellow in shade; deep orange, mottled or splashed with red in the sun; flesh juicy and rich, high flavor and a good market variety. Blooms a week later than Peach. Very popular in Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. Moorpark.—A standard of excellence and an old variety which originated in England. Fruit large, roundish, about two inches and a quarter in diam- ‘eter each way; rather larger on one side of the suture than on the other; skin organe in the shade, but deep orange or brownish red in the sun, marked with numerous dark specks and dots; flesh quite firm, bright orange, parting free from the stone, quite juicy, with a rich and luscious flavor; stone peculiarly perforated along the back, where a pin may be pushed through; kernel bitter. In California the Moorepark reaches grand size, but has the fault of ripening unevenly in most localities. The tree is tender and bears irregularly, which leads to its rejection by most planters, though some growers cling to it because of its size and quality and occasional grand crops. The San Jose districts lead in the production of this variety, and in some parts of the Santa Clara Valley the Moorpark seems to ripen uni- formly. The same behavior is reported from localities in the upper San Joaquin Valley, where it also seems to be a more regular bearer. The variety is almost wholly rejected in Southern California, (*8h% 93ed 99¢)—sorenbs ur uonesiaa Mong dvep WIIM pazeyo.10 yoeog— [IIA °1¥%Id Plate IX.—Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning. (See page 311.) VARIETIES OF THE APRICOT 225 Newcastle.—Originated with C. M. Silva & Son, of Newcastle, Placer County, in 1881; size medium, round, with spherical pit; freestone; not quite as large as the Royal, nor quite as rich in flavor, but more highly colored; rather darker on the side to the sun. Early, regular and good bearer, a medium grower, being more upright than the Royal. Its time of ripening has been reported as seventeen days earlier than the Early Golden, and twenty- five days earlier than the Royal. Especially profitable in Imperial Valley. Tilton.—Chance seedling first noticed about 1885 on place of J. E. Tilton, near Hanford, Kings County, and distinguished by regular bearing. Prop- agated and introduced by J. W. Barstow, of Hanford. Fruit large; free- stone; symmetrical, ripening evenly and one week to ten days later than Royal. Tree vigorous and prolific. Widely planted recently and very promising, though condemned for shy bearing in some places. Colors in advance of ripening and is often picked too green for best quality in drying. CHAPTER XIX THE CHERRY Although the amount of cherries grown in this State is small as compared with the aggregate weights of some other fruits, the cherry, from the growth of the tree and the size and quality of the product, is entitled to rank as one of the grand fruits of California. The size of the California-grown cherry is a matter of pride with the residents, and a marvel to visitors. It is related that, many years ago, one of the most distinguished Eastern pomologists, who was taken to an Alameda County cherry orchard during picking time, could not recognize the varieties, though he had himself prop- agated and shipped to California the very trees which were bearing the fruit, the size of which so far surpassed all his mental standards. And quality is commensurate with size. Whatever disagreement there may be concerning the flavors of our other fruits as compared with Eastern, the richness and excellence of the California cherry has never been impeached. Recently the shipment of cherries to Eastern markets and the extension of the canning interest, have considerably enlarged the opportunity for profitable growth of the fruit. Famous Old Trees.—The longevity and productiveness of the cherry tree in this State is naturally of interest. Cherries that were planted in some of the earliest settled parts of the State are still in full vigor. One of the famous trees is a Black Tartarian, which was brought from France by Dr. L. E. Miller, and planted by him in 1854, on land afterwards owned by Robert Hector in Placer County, just below Rattlesnake Bar, on the American River, about eight hundred feet above sea-level. It is described as above seventy feet in height, the branches covering a space between seventy and seventy-five feet in diameter. The trunk branches about six feet above the ground, and at that point has a girth of over ten feet. A close record of its crop, kept for a number of years when the tree was over thirty years of age, showed that it yielded from a ton to a ton and a half a year. Such trees are too large to be profitable, for the fruit has to be picked with the aid of extension ladders securely guyed, by men slung in swings from such ladders or the forks of the tree. At last reports there were about fifty of these large trees. Other large trees were to be seen near Woodside, San Mateo County, and near Oroville and Chico in Butte County, some of which have borne a ton of fruit in favorable seasons. LOCALITIES, FOR. THE - CHERRY In California there are many districts in which the cherry does not do well, and situations for the fruit must therefore be selected with discrimination. The chief product is made in the coast valleys LOCATIONS AND SOILS FOR CHERRIES 227 adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco, including its extension east of the Coast Range, known as Suisun Bay, for in all these regions there is a modification of climate due to the influence of ocean tem- perature and moisture. Away from these influences the cherry also thrives on the alluvial bottoms of large rivers and their tributary creeks, both on the low lands of the valleys and the foothills, while on broad valley plains and foothill slopes it is not usually satis- factory. In the mountain valleys cherries also thrive in suitable soils which are kept reasonably moist by irrigation or cultivation as may be required to do it. How far atmospheric conditions which are beyond control in- fluence the growth and fruitage of the cherry, can not yet be fully determined, but ample trial seems to demonstrate the unsatisfactory character of the tree, manifested in small fruit and sunburned foliage, on the plains of interior valleys, although the soil is kept moist enough. There is, however, still the chance of securing varieties of the fruit which have been developed under conditions similar to those prevailing in the interior of California. It is claimed that the Russian cherries, which are largely grown in a_ region subject to high summer heat and dry air, will succeed in parts of California where the varieties originating in West Europe fail. Though this was suggested long ago, the effort has not yet been made to demonstrate it. SOILS FOR, THE CHERRY The cherry thrives in free deep soil, in which water does not stand too near the surface. It delights in deep deposits from old water courses, and does not dislike a moderate amount of sand. A loam underlaid by a sandy subsoil is acceptable if it is not allowed to dry out in the late summer, but a loam underlaid by clay has shown its unfitness by the early failure of the trees, because of standing water in the rainy season, while those on deep loam near by have remained vigorous and profitable. The trees are, however, more resistant of too retentive soil, if a wise choice of roots is made, as will be discussed presently. On the foothills the cherry thrives in the light, mellow soil and fails in the tight clay either in soil or subsoil, as it does in the adobe of lower lands; and yet a clay loam of no great depth upon a clay subsoil may grow good trees if the clay be so disposed that surplus water from winter rains can escape and water is at hand to guard against summer drouth. Commercial orchards should have a good depth of sufficiently retentive soil. The great cherry trees just mentioned are growing right on the bank of the American River, where the soil is a pure, sandy loam, in some places over sixty feet deep, as proved by an old shaft once dug near the center of the orchard. But-though the cherry dislikes a wet soil, it is particular about its water supply and insists upon enough, its requirements being greater than some other trees. During the dry year 1898-99, also in 1912-13, trees came into distress where they had never suffered 228 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM before, and many large valuable trees died. The only new condition they encountered was lack of soil moisture. It thus appears that while the cherry is undoubtedly injured by excess of water in the soil it is still very exacting in its requirement of an adequate supply. If this cannot be retained in the soil by cultivation, irrigation must be resorted to. Thus the cherry growers in the famous Willows district of San Jose, usually find it an advantage to give their trees an irrigation between the spring rains and the ripening of the fruit, and another irrigation after the fruit is gathered. Irregularity in the moisture supply also causes the. cherry to bloom and fruit unseasonably. There has been bloom in October and ripe fruit in January, due to the fact that trees became dormant in late summer from soil-drouth. January cherries may be evidences of salubrity but they betoken poor horticulture. These facts show that the cherry must have water enough or it will not succeed. Sometimes young trees which have made a good summer growth die outright on leachy soils which dry out before the fall rains begin. On the other hand, there must not be excessive moisture in the soil either from irrigation or by moisture. Cherry trees in Southern California, planted with orange trees and given similar irrigation, have failed utterly. Planting on naturally moist land in low places has also failed, and observed facts some time ago led to the conclusion that at the south the cherry should be planted on well-drained land, which could be irrigated (as the behavior of the tree indicated its need of water), rather than on naturally moist land, because of the likelihood of excessive moisture in such situa- tions. More recent experience has declared mellow, well-drained soils, of the higher lands well adapted to the cherry and on such soils, when well cultivated, cherries have done well with little irri- gation at Pasadena, Pomona and elsewhere. The commercial cherry product of Southern California comes, however, from mountain val- leys and high plateaux—the chief regions being the Yacaipa Valley and the Beaumont District in San Bernardino County, the Mesa Grande region in the interior of San Diego County, and other sec- tions with similar conditions. In California, as elsewhere, the Dukes and Morellos may succeed where the Hearts and Bigarreaux fail. The May Duke seems espe- cially hardy, and bears well in Nevada, where other sorts fail utterly. Delayed Fruiting of Cherry Trees——Though the cherry in favor- able situations bears early, the grower, especially on strong, rich lands, will often have many years of disappointment from falling blossoms and fruit. During this time the trees will be making mar- velous wood growth, and this apparently suppresses the fruiting function. Usually these trees will ultimately bear when their ex- uberant growth declines. They can be thrown into fruit sooner by allowing the trees to go uncultivated, or by root pruning, through digging a trench around about eight feet from the tree, and severing the roots thus encountered, or by summer pruning. Because of this over-growth, growers give such strong soil to the apple or the pear rather than the cherry. Sometimes the non-bearing of the cherry is CHERRIES NEED THE BEES 229 inexplicable. Though everything seems to be right, and the blos- soms are profuse, the fruit will not stick. CROSS-POLLINATION OF CHERRIES Lack of bearing is often due to improper association of varieties in planting. Experiments in cross-pollination of cherry varieties were conducted from 1916 to 1920 in several cherry districts, under direction of Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of California. The following is an outline of observations: The Black Tartarian, Burr’s Seedling, Pontiac, Black Republican, Rock- port and Governor Wood will pollinate with the Royal Ann, and the Royal Ann will pollinate the Pontiac. The Black Tartarian, Burr’s Seedling, Royal Ann and Governor Wood varieties may be used with the Rockport. The Black Tartarian and Pontiac may be used on the Bing and the Black Tartarian pollinates the Advance, Black Tartarian and Black Republican cross well, the former being also the best pollenizer for the Purple Guigne, Chapman, Advance and Black- heart. Black Tartarian and Pontiac cross the Lambert, the former being pref- erable. Royal Ann’s best performance was with Pontiac. It is fortunate that the few cherry varieties which are commer- cially grown in California will cross-pollinate each other, and the planter need not have recourse to several varieties named above which are of no commercial account. These are, however, desirable as garden cherries for amateur planting. There is full demonstration that keeping bees in the vicinity of cherry orchards has increased the bearing. But varieties must be provided which will act as cross-pollinizers. EXPOSURES. FOR) THE CHERRY Exposures for the cherry are chosen both with reference to pro- tection from frost injury and to early ripening of the fruit. The cherry blooms early; though hardly as venturesome as the apricot and almond. In protected situations, guarded from cold northerly winds, and open to sunshine on the south and southeast, the fruit advances to maturity very rapidly. In Vaca Valley about a month of good weather after the blossoming will ripen an early cherry and ripe cherries have been shipped as early as March 31. The pioneer cherry growers of Vaca Valley went there from old homes in Napa Valley, because they could gather and market cherries in their new locations before the same varieties were ripe in Napa Valley. They chose places protected on the north and west by steep hills. The two things to secure are, apparently, protection from the sweep of cold winds and elevation above the deposits of cold air, which occur in depressed places. In localities where fruit ripens late, as near the coast, there is no need to seek forcing conditions, for the extra early varieties should not be planted except for family use. Early varieties are 230 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM comparatively poor in quality, and will not sell profitably, as they will reach the market alongside the better later sorts from earlier districts. The places for the cherry in the later districts is on the most proper soil, according to the requirements which have been laid down, avoiding, however, so far as possible, wind-swept spots, and seeking amelioration of direct ocean influences by elevation or intervention of hills and windbreaks. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING THE CHERRY In the chapter on propagation is given a successful method of growing cherry seedlings. About three-fourths of California cherry trees are propagated by budding on seedlings of the Black Mazzard. The Mahaleb root is still more hardy than the Mazzard and is less subject to injury by standing water in the soil during the winter season. It is also more hardy against injury in summer drouth on shallow soils, which is one of the causes of die-back of the cherry tree in some parts of the State. While there may be particular places in which the Mahaleb is the better root, the conclusions of fifty years’ experience in California cherry growing, which approve the Maz- zard, are on the whole trustworthy. The Mazzard is a better grower and, where moisture conditions are fairly good, leaves little to be desired. The Mahaleb, however, though credited with a dwarfing influence, does make a good-sized tree under our conditions. It seems a fair general conclusion that Mazzard roots make larger trees, but Mahaleb roots make hardier trees which bear younger. The Mahaleb is more popular in the interior than in the coast valleys. The planting of the cherry is covered by the general considera- tions already given for the planting of orchards. The distance which cherries should be set apart is a disputed point among planters. When planted twenty feet apart the trees have interlaced their branches when sixteen years old, and the spaces between the rows have been covered in like colonnades. In the Hayward region the branches of twelve-year-old trees set twenty-eight feet apart have nearly reached the other, though continually cut back. Much de- pends in the matter of distance upon the manner of handling the trees. The trees can be grown much nearer together by continuous pruning than where the usual way of cutting back for the first few years and letting the tree take its natural growth after that, is fol- lowed. James E. Gedney, of Mesa Grande, San Diego County, practiced close planting and cutting back which may work better on his upland than on deeper, moister soils. He says: I plant my trees twenty feet apart each way. My method is to plant thus closely and then keep my trees low, by cutting back every year; this facili- tates gathering the fruit very much. I prefer this way to setting the trees farther apart and allowing them to attain too great a height. By the former method I secure fully as good, if not better, results per acre, to say nothing of the difference in gathering the fruit. Another advantage in keeping the trees headed low is that the wind does not affect them nearly as much as it does tall trees. PRUNING THE CHERRY 231 The best distances are 24 or 28 feet on such deep soils as have been described as best befitting the tree and, though one may fix his distance in planting according to the method of pruning he pro- poses to follow, he should remember that the cherry is naturally a large tree, and most old orchards are now over-crowded. As with other trees, orchard planters prefer trees with one year’s growth on the bud in the nursery, because they usually get, then, a straight switch with well developed buds all the way down, and the head can be formed as desired: For garden planting, older trees, properly pruned in the nursery, can be used to advantage. PRUNING THE CHERRY All our best growers agree in the advantage of a low head for the cherry, and all aim to have trunks of young trees from the ground up to the limbs literally covered all around with leaves, which completely shelter the bark from the rays of the sun. In planting, therefore, the side buds are carefully preserved—not to be grown into branches, but to be cut or pinched back when they have come out a few inches, leaving just growth enough to clothe the tree with a covering of its own foliage. These spurs not only furnish leaves to shade the trunk, but soon become fruit spurs, and bear well. Low Heading with a Central Stem.—Some of the trees in the older orchards have been shaped by carrying up a leader with a regular system of side branches. Head back at planting to two feet, pinching off the shoots below the head as stated, and allowing the shoots which form the head to grow larger, but they, too, are all to be pinched except the leader, which is allowed to grow as long as it pleases during the summer. During fall or winter pruning cut back the leader to about twelve or sixteen inches from its starting point and cut back the side branches to about six or eight inches. This is done year after year, cutting back and pruning out the side shoots, pinching the laterals, and allowing the leader to grow, never interfering with it until the winter pruning and always letting it predominate over the side shoots. By cutting short, wood is in- creased, but at the end of six years the tree goes into fruit very rapidly. As the tree increases in fruit it decreases in wood, and by the time it is ten or twelve years old there will be but little cutting to do, except to shorten in and thin out, and this requires some judgment and experience, to know where to cut, and when to cut. To shorten in, never cut down to an old fruit spur. It is very dif- ficult to get healthy wood out of such; but whenever you can find last year’s wood, there you can cut with safety anything that is less than one inch in diameter. This system of pruning must be accompanied by constant pinch- ing during the summer time. It should commence when the lower shoots are about six inches long, and be followed up closely all through the growing season. Those on the trunk should never get longer than eight or ten inches, under any circumstances. After these are pinched, let the trees rest ten or fifteen days, or until the 232 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM branches in the top get a good start. Then pinch everything clean but the leader, in every main branch in the tree. The leader takes its own way all through the growing season, to prevent the effects of over-pinching or checking the growth. If only the side shoots are kept back, the leader or head of the branches receives the current or flow of sap and maintains and carries on life and vitality in the tree. One object in pinching or spur pruning is to keep back sur- plus wood and create fruit spurs, throwing all the little twigs and branches into fruit, thereby utilizing all the wood the tree can pro- duce, not allowing it to grow at the tree’s expense, and then have to cut it off. And another object in side-shoot pruning is to make the tree produce fine large cherries, all closely nestling around the big wood, and no long, slim branches hanging down like weeping willow. This method is commended to those who like a tree with a cen- tral leader and are willing to give their orchards such constant attention. Unless pinching and consequent multiplication of shoots and foliage is fathfully followed such a tree is apt to become tall and rangy and to expose the bark all the way up to sunburn and borers. THE USUAL METHOD OF PRUNING THE CHERRY As has been said, all cherry growers agree on low heading and on the advantage of pinching the lowest shoots as soon as they make a bunch of leaves. In forming the head, and in after treatment, the usual method is quite different from that we have described. It fol- lows the vase or goblet form, which has been discussed at length in the chapter on pruning. Of the application of this method to the cherry, W. W. Smith, in an address before the State Horticultural Society, said: The cherry may be pruned the same as any other deciduous fruit tree until it is about five years old; after that the less pruning the better, except when necessary to cut out a dead or crossing branch. Pruning the cherry is more or less likely to produce gum (and this, decay) and should be avoid- ed as much as possible. Cherry trees, however, should be trained with low heads not to exceed eighteen inches from the ground to the first branches; fifteen inches is better. From three to five branches are enough to form the head of the tree; all others should be removed early. Three are better than five; two make a forked tree, which is likely to split in after years. At the end of the first season we have a neat little tree with three to five branches. During the following winter these branches should be cut back to six to eight inches. The next season these should be allowed to produce two branches each (no more); then, at the end of the second season from planting out, we have a tree with from six to ten branches. The following winter the new growth should be cut back again to from twelve to eighteen inches—according to the amount of growth the tree makes—the less the growth the more you cut. The same process should be repeated the follow- ing winter, treating each branch as an individual tree, until the tree is about five years old; it takes at least five years to get the head of a cherry well established. After this, as some varieties will persist in throwing out branches near the ground, they should be removed during the summer. At this age the tree, if well grown, will have top enough to shade its body from the sun, and there is no further need of branches on the main trunk. If necessary to remove large branches it should be done in midsummer, as that is the only season when the gum is not more or less exuded. We DISEASES OF THE CHERRY 233 made it a rule to go over and dress up and prune out cherry orchard, im- mediately after the crop is gathered—which in our part of the State is the last of May. All wounds made then by the removal of branches or other- wise will heal over the same season. All large wounds made at any time, however, should be coated over with paint. The method thus described by Mr. Smith is that by which prob- ably nine-tenths of the cherry trees of this State are shaped. In selecting the shoots to form the head of the young tree they should be as far apart as possible on the short stem and on different sides, as explained in detail in Chapter XII. It is especially desir- able to avoid the basin which is so often formed in old cherry trees by growth of three or four main limbs closing up to form a central cavity, which will be discussed on a following page. In the cherry tree there should be the same observation as to cutting inside and outside buds as with other trees; in fact, the out- side bud is the rule, because so many varieties make a directly upward growth. In removing limbs, cutting to the collar or swell- ing at the base of the limb is especially important, also the covering of the wound to prevent checking of the wood. GRAFTING OVER THE CHERRY Since canning of cherries began on a large scale, there has been a vastly increased demand for white cherries. The Royal Ann (a local name for Napoleon Bigarreau) has been the favorite. Other white storts are also used for canning. This rise in favor of the white cherries has vastly increased their proportionate production as compared with the choice black and red varieties, which are still popular as a table fruit. It is the experience of growers that the cherry is grafted over as easily as the pear or apple, if the tree is healthy. In large trees as many as fifty or one hundred grafts may be set, choosing the smaller limbs, even if you have to go pretty high in the tree. J. W. Cassidy, of Petaluma, used to advise grafting before the sap begins to flow -in the winter, or if not done then, wait until the buds are well ad- vanced or the tree in bloom. He had trees which were over thirty years old before they were re-headed, and they made fine tops of new and healthy wood, and produced abundantly. The cherry is grafted by the usual top-grafting methods described in Chapter [X. PHOLO AND DISEASES OF THE’ CHERRY The disease of the cherry which is most heard of is the “gum,” or overflow and condensation of sap, which, if left to itself, often induces decay of adjacent bark and wood. Without attempting to explain the causes of the unhealthy exudations, which are several, it may be said that prompt treatment of certain manifestations is desirable, and in others the tree should be cleansed from the flow. Where the gum exudes on the side of trunk or limb, the thin outer bark should be pared away with a sharp knife, the accumulation of gum and sap removed, and the wound painted with asphaltum or lead and oil paint, or covered with grafting wax. A rational treat- 234 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM ment of infectious gumming of the cherry, studied closely by Prof. H. P. Barss, of the Oregon Agricultural College, is as follows: The disease starts out late in winter, enlarging old cankers and becom- ing a source of new infection. It is caused by organisms which live over winter in the discolored bark at the edges of the old cankers. The gumming is simply incidental and is not always noticeable, neither does gumming always indicate the disease. The only remedy is to cut all the bark and wood close to the disease, taking enough to be sure to get all the organisms newly working in bark not yet discolored. Then wash with a 1 to 1000 solution of corrosive sublimate prepared under direction of the druggist who sells the tablets, and apply pruning paint or white lead mixed with raw (not boiled) linseed oil. Close watch through the spring and summer for new cankers or blighted spurs and twigs will probably reveal some to be cut out. Always Twelve-year-old cherry trees with acute and wide angled crotches. dip cutting tools in the sublimate solution, which is deadly poison to bacteria and human begins. The disease on twigs and branches is easily handled without great loss by cutting them out. Gum in the crotch should be cleanly brushed out when softened by the winter rains. If allowed to remain, it becomes sour and offensive and may injure the tree. In places where two or three limbs come out closely together a kind of cup is formed (as just mentioned in the discussion of pruning), which will hold the gum from one year’s end to another, and in its soft state, leaves, sticks, cherry pits, dust, and dirt will stock and hang and sometimes the mass becomes very foul. By this collection also, a nest is made for all manner of insects, bugs and worms. Another evil in letting the gum stay on is, if the rain does not wash it off clean, it runs down the trunk of the tree and makes the bark look bad, and if it is very thick on the bark when it dries, it will contract and crack the bark crosswise, and is very injurious to the tree. IRRIGATION OF CHERRIES 235 Gumming in the crotch can be largely avoided by starting the young cherry tree as advocated in the chapter on pruning. Branches which emerge from the trunk at separate points and at wide angles seldom gum; those which are crowded together or emerge at acute angles gum badly, as suggested by the adjacent engraving. In shaping young trees a gumming joint sometimes may be clearly cut out and those branches selected to remain which start out at a wider angle; in older trees there is nothing to do but keep the fork clean, as already described. There are cases reported in which gumming of old trees has been stopped by allowing the ground to lie uncultivated, weeds being cut down with the hoe. Asa rule, however, the cherry thrives with good cultivation. Die-back of the Cherry.—The dying back of cherry branches is more or less common in all regions, and the immediate cause thereof is not known. It is apparently sometimes a root trouble, as is the dying back of other fruit trees. This might have resulted from standing water in the winter in the soil, although the same condition may result from lack of sufficient moisture during the late summer and autumn. Anything which causes the destruction of the root hairs is apt to cause die-back and other forms of unthrift in the top. Early vegetative activity in the branch, followed by frost, seems also to occasion die-back in some cases. Fortunately, this can occur without injury to the rest of the tree, though it is sometimes and in some places destructive to the tree in the end. The only treatment is removal of the affected wood, and this should be done during the growing season, as soon as signs of injury appear. The Gopher.—One of the most dangerous foes of the cherry is the gopher, for he seldom takes less than the whole tree, young or old. Traces of his presence should be constantly watched for, and killing methods described in a later chapter adopted. If a tree is seen to wit suddenly, the proability is that a gopher has girdled it. Covering the wound sometimes saves the tree, but not usually. Insects injuring the cherry will be mentioned in a subsequent chapter. IRRIGATION OF THE CHERRY As already stated, the cherry is very sensitive to drying out of the soil and should be protected against it by irrigation when neces- sary. In the chief cherry regions the local rainfall is sufficient to mature the crop, and the stress comes later in the season. In that case a good irrigation after the fruit is gathered may be quite enough to keep the tree growing until the fruit buds for the fol- lowing year are plumped out well. If not, as learned by local ob- servation, a late summer irrigation must be given. Where regular irrigation is required, it is usual to irrigate every four weeks after dry weather comes on, until just before the fruit begins to color at two-thirds of full size. This makes the cherries fill out; but no more water is given until after picking, as that would make the fruit too 236 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM soft to carry well. Fall irrigation is continued as required by local conditions to keep the foliage active sufficiently late in the season. VARIETIES OF CHERRY Many varieties of the cherry have been tested in this State, and many have been abandoned from one cause or another. The claims to value upon which a variety is judged are several: Extra earli- ness, an important consideration in early districts for shipment, and elsewhere for local sale or family use; firmness to withstand mechan- ical injury by jarring in transit and durability to escape decay during the long journey to distant markets ; firmness and fixed solor to stand processing in the cannery, and to prevent coloring the juice; lateness to extend the cherry season. In classification of cherries it was originally considered that there were four classes of cherries. The Hearts were the tender and half-tender sweet cherries, while the Bigarreaux were the firm- fleshed ones; but these have been so intermingled and blended together by hybridization that no distinct line can now be drawn separating them. There is really but one class of these, whose main characteristic is the large, vigorous growth of the tree. The Duke and Morello cherries, also wanting a natural division, really con- stitute but one class. The cherries chiefly grown for fruit shipping and for sale to canners are enumerated in Chapter XVI. The following list in- cludes the varieties commended for propagation by the 1920 con- ferences of growers, canners and nurserymen: Bing, Black Tartarian, Burbank, Chapman, Lambert, Black Oregon, Royal Ann, Gov. Wood, Montmarency (sour), Centennial ‘and Giant were added for home orchards. BIGARREAUX AND HEARTS Early Purple Guigne.—Small to medium size; purple; tender, juicy, and sweet. This variety is being displaced by Chapman and Burbank. . Knight’s Early Black.—“Large, black, tender, juicy, rich, and excellent; high flavor; a shy bearer until the trees attain age.” Rockport Bigarreau.—Large, pale amber in the shade, light red in the sun; half tender, sweet and good; a very excellent and handsome cherry; good bearer; formerly esteemed for canning and shipping. Declining in favor, Cleveland Bigarreau.—A thrifty, strong, spreading grower, and produc- tive large; clear red and yellow; juicy, sweet, and rich. Black Tartarian—Fruit of the largest size, bright purplish black. Flesh purplish, thick, juicy, very rich and delicious. Tree a remarkably vigorous erect, and beautiful grower, and an immense bearer; the best of the black cherries. Governor Wood.—Large; light yellow shaded with bright red; flesh nearly tender, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious; a vigorous grower and very productive. Increasing in favor. Black Eagle—A very excellent English variety, ripening in June; large size, deep purple, or nearly black; flesh deep purple, tender, with a rich, high-flavored juice. Mezel, Monstreuses de (Great Bigarreau)—A foreign variety of the largest size; dark red or quite black; firm and juicy; late. VARIETIES OF THE CHERRY 237; Pontiac.—Large; dark purplish red; half tender, juicy, and agreeable. Napoleon Bigarreau (Royal Ann).—A magnificent cherry of the largest size; pale yellow, becoming amber in shade, richly dotted and spotted with deep red, and with a bright red cheek; flesh very firm, juicy and sweet. Tree a free grower and an enormous bearer, when properly pollinated. The great commercial cherry of California. DUKES AND MORELLOS Early Richmond (Kentish).—An early red, acid cherry; valuable for cooking early in the season. May Duke—An old, well-known, excellent variety; large, dark red, juicy, subacid, rich. English Morello.—Large, dark red, nearly black; tender, juicy, rich, acid, productive and late. Belle Magnifique.—Fruit large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; skin a fine bright red; flesh juicy, tender, with sprightly subacid flavor; one of the best of its class; a fine table fruit when fully ripe. Montmorency.—Fruit large, roundish ovate, reddish amber; flesh tender, mildly acid, uncolored; the choice of canners for a sour cherry. PACIFIC COAST SEEDLINGS é California Advance.—Large, black and early. Introduced by Leonard oates. Chapman.—A seedling of Black Tartarian; very early; black; sweet, and a great bearer. Introduced by Leonard Coates. Gaining in favor. Early Burbank.—Originated by Luther Burbank; a seedling of Early Purple Guigne and sold in 1903 to a group of Vacaville growers. Very early, earlier than its parent variety. Large, rich deep crimson, resembling Black Tartarian in quality. Tree medium upright grower, large leaves, prolific. Lewelling—Black Republican (Black Oregon).—‘‘Seedling by Seth Lewel- ling, Milwaukee, Oregon, from seed planted in 1860; first fruited in orchard in 1864. Widely distributed in California. Large, black, sweet, with purple flesh; ripens ten days after Black Tartarian.”—James Shinn. “Large, late black cherry, good flavor, long keeper; dries and ships well. Seems to succeeds better on foothills than in the valley.”—Robert Williamson. “Sup- posed to be a cross between Napoleon Bigarreau and Black Tartarian, hav- ing the solid flesh of the former and the color of the latter; very late.”— John Rock. “I am of the opinion that the Black Republican and Lincoln came down from the seed of the Black Eagle, but I have little idea of what variety they were crossed with.”—Seth Lewelling. Bing.—Originated by Seth Lewelling, from seed of Black Republican. “Fruit large, dark brown or black, very fine, late; a good shipping variety.”— Seth Lewelling. Tree vigorous, and foliage heavy. Fruit ripens so that trees can be cleaned at one picking. Centennial——A seedling of Napoleon Bigarreau, raised by Mr. Henry Chapman in Napa Valley, and fruited by him for the first time in 1876. Propagated and introduced by Leonard Coates, then of Napa, in 1885. It is larger than its parent, more oblate in form, and beautifully marbled and splashed with crimson on a pale yellow ground; exceptionally sweet and of remarkable keeping quality. Little planted recently, because of superiority of Royal Ann for canning; commended for family orchards. Lambert.—Seedling of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon, 1887; pre- sented to Oregon State Horticultural Society; right to propagate sold to Oregon Nursery Co., 1896, and introduced by this company; very large, roundish, heart-shaped; stem long, slender, suture medium depth, acid; smooth, glossy, dark purplish, flesh dark purplish red, firm, flavor rich, quality good. Ripens ten days to two weeks after Black Tartarian. CHAPTER XX THE PEACH From the first years of the American occupation for about forty years the peach was the leading deciduous fruit grown in California. In the later ’90s grain and other field products were low priced and people were told that cured prunes could be put up in sacks more cheaply than wheat. So they took to planting prune orchards all through the wheat districts of the great valley, and even carried the trees where no one would think of planting wheat—cutting up shallow-clay upland sheep pastures and even yucca sand wastes into prune-growing colonies. Figures of prune trees in orchards rushed far beyond the peach figures. This over-planting of prunes naturally brought loss and disappointment, and interest turned again to peach planting, so that in 1907 the peach had secured notable advance beyond the prune. The peach held the leadership until 1915 when the demand for dried peaches fell below the cost of production, planting was arrested and some orchards sacrificed. The situation was, however, radically changed in 1917 by the organ- ization of the peach-growers’ association and by the rapid advance of prices under such control. Still as the prune experienced no such set-back planting proceeded and the relation of the two fruits in 1920 is shown in Chapter VI. It is, however, not at all certain that the peach will not regain ascendancy over the prune. Still, although the peach now stands below the prune in California pro- duction, the California peach still has national leadership, for the report of peach production in 1918, by the Bureau of Crop Esti- mates of the United States Department of Agriculture, placed the national product of peaches in 1919 at 29,461,000 bushels, of which California produced 16,268,000 bushels—or 3,000,000 bushels more than all other states combined. The peach was the first fruit to ripen on the improved trees brought here by the early American settlers, and the magnificence of the peach was consequently the key-note of the refrain which greeted the ears of the world in which the California gold cry was ringing early in the fifties. In fact, the gold from the mine and the gold from the tree were very nearly related. In old Coloma, where gold was discovered, there was a peach tree which bore four hun- dred and fifty peaches in 1854, which sold for $3.00 each, or $1,350 for the crop of one tree, and in 1855, six trees bore one thousand one hundred peaches, which sold for $1.00 each. Some of these pioneer trees are said to be still living and bearing fruit. LONGEVITY OF THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA There are many other facts to establish the claim that the peach tree, if planted in a suitable soil and situation and cared for with any devotion and skill, is not a short-lived tree in California. Cali- THE PEACH IN CALIFORNIA 239 fornia is too young to mark limits of duration, but there are in- stances in the earliest-settled places in the State, where peach trees above fifty years old are still vigorous and productive. Some trees have, in fact, gone along in thrift until they have a bark below which looks like that of a forest tree, and framework of main branches sound and stalwart throughout because they have never been allowed to sunburn until protected by their own roughness, and have never been pruned with an axe, and never lost a limb nor had a wound into which decay could penetrate and descend to the root. When the peach has a fair chance in its aerial parts and is in a soil which favors health of the roots, it shows itself to be very long- lived in California. When trees break to pieces and show decay wounds, they are in bad places, and have suffered through natural stress or have been weakened by cultural errors. Renewal by Cutting Back.—In favorable soils the peach is stronger and longer lived in the root than in the top, and some- times triumphs over neglect by discarding old, wind-broken, sun- burned and bark-bound branches, and forms a new head of its own. Such renewal is sometimes very rapid. In the interior valley new shoots on a cut-back Muir tree have grown twelve feet in one sea- son, with a thickness of one and one-half inches at the base. Such shoots will bear the following summer and proper selection should be made from them to shape the new tree—all others being removed. Cutting back for a new head kills some trees, probably those which through hardship are weak in the root, but most peach trees take to it kindly. This is generally done by heading back all the limbs to a foot or two from their start from the trunk in the latter part of the dormant season and whitewashing the stumps thoroughly. Some growers advocate a gradual renewal, cutting back one main branch a year so that the loss of a crop may not occur. Peach trees are also cut back for grafting or budding over, as will be described presently. It is through this disposition to renewal of good wood that the intelligent system of pruning which is now prevalent, ministers to the longevity as well as the profitability of the tree, aiding it to constantly renew its youth by restraining its exuberance, and at the same time furnishing it sound new wood on which to grow its fruit foliage. But while these are facts, there is some difference in opinion as to the point at which an old tree becomes less valuable than a young one. Along the Sacramento River some count about a dozen good crops as the limit, and thus replace the trees when about fifteen years of age. This is a point which may vary greatly, according to local conditions. Early Productiveness.—Quite as important as the longevity of the peach tree are the facts of its rapid growth and early produc- tiveness. It is the first of our fruit trees to attain size and yield a profitable crop. In localities best suited to its growth it will mature some fruit the second summer in the orchard if the small shoots are not pruned away from the main branches, and during the third summer averages of forty to fifty pounds per tree have been secured 240 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM from considerable acreages. These facts are stated to show what the peach of good variety may do in a good situation and soil and with the best of care. Of course they are not to be taken as average results, although greater than those given are sometimes attained. For example, on the rich, alluvial land near Visalia, an Admiral Dewey yearling tree planted in March, 1904, had in October, 1905, attained these dimensions: Near the ground the trunk was eleven and three-quarter inches in circumferences, branching two feet from the ground it had four main branches, each seven inches in circum- ference; height of tree, twelve feet; spread of branches, ten feet. It grew near a crack in a cement ditch and so had all the moisture it could use, and being in a free, open soil was not impaired by standing water. As for possible productiveness of the peach, one Susquehanna tree in Kern County yielded twenty-seven forty-five pound picking- boxes—twelve hundred and fifty pounds in one crop—about four times as much as good trees may average. LOCALITIES 2OR THE ».REACH The peach has a wide range in California, and finds many dis- tricts suited to it in the several ways in which the trade delights in it. As compared with the apricot, the peach thrives in the sheltered valleys of the district north of the bay and west of the Coast Range, in which the apricot is of little commercial moment; it yields those peerlessly beautiful “mountain peaches” from one to two thousand feet higher in the Sierra foothills than the apricot can be trusted; it goes everywhere in the lower foothills and over the great valleys that the apricot will go, and beyond it also, because it is less restless in the spring and escapes some frosts which injure apricots. Counted from trees in orchard the peach is about three times as great as the apricot. Nearly every county in California reports the possession of peach trees. Above an elevation of four thousand feet on the sides of the Sierra Nevada, they may be subject to winter killing, and lower still the careful choice of situation has to be made to avoid frost at blooming time—the peach in such places being subjected to some dangers which beset it in the Eastern States. Below these points, however, lies the great fruit belt of the foothills of the Sierra, where the peach is the chief fruit grown and its excellence is proverbial. Size, beauty, richness, delicacy of flavor and firmness, which endures carriage to the most distant markets, are all characteristics of the foothill peaches of California. In the great interior valleys of the State wherever proper con- dition of soil and water supply can be found, the peach also thrives, the tree making a wonderfully quick and large growth, and the fruit attaining great size. The San Joaquin Valley is the greatest peach district in the State. In the small valleys on the west of the great valley and on the eastern slope of the Coast Range, there are also extensive areas suited to the peach, and sheltered places on the eastern and western LOCATIONS FOR THE PEACH 241 edges of the Sacramento Valley have produced the earliest fruit for a long series of years. Recently the contest for the earliest fruit of these districts, with the foothill district on the east side of the Sacramento Valley and special locations in the upper San Joaquin Valley, has been quite close. In the coast valleys, opening upon San Francisco Bay and the Pacific Ocean, the peach is also a leading fruit. Its success is great- est, however, where good shelter is had from direct coast influences. Even where open to these influences, good peaches can be grown by choosing the smaller range of varieties, which do well by protecting the trees from harsh winds, and by seeking elevation above de- pressed valleys, whose frosts are frequent. The occurrence of curl- leaf is a factor of much importance, which will be considered pres- ently. In the coast counties north of the Russian River Valley the danger to the peach from unfavorable atmospheric conditions in- crease as one goes northward, and situations must be chosen with greater care. And yet by such exercise of care, peaches for home use and local markets can be successfully grown. South of San Francisco Bay the coast influences soften as you proceed southward, and the peach draws nearer to the ocean, choos- ing, however, elevations and avoiding broad, wind-swept areas and narrow defiles where drafts and fogs are frequent. At considerable elevations, as on the Santa Cruz Mountains, some varieties of peaches are notably excellent. The general rule holds with the peach, as with other fruits, that coast influences retard ripening and the season of the fruit is late. In some valleys and at elevations in Southern California the peach is largely grown and high excellence attained while on the mesas and plains there is often too high a temperature which starts growth out of season and follows with a dormacy and die-back when the tree ought to be most active. It has recently been demon- strated that varieties like Luken’s Honey, descended from the Peen- to or flat peach of China, resists such irregularities better than the common sorts which are largely of Persian origin. SOILS AND EXPOSURES FOR THE PEACH Though the suitability of soils for the peach can be somewhat extended by the choice of stock for budding upon, as will be con- sidered presently, its range of soils is narrower than that of the apricot. The best peach soils are light, deep, sandy loams, rather dry than moist, but under all circumstances well drained. It will thrive on land with a considerable mixture of coarse sand or gravel, providing it contains also needed elements of fertility ; for the rapid growth and heavy fruitage of the peach requires abundant nutrition. Though it accepts coarse materials both in soil and subsoil, it relishes fine sediment and perhaps finds no more congenial location than in the deep, sandy loam, or sedimentary deposit bordering the creek beds of our warm valleys, and will send its roots deep to secure long life and abundant fruitage. Such soils, whether along 242 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM existing streams or deposited by prehistoric water courses, which have left their mark by the elevated ridges of rich sediment above the prevailing valley soils, are warm, deep, and thoroughly drained, and delight the peach. Peaches are grown very successfully on what is called hardpan in some parts of Fresno County, providing the hardpan is blasted as described in Chapter XI. In these situa- tions the hardpan is near the surface and has a deep free soil below it into which the roots can extend. At elevations on the hillsides there are free loams which result from decomposition of the underlying rocks, and on them the peach thrives, both where the soils themselves are deep and where the underlying rock is loose and open, permeable by roots and affording escape for water. Success has been reported even when holes are partly excavated in these rotten rocks as in the soft sand rock on the hills east of Vaca Valley, or in the broken chalk rock in what is called Blackburn Gulch, near Santa Cruz. The superior warmth of such soils is supposed to minister to earlier ripening of the fruit, though the escape from cold air by elevation is no doubt a greater factor to the end. The influences of comparatively slight difference in elevation is very marked. E. R. Thurbar, of Pleasant Valley, Solano County, had for many years a plot of peach trees on a natural terrace about seventy-five feet higher than the general level of his orchard. On the terrace peaches ripened and were disposed of before the same varieties ripened in the orchard below. As in the valley a short distance to water is to be avoided, so on the hills too great percolation from higher levels is undesirable. Of course, natural defects of this kind can be corrected by adequate under-drainage. Still, though such be the general soil conditions best suited to the peach, the tree can be well grown for home use or local markets on somewhat heavier soil, providing there is good drainage, but drain- age must be insisted upon, for thousands of trees have perished because planted in retentive soils without drainage. Alkaline soils which are usually rather heavy should, however, be avoided, as the peach, when grown on its own roots, seems to be of all fruits most sensitive to alkali. As to exposures for the peach the same rules hold as for other fruits which are liable to injury when in bloom or young foliage. Thus low places where cold air settles should be avoided, also low gulches through which cold drafts prevail. In frosty situations an incline away from the morning sun will often allow the trees to escape serious injury. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING Nine-tenths of California peach trees are grown on peach roots. The chapter on propagation gives the general method of growing and budding peach seedlings. In selecting pits, preference is usually given to those from strong-growing, yellow peaches, at least for PROPAGATION OF THE PEACH 243 working on the same colored fruits, while others use pits of the Morris White, others the Strawberry, and others still will use only pits from vigorous seedling trees. In this State the peach is usually so healthy and vigorous, and the “yellows” not known, that less care may be needed in selecting pits; still there is certainly nothing lost by making every effort for a good stock. The hand-shell and sweet almonds have long been used as a stock for the peach. It is held that they give a hardier, stronger root, in dry coarse soils especially, but neither have been largely used. When it is desired to grow the peach on moister soil than suits its own roots, the St. Julian plum may be used. The Myrobalan has been used to some extent, but experience generally does not favor any plum stock for the peach and our largest propagators have abandoned its use. The so-called “peach-almond” has often been urged as a stock for the peach but has been little used, as nurserymen claim that the growth of its seedlings are less uniform and satisfactory than the straight peach and straight almond. It is a fruit having the pit of a peach but the perricarp of the almond, that is tough and tasteless and disposed to split like an almond hull. Early in the fifties a chance hybrid of this sort appeared in the nursery of W. B. West, of Stockton, and its pits were used for nursery seedlings which, when budded to the peach, produced good trees. Trees bearing the peach-almond are found here and there all over the State. Mr. Burbank produced a hybrid of the Wager peach and the Languedoc almond. Distance in Orchard.—Distance observed in planting peach orchards differs greatly, according to the views of different growers. Regarding the peach as a catch crop to plant between apricot, pear, cherry, walnut, fig or other slow-growing, larger trees, the trees may be set comparatively close; that is, with the latter trees at thirty to forty feet, and alternate rows of peach to be removed at the end of ten to fifteen years. If the peach is to have the ground to itself, some planters plant at eighteen feet in equilateral tri- angles, or twenty to twenty-four feet on the squares, the present tendency of the peach, as with other trees, being to give more room than was the custom a few years ago. Age of Trees.—In planting peach orchards yearling trees are generally preferred, though June buds are freely used and more are planted in dormant bud than of any other kind of fruit trees. The reason for this is easily found in the disposition of the peach to make a tree the first year from the bud. It springs almost at once into a full outfit of laterals. Some growers employ this disposition to form a head the first year in the nursery. When the bud has grown out eighteen inches, pinch it off at the top and force out lat- erals, which make long growth the same season. When planted out in orchard the following winter, cut back to ten or twelve inches. In this way anyone can get a yearling with the equivalent of a two- year-old head on it. The common practice is, however, to let the 244 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM growth from the bud proceed as it chooses, and when the yearling is set in orchard, cut back to a single bud the laterals which are de- sired to form the head and removing others. If there is a dormant bud on the stem where a branch is desired and it is obstinate in not starting, a cross-cut through the bark just above it may concentrate pressure and force it out. Proper starting of the young tree is pro- moted by cutting away cleanly all laterals which have grown from stem-buds. In such cutting back the dormant buds at the base of such laterals should be preserved. The development of form from a yearling branched in the nursery is illustrated in Chapter XII. Planting Dormant Buds.—The chapter on planting describes the planting of yearling trees. The lifting of dormant buds from the home nursery and planting in orchard is described by P. W. Butler, of Placer County, as follows: Have the ground prepared and stakes placed in position in the orchard in early February, if possible, and begin the planting at once, while the trees are in dormant bud. Take no more trees from the nursery than can be planted in half a day. Plow a furrow on each side of the row, six inches from the trees, turning the soil from them, then two men with heavy spades or shovels, one on each side of the tree, can readily take it up without breaking many of the roots; and what are so broken should be smoothly trimmed with a sharp knife. Place the trees in a tub of water, near where they are to be planted, and take them from it only a few at a time. Put them in a basket or box and cover with wet sack, that they may be kept moist until placed in the ground. On planting place the bud one inch below the level of the ground, but do not cover it until after it has grown to the height of a few inches. The stock should be cut off at the bud with a thin, sharp knife (and not with shears, as is often done, as the latter method will sometimes split the tree), when it will take in moisture and not heal readily. Some growers do not cut back the young seedling tree until growth has started out well on the dormant bud, girdling the bark above the bud to force its growth. The tender shoot is protected somewhat by the old stem to which it can be tied. The removal of the old stem should not be too long delayed, for the wound by its amputation should heal over the first summer. Rather more care is needed in handling dormant buds both in planting and in their young life in the orchard. Lookout must be kept for suckers and against injury in cultivation. Success with dormant buds is notable. In good hands they commonly outgrow yearlings planted at the same time, and the percentage of loss from failure of the bud to start is very small. Of course, every bud should be examined before planting, to see that it has a healthy color. In the selection of peach trees for planting, a clean, healthy root only should be taken. During recent years there have been a good many young roots affected with knots or swellings from some ob- scure cause. Such trees should be burned. If planted, the knot sometimes grows to an enormous size and little or no top growth is. made. SHAPING THE PEACH TREE 245 PRUNING THE PEACH As has already been stated, the peach will carry a top of great fruiting longevity if the grower will do justice to the tree by regu- lar shortening of the growth and forcing out new wood, upon which alone fruit is found. Not only does regular pruning do this, but it promotes longevity and vigor in the framework of the tree upon which these bearing shoots come. Left unpruned, the peach soon becomes bark-bound, and the bark itself becomes hardened and brittle. Lower shoots are apt to dwindle, and the tree becomes an umbrella of foliage and fruit held aloft by bare branches bark- burned by the sun, invaded by borers, exuding gum, covered with moss and lichens—a picture of distress and unprofitability because its owner does not give the tree a chance to re-invigorate itself with large fresh leaves from the new wood which alone can carry them. Vase-Form with Continuous Leaders.—The common vase form of the peach tree is amply described in Capter XII, where it is used to illustrate the development of the prevailing California method of shaping fruit trees. Recently there has appeared a dif- ferent form which, though not new, is being given local names. It consists in building the tree with continuous ribs or leaders, a va- riation in the vase-form which has been used in Europe for centu- ries, perhaps. The following very clear account of it is prepared by Mr. C. F. Collins, horticultural commissioner of Tulare County: Another method of vase form, known locally as the Sims method, has been practiced for many years by William Sims, of Farmerville, and is now practiced by the California Fruit Canners’ Association in its large or- chard near here, by Hunt Bros. in their orchards near Exeter, and by many individual growers in that vicinity. The trees are cut back to 18 inches at planting, and at the first winter’s pruning four or five of the most upright-growing branches are left to form the head. These are cut to a uniform height and as great a length as the season’s growth will allow. On a vigorous tree this will be about 6 feet. All laterals are removed from these. The second winter retain one strong upright branch emerging from near the end of each branch of previous season’s growth, and remove all laterals from the tree larger than a lead pencil. Top these main branches at a uniform height of 10 or 12 feet from the ground, according to the growth made. Sometimes a lateral is allowed to grow from one of these main limbs to fill in an open space in the outline of the tree. At the end of the second winter’s pruning, we have a low-headed tree with four or five main branches 10 or 12 feet long, and so upright that the tree is only 6 or 7 feet across the top. Enough small laterals are left for abundant shade. After this each season remove all large laterals, leaving only the small fruiting wood, and cut this back to the required amount. Some of the claims made for this system are that no propping is re- quired to support the limbs, and as these are so nearly perpendicular in growth the orchard is more easily worked close to the trees and the trees are more easily kept down to a proper height than when pruned by the ordinary method. This system certainly works admirably in the sections where it is used, and in my opinion, on true peach soil, where the trees are vigorous and grow large, strong limbs, it is far superior to the old vase form, but it is a question if it would prove as satisfactory in many of our orchards where the trees make a more feeble growth, and especially with a tree of as slender a growth as the Muir. Of course, with a less vigorous tree it might require three or even four years to get the tree to a proper height by this method. 246 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Special Points on Peach Pruning.— Whatever plan for low, vase- form be adopted, there are variations in the use of it by successful peach growers in various parts of the State. A few instances will be given: In pruning the peach I have found it a great advantage not to cut the new wood until after it has done its work. This is my method: A new shoot grows out to three feet this year. Don’t cut it back next winter; but let it grow. There will be a few peaches on it and a great many strong buds will develop to set and mature a crop the following year. After that crop is off, cut the whole shoot back to the main branch. Other buds will grow from about the same place and below it on the big limbs to go through the same cycle. While this shoot is bearing its heavy crop, others will be growing and setting fruit buds for the year when the first men- tioned one has been cut off. When you cut off a new shoot several others start next season near the cut, and draw all the sap from the buds below. They are stunted and probably killed. The several new shoots use a lot of sap that ought to go to fruit, for it is well known that the cutting back stimulates undue wood growth. You will have your trouble of cutting back year after year; and as time goes on, you build the tree higher and higher out of the reach of fruit pickers. By my method after a tree is large as convenient to prune and pick from, the fruit is forced out all along the limbs where it can be most securely held up and most thoroughly nourished. The tree does not grow appreciably higher, there is very little waste wood growth, for the shoots unpruned grow only a very few inches and that few inches is good for the production of necessary leaves, If the tree seems too prolific, take out more wood—always at its junction with the limb from which it springs. The tree is kept open enough always to supply light to the inner fruit spurs, but enough new wood is left to protect it from sunburn. New spurs are constantly growing among the bearing ones, so that the old limbs continue to bear. Should the new spurs get a little too thin, or the tree seem to need more leaves, a few shoots may be cut back for the sole purpose of providing new wood.—Ed. Ames, Newcastle. Unless the growth is systematically cut back it will be spindly and will not come low down on the limbs which could hold the weight of fruit de- sired. Without proper cutting back, the new growth will come from the terminals of last season’s growth and on ordinary soil will be short, weak, and spindly, and the following year will produce little fruit. If such a tree is on low, moist soil, the growth from terminals will be longer and will set more fruit, but will be so spindly that it cannot hold up or mature the crop it sets. Cutting back the new growth stiffens it and the limb it comes from. After a tree is mature, the wood which bore fruit last year should be removed so far as practicable; and where new growth is too thick it should be thinned. This, with the cutting back of new wood, will force new growth throughout the tree. In the cutting back, the habit of the variety in locating fruit buds must be observed. With Elbertas and Muirs fruit buds are made near the junc- tions with larger branches, so cutting back of fruit laterals only is neces- sary, and they may be cut pretty short, especially far out on a branch. With Lovells the branch itself may perfectly be cut back, leaving fewer laterals and these considerably longer, because their fruit buds are scarce near the junctions.—C. B. Weeks, Red Bluff. The peach is renewed every year by cutting into the older wood so that there will be ample growth of young shoots which bear the coming crop, and this cutting is more severe after the tree has reached maturity, in order to get the desired result. The tree should not be allowed to become too large or straggling but should be pruned so that young growth is always plentiful from the bottom up. While growth is very vigorous a summer thinning of surplus inside growth is beneficial—Leonard Coates, Morgan Hill. HOW TO GET LARGE PEACHES 247 Spur Pruning Peaches.—Peach varieties vary in their tendency to set fruit buds close to the base of new growth. On this charac- teristic depends to a considerable extent, the severity of pruning back new growth. F. C. Dyer, of Ontario, has spur-bearing Lemon clings, looking almost as rough as pear trees. They bear fruit buds to the very base of the new growth. If the trees are old, not over a few inches of growth are added to the spurs each year beyond the fruits, though two or three feet of last season’s growth are cut out of the tops. This lack of vegetative vigor makes it desirable to shorten back the spurs to not over three fruit buds, since only one fruit is desired per spur and since such winter pruning on such old trees does not induce too vigorous wood growth. This is somewhat true of the down-turning branches of most any variety. All the fruit wood possible is developed and saved along the main limbs. If spurs are too thick, they are thinned out to prevent shading the rest. Practically all of the new top growth was cut off from the Lemon clings. Lovells can be pruned back to spurs almost as short, Muirs a little longer, while Tuscans bear fruit buds only close to the tips which must be left on, or the branches thinned out. The bearing habits of varieties must be observed by the grower. THINNING PEACHES Thinning out fruit on the peach tree is not only the secret of ob- taining good, marketable fruit, but joins hands with pruning in pre- serving the health and future production of the tree. The import- ance of thinning has been urged in a previous chapter, but the fol- lowing is a very strong statement, by Mr. J. P. Cane, of the Cali- fornia Peach Growers—the co-operative association of the produc- ers of the fruit: _The weight of fruit will be approximately the same whether the tree is thinned severely, lightly or not at all, but the great advantage in thinning properly is the greatly increased size of the fruit, the larger sugar content and the minimum expense of harvesting and curing. The cost of thinning is overcome at picking time when in handling one large peach the pickers get the same weight as if they had handled four small ones. There is a similar gain in time required to cut a ton onto the trays. Our records show that the weight of one extra fancy dried Muir is equal to three and three-quarters standard grade Muirs. Since size and quality are so important in dried peaches, everything possible should be done to increase the diameter of the fruit. Perhaps the ideal distance of peaches when properly thinned should be about two and one-half times their diameter when matured. This would mean that the peaches should be six to eight inches apart when thinning is complete. In thinning, see that the undersized specimens, which are certain to fall later, are removed, or at least allowed for, in spacing those that are to remain. The time for thinning peaches is as soon as one can be sure which are likely to remain on the tree and which will drop off of their own accord. Nothing can be gained by trying to separate doubles. Remove them if there are enough singles to make the crop. 248 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM IRRIGATION OF THE PEACH As the peach is the greatest deciduous fruit of the interior val- leys and foothills, it is also the deciduous fruit which is chiefly grown with irrigation. Most of the specific conclusions set forth in Chapter XV are based upon experience with the peach and the reader is advised to consider them from that point of view. One of the most important points of success in irrigating the peach is to use enough water earlier in its growth so that application need not be made within about three weeks of ripening. Enough water before that will usually insure size on properly thinned trees and the with- holding of water near ripening will secure good quality. After the crop is gathered, irrigation can be resumed to continue the late summer growth for next year’s fruit buds and to save the tree from injury during the long autumn drouth. Very great disappointment in thrift and bearing of peaches has resulted from lack of irriga- tion in the early autumn in the interior valley. Even in places where the trees make a good crop by rainfall or underflow, there may be great injury to the tree by inadequate soil moisture during the remainder of the growing season. . There is some variation in practice of irrigation in relation to maturity of the peach. It is held that peaches for drying should not be irrigated during the last three or four weeks before maturity—if possible to get size without it. Peaches for shipping and canning may be irrigated later, say two or even one week before picking. Cling peaches will take water late more safely than freestones. WORKING OVER PEACH TREES The fashion in peaches changes from time to time according to the demands of the canners or the market for dried fruit. The grower often finds varieties which he first selected, less healthy, less productive, or, for other reasons, less desirable than others. There is, therefore, often occasion for working over trees. Budding is often resorted to, buds being successfully set in quite old wood, providing buds from well-matured wood are taken. Wood buds from young trees unaccompanied by fruit are best, but because of greater certainty of securing the variety desired, it is common to take wood and fruit buds together from bearing trees. A larger cut of bud and adjacent bark is taken when working in old bark than for use on seedlings. The best time to bud peaches in the old bark is as early in the summer as well plumped buds can be had on the new growth, and this can be hastened by pinching the tips of the shoots which it is desired to take buds from. Such buds should be forced to grow by cross cuts in the stock above the buds or by breaking down part of it when the bud is seen to have “taken’”— cutting away cleanly when the bud has made a few inches of growth. Some growers thus bud and break part of the branches, allowing others to remain unworked, to maintain the growing processes of the tree. These branches and those in which buds have not taken, are cut off and grafted the following spring. The almond is sucess- DISEASES OF THE PEACH 249 fully grafted over the peach, and this course has been followed with thousands of unproductive almonds. Peach and almond trees are also worked over by beheading the trees at the close of the dormant season and budding into the new shoots late in the summer—allowing the buds to remain dormant until the following spring, when the buds are started by cutting back to them as in the case of budded seedlings. As this wastes a year, budding in old bark for immediate growth is usually pre- ferred. Grafting the Peach.—Grafting the peach by the ordinary top- grafting with a cleft graft seldom succeeds. A side graft with saw and knife is better. It is described by J. W. Mills, an experienced peach grower of Yuba County, as follows: Saw grafting is rapidly taking the place of cleft grafting, for it does away with all difficulties arising from splitting, and there is no cavity left in the heart of the limb or tree. The process is to saw off the limb at the desired place as in cleft grafting, then saw across the corner and down the side at an angle of about 45 degrees and trim out with a sharp knife. Place the knife blade a little to one side of the saw cut, a little farther from the edge at the top than at the bottom, and by pressing on the knife the whole sides of the crevice will be trimmed smoothly at one stroke; this operation repeated on the other side of the saw cut will make a neat notch in the end of a solid limb. By cutting a little deeper from the saw cut at the top than at the bottom, and if the amateur does not trim his scion at the right angle, he can insert it gently in the crevice or notch and see just where to trim. If he is so slow that the fresh cut shows signs of discol- oration, he can make a fresh surface by placing the knife parallel to the edges and shaving off a thin slice. He still retains the same angle, but the scion will set a little deeper, which is no objection. By cutting a thin layer off the top of the stump next to the notch will show exactly where the inside layer of the bark is. The inside of the scion must be even with the inside layer of the bark of the stump or limb that is being grafted. If the scion is inclined slightly out or in at the top, it will make a correct union at some point and be sure to grow. If the inclination is very slight the union will extend over considerable length, and will make a much better start than if the union is at only one point, owing to the en- larged surface through which the sap is transmitted. One of the most important points in grafting is to have good wax and go over the grafts a few days after they are put in and rewax them. DISKASES OF THE|JPEACH Cur!-Leaf.—The most prevalent trouble with the peach tree in California is the curl-leaf. It was noticed from the first planting of peach trees by Americans, nearly sixty years ago, and free con- jecture as to its cause was indulged in until it was shown to be a specific fungus, and its prevention by washes of fungicidal charac- ter demonstrated. The treatment will be described in the chapter on tree diseases. The facts of its occurrence may be stated as fol- lows: Curl-leaf is much more prevalent in some sections than others, and in one place than another in the same section, and some sections are practically free from it. Some varieties are much more subject to curl-leaf than others; genarrly speaking, some curl nearly every- 250 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM where, others curl in one place and not in another, others are prac- tically free from curl in all situations. Curl-leaf occurs in various degrees. Mild cases do not seem to injure either tree or fruit; severe cases destroy the fruit and some- times the tree itself. The disease is almost always at its height when the young fruit is about the size of small peas. If the curl is “bad,” the fruit will fall to the ground, there not being healthy leaves enough to afford the required support. If, however, the curl is moderate and partial, only a part and sometimes none of the fruit will be lost. The disease, as is well known, is of brief duration, say twelve to twenty days, after which the tree resumes a healthy appearance in every respect, and if the fruit has been able to sur- vive the ordeal, it also appears to grow and become as perfect as if no check had been given to its growth. But it is better to save the tree the burden of a new foliage growth. Mildew.—This disease, which occurs in the form of whitish felted patches on leaf and twig early in the spring, and finally af- fects the fruit, has long been troublesome in this State, and occurs on certain susceptible varieties in many localities from the coast to the Sierra foothills. Observation in this State has fully affirmed the statement of Downing, that the serrate, glandless-leaved varie- ties are liable, and those with good glands on the leaf stems are free. The conclusion would be that where mildew prevails, varieties with serrate, glandless leaves should be avoided. But it has been found that some glandless-leaved varieties, although subject to mil- dew, resist curl-leaf. Therefore it may be worth while to combat the mildew. This has been done effectually by treatment which will be described in a later chapter. As with curl-leaf, mildew is prevalent some years and slight in others. Peach Blight—The most serious disease which has thus far stricken the peach in California is locally known as the “peach blight,” the work of a shot-hole fungus (coryneum). This also has been satisfactorily checked by spraying, as will be described in the Chapter on Diseases of Trees and Vines. Split-Pit—A common trouble of the peach known as “split-pit,” has recently been studied by the California Experiment Station and the tentative conclusion has been reached that split-pits are psysio- logical phenomena and not caused by disease germs. Whether this abnormal growth is due to weakness of variety or to cultural condi- tions is not determined. It is true that varieties differ in amount of splitting, and selection is being made to some extent on that basis. Insects infesting the peach are discussed in Chapter XLI. VARIETIES OF THE PEACH Nearly all varieties of the peach have been tried in California, and, as with other fruits, it has been found that varieties must be chosen with reference to their success in special locations. Choice BEST COMMERCIAL PEACHES 251 ' is, however, chiefly made according to the purpose of the grower, whether for early marketing, for sale to canners, for drying, or for distant shipment or for late marketing. As with apples, there is little use of planting early varieties (unless it be for home or local use) except in very early regions. An early peach from a late re- - gion is killed by competition with better middle season sorts from the earlier regions. In an early region one can plant early, middle, and late varieties to advantage, and thus secure a very long-fruiting season. The peach season in interior districts begins about the first of June and continues to the end of November with local seedlings—giving six months of peaches. Of course, the very early and very late sorts are only of use for marketing as table fruit. The most important series is a fine succession of mid-season peaches suitable either for canning, drying or distant shipment. Such a selection can be made from the tables and descriptions which will be given later. Color is a most important item in the peach. While canners and Eastern shippers use the beautiful white peaches to advantage, the fashion for canning and drying is now strong in support of the yel- low-fleshed clingstone varieties. The yellow freestone peaches are also in greatest demand. The color about the pit is also an impor- tant point. Canners demand a peach, whether white or yellow, which is almost free from color at the pit, because the extraction of the red color dyes the juice; in drying, the demand just now is for a yellow peach with a red center, because the colors give the dried fruit a more attractive appearance. Of course there is a mar- ket for dried white peaches but the preference is for yellow. The peaches chiefly grown in California are named in Chapter XVI. PEACHES COMMERCIALLY APPROVED IN CALIFORNIA The 1920 conferences of growers, canners and nursery men spe- cially mentioned in Chapter XVI gave particular attention to the commercial aspects of peach varieties and reached the following conclusions: Free-stone Peaches Approved for Shipping: Alexander, Decker, Early Crawford, St. John, Elberta, Hale’s Early, Early Elberta, J. H. Hale, Mayflower, Triumph, Wheatland, Salway. Approved for Drying: Lovell (recommended for 25 per cent of area planted), Muir (recommended for 75 per cent). Approved for Canning: The recommendation of the canners is that there be planted 70 per cent Lovell, 10 per cent Muir, 10 per cent Elberta, a per ep Salway, and that for canning freestones all othes varieties be eliminated. Cling-stone Peaches Approved for Canning: Albright, Libbee, Levi, McDevitt, Pelora, Peak’s, Phillips, Sims, Tuscan. The canners recommended the planting of Phillips 40 per cent, Tuscan 25 per cent, Pelora and Peark’s 10 per cent, Albright 5 per cent, Sims and Libbee 10 per cent, Levi 5 per cent, McDevitt 5 per cent. Hauss recom- mended for Sutter County. 252 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM These are all yellow clingstones, and other varieties of the same type will be substituted for several of those named in different sections. Can- ners do not desire white clingstones of any variety. PEACHES CHIEFLY GROWN IN CALIFORNIA The following are the peaches chiefly grown in California, ar- ranged approximately in the order of ripening: Briggs’ Red May (California).—Originated a chance seedling in nursery row on the farm of John G. Briggs, on the Feather River, about one mile from Yuba City, about 1870. Fruit medium to large, round; white skin, with rich, red cheek; partially free; subject to mildew. Commercially condemned. Mayflower.—Introduced to the Pacific Coast by California Nursery Co, as “the earliest peach known,” and it still holds that title. Red all over, with white flesh of excellent flavor, As large as Alexander and ripens two weeks earlier. June. Sneed.—Large, creamy white, with blush cheek; tender, juicy; valu- able for early shipping. June. Discarded commercially. Alexander (Illinois)—Most widely grown as best early variety. Fruit medium to large; greenish white, nearly covered with deep red; flesh firm, juicy, and sweet; bears transportation well; pit is partly free. Triumph (Georgia).—Medium sized, early, yellow, partial cling; very good. Admiral Dewey.—Large; yellow with red cheek; flesh yellow; perfect freestone; flavor good. One of the best early yellows. Ripens soon after triumph. July. Discarded commercially. Honey (Lukens).—Medium, oblong, pointed, white mottled carmine; very sweet; related to Peen-to. Approved in Southern California. , Peen-to.—Flat peach or saucer peach of China; good in Southern Cali- ornia. Early Imperial (California).—Originated by W. W. Smith, Vacaville, and planted to secure a yellow freestone earlier or larger than St. John. Most growers find it no improvement on St. John. July. Yellow St. John (New Orleans).— Earliest yellow peach; averages smaller than Yellow Crawford, but classed as large; roundish, orange yel- low with deep red cheek; juicy, sweet and high flavored; freestone. June and July. Hale’s Early (Ohio).—Medium to large, nearly round; skin greenish, mostly covered and mottled with red when ripe; flesh white, melting, juicy, rich and sweet; fair for local market and shipping; widely grown; freestone. July. Strawberry (New Jersey).—Medium size, oval; stem cavity deeply sunk; suture extending half way round; skin almost wholly marbled with deep red; flesh whitish, juicy, rich and delicate; tree healthy. Foster (Massachusetts).— Uniformly large, slightly flattened; slight suture; stem moderately depressed; flesh yellow, very rich and juicy, color deep orange, dark red in the sun; freestone; tree hardy and_ productive; very widely grown in California and popular. Ripens before Early Craw- ford, which it sometimes resembles, but is of better quality, Very largely grown to displace Yellow Crawford. Crawford’s Early (New Jersey).—Very large, oblong, swollen, point at the top prominent, suture shallow; skin yellow, with red cheek; flesh yel- low, rich and excellent; freestone; tree very healthy and productive; once the most largely planted variety in California, now declining in popularity. George the Fourth (New York).—Large, round, deeply divided by broad suture; sides unequal; skin pale yellowish white, dotted with red and red cheek; flesh pale, red at pit, from which it parts freely; quality good. Somewhat troubled with curl-leaf. Chiefly grown in Southern California. VARIETIES OF THE PEACH 253 Mary’s Choice (New Jersey).—Large, yellow, resembling Early Craw- ford, but ripening later. Tuskena (Alabama or Mississippi). —Wrongly called ‘Tuscan’ and “Tustin” cling in this State; largely planted in the interior valleys and foot- hills; very large yellow cling; the earliest fine cling variety; very valu- able for early shipping. Ripens with Crawford’s Early. Very largely planted. Improved selections being claimed. Ontario.—Known as “round Tuscan” and “flat Tuscan” in Southern California and given distinctive name by A. P. Weldon of Ontario, Oldmixon Free (American).—Large, roundish or slightly oval; greenish or yellowish white, marbled with red; flesh white, tender, and excellent, juicy and rich; high flavor. Libbee Cling.—Originated in Selma, commences to ripen shortly after the Tuscan. The skin is highly colored and the flesh deep yellow; fruit very large. The tree is of exceptionally robust habit and a heavy producer. Blood Cling.—Large; skin deep claret with deep red veins, downy; flesh deep red, very juicy, vinous and refreshing; esteemed for pickling and pre- serving. September. Morris White.—Large, oval; skin white with creamy tint when fully ripe; flesh white to the stone, which is free; melting, juicy, sweet and rich; especially good for home use and canning; somewhat subject to curl-leaf. Muir (California).—Originated as chance seedling on the place of John Muir, near Silveyville, named and first propagated by G. W, Thissell, of Winters. Fruit large to very large; perfect freestone; flesh clear yellow, very dense, rich and sweet; pit small; tree a good bearer and strong grow- er, if on rich soil, to which it is best adapted; free from curl in Vacaville district; fruit a good shipper and canner, and peculiarly adapted to drying because of exceptional sweetness and density of flesh; yield, one pound dry from less than five pounds fresh. One of the best California seedlings. Claimed by some to be identical with Wager. Muir variations with large flowers, with fruit like Muir, but not split- ting at pit, reported by W. A. Rosander, Kingsburg; A. S. Coon, Fresno, and H. R. Shaw, Selma. Muir Cling by W. R. Fletcher, Green Valley, Sonoma County. Com- mended by Green Valley Cannery. Wheatland (New York).—Large, roundish; skin golden yellow, shaded with crimson; flesh yellow, rather firm, juicy, sweet, and of fine quality. Elberta (Georgia)—Very large; round-oval with deep suture; golden- yellow, faint red stripes; flesh yellow, fine, juicy, rich and sweet; tree pro- lific; perfect freestone. Largely grown for fresh fruit shipping; not pre- ferred by canners. Several types are being introduced, called “Early,” “Bay, “June” Elbertas. J. H. Hale—Valuable for shipping and drying, not for canning; smooth skin, almost fuzzless; very firm; ships almost like an apple; yellow free- stone; flesh tender, excellent quality; larger than the Elberta and ripening about the same period. Crawford’s Late (New Jersey).—Very large, roundish, yellow with dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, juicy, and melting; flavor rich and excellent; a popular and widely-grown variety, but very subject to curl-leaf in some localities; freestone. Lemon Clingstone (South Carolina)—Large, lemon-shaped or oblong, having large, projecting, swollen point like a lemon; skin fine yellow; flesh firm, yellow with sprightly vinous subacid; slightly red at the pit, which adheres firmly, Orange Clingstone.—Large, round; suture distinctly marked and ex- tending nearly around the fruit; no swelling at apex, like Lemon Cling- stone; deep orange color, with red cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with rich flavor; somewhat subject to mildew. Though largely grown, this va- 254 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM riety has been largely supplanted by the following sub-varieties, which are seedlings from it. Selma Cling.—Originated on Lewis ranch at Selma and introduced by Fancher Creek Nurseries. Golden yellow, very uniform; somewhat flat- tened; slight color on the sunny side; flesh clear yellow to pit, fine grained, excellent. Cans with clear syrup and no rag. Ripens between Tuscan and Phillips. Sellers’ Golden Cling (California).—Originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, Contra Costa County, and introduced by James Shinn. Very large, rich golden color; tree healthy; one of the very best of clings; ripens with Late Crawford. Runyon’s Orange Cling (California).—“Originated with Mr. Sol Runyon on the Sacramento River. Superior to the common Orange Cling. Run- yon’s Orange Cling has globose glands, and is not subject to mildew like the common sort. Fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek; rich, sugary, and vinous flavor. Highly esteemed and extensively planted in the Sacramento region and elsewhere.”—John Rock, Nichols’ Orange Cling (California).—Originated by Joseph Nichols, of Niles, introduced by James Shinn. Large, yellow, with purple cheek; flesh yellow and good. Tree healthy and a heavy bearer. Susquehanna (Pennsylvania).— Large, nearly globular, suture half- round; skin rich yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; freestone; tree healthy. Very widely distributed and popular. Lovell (California).—Originated as a chance seedling with G. W. This- sell, and named by him in 1882; propagated by Leonard Coates, of Napa. Yellow, freestone; size uniformly large, almost perfectly round; flesh fine, texture firm, solid, clear yellow to pit; tree a good grower and bearer; superior for canning and shipping and dries well. Said to curl in some places. “The richest peach I ever saw on a tray.”—E. A. Bonine, Los An- geles County. The most popular yellow freestone for canning and drying. Sometimes reported as “heavier” than the Muir. McKevitt’s Cling (California) —Originated as a chance seedling in apri- cot orchard planted by M. R. Miller, on place owned later by A. McKevitt, Vaca Valley; named in 1882 by nurserymen who propagated it. A white. clingstone; flesh very firm, fine-grained, sugary, and rich, high flavor, white to the pit; skin strong, and fruit excellent for shipping or canning; tree remarkably strong in growth and free from disease. Wylie Cling—An old seedling by John Wylie, Green Valley, Sonoma County, increasing in popularity in northern Sonoma County as superior to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit, and not dropping from the tree. California; syn. Edward’s Cling (California)—‘“Originated in Sacramen- to. Very large, round, regular, nearly covered with dark, rich red; flesh deep yellow; flavor delicate, rich vinous.”"—C. W. Reed. Picquet’s Late (Georgia)—Large to very large; round, sometimes a little flattened; yellow, with red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and fragrant; freestone; not subject to curl-leaf. Salway (English).—Large, roundish oblate; suture broad, deep, extend- ing beyond the apex; skin downy, creamy yellow, rich, clear, crimson cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit; juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; free- stone; a standard late peach in California; tree very healthy. Phillips’ Cling (California).—Originated with Joseph Phillips, of Sutter County; propagated by J. T, Bogue of Marysville. Fine large yellow cling, no color at pit, which is very small; exceedingly rich and high colored; described by Mr. Skinner, superintendent Marysville Cannery, as the best peach he ever used. The most popular yellow clingstone. | Ripens pro- gressively so that picking can cover two weeks without falling from tree. Requires good land and ample moisture. Haus’s and Sim’s cling are being planted as “improved Phillips.” VARIETIES OF THE PEACH 25 cr Heath (Maryland).—Described by Downing as the most delicious of all clingstones. Very large; skin downy, creamy white, with faint blush of red; flesh greenish white, very tender and juicy, with most luscious flavor, best adapted to interior regions, or places free from curl. George’s Late Cling (California)—“Originated in Sacramento. Large; white flesh; colored around the pit; beautiful yellow color, striped and splashed with bright red; a very heavy and uniform bearer; a good ship- per, and in its season of ripening there is no peach grown in Placer County that yields the grower so much profit..—P. W. Butler. Subject to mildew. Albright’s Cling (California).— “Originated with Mr. Albright, near Placerville. .Very large; yellow, with bright cheek; rarely equaled in qual- ity and flavor, Described as larger, more highly colored, of better flavor, better shape, and the tree a more prolific bearer than the Orange cling.”— P. W. Butler. Endures long shipment even after being well colored. McDevitt Cling.—“Originated with Neal McDevitt, of Placer County. Uniformly large, rich, golden yellow, becoming red when ripe; flesh very firm and solid; superior in flavor; excellent shipper; tree good and regu- lar bearer. Levy’s Late; syn. Henrietta (District of Columbia).—Above average size; yellow flesh, red cheek; late; clingstone. Very popular in San Joa- quin Valley. Bilyeu’s Late October— “Large greenish white and red cheek; flesh whitish, freestone; tree a rapid grower and attains great size; prolific bearer; fruit ships well, and where it will mature no peach can take its place; does particularly well in the foothills.”—P. W. Butler. Decker (California)—Grown for eastern shipment, in Vaca Valley, and in Sutter and Butte counties. CHAPTER XXI THE NECTARINE The nectarine reaches perfection under California conditions, as does its close relative, the peach. The fruit is, in fact, as Downing says, only a variety of the peach with a smooth skin; only a distinct, accidental variety of the peach; and this is rendered quite certain, since there are several well-known examples on record of both peaches and nectarines having been produced on the same branch. Nectarine pits usually produce nectarines again, but they occasion- ally produce peaches. Peach seeds occasionally produce nectarines ; the Boston variety originated from a peach stone. All these facts which are recorded of relation between the peach and nectarine have been verified by California observation. The practice of growing nectarines is also exactly like that em- ployed with the peach. It is propagated and pruned in the same ways. The peach and nectarines are the same in natural adapta- tions and requiremnts, and in diseases, so that what has been given concerning the growth of the peach in this State has application to the nectarine. The success of the nectarine worked on almond stock, as has been demonstrated by the experience of many, has led to the graft- ing over a good many unprofitable almond trees to nectarine, though this has not been done to the extent to which the French prune and some other plums have been worked on old almond stocks. Comparative Production of Nectarine and Peach.—It may be wondered, considering the similarity of the peach and the nectarine, why the former comes so near being our leading deciduous fruit and the latter is the least grown, but one, of all temperate zone fruits, only the lowly quince being less in importance. The explanation is that the fruit buyer, both in California and at the East, prefers the peach, whether it be fresh, or canned, or dried, and some of those who have tried even a few acres of nectarines have found many occasions to wish the ground had been given to peaches. How much of this preference is due to lack of knowledge of the nectarine, and how much to its somewhat different flavor, it would be difficult to actually determine. That the nectarine would advance in popular favor has been prophesied for some years, because of the wonderful excellence of the nectarine as grown in our interior valleys, and the passing beauty of the amber translucency of the dried nectarine, both when sun-dried and when produced by machine evaporators. The excel- lence of the canned nectarine has also figured in the anticipation. It is, however, questionable how far this anticipation has been realized, for it is estimated that the amount of dried nectaries is less than two per cent and of canned nectaries less than one-half of one per cet of the respective forms of peaches. Nor does the (LIE 2sed 996) *AjUNO') WBN UL pavdouT,A Ao1sdury 9z14g— X 21¥[g (*LG¢g eBed 99g)—*Auno) BureYyay, UT UMOAS SB IATTO OUBT[IAVS 9G — TX 911d VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE 257 demand call for change in this proportion, for there is a slight advantage in the market value of the peach even in its great pre- ponderance of supply. During the last decade many nectartes have been rooted out to be replaced by peach trees, or have been grafted over into peaches. There are, however, some growers who are confident that the nectarine will in the future rank much higher in the California fruit product. It would please growers and fruit driers and canners to popularize the nectarine, for its smooth skin makes it as easy to handle as an apricot, and the beauty of the product, which certainly exceeds that of the peach and is rather more easily attained, is very gratifying to the producer. There have recently been discerned some indications that these things may be realized, and plantings have increased. VARIETIES OF THE NECTARINE Varieties of the nectarine, as of the peach, show different local adaptations, and are valued by growers accordingly. The varieties grown are, however, comparatively few. At the 1920 conferences of growers, canners and nurserymen, the Gower nectarine was ap- proved for shipping and the Stanwick for drying and Advance, Boston, Hardwick, Victoria and Napier were placed in the discard. Humboldt and New White were retained for desirability in home orchards. The following have been found most satisfactory in California: Grower.—Introduced by Fancher Creek Nursery and named for E. Grower, of Selma, Earliest of all nectarines. Ripens with Early Crawford peach; fruit very firm; freestone; ships like a clingstone peach; very early; delicious flavor; tree strong grower, bears heavily. Advance.—Large, round, green, marked with red and brown; flesh greenish white; rich and well flavored. The earliest to ripen. Lord Napier (English) —Large, pale, cream color with dark red cheek; flesh white, melting, tender and juicy, separating freely from stone; leaf glands reniform and flowers large. Especially commended as a heavy and regular bearer; pronounced best in flavor at Pomona Experiment Station. Downton (English).—Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, roundish oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh ns Mae slightly red at the stone, which is free, melting rich, and very good. Early Newington (English).—Leaves serrated without glands, flowers large; fruit large, roundish ovate, a little enlarged on one side, and ter- minating with an acute swollen point; skin pale: green, but nearly covered with bright red and coated with thin bloom; flesh greenish white, but deep red at stone, which adheres closely, juicy, sugary, rich, and excellent. Hardwicke (English)—Leaves with globose glands; fruit very large; roundish, inclining to oval; skin pale green, with deep violet red cheek; flesh pale green, slightly marked with red at the stone, melting, rich, and highly flavored; freestone; a favorite in Southern California. Boston.—Raised from a peach stone by T. Lewis, of Boston; tree hardy and productive; leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large and handsome, roundish oval, bright yellow, with deep red cheek; flesh yellow to the stone (which is small and pointed), sweet, though not rich, with pleasant and peculiar flavor; freestone; a general favorite in California. 258 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM New White; syn. Large White.——Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit rather large, nearly round; skin white with occasionally slight tinge of red; flesh white, tender, very juicy, with rich, vinous flavor; stone small and free; commended wherever nectarines are grown in California and more freely planted. Stanwick.—Originated in England from seed brought from Syria. Large, roundish oval, slightly heart-shaped at base; skin pale, greenish white, shaded into deep, rich violet in the sun; flesh white, tender, juicy, rich, sugary, and delicious. Humboldt.—Very large, bright orange yellow mares marked with crimson; flesh orange, tender, juicy and highly flavored. Described as one of the best of the newer varieties. Ripens late. As the future for the nectarine seems to rest upon drying and canning of the fruit, the light-skinned, white or yellow-fleshed varieties without color at the stone, are most desirable. For drying there has been thus far a decided preference for freestone varieties, though possibly the present popularity for cling peaches for drying may extend to the clingstone nectarines. Much color, however, either in skin or flesh, will prevent the production of the beautiful translucent, amber hue of the dried nectarine, which is attractive to consumers. Color in the flesh is, of course, undesirable in can- ning, because of the discoloration of the syrup. These facts have had much to do in fixing the popularity of the varieties named in the foregoing list. The largest orchards of nectarines are in interior valley loca- tions, which are also fine for the peach and are perfectly adapted both to the growing of the fruit and to the open-air, sun-drying of it. CHAPTER XXII THE PEAR The oldest deciduous fruit trees in California are pear trees, as has already been stated in the account of fruits at the old missions, and some of the trees are still bearing, though it is about a century and a half since their planting. Trees planted by pioneers in the old mining districts have actually assumed semblance to adjacent oaks. Notable instances are found in the Stillwater district of Shasta County and elsewhere. Near San Jose there is a tree over half a century old, with a trunk seven and a half feet around and yielding annually about fifteen hundred pounds of fruit, some of which was exhibited at the Columbian Exposition. The pear withstands neglect and thrives in soils and situations which other fruit trees would rebel against. It defies drouth and excessive moisture, and patiently proceeds with its fruitage even when the soil is trampel almost to rocky hardness by cattle, carry- ing its fruit and foliage aloft above their reach. And yet the pear repays care and good treatment, and receives them from California growers, for the pear has been one of our most profitable fruits. It is in demand for canning, for drying, and for distant shipment, and its long season and the slow ripening after picking allow de- liberation in marketing, and admit of enjoying low rates for ship- ment by slow trains. One of the most striking demonstrations of the commercial suitability of the California pear is found in success- ful marketing in London. Solomons, who was called ‘“London’s greatest fruiterer,” said in 1903 that California Bartletts from Block of Santa Clara are the “best in the world.” Even after crossing the continent they seemed to endure shipment across the Atlantic better than Eastern pears. The most obvious marks of the California pear are size and beauty. The most conspicuous example is the Bartlett, which is the pear of California, judged by its popularity, fresh, canned and dried. When well grown, its size is grand, and its delicate color, aroma and richness unsurpassed. What extreme in point of size has been reached is not known to the writer, but he saw at the San Jose Horticultural Fair, of 1886, thirteen Bartlett pears grown by A. Block, of Santa Clara, which weighed fourteen pounds, the heaviest of the group weighing twenty-two and one-half ounces. But there had been larger Bartletts than the writer then saw, for in 1858 a Bartlett was shown at Sacramento which weighed 27 ounces and was 13% inches in girth, and to meet incredulity a life- size outline of the fruit was published in the California Culturist of December, 1858. Other pears have made standard sizes in Cali- fornia far in advance of their records elsewhere. There was in 1870 a Pound pear sent from Sacramento to the late Marshall P. Wilder, president of the American Pomological Society, which 260 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM weighed four pounds and nine ounces, and was reported by Colonel Wilder to be larger than anything previously reported in pear annals.* But California has recently done even better, for a pear from near Marysville in 1904 was reported as nine inches high, sixteen inches around the base and five pounds in weight. Notes kept by the writer include five Vicar of Winkfields weighing four pounds eight ounces; nine Easter Beurre weighing twenty-four and one-half pounds, the heaviest single specimen weighing two and three-fourths pounds; thirty-five Beurre Clairgeau weighing thirty- seven pounds, the heaviest one, nineteen ounces; Seckel pears, nine and three-fourths inches in circumference—Downing’s figures make the Seckel five and seven-eighths inches around. The pear comes into bearing early if conditions have favored the thrift and development of the tree. It is a long-lived tree as already shown unless it is invaded by the blight. It is the judg- ment of Hayward Reed, whose pear orchards in Sacramento and Yuba Counties have long been among the best known in California, that with variations due to climate, soil, drainage, variety, etc., a pear tree is mature at 12 to 15 years of age and will average eight or nine boxes of 50 pounds each. It will pay for its care at seven to ten years of age. LOCALITIES FOR, THE -PEAR The pear has a wider range than the apple in local adaptations. It does as well as the apple in the coast regions, if suitable varieties are grown; it thrives far better than the apple in the interior val- leys; it rivals the apple in the ascent of the slope of the Sierra Nevada, and gains from the altitude, color and late keeping, as does the apple. By rejecting a few naturally tender varieties, or by proper protection against the scab fungus, in regions where its attacks are severe, one can grow pears almost everywhere in Cali- fornia—providing pear blight can be held in check, as will be dis- cussed later. The choice of location is governed more by commercial consid- erations than by natural phenomena. The same facts which make the Bartlett the favorite variety with planters, also should regulate the choice of locality for growing it. These facts were expressed by the late C. W. Reed, of Sacramento, who was in his time one of the leading pear growers and shippers of the State, as follows: In the Sacramento Valley proper there is but one variety of pear that will justify extensive cultivation, viz., the Bartlett. While nearly all va- rieties may be grown successfully, and many varieties may be desirable for home purposes, yet for profitable orchards we have to confine ourselves to this one variety, except in high altitudes, or localities where the fruit only matures very late. The reason for this will be better understood by the inexperienced if explained. The Bartlett pear having qualities that make it a universal favorite for shipping, canning, and for domestic mar- ket, no other variety is wanted while it is obtainable. With the difference in the time of its ripening in different localities that are adjacent, our mar- *Tilton’s Journal of Horticulture, March, 1871, p. 87. An engraving of this fruit, natural size, was given in the Pacific Rural Press, November 8, 1873.” THE WONDERFUL BARTLETT 261 kets are supplied with this variety about four months each season, viz., July, August, September and October. While this pear is in the market, any other variety to compete with it must sell at very low prices. Of course experienced pear growers, whose taste would soon cloy with a continuous diet of Bartletts, and who know fully the superior quality of other varieties which ripen soon after it, would dispute the position taken by Mr. Reed, but for present California taste and trade he is undoubtedly correct. As the canners and shippers and local consumers all call for Bartletts, and as they usually sell at the East for more than other varieties, the choice of location to secure a Bartlett, either very early or very late, is the part of wisdom, for either end of the season usually yields better prices than the middle. The earliest Bartletts come from the interior valley sometimes as early as the last week in June; the next, from the valleys adjacent to the Bay of San Francisco; the next, from the higher foothills of the Sierra Nevada; and the last, so far as present experience goes, although some coast and mountain situations are quite late, reach the market from the Vacaville district. It is an interesting fact that this district, which has long been famous for marketing the first early fruits, should also market very late ones. It is true, however, that early fruits hasten to maturity and late fruits are retarded. Late fruits push along until about midsummer, then stop growing for a month or two during the hottest weather, and after- wards proceed on their course and finish up well.* W. W. Smith, of Vaco Valley, has picked Bartletts as late as November 19, but that is unusually late. In years with heavy late spring rains the Bartlett ripens earlier in the Vaca Valley than in ordinary seasons, and when the fruit sells well in the East, the Bartletts are gathered green and shipped all through the season, as their first growth usually makes them large enough for this purpose. There is produced in some situations a “second crop” of Bart- letts and of other varieties, which is of account when pears are scarce and is sometimes dried with profit. For such fruit the bloom appears upon the tips of the shoots of the current season’s growth. The fruit is sometimes coreless and has led to claims of “seedless pears.” Bartlett pears have actually been picked in the foothills above Peatz in Butte County on February 25, 1905, and described as “fine, delicious and ripe.” This fact must be regarded as a token of local climatic salubrity and not of economic or pomological account. Bartletts can also be successfully held in storage for a time if fitted for it. The experiments of the United States Department of Agriculture, conducted in Southern Oregon, show that the Bartlett season can be extended from six to seven weeks by leaving the fruit on the trees two weeks longer than is at present the practice and by storing for four or five weeks at a temperature of 32 deg. or 34 deg. F. after the fruit has been precooled. *Demonstration of the effect of high heat in retarding the ripening of pears has been described by R. H. Taylor and E. L. Overholser in Monthly Bulletin California State Hor- ticultural Commission for March, 1919. 262 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM SOILS FOR THE PEAR The pear, if it is not allowed to dry out entirely, will generally do well on shallow soil and over a tight clay hard-pan, where most other fruits would be unsatisfactory or fail utterly. The trees will thrive in clay loams, and even in adobe, if properly cultivated. In laying out fruit farms, which often include a variety of soils, even in comparatively small area, the pears and plums (if on the right stock, as will be seen) should be set in the lower, moister, stiffer soil, and other fruits on the lighter, warmer, and better drained portions. The pear, however, enjoys the better situation, though it will thrive on the poorer. The tree seems to attain its greater growth and heavier bearing on the alluvial soils of the valleys and near the banks of rivers and streams. All pears will be later in maturing and have better keeping qualities if grown on a clay sub- soil. Thus it appears that the pear will flourish whether the water is near or far from the surface. On wet land the apple is apt to die in a few years, or become worthless. On dry land the apple may live longer than on wet land, but the fruit will be small and taste- less. But the pear tree may bear good fruit, under both extreme conditions. It has been learned by experience that the pear will flourish on soil somewhat alkaline. At the University Agricultural Experiment Station at Tulare, this subject was demonstrated in detail. It was shown that though the pear endures a certain amount of alkali its limit of endurance may be often exceeded and there is little warrant to select alkali soil for pears, unless it be to fill a space that would otherwise be vacent in the orchard. If it is not too alkaline the pears will thrive. If gypsum be used in planting, somewhat stronger alkali will be endured than otherwise. PROPAGATION AND PLANTING The use of dwarfing stock for the pear has been nearly aban- doned in this State, though in early years the quince was largely used. The most prominent orchard on quince stock is that of A. Block, of Santa Clara, where may be seen dwarf trees originally planted eight feet apart in squares, but now wider spaced by re- moving part of the trees; the remainder doing exceedingly well under liberal manuring and irrigation. It would, however, require special investigation to determine whether these trees are still de- pendent upon the quince or whether they have developed roots from the pear wood above. It is quite possibe that, at least for gardens, there may be in the future more use made of dwarf trees; but for commercial orchards there appears no need of dwarfing. The common con- clusion is that it is better to have fewer trees and larger ones, but since the pear blight became an issue in this State the quince has been advocated as a means of maintaining a sound root and keeping the warfare above ground. The best known dwarf pear orchard of recent planting is that of the Hillgirt Orchards in the PROPAGATING PEARS 263 Alhambra Valley near Martinez in Contra Costa County. The reasons for resort to the quince root and the results are thus given by Mr. Frank T. Swett: The Bartlett does not make good union with the quince root, but by working Beurre Hardy on the quince root, and Bartlett on the Hardy, per- fect unions are obtained. We have a three-story pear tree root, quince; stem to a height of 12 inches, Beurre Hardy; top, Bartlett. We had a commercial crop of a box to the tree, or 170 boxes to the acre at the sixth year. Since then, we have had five good crops of pears. Standard trees alongside are only just beginning to bear commercial crops. We have, therefore, had an income for five years which would not have come to us on this land with standard trees. In 1907 we picked 1200 boxes of fine, clean, shapely pears from three acres of dwarfs. Our trees are planted 16 feet apart, I think 14 feet apart would be a little better, giving 221 trees to the acre instead of 170. The trees are stocky and strong. They are from 6 to 8 inches in diameter a foot above the ground. They are about 10 to 12 feet high, and are broad and spreading. There are some cultural advantages of the dwarf trees. Our men prune about 60 of these trees a day as against 16 to 20 standard trees. Spraying can be more thoroughly done, as the trees are close to the ground. Most of the pears are picked without the use of a ladder, and only a short ladder is required to gather the pears higher up. I have seen a good picker picking at the rate of 60 boxes a day on these dwarfs, where the average rate on standard trees was 20 boxes a day. We resorted to the quince root to escape the root aphis, but the quince root is not as resistant to oak fungus as the French root, and where this fungus is a menace, dwarfs should not be planted. Dwarf trees suffer just as severely from blight as standard trees. The following varieties are commended for cultivation on quince stock as dwarfs, experience proving them vigorous growers and abundant bearers in suitable localities: Bartlett (by double work- ing), Beurre Hardy, Doyenne du Comice, Duchess d’Angouleme, Glout Morceau, Pound, Beurre Diel, White Doyenne, Easter Beurre, Winter Nelis, P. Barry, Winter Bartlett. Blight-Proof Roots.—But the pear is usually grown in California by budding or grafting on its own roots; that is upon pear seed- lings. Formerly these were almost exclusively imported from France, but in 1918 more than three-fourths of the nursery trees were grown on Japanese stock, and in 1921 seedlings of European species are almost wholly abandoned. The seedlings of the Sand pear, of Asia (Pyrus serotina), are being demonstrated to be in- ferior to other Asiatic species which are being introduced and bid fair to become a main reliance. Very interesting pamphlets describ- ing these new species were published in 1918 and in 1920 by Mr. A. L. Wisker of Grass Valley, California, who is commending the growing of ussuriensis seedlings to be top-grafted in the orchard after attaining some size. It is, however, not demonstrated that these Asiatic species will be our only reliance in the future, for even if some of them do furnish a resistant root they may not make a good stem and, therefore, it is proposed to bud or graft some other resistant wood to make a trunk and top work the Bartlett upon such a trunk so that only the branches shall be susceptible to blight. Such a trunk is commended 264 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM by Dr. W. L. Howard of the University of California in the use of the variety named “Surprise,’ whose resistance is demonstrated: The Surprise is even more blight resistant than the Japanese pear and makes a beautiful tree, and the plan to follow would be to grow the Sur- prise on the Japanese root until the trees are perhaps four years old, or until all of the main scaffold branches have been formed. These may then be top-worked to Bartlett. In this way, even though blight did get into the trees, it would not be possible to lose more than one of the main branches, and if care were taken this could be again top-worked on the original Surprise stump. Distance in Planting.—If the pears are to have the whole ground, it is usual to plant from twenty to twenty-four feet apart on the square. As the tree is slower to attain size and full bearing than the stone fruits, and as it is a long-lived tree, the pears are sometimes set twenty-four feet with plums in quincunx. Peaches and apricots are also set between pears sometimes, when the soil chosen for pears suits them also. PRUNING Usually the pear is grown in the vase form, as described in the general chapter on pruning. With regular, upright growers, head- ing low and cutting to outside buds results in a handsome, gently- spreading top, and effectually curbs the disposition which some varieties, notably the Bartlett, have to run straight up with main branches crowded together. The development of the vase-form with a few continuous leaders, in a general way as prescribed for the peach in Chapter XX, is practicable. Such leaders are to be covered with short, fruit- bearing laterals. Thinning and shortening of laterals can be done by summer pruning. As with other fruit trees, the pear must be studied and pruning must be done with an understanding of the habit of the variety under treatment. Irregular and wayward growers, which, in windy places, also have their rambling disposition promoted by prevailing winds, often give the grower much perplexity. The general rules of cutting to an outside bud to spread the tree, to an inside bud to raise and concentrate it, and to an outside bud one year and an inside bud the next, if a limb is desired to continue in a certain course, are all helpful to the pruner. But with some pears, of which the Winter Nelis is a conspicuous example, it is exceedingly hard to shape the tree by these general rules, and some growers abandon all rules, merely shortening in where too great extension is seen, or to facilitate cultivation, and trust to shaping the tree when it shall have finished its rampant growing period. In the hot interior valleys, with the pear as with the apple, care must be taken to prune so as not to open the tree too much to the sun, but to shorten in and thin out only so far as is consistent with maintaining a good covering of foliage. The pruning of bearing pear trees is much like that of the apple, to be determined largely by the habit of the tree, and to IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR 265 secure a fair amount of fruit on branches with strength and stiff- ness enough to sustain it. Summer pruning will promote fruiting either in a young or an old tree and some practice it to secure early bearing of young trees, but the common practice is winter pruning to secure strong wood and prevent overbearing. THINNING PEARS It is quit important to attend to thinning the fruit on over- loaded trees. Even the popular Bartlett will often give fruit too small for profitable sale unless thinned, though successive pickings as the fruit reaches marketable size, which will be commended presently, does to a degree reduce the danger of overcrowding. With pears, as other fruits, thinning should not be done until it is seen that the fruit is well set. Dropping off from natural causes sometimes thins the crop quite enough. IRRIGATION OF THE PEAR In some situations the pear needs irrigation, though it will endure drouth which would destroy most other fruit trees. There is no profit in small, tough fruit. As stated in the chapter on irriga- tion the wood growth and fruit show whether proper moisture needs are met or not. Early pears are advanced in development by irrigation in some parts of the State, and this is an important factor in their value. On the other hand, late pears may be kept growing to larger size and later maturity by irrigation. The following is an interesting concrete instance: Mr. John McAlister of Santa Clara County got nearly double the price for his pears one year because he held them back from ripening by timely irrigation. The weather in August and September when the Bartletts and Beurre Hardys ripen is a little too warm to accomplish much by irrigation except to increase the size of the fruit. The Hardys were irrigated two weeks before picking early in September; and after they were picked, the Comice, Winter Neils, and Easter Beurre were irrigated. The Comice were picked just before the Neils and the Neils were three inches in dia- meter before they needed to be picked late in November. The Easter Beurres six weeks after the Hardys, which brought the picking up to January 1, The Easter Beurres were 3%, 4, and 6 inches in diameter at that time. The pears had been held on the trees at least a month later than other people, and some of them were held in storage until March 1 before shipping to the eastern and coast markets. The pears are right to pick when they are large enough and the seeds begin to turn brown; but this condition may be delayed and the size increased by late irrigation un- less early rains are ample enough to produce the same effect. BLIGHT OF THE PEAR The pear blight appeared in the San Joaquin Valley about 1900. In 1904, after having nearly wiped out bearing trees in the southern counties of the San Joaquin Valley, the disease began to devastate the orchards along the Sacramento River through the vast area of <4 266 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM rich valley land which it traverses and on which is situated our most extensive pear acreage. In 1905 resolute warfare was made upon the blight, with a large appropriation of State funds, by the plant disease experts of the United States Department of Agricul- ture and the California Agricultural Experiment Station, with the assistance of the local horticultural authorities. It was probably the greatest campaign ever made against a single tree disease, although some insect warfares have been greater. The outlines of the plans followed and the results attained are to be found in the publications of the institutions engaged.* Detailed information concerning the treatment of blight as indi- cated by progressive research and experimentation is also to be had from these institutions and from California horticultural journals which record the latest methods and results by pear growers who are continually introducing new methods of applying the only treatment thus far found effective, and that is cutting out and burning the affected parts. The cutting must be below the parts seen to be diseased, even to the roots of the tree, and dis- infecting the tools used in one cut before again cutting into the iree-7. It is usually best, unless one is thoroughly acquainted with the disease, to submit specimens of suspected blight to the University Experiment Station at Berkeley, for a beginner may be easily deceived. However, that the inexperienced person may have a general idea of what to look for, the following outline of symptoms is given: The most obvious effect of blight to be seen during the growing season, is the blackening of the leaves and soft wood to which they are attached, as though these parts had been touched by a flame, and from this appear- ance comes its old common name, “fire-blight.” More specifically, as Prof. R. E. Smith has written, the leaves, blossoms and young fruit wither and turn black on the affected portions but do not fall, remaining tightly at- tached to the twigs during the winter after the healthy leaves have fallen. The infection proceeds downwards through the inner bark of the twigs and branches, and when working vigorously the blight kills the twigs or whole branches very rapidly. The disease often runs down into the large limbs, where it remains alive over winter, producing the so-called “hold- over” blight, which is a source of infection during the following season. The blighted twigs, branches or trunks show a red, sappy, juicy con- dition of the inner bark when infected with the true pear blight organism. If the disease is fresh and active the bark when cut into is very juicy, ex- uding the slightly sticky sap quite freely and showing bright red color in the inner bark. This symptom is of importance in distinguishing true blight from such troubles as die-back from sour sap, crater blight and other causes. In the smaller twigs and branches the organism dries out and becomes entirely dead. But, through the agency of biting insects in the young shoots and suckers, the disease frequently gets into the trunk of the tree and also down into the roots. Here it spreads and causes the death of *Reports of the California Commissioners of Horticulture, 1901 to 1906, including Reports on California Fruit Growers’ Convention for 1905-6-7, Horticultural Commissioner, Senet Report of Plant Pathologist, University Experiment Station, Berkeley, 1906 and 1908. +The character of such a fight and what it costs is graphically portrayed by E. A. Gammon in the Report of California Fruit Growers’ Convention of 1909, and in Pacific Rural Press, June 22, 1910. CUTTING OR SCRAPING PEAR BLIGHT 267 the tree by slow degrees, due to the destruction of the inner bark of the trunk or main roots. In such cases the leaves of affected trees take on a peculiar bronzy reddish coloration in the fall, which is quite characteristic to the experienced eye. From the “hold-over” blight in the trunks and large limbs an infectious sap exudes when growth starts in the spring, which sap contains myriads of the blight organisms. This sap is attractive to insects, which, in feeding upon it, get the blight bacteria upon their bodies and mouth parts, and transfer them to the blossoms or green shoots of other trees, thus spread- ing the infection. Looking for Blight—The time to see blight best is while the tree is in leaf. Discovery and cutting out should be in mind all summer—especially should thorough work be done in the autumn. The leaves are still hanging on blighted twigs; trees are least sus- ceptible to reinfection from careless cutting because they are practi- cally dormant; insects are not so numerous, and the rain is not yet soaking newly cut surfaces with drippings from other new cuts. It is easy to get around the orchard, and mud does not hinder fol- lowing root blight. Cutting Out Blight—Cuts should usually be made about a foot below visible appearances of blight on the bark; (2) tools are dis- infected before making the cut; (3) the wound immediately after the cutting is sponged with a disinfectant—of which the one chiefly used is one part of corrosive sublimate to 1000 parts of water by weight; which is one ordinary tablet of corrosive to one pint of water. Dr. F. C. Reimer of Oregon, the noted pear expert, recom- mends cyanide of mercury to disinfect cuts and wounds instead of corrosive sublimate—l gram of pure cyanide of mercury to 500 grams of water (about one pint). Large cut surfaces should be subsequently brushed or sprayed with Bordeaux mixture or lime- sulphur wash. Scraping Instead of Cutting.—In 1921 a new method of checking the progress of the blight downward is being employed in the treat- ment of larger branches and trunk. It is described as follows :* The new method of control consists in the scraping of the outer layer of bark on all infected areas, and it is very essential to scrape for insur- ance at least eight to ten inches above and below all visible signs of blight. The scraped area is then painted or saturated with a solution of cyanide of mercury (1 to 500), On trunk infections it is found best to scrape a little closer to the cambium or growing layer of bark. It is found that the cyanide solution does not penetrate to the cambium if too much outer bark is left. On working on large areas disinfecting should be done sev- eral times during the operation because the surface of the bark becomes dry and the solution cannot penetrate to the inner blight. If a mud paste of cyanide solution and earth is put on the scraped area it helps to keep the wound damp for some time and the cyanide effective for a longer period. Bichloride solution, 1 to 1000, is better to use to disinfect tools. The bichloride solution and cyanide solution (1 to 500) may be mixed in the same bottle for convenience. Pear Scab.—The scab fungus which seriously affects some varieties, and notably the Winter Nelis, is identical with the scab of the apple and will be mentioned in the chapter on tree disease. *E. I. Power in Pacific Rural Press, March 26, 1921. 268 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM INSECT PESTS OF THE PEAR The pear is subject to several grievous pests which must be resolutely combated or circumvented as described in Chapter XLI—where the identification of the pests is determined by the character of the injury they inflict. GATHERING AND RIPENING OF PEARS Many pear growers make the common mistake of allowing the fruit to hang too long on the tree, instead of gathering and ripening in a cool, dark place. Pears should be picked at the first indication of ripeness, the first sign being a tendency of the stem to part from the spur when the pear is gently raised up. This test applies especially to the Bartlett. Picking at this stage and laying away in the dark ripens up the Bartlett well. When picked at this stage and sent overland by slow freight, they ripen en route and the boxes open well on the Eastern markets. There are a few varieties which shrivel if ripened under cover, but the rule is a good one, and the grower will soon note the exceptions. Many desirable varieties have, no doubt, been pronounced poor and insipid because allowed to ripen on the tree. As a rule pears are ready to pick when of proper size, seeds beginning to turn brown, and the flesh quite firm. Some pears size up and ripen before others. Some get oversized before the general run are ready. If these early pears are picked first, with some care not to knock the others off, the small ones left will have all the strength of the tree to increase their size, and the earliest ones will not get oversized or over-ripe. Fewer pickers are required and the job, being longer, is more attractive. To ripen well, pears should be packed in tight boxes or inclosed in drawers. They do not do as well as apples on shelves open to circulation of air. As already stated, the oily-skinned apple endures exposure and maintains a smooth, ruddy cheek and sound heart in spite of wind, rain and rough weather. The pear under similar con- ditions decays rapidly. POLLINATION OF PEARS As very few varieties of pears are largely grown in California and as the Bartlett generally bears well when grown in large acre- ages by itself, the Eastern claim that the Bartlett is self-sterile does not seem to be justified in California experience. Recent observa- tions indicate that even at the East the Bartlett is self-fertile when conditions are favorable to setting of the fruit and self-sterile when they are otherwise. As conditions are usually favorable in Cali- fornia this may be the reason why its self-fertility is more conspicu- ous here than at the East. The behavior of the Bartlett under systematic fertilization has been determined at the University Farm at Davis and the results published in detail.* The conclusions are that the Bartlett is to a *“Pollination of the Bartlett Pear,’’ by W. P. Tufts, University of California Experi- ment Station, Bulletin No. 37; May, 1919. POLLINATION OF PEARS 269 limited degree self-sterile (and in 1920 was sterile) under valley con- ditions and is self-sterile under foothill conditions; therefore, it is desirable that another variety should be interplanted with the Bart- lett for cross-pollination. The blooming season of eight varieties during a period of five years at Davis is given as follows: Angouleme .......... TEM eee s Cone a eeieus March 16 to March 28 Leia iy toile AS RA AS ons erro Rit ccc tei E mace March 16 to March 29 EEO GE il obser Sales Vid IGA Sin kr aUSw cinta LB ols. eslecate s March 16 to March 30 VEU CEI SCH Ta. Dae NGS a Ae AAR eta ie Se oe eae March 22 to March 28 MSEC SL Pie ois icles aie si oh Pata hos a) oy sbaiterbisr bie eters March 29 to March 31 Peril Male A Eh cd Rods ak ei wsia's 5 4000 BEE. 5 boi bie tere inte m & OT ESTES wield cesta eas ppehels 5168 DM Sa spat hal via a jy es din BOUD AOE abi 2 Ss iak stds 7000 Dy fsa aie db wih gs ey A250. MIZOo.(siskt Ragen sees 5500 MPLS Aw Acheron) 68 «% 3500 Almonds are chiefly grown in a commercial way in the interior valleys of central California, although there are extensions into the more northerly counties of the Sacramento Valley. On the coast there is large acreage in the Paso Robles region of San Luis Obispo County, and in southern California the largest production is in the Banning district of Riverside County. The production rapidly increased because of successful marketing through the California Almond Growers Exchange during the practical exclusion of Euro- pean almonds by the war, but in 1920 California almonds were made almost unsalable at profitable prices by importations which will be reduced by restoration of a protective duty, and because of a better understanding of the natural conditions required for suc- cessful operations with the almond tree.* The numbers of trees now growing in California and a valuation of the product are given in Chapter VI. Vicissitudes of the Almond.—The almond has an _ interesting history in California, but it can be outlined in a few sentences. The importation of the best European varieties began very early, and a number of them had been planted in 1853. They proved irregular bearers, though the trees grew thriftily and in some cases showed fruit very soon after planting. The barren almond trees were largely grafted into prunes or made into firewood and the con- clusion was reached that to secure regularity and abundance in fruiting, locations for almond orchards must be sought with the utmost care, and that the secret of success lay in the location. After that local seedlings seemed to demonstrate their value in regular crops, and in characteristics and qualities superior to foreign kinds. *A very satisfactory publication is ‘“‘The Almond in California,” by R. H. Taylor: Bul- letin 297 of the University Experiment Station at Berkeley. 434 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Large planting was then undertaken on the ground that the choice of soil and situation, and the selection of trustworthy varieties, are both factors of success, but that possibly more lay in the choice of variety than of location. This belief led to the wide planting in locations now seen to be unfitted by reason of frosts and losses were again encountered. Now it seems to be fully demonstrated that no matter what variety is planted locations for the almond must be selected with great care. It has also been demonstrated that association of varieties promotes pollination and satisfactory bearing, as will be stated later. Notwithstanding such cultural wisdom and the progress made by growers in co-operative market- ing, the need of shelling inferior varieties, which can not be done profitably with high-cost labor, and other commercial difficulties, the planting interest in 1921 is at low ebb. Situations and Soils for the Almond.—Almonds are now doing best on the higher lands in coast valleys, free from fogs and pro- tected from direct winds, but subject to tempered breezes; also at various points in the interior valleys and foothills. The general proposition that low lands in small valleys should be avoided, and bench or hillside situations preferred, seems to be a safe one. Lands directly upon the coast have not proved satisfactory. In the large interior valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin, almonds are successfully grown on flat valley lands but little lifted above sea level and from such plains the chief product comes. Why almonds are safer on the low lands of a great valley than of a small valley is explained by the discussion in Chapter I. The almond prefers a loose, light, warm soil, and heavy, poorly- drained soils should be avoided. Though they need moisture enough to make good, thrifty growth they will produce good crops on soils that are too light or dry to grow satisfactory peaches, apricots, nectarines, cherries, or similar pulpy fruits. The almond is, how- ever, a very deep-rooting tree, and may succeed by reaching deeply for moisture rather than by denying itself, as some think. The tree certainly suffers and is barren from drouth in some cases, and a certain amount of irrigation in midsummer is very desirable in many places. Almonds are doing well in alfalfa with irrigation— the alfalfa making a good growth and still leaving soil-moisture enough to cause the nuts to open their hulls better than on drier ground with clean cultivation—but care must be taken not to get too much water in the soil for the health of the roots. Propagating, Planting, and Pruning.—The almond is propagated from seedlings grown as described in Chapter VIII, and budded as described in Chapter IX. The almond root is chiefly used, though the peach answers well upon soils adapted to it. The apricot root should be avoided, and plum roots have proved disappointing. For planting out, trees in dormant bud are very successful if given proper care. Yearling trees are, on the whole, best and usually those which have made a moderate instead of a very large growth are to be preferred. The almond makes a comparatively large tree and should have plenty of room—not less than twenty- PRUNING THE ALMOND 435 four feet apart (though some plantations are made at twenty feet), and thirty feet is better. Old almond trees are readily worked over to other varieties by grafting and by budding into new shoots forced out by cutting off large branches. Methods with the peach described in Chapter XX are applicable to the almond. The pruning of the almond is more important than formerly thought. The tree should be headed low and pruned during the first three years, as described in Chapter XII, to secure a shapely, strong tree. After the third year little pruning is usually done except to thin out objectionable branches. Suckers, or rank new growth, in the center of the tree should be removed, unless more branches are needed; such growth bears little and takes away strength from bearing wood. There is danger of allowing the trees to become too dense and to have too little new wood for fruit bear- ing until the tree is cut back all around and a new top is secured upon the old forkings of main branches. This has been successfully done with many old orchards. A wide impression has recently prevailed that the almond has been pruned too little and there seems little doubt that pruning for continuous renewal of bearing wood must be provided. There are widely variant views on the extent to which the policy should be carried. Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill reached the conclusion that the almond should be pruned like the peach—not only started like the peach, but annually pruned after it comes into bearing for the production of new wood, shortening the shoots of new wood and thinning out excess of such shoots to prevent the tree from becoming too brushy. When this is done, he has found for a number of years that trees thus pruned bring regular and heavy crops, while adjacent un- pruned trees have a scanty set of nuts. But growers shrink from such practice because of the considerable cost of it. More moderate but still continual pruning is practiced by Mr. J. T. Caldwell of San Joaquin County, who states his method in this way: I do not like to wait several years and then butcher my trees. I prune a little every year, watching all the time for limbs that are in the way or getting too thick—taking them out entirely, whatever size they may be; but there are seldom any big ones in the way, nor that have to be cut out for any other reason. I figure just on thinning out the brush, taking out the suckers, but never topping back, because that would induce a whippy growth, from which the nuts would be knocked off in windy weather, and the same is true if too many top branches are allowed close together, so that the full force of the wind catches them. The cultivation of the almond orchard is the same as commended for other fruit trees, and as the trees are often planted in naturally dry soils, the greater care in cultivation is needed to retain sufficient moisture to give good size to the nuts. In certain locations, of course, irrigation will be necessary, but usually a light rainfall will answer if good cultivation is given. The chief part of the almond crop is grown without irrigation. Harvesting Almonds.—There is some variation in the methods of handling almonds, and much to be learned by visiting commercial 436 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM orchards at harvesting time, but the following explicit account of procedure by Mr. J. P. Dargitz conveys general outlines of methods and materials: “When the hulls on the nuts are loose from the shells, as will be indicated by their bursting open, it is time to begin gathering if you wish to hull them. If they get too dry you will have to wet them before hulling or you will break the shells. If you wish to shell them then, the drier they get the better. It will not pay to begin until the nuts about the crotches of the trees are ready and they will be the last to ripen. When they are all ready you can get all at one gathering. Have some sheets made of heavy unbleached sheeting or light duck or sail cloth. Mine for large trees are 15x30 feet, handled by two men to a sheet and two sheets to a tree. Spread the sheets under the tree, one on each side, lapping the edges where they join. Then the men take soft wood or bamboo poles and by jarring the limbs cause the nuts to fall on the sheets. Always strike the limbs sideways, for if you strike a glancing blow down the limb, you will reduce next year’s crop. The object is to get the nuts and disturb the foliage as little as possible. When the nuts are all off the tree, the men toss their poles to the next tree and then gather up the sheets, one man at each end of each sheet, and, lifting them, carry them to the next tree, where the process is repeated. When enough nuts are in the sheets to fill several lug boxes, the boxes are placed on the ground side by side, and the sheets are emptied into them. These boxes are then stacked up so as to be easily seen, and the teamster hauls them to the sheds where machines for hulling are located. In the very small orchards the hulling is usually done by hand. For orchards slightly larger there are small hullers which can be operated by hand or by a small gasoline engine or electric motor. For larger orchards, machines which can hull up to two or three tons per day are in the market.” After the hulling more or less hand sorting is required, as the small machines do no sorting, while the larger machines do more or less perfect sorting of the hulls from the nuts. Bleaching.—After this hand sorting, the nuts are spread out in the sun to be thoroughly cured before bleaching. After they are cured so that the kernel will break without bending, they are ready for bleaching. The bleaching requires the dampening of the shells. This is accomplished by immersing quickly in water or by a fine spray from a hose nozzle, or by putting on trays and running in the sulphur house and then introducing low pressure steam—not more than 30 pounds—into the sulphur house for 15 to 30 minutes. The moisture from this low-pressure steam heats or dampens the outer portion of the shell, and then while they are both hot and damp— the steam being shut off—the sulphur fumes from burning sulphur are introduced in the sulphur house for perhaps 15 to 30 minutes and give the required brightening to the shell. If the almonds have been immersed before bleaching it will be necessary after bleach- ing to spread them out in the sun for several hours and stir them occasionally to get rid of the excess moisture. If they have been VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND 437 dampened by a fine spray hose they may or may not need this dry- ing, but they must be perfectly dry before being sacked. If the steam process is used, the nuts can be taken immediately from the sulphur house and sacked, and the heat that is in the shell will evaporate the small amount of moisture in the process of sacking. It is claimed that, after the outfit is provided, the steam process ~ costs only about one-half as much as the other process of bleach- ing. If the shell is wet through, or if the kernels are not well cured, or if the shells are open and the nuts immersed and there is more or less water inside the shells, the sulphur will materially injure the kernels and they will not keep well, but will soon become rancid. Almonds that are to be shelled for commercial purposes should not be bleached under any circumstances, as the only object to be accomplished in bleaching is the brightening of the shell, and for shelling purposes the shells are not marketed. Pollination of the Almond.—Careful studies* have shown that arrangements for pollination are essential to the satisfactory bear- ing of nearly all the varieties now being grown in California. The following conclusions are most widely useful: California may be pollinated by Nonpareil and Peerless. Drake may be pollinated by California, Languedoc, Nonpareil and Texas; however, Languedoc is a poor pollen producer. Harriott may be pollinated by Ne Plus Ultra. I. X. L. may be pollinated by Drake. Ne Plus Ultra may be pollinate by California, I. X. L., Jordan, and Nonpareil. Nonpareil may be pollinated by California, Drake, Jordan, Ne Plus Ultra, Peerless and Texas. Texas may be pollinated by Drake and Nonpareil. One colony of honey bees should be provided for each acre of orchard. A few years ago there was a general disposition to plant Drakes and Texas because of their regular bearing and their pollinating effect upon the Hatch varieties. The Texas has proven inferior as table almonds and sells best after shelling, which is too expensive to be profitable. It seems better policy to plant the better varieties and rely upon their cross-pollination with the aid of the bees. The need of sheliing also limits the desirability of hard shell almonds of the Jordan type. Varieties of the Almond.—Almonds should bear well every year, hull easily, have clean, thin, soft shells, and a smooth, bright, and plump kernel. Almonds with long, single kernels are preferred to those which have double ones. These are the characters which ruled in the selection of new varieties by the pioneer propagator of new almonds, A. T. Hatch, of Suisun. In 1878 Mr. Hatch planted out about two thousand five hundred seedling almond trees grown from the bitter almond seed. He afterward budded all the seed- lings but about three hundred which were left to bearing age un- budded. The fruit of these seedlings was of all degrees of excel- lence. A few of the best of them were selected for propagation and *““Almond Pollination,” by Warren P. Tufts: California Experiment Station Bulletin No. 306, Berkeley, March, 1919. 438 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM | naming, and they constitute the chief part of the acreage which is now bearing almonds in California. Excellent seedling almonds have also been produced by other growers. The following list includes the sorts most widely grown: Nonpareil, Drake, IXL, Ne Plus Ultra, Peerless, Texas Prolific, Languedoc. - IXL.—Tree a sturdy, rather upright grower, with large leaves; nuts large with, as a rule, single kernels; hulls easily, no machine being needed, nor is any bleaching necessary; shell soft, but perfect; largely discarded for shy bearing, but desirable in some places. Ne Plus Ultra.—Large and very long in shape; heavy and regular bear- er; soft shell; hull free. Nonpareil.—First called Extra. Of a weeping style of growth; smaller foliage than the IXL, but still forms a beautiful tree. An extraordinarily heavy and regular bearer, with very thin shell, of the Paper Shell type. Ripens early and can be gathered before other varieties are ready. Lewelling’s Prolific.—Originated with the late Mr. John Lewelling; “tree a great bearer; of drooping habit; nut large and good; soft shell; hull free.”—Leonard Coates. Harriott’s Seedling (or Commercial).—From Visalia, where it is a surer cropper than elsewhere; shell softer than the Languedoc; nut long, of peculiar shape, quite large; kernel sweet. King’s Soft Shell.—Originated in San Jose; shell very thin and soft; regular and abundant bearer. Princess.—The finest of the Paper Shell class; long, oval, kernel large, white and sweet. Languedoc.—Nut large; shell thin; kernel sweet; condemned for irreg- ular bearing. California Paper Shell—Medium size; shell very tender, easily broken between the finger and thumb; kernel large, white and sweet. Efficient pollinizer for other varieties. Drake’s Seedling.—Originated with Mr. Drake of Suisun, of the Langue- doc class; very prolific, and a regular, abundant bearer. A late blooming variety. Golden State.—Originated by Webster Treat. A large soft shell, some- what longer than the Languedoc, with a full, smooth-skinned meat; parts from the hull readily. An early variety, but in less favor than formerly. Peerless —Resembling IXL. Popular in Yolo County for regular and heavy bearing. Texas Prolific.—Brought from Texas by Robert Williamson of Sacra- mento, about 1891, as a seedling originated at Dallas, and the only almond which would bear there. Largely planted as a pollinizer for Nonpareil; productive, but is condemned for unsalability. Jordan.—This long, hard-shelled almond, notable because of its long, slim kernel for “salted almonds” and imported at high cost for that pur- pose, has been introduced both through government distribution and pri- vate enterprise, notably that of the late John Rock, of the California Nursery Co., of Niles. Too little has yet been seen to determine the value of the variety in local production. It is especially favored to the Coachella Valley. Eureka.—Originated with Mr. A. M. Newland, of Colusa. Has long, slim kernel, resembling Jordan, but smaller and enclosed in a thin shell. Regularly productive for twenty years with originator. CHAPTER XXXIX THE ENGLISH WALNUT Although we have in California a grand native walnut tree, as noted in Chapter IV, the nut to which reference is made when the term “walnut” is used is the English walnut or Madeira nut—both of which are old trade names for the Persian walnut (Juglans regia). Our native walnut in its species and as influenced by en- vironment,* ranges from a tree of great size and beauty to a shrub. The species found in the valleys of Central and Northern California is a majestic tree widely grown from the nuts for shade and orna- ment, from early pioneer days to the present and therefore now widely distributed and admired. Its greatest economic service is, however, the contribution of its nuts for seedlings which are largely depended upon as stocks for grafted trees, as will be stated later. The Walnut Product.—The English walnut was introduced to California during the Mission period, the first being probably grown by the Mission Fathers from nuts brought from Spain. Away from the Missions there were also old trees in Southern California at the time of the American occupation. English walnuts were also planted both in Southern and Central California by the American pioneers, but for decades there was no notable commercial production. Very large trees planted in the pioneer period are still to be seen here and there in both coast and interior situations.f The California product of walnuts during the last decade has been as follows, in tons of 2,000 lbs.: MEE id isha Shad x's) hs whe DOO > IDEG ize hoe ae yee 14,600 LA Cs ee a eine ae ims, | Saar eae gn 16,500 BOOS. cays eens 1 0 may A a ae Pei eee 19,962 MEPs ae sth. « «/e' v's TES IU INO sh 2 30,08" ers 28,100 i er SOUU ESA os eens x8 og 21,500 _- LS Ae 14,895 The walnut product is almost exclusively grown in Orange, Los Angeles, Ventura and Santa Barbara—contiguous counties along the southern coast of the State, and the headquarters of the California Walnut Growers Association, a very efficient co-operative organiza- tion, is in Los Angeles. The product grown outside of the area indicated is relatively small but increasing, as local adaptations to the tree have been demonstrated, wherever suitable soils have been found and varieties meeting local requirements have been planted, in all parts of the State. *A very interesting study of the native walnut in its various forms is given by Prof. R. E. Smith in Bulletin 231 of the University of California Experiment Station, 1912—re- printed in modified form in 1921. t +Many records of early plantings are to be found in the Report of the California State Board of Horticulture, 1895-6, 440 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Soils for the Walnut.—The walnut makes most rapid growth upon a deep, rich, moist, loamy soil, and shows its appreciation of good things of the earth as do other fruit trees, and yet it attains satisfactory size and bearing in less favorable situations. Thriving trees can be found in the clays and decomposed granite soils of the foothills, as well as in the valley silts and loams. Adequate moisture must, however, be had either by rainfall or irrigation, and the walnut cannot be commended for dry, neglected places nor for soils which overlie leachy subsoils. Irrigation of Walnuts.—Over-irrigated walnut trees on heavy soil are subject to die-back; on well-drained soil they are liable to be pushed into too late growth, which goes into the frost period too immature, and is easily killed back by a temperature which would not injure well-matured wood. It is not a matter of calendar date so much as of condition, but usually irrigation after August is undesirable—except on loose soils prone to dry out in the late fall. In the latter case, if rain does not fall, light irrigation should be given at any time when the soil seems to be getting too dry to keep the root-hairs alive. Too late growth on young trees can be pro- tected by bundling with straw or stalks, or by wrapping with bur- laps, but it is better to use less water, get less growth and let it ripen and harden earlier—but the soil must not be allowed to get too dry. Propagation.—The walnut tree grows readily from nuts treated as described in Chapter VIII. For many years the use of seedlings prevailed, and the nut was looked upon as coming sufficiently true from seed. Recently, however, this has changed rapidly, and bud- ding or grafting to secure a high, uniform grade and to secure fruitfulness in spite of the blight is commanding wide attention. In growing young trees it is being considered desirable to bud or graft rather high so as to get a trunk of the hardier variety which is used as a stock. The California black is now chiefly used as a stock for the English walnut, and either budding or grafting resorted to. The success of the English walnut on our native stock has long been known. Mr. John R. Wolfskill, on Putah Creek, in Solano County, put in a bud in 1875 and the tree reached immense size and large product. Since then many large native black walnuts have been top-grafted with the English walnut with notable success, not only in orchards, but along highways where the native black walnut has been planted for shade and ornament. Mr. F. S. Leib, of San Jose, who has given much attention to stocks for the English walnut, believes that the cross of the Cali- fornia black and the Eastern black walnuts, and the California black walnut straight, gives the best seedlings for roots for the English walnut, but advises close selection of the nuts in the sprout- ing bed (see Chapter VIII), as the nuts with the longest sprouts make the strongest growth in the nursery or in open ground. The best nuts for seedlings are the native black walnut straight _ and the Royal hybrid (every cross between the native Eastern black BUDDING THE WALNUT AA] walnut and the native California black walnut is called a Royal hybrid), while the Paradox hybrids (English walnuts crossed with California black) make a large root and but a moderate top the first year, and few make good the second year. The Paradox hybrid roots are also subject to killing by the oak-root fungus, which the straight native seedlings and the Royal hybrids both resist. Budding the Walnut.—Twig buds as used with the olive are also successful with the walnut and ring budding works well on shoots of a year’s growth, which have at least attained the thickness of the middle finger, if the buds are set at the base of these shoots where the wood is perfectly round. The bandage should pass above and below the bud so that the bark under it may be pressed down close upon the stock. Mr. A. W. Keith, of Selma, in taking a fresh bud from the new growth, found the large leaf stem a serious impediment in firmly placing a shield bud upon the cambium of the stock and binding it there. Shaving it away with a knife left too much exposed tissue. If the leaf stem would drop off as it does when mature and leave a healed-over scar, the result would be a flat surface with only the bud protruding, and this could be easily bound in place so as to exclude the air. By cutting off the compound leaf, leaving a stub of an inch or so, the stub thus left dries and parts from the stem just as a mature leaf does in the autumn, leaving clean, flat buds. Budding to Hold Over Winter.—Mr. Pennington of Vacaville has been very successful in budding by cutting buds in the regular shield form, about 1% inches long, cut from branches ¥% to 34 inch in diameter, so as to get wide buds with but little wood left in them. He also prefers to have stocks large, and considers a stock 14 inches in diameter not too large. He uses ordinary budding twine for tying, but does not use wax to cover the incisions. He buds as late as it is possible to get a good flow of sap, as then the weather is likely to be cooler, which is an important factor, and the growing season is about finished, which will allow the twine to be left in place all winter, which he considers advisable. Buds are more apt . succeed when pushed upward from the cross-cut than downward rom it. Budding to Force Growth.—Budding during the growing season to force immediate growth on the buds is successfully practiced, both in nursery stock and in working over orchard trees, by Mr. Antone Mardesich, propagator for Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill, in this way: Buds have been successfully put in from April to October, but spring budding is recommended. The early budding is done from budwood about half an inch in diameter cut in January, while entirely dormant. About six buds at the base of last season’s growth are suitable. They must be on round wood, as buds taken from angular wood do not flatten tightly enough against the stock. The dormant budwood is packed in damp shavings in a box in a shed until budding time comes. The shavings are too damp if any moisture can be squeezed out of them. Sand is likely to dull the budding knife. If the budwood is to be used late in the spring, it must be kept cold. If it is to be used early in spring, it may be kept the last week or 442 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM two in a place where it will warm up gradually. This starts a sappy loosening of bark so it can be peeled clean from the stick, Buds may be used even if swelled somewhat, but those showing color will die. Little spherical, hard and sound buds, are most successful. The stocks must always be full of sap so the bark will lift easily enough to force the bud under it. Seedlings and branches on older trees to be budded are cut off three weeks before budding about a foot above the point of insertion. This seems to thicken the sap so that when the buds are inserted they stick before they dry out and the sap does not “drown” the buds. If sap flow in the egy is weak, the cutting back seems to loosen the bark from the wo The shield of bark containing a bud is cut about an inch above and below it and a quarter inch on each side, tapering to blunt ends. It is cut nar- rower if the stock is of smaller diameter than the budstick. The upper end of the bark shield is grasped and peeled clean from the wood. The ordinary T cut is made in the stock and the shield with its bud is cut and slipped in immediately and tied with a cotton string around the stock from the top of the slit downward to prevent the bud slipping upward as it might if tied from the bottom up. It is wrapped quite tight, so that the sap oozes from the bottom of the slit while tying—showing that no air is left under the bud. No wax or other dressing is used. About two weeks later the string is cut on the back side of the stock. When the shoot has started vigorously, cut the stock above the bud back to a three- inch stub. Tie the shoot to this stub to protect it against wind. Cut the stub off smooth a year later so it will heal over quickly and paint the wound with asphalt. For summer budding, buds of the current season’s growth are put into shoots of the current season’s growth. Such budding, done even as late as October, has made enough growth to ripen before winter, but ordinarily it is well to get it all done by the last of August. Grafting the Walnut.—Grafting into black walnut seedling root can also be well done by a triangular cut into the edge of the root stump, as described for grafting into grape-vine stumps in Chapter XXVI. In the case of the walnut, close binding with a wax band is desirable. Large walnut trees can be worked over either by budding or grafting. If by budding, the large limbs are cut back in the winter, and in autumn following, buds are put in as many of the new shoots as may be desired, or, in the case of younger trees, the buds are put under the bark of the branches without forcing out new growth. Grafting over is desirable either for substituting a better variety of English walnut, or for working over a California black walnut into an English variety. Mr. J. B. Neff, of Anaheim, who has worked over many old trees, gives the following practical sug- gestions: If the trees are from three to five inches in diameter they may be cut off at about four feet above the ground and below the branches, then four or five scions may be placed on one stock, or three or four of the branches may be cut back to within 10 to 24 inches of the trunk and two or three oe placed on each. All the other branches should be removed from the trunk, Old trees of from 12 to 20 years should have the branches cut at places where they are from three to six inches in diameter, and from five to eight stubs left, which will be from three to six feet in length and should have as Many as six scions in the large stubs, the other branches being removed before the scions are put in place. GRAFTING THE WALNUT 443 In sawing large branches, it is necessary to make two cuts, the first being some distance above or outside the final cut, to prevent splitting the stub, or the trunk, when the severed part falls. The scion should always be of solid, mature wood, that is, with as - small pith as can be had readily, and must have good living buds. Each scion should be about one-quarter inch in diameter and have at least two buds. The growth having buds close together is best, as shorter scions can be used. To receive the scions use a heavy butcher knife and mallet to split the stubs, placing the knife across the stub to one side of the pith, as if a chip one-half to five-eighths inch thick was to be taken off. Then depress the handle of the knife to an angle of 30 to 45 degrees and split the edge down to 2%4 to 3 inches, allowing the knife to reach the farther side of the stub, but not making the split entirely across the stub. Open the cleft with an iron wedge ¥%4 to 5%-inch wide and thickest on one edge, placing the thickest edge toward the outside. Trim the cleft in the stub with a sharp knife so it will be smooth. Then cut the scion so as to fit perfectly and place it so the inner bark (the cam- bium layer) of both will be on the same line, or at least will cross twice, then remove the wedge and put hot wax over all the cuts on both stock and scion at once. The scions should be examined frequently and any excessive flow of sap wiped off, and the stub recovered with wax as soon as dry. Excessive flow of sap for several weeks will cause the loss of the scions, as the callus can not form in water. This may be controlled by boring one-fourth inch holes in the body of the tree near the ground. Three or four holes four inches deep will be sufficient to control the flow of the largest trees. No damage is done to the body of the tree, as the holes soon grow over. For grafting in the stems of seedlings or in the smaller branches of young trees a side graft as described in Chapter IX is success- fully used, as are also several styles of cleft grafting. One which is used by Mr. R. Wiltz and others at San Jose consists in splitting a short stub of a small branch which has been cut about four inches from its attachment to a larger branch of stem. In this case the split can only extend to the closely knit wood in the crotch and the scion is pushed down strongly to the bottom of such a split and it is held tightly. The two pieces of the deep split are not cut away but are allowed to protect the short scion which is between them, and if buds start on these pieces they are allowed to grow a little to keep the stock from dying back. When the scion starts well they are removed. A method of side grafting (so called because the stock is not cut across but a cleft made in the side of it) has been very successfully practiced by Mr. Weinshank, of Whittier, both with nursery seed- lings and on branches of large trees. His work has shown eighty to ninety per cent successful in the nursery and even more on branches of large trees. The following is a condensed description of the method: The scion is prepared as for a whip graft (Chapter IX), cutting across obliquely and making another cut right straight down with the grain in the scion. Then, instead of cutting the stock completely across like the scion, just simply make a little cut on the side. Do not cut into the pith of the wood at all. Then, place the two to- gether by pushing the tongue of the scion (made by the cut on its shorter side) into the lip cut in the stock; tie with a string and 444 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM wax over. The same method on larger trees is performed exactly in the same way, except that the lip of course on the larger limbs, which are three or four inches through, would be considerably larger, and the scion instead of being placed directly in the middle of the lip, or in the center, would be placed on the side so as to have the cambium of the scion connecting with the cambium on the stock at least on one side. Three or four, or sometimes five scions are put on a large limb, and in most cases three or four scions would grow. After the scion has reached a certain stage of growth, this string will commence to bind, and must be cut down right over where the scion is. The wax on either side will tend to hold the string, but as the wood naturally grows, the strings will draw apart, and it will not bind as it would if the string was not cut. Side grafting with a saw-cut, as described for the peach in Chapter XX, also works well with the walnut. Treatment After Grafting.—A fuller account of the protection of scions after setting and during their early growth is given by Mr. Edwin Gower of Fowler, Fresno County, thus explicitly: Take two folds of burlap, punch holes for the scions to pass through, making a hood inclosing and covering the entire stump, letting it extend down the sides a short distance; tie a string around the stump to hold it in place; by using this method the wax will remain in perfect condition. After the scion is growing rapidly, cut the string; do not remove it. This allows the scion to grow without the string cutting it. lf small trees, drive a stake down to tie the new growth. On old trees nail four sticks equal distances apart around the stump, letting the sticks extend four or five feet beyond the stump, wrap some string around these sticks; this acts as a net enclosing the growth of the scion, which grows phenomenally on black walnut. I have seen instances where they grew fifteen feet in one year. This net acts as a support and keeps the scion from either breaking or splitting off by the winds. It is sometimes advisable to nib off the end of the branches to check the growth. Cut them back vigorously for two or three years, until such time as they are well attached to the stump. I have used the bark graft, also the cleft graft, but I prefer the former, as the scion seems to grow more rapidly and reach maturity sooner. PLANTING WALNUT ORCHARDS There is much difference in practice in planting out walnut trees in permanent place. Some advocate the use of trees two or three years from the seed, getting as much of the tap-root as possible; others allow the tree to remain in nursery until it throws out lat- erals, which is usually done the fourth or fifth year. Two-year- old trees are generally preferred, but walnut trees of many times that age can be successfully transplanted if the work is carefully done. Walnut trees are usually set forty feet in squares, though some give the large-growing varieties fifty feet. Planting in hex- agonals at forty-five feet distance gives very satisfactory results. Some growers plant in squares at thirty feet distance, intending to remove alternate trees as they crowd each other, first cutting back, for a time, the trees which are finally to be removed. Sixty feet is close enough for mature trees. PRUNING THE WALNUT 445 Planting Nuts in Place.—Some walnut orchards are being grown for sprouted nuts planted where the tree is to grow. At first it was the custom to put three nuts near together—reducing the seedlings to one subsequently. Recently the preference is given to planting one good strongly sprouted nut in a place because removing surplus seedlings is difficult and likely to disturb the one which is retained. Any gaps in the planting are filled by planting seedlings from a side-bed in which a number are grown for this purpose. There are strong advocates of this method, which requires orchard budding or grafting, when the trees are well established, in one of the ways which have been described. Intercultures with the Walnuts.—In the southern walnut regions it is common to grow beans, squashes, etc., between the rows of trees until the latter reach bearing age; root crops which attract gophers should be avoided. Interplanting of smaller, early-fruit- ing trees is also practiced to a considerable extent, and alfalfa growing in the young walnut orchard is also practiced to some extent, but must be carefully done—if at all. PRUNING THE WALNUT The walnut is usually headed higher than ordinary orchard trees and the pruning needed is in shaping the tree. Upward trend of the branches should be secured, sometimes by cutting out the shoots which grow downward, sometimes by tying them up for a time to the central stem until they are stiff enough to retain this position. The stem should be protected from sunburn until the foliage accomplishes this. Whenever shoots are killed back by sunburn or frost, they should be cut off cleanly below the black mark which shows how far the injury has extended. If this is done, the die-back down the branch is usually prevented. As the trees become older, removal of some of the interior limbs may be desirable to admit more light to encourage inside bearing. Systematic Building of the Walnut Tree.—It is becoming clear that the old practice of allowing walnut trees to grow very much as they liked is not a good way. The following outline of the way to secure good form and serviceability, and applying to the walnut the principles indicated in Chapter XII, is drawn from the experi- ence of Mr. Eugene S. Kellogg, of Santa Barbara County: When planted from the nursery walnut trees are generally over six feet high and they should be headed back, the amount depending on their subsequent care. If no irrigation water is available, they are usually cut to a foot above the bud union and a new trunk is started. This new shoot should be carefully staked so as not to become injured by cultivating or strong winds. At the end of the first season’s growth, this shoot should be headed to about five feet. You will then have a vigorous, healthy young trunk, which will make a more rapid growth during the next season than the tree would have made in two seasons had it been headed io five feet originally. Generally when the young tree is to have water it is headed about five feet above the ground. After the first season’s growth, three main branches 446 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM are selected and all others removed. Do not remove small branches and small spurs. These shade the tree. The three chosen branches should be about a foot apart and well distributed around the tree. If more than three branches are chosen, the tree becomes too spreading and the branches will later come down and become a nuisance. The three chosen branches should be headed to about three-or four feet in length. At the end of the second year’s growth each of these three main branches will have thrown out from four to eight branches. All but two on each of these should be removed.. These two should be headed to three or four feet from their origin and they should be in such a position so that their tips are equally distant from the center of the tree to secure an open center, After the third season’s growth, each of the six branches is al- lowed to give rise to two branches and these two are headed back. Many small branches and fruiting spurs will have appeared all over the trees. These should be left. Heading back is very necessary at this time. The tree will have thrown out an immense amount of growth, and unless this is previously thinned and headed, the wind will either cause the tree to lean or else blow out large limbs completely. In pruning old irees the chief aim is to admit the sunlight; remove interfering limbs and limbs that in- terfere with cultivation. Generally every tree will fall into one of three types. These are the central shaft, vertical gore and goblet types. If a tree has a strong central leader, the chief aim is to emphasize this tendency. Thin out the branches which arise from the central leader. If a tree has a central leader and the main limbs originate one above the other, the best way to admit the light is by removing the smaller limbs in several wedge-shaped areas from the lower branches up. If four gores are cut, the tree would have the appearance of a four-leafed clover when viewed from a position above the tree. It will be necessary to thin out all weak wood in the areas between the gores. If there is no central leader and the tree has naturally an open center, this should be kept open. In shaping the walnut tree, such opening of the tree as is de- sirable near the coast may be undesirable or even dangerous in a hot interior situation. The bark is sensitive to sunburn and in ex- treme heat both leaves and nuts suffer and a more dense and self- shading tree should be developed. This will be secured in part by the style of pruning and in part by selection of a tree which nat- urally grows good foliage. Bloom and Bearing of the Walnut.—The walnut has its stam- inate and pistillate blooms separate, but both occur on the same tree. Successful fruiting depends upon the appearance of these two forms of bloom, without too great interval of time, and although there seems to be quite a retention of vitality, the lack of bearing of some varieties has been found to be due to the fact that the cat- kins disappear too long before the pistillate bloom was sufficiently developed to receive the pollen. The bearing age of the walnut depends upon the variety. Some of the French varieties are very precocious and have borne fruit in nursery row at two and three years old, but the pistillate blooms were then fertilized from catkins growing on older trees. The practical bearing age of the seedling English walnut in this State may be rated at six to eight years, according to the variety. Trees grafted with scions from bearing-trees fruit much sooner. Harvesting Walnuts.—Gathering walnuts is done in different ways. Some gather them from the ground at intervals during the months of September and October; others use poles and clean the HARVESTING WALNUTS 447 trees at one operation; some go over the ground three times, first picking up what have fallen; second, picking up what have fallen and striking the limbs lightly to dislodge others which are ripest; third, picking up again and then knocking off all that remain on the trees. In this way gathering lasts a month or six weeks. As fast as gathered the nuts are placed in slat-bottomed trays, 6x3 feet, by six inches deep, about fifty pounds in a tray, being thoroughly shaken up once or twice a day. If the weather is very hot they should be dried in the shade. When the nuts are dry they are ready for grading, washing and bleaching. All of these operations are per- formed in the Walnut Growers’ Association’s warehouses, which are established in all the leading producing districts. Even small lots are handled, which is of advantage to the grower, as considerable outlay for apparatus is required and some experience is necessary to get the best results. Appliances and materials are being improved and changed from time to time as walnut handling is a progressive business. For bleaching, direct use of commercial chlorine has been jntroduced in some of the packing houses, but prevailing practice still employs proper machinery and dipping tanks in which the bleaching fluid consists of 25 lbs. of chloride of lime and 18 lbs. of sal soda, dis- solved in 50 gallons of water. After this solution is made and drawn off clear from the settlings, sulphuric acid is added to it at the rate of 1% lbs. of acid to 425 lbs. of the solution. In this dip the nuts are quickly dipped (five to ten seconds) and then thoroughly dried at once. This process is hardly available for use on a small scale. In such case the walnuts can be improved by washing, brushing, or rolling in a perforated barrel to remove dirt, and then treated to sulphur fumes as has been described for almonds in the preceding chapter. In using sulphur it must be made sure that the walnut is well dried and then very lightly sprayed, so that only a film of mois- ture is present on the outside of the shell or the flavor of the kernel may be impaired. The walnut should be more lightly sulphured than the almond, as the same color is not desirable. Grading Walnuts.——Walnuts are commercially graded through a screen with square holes, measuring one and one-thirty-second inches square. The so-called No. 1, sold by the California Walnut Growers’ Association, are the nuts which do not pass through this screen, and the No. 2’s are those which pass through. Budded varieties are graded through a similar screen with holes measuring one and three-sixteenths inches square. The Diamond Brand Buds do not pass through, and the Golden State Buds are those which fall through. CALIFORNIA WALNUT VARIETIES Which is the best walnut variety to plant in California or in any particular region of the State is an open question and decision apparently still rests upon many coming years of experience in which all observant growers may participate. 448 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The variety which constitutes the bulk of the crop is the “Santa Barbara soft shell,” so called because the late Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara County bought in San Francisco in 1867 a sack of imported walnuts, grew seedlings and planted out in orchard form two hundred of them in 1868. When they fruited he noticed that sixty of them were of fairly uniform type, superior to the others and to the other walnuts commonly grown at that time, and he used them, and sold them to others, to grow seedlings for orchard planting. Thus the Santa Barbara soft shell is not strictly speaking a “variety” but a type shown by many seedlings, and it showed variability enough to suggest selection for “improvement,” which was followed to the extent of securing nuts from particular trees for planting, but still practically all the trees were seedlings until grafting to secure better quality and form, heavier bearing, resist- ance to blight, etc., began about 1905 to multiply particular seed- lings because of their distinctive desirability. Although grafting seedlings for planting and grafting-over bearing trees also, have rapidly increased in the chief walnut districts, the commercial prod- uct is still largely from seedling trees descending naturally from Mr. Sexton’s selected type, which demonstrated remarkable suit- ability to Southern California coast conditions and satisfied trade requirements for large production. Although seedlings from Southern California, both the original type, which Mr. Sexton’s work displaced, and the Sexton type itself, were planted at many points in Northern and Central California and made large and thrifty trees, they bloomed too early to escape frost and they were too susceptible to injury by summer heat in the interior, which rarely invaded the coast region even at the south. In 1871 Mr. Felix Gillet began to introduce to his place near Nevada City the best French walnut varieties as grafted trees, contrasted their bearing with adjacent non-productive “Los An- geles walnuts” and demonstrated such superior performance that he continued importation and propagation until he had introduced all the French varieties which we now have and stimulated other nurserymen to their introduction and propagation to the end that these varieties were planted here and there throughout California and to the States northward. The work of these two pioneers has thus far reached this con- clusion: The Sexton selections and their descendants rule at the south and fail elsewhere in the State; the Gillet imported French varieties lead elsewhere in the State and are less desirable at the south. The varieties most largely propagated in 1921 are Placentia Per- fection, Santa Barbara Soft Shell, Eureka, Franquette, Mayette, Concord, Payne’s Seedling. Varieties which have enjoyed some prominence may be briefly characterized as follows: Santa Barbara Soft Shell (origin already noted).—Nuts usually of good size, easily cracked in the fingers, and of excellent flavor and quality; se- lections named as follows: Placentia Perfection, Discher’s Prolific, Neff, El Monte, Pride of Ventura and others. CALIFORNIA WALNUT VARIETIES 449 Placentia Perfection—Medium size, smooth, fairly uniform; shell thin but strong, and fairly well sealed; kernel light tan in color, fairly smooth, mild flavor, fills shell well; early; generally looked upon as the best, thor- oughly tried variety for the southern part of the State. Sells as “budded” at advanced price. Eureka.—Nuts large, fairly uniform, elongated; medium smoothness; shell medium to thick and well sealed; kernel light cream color, of medium plumpness and is easily cracked out whole; foliage dense and leaves large; blooms late; doing well in interior valleys, Franquette—This French variety rose to great favor and has been largely planted upon the successful experience of Mrs. Emily M. Vrooman, of Santa Rosa, and the extensive effort at its distribution by the Oregon Nursery Co., of Salem, Ore. It is a large, elongate-oval nut with shell rather thick and kernel of high quality. It is a late bloomer and escapes blight to a certain extent. Mayette.—This variety chiefly constitutes the imported Grenoble wal- nuts. It is large, roundish, with a broad base, on which nut will sit up; shell thin and white; kernel full and rich; a good bearer and late bloomer; local Mayette seedlings are being named; one is the “San Jose,” by R Wiltz, of San Jose—in disfavor because of shy bearing. Concord.—Seedling of Cluster; of the Mayette type, grown by Messrs. Westgate and Hutchinson of Concord from seedling tree by Felix Gillet. Introduced by Mr. Leonard Coates in 1908. Claimed to be blight resistant. Payne’s Seedling.—Nut is of good average quality, of good size and moderately smooth; has attracted attention by its precocity and quite heavy production of nuts; somewhat susceptible to blight, and by early blooming gets caught by frost; most largely planted about Linden, San Joaquin County. Bijou Seedlings.—Several of these are being grown. Willson’s Wonder, introduced by F. C. Willson, of Santa Clara, is a large, smooth, desirable nut, and the tree is reported an early and prolific bearer. Other French Varieties—Other French varieties introduced by Mr. Gillet and others include the following: The Cluster, which fruits, as its name indicates, in long bunches, sometimes as many as fifteen in a bunch. The Parisienne is a beautiful variety, the nut large, broad and shapely; the tree blooms very late. All the foregoing varieties and the Franquette, Ser- otina, Barthere, Mesange, Gant, Meylan and Chaberte, were introduced by Mr. Gillet in 1871. Kaghazi.—A variety called Kaghazi was grown and propagated for’ sev- eral years by the late James Shinn, of Niles; large and thin-shelled; late in putting out leaves and blossoms; source of some promising seedlings. Japanese Walnut; Juglans Sieboldiana.—This species, native to the north of Japan, was introduced to California about 1860, and a tree grown from seed planted about that time is growing at the Tower House, in Shasta County. Hard shell and only interesting in walnut breeding. CHAPTERVXAL NUTS OF MINOR IMPORTANCE Nut-bearing plants from all parts of the world have been intro- duced to California and probably all of them, except those of strictly tropical requirements, may be found growing successfully here and there throughout the State. Only the almond and the walnut have risen to great commercial importance and only a few others have passed beyond amateurs’ interests. THE ‘CHESTNUT The chestnut is not yet produced in large amount in California, and certain quantities of the nuts are annually imported, the Amer- ican, Italian, or Spanish and Japanese all being found in the San Francisco markets. Of chestnuts grown in California, the Italian predominates, and judging by its success it may be said that a large area of California is well suited for the growth of the chestnut, as there are bearing trees in nearly all parts of the State. The chestnut succeeds on heavy, clayey soil, even if it be rocky. Chestnut trees are readily grown from the seed, and come into bearing from six to eight years, though the Japanese sometimes bear sooner. The growth of chestnuts from the seed is described in Chapter VIII. In growing from seed of the improved varieties, there is a tendency toward reversion, and budding and grafting may be done by the methods described in the chapter on the fig. The chestnut can also be grafted with the ordinary cleft graft. Buds or scions should be taken from trees which are fruiting satis- factorily, and in this way seedlings which have a tendency to bear empty burs can be turned to good account. Chestnuts can be grown in the nursery until several years old, providing they are lifted at the end of the first year, the tap-root cut off, and the trees reset, giving them rather more room than during their first year’s growth. In permanent plantings the trees should have plenty of room, as they ultimately attain great size. Trees at Grass Valley, Nevada County, when about twenty years old, fifteen inches in diameter of trunk, and forty feet high, are reported to bear a barrel of nuts to the tree regularly. Felix Gillet of Nevada City for many years made a specialty of propagating a large collection of the improved French varieties known as ‘Marrons,” which were distributed to some extent. The chestnut, aside from its desirability as an orchard tree, can be commended as a tree for hillsides or a shade tree for waysides of pastures, and should be more widely planted in Cali- fornia. The chief product is in the foothill district east of the San Joaquin Valley. Quite a number of improved chestnuts of the American species have been planted in California. Mr. A. L. Wisker of Grass Valley FILBERT AND PEANUT 451 has several such varieties, of which the “Rochester No. 20” has seemed most promising. The California Mountain Fruit Co. of Grass Valley has a ten-acre orchard of chestnuts planted to test bearing and profitability. The fruit ripens in October and the tree has also late blooms and burs setting at the same time—which creates a doubt as to whether the American species knows how to behave in our salubrious foothill climate as well as the South European species do. It is stated that American varieties do not graft on Japanese or European seedlings as well as they do upon seedlings of the American wild nuts. THE FILBERT The best English cob-nuts have been quite widely tried in Cali- fornia without successful results. Improved Spanish and French varieties of the filbert were early introduced by Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, and have been favorably reported by him as to growth and bearing. A few other growers in foothill situations have re- ported success, but as a rule disappointment has attended ventures with the filbert. The most favorable regions for farther experiment are apparently the north slopes of the Coast Range, from Santa Cruz northward, and other cooler and moister situations, as well as at an elevation on the Sierra foothills. Mr. Leonard Coates of Morgan Hill has recently given much attention to the filbert and has introduced the most prolific European varieties. He has assur- ance of the fruitfulness of the plant when pruned to encourage growth of fruiting wood and necessary pollination is provided for. THE PEANUT A few peanuts have been grown in California in a great many localities for perhaps fifty years, and most of the attempts to pro- duce them have proven unprofitable and been abandoned. At one time Orange County produced something like twenty carloads an- nually, but later abandoned the crop as unprofitable. During 1919 and 1920 peanut growing was taken up by Mr. A. R. Miller of Fon- tana, San Bernardino County, on light, sandy soil and is credited with producing 1500 lbs. per acre on a large acreage in 1920. The crop was handled from planting to threshing with modified bean- growing implements and machinery—the whole crop being sold in Los Angeles. The “Spanish” peanut was planted in April and May and harvested in September. Furrow irrigation was employed, first after planting and three more at intervals of about three weeks. For small scale growing these hints may be given: peanuts require sandy sediment to give the best results. It is better to shell the seed and plant one kernel in a hill, 18 inches apart in the rows which are three feet apart. Plant the seed two or three inches deep, in good moist earth so as to insure germination. Plant as soon as frosts are over, in April or May, as they need about six months to complete their growth. There is very little land that will produce 452 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM crops without irrigation. If irrigation is necessary, it must be by the furrow method, and no flooding must be permitted. CELE FE CAN The pecan, by rapid growth, early fruiting, and general thrift, seems to be the member of the hickory family best fitted for Cali- fornia conditions. A tree grown from a nut planted by J. R. Wolf- skill, on Putah Creek, in 1878, was, when twenty-five years old, over fifty feet high, with a trunk twelve inches in diameter, grow- ing luxuriantly and bearing freely. Still older trees, also very satis- factory in growth and bearing, are to be seen at Chico and Visalia. The pecan, though grown for thirty years by different parties around the Bay of San Francisco, either does not bear or keeps the nuts hanging on until sometimes they sprout on the tree. The wider extremes in temperature or in humidity in the interior seem to teach the trees better habits of growth and rest, and moist low- lands in the great valleys seem best for pecan planting. Pecan trees grow readily from the nuts if these are fresh. Plant- ers should secure nuts of selected varieties (for there is a great difference in size and quality) direct from growers in the Southern States, and plant as soon as received, in the early winter, or if con- ditions are not favorable for planting, the nuts should be stored as described in Chapter VIII. Nuts planted in good nursery ground in rows as there suggested, and covered about two inches or a little deeper in dry, loose soil, and then mulched to retain moisture, will germinate freely. The trees should be transplanted to permanent place at the end of the first year and then usually the tap-root can be retained, as some growers deem very desirable; if the trees are to be put in permanent place later they should be transplanted in the nursery and the tap-root cut off. The nuts can, of course, be planted at once in permanent place. Z2HE UPISTACHIO The pistachio nut (Pistachia vera) was introduced many years ago, but commercial results are only just beginning to be attained. The species upon its own root makes a low shrub and is slow of growth. The Pistachia terebinthus, from which is derived the “chio turpentine,” the stock the true pistachio is grafted upon in Europe, is growing thriftily at several points in the State. Several amateurs and nurserymen have given enthusiastic effort to the establishment of the nut in this State. The United States Department of Agri- culture has also worked largely with it and has distributed about 25,000 of the trees during recent years. The largest plantations are in the interior valleys and the product is now being attained in that region. Tribble Bros. at Elk Grove had 250 trees, five-year- old grafts, in bearing in 1918. C. J. Forbes has 150 trees the same age and there are about five acres on the Mills orchard at Hamilton City. The fruiting of the pistachio depends upon pollination, and one male tree is necessary to six or seven bearing trees. ae PART EIGHT: FRUIT PRESERVATION CHAPTER XLI FRUIT CANNING AND DRYING The fruit-canning enterprises of California expanded almost be- yond anticipation after the outbreak of the world-war in 1914. The opportunities for development and the relation of our almost unlim- ited capacity for the production of fine fruits to the new concep- tion of the dietetic value of preserved fruits and of the inadequacy of production in other parts of the world to meet the demand which this conception created, aroused wonderful interest in the capabili- ties of California. Increased capital from outside sources was at- tracted and the reorganization for administration and production of our greatest proprietary concerns. was accomplishéd. There was also development of co-operative concerns, largely by fruit growers, which are rising as a factor in production in several districts. So great has been the development of the industry that the facts about establishments, capital invested and labor employed, etc., gathered by the U. S. Census Bureau in 1914, fail to be representative, and measurements must be awaited until the facts are set forth in the manufacturing statistics of the Census of 1920. It is, however, suf- ficiently clear that California leads the United States in the fruit- canning industry as for many years past and leads now by a wider margin than ever before. Statistics of production of canned goods which have fortuntely been carefully compiled by private enterprise* for a number of years, do indicate both the rate of expansion and the relative amounts of particular kinds of fruits which the industry requires California canned product fruit for the years indicated. 1913 1919 1920 Apples 80,250 134,245 9,041 Apricots 898,005 4,395,204 2,312,020 Blackberries 103,005 114,349 161,359 Cherries 351,895 460,614 647,377 Grapes 46,915 104,446 114,886 Loganberries 21,370 11,708 14,267 Pears 874,200 1,962,700 1,184,288 Peaches, free 583,800 1,962,700 1,547,687 Peaches, cling 1,630,255 5,096,240 5,205,511 Plums 175,290 280,261 164,740 Raspberries 9,090 233 --- Strawberries 34,470 22,123 5,525 Other fruits 2,290 42,584 15,562 Totals 4,730,835 13,696,403 11,382,863 The figures represent “cases” of 24 2% lb. tins or their equivalents. *Notably by Mr. Howard C. Rowley, editor of the California Fruit News of San Fran- cisco. 454 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM from the growers. The figures show almost a three-fold increase of the pre-war product, reaching its peak in 1919. The unsettled con- dition of affairs including adverse exchange and transportation costs made slow sales in 1920 and reduced output in 1921, but the outlook is unclouded and notable increase in production is to be anticipated. Fruit Varieties Preferred by Canners.—It is manifestly the duty as well as the desire of growers to produce an ample supply of fruits which meet canners’ requirements. Among these requirements are satisfactory size, clear unblemished beauty, color which will not interfere with the clear gold of the sirup, and texture which will endure processing without yielding a desirable degree of firmness and not slough off cells or fibers to cloud the sirup. To such basic characters everything desirable in flavors should be added. There are some variations in desirability produced by difference in local growing conditions which affect desirability of any particular fruit variety and there may be canners’ personal equations also involved to some extent. At all events it is generally wise for new planters to consult local cannery superintendents and consider the advice which they may give in connection with other uses which may be made of the prospective fruit. The following sketch of varieties chiefly used by canners may be taken as suggestive, and not ex- clusive of other varieties, but indicative of the types desired. More specific information of varieties commended by canners for future planting is given in the chapters devoted to the fruits chiefly de- sired by them: Apples—Yellow Newtown Pippin; firm, white-fleshed apple re- quired. Apricots—Royal, Blenheim, Hemskirke, Moorpark, Tilton. Cherries—Royal Anne, Rockport; soft white cherries not avail- able and black varieties not largely used. Figs—Kadota, Calimyrna. Grapes—Muscat. Peaches—(free) Muir, Lovell, Foster, Early Crawford, etc.; (cling) Tuskena Orange, McKevitt, Seller’s, Phillips, Levy. Pears—Bartlett. Plums—Yellow Egg, Bavay’s Green Gage, Golden Drop, Dam- son, Washington, Jefferson. Blackberries—Mammoth, Lawton. Loganberries—Phenomenal, Logan. Strawberries—Clarke, Wilson and similar firm varieties. Vari- eties chiefly grown for fresh use too soft for canning. Raspberries—Cuthbert, Antwerp. The literature of the California canning industry has been not- ably extended during the last few years and very satisfactory special publications are now available.* *Of California commercial canning operations, detailed account is given in ‘‘The Can- ning of Fruits and Vegetables,’”’ by J. P. Zavalla, published by John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1916. Of small scale operations, the California Experiment Station at Berkeley has published many pamphlets and leaflets, and a complete treatise is also available; viz.: ‘Home and Farm Food Preservation,” by Prof. W. V. Cruess, of the University of California, pub- lished by the Macmillan Co., New York, 1918. WHY CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUITS EXCEL 455 CALIFORNIA DRIED FRUIT INDUSTRY A special census of the fruit-preserving manufactures of the United States in 1914 shows not only that California stands first in the dried fruit industry, but that the product was in that year valued at $30,771,912, and was 88.4 per cent of the whole national product. An adjacent tabulation gives interesting details of this product for a number of years. As suggested in Chapter II it is the function of the sunshine and dry air of California not only to bring vigorous growth to the tree and vine, and carry the fruit of both to fullness of size, beauty and quality, but to continue its beneficent action until the fruit, which is not required by the trade in fresh ripeness, is given imperishable form, in which its beauty, flavors, aromas and nutritive qualities remain available to delight and nourish mankind until the following year’s sunshine wins from the earth another supply of fresh ripe- ness. There are many parts of the earth where good fruit is grown; there are few where conditions producing such fruit continue to accomplish its preservation, as they do in California. Product of California Cured Fruits in Tons—1890 to 1920. Year Peaches Apricots Apples Pears Plums Nec- Grapes. Figs Prunes Raisins tarines 1890 3,200 3,000 400 100 250 200) fos 100 9,200 4,000 1895 12,250 5,325 2,280 2,700 2,250 675 2,125 1,325 32,250 45,680 1900 17,170 14,000 3,150 7,275 1,950 435 240 2,000 87,000 47,167 1905 17,500 19,250 3,250 1,750 930 185 193 3,625 37,500 43,750 1910 25,000 16,000 3,100 1,000 375 250 350 3,775 45,000 62,000 1911 14,006 11,000 3,500 1,500 250 200 119 5,500 95,000 65,000 1912 18,000 10,000 2,000 1,000 200 200 100 5,000 102,000 95,000 1913 20,000 9,000 2,000 1,000 600 200 120 6,000 45,000 70,000 .1914 34,700 20,000 4,000 1,500 750 300 Bic 5,000 60,000 98,000 1915 28,500 16,000 4,000 1,000 950 200) waa 7,500 67,000 127,000 1916 29,000 11,000 4,500 800 600 ZOOW % cacereie 8,200 65,000 136,000 1917 39,000 16,000 4,000 1,100 900 200 .... 11,000 112,000 163,000 1918 19,500 14,500 5,750 2,000 500 200 4536. 7,300 40,000 167,000 1919 34,000 15,500 12,500 5,750 ....* ....* ....* 12,000 140,000 197,500 1920 24,000 10,000 D000) V25D00) 0 siete te, y= eee seit pee OO! 95,000 155,000 WHY THE DRIED FRUIT PRODUCT IS GREAT In connection with this notable factor of our horticultural pro- duction, certain facts should be clearly understood by those who desire to properly appreciate the industrial resources of the State. First. Cured fruits in California are a primary and not a sec- ondary or by-product. It is true, of course, that curing fruit does, to a limited extent, save from loss fruit which shippers and canners are not at the time paying profitable prices for, and it frees growers from helpless dependence upon fresh fruit buyers. But this does not mean that curing is a way of getting something from refuse fruit, not suited for other purposes. It should be taken as evidence that, for the most part, grades of fruit which are cured are the same _ *The product of dried pitted plums and nectarines has always been small and arbitrarily estimated. Probably it was as usual in these years. Dried grapes practically were negligible for several years until prohibition awakened a demand for home fermentations at the East. The present product of dried grapes is considerable, but not of record. It would be much larger were it not for prices paid for fresh grapes for overland shipment—inducing the great increase in this movement shown in the table on page 50. 456 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM which are also available for shipping and canning when prices are right. Second. Because our cured fruits are a primary and not a by- product, free investment is made in acres of well-made trays; in tramways and turntables for their movement from the shelter of convenient cutting or dipping and spreading houses; in capacious apartments and mechanical devices for giving the cut fruit its bath in sulphur fumes to preserve natural colors and to prevent fermenta- tion and insect invasion; in the carefully prepared drying floors; in well-fitted packing houses. Such investment has reached many millions of dollars in the aggregate, and the standing of cured fruits as primary products is the justification of such outlay. Third. Forty years ago California dried fruit was a make- shift, and a disgracefully poor one. As enterprise and investment proceeded it was soon seen that style and quality alone could re- quite them. It was then believed that handsome cured fruit which should only be relieved of its excess of water and still retain color, flavor and winning beauty, could only be produced in machine- evaporators with artificial heat, and a few years were given to invention, purchase and rejection of all such devices except as occasional refuges when the California climate forgets itself. When the demonstration came that with proper pre-treatment California sunshine and dry air would produce notably fine evaporated fruits without houses and furnaces, cured fruits entered upon their career as primary products, and planting to produce them began. Fourth. The fruit must be well grown, and fruit for curing should have the size and quality which make it first class for other purposes, with the added excellence of being somewhat more mature, because it is not required to stand hauling and shipment. It should, however, be carefully handled to escape bruising, because discolorations are blemishes. It must be cleanly cut for removal of pit or core, because trimness, neatness and shapliness are all essential to beauty. It must be carefully and evenly spread upon the trays, especially if it be a cut fruit, so that no interference can prevent each piece from reaching its best estate. Sulphuring must be adequate, and yet not excessive; for sulphuring is a protecting and not a resurrecting process; it is not to improve bad fruit, but to keep good fruit from becoming bad. The fruit must be suf- ficiently dried and yet not over-dried, and during the process must be protected from dust by the situation and character of the ground used, even if such protection costs trouble and outlay. Trays for Drying.—The greater part of the fruit, including raisins, is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made of one-half inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet 4 rr rere] Cross-section of small drying tray. CALIFORNIA SUNSHINE EVAPORATION 457 long, the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A cross-section of such a tray is shown at A. Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays, three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely em- ployed. These large trays are of nailing “pine shakes’ which are 3 ft. long, and 6 in. wide. The sides and ends of the trays are made of 1x2 in. pine or redwood. The bottom is strengthened by nailing to the under side, from end to end, three thin strips, one on each side and one in the middle. The laths and pieces for sides and ends, cut ready for use, may be obtained from lumber dealers. Paper trays of heavy brown paper are often used in emergencies. They are cut the size of the wooden trays, covered with cut fruit— the wooden tray being slipped out after carrying to the drying ground. They are not a good substitute for wooden trays, however. Protecting Fruit from Dew.—In the interior there is seldom any deposit of dew in the drying season, but occasionally there are early rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick cleats serve a good purpose. In small scale operations in dewy regions the trays are sometimes piled at night, or cloth or paper is stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon it. Drying Floors.—For the most part the trays are laid directly on the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to support them, about twenty inches from the ground. In raisin- making the drying trays are usually distributed through the vine- yard, to have as little carrying as possible. In drying tree fruits the trays are spread where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to pre- vent the deposit of dust on the fruit. Spaces used for drying are often idle the rest of the year or are cultivated for grain-hay. When one has water for irrigation it is often practicable to reduce dust and secure an amount of desirable feed or hay by putting the piece down in alfalfa. Just before the space is needed for a drying yard, the alfalfa is mown down close and raked clean. The yard is then ready for the trays and fruit. When the drying season is over the yard is cleared, and the space then is as clean as a clay floor, from being used so much. In three weeks the top of the ground is green all over, and before the rains come there is another cutting of alfalfa. Drying floors are, however, usually kept bare and as hard as may be. Drying over alfalfa stubble is slower than over dry, baked ground. It is common to scrape the ground clean with a weed-knife and roll or rub it down as smooth and hard as possible. 458 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Grading.—It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cut- ting is advisable. Machines are made which accomplish this very cheaply and quickly. Cutting-Sheds.—Shelter of some kind is always provided for the fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of poles and beams upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch, sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof; and sometimes a finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story open- ing with large doors on the north side, with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed and stored for sale. The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste of the purse of the producer will answer the purpose. Sulphuring.—The regulations promulgated under the pure food law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their protest the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely post- poned, pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1898 and never ended, and the use of sulphur has not been inter- fered with. Before the employment of the sulphur process, California cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by content of insect life. They had no value which would induce production and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in boxes or small “houses” with the fumes of burning sulphur, made it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the evapo- ration of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of the California summer. It also prevented souring, which with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open-air drying, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drymg process. The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feasi- bility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, half-apricots, half-pears of California are the direct result of the sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sec- tions or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved that they have semblance to the product of the canners and are secured atea fraction of the cost. There are various enclosures or houses for the application of sulphur fumes to the freshly cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about TREATMENT OF FRUITS AFTER DRYING 459 five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of matched lumber. Some sulphuring houses are made of reinforced concrete. Some are merely frames freshly covered with building paper each season. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alco- hol is put on the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit in the ground under the cabinet. The application of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made, and the ex- posure of the fruit should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The exposure required differs with different fruits, and with the same fruits in different conditions, and must be learned by experience. There is much variation in the sizes of houses built to take in truck loads of trays—some large enough for one truck, some for two, some built in compartments taking truck-loads side by side, some long, to take a train of trucks end to end; in one case 54 feet long, open at both ends, and tram-tracks running through. Grading and Cleaning.—After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays into large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it into a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces to- gether and separates it form dust, etc., which falls out through the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading according to size and color, and at the same time the dust and small particles of for- eign matter fall through the wire-cloth. The fanning mill for clean- ing grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper arrangement of metal screens. Sweating.—All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes moist. This action should take place before packing. To facilitate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit-house and turned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which preserve an 460 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM even temperature. No fruit should be packed before “going through the sweat.” If this is not done, discoloration and injury will result. Dipping Before Packing.—All fruits except prunes can be packed in good condition without dipping, providing the fruit is not over-dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit moth cannot reach it there is little danger of worms. The highest grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit has been over-dried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit al- lowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, for twenty-four hours before packing. Packing.—To open well, packages of dried fruit should be “faced.” The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apricots, peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flattened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box and put on the label or brand; the bottom then becomes the top. Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fifteen inches long, inside measurement, and it will hold twenty-five pounds of fruit. METHODS WITH DIFFERENT FRUITS It will be impossible to enter minutely into the operations of drying and packing on a commercial scale, or even to notice all the small and ingenious arts by which the work is facilitated. Any one who contemplates production on a large scale should personally visit leading regions and inform himself by inquiry and observa- tion. Such an education will save mistakes, which may cost many times the expense of getting wise. California producers are usually quite willing to show visitors the methods they employ. Though this is the better way of proceeding, a few general hints will be given of methods with different fruits. Apples.—There seems little use of drying apples unless a very light-colored, handsome product can be turned out. This can be done by sulphuring as soon as cut, and sun-drying in a dry region, or by the use of a machine evaporator in regions of greater atmos- es. (eee ee DRYING APRICOTS AND FIGS 461 pheric humidity. Recently the product has largely increased in such large producing regions as the Pajaro Valley, and nearly a hundred drying houses are being operated. Apricots.—Apricots for drying should be fully ripe but not soft enough to be mushy. By the use of sulphur and sun heat, an amber- colored, semi-translucent fruit is obtained. The prevailing method of gathering is to shake down the fruit upon sheets, but the best pro- duct is hand-picked. Pit the fruit by a clean cut completely around in the suture; do not cut part way around and then tear apart—a clean-cut edge is essential. Put on the trays with the skin down, or with the cup up, as it is sometimes described; sulphur and then put in the sun. Fine apricots are produced in the interior valley by stacking the trays as they come from the sulphur house and not exposing the fruit at all to direct sunshine. Some start in the sun and finish in the stack. Sufficient curing is not determined by length of exposure but by the condition of the fruit. One grower describes it as “a feel like chamois skin and refusal to slip through the fingers when pressing.” Another grower squeezes a double handful of the fruits and if they fall apart on opening the hands he considers it safe to put in the bins. The same tests are suggestive also in the case of other cut fruits. A few apricots are dried whole, but the demand for them is not yet demonstrated. Berries and Cherries.—These fruits are only dried in the sun in small quantities, and ordinary farm-house methods are employed. Figs.—The fruit is generally gathered from the ground, which is cleaned and smoothed before the crop ripens. In drying black figs the fruit is placed on trays and in most cases exposed to the sun, but some growers maintain the advantage of drying in the shade. The Adriatics are sulphured. Smyrnas usually are not. Adriatics are dried in direct sunlight from one to three days, depending upon the heat and humidity, while Smyrnas are best dried by stack- ing the trays so as to allow free circulation of air. Over-dried figs become tough, woody and inferior. After sorting out the blem- ished fruit, the figs are dumped from the trays into the perforated containers, washed for twenty minutes in cold water containing four ounces of salt to the gallon of water and again spread out for a final drying of half a day in the sun. They are then placed in piles on a clean floor or in sweat-boxes, and allowed to go through a sweat for about two weeks, being turned two or three times during that period. Sweating equalizes the moisture and gives a better texture. The figs can then be stored for packing or sent to the packing house. Pears.—California dried pears have been largely made of culls and windfalls unsuitable for canning or shipping, but there is devel- oping a product from the best pears which is of high excellence. 462 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM It is made chiefly of fruit picked when the stem parts upon raising with the hand. The tree is picked over three times, the fruit of each picking kept by itself and allowed to ripen in the shade before cutting at just the right degree of mellowness. The fruit is halved, stem pulled out and the calyx cut out smoothly, not pared nor cored. It is sulphured heavily to secure an amber-colored translucent prod- uct. Exposure to the fumes for 48 hours is frequent. Then the trays are placed in the sun for one-half to one day and curing is finished in the stack—allowing the curing to occupy from two to four weeks, according to atmospheric conditions. The fruit when finished to a leathery texture is held in sweat-boxes for some time. Dried pears should never be put in sacks or in bins of any quantity; if they are they will invariably run together and make a mass of poor stuff. Peaches.—Peaches are sun-dried in much the same way as apri- cots, already described. Hand-pick the fruit when it is fully ripe, but not mushy; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays cup side up; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cutting—before the cut surface becomes dry, and sulphur until juice gathers in the pit-cavity. It is often from four to five hours in a well-built sulphur house. Growers in Fresno County find two quarts of sulphur about right for a house having a capacity of 54 2x3-foot trays. This will vary with the amount of leakage from the house, the condition of the fruit in regard to ripeness and size, and the temperature and humidity of the air. Figure on leaving them in the sulphur fumes 3 or 4 hours. Increase this if, at the end of that time, the pit cavities are not filled with syrup. Reduce it if they are filled with syrup in much less time. The length of time to leave the fruit in the sun depends on temperature, humidity, ripeness and size of fruit. Exposing it to direct rays of the sun for too long a time during periods of high temperature is sure to leave the fruit tough, leathery and flavorless. Best results are secured when the fruit is exposed to the sun just long enough to get the drying well under way and then stacked to finish curing in the shade. Trays should be stacked end-wise toward the prevailing wind and set alternately several inches one way or the other to leave an opening at each end for circulation of air. They are sufficiently cured when you find it impossible to slip the skins by squeezing the peaches be- tween the fingers. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying without peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is sometimes done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been largely abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing, although it can be successfully done by frequently changing the lye and using ample quantities of fresh water for rins- ing after dipping. The process of spraying lye on the fruit is clut- tered up by patents which are still in litigation. Some growers peel by slipping off the skin as the fruit comes from the sulphur-box— placing the half-fruits one by one on another tray, without spilling the juice in the cup. DRYING PEACHES AND PRUNES 463 The California Peach Growers’ Association owns the patents on a process for what they call “practically peeled” dried peaches, which they are largely using in their packing houses. The peaches are peeled after drying. They are placed upon a traveling conveyor which runs them first through a tank of boiling water in which soda is dissolved, which loosens the skins and incidentally removes any dirt on them. Then they go through cold water, which removes the soda, and into the peeler in which rotating brushes force the peaches along wire cylinders. This process scrapes off the skin. Varieties differ in behavior. Muirs peel best. Lovell skins stick much tighter, but a great deal of it is removed and under all circum- stances the fuzz is all taken off, which is a great thing. After peeling the fruit is dried, resulphured and packed. Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives. Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit dis- tricts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences. The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety ; some varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than free- stones asarule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruits may require six or seven pounds. Nectarines.—Nectarines are handled like peaches; the produc- tion of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful use of sulphur. Dried nectarines are much like dried apricots, as the skin is naturally smooth. Plums and Prunes.—Our pitted plums, which are an acid fruit, are meeting with more favor than formerly, and the product though small is increasing. Pitting is done by hand or by the use of foot- power “pitters.” More rapid and capacious machines are being brought out by inventors. Prunes are our greatest cure tree-fruit. Several varieties of plums which dry sweet with the pit in are used in making prunes, as already stated in Chapter XXIII, but the prevailing variety is the Prune d’Agen, or French prune. Prunes are gathered from the ground, which has been previously smoothed by rolling or rubbing. About three gatherings are made ‘as they ripen and fall progressively—shaking the trees only at the last gathering. Prunes are usually graded before drying, and various home- made contrivances are employed. Some use inclined planes of adjustable slats, the grader being thus available for other fruits than prunes; the large fruit rolls along into receptacles at the bottom, while the small fruit falls through into other receptacles. Some have a long riddle, say twelve feet long, with three different sizes of wire screen on it. This riddle is hung upon four ropes with an incline ; the prunes are thrown in the higher end, and by shaking it they roll down and fall through the holes into boxes underneath. The first piece of screen should be small, to let only stems and dirt 464 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM through, and no prunes. This long hanging screen is also used to grade prunes after drying. There are several excellent manufactured fruit graders on sale in this State which have largely displaced home-made contrivances. : The next step in the process is dipping in lye to thin and crack the skin, which facilitates the escape of moisture in the drying process. In the large caldron lye is made with one pound of con- centrated lye to each thirty gallons of water, and kept boiling hot. The fruit is put into wire baskets or galvanized pails with perforated sides and bottoms, and dipped in the boiling lye for a few seconds, or until the skin has a wrinkled appearance. After this dipping, the prunes are placed on trays. A process of puncturing the skin of the prunes by causing them to roll over needle points is also employed. There are now manu- factured very capacious appliances for continuous dipping, punctur- ing and spreading on the trays so that the fruit is handled in large quantities at a minimum cost. In no branch of our fruit industry, perhaps, has there been greater advance in labor-saving devices than in prune handling. The following explicit hints on the curing of prunes are based upon wide experience and observation in the Santa Clara Valley: Be sure to allow the prunes to obtain all of the sugar they can from the trees by hanging until they drop of their own accord. Do not pick up until prunes are soft to the touch, Do not keep prunes in boxes over night. They go through a sweat, and do not make a first quality of dried fruit, and take much longer to dry. It is better to let the prunes lie on the ground under the tree for several days than to let the picked prunes lie in the boxes over one night. The dipping fluid must be kept at the boiling point and no prunes put in unless it is boiling. It is not a matter of how strong the lye is, but how hot is the water. On the trays prunes will either dry or ferment. Unless the dip is hot enough the prune will not immediately commence to dry, but will, in a few days, become a chocolate color and refuse to dry, sometimes a few on a tray, often half and sometimes nearly all. If the water is at the boiling point all through the dip, two pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of water may be sufficient. If the water is not boiling, ten pounds of lye to the 100 gallons of water may be required. Weather conditions govern the time prunes should remain on the trays. Grasp a handful of prunes and give them a gentle squeeze and open the hand quickly; if the prunes separate they are ready to stack the trays and the fruit should be placed in the bin before it rattles on the trays. When the prunes are sufficiently dry put them where it will not rain on them, but do not prevent the air from getting to them. Let the wind have free access until the rains set in, then close the doors and make the house as snug as you can. In making bins, be sure the boards are dry and the bins well above ground, or you will have trouble. For dipping before packing, some use a brine dip—about five pounds of salt to 100 gallons of water. The salt dip leaves the skin of the fruit in a bright, clear condition and brings out the blue bloom, which is desirable. Practically all packers now dip in pure hot water at 210 degrees for 2 to 4 minutes to partially dissolve juice enough to seal the pores of the skin. Many used to add licorice, glucose, glycerine or prune juice to make the prune shiny, but there is no need for this, because the public does not de- mand a shiny prune. When properly dipped in hot water and packed at once while hot and soft, a bloom comes back on them as they cool and harden. HOW CALIFORNIA RAISINS ARE MADE 465 The dipping serves three purposes: It washes dust from the prunes, kills whatever insects may be in them, though it may not kill moth eggs, and softens the prunes so they may be attractively packed. More prunes are spoiled by processing in water not hot enough, than in any other way. Raisins.—The varieties of grapes used for raisins are described in Chapter XXVIII. The production of raisins has reached such an extent, and employs so much skill and capital, that the processes employed to facilitate the curing and packing are so various that a description of them can not be attempted. Commercial handling has been so elaborated and systematized during recent years that careful observation of actual operations in vineyard and packing house is necessary to full understanding. A few hints will, however, be sufficient to help anyone to begin raisin-making. The following are by Professor Bioletti of the University of California: To make good Muscat raisins, very sweet, large grapes and two or three weeks of hot, dry weather are necessary. These conditions occur in the interior. Nearer the coast the weather is usually cool and rain probable by the time the grapes are sufficiently ripe. The riper the grapes the better the quality of raisins and the heavier the yield. They should have at least 25 per cent of sugar. The drying ratio varies with ripeness from 5:1 to 3:1. At 25 per cent Bal. 3.4 lbs. of fresh grapes yield 1 lb. of raisins. The time of drying varies from nine days to thirty, according to the weather. The most favorable maximum daily tem- perature for quality lies between 80 deg. and 90 deg. F. At much above 100 deg. the drying is quicker but the quality inferior. Showers and cool weather may prolong the drying even beyond thirty days. The grapes are gathered directly on to 2x3 ft. trays and dried between the rows of vines, The vineyard is first prepared by making a low soil ridge slanting to the south and near the south side of every alternate row. If the growth of vines is very heavy it may be necessary to cut away the ends of the spreading canes. Each tray receives 22 lbs. of grapes, evenly spread and free from trash and leaves. When about three-fourths dry, the grapes are turned. This is in about nine days at an average maximum daily temperature of 90 deg. F. Two men do the turning by placing an empty tray on top of the full one and revolving both from north to south, so as to change the position of the grapes as well as turn them. After about three or four days at this temperature, the raisin trays should be “stacked” in piles of ten or more; each pile being covered with an empty tray. It is advisable to do as much of the drying in the stack as is possible without running the risk of molding. In case of threatened rain, the trays are also stacked and then spread out again when the danger has passed. A little rain will not hurt the rais- ins before they are turned. Much rain, or wetting after turning, will injure their appearance as layer raisins, but they can usually be saved by prompt turning om to new dry trays. In case of prolonged wet weather, it may be necessary to sulphur the stacked raisins. This is done by covering the stacks with a sheet or a balloon sulphur box and burning a few ounces of sulphur. When dry, the raisins are packed tight into sweat-boxes 2x3 ft.x8 in. deep, holding about twenty-five trays. For home use, bins or boxes of any size may be used. Dessert raisins are packed in layers separated by sheets of Manila paper. The foregoing relates to the preparation of the standard clusters, but the method can be used for drying other grapes, though it is preferable to “dip” in some cases. Loose Muscatels are prepared by being put through the stemmer and grader. The stemmer removes the berries from the stems, and 466 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the grader, by separating according to size, determines the grade. During the last few years the seeding of raisins has increased rapidly, and large establishments for this work, with every ingenious machinery, have been erected. Seeded raisins constitute a consider- able portion of the product. Considerable quantities of dipped raisins are also made of loose or inferior Muscatels. A lye dip of about one pound of caustic soda or Wyandotte alkali to twelve gallons of water is used, and the solution is kept boiling hot. The ripe fruit is dipped for an instant, then plunged in fresh water for a thorough rinsing, and then placed on the trays, and put in tight sulphur-houses for three hours. They are then spread in the sun for one day and curing finished in the stack if the weather is dry and hot; but if cooler, moister weather prevails, the trays must be spread out. The product is a handsome amber color. Dipped Seedless Raisins.—After much experimentation by Cali- fornia growers to improve the process of making dipped raisins, the following method largely used by Mr. G. H. Hecke of Woodland, Yolo County, in handling Thompson and Sultana raisins has been widely adopted: Dissolve 30 pounds of bicarbonate of soda in 30 gallons of water, by thorough boiling; add 60 gallons of water to this solution and enough good olive oil to film the surface of the dip—about a teacupful will generally be right, If this dip does not sufficiently cut the bloom on the grape, add a pound or two of ordinary lye to the dip until it is strong enough to remove it. Keep this dipping solution at about 90 degrees F. and add a tablespoon- ful of the olive oil from time to time to replace the oil removed by dipping. These directions, of course, are general, and will serve only as a basis for operations. Sugar content of grapes, cloudy days during the drying process, different brands of olive oil, all are factors in the successful adop- tion of this method, and hence, individual judgment is necessary to obtain the best results. The raisins produced under this process should be of light amber color and will dry in less than half the time needed for the undipped grapes. GRAPE SYRUP The manufacture of grape syrup, as a means of disposing of wine grapes, has recently received much attention and detailed descriptive publications can be had from the University Experiment Station at Berkeley. MACHINE EVAPORATION Although California summer conditions of adequate heat and dry air favor open-air evaporation to such an extent that nearly all our product of cured fruit is secured in that way, there are some parts of the State where artificial heat would be a safer recourse and there are occasionally years in which drying fruits collide with early rains in a way to cause losses even in our best sun-curing regions. In 1919, owing to great losses of prunes by the heavy September rains of 1918 in the coast valleys (which have never been equaled DEHYDRATION IN CALIFORNIA 467 since the beginning of American occupation) and owing to the anticipated need of drying grapes because of prohibition of wine making, there arose a great interest in machine evaporation in Cali- fornia. This has been ministered to by inventors and by investiga- tion of available appliances by the University Experiment Station, of which publications are available—describing the types of evapor- ators and their operation. The subject promises to develop into freer employment of artificial heat than has ruled hitherto in Cali- fornia fruit curing, because the new types of evaporators have more adequate capacity than those which were abandoned forty years before and because oil has become available as a source of heat. There is, however, no likelihood that the sun in the heavens will ever be displaced as the chief agency in California fruit preservation. PART NINE: FRUIT PROTECTION CHAPTER XLII. CALIFORNIA METHODS WITH INJURIOUS INSECTS The California climate, which so favors tree and vine by a long, mild, growing season, also enables some insects to multiply much more rapidly than they do in wintry climes; some having several distinct broods, others carrying on the work of reproduction and destruction of plants nearly the year round. Undoubtedly parasitic and predacious insects preying upon the injurious species found in the fruit plantations are of assistance, in greater or lesser measure, in reducing the pests, and this service is being promoted by the introduction of beneficial insects from other parts of the world. There are many of our native species of insects that are valuable in this regard. Other factors, also, such as untoward weather-conditions at the time of hatching, bacterial and fungous diseases of insects, etc., assist the horticulturist in his war- fare against injurious insects, and yet it must be the undertaking of every fruit grower to know as many pests as he can and the best way to fight them. While the literature upon the subject of insect pests in California is quite extensive, much of it must be sought in libraries. Neverthe- less there are a number of publications which should be secured by every fruit grower. These are the bulletins and reports of the Agricultural Experiment Station of the University of California, at Berkeley* ; of the State Department of Agriculture, at Sacramento; and of the bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, at Washington. Furthermore as the study of the pests and the invention of means for their destruction are contin- ually progressing one can only keep himself up to date and enable himself to profit by improvements, by diligent reading of Califor- nia’s periodicals devoted to practical horticulture. CLASSES: OF INSECTS In order to arrange injurious insects in classes in a popular way, the grouping here will be based upon the character of the work they do. This arrangement has been followed by other writers and is perhaps better than attempting to group the insects which prey upon any single tree or plant, because injurious insects seldom restrict themselves to a single food plant. Therefore the grouping will be as follows: *Circular 227 “Plant Disease and Pest Control” by W. T. Horne and E. O. Essig, California Experiment Station, Berkeley, June, 1921, is the latest and best treatise on plant protection. HOW INSECTS INJURE FRUITS 469 (1) Insects destroying foliage ; (2) Insects upon the bark or upon the surface of leaf and fruit ; (3) Insects boring into the twig, stem or root; (4) Insects boring into the pulp of fruits. INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE Cut Worms and Army Worms.—These are the larvae of Noctuid moths, which often become abundant over limited areas and do much damage to trees and plants. Cut worms and Army worms are terms applied to the same insects in California. In ordinary years they are not present in sufficient numbers to cause much concern, and in such years they are known simply as cut worms. When all conditions are favorable, however, certain species develop in enormous numbers and having exhausted the food supply where they breed, they begin to migrate or march, commonly in a definite direction, as an army in search of new food. When they thus appear in such large numbers and take on the migrating habit they are called army worms. Some of the caterpillars have the habit of climbing up vines and trees and eating off the buds in the early spring. These are called climbing cut worms. Others remain at or near the surface of the ground and feed by cutting off the plants at this point. They are more commonly found in the grass lands, but very frequently attack cultivated crops, particularly on land that was in grass the previous year. Of the methods used to protect trees and plants from cut worms, poisoned bait is probably the most common. This consists of bran and molasses or other sweet substance poisoned with arsenic and distributed in handfuls about the plants. The proportions are as follows: forty pounds of bran, two gallons of cheap molasses, and five pounds of arsenic. Cheap glycerine may be used to prevent the mixture from drying . This will be eaten by the worms in preference, usually, to the plants which it is desired to protect. It may be placed in spoonfuls at the base of trees or vines which it is desired to pro- tect or in case of an invasion may be broadcasted over the ground— which reduces the danger of poisoning poultry and domestic animals. Cut worms and army worms may also be captured by means of traps. Because of their habit of feeding at night and remaining con- cealed during the day, pieces of boards may be placed on the ground around the growth to be protected and these may be turned over during the day and the worms killed. In case of outbreaks of army worms the most important and successful means of fighting them is to keep them out of the orchard or vineyard entirely. This can be successfully done if they are dis- covered in time, or if already in one portion, they can be kept from spreading over the rest of the property. They travel in immense numbers in a definite direction, coming generally from an adjoining or nearby grain field. If a furrow is plowed along the side of the place to be protected it will effectively stop their progress. This 470 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM furrow should be plowed as deep as possible, with the vertical side next to the field to be protected. It can be further trimmed with a spade, preferably cutting under slightly, making a smooth surface, over which few, if any, of the worms will make their way. Above this shoulder a fine pulverized earth should slope as abruptly upward as possible. If any of the worms succeed in climbing up over the smooth surface made by the spade they will be pretty sure to fall back as they reach this fine loose earth in an attempt to ascend over the projecting shoulder. Postholes should be dug on the straight edge of the furrow every fifteen or twenty feet. The worms in fail- ing to scale the vertical side of the furrow will crawl along in the bottom and fall into these holes. Here they may be killed by pour- ing in a little crude oil, or by pouring in a little distillate and drop- ping in a match, thus burning them, or the holes filled in and others dug. They may also be killed in the furrow by sprinkling them with kerosene or by pouring a strip of crude oil along the furrow. Canker Worms.—These are destructive leaf-feeding caterpillars, commonly known also as inchworms, loopers or measuring worms, because of the peculiar looping gait by which they move about. The male moths are slender bodied and have broad, thin wings, while the females are wingless, heavy-bodied creatures. While these caterpillars can in large measure be controlled by spraying with lead arsenate, it is by far the best to use the trap method of control and avoid having them upon the trees at all. The trap method depends for its success upon the fact that the wingless female moth upon emerging from her cocoon in the ground immediately crawls up the trunk of the nearby tree and places her eggs upon the twigs. By trapping the females on their way up into the trees no eggs can be placed near the foliage and the caterpillars hatching from them can do no damage. The traps are made thus: Take No. 16 or No. 14 wire cloth in strips six inches wide, draw and tack the top edge close to the trunk of the tree over a bandage of cloth which is put on first to make the joint tight. The lower edge should flare out about an inch from the tree all around. This trap will need rather frequent cleaning while the moths are active. They may also be prevented from climbing by bands of “tree tanglefoot” or loose cotton. Tent Caterpillars—Several species of hairy caterpillars called “tent caterpillars,” or “web worms,” from their spinning covers of cobweb-like material, under which they take shelter in large col- onies ; but one, at least, of the group does not spin a web, though it lives in clusters on the tree. The worms can be killed by cutting off and burning the twig holding the cluster or by burning the colonies in place with a torch on the end of a pole, or by spraying the foliage with lead arsenate. The pest can be reduced while pruning by care- fully collecting and burning the egg clusters, which encircle the twig. Red-Humped Caterpillar—Striped caterpillars, not hairy, but having two rows of black spines along the back, also living in clus- LEAF-EATING INSECTS 47] ters; of reddish color with yellow and white lines; a short distance back of the red head of the caterpillar is a red hump on which are four black spines ; black spines are also scattered over the body, but smaller than those on the back. Spray with lead arsenate or Paris green, or cut off and burn colonies. Caterpillar of Tussock Moth.—A conspicuous caterpillar with four short, brush-like tufts on its back, and two long, black plumes at the front, and one at the rear of the body. This leaf-eater is found on apple, pear, plum and sometimes on other fruit trees, also on the walnut and oak. The caterpillars are peculiarly resistant to arsenical sprays and can not be successfully controlled by these. The larva spins a cocoon sometimes in the fold of a leaf, more commonly in crotches or rough places on the bark, or even on adjacent buildings or fences, and the female, after emerging from the cocoon, deposits her eggs upon the outside of it. The insect is fortunately very freely parasitized in the egg form and prevented from wide injury. It can be controlled by destroying the egg masses during pruning, as they are white and very conspicuous. The worms may be jarred from the trees and prevented from climbing up again as described for canker worms. Pear and Cherry Slug.—A small, slimy, dark-colored worm, with the fore part of the body notably larger than the rear part, eating the upper surface of the leaves but not usually making holes through them. The insect can be checked by throwing fine road dust or air- slacked lime over the tree, which cakes upon the slime of the worm and destroys it. Ona large scale an arsenate of lead spray may be used or dust spraying with hydrated lime or nicodust is effective. Saw-Fly Worm.—There are several larve of saw-flies which do much injury to pear trees, currants, etc., by eating the whole leaf substance except the larger ribs. The worms are small, not slimy like the pear slug, the one infesting the pear being about half an inch when fully grown. Its general appearance and work are shown by the engravings. The most available remedy is an arsenate of lead spray just as the petals are opening. Large Caterpillars on Grape-vines—The grape-vine is often seriously injured by the attacks of very large leaf-eating worms two inches and upwards in length, sometimes with a large horn, or spine, sometimes without. They are larve of several species of Sphinx moths or hawk-moths. The worms when new hatched can be killed by an arsenical spray or by hand-picking. The number of worms can be reduced by killing the large moths which are abundant at nightfall on beds of verbenas, or other garden flowers. These worms are related to the other large caterpillars which feed on tobacco, tomatoes, etc. They can be killed by spraying or dusting with lead arsenate and nicotine. Leaf Eating Beetles—There are many beetles, large and small, which infest grape leaves. They can all be reduced by the use of arsenate of lead, or those which drop to the ground when disturbed may be collected in large numbers on sheets spread below. 472 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM The most notable of these because of its evil work in the central part of the State, and because the grub destroys the roots of the vine causing it to be called the “grape root worm,” and the beetle riddles the leaves and young fruit. It is Adoxus vitis and a special study of it has been made by Professor H. J. Quayle, of the University Ex- periment Station, the results of which are published in Bulletin 195 of the station. The beetle is about one-fifth of an inch in length and is black or brown. It can be killed by spraying or dusting the fol- iage with lead arsenate. INSECTS UPON BARK OR SURFACE OF LEAVES OF FRUIT Leaf Lice.—Leaves of fruit trees, especially the apple and plum, are sometimes almost covered with lice or aphides of different colors, from light green to black, some individuals having wings and some wingless. Available remedies for all these leaf lice are the kerosene emulsions and other mixtures which will be given later as summer washes for scale insects, with a spray nozzle which sends spray upwards, so as to reach the under sides of the leaves. Very often these pests are apparently cleared out by lady-birds and other insects which devour them. Thrips.—Very minute insects infesting buds, leaves and blos- soms of pears, prunes, cherries, peaches and many other trees and plants. The attack on leaves and buds causes them to wither and fall _ off. Indeed complete defoliation may follow their attack. When thrips infest fruit blossoms the essential parts are eaten off by the insects and the attacked blossom sets no fruit. Much damage is done by the insect and thorough investigation has been pursued by several investigators of the Bureau of Entomology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and by the California Experiment Station. Early results indicate that the insect is capable of control by spring spraying with several insecticides, preparation and application of which is given in detail in California Experiment Station Circular 223 (No- vember, 1920), and should be carefully studied. The first application should properly be made when the thrips are coming from the ground in maximum numbers and before the cluster buds are too far advanced. This period in the San Jose district is early in March, but it of course differs for the several varieties of fruits. An effort should be made to kill all adults in an orchard be- fore March 15, when practically all thrips are out of the ground and when egg-laying on the stems of leaves or bloom begins. Spraying can be done with safety to opening buds, but should not be sprayed on trees in full bloom, and its use can be resumed imme- diately after the blossoms have fallen, and later on the foliage for adults and larve. The necessity for spraying will depend upon the number in a blossom. As the blossoms are barely opening the thrips should be shaken out of a few blossoms on white paper. If only two or three INSECTS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 473 are in a blossom, it is probable that spraying may be omitted. If they are more numerous, it is quite certain that spraying will be required. Vine Hoppers.—Very minute, yellowish, jumping insects infest- ing grape-vines very early in the season, and multiplying rapidly. The vine hopper (often called incorrectly the vine thrips) is the most widely distributed and most uniformly present of all the grape insects occurring in the State. It occurs in injurious numbers, however, chiefly in the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. It is also present in the coast counties, but rarely in sufficient numbers to do much in- jury. Another large species (Tettigonia atropunctata) occurs in these localities and sometimes does considerable injury in the early part of the season. The principal injury caused by this insect is due to the extraction of the plant juices. These are sucked out by means of a sharp beak or proboscis, which is inserted into the plant tissues. Control of the insect consists in keeping the vineyard clean of weeds, which are the winter refuge of the pest—thus reducing the number ready for egg-laying on the vine-foliage. The next oppor- tunity for effective work lies in killing the young insects, as they appear from eggs placed in the leaf-tissue by the over-wintering adults, before they get their wings. These young hoppers may be killed by means of a spray applied to the under side of the leaves, and this will be during May or the first part of June, depending upon the season and locality. The exact time may be determined by watching their development. When some of them have reached al- most full size it is time to start the spraying. The spray to use is soap-nicotine or nicodust, applied from below so as to strike the under side of the leaves, for the spray will kill only such hoppers as are hit. False Chinch-Bugs.—Small, grayish-brown insects (about one- eighth of an inch long when fully grown), which injure the vine leaves. They drop to the ground when the vine is disturbed, and may be caught or may be sprayed as for vine hoppers. Grasshoppers.—These pests often invade orchard and vineyard, and sometimes kill the plants outright by completely defoliating them. This plague has been successfully met by the use of the arsenic and bran remedy, prepared as already described for cut-worms. A table- spoonful is thrown by the side of each vine or tree. If placed on shingles about the vineyard, much of the poison not eaten may be afterward gathered up and saved.* Red Spider and Other Mites——Very minute insects, usually dis- cernible only with the aid of a magnifier, sometimes destroy the leaves, causing them to lose their color and health by their inroads upon the leaf surface. The red spider and yellow mite are conspicu- *For the protection of nurseries, orchards, and vineyards it is often necessary to resort to various devices for excluding the grasshopper, or for destroying them upon adjoining fields. Publications describing such devices are Bulletins 142, 170 and 192, University Experiment Station, Berkeley. 474. CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM ous examples; they infest nearly all orchard trees, especially the al- mond, prune, and plum. The eggs of the red spider are ruby-red globules, as seen with the magnifier, and are deposited in vast num- bers upon the bark of the tree, and leave a red color upon the finger if it is rubbed over them. The eggs may be killed with winter strength of lime sulphur, but treatment is most effective when ap- plied in the spring and summer after the mites are hatched out. The popular remedy is a thorough dusting with sulphur. On a large scale the sulphur is applied in a cloud by means of a modification of the broad-cast barley sower or with the sulphur machines specially made for this purpose. On a small scale it may be applied with a bellows as for grape-vines, or shaken from a cheese-cloth bag at the end of a pole. Sulphur sprays have been found most effective in controlling the red spider. The ingredients of the sulphur sprays will be given later. Phylloxera.—This pest of the grape-vine is closely allied to the aphides, and lives both upon the root and leaf, though in this State the root type prevails and the leaf form is seldom seen. No remedy has yet been found effectual, but escape is had by using roots resisting the insects, as described in Chapter XXVI. The insects are recog- nized, by the aid of a magnifier, as minute yellow lice, chiefly on the rootlets. Full account of the insect is given in Bulletin 192, Univer- sity of California Experiment Station. The Woolly Aphis.—A louse of dark red color, occurring in groups, covered with a woolly substance which exudes from the bodies of the insects. The woolly aphis is an almost universal pest of the apple, though as shown by experience, some varieties are prac- tically exempt from it. As the pest lives both upon root and top, its annihilation is impossible, but it may be reduced so that the fruitful- ness and vigor of the tree are not impaired. The woolly aphis on the roots may be prevented from collecting in too large quantities on the root crown by the use of about five gallons of fresh wood ashes, placed about the base of the tree at the beginning of the rainy season, or by using about three pounds of tobacco refuse in the same way. The rain leaches the lye from the ashes or the juice from the tobacco, both of which are destructive to the aphis. The soil around the tree may also be soaked with soap and nicotine spray. By keeping the insect thus reduced at the root crown, its presence on the tree itself will be reduced to a minimum. More than this cannot be expected, because it is impossible to ex- tirpate the insect, and it is present in nearly all the apple orchards and old fruit gardens in the State. Woolly aphis on the branches and twigs can be reduced by spray- ing with oil emulsion washes. Lady-birds often clear away the woolly’ aphis, after reproduction has fallen below the normal, from the tree above ground. Some attention is being given to trial of resistant roots and it is likely that such roots will be generally used here as in Australia. How such trees are grown is described on page 201. ALL KINDS OF SCALE INSECTS 475 Scale Insects.—This is a large group of pests which occasion greater loss and trouble to our fruit growers than all other pests combined. There are many species, and no orchard tree is exempt from the attacks of one or more of them, though some trees are ap- parently more popular with the pests than others. The fruit grower should study their life history and classification as laid down in the works on entomology. It will only be possible in this connection to call the roll of the common scales and to give some of the remedies which are now being most successfully employed against them. San Jose Scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus).—This was formerly one of the worst and most widespread of the species of scales preying on deciduous fruit trees in California, but at present, owing to the energetic war that fruit growers have had to wage against it, has become of minor importance, and, in fact, has practically disappeared from some regions where it was formerly most injurious. The work of this species is generally readily distinguished from other species of scale by the red blotches which are formed wherever it stings any part of the tree—either branch, leaf or fruit. These red blotches are more pronounced in some varieties than in others. When the scales are present in large numbers, it causes a complete discoloration of the bark clear to the sap-wood. This scale has its preference among the deciduous fruits. The apricot and certain varieties of cherries and plums are but little affected. The Greedy Scale (Aspidiotus rapax).—This species affects many kinds of trees, deciduous as well as evergreens. Scale, about one-sixteenth of an inch in length; form, ovoid; color, drab; female, bright yellow. This insect is found in many places along the coast. It is distinguishable easily from the Aspidiotus perniciosus by its whit- ish yellow color, contrasting with the dark color of the latter. Gen- erally this scale has only one brood in the season, and, as compared with the San Jose scale, it is of little danger, owing to its slow-breed- ing propensities. Oyster Shell Scale of Apple (Lepidosaphes ulmi).—This scale affects the apple chiefly, although sometimes the pear also. Owing to the thickness of the armor, it is one of the most difficult of the scales to exterminate. It is easily recognized by its long curved form. Rose and Berry Scale (Aulacaspis rosae).—This scale has such striking forms that it can be readily recognized. The round white scale is that of the female, the elongated one with ridges is the male. The rose scale infests, besides roses, various fruit bushes, especially blackberries and raspberries. Remedy: For raspberries and black- berries the cutting down of the canes to the ground should be adopted, and the stumps sprayed or washed with kerosene emulsion, recom- mended under the head of general remedies for scale insects. Oleander Scale (Aspidiotus hederac).—This scale is small, flat, yellowish-white. It affects a great many trees, especially evergreens. Lemon trees become badly affected, and the fruit is sometimes com- 476 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM pletely covered. The olive is also subject, and the fruit of the olive when infested does not mature well, and wherever a scale is found, a green blotch makes its appearance. Red Scale of Orange and Lemon.—(Chrysomphales aurantii) — This scale affects citrus trees in both the coast and interior regions. The scale fully grown is one-twelfth of an inch or a little more in diameter, center yellow, margin light brown. The appearance of trees infested with this pest is very striking, very much resembling those diseased from other causes, such as bad drainage, the leaf pre- senting a mottled appearance, a light blotch around the scale contrast- ing with the natural green of the leaf. The branches are but little troubled, but the fruit, like the leaf, becomes completely covered with the insects. An orange tree infested with this scale gradually becomes sickly and languishes. Other Citrus Tree Scales—Two scales more recently brought into this State from Florida are the “purple scale,’ Lepidosaphes beskii, and the “long scale,’ Lepidosaphes gloverii. The red and pur- ple scales of citrus trees are only treated successfully by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. This treatment is an elaborate one, requir- ing special appliances which are fully illustrated and described in publications by the Agricultural Experiment Station at Berkeley. The Black Scale (Saissetia oleae).—This scale is almost a uni- versal pest, especially in regions adjacent to the coast, though it has recently demonstrated its ability to endure interior valley conditions. It affects citrus fruit trees and some deciduous trees as well, and a fungus growing on its exudation causes the black smut, which renders tree and fruit unsightly ; but this smut accompanies other scale insects as well as this one. It is especially troublesome on the olive, and will quickly spread to ornamental plants and vines in the garden. It is a very difficult scale to subdue. On citrus trees the fumigation method is the only practical recourse. On deciduous fruits it requires both winter and summer spraying to hold it in check. In spite of the fact that immense numbers are killed by parasites, and perhaps by fungi as well, it is still a grevious pest, and should be fought unceasingly. Soft Orange Scale (Coccus Hesperidum).—This scale is a pest of citrus trees the world over. The scale is ovoid, a little wider at one end than the other; length, from one-twelfth to one-seventh of an inch; color, dark brown on convex part, and a lighter brown sur- rounding margin; it has two indentations on each side, and one on posterior end. This scale prefers to collect on the under sides of the leaves along the midrib, the upper sides being covered with smut. It fortunately is usually held in check by natural agencies. Brown Apricot Scale-—The apricot tree, though defying the most ruinous scales of some other trees, is beset by certain scales. The black scale is one and the brown apricot scale another. The brown apricot scale (Eulecanium Armeniacum) is boat-shaped; when reaching maturity, wrinkled; the color is a shiny brown, darker in MANY KINDS OF BORERS 477 the center, lighter at the edges. A full-sized scale has a length of a quarter of an inch, and a width of one-eighth of an inch. This scale attacks nearly all kinds of deciduous fruits, but especially the prune and apricot. It is a very hardy scale, and the remarks about the black scale apply to it also. Other Lecaniums.—There are several other scales on fruit trees; The filbert scale (hemisphericum ), which is common in greenhouses and occurs to limited extent on citrus trees; the frosted scale (pruino- sum), very large oval and convex, covered with dense, whitish bloom, occurs on deciduous fruit trees. Cottony Cushion Scale or Fluted Scale (Icerya purchasi).—This promised at one time to be the most grievous of all scales in its rapid increase and wide range of food plants, but it was speedily reduced by an Australian ladybird, Novius (Vedalia) cardinalis, introduced by Albert Koebele, with such success that specimens were for a number of years rarely seen, but have recently become abundant in some localities. Mealy Bugs.—Closely allied to the scales are the mealy bugs (species of dactylopius), soft and of a pale pink color, generally cov- ered with a whitish mealy powder, hence the name. The common species is found in nearly every greenhouse in the world, and in California climate lives in the open air on many kinds of plants, and has at various times proved quite troublesome. Unless checked by natural enemies, the mealy bugs multiply very rapidly, and mass themselves in the corners of the leaves. The plants turn black from the fungus growth growing on the honeydew, and the bush pre- sents the same appearance as a scale-infested plant. With the aid of a magnifier the appearance of the mealy bugs, as different from scales can be readily recognized. Recently they have become very injurious on grape-vines and various fruit trees. Remedies for Scale Insects.—Though most of the scale insects are attacked by parasitic and predaceous insects, as already stated, these natural agencies have generally not proved rapid enough to cope with the increase of the scales, and insecticides have to be em- ployed to save the fruit and trees. There is a vast number of these washes, many of which will do good work if thoroughly applied, which is usually the secret of success. A few which have proved of special value will be given at the close of this chapter. ENSEGTS BORING: IN TWIG, STEM, OR ROOT Peach Twig-Borer or Peach Worm.—This larva is probably the most serious insect pest that the California peach grower has had to contend with. The creature hibernates as a young larva in burrows in the crotches of the tree. As soon as the tree begins to grow in the spring the larva becomes active, eats its way out of its winter home and bores into the new growing twigs causing them to wither and die. Later generations of the worm attack the fruit and from 478 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM the two forms of attack much loss may accrue to the orchardist. Destruction of the larvz in their winter burrows overcomes all dam- age from these pests. This can be accomplished by spraying with the lime-sulphur compound in the late winter or very early spring when the buds are expanding. The Common Borer.—An insect which has done vast injury in this State is the “flat-headed apple borer” (chrysobothris femorata). It affects chiefly apples, peaches and plums, etc., which have been injured by sunburn. It is a pale-colored grub with a brown head, the forepart of the body being greatly flattened. The matured beetle is greenish black or bronze colored, copper colored on the under side. If any tree receives any damage to the bark, either by sunburn or other causes, the borer is sure to find it, and it works itself into the tree, its castings being the only guide to its presence. The best remedy is prevention by protection from sunburn, as de- scribed in Chapter XI. In the summer and fall look for discolored places on the bark where the whitewash may not have reached, cut in and kill the grub with a knife, or, if you find a hole, push a wire to the end of it. This examination must include the bark below the loose ground surface, for younger trees are sometimes girdled at that point. Whenever a borer is removed, the debris and dead wood should be entirely cleaned out and the smooth surface left, taking care to preserve the bark as much as possible. Then the wound should be smeared over with grafting wax, and a rag tied about it. In this manner young trees have been saved, but if seriously attacked, it is better to put in a sound tree and protect it. Sun-Scald Borer.—Another borer which delights in sunburned trees is a minute beetle, making a burrow hardly larger than a pin- hole. It is known as the sun-scald beetle (Xyloborus xylographus). The remedy, as in the former case, is to prevent injury to the bark, for this precedes the attack of the beetle. The Olive Twig-Borer—A reddish brown beetle boring into twigs of olive and other orchard trees, and grape canes, at the axils of the leaves. It is Polycaon confertus, and it breeds in decaying logs and stumps and old grape-vines, apparently visiting the fruit trees merely to gratify its appetite. Its work is not fatal to the tree, but unless proper pruning and attention be afterwards given, it may spoil the shape of the young tree. Remove the affected branches below the burrows of the beetle, or if it would be difficult to replace a branch, see that the beetle is destroyed and the entrance to the hole stopped up—this to prevent decay and a weak branch following. Spraying with ill-smeiling solutions may prevent their attack, but the insect has not been sufficiently abundant to invite serious effort thus far. Peach Crown-Borer.—A grub boring into peach trees just below the ground surface, its presence being shown by copious gumming. Cut out the grubs thoroughly in the fall and winter. After digging out all that can be found a band six inches wide of “asphaltum D” INSECTS EATING FRUIT PULP 479 should be placed in the spring on the rough bark around the base of bearing trees, a little above and below the ground line. This will keep in the perfect insects which come from the cocoons which are at the openings of the burrows and it will keep out the newly hatching larvae from eggs which will be then laid on the tree near the ground by the insects which are not shut in by the asphaltum. The material is applied warm with a brush. It is easier to apply two or more coatings than to try to put on more at one time than will adhere firmly. The first coating will harden very quickly, and the second can be applied without loss of time. Two coatings are generally sufficient unless the bark is very rough. A thick uniform covering is absolutely necessary for the best results. In the case of young trees with smooth bark, asphaltum may induce sunburn and crude oil whitewash is preferred. Fifty pounds of stone lime (in a barrel), slaked with from 10 to 15 gallons of warm water. While the lime is boiling, slowly pour in six gallons of heavy crude oil. Stir and add water to make a heavy paste and paint that on. This must be used the same day it is mixed and not used if kept over. Strawberry Root-Borer—The larva of another clear-winged moth (Aegeria impropria), boring into the root of the strawberry plants, found in various portions of the State, and doing considerable damage, forcing the growers to resort to replanting much earlier than otherwise would be necessary. Flooding the vines has a great tendency to kill out the worms, and if the water was retained, say four or five days during the winter, all over the plants, doubtless all the larvae would be killed. Currant and Gooseberry Borer.—A white worm eating out the central pith of currant and gooseberry plants—the larva of another clear-winged moth (Aegeria tipuliformis). Spraying with whale-oil soap after the crop is gathered, pruning out and burning in the fall of all old wood which can be spared, will reduce the evil. The Raspberry Cane Borer.—This intruder is one of the family Tenthredinideae, or saw flies. The very small maggot or larva will be found by peeling the bark carefully. This larva can not crawl, therefore if the tips be cut and the worm is taken out he will die. A better way is to cut all tips, as fast as they show signs of wilting, and burn them. Thorough work in topping is absolutely necessary, so as to be sure that none of the worms remain to produce flies. Top- ping causes the canes to throw out laterals, thus producing more fruit. The canes are not affected after July. Another cane-borer, occurring in the foothills, has been identified by E. O. Essig, as the larva of a horn-tail. Its treatment is like that just described. INSECTS DEVOURING, THE PULP OF FRUITS The Apple Worm.—The codlin moth (Carpocapsa pomonella) is one of the great pests of the State. It preys chiefly upon the apple and pear, but the quince and other large fruits are sometimes in- 480 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM vaded by it. The first moths appear at some time after the blossom- ing of the apple, and deposit their eggs on the young fruit or on adjacent leaves. The young worm hatches in from seven to ten days, generally seeks the eye or calyx, and eats its way into the fruit, and in twenty days its full growth is attained, and it goes out through the side of the apple, and, by means of its spinnaret, reaches the ground or some large branch. If landed on the ground, it usually seeks the trunk, which it ascends and soon finds a hiding place under the loose bark, where it spins its cocoon, and in eight or ten days comes forth a moth, ready to lay eggs anew. The egg is laid all over the fruit and especially at a point where two fruits touch. Usually we have in this State two broods, at least, but some- times three, and, naturally, if unchecked, the increase from the first to the last is enormous. The worms escaping from the fruit in the fall hibernate as larvae under the loose bark of the tree, or in store- houses, or in any available dry place. This insect is effectually controlled by spraying with lead arse- nate. The times for spraying and number of applications differ in the several apple regions of the State and county horticultural com- missioners or farm advisors should be consulted. The Walnut Worm.—This is the codlin moth which also attacks apples and pears and is fought in the same way. It is also being fought with a dust spray of lead arsenate. The Peach Worm.—As already stated, the larva of the peach moth, which early in the spring bores into the twigs, is sometimes found later in the season in the flesh of the peach. Hence the im- portance of saving the fruit by proper treatment of the hibernating worms, which are killed as they emerge with lime-sulphur. The Diabrotica—A light green beetle with twelve spots on his back (Diabrotica soror) is sometimes very injurious to early fruit, by eating into it when ripe. The insect also eats leaves and blos- soms. As it attacks the fruit just as it is ready to pick, it is im- possible to apply any disagreeable or poisonous spray. Sometimes the insects are driven away by dense smoke from fires in and around the orchard. The Dried Fruit Worm.—Dried fruit is often seriously injured after packing, by a small worm, larva of a moth. The eggs are deposited on the fruit either while drying or while in the packing- house, or through the cloth of the sacks, or seams of the package. The eggs may be killed on the fruit before packing, by dipping in boiling water, and after that preventing the access of the moth. In- fested fruit can also be treated by bisulphide vapor. ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS These insects are often of serious trouble during fruit drying. Ants are most effectually disposed of by slightly opening their holes in the ground by thrusting down a crowbar and pouring in a couple of ounces of carbon bisulphide and closing again with earth. Yellow KILLING ANTS AND YELLOW JACKETS 481 jackets also nest in the ground in old squirrel or gopher holes, and they too can be suffocated with carbon bisulphide or by pouring in gasoline or kerosene and firing it. Hornets which nest in trees are troublesome, but are much less numerous than the cave-dwelling species. Poisoning yellow jackets to carry destruction to the young brood is practicable. Dr. J. H. Miller, of San Leandro, saved his fruit in this way: I bought half a dozen beef livers, five pounds of arsenious acid and several pounds of baling wire. Cutting the liver into pieces as large as a man’s fist, I put them into a hot solution of arsenious acid, and, bend- ing the wire into a hook at each end, I suspended the pieces from the lower limbs of trees all around my drying-ground. The fruit was soon deserted, and the insects busily worked at the fragrant liver, carrying pieces to their nests, causing the death of those that had been destroying the fruit and the next generation also, and so completely that there may not be enough of the pests in that neighborhood the following year to require a repetition of the treatment. There is no risk in so using the poison, for the yellow jackets will not return to the fruit, and bees will not go near the meat. When there are serious infestations of ants in the orchard, they can be overcome by hanging a dilute sweetened poison in flat two- ounce spice cans on the tree trunks close to the regular trails, fol- lowed up and down by the ants. The poison is prepared on a for- mula given below. A few strands of excelsior are inserted in the poison syrup. The ants get loaded up with the syrup, which does not kill them immediately. They carry some of it to the egg-laying queens and they all die. The cost is five to eight cents per tree. The poisoning is best done late in March, early in April, or during Sep- tember and October. Extermination has been accomplished in a number of cases. The U. S. Bureau of Entomology recommends the following formula for ant syrup “on account of its stability at high tempera- tures, freedom from crystalization, and continued attractiveness”: Granulated sugar ....... » ii 8 ip tee Mir era nae Aa eg he a 9 pounds ee Ram ef ers are ols asa lete aissa ooh ee wih el oral ahd haicotnaild OUR Oe eee 9 pints remicig Crystallized ) oi) 2 5))o:c.F ba wiceild e's sO oediae Wd eo oaed 6 grams PREAI ECMO SOMA) 5 6 ciate ic tiataieis cols /eve-o oi eialdiet » wile, Solel sietatddie aie wd 8.4 grams Boil slowly for 30 minutes, Allow to cool. Semwe) wOatinl areetite: (©). Ee) 12's 0. 654 oko aeiaidic'as'a ede wasies 15 grams PUM NUTALCES © f tiicla ¢ Bele d leh beda dace’ o dels olds wleais opibis wis a ile's of Y% pint Cool. Add poison solution to syrup and stir well. Add to the poisoned syrup: GS aig oii tig ie x oka # os clin aie viva bons, ule no ora. 0 Die a vie acd ote 1% pounds Mix thoroughly. DISINFECTING NURSERY STOCK Cuttings, scions, young trees and vines, etc., can be freed from insects by inclosing in a tight box or cask and placing a saucerful of carbon bisulphide on the top of them, covering it with canvas or any tight-fitting cover. The bisulphide vapor will destroy all insect life in forty minutes. 482 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Disinfecting such materials on a larger scale with hydrocyanic acid gas may be done in this way: Use square canvas sheets, sixteen to twenty feet in diameter, made of the best ducking, double stitched and then painted with boiled linseed oil to make it gas-proof. To fumigate evergreen stock use one ounce of cyanide of potassium (in lumps, not pulverized), one fluid ounce of commercial sulphuric acid, and two fluid ounces of water to one hundred cubic feet of enclosed space. For deciduous and hardy trees, when dor- mant, use one-fourth more of each of the above. When the canvas has been placed over the stock to be fumigated, prepare the charge. Take a three or four-gallon glazed earthenware jar, into which pour the necessary quantity of water, then the sulphuric acid, and place it well under the can- vas, the edges of which are secured with soil or in some way so as to prevent the gas escaping, with the exception of the edge immediately in front of the jar. The proper amount of cyanide of potassium is then dropped into the jar from a long scoop, and the tent is immediately closed and remains so for one hour. Formula 21 is used for dipping nursery stock. INSECTICIDES Recipes and hints for use of insecticides may be summarized as follows: 1. Lime Sulphur: Quicklime, 33 pounds; sulphur, 66 pounds; water, 200 gallons. Sift sulphur through box with screen bottom into boiling tank with 50 gallons of water. Add the lime and boil 45 minutes to one hour. Stir frequently. Strain through cheese cloth or burlap and dilute to make 200 gallons. If extra lime is desired strain in milk of lime when spray is ready for use. 2. Commercial Lime Sulphur: If of 32 deg. Baume dilute 1 to 9. If 36 deg. dilute 1 to 11. Either of the above for San Jose and other armored scales to be ap- plied during dormant season, preferably in early winter-or early spring. For Peach Moth, as the buds are expanding in the spring. 3. Distillate 28 deg. to 34 deg. Baume: Distillate, 10 to 20 gallons; water, 200 gallons, For use only with power sprayer with good agitator, which is neces- sary to make a mechanical mixture of the oil and water. For the Brown Apricot, Black, and other unarmored scales, and for Woolly Aphis, to be applied during dormant season, preferably in early winter. 4. Distillate Potash: Distillate, 10 gallons; lye or caustic soda, 5 pounds; water, 200 gallons. Preparation and uses same as under 3. Has the advantage of freeing trees from moss. 5. Distillate Emulsion: Stock emulsion: Hot water, 12 gallons; fish oil (see 10) or whale-oil soap, 30 pounds; distillate 30 deg. to 34 deg., 20 gallons. Add soap to hot water in spray tank with agitator going. After soap is dissolved add oil slowly, keeping mixture agitated. Pump out through nozzle at 175 pounds pressure in storage tank. For use take: Stock emulsion, 11 gallons; blackleaf, 40, 1 pint; water, 200 gallons. APPROVED INSECTICIDES 483 Place oil emulsion in spray tank, start agitator and add the water. When diluted add the Blackleaf. i For thrips, Black Peach Aphis, and other plant lice. 6. Kerosene Emulsion: Dissolve % pound soap in 1 gallon water; add 1 gallon kerosene. Mix thoroughly with spray pump by turning nozzle back into mixture, a. For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season, di- lute with 15 to 25 gallons water. b. For scale insects, Woolly Aphis and other sucking insects during. dormant season, dilute with 5 to 10 gallons water. On a small scale dissolve 1 inch cube soap in 1 pint hot water; add 1 pint kerosene. Churn with egg beater. For growing plants, dilute to 2 or 3 gallons water. For dormant plants, 1 gallon. 7. Miscible Oils: Commercial preparations of oil so treated as to mix directly with water. Follow directions on container. Uses same as 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, and 10. 8. Straight Kerosene or Water White Oil: Water white oil (42 deg. Baume) or kerosene, 20 gallons, water 200 gallons. J In use for scale insects of citrus trees. Application by power outfit. 9. Soap Solution: Soap, 1 pound; water 5 to 15 gallons. Whale-oil or fish-oil soap preferable, but for small amounts any yellow laundry soap will answer. For plant lice and other sucking insects during summer. 10. Homemade Soap: Water, 6 gallons; lye (98%), 2 pounds; fish oil, 1% gallons. Add lye to water in boiler. When dissolved and water boiling, pour in the fish oil, stirring in mean time, and boil slowly for two hours. This will give about 40 pounds soap. For use, dilute with 5 to 15 gallons water for each pound. For same pests as No. 9. 11. Tobacco or Nicotine: a. Blackleaf 40 (40% nicotine), 1 pint; water, 200 gallons. b. Tobacco stems, 1 pound; water, 4 gallons. Steep stems in 1 gallon warm water and dilute to 4 gallons. For plant lice and other sucking insects during growing season. For Woolly Aphis and Peach Aphis underground. A liberal solution, or the dry tobacco dust in early winter, about the base of the tree, the surface soil first being removed. 12. Tobacco Soap: Blackleaf 40, 1 pound (1-10 gal.); liquid soap, 1 gallon—or Hard soap, 12 pounds; water, 200 gallons. Uses same as 11, Penetrating and wetting power better. 13. Lime Sulphur Tobacco: Commercial lime sulphur 36 deg., 2.1 gallons; blackleaf 40, 14 fluid ounces; water, 200 gallons. For Orange Thrips. 14. Carbolic Lime: Quicklime, 150 pounds; crude carbolic acid, 2 gallons; water 200 gallons. For a disinfecting whitewash. A484 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM 15. Sulphur: a. Dry. Thoroughly dust over foliage, preferably when moist with dew. Hydrated lime about equal parts with sulphur will increase adhesiveness. b. Spray. Commercial sulphur paste, 30 pounds; water 200 gallons. c. Spray Commercial lime sulphur, 4 to 5 gallons; water 200 gallons. For Red Spiders and Silver Mite. 16. Lead Arsenate: The basic type of lead arsenate contains less arsenic per pound than the acid type, and is a weaker and slower-acting poison, It is not de- composed, however, by chemicals of an alkaline nature, such as are us- ually applied with it as a combination spray, nor by the damp weather of the coast regions. It is considered the only safe arsenical to use on stone fruits, beans or other susceptible plants. The lead arsenates are usually sold as a paste containing about 50 per cent of water, or as a dry powder. The paste should be thinned with™ water and worked into a smooth cream before adding to the spray tank. The powder may be added directly to the tank and mixed by means of the agitator. For codlin moth and defoliating insects, use: Acid lead arsenate paste, 4 to 8 pounds; water, 100 gallons—or Basic lead arsenate paste, 5 to 10 pounds; water, 100 gallons. Dry or powdered lead arsenate contains twice as much arsenic as the paste, therefore use only one-half as much as in the above formulas. 17. Paris Green: Paris green, 1 1-3 to 2 pounds; water, 200 gallons. For Codlin Moth and most defoliating insects. Not to be used along coast or moist situations where injury is likely to result to foliage. On a small scale use Paris green, 1 teaspoonful (% oz.); lime, 3 tea- spoonfuls; water, 2 gallons. 18. Zinc Arsenate: Zinc arsenite, 2 to 6 pounds; water, 200 gallons. A powerful poison for resistant insects, as the Tussock Moth, or for early spraying for Canker Worm and Codlin Moth in the dry interior climates. 19. Poison Bran-Mash: Bran, 25 pounds; white arsenic, 1 pound; molasses (cheap blackstrap preferred), 2 quarts. Mix the arsenic and the bran dry, and add the molasses, which has been diluted with enough water to mix thoroughly to make a dry mash which will broadcast easily. 19a. Citrus Bran-Mash: White arsenic, 1 pound; molasses (cheap blackstrap preferred), 2 quarts; lemons (or oranges), 6 fruits; water (about), 4 gallons; bran, 25 pounds. , Stir thoroughly the arsenic, molasses and water. Grind the lemons, including the rinds, in a meat grinder, or chop fine, and add to this liquid. Then slowly pour this over the bran and stir thoroughly until an even mixture is secured. For Cut Worms and Grasshoppers, distribute a small handful about the base of the vine or tree, or scatter about plants in the garden. May be distributed broadcast for Grasshoppers and Army Worms. 20. Carbon Bisulphide: For treatment of stored products and underground insects. Usual dosage, 1 pint to 1,000 cubic feet space. Place liquid in saucers or shallow vessels above material to be treated. Inflammable; avoid lights. } For underground insects, a tablespoonful in holes 3 or 4 feet apart. DISINFECTING NURSERY TREES 485 21. Resin Dipping Solution: Resin, 20 pounds; caustic soda or lye, 8 pounds; fish oil, 3 pints; water, 100 gallons. Boil resin and caustic soda in 50 gallons of water for 1 hour. Dilute to 100 gallons. In use for dipping citrus nursery stock for scale insects and Red Spiders. Kerosene emulsion and lime sulphur solution also used for dipping de- ciduous nursery stock. Hydrocyanic Acid Gas.—For details of fumigation processes for scale insects on citrus trees, apply for publications to the University Experiment Station and to Horticultural Commissioners in citrus fruit growing counties. The materials are so poisonous, the appli- ances so elaborate and the operation, to secure efficient insect kill- ing without injury to the tree, is so exact and systematic that careful and experienced fumigators are essential. CHAPTER XLIII. DISEASES OF TREES AND VINES A few suggestions concerning pathological conditions which arise in trees and vines and prescription of treatment and remedies may be helpful: First, diseases demonstrated to be caused by fungi and bacteria; second, abnormal conditions, of which the causes are not yet clear.* Powdery Mildews.—Fungi which bring upon the leaf surface the appearance of a whitish powder and afterwards cause the leaf to curl and dry without producing marked swelling, perforation or dis- coloration, can be checked by the use of sulphur. The chief of these is the mildew of the grape, the mildew of the apple, appearing chiefly on the young growth, etc. For vine mildew freely apply finely ground or sublimed sulphur on the young foliage at the first sign of the trouble. Apple mildew is treated by removing all dis- torted twigs at pruning. Leaf-Spotting, Puncturing or Deforming Fungi.—These classes are usually distinguishable by the results they produce. The mildew of the peach produces dense, whitish patches on the leaves and grow- ing fruit; the curl-leaf fungus of the peach produces swellings and contortions of the leaf; the scab of the apple and pear produces first a smoky appearance on the leaf and afterwards causes black scabby patches on the fruit and on the young twigs; the slot-hole fungus of the apricot, plum, cherry, and almond cuts roundish holes in the leaves as though a shotgun had been discharged through the foliage, and then, in the case of the apricot, produces roundish, dark red pustules on the fruit; the brown rot which attacks both twigs and fruit of apricots, prune, blackberry, etc., produces eruptions on plums and peaches; the rust fungi of the under sides of the leaves, first of a yellowish or orange color, changing to dark brown or black, and causing the leaf to fall. These fungi are only slightly, if at all, checked by the dry sulphur treatment, and are best subdued by the use of the Bordeaux mixture as follows: Bluestone, 16 pounds; quicklime, 20 pounds; water, 200 gallons. Dissolve the bluestone and slake the lime in separate vats. Thoroughly mix the dissolved bluestone with one-half the water, and the slaked lime with the other half. Run the two mixtures together in a single stream into the spray tank through a fine screen. For convenience the mixing vats may be placed on an elevated platform, and the two parts mixed as they are flowing into the spray tank. The milk of lime should be con- tinuously stirred during the mixing. This is safe to use on foliage. In the case of the peach blight, which is an invasion of the young bark by the shot-hole fungus, an *The latest detailed publication on plant diseases, reviewing comprehensively existing knowledge on the subject and suggesting treatment is Circular 227 of the University Experiment Station, already cited. BLIGHTS AND DISEASES AQ7 autumn spraying is imperative to protect the dormant twigs. In spraying for apple and pear scab, the addition of five pounds of lead arsenate to each one hundred gallons of Bordeaux mixture makes the application answer also for the codlin moth, as described in the preceding chapter. The lime, salt and sulphur mixture, as already prescribed for scale insects in the preceding chapter, is an active fungicide for winter use. It is a satisfactory curl-leaf preventive when used just before the buds open. Toadstool Destruction.—Trees are often destroyed through in- vasion by toadstool fungi from the decaying roots or wood with which their roots come in contact. Prof. W. T. Horne, who has made a special study of the trouble for several years, provides the following summary: The Armillaria root-rot or “oak fungus” is caused by a native fungus which lives in roots of woody plants. Trees and bushes are killed in spots, which enlarge year after year. Affected trees fail gradually from the diseased side or die suddenly in summer. Under the affected bark of roots there is a yel- lowish white fan-shaped mycelium which progresses into live bark. Black shining root-like strings (rhizomorphs) grow out from old rotting roots. The wood decays with a uniform white rot. Large tan-brown toadstools (edible when cooked) arise from old infections in October to February. Surgery as in Crown Gall (“root knot’) or Pear Blight can sometimes be practised on roots and crowns of trees not too far gone. Black walnut, French pear, and fig roots are practically immune. Annual fibrous rooted plants are rarely injured. Affected areas in orchard may be isolated by open- ing a trench 3 to 4 feet deep around them. This may be filled immediately if reopened every two years to keep the roots cut off. Nursery should not be planted in infected soil. Moss, Lichens, etc., on the Bark.—All trees should be assisted to maintain clean, healthy bark. This is accomplished by the use of the lime, salt and sulphur mixture already prescribed for scale insects. It can also be done by winter spraying with caustic soda or potash, one pound to ten gallons of water. Hard hitting with power sprayer is necessary. Blights and Decays.—There are several blights which are trace- able to bacteria, parasitic growths which are not discernible as are the fungi, and not usually amenable to spray treatment, be- cause they exist wholly within the tissues of the plant and are not reached by applications. The blights of the pear, the black heart of the apricot, the olive tuberculosis, etc., are instances. Cutting back to healthy wood (with tools dipped after each cut in corro- sive sublimate, one part to one thousand parts of water), and burn- ing all removed parts, is the best treatment which can at present be prescribed. The walnut blight is caused by a bacterium, and has so far re- sisted treatment. The disease appears on the nuts, generally worst at the blossom end and usually first seen there early in the season; later the spots run together and encompass considerable areas of the surface, and the nut is transformed into a hateful black mass and is utterly destroyed. The disease also affects the leaves and 488 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM young wood, but does not attack the old wood and the roots as the pear blight does. It is therefore less serious, though it sometimes considerably reduces the crop. The recourse seems to be toward resistant varieties, as stated in the chapter on the walnut. DISEASES NOT TRACEABLE TO PARASITIC GROWTHS Sour Sap.—There is a fermentation of the sap, quite noticeable by its odor, which may be found in all parts of the tree, from the root to the topmost twigs; sometimes in one part and not in an- other. Sour sap in the root is generally due to standing water in the soil, and the remedy is drainage. Trees thus affected make an effort to grow and then the young growth shrivels. Severe cutting back of the top to reduce the evaporation until the roots - can restore their feeding fibers is the only treatment of the tree, and its success depends upon the extent of the root injury. Sour sap may also be caused in the branches by the occurrence of frost after the sap flow has actually started. Cutting back the diseased parts, as soon as discovered, to sound wood, is the proper treat- ment. Serious injury to nursery trees which is sometimes called “sour sap” is described on page 99. Die-Back.—Dying back of twigs or branches may occur without parasitic invasion through root weakness or partial failure. It may be due to standing water or to lack of soil moisture, either of which will destroy the root-hairs and bring the tree into distress. The treatment is cutting back to sound wood and correcting the soil conditions, either by irrigation or drainage, as one or the other may be needed. Gummosis.—Gumming is not always to be considered in itself a disease, but rather an indication of conditions unfavorable to the thrifty growth of the tree. It has been usually found by investi- gation that trees in perfect condition of health, with the moisture just enough and not excessive, are not troubled with gumming; but there are cases in which this statement does not wholly apply. Prof. H. S. Fawcett has demonstrated that in some cases it is com- municable because of a fungus cause. Full accounts of this may be had in University publications. When there is an outbreak of gum where it can be treated it is desirable to cleanly remove all the unhealthy bark—cutting clean to sound bark and covering the wound with Bordeaux paste pre- pared as follows: One pound of bluestone dissolved in 1 gallon of water in a wooden or earthen vessel by hanging it in the top in a sack. Two pounds of unslaked lime, slaked in about one-half gallon of water. Stir together when cool, making a light blue mixture about the consistency of white- wash. Apply with a brush. This may also be applied to healthy bark as a preventive against new infections. Root Knots.—These are excrescences upon the roots or at the root crown of various trees and of grape-vines. Some of the knots have been studied and the cause demonstrated to be a fungus and REMOVING ROOT KNOTS 489 the disease infectious. If the knot has not increased in size suf- ficiently to seriously interfere with the growth of the tree it can be smoothly removed, the wound treated with the Bordeaux paste, and the knot usually will not reappear. A record of experience in removing root knots is the following by E. O. Amundsen, formerly Farm Adviser of Placer county, but now (1921) Professor of Horticulture in the Transvaal University, South Africa. This is his California experience: I have cut out great areas of root-knots from large cherry and plum trees during the growing and dormant seasons and covered with either Bordeaux paste or asphaltum. As the Bordeaux later flakes off and the asphaltum does not, I prefer the latter, but whitewash over it to prevent excessive heat absorption. The asphaltum is an excellent disinfectant, sticks closely, and is cheap. Lately I have used, instead of asphaltum, prepared asphaltum paints or cement paint. These are in liquid form and easier to apply than asphaltum. They dry readily and form a protective coat over the wound. In no case have we had any bad results from cut- ting out crown-gall at any season. Sometimes we do not get all of the gall the first time. We watch it and cut again if any gall shows up on the edges of the wound. A systematic treatment of root-knots on almond trees near Chico began in 1918 with chiseling off knots, disinfecting with cor- rosive sublimate solution and covering with asphaltum. Eighty-five per cent of the trees on thirty acres had to be operated on. Two years later only five per cent showed regrowth of knots, the wounds were re-barking and the trees were improved in appearance. It de- pends upon the condition of the tree whether it is worth while to remove the knots or not. If the tree has the start of the knot, it will be helped by removal; if the knot has the start of the tree so that it is unthrifty, there is small chance of reinvigorating it. This is ap- parently true, both with young and old trees. Old trees are some- times badly knotted and still productive and profitable. CHAPTER XLIV. SUPPRESSION OF INJURIOUS ANIMALS AND BIRDS The beasts of the field and the fowls of the air are sometimes such grevious trespassers upon the fruit plantation that protection has to be sought against them. The animals which figure in this evil work are mainly species of rodentia, some of them burrowers ; as, for example, the ground-squirrel and gopher; others, surface dwellers, like the hare or jackass rabbit. Occasionally there is in- jury done by deer in the orchard and vineyard, and coons in the melon patch, but these larger animals may usually be left to the hunters and dogs. RABBITS Though there are three species prevalent, none are burrowers. This fact has led to united efforts at their suppression by driving them with mounted horsemen, from a wide stretch of country into a narrow, fenced enclosure, where they are killed with clubs. Dur- ing the last few years tens of thousands have been killed in this way, and comparatively few are now found in the localities where the method has been adopted. Still, however, there are plenty at large to vex the planter, and he must protect himself against them. Rabbit Fences.—The surest protection against rabbits is a fence which prevents their entrance, and many miles of such fence have been built in this State. Several styles prevail. The ordinary board fence, with the boards running horizontally, is made rabbit- proof by placing the lower boards close together, with openings of but about two inches between them. A barbed wire, with barbs about two and one-half inches apart, can be used to advantage by running it along at or a little below the surface of the ground to prevent scratching under. The cost of board fences has led to the use of barbed wire and woven wire fencing, the styles of which can be seen in all fruit- growing sections. Smears Distasteful to Rabbits—Where the expense of a fence can not be assumed, measurable protection can be had by sprinkling the leaves or smearing the stems of plants with substances distaste- ful to the animals, which are quite dainty in this respect. Com- mercial aloes, one pound to four gallons of water, both sprinkled on leaves and painted on the bark, gives a bitter taste, which repels rabbits. A tea made of steeping quassia chips is said to produce the same effect. Rancid grease, bacon rind, liquid manure, putrescent flesh or blood, have all been used as a daub for tree trunks, and have been approved. This prescription has been approved: Kill a rabbit, take an ax and mutilate the entrails and foreparts in a mess. Put this into a can with a gallon or more of water. Let it stand POISONING ANIMALS AND BIRDS 491 a few days until it becomes foul. Put a sponge with some disinfectant over your nose and swab the vines with the liquid. Quantity depends on acreage. The following is also commended as a repellant rather less of- fensive to administer: One pint of cod liver oil, one ounce of black leaf “40”, two bars of laundry soap, 25 gallons of water. Heat water to boiling point and add above ingredients; then mix in enough flour to make a thin soup. This may be applied to young trees with a brush. Rabbit Poison.—Pieces of watermelon rind, cantaloupe, or other vegetable of which they are very fond, may be poisoned with strych- nine, and then scattered along trails used by the rabbits. They will not touch the bark as long as they can find this bait, and one meal is effective, for the rabbit never goes far away from it. Another preparation is half a teaspoonful of powdered strych- nine, two teaspoonfuls of fine salt, and four of granulated sugar. Put all in a tin box and shake well. Pour in small heaps on a board. It hardens into a solid mass. They lick it for the salt, and the sugar disguises the poison, which kills great numbers. Mr. C. F. Collins, formerly horticultural commissioner of Tulare county, says that the following is effective. Thoroughly mix 4 parts of Paris green and 6 parts flowers of sulphur dust upon the vines in the same manner as if sulphuring the vines for mildew. This will, he says, kill and repel rabbits and control mildew. The following formula is suggested by D. A. Gilchrist, U. S. biological survey, as an effective tree wash for protection against rabbits: “Dissolve one ounce strychnine sulphate in three quarts of boiling water and add one-half pint of laundry starch, previously dissolved in one pint of cold water. Boil this mixture until it becomes a clear paste. Add one ounce of glycerine and stir thoroughly. When sufficiently cool, apply to trunks of trees with a paint brush. Rabbits that gnaw the bark will be killed before the tree is injured.” SQUIRRELS AND GOPHERS There is in operation a forced system of destroying ground squirrels under a special law being administered by the county horticultural commissioners, and all details can be had from such officers or from the State Directors of Agriculture at Sacramento. Full details of the life histories of ground squirrels and gophers can be had by applying to the University Experiment Station at Berk- eley for Circular 181 and Bulletins 281 and 302. These publications describe methods of killing by fumigation, trapping and poisoning which will enable any energetic fruit growers to overcome these pests. DESTRUCTIVE BIRDS _ Fruit growers generally appreciate the value of insectiverous birds, but there are feathered pests which do such ruinous work in disbudding the trees in springtime and in destroying the ripe 492 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM fruit that protective measures have to be adopted against them. The so-called “California linnet,” which is not a linnet, but a finch (Carpodacus frontalis), a persistent destroyer of buds, and the English sparrow, infamous the world over, are probably the most grevious pests, though there are other destructive birds, including the beautiful California quail, which is protected by law, and yet must be destroyed in some parts of the State or the grape crop must be abandoned. For the killing of the smaller birds, cutting oranges or other fruits available at the time in halves, spreading strychnine over the cut surface and impaling the half oranges on twigs high up in the apricot trees, has destroyed hundreds of linnets. Some advocate the use of the shotgun, No. 30 caliber, with a small charge of good powder and No. 10 shot. As many as five hundred linnets have been killed in two days. The advantage of this plan is that one kills lin- nets and not other birds, while poison kills both friends and foes. The California law allows you to poison English sparrows and “California linnets,” but if you kill other birds in the process you will be liable to prosecution—if an officer of the bird-protectors’ union gets onto it. The latest bird poison is this: Strychnine (powdered), % oz.; Karo molasses, 4 pint; soda, % teaspoonful ; bran, 5 pounds. Mix the Karo and strychnine in a gallon tin can, add the soda and stir. To this mixture add about a half-pint of water and pour over the 5 pounds of bran. Stir the entire mixture thoroughly. If necessary to make a dry dough add a little more water. Place the poisoned bran in small boxes, etc., and fasten into the trees or on posts. CHAPTER XLV. PROTECTION FROM WIND AND FROSTS Though the climate of California renders unnecessary the pro- tection against rigorous weather which fruit growers in some other parts of the world have to provide, there is often advantage in se- curing shelter from winds and protection from late frosts. The general subject of forest planting in California, and the effect of preservation and extension of our forest area upon our fruit industries, has received the attention of our best-informed growers. The planting of shelter belts at intervals across our broad valleys at right angles to the courses of prevailing or most violent winds, has also been urged with great force. These greater enterprises and projects are beyond the scope of this treatise. It is rather concern- ing the planting of trees to shelter individual possessions that a few suggestions will be offered. It has been already remarked that on the immediate coast the successful growth of fruit will sometimes be wholly dependent upon proper shelter from prevailing winds, and in regions farther from the ocean the topography may induce strong currents of air which will illy affect trees and vines. In all such places the fruit grower should plant wind-breaks, and will find himself well repaid for the ground they occupy, by the successful production of the protected area. In the interior valleys there is also need for shelter from oc- casional high winds which may visit the orchards either in summer or winter, and prove destructive both to trees and fruit. In some cases long lines of the sheltering trees have been cut down because they affected the fruiting of orchard trees planted too near them, and afterwards the losses through lack of protection were far greater than would have been incurred by retaining them. What Kind of Trees to Plant—This is a question concerning which there is much to be learned. Data is accumulating in the growth of trees planted to test their suitability, and the future planter will have more certain ground to proceed upon than is now available. Mention will be made, however, of a few trees, which are now most widely grown. The most widely planted shelter tree is the Eucalyptus globulus, or Australian blue gum. It is a rapid grower and voracious feeder, and wonderful for root extension, for which it has been roundly abused. It is doubtful, however, whether we have a better tree for high growth, and consequent large area over which its shelter will be felt. It is deficient in undergrowth, and if a close screen is desired, the planting of eucalyptus and Monterey cypress (Cupressus macro- carpa) is a common practice. The latter also attains a good height, 494. CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM but its broad, thick base fills the gaps between the bare stems of the gum trees. Another tree which has often been planted with the blue gum, to supply a thick, low growth, is the pepper tree (Schinus molle). It is also grown in rows by itself. It makes a dense head, grows rapidly, and flourishes without much care. ‘Trees planted eighteen feet apart will soon come together and make a dense wall of very beautiful, bright, light-green foliage. The pepper is not only a good windbreak, but also an excellent dust-catcher. Unlike most trees which are used for this purpose, it does not become laden with dust. The leaves are smooth and glossy, and therefore repel the dust particles, which, stopped in their flight by the dense foliage of the tree, instead of clinging to it drop to the ground. The growth of the pepper tree near the coast is much slower than that of the Monterey cypress. The eucalyptus and the cypress for the coast, and the eucalyptus and pepper for the interior valleys, make, probably, as perfect a wall of foliage all the year round as can be had. The blue gum is, however, somewhat subject to frost killing, especially when young, and in very frosty places is objected to on that account. A number of other species of eucalyptus are now being planted, and are being found more hardy than the blue gum. The rostrata, rudis, tereticornis, polyanthema, amygdalina, viminalis and others are of this character. The Monterey pine (Pinus insignis) is a rapid, high-growing tree, and, though a native of the coast, has proved itself well adapted to the interior valleys of the central portion of the State. Its foliage is dense for a pine, and its shelter, therefore, the more complete. A native white cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) has also been employed as a shelter tree in the San Joaquin Valley, and is commended as a rapid grower in the interior as on the coast. Its ability to stand drouth, heat and frost is said to exceed that of any of the conifers of the seacoast. It stands well in the most exposed situations, as its roots run very deep into the earth and it is claimed that it does not sap the fertility from the soil around its base, as with the blue gum. It is also said to be less subject to frost injury than the Monterey cypress and pine. All the foregoing are evergreen trees, and therefore afford pro- tection summer and winter alike. Of deciduous trees there are many which may be well employed. The California black walnut makes a~ very satisfactory growth both in the interior and upon the coast, and is largely used for roadside planting. The California broad-leaved maple (Acer macrophylla) is very beautiful, rapid in growth, and dense in foliage, and the same is true of the box elder (Acer ne- grundo), but probably both trees are especially suited to the coast regions. Of the poplars, the Carolina (Populus monilifera) is best, because of its breadth, density of foliage, and comparative free- dom from suckering. The locust (Robinia pseudacacia) is used to some extent, but its suckering is very objectionable. Quite a number of the larger-growing deciduous fruit trees are used to some extent along the exterior lines of orchards for the pro- tection of the inclosure. The fig, the walnut, the chestnut, seedling almonds, and apricots are especially commended for such use. PROTECTION FROM FROSTS 495 Growing Trees from Seed.—Much that has been said in Chapter VIII will be suggestive to one who desires to grow his own shelter trees from seed. Trees from small seeds are best grown in boxes, and in many cases, as with eucalyptus and cypress especially, do best when put in permanent place when quite small. Whether put at once in permanent place, or in nursery, the land should be deeply worked and the young plant well planted and cared for. Cultivation of Shelter Trees.—If one desires rapid growth of shelter trees, they should be cultivated the first few years as thoroughly as an orchard. Much disappointment results from al- lowing roadside trees to shift for themselves in a hard, dry soil. With such treatment the root extension is naturally most rapid into cultivated orchard ground, which is undesirable. Cultivate and en- rich the roadside, and the tree will grow chiefly on the waste land. At the same time the roadside will be prevented from producing vast quantities of weed seed, to be blown over the fence, and the place will have a name for neatness, which is too rare even in Cali- fornia. PROTECTION FROM FROSTS Much attention has been given during recent years to the pro- tection of citrus fruits as they approach maturity, and of deciduous fruits as they are starting on their growth, from occasional fall of the mercury a few degrees below the freezing point. It has been shown by ample experience that fruits may escape injury by a temperature of 28 degrees if the ground surface is wet and the ex- posure be but of short duration. Fruit has, therefore, been saved by irrigation, while that over dry ground has been nipped by the same temperature. About the same result has been secured by checking radiation of heat by covering the orchard or vineyard with a cloud of smoke. Both these protective measures fail when the tempera- ture falls a few degrees below 28 degrees or when such freezing temperature is continued for several hours. During recent years much progress has been made in preventing frost by numerous small fires distributed among the trees to be pro- tected and many devices to secure such distributed heat easily and economically are being enterprisingly promoted by inventors and manufacturers. The extreme low temperatures of January, 1913, gave full opportunities for testing orchard heating appliances and very striking success was had with them. Comparative tests and observations have been made by the experts of the University Ex- periment Station, but conclusions are not available at this date. They must be looked for in Experiment Station bulletins, in the pub- lications of the U. S. Weather Bureau* and in horticultural journals. The subject is clearly seen to be too complex to admit of a brief generalization except to say that, when orchard heating is thorough- ly and economically done, it is a most profitable investment and should be studied by all growers. *The latest review of the subject is to be found in Farmers’ Bulletin, No. 1096, on “Frost and the Prevention of Damages by It.” It can be had free by writing to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 496 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM SUSCEPTIBILITY OF DECIDUOUS FRUITS The most systematic observations of danger points in deciduous fruits have been made by Dr. J. C. Whitten and Professor W. L. Howard in the course of their work at the Missouri Experiment Station. Both these experts are now connected with the California Experiment Station at Berkeley and the local bearing of their re- searches may be had from them by any one interested in the subject. Their work in Missouri involved artificially freezing thousands of peach buds, from which these conclusions were drawn: “Fully dormant peach buds can stand 8 or 9° below zero, F. When they are appreciably swollen, zero is the danger point. When the buds are show- ing pink, they can stand 15° above zero. When the buds are almost open, 25° is the danger point. When they are newly opened, about 26° would be the point of danger. When the petals are beginning to fall, 28° above zero is dangerous. When the petals are off they can stand 30° above zero. When the ‘shucks’ (calyx lobes) are beginning to fall off, 32° is the danger point.” Presumably these limits would apply also to the apricot and almond. Apple buds, when the petals begin to show, can stand from 10 to 12 de- grees of freezing. When the petals are well emerged, but have not opened, they can stand from 4 to 6 degrees of freezing, but when open, but not yet fertilized, there would be great danger at two or three degrees below the freezing point. When the flowers have been fertilized, the petals dropped, and the young fruit increasing in size, the slender stems which support the apples are unable to resist a temperature lower than the freezing point. The apples seem to be more hardy than their stems, but if the latter are injured of course the fruit also suffers. Similar behavior may be expected from the pear, cherry and plum. Orchard Frost Studies.—In connection with the foregoing it is interesting to note conclusions which Prof. Fabian Garcia draws from several years’ observation of frost effects in the orchard of the New Mexico Experiment Station and of which full details are given in Bulletin 89 of that station: The data recorded at the Station show that the fruit-buds, particularly those of the peach, at their different stages of development are somewhat more resistant to cold than has been reported by observers from other parts of the United States. The data further show that the degree of re- sistability to frost varies with different stages of growth. The peach is least resistant when it is about the size of a pea, when the calices are falling off. Contrary to the findings of other observers, the bloom is not the most tender stage of growth. In other words, the data indicate that the newly set peach is more delicate than the newly opened blossom. In the majority of cases a temperature of 26 degrees, lasting only a short time, did little or no injury to the opening bud, newly opened blossom or newly set fruit of the peach, native plum, pear and apple; while one-half a degree below this or 25% degrees, although lasting only a few minutes, killed a large percentage of the opening buds, newly set blossoms and young fruits of the peach, in a number of cases. In other words, 26 degrees was the danger point, and any temperature below this is liable to do more or less injury; depending on how low it gets and how long it remains at that temperature. In some cases, however, a temperature of 24 degrees lasting only a short time left about 25% of the blooms and 9% of the newly set fruits uninjured. Three important factors that influence the amount of damage done by spring frosts are: the degree of killing temperature, the time of day at which it occurs, and the length of time the temperature remains below the danger point. The longer the time the killing temperature remains and the DELAYING BLOOM OF FRUIT TREES 497 nearer it is to sunrise, the greater the amount of damage that should be expected. As a rule, the killing temperature recorded in these experiments oc- curred in the morning, from one to two hours before sunrise. Whenever the killing temperature occurred this late in the morning, and remained below the danger point until sunrise, the injury was great. On the other hand, if the minimum occurred at midnight, or a little later, and then gradually rose to the freezing point, so that the frozen buds, blooms and fruits had time to thaw out slowly before sunrise, the injury was in- significant. This was the case April 5, 1910, when at 2:15 A. M. the tem- perature was 2434 degrees. By 5:30 it had risen to 31 degrees, and the injury done to the Alexander peaches—which were in full bloom—was estimated at 214%. As the young fruit develops it seems to get more tender, until it grows beyond a certain size, when it seems to get hardier again; so that the later frosts which come after the young fruits have made quite a growth are liable to do more injury than the same degree of cold in the earlier part of the season, when the fruits are less developed. At this stage of growth, 26%4 to 27 degrees would probably be dangerous to peaches. The very late frost of 25 degrees on May 4, 1912, killed practically all the peaches in the experimental orchard, while 2434 degrees on April 17, 1910, left about 30% of the Elbertas. On the whole, apples and pears seem to be more resistant than peaches and plums, This was strongly indicated in 1912, when practically all the peach crop was destroyed on May 4, by a temperature of 25 de- grees; while there was a very heavy crop of pears and apples harvested the following fall. European and native plums seem to be slightly hardier than Japanese plums and apricots, which are the least resistant of all the fruits included in the test. DELAYING BLOOM BY WHITEWASH Another suggestion comes from Missouri. It is concerning de- laying activity in deciduous trees by spraying with whitewash to reflect heat—the absorption of which by dark bark causes the ac- tivity of the tree to begin. Prof. J. C. Whitten of the University Experiment Station says: Purple coloring matter on untreated peach trees often absorbs heat enough on a sunny cold day in winter to raise the temperature of the trees 25 degrees or more above the temperature of the atmosphere. Whit- ened trees remain at atmospheric temperature or usually a degree or so below. For ten consecutive years we whitewashed diagonal rows of peach trees across the Experiment Station orchard just before midwinter. In this section we had five general peach crops during that ten years on untreated trees; on whitewashed trees of the same varieties we had eight crops. The five crops on untreated trees were not all full crops; the eight crops on treated trees were all but two full crops. More than double the amount of fruit was secured in ten years on the whitewashed trees. The treated trees were anywhere from a few days up to ten days later in blooming. In years when normal weather prevailed until sudden warm spells brought the trees into bloom hurriedly, there was only a little difference in time of blooming, and under normal conditions there was a week or more difference in their blooming. This is less important, however, than the fact that the whitewashed trees began their first starting into slight growth on sunny days in late winter fully six weeks later than the naked trees. The writer is not aware that whitewashing to delay bloom has directly entered into California practice, but it may have had in- 498 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM directly much influence in that direction. The free use of lime-sul- phur and Bordeaux mixture for other purposes may have inci- dentally delayed bloom while protecting the tree from too early sap flow which following frost turned to ill-account by causing die-back, sour sap and for which whitewashing is being confidently prescribed as a preventive. PART TEN: MISCELLANEOUS CHAPTER XLVI. UTILIZING FRUIT WASTES Some progress has recently been attained in the securing of horticultural by-products from various kinds of fruit wastes. There has been a considerable product of cream of tartar from the pomace and lees of the wineries in Central California. In Southern Cali- fornia citric acid factories have to some extent used lemons rejected in packing, and some other by-products of citrus fruits are being secured in considerable quantities. Vinegar from wine and cider are, of course, made here as everywhere in fruit countries. There is also a good demand for fruit pits. During the last few years they have sold profitably. Comparative value of fruits, and hay, grains, meals, etc. 100 Pounds Fruit Equivalent to Pounds of | 2 8 d Ges ke = S aa sak are rs a ee hace FRESH FRUITS, + g & - # 2 #8 @ € g. Bee eee a, ee ae ce. meh ie thet ce ges iS ay cate he, eeme Aetioe Apples eiause eVeressis|s/arelt 34 20 24 15 15 17 16 18 16 13 9 13 NOP ATIMCR | iaiec.0 sle's/c'e'e clee 33 19 23 14 14 16 15 al 15 12 8 12 Pears eared “56 40 23 30 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15 PASASRIS EME 'o 5 /a swe occlbic's eve Sit) 30 36 22 24 25 24 26 24 20 14 20 IPOMES c's ceases Setenieicias 40 27 33 20 22 23 22 24 22 18 13 18 PAPTICOLS!) Wicisiciese cise os - 40 23 29 17 18 20 19 20 19 15 11 15 WECEALINES 9 oc sieseces ny 43 26 30 19 20 22 21 23 21 17 12 17 APU eee ec iele! aie stare. « sshccol mel) 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20 RETANCMM Ns oto.) isisiveleiet OO 30 37 23 24 26 25 27 25 20 14 20 Watermelons....... ay ae 13 16 10 10 11 11 12 11 8 6 8 Nutmeg Melons ..... 19 11 13 8 9 9 9 10 9 7 5 7 DRIED FRUITS. Dricde prunesijysccicsss 175, 104) 125.5 78) 82) 8B 84.) (92): (84. 67). 48". 68 Dried apricots ........ 194M LO Pao) ey SOr ee 90K OF NOs L102 93 7453 76 Dried peaches ....... TOOLS sbi 85 S895) O17 1100) 92 72-68 74 Mricdtigs Giese ues su leor +110) 2132. , 83... '85 93 IBS HOA e od Mean Biya 50ie v2 Raisins ..... Sei eemed Gn Leese Losey Ia LOO > LOS) LOS TEL LO she 8255 Sole oe As the demand was partly due to war needs it may not always continue so productive, but the Prune and Apricot Growers’ As- sociation, in their contracts for 1919, were guaranteed $31.50 a ton for apricot pits, cash on delivery, and whatever further profit may develop from their operations. The kernels are valuable for the es- sential oil that is extracted from them, which is used in various chemical and commercial preparations. The meal resulting from 500 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM crushing and expressing is used in the preparation of macaroons and other confections. The shells are burned to a charcoal, which is. used in the gas masks. Peach pits are burnt for the same purpose, and the Peach Growers’ Association gathered quantities of them. The disposition of waste fruit by growers will, however, lie chiefly in the line of feeding animals unless denatured alcohol enter- prises which are now being exploited should consume it at profitable prices. Waste Fruits for Stock Feeding.—Refuse fresh fruit of all kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits, have nutritive value which is now being systematically secured. A statement of the value of cost of handling. Refuse fresh fruits of all kinds, and especially refuse dried fruits have nutritive value which should not be lost. A state- ment of the value of various fruits as compared with various cattle foods has been prepared by Prof. M. C. Jaffa, of the University Ex- periment Station, in the adjacent table. A good average of the pitted fresh fruits is represented by prunes. Using the equivalents in the table above for computation, it appears. that if wheat bran costs $15 per ton, fresh prunes would be worth as a substitute $3 per ton; likewise, if cottonseed meal is selling for $21 per ton, the prune value would be about $2.75. At the market price of oat hay, the figures for fresh prunes should be nearly $3 per ton. A practical demonstration of feeding fresh cull peaches to hogs. was made by a Sutter County grower. About 110 head of hogs, young and old, were kept for fattening on peaches. A sack of bar- ley was fed twice a week and a few small potatoes bought at 25 cents per sack. About 25 boxes of peaches twice a day was the hogs’ capacity. The grower’s judgment was that the hogs fed on fresh peaches made such satisfactory gains that he hauled twenty tons a mile and a half from another orchard to feed them. It is also claimed that hogs will leave milk and cocoanut meal to: eat cull oranges, but whether for food or tonic does not appear. The dried fruits naturally rank far above the fresh material as stock feed. Of the dried fruits represented in the table, raisins lead in food value; containing one and one-fourth to one and one-half times the nutritive ingredients of alfalfa and oat hays, respectively ;. 100 pounds of the fruit being practically equal to the same quantity of grain, but to only eighty-two and fifty-nine pounds respectively of rice bran and cottonseed meal. Dried apricots rank slightly lower than raisins, because they con- tain more water. Apricots are, however, of equal value as a feeding stuff, with wheat bran and almond hulls about half as much as alfalfa hay, bran or middlings. Concerning the feeding of raisins to hogs, the following state- — ments are made: “With raisins selling at 21%4 cents per pound they are much cheaper food for hogs than corn or barley. Raisins give the hog a hard, sweet meat and are much sought after by the butch- ers. Care must, however, be exercised in feeding raisins to hogs, as they are full of sugar, and consequently too rich when fed alone. They heat the animal up so that the hogs lose flesh and will kill the little pigs of a farrowing sow. For fall and winter feeding, FRUIT WASTES FOR STOCK-FEEDING 501 pumpkins, citrons and alfalfa are the best feed to give the hogs in conjunction with the raisins, but in the spring a change is found very beneficial. Many people feeding raisins to hogs are not having the success they should because they overfeed their porkers. A pound of raisins a day is ample to start in with. After the system of the hog has become accustomed to the raisins the amount can be increased so that the last three weeks each hog should get about four pounds of raisins a day. The last ten days, when the finishing touches are being put on, the hogs should be allowed all they can get.” Cull and second-crop raisins beat barley, pound for pound, as a feed for work mules, according to O. Peterson of the W. M. Giffin vineyard near Dinuba, who fed sixteen mules nothing but a gallon a feed twice per day of raisins with alfalfa hay. The mules had received practically nothing else for years, says Mr. Peterson, and were reported “hog fat,” showing that their appetites do not fail on the fruit. Stems and all are fed, and a few moldy raisins in the lot do not seem to signify. A San Joaquin County grower reported feeding dried cull To- kays. For five years he has dried all the culls he needed from the early pickings. Horses, cows and calves eat them, stems and all, and he considers these dried grapes at least equal in feed value to barley. Wine grapes rich in sugar have been cheaply dried on the ground and used to advantage for hog feed. One grower says that having more than the hogs required, grapes were fed to the horses: “The horses soon got a taste for them and seemed to thrive well on the new diet and in a short time became fat and sleek, while they were being worked as hard as ever, and we continued to feed them dried grapes and have kept it up for a whole year. The effect seems to have made the old horses five years younger, both in looks and in ability to work. The hogs fattened up so quickly that we thought the pork would be soft and sloppy, but to our surprise, we never had better bacon and ham than was produced from these grape-fed pork- ers. It was not only solid, but sweet and tender.” Prune-fed and raisin-fed pork is indeed an accomplished fact in California. As to the acceptability of the fruit diet to the hog, what could be more pertinent and more fitting appendix to this treatise than this little tale? It is stated that Mr. Balaam, of Farmersville, used to have a pet pig that ran under the fig trees near the house. When the fruit began to drop, he ate figs and rested in the shade until he finally grew too fat to move about to gather the sweet morsels. By this time his owner became so much interested in the case as to carry him his figs regularly three times daily. Gradually he grew so fat that his eyes closed entirely, but still he ate figs in contentment and delight. “ a: PLATE ILLUSTRATIONS California homes submerged in a sea of prune DIOSSOMIS coche I sro lodeiaiee te ortihelatea eit ate rele aalsrelate oa orem iat Frontispiece Opposite Page Ground view of good job of fruit-thinning.................. 32 Deep plowing in ‘young orchard... eck ss. ckdeanes cae u eee 33 Cement ditches and irrigation by check system.............. 96 A good start toward ‘an ‘apple orchard) .3.05i..ss0) cage eae 97 Typical aspect of a bearing apricot orchard............eeeeee 128 Young chérry ‘orchard in good. form, 4:5)... 60000500 0suaeeee 129 Bearing peach orchard in an irrigated district.............06. 224 Profuse bearing of vine by long pruning.............seeeeee 225 Prize Emperor Vineyard in Tulare County..........eeeeeess 256 The Sevillano olive as grown in Tehama County............. 257 View in bearing orange orchard..............0008: Se eee 384 The Mammoth Blackberry. 600s. .se'ocssicnles sts eee 385 Whe Loeanberry oo Soe vcs etajenakie’s db os cles alee a mine ee 416 California sunshine evaporator with accessory buildings...... 417 INDEX Page Page Meorns, edible... .<. <2. 66.66 deus 40 | Apricot—continued Alfatia:.in orchard ..... 00086008566 133] stocks and soils for.............. 215 MMicalinie BOIS << ge srzii> ohne oe aweree ae SAE DINNING S55). tc. JS OP ae 129 BOECUALE, (jae beke een ek we 132, 141 Pllende) coe ths Aa ee 136 MSthOds 06 =. 6). ce 0 Sea Mee ts 134 DULPOBESOl to oo ott Suse raeas Die 130 shallow, results of............... 131 SUINUIMOT 2 ete tha cl aerate eae te 136, 140 to retain moisture...............- 130 without plowing................. 139 PTA IN Gn oo /-8e sas Se gs wPteia 419 Culture Of: oe cei ss he me oe 420 TETIONS FOR ss Feet BL 419 bbe pa STOW. 2 o's a Hi igvae ttt et me) Custard Biles 2 cic Paver de eenlae 399 Cuttings, fruit trees from......... Peo Cutworms so) oe Saas Us cae see tae 469 WAGER hs aie Sarerat nl cee a eee 327 at the missions: oe 226 Scio omens 327 Dearing age Of. oo. sa ate aerate 330 bearing in Solano County........ 327 POOR RIE DE 2 05 5 By aeapatane ale 330 ATSE LUG peels tein aree cnarateie lateness 327 GPONY SECU Aes) Ae as cit ve adler 329 FrOM SUCKETS s/s s/c se wi erereyetd Rae 329 POPAPAION OL. 08s oon ics wee ee 330 requirements Of. . ssc..+ oes een es 328 transplanting soc coker eelee 329 Dewberrys/ich hice ete Reine ae 415 Diabroticas (2.2.45... wees ta oleae el 480 HOW TO GROW THEM Page Die-patlhe: oi". sarae oak eee 488 Diseases of trees and vines......... 486 Dormant Duds: eer ee eee 79 Drainage desirable.............. 60, 191 Dried fruits (see Fruits)............ 455 COVERING: iis sara tee aye ate 474 Cutting Shedsings aves teehee eee 458 Gipping.. 9 352 oe ead See 460 drying floors..... Sign batlels Maelo 458 grading and cleaning.......... 457, 460 PACKING 4 5 asx 5 ain cate cha paleo ee 460 product;Of fue. «sete tee cee 455 sulphuring: .).'. fis oes coe eee 459 SWEARING. )e as eiervidie o vere een ee 460 AERYS LOR: A. \ok nokia y sakes ees 457 WOTUO Yai Gs do's hole coved se ee 474 Bldérberries:)o 4.505 v.60 023 pe 37 Hvaporated fruits.) 52.2 oo. Se eee 466 Evaporator, sunshine.............. 466 Feijoa, Sellowiana.. ...): :.<4h).eeeeeee 401 Fertilization, science of............ 142 analyses not guide to............ 146 essential elements............... 145 plant food, “‘available”’........... 147 specific effects)... <0... schreiee 149 substances for. ..\;, 2. «2.225 seater 152 USE OF; Suis 5 ans Cdiaida & Se 154 value of organic... ........0heee 157 Fertilizers in California............ 141 caution in use, of... 62555. deere 156 for trees and vines: ).::. 4. ice 143 lime and gypsum... ..:..cicseeaie 155 methods of applying............. 158 value*of Preent sss c,4:i os ote eee 157 when necessary..........0.20.0+ 008 150 sources of nitrogen.............. 152 sources of phosphoric acid........ 152 sources.of potash. <.... 2... ssn 152 waste products for... ...... demas 158 BH ies aka wwe cae cla ee 333 bearing ALC... ssc: alee: tee eee 331 Uddin e? fo i Se eee 336 plea amare lahat fov'ele dh aiele Sates 7 TVIDG coca cad ede one FOES/OF . oie oa fos Base ee 340 from cuttings... £2.51. 2. «sere 335 FPOM SEOUB ..0. 6. G5 5 «:k5 5 one's 337 prafping 266 a i 8 cat a 336 MISSION... ;)..s's GAlsts eieie >. ele eee 42 planting and pruning............ 341 regions for... .)..:. . «<5 )+>=sineee 334 size of old trees... .. 15.345 oakle 333 Bots FOR. 65 4 veto NERA 170 MUO egy ve aciistalett eV bare QRSii a TUPTOW SEs sis c a.ciccepeishes 173, 177, 182 length of season... ............6. OMS | a eveling: TOR. ata. os kh Lak a sarees 187 POEs cas adie oi oseitin ate eborvtoinnye 486| locating contour lines............ 187 ETI 2 (OL Sy Panes Uae ae See 42,44) measurement of water........... 190 HUM PSL PEL ACK AL ont. 2) 5) daisle aie te 301 MEENOUS) DLT cee e tiek obi ie ew als able 170 planting devices) sic $2). cscs laste so BOF PR DUTSET Ye perce tla ratiancketnare Gissn Shee 69 Planting IN TOWS As sek ee Saree 301} objections answered............. 161 PONCE. daa5 cae ets twas DOO lie OVELUCAM eka Ne eto nia we aterei ooo syasere vers 185 DINU ces paces ave ears Sie oe 305| relation to cultivation............ 166 506 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Trrigation—continued Page | Nursery—continued Page relation to rainfall............... TGS Eprom gine ene eno ee 78 POISON LO SOU. 22s Ree eee 165| selection of site for.............. 62 relation tO: tiWAge:. cai site oenele 166| soil, preparation of.............. 63 TEserv Oirs, Smalls. Geese ieiels 188'\) ssoiliproper fOP...cn a eae ae 61 running. ditches for. 2:20... 4. : 5.3.) oe ee oes 98 suggestions fOF. s.4/4 sajbs's)henale onl 192] trees, disinfecting............... 472 SUMMED Nye caviar ete 170,279.) trees, selecting. 4! sc) 6crs WSR 97 taken from ditches.............. 186 |ieavhentoirplantassd.cesc< cen eeeee 100 wells and pumps for............. 190} Nuts, growing in California......... 433 WIHEGIS GT ya. cists aks tapnanreonerecehe wlcrege 189} growing from seed............... 66 when desirable............... 160, 164 | Powild . i core) 2402. 200). eee 40 WAI LO Bt Aidvaclevevsie ieee oe duoheuatae Anne 168 ATOPY scsi. 8 etd ode a8 cca hat oe ae EN AQ VOR ves ie ica ied (Ce 344 Jujube of commerce............... A403 | | at old missions:,.)..:... 09 43 SUMS MBLIVE 4) suis cae eee kien 40+ budding ....°. os. 8 ee 348 UATE USS tfies sects chs leas estes acen eee auarene 79 ee ed. oo Lie eer 357 : climateifor.)fui5.s.cti 1 ee eee 344 EADS PIPE oF a) ang bic seit ais wie a ae ADB schon cuttings... ....... ticle 345 Laying out land for fruit........... 86). drom.seed .2..°. 33h... 2 ee 345 GG at MICO Wore tos pete eet eea eae ATA AN? / CTALtIN® ... ss)c. ce woes eee 349 Myettion, MMe 6.5 hoc nas Neck See 390i) localities:for.. ....<.4.. see neeeeee 339 Cc, Dg ha See RD aeRO a Rone RR fare, SAREE te 395 oll. makings. sce... ee eee 354 RONCRALENE 55 pho fas CIs eh perc ae ees 396 > planting. ..c<. Laws ete ee 351 planting and pruning............ 389| preferred varieties............... 352 PrOPACA MOD! Vsee Mee Ae ee 70, 392) °° pruming os s.:5 6... 351 situations and soils for........... 301] pickling us.3 660. Je. tee 357 WATIEDIOS: 2 yo cise Wishes ste nae ee 396)| °° smalhcuttings./... 00.42. 347 APMOUIDET HY} sits Oe stake etesale eee AQ) *ss0ils POEs ice ot. LO Se eee 345 TiIGE Meat Kee Re cyat lesen ees A474) tromeheons,,) 0/2. vaso ace eee 347 Marie WRG s 5 eib xsi 4 Hag cele Bete ees 397)? atwie borer. i/o ies oak. eee 478 PAGAN Y.c 2 55,565 Vids ene eee ADB NM wiles). Wsce- sca) ig. vik ie 40 Taquaty) Loess pees se tddieds 6 oo bk AOS |e VVARIOHIOS ic 2) shee ere ci 199, 357 OFAN Ges che ie uo Os Wiel ee 359 Mantra #5 2:05.. Nate eae Soe 157| all the year from California....... 362 Manuring at planting.............. 103| budding and grafting............ 371 Manzanita berries................. 39] California regions discussed....... 363 WVSUEIBE Bary eiee evche dis evince aicrdeyiaie Sane 145] conditions for citrus fruits........ 365 MeaSInIMNG WITB nhs os ici seule ees 88 | -odiseases: }.\..cis we ee bo Oe 382 Melon Snr. 22st acu b ane wa eet 406 |") distances!fork .'s......2.5'.oee see eee 371 Pielon tree pi 5/3/55. OP eee 407 | from, euttings «00. ui. < se. aoe 110 Cleehe OF pe Needed Wai s teva nepal Fee 123 gathering brush........ 5s. pears 126 influenced by location........... 107 low, advantages of........... 108, 109 MUTHCLY cies ar ky oe y bieiss patie tone 78 prunings as fertilizer............. 158 PUTPOSESIOL sj ciche. see sh Stal akesiah ga. elect 108 508 CALIFORNIA FRUITS: HOW TO GROW THEM Pruning—continued Page Page HIMES HOME cee sieie es tec tate eveiaek eee teats 121" 'Stock; fruitias 100@ 108! va nee ete 499 POO). sus hades eee Ae eee $2A Strawberry. ose cian oe Sees 426 to renew old trees.............-- ASUS Cate Obs iia marie seamen teats eee 429 Vase form, ScCUrIMN@er so wena eee 115| continuous bearing.......... prerge 60, wounds, cOvering................ 126 laying OU LOT elancts aes eer 427 Quince 720 see ete lia rie Matic ogee 286| Planting...............+-ese eens 429 demandstor-c cc seanee one ee tee 286| propagation... ............eeeeee 427 propavation® oc. eee ee 286| Situations and soils.............. 426 WPM I ais ders scie ss uvhie me aes 286 fie ea popular............. 200, ee ROMS MOE pene ac ar oe aps eee 287 |, WHA... eee eee ee eee ees NVHLTIRLIGH.. by ix, toca enn ae eee att 287 | Strawberry tree.............+++.5. 406 Quincunx planting..............05- 99 | Summer pruning............0-:.85 120 Rabbits. d ; Sunburn, protection from.......... 105 7 sah oe ween eee e eee e eae a es value of direct........20. 0. ee at hatin eed antaiotha tafe ta alah falas ole uns ; ti 1. eae - shar ci jeri beeeeae te eee re medords af... .. co 21 ; PARIAE, © 07 oie nko cents Rainfall or irrigation. .............. 163 iiss = ee lowest..........++.+ 6 gas rie ng DON gd oo Oa 456 "Thinning fruit........:-.+s-s1eeea ps Pe oe get Denies tae aoe | Thriges). a's er 472 aCk-capS...- 6s. eee eee eee sees 425 TOnrato, tree... ye 's0e sc Ce 408 BAS OPUIG oh, corse eos » Be yee Rin Cee aT 426 RUIN Gs as dae ysertd baa isie bil eke 424 Bee a nia ae nit . ae f ene ee varieties, popular...............- 425 ‘Tale rhe emesis gaat NC Meteo 88), HORE oso a REGS pId GR tA. tare. as ape eele avetenesonee rp penta COUN E.'s 3 =! 97 Bast cc 488 ‘Tree-setters. 00.2... os 4 see eee 96 Pe eae Taek Re 4gg | Lriangle for laying out............. 92 Russian introduction of fruits....... 45 ae Aviator tT RAC ce a caeenh 78 a Ait ae Ty eS oe oes chiefly planted........ 194, i Sapota, WHE. chon ce avs uae ORM ee ener oer tor ne . Beale ansestne: uae aid Se see 470 Saini ey GE Orar at ineyard—see Grape HGNS CATE ls he. ccxomiearete oe sare eet 73 | vw q,felestion of... reese 73 | eee ech = EE BLD Bocce ers ve mac He eda he Sora Ne ose ee awe 40 dep Te arg te) ee ey growing ie inom shee ee 65 mie ea or blight. ....-.-++e0 we eedlings, imported................ GU) pgs cee ie STS Pere 2 ee Septuple, laying off................ 89 pee Of... <> : ae Bervicd HEI. snr ae een ote 39 serine zed po op 7 HAT AEs einen : : culture’and soils. 2)... ; eee 440 SOUS tor heute yi ciee scien eres 25 Hers : ICSE i. Ay Fs lek Wy esitiste SU 35 | Ean ere and drying. ........++. 446 lily VEL Shan cchcc ey ORME 34 grafting... . . Set eS ee aan ae su luivrall oy ech take cea, Ome eselete Tete 31 growing seedlings.............55 68 pees or hard-pan............ 34 Benen and apie ane 51, = DASHING. ke icy Rei eee awe tiseh bee ae 94 Se ey hgh yt i ea characteristics of California....... 26 a a SRM MSR me Ener cam neha re La Ree) a varieties. 6.0... .es cee, 200, 447 Gebeive. LI | i desert: Shek iho te CA ee toe ere le 30 | Water, measurements..........+++- 190 EGXAMIMAGION/ Of:1e< 105s ele) die lore ee 35 | Wax, grafting...... sche sn ao felteaR sig ie 75 parame. :.'1- 6.2. ac ania gee eee 32 | Weed killing by cultivation......... 141 PAIS RIE ke Peg Bek. dc une 28, 29, 32 | Weeds, evaporation by..........--. 132 Fiebiee f BM Sate Conte ’”"” 39 | Weir measurement... .....6..4.055 192 OTAME MBER oes inv ele nore ne 157 | What fruits to plant............... 198 filiaebes cP scaled lapootys ate LA 99 | Whitewash against sunburn........ 105 POO ge Osta e eats Ree 32 | Whitewash to delay bloom......... 497 TIVER DOULLOMLS s+ rie Gictere thee ae 31 bi ole of California..........-. = sedimentary or silty............. 31 | WINRGDTCARS,. «2 :< o\0/ri0:s cm sls om Sie i shallow blasting................. 94| Winter-killing unknown..........-- 18 eon SALI A Bie atl ae a ehemeph als 482 Lee bya ee 2 coe 5 5 cc GD a DICER TER hin, a tance casohatantats e wiaenatels 473 | WOOUY Aphis. . . 1 cre sce « « sieisiaieiats Squares, laying off in.............. 97 | Wounds, covering..........-+.+0+ 126 Squirrels, destroying............... 491 | Yellow jackets, killing............- 480 California Garden Flowers Shrubs, Trees and Vines Being Mainly Suggestions for Working Amateurs By EDWARD J. WICKSON Hon. President California State Floral Society First Edition—1915 262 Pages, 514 x 714 Inches; Illustrated; Cloth Bound; 12 Full-page Photo-plates and Numerous Text Illustrations. This book aims to tell the beginner in California, whether he be a scholar struggling with his school-garden, or a suburbanite gazing vacantly on his residence lot, or the farm-home maker, who is puzzled to translate his experience with teams, plows and pasture fields into trowels, pruning-shears and lawns, just what to do to make garden-soils, grow plants and surround his abode with beauty under the pecu- liar climatic conditions of California. Price, $1.50 per Copy, Postpaid Contents by Chapter Titles Introductory. Climatic Characters and Advantages. Soils and Fertilizers, Tillage and Irrigation. Laying Out the Garden. Elements of Propagation. Growth of Plants from Seeds. Growth of Plants from Buds. Hot-Beds and Cold Frames. The Amateur’s Greenhouse. Planting, Pruning and Training. Characters, Adap- tations and Requirements of the Months. Lawns and Ground-Covers. The Rose. The Carnation. The Chrysanthemum. Open-air. Herbaceous Plants. Bulbs, Tubers and Roots. Flowers for Hot, Dry Regions. Water Plants in Gardens, Choice and Treatment of Arborescent Plants. Shrubs Approved. Garden Palms. Trees for Ornaments and Shade. Climbing Plants for Gardens. Methods Against Plant Pests and Diseases. “Second Thousand Answered Questions in California Agriculture” By E. J. WICKSON This, the latest work of the author, consists of 1000 of the most important questions on every subject that have perplexed the farmer during the last few years, and which have been submitted to the editor. In this book, the problem appears with its solution by Prof. Wickson immediately following. The departments of the book consist of the most important prob- lems that have confronted our readers in Fruit Growing, Vegetable Growing, Grain and Forage Crops, Soils, Fertilizing and Irrigation, Live Stock and Dairy, Diseases of Animals, Feeding Farm Animals, Poultry-keeping and Pests and Diseases of Plants. “Second Thousand Answered Questions in California Agriculture” is undoubtedly the best reference book that has ever been published, and should be in the hands of every California farmer. Contains 256 Pages. Handsomely bound in Cloth. Price, $1.50 Postpaid. PACIFIC RURAL PRESS Publishers 525 Market St., San Francisco," Cal. ESTABLISHED IN 1870 OLDEST AND MOST RELIABLE FARM PAPER ON THE PACIFIC COAST The Pacific Rural Press WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED Edited by Prof. E. J. Wickson Published by Frank Honeywell You need the PACIFIC RURAL PRESS in your work in the orchard, on the farm or stock ranch. It will keep you posted on the latest and best in agricultural practice. SUBSCRIPTION PRICE $1.00 per Year in the U. S. Foreign Countries, $2.00 Address: PACIFIC RURAL PRESS 525 Market Street San Francisco, Cal., U.S. A. California Vegetables GARDEN AND FIELD A MANUAL OF PRACTICE WITH AND WITHOUT IRRIGATION ‘By EDWARD J. WICKSON CONTENTS Chapter. * Chapter. I. Vegetable Growing in California. XX. Corn. II. Farmers’ Gardens in California. XXI. Cucumber. III. California Climate as Related to XXII. Egg Plant. Vegetable Growing. XXIII. Lettuce. IV. Vegetable Soils of California. XXIV. Melons. V. Garden Irrigation. XXV. Onion Family. VI. Garden Drainage in California. XXVI. Peas. VII. Cultivation. XXVIII. Peppers. VIII. Fertilization. XXVIII. Potatoes. IX. Garden Location and Arrange- XXIX. Radishes. ment. XXX. Rhubarb. X. The Planting Season. XXXII. Spinach. XI. Propagation. XXXII. Squashes. XII. Asparagus. XXXIII. Tomato. XIII. Artichokes. XXXIV. Turnip. XIV. Beans. XXXV. Vegetable Sundries. XV. Beet. XXXVI. Vegetables for Canning and XVI. Cabbage Family. rying. | : XVII. Carrot, Parsnip and Salsify. XXXVII. Seed Growing in California. XVIII. Celery. XXXVIII. Garden Protection. XIX. Chicory. XXXIX. Weeds in California. Fourth Edition—Reyised and Extended Handsomely Illustrated. Cloth Bound COMMENDATION OF “CALIFORNIA VEGETABLES” The work will be found of inestimable assistance to those who are interested in vegetable grow- ing in California, not only on a large scale, but to the large number who cultivate these products for their own consumption.—San Francisco CAL. We take no risk in advising every Californian who has a garden spot to procure a copy.—SAN FRancisco CHRONICLE. Not only interesting but valuable to every one in this State who cultivates ever so small a lot of ground. The author is eminently qualified for the work which he has just completed.—San FRAN- cisco BULLETIN. : It treats of the proper culture of all leading vegetables in California. It is full of information and instruction. It is so clear that whoever uses it as a guide book can not go astray in vegetable culture. The work is freely illustrated and handsomely bound.—SacraMENTO Recorp-UNIon. Covers every part of the State in technical analysis and physical demonstration.—PET- ALUMA COURIER. , It treats of every feature of vegetable production in plain, common-sense terms, and gives reasons for its assertions —Pomona TIMES. Price $2.00, Postpaid Anywhere Address, PACIFIC RURAL PRESS, Publishers, | SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. %, LIBRARY OF CONGRESS iii ey gooo92974eA