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THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
The Nation's Library.
The outstanding feature of the Nation's Library is specialised information by the most capable and competent authorities, and every subject dealt with is brought right up to the point of its relationship to modern life and thought.
Nothing obsolete finds a place in this series ; each book provides ample material for thought in its particular direction and presents knowledge in its most modern dress.
The volumes already issued or in preparation include : —
SOCIALISM AND SYNDICALISM. (3rd Ed.) Philip Snowden, M.P.
SANE TRADE UNIONISM. (2nd Ed.) W. V. Osborne (of the Osborne Judgment).
INDUSTRIAL GERMANY. (2nd Ed.) William Harbutt Dawson.
MODERN VIEWS ON EDUCATION. (2nd Ed.) Thiselton Mark, B.Sc, D.Lit., Lecturer on Education in the University of Manchester.
THE PRACTICAL SIDE OF SMALL HOLDINGS. (2nd Ed.) James Long, Member of Departmental Committee on Small Holdings.
EUGENICS: A SCIENCE AND AN IDEAL. (2nd Ed.) Edgar Schuster, M.A. (Oxon.), D.Sc, Fellow of New College, Oxford.
AVIATION. Claude Grahame-White.
THE CASE FOR RAILWAY NATIONALISATION. Emil Davies (Chairman Railway Nationalisation Society).
THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT. Ethel Snowden (Mrs Philip Snowden).
THE PRINCIPLES OF EVOLUTION. Joseph M'Cabe, Author of The Story of Evolution, Tha Evolution of Mind, etc.
OIL FUEL. Vivian B. Lewes, F.I.C., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. CJ.F. a.
THE NATION'S LIBRARY— Continued
THE CASE AGAINST RAILWAY NATIONALISA- TION. Edwin A. Pratt, Author oi American Railways.
CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR. Hamar Greenwood, M.P., Barrister-at-Law.
THE STORY OF TRUSTS. M. E. Hirst, M.A. (Birm.). With an Introduction by F. W. Hirst, Editor of The Economist.
THE LAND PROBLEM : AN IMPARTIAL SURVEY. By 'Home Counties' (J. Robertson-Scott).
A BOOK OF FOLK-LORE. Rev. S. Baring-Gould,
M.A.
BRITISH COMMERCE: A MODERN SURVEY. H. H. Bassett, Editor Financial Review of Reviews.
BURNS. Rev. Lauchlan MacLean Watt, M.A., B.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A. (Scot.).
TWENTIETH CENTURY INVENTIONS: Chas. R. Gibson, F.R.S.E.
THE STAR WORLD. A. C. de la C. Crommelin, B.A- (Oxon.), D.Sc.
THE MODERN BRITISH NAVY. Commander Charles Robinson, R.N. (Ret.).
CO-OPERATION AND CO-PARTNERSHIP. Lang- ford Lovell Price, M.A., Reader in Economic History in the University of Oxford.
POVERTY AND THE STATE. Geoffrey Drage, M.A. (Oxon.).
MODERN GERMANIC NOVELISTS AND DRAMA- TISTS. Taco H. de Beer.
THE FUTURE OF EGYPT. W. Basil Worsfold, M.A. (Oxon.).
THE RELATIONS OF CAPITAL AND LABOUR. W. T. Layton, M.A.
THE PANAMA CANAL. C. Reginald Enock, F.R.G.S., Author of The Andes and the Amazon, etc.
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2007 with funding from
Microsoft Corporation
http://www.archive.org/details/canadaasimperialOOgreeiala
CANADA
AS AJV
IMPERIAL FACTOR
^6y HAMAR GREENWOOD.M.R
/-
/OXo
PREFACE
^2 One of the most striking features of political
9 life is the feeling of the corporate unity of the
< Empire. No discussioa of general politics in
S the United Kingdom or in the Dominions
is complete unless it takes into consideration
the Imperial bearing of the problems under
o review. This feeling of unity has grown
^ with the wider diffusion of knowledge of the
CO
n Dominions and their ideals and aims.
a The aim of this book is to give the reader a general idea of the Dominion of Canada as a factor in the Empire. After a short review of the history of the country, the constitution and material resources are set out, and the bonds which unite the Dominion
CD
5 to the Empire are examined.
The Author's thanks are due to the High Commissioner (Lord Strathcona) and his staff, to Mr J. Obed Smith, and to the Agents
381693
4 PREFACE
of the Provinces. He has also to acknowledge his indebtedness to the authors whose works are mentioned in the Bibliography. Finally, he would gratefully mention the assistance of his friend, Mr Roland Burrows, M.A., LL.D., Barrister-at-Law, whose untiring efforts have enabled him to complete a task which the calls of a busy Parliamentary Session and professional life would otherwise have pre- vented him from accomplishing.
HAMAR GREENWOOD.
4 Crown Office Row,
Temple, London.
CONTENTS
CHAP. PAGE
I. HISTORY ..... 25
II. THE CONSTITUTION ... 67
HI. ADMINISTRATION ... 95
IT. POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION . 109
V. THE DOMINION AND THE PROVINCES 123
VI. NATURAL RESOURCES . . . 179
VH. TRADE AND MANUFACTURES . .196
Vin. WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS . 211
IX. RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MOTHER
COUNTRY AND THE DOMINION . 241
APPENDIX ..... 258
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..... 261
INDEX ...... 263
INTRODUCTION
It is difficult for an inhabitant of the Mother Country to understand the immensity of Canada. All his ideas of space and distance must be readjusted. Accustomed to the coasts, the journeys, and the intercourse of Europe, he naturally applies the units of the Old World — the size of England, Scotland, and Ireland, France, Germany, and the other countries of Western Europe. Instead of a country, however, he has to consider a continent. Distance resolves itself into thousands of miles, acres become square miles, and journeys are counted by days instead of hours. Everything in Canada is on a titanic scale — even the climate is subject to variations possible, only in a continent.
The coast-line of Canada would surround the world at the Equator, and the waters which wash its shores are of infinite variety. In the extreme north the icefield is never wholly banished ; in the east, the great harbours of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick
8 INTRODUCTION
are free from ice in winter. The climate of the British Columbian coast is as mild as that of England. The coast lines are broken by innumerable inlets, forming splendid harbours. The seas are full of fish — a source of regular employment for 80,000 fishermen. But to the British visitor the rivers and lakes are the greatest surprise. The rivers are mighty straits running through the land for many hundreds of miles; the lakes are inland seas, and bear upon their bosoms a mighty fleet. Far out of sight of land a vessel may be storm-tossed upon waters many hundreds of miles from the ocean.
The mountains may not wholly surprise the Britisher. He has seen the mountains of Europe, and ours offer him nothing that is strange. But if he approaches the West across the prairies, the stern Rockies and the snow-clad Selkirk Range, succeeding to the immensity of the plains, cannot fail to impress him with their grandeur.
If he has come with the idea that Canada is a new country devoid of luxuries and even comforts, he is surprised to find a land whose history stretches back over 300 years, where quiet country life can be enjoyed and men can live wrapped up in the pursuit of learning. If
INTRODUCTION 9
on the other hand he has not given thought to Canada, but comes with European ideas undisturbed, he is astounded at the vigour of the young life, the ease with which the people discard what to him are indispensable neces- saries of life, a sign of vigorous growth which is still far from complete development.
At first he thinks that there are no classes of society. But he soon realises that, while the classes known in Europe do not exist, Canada still has social distinctions, though the line is not drawn as in the Old World. No matter who the man is, he can fill any office, if he be worthy of it ; no matter what his family, he cannot maintain his position unless like his father before him he can ' make good.' Canada has neither time, opportunity, nor desire for the ultra-niceties of the smart set, nor would the women of Canada permit them. Canadians are rightly proud of their whole- some family life.
Again, regarding Canada as a Dominion of the British Crown, the English visitor will discover with unbounded surprise that there are vast districts in which the English, language is rarely spoken — where the people converse in the charming French dialect which was lost to Europe at the Revolution.
10 INTRODUCTION
In matters of administration, the universal application of the rule of self-government is familiar to the new-comer, but he will find it difficult to understand the Constitution. In the United Kingdom the omnipotence of Parliament is as fixed as the laws of gravity, but Canada's Parliament is limited in two ways. Firstly, it can only make laws for Canada so far as the Constitution permits. Parliament is subject to and not above the Constitution. Secondly, Parliament is not the only law-making body in Canada. Each of the nine Provinces has its own Legislature, which can legislate upon the matters en- trusted to it without being controlled by the Dominion Parliament. But every law is not necessarily valid. It can be challenged and pass through the ordeal of a formal trial. Constitutional struggles are carried on in the Courts. It is for the judges to say whether Parliament or the Provincial Legislature has exceeded its powers or not. These character- istics are familiar to peoples living, like Canadians, under a Federal Constitution. South Africa and Australia are united in a similar way. The statesmen of these Dominions have, therefore, a thorough train- ing in the special difficulties which beset a
INTRODUCTION 11
federation — a training which will be invalu- able in determining not only the exact form in which the Empire is to be drawn closer together but also in the administration of its affairs.
A Federal Government must necessarily chafe under the restraint of a rigid Constitu- tion and its inability to deal with questions withdrawn from its competence, however urgently those questions call for answer. Moreover, loyalty to the Dominion coexists with loyalty to one's Province. Sectional feeling is bound to exist even on matters vitally affecting the whole country.
In Canada the framers of the Constitution foresaw the consequences of provincial feeling being carried to excess. Just before the British North America Act was passed, the United States had passed through a terrible war caused by the fact that Congress could not legislate upon any question which was not expressly placed within its competence. The individual States alone could pass laws upon such questions. When the interests of the Republic demanded that one answer alone should be given to the Slavery question, State rights prevented that answer being given until war had decided which side was the
12 INTRODUCTION
stronger. Consequently the British North America Act declared that powers not expressly given to the Provinces should be vested in the Dominion, and also gave to the Dominion a veto over the Provinces.
In Canada, therefore, the struggle has not been, as in the United States, to extend the powers of the Central Government so as to cope with modern problems, but for the Provinces to maintain their position against the strength of the Dominion. Nevertheless the principles are the same, and the same problems arise for decision. Hardly had the Dominion started on its career than stormy questions arose. Manitoba was for years at issue with the Dominion over educa- tional matters, and ultimately won. Quebec has always asserted the rights of the Provinces, and in settling its own problems has steered its own course. Thus the compensation awarded to the Jesuit Order in 1888 was assailed, but upheld; and so late as last year the Province established its right to settle the form of marriage in accordance with the views of its inhabitants. British Columbia, too, has had its disputes, but with less success. I For years it passed statutes against the inhabitants of the East, and as often as these
INTRODUCTION 13
Acts were passed, so often were they dis- allowed. But the Province obtained its wish through the treaty making power of the British Government, and the acute difficulties as to the Japanese in California now before the United States are hardly known in Canada.
The position of Canada as one of the daughter States of the Empire is of great importance. Nearest to the British Isles, and possessing, next to them, the largest white population, it has cordially taken part in the Conferences which have been held since 1887, and which form so important a factor in enabling the statesmen of the Empire to consider Imperial questions at large. Except at the first Conference, Canada has hitherto been represented at these Conferences by Liberal Ministers, who have applied to these problems the principle that every solution must be compatible with the rights of self- government. There is an alternative view now held by many Colonials — namely, that there should, in London, be a centralisation of the greater Imperial forces like the Navy, on the ground that the British Admiralty can do this work infinitely better than a number of scattered Dominions.
14 INTRODUCTION
The principle is important. Sir Wilfrid Laurier has apparently disclaimed any right for Canada at the moment to be consulted on political treaties, because adhesion in any form implies that Canada will be bound to take action if war broke out, and would thus lose her free hand. Thus in the debates on the Canadian Naval programme of 1910 he said, —
If England is at war, we are at war, and liable to attack. I do not say we shall always be attacked, neither do I say that we would take part in all the wars of England. That is a matter that must be determined by circumstances, upon which the Canadian Parliament will have to pronounce and will have to decide in its own best judgment.
And again, during the second reading debate on 27th February, 1913, he said, —
'The conception of the policy which is occupying our attention to-day is based upon the supposed statements of Great Britain; our conception of a policy of naval defence is based upon our faith in the gradual development of the Empire. That is the difference between our policy and that of our opponents. You proclaim to the world your belief that Great Britain cannot fight her battles alone. We proclaim the same belief; but, at the same time, we say, if you want to obtain a true conception of the grandeur of Great Britain, let the young nations
INTRODUCTION 15
of the Empire — let Canada, let Australia, which has already made a beginning, let New Zealand, let South Africa — prepare their own naval defences, and throw around their seaports and their towns and cities a line of effective defence, being ready, should an emergency arise, to take their place in the fighting line. That is our policy, and upon it we challenge the verdict of the Canadian people.
'But, Sir, I have said enough to show that if we cannot support this measure we have nevertheless no intention of folding our arms and saying we have no duty to perform with regard to Great Britain. On the contrary, we have a duty, but our conception of it is different. . . . We must have a policy of some kind, but what policy . . .?
The bearing of these words must not be misinterpreted. As far as the great majority of Canadians are concerned, there is no doubt as to the duty of the Dominion to the Empire. The part that she played in Egypt and South Africa, and the preference granted to British goods manifest the sincerity of the feeling towards the Mother Country. Most Canadians are agreed as to the duty : they differ only as to method. Sir Wilfrid Laurier has expressed his view that the Empire must be drawn more closely together. Thus, on the 12th June, 1897, at Liverpool, he said, —
'As thoughts of separation disappear thoughts of
16 INTRODUCTION
union, of a closer union, take their place. . . . What will be the future of the British Empire? The time may come — the time is coming probably — when the present citizenship of the Colonies, satisfied as they are with it at present, may become inadequate; when the sentiments and aspirations in favour of a closer union will have to be met, and acknowledged, and satisfied. In my estimation, the solution may be found in the old British principle of representation.'
The Right Hon. R. L. Borden, the present Pnime Minister of Canada, emphasised in a recent speech in the House of Commons in Canada the view that Canadians should have a real voice and vote in Imperial matters.
'We say that if we are to remain an Empire we cannot have five foreign policies and five separate navies. We say that the people of the Overseas Dominions cannot be indefinitely excluded from such a voice as may be just in foreign affairs if this Empire is to be continued. Our opponents say : no voice and possible neutrality in time of war; we say: a just voice of all the Dominions in foreign policy and in the concerns of the Empire, and a united Empire to face every peril.'
The total absence of wars directly affecting Canada — in 1915 the celebrations of the Hundred Years' Peace will be held — has resulted in discussions on the subject turning
INTRODUCTION 17
on general principles of government more than is possible in England.
Earlier in the speech Mr Borden said, —
'We all know that up to the present time the Mother Country has practically taken entire charge of our defence upon the high seas, and, if I under- stand aright the utterances of men, not only in the Mother Country but all over Canada, the time seems to have come when certain responsibilities must be undertaken by these great Dominions — and they are not afraid to undertake those responsibilities .'
'I say that the defence of Canada will be by the united naval forces of the whole Empire, and I further maintain that it would be impossible for a single fleet unit on the Atlantic, or a single fleet unit on the Pacific, to defend the shores or coast- line of Canada against such an attack as might be expected if an attack were to take place. On the other hand, if you have the British Navy, the most powerful navy in the world, if you co-operate with it, if you assist in maintaining and building it up, I venture to say that you have arrived, for the present at least, at the best solution of this problem that could possibly be devised, and in support of this I take the clear statement of the Admiralty, that the best way in which Canada can aid the Empire at the present time is by the provision of a certain number of the strongest and most powerful battleships that money can procure or science can devise.'
18 INTRODUCTION
These utterances are of vital importance. They show that in Canada, as elsewhere, public opinion is not yet informed on the question of the joint action of the Empire. We are not yet decided upon the form of a closer union. We say that it is desirable. Our statesmen consult and endeavour to cultivate the closest understanding, but unless the fundamental principle of self-government is to be superseded closer union can only be by elected representatives, and no part of the Empire has yet seriously faced the problem how or in what proportion such representa- tives are to be chosen or what powers are to be surrendered by the Mother Country and the Dominions to enable this to be done. Canadians may be unwilling to sacrifice any of their privileges, but the people of this country cannot realise the cataclysmic change which such a union would involve
The immediate material future of Canada is favourable. Last year over 400,000 new- comers arrived. But there is a tendency for many to settle in the towns, which can only exist as centres for a vigorous agricultural community. Canada needs agriculturalists most of all ; if with capital, so much the
INTRODUCTION 19
better, but willing hands are always welcome. The other countries of Europe have dis- covered Canada, and thousands of aliens flock there every year. The proportion of British population is diminishing. Including immigrants from the United States as British, the percentage of the total population in 1901 was 57, and in 1911 54. It must not be forgotten, however, that this does not include the French Canadians, who form more than two-sevenths of the people. Canada has shown the same power of assimilating for- eigners as the Mother Country. In two genera- tions their descendants have merged in the prevailing English or French population of the district where they have settled. All these incomers make good Canadians; but most of them know not England. They can never be made into Englishmen, but they might become good Imperialists.
There is no doubt that Canada will, as in the past, attract labour from other lands. Capital is also needed. As in most rapidly developing countries, Canada suffers from two opposite evils — lack of capital and too abund- ant capital. Rightly applied, borrowed money consolidates rising industries; but if squan- dered, the day of reckoning may involve not
20 INTRODUCTION
only the delinquents but the whole com- munity. One must say that no country in history has absorbed in remunerative enter- prises as much capital in the same period as has Canada during the past thirteen or four- teen years.
In a notable address recently delivered at the Royal Colonial Institute, Sir Frederick Williams-Taylor, of the Bank of Montreal, said : —
'Acceding to the most reliable English records, Great Britain and Ireland have invested more money in Canada than in any other country — excepting only the United States — the total being approxi- mately £430,449,000, made up as follows : — Dominion Government . . . £50,484,000
Provinces Municipals Railways Miscellaneous
16,700,000
32,327,000
236,129,000
74,809,000
£410,449,000 Sundries not publicly recorded (estimated) 20,000,000
£430,449,000
A huge and growing total ; but as Sir Frederick Williams -Taylor said in the same address : —
INTRODUCTION 21
'Though the sum of money invested in Canada by Great Britain and Ireland aggregates £430,449,000 sterling, and although some £225,043,900 out of that total has been borrowed in the last ten years, Canada's requirements are not yet satisfied, and her demands must continue if this great British Dominion is to be developed. It is true there may be a check to her phenomenal progress, but it will be merely in the nature of a pause. The development of the Dominion with funds from this country and from other countries will continue beyond peradventure, and if I may say so, under proper advice, there is no better field for investment the world over.'
British money is always available for sound business concerns and municipal de- velopment, but not for speculation. Urban land has boomed throughout Western Canada, and the tribe of speculators has inflated the price in many districts, but efforts are made to keep land jobbing within reasonable limits.
There is some indisposition among manufac- turers and wholesale merchants to extend Western credits, and there seems no reason to doubt that any inability to meet payments is explained partly by general land specula- tion. Mr J. C. Douglas, chairman of the Wholesale Dry-goods Section of the Toronto Board of Trade, said, in April, 1918 : —
22 INTRODUCTION
'The banking pressure exercised in the North- West has seriously affected settlements there and throughout Canada generally. People of the highest standing are unable to obtain banking accommoda- tion, and, as a consequence, jobbers have to be con- tent to accept smaller payments than usual and have to grant more and larger extensions. We believe that trade conditions generally are healthy, and that an easing of the money market will make them normal again, and this may be looked for in the near future.'
Sir Edmund Walker, president of the Canadian Bank of Commerce, in a statement to the Toronto News, said : —
'Canada is in a quite abnormal position. While there have been depressions in other countries, Canada has not had a depression since 1893 and the following three or four years. The reason is immi- gration and the consequent building operations. I should say that a period of depression is years overdue. We have been saved by an immigration equalled by no other country in relation to its popu- lation. Completion of the trans-continental rail- ways will mean that men now working as navvies will be put on the land. As a result the foodstuffs which they consumed will be released for export, and in addition these men will produce something in excess of their consumption. Too large a proportion of the immigrants to Canada has not been going on the land. The consumers of foodstuffs have increased at a more rapid rate than the producers of foodstuffs. Branch building will take a considerable number of
INTRODUCTION 23
navvies, but a great many will be released and be able to go on the land.1
Canada inspires all who know her with complete confidence. H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught finely expressed this thought in his speech, April, 1913, to the Canada Club : —
'To those Englishmen who have not been to Canada I can only say the sooner they go there the better. (Cheers.) They will learn how, under British justice and British freedom, the great Dominion is being built up. There is a great future before Canada. It is moving with leaps and bounds. It is difficult to keep pace with the immigration that is taking place.
'We all know and we all admire the magnificent railways that have been built, under such great difficulties and at such great expense, in developing the Dominion. I do not know where Canada would be without those lines. But I hope that, as the rail- ways are pushing forward, so also will the roads push forward. I hope that every year the Govern- ment may see its way to do all they can to promote the great highways which will have such an impor- tant future in Canada.
Canada is a great field for all Englishmen who have a little money and are ready to put their shoulder to the wheel, and my advice to the young English- men is that, if they are prepared to work, and if they are prepared to believe in the country, they will get on splendidly.'
1 Times, 25th April, 1913.
24 INTRODUCTION
What is the future of Canada. First, one may say that she will, as in the past, yield to none in loyalty and devotion to the Empire, unless the indifference or the stupidity of some Home Government drives the Dominion out of the Imperial ambit. This is an actual danger, because Home Ministries are com- posed of men who, by training and environ- ment, are by no means always sympathetic with the vigorous overseas democracies. Secondly, that the immense development of the last fifteen years will continue at an even greater rate than before. Thirdly, that when the Dominion has come into full pos- session of her agricultural and manufacturing resources she will be one of the wealthiest and most populous countries in the world; and, lastly, and most important of all, her sons and daughters will form a united people, second to none in courage, steadfastness, and truth.
Canada as an Imperial Factor
CHAPTER I
HISTORY
Down to the year 1867 the history of Canada comprises four separate stories — that of New France, including Upper Canada, the Maritime Provinces, the Fur-traders of the North and West, and the Whalers and Gold-miners of the Pacific Coast. In that year the * Dominion' came into actual being, and the land started on a new destiny. Hope, which had brightened into promise, has now merged into the light of success.
I. — DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION
For earliest discovery, the strongest claim- ants hailing from Europe are the Vikings. In 986 a.d., Bjarin Hergulfson, driven southward by storms while on the voyage from Iceland to Greenland, sighted land to the West. His news fired Leif, son of Eric, who first
CUP. B
26 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
taught the Gospel in Greenland, to seek this land, and in the year 1000 he coasted the shores of North America, visiting Kelluland (Labrador), Markland (Nova Scotia), and Vineland (Massachusetts).
But the voyages of the Norsemen were mere incidents. They left few tangible proofs of their visits, and for a long time before the discoveries of Columbus the sagas were the only records of these voyages to the New World.
Accurate knowledge commences with the discoveries of the explorers of the Renaissance. Cut off from the trade routes to the East by the Moslems, they sailed to the West in search of Cathay and the Indies, and found instead America.
On March 5th, 1496, Henry VII. granted a patent to John Cabot, a Genoese who had settled in Venice, authorising him to prosecute voyages of discovery. His mariners sighted land on 24th June, 1497, and his * Prima Terra Vista' is probably Cape Bona Vista in Newfoundland. After him came seamen of all nations, one of whom, the Baron de Levy, in 1518, made the first attempt to found a French colony in America. The real discoverer of Canada was Jacques Cartier. In 1534 he visited the St Lawrence
HISTORY 27
and Bay of Chaleurs, where he found the land 'hotter than Spain, and the fairest that could possibly be found.' The following year he sailed up the St Lawrence and visited the Indian villages of Stadacona (Quebec) and Hochelaga (Montreal). His report led the French king to authorise a settlement under de Roberval, as King's Lieutenant, and Cartier, as Captain-General. Their mission was 'to explore, to colonise, and to convert the heathen.' Cartier sailed on his second voyage to Canada in 1541, but his settlement at Cap Rouge proved a failure, and he was already on his return voyage when de Roberval sailed in 1542.
Not for many years did the English compete. Newfoundland, acquired by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, on 3rd August, 1583, became the oldest English colony, and its fisheries afforded a rich return. In the extreme North furs were to be obtained, but at first the lands of the New World round the St Lawrence did not attract the English. They settled principally along the coast of what is now the United States. Moreover, they colonised in separate communities, distinct in religious beliefs and without community of interest, uniting only in face of grave
28 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
danger. Their possessions extended only so far as the needs of a growing population and the opportunities of trade required. They clung to the sea coast, spreading westward only by degrees.
French colonisation, on the other hand, was under the direct supervision of the king, whose agents were quick to see the possi- bilities of empire. No religious differences divided these settlers, for the French Canadians have always been loyal Catholics. They spread rapidly along the St Lawrence to the Great Lakes, and thence southwards to the Mississippi, and onwards to the Gulf of Mexico.
The English settlements were shut in by the French, who thus secured early success. But the French were few in number, and help from France was impossible while the English held the command of the sea. When the real struggle between them began the ultimate issue was inevitable.
In 1609, Champlain, who was deputy for the non-resident Lieutenant-General, com- menced his career as the great coloniser of *New France,' as the district round the St Lawrence was called. Under him the con- version of the Indians proceeded apace, and
HISTORY 29
in 1615 he established friars of the Recollet branch of the Franciscan Order at Quebec, building a fort there in 1620. The year 1625 is notable for the appearance of the Jesuits. In 1627 the Company of One Hundred Associates was formed to carry on the government and develop the resources of the country. It obtained a grant of all rights except the fisheries, the French king Dominating the chief officers.
In 1634 the company built a fort at Three Rivers, and founded a settlement at Montreal in 1642. The company was reorganised in 1645, when the fur trade was thrown open to the settlers, but it failed in its object, and surrendered its charter in 1663. Colbert formed a new company to carry on the work, but this also was a failure, and under an Edict of April, 1663, Canada became a Royal Province of France.
Meantime, the Scottish settlement of Nova Scotia had come into conflict with the French. On the 18th July, 1628, three vessels com- manded by Sir David Kirke gained a victory over the French near Gasp6 Point, and captured seventeen out of eighteen ships. On 22nd July, 1629, he captured Quebec, and held it until 1632, when all French possessions in
30 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
North America were restored by the Treaty of St Germaine-en-Laye. Champlain re- appeared in 1633, and remained in command until his death on Christmas Day, 1635.
Frontenac, the next great colonist, became Governor in 1672, and rapidly extended the power of France to the Great Lakes. His successes over the Indians shook the friend- ship of the Five Nations with the English, and a bitter conflict began which continued almost without a halt until 1760.
The French were gradually closing round the English. Joliet and Marquette discovered the Mississippi on 17th June, 1673, and thus showed the way to La Salle, who descended the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, where he arrived on 9th April, 1682. This led to the French acquisition of Louisiana and the found- ing of New Orleans by de Bienville in 1718.
The New Englanders, on their side, under Phipps, organised an expedition against Quebec in 1690, but it miscarried. An English attack on La Prairie, near Montreal, in 1691, was successful, and Port Royal (Annapolis) was reduced by Nicholson in 1710. The French succeeded in the sack of York (Maine), Feb- ruary, 1692, and on Oyster River, and captured Fort Pennaquid in 1696, but were
HISTORY 31
unsuccessful in attacking Wells (Maine), in June, 1692, as were the English in their expedition to the St Lawrence in 1711. As a precaution against French aggression, the English on 19th July, 1701, acquired the beaver grounds of the Iroquois Indians to the south of the Great Lakes. Self-defence was the spur which drove them to Empire. The Maritime Provinces, then known as La Cadie or Acadia, had a separate history. The first colony was founded by de Mont in 1605, at Port Royal (Annapolis), but his patent was cancelled in 1607 and the settle- ment abandoned. It was soon re-established, but was destroyed in 1613 by Samuel Oxgall, who commanded the forces of the Virginia Company. In 1621, Sir William Alexander (afterwards Earl of Stirling) obtained a Scottish patent from James I. authorising him to colonise Nova Scotia (which then in- cluded New Brunswick), and Gordon obtained a similar patent as to Cape Breton Island, which was styled New Galloway. These grants were confirmed by Charles I. in 1625, but nothing remains of the original Scottish settlements but the name of Nova Scotia, the Order of Nova Scotian baronets founded by James I., and the memory of the capture of
82 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Quebec in 1629; for the Treaty of St Germaine- cn-Laye, 1632, yielded these lands to the French. Cromwell's capture of Acadia in 1654 was undone by the Treaty of Breda in 1667. Aeadia was finally acquired by the English in 1713, by the Treaty of Utrecht.
The northern lands fell to the English. Henry Hudson, who discovered Hudson Bay in 1610, was followed by Button, 1612, Baffin, 1616, and many others. Foxe completed the exploration of Hudson Bay in 1668. The French were attempting to reach Hudson Bay by land, and Albanel succeeded in 1671.
The Hudson Bay Company, formed by floyal Charter on 2nd May, 1670, established Fort Rupert, Fort Hayes or Moose Fort, Fort Albany, and Fort Nelson on the shores of Hudson Bay. The French in Canada formed the rival Compagnie du Nord in 1682. Fighting between these companies imme- diately followed. Several times the French for a period overcame the English, but in 1713 they finally relinquished their claims.
The Treaty of Utrecht, which came into force in 1713, marks a stage in the history of the country. The French possessions were limited to New France and Cape Breton Island, with the He de St Jean (Prince Edward
HISTORY 88
Island). Newfoundland (except St Pierre and Miquelon) and all the land north of New France were left to the English, who also acquired Acadia with its French population. To the west all was undefined, and the Treaty clearly could not end the struggle. The backwoods were the scene of never-ending war, even when there was profound peace in Europe.
Cape Breton Island not only safeguarded the St Lawrence, but menaced Nova Scotia and New England. The New Englanders took up the challenge, and on 17th June, 1745, captured Louisbourg, the stronghold of the island, after a siege of forty-seven days, but their success was nullified by the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748.
Nova Scotia now entered on a new career. In 1749 Halifax was founded, and by 1752 possessed 4000 inhabitants. In 1753 German Lutherans were settled at Lunenbourg. On the other hand, the French inhabitants of Nova Scotia, who could not be expected to be well affected to England, were not properly protected against the machinations of the Governors of New France. Incited by the preaching of a few priests they became hope- lessly disaffected, and at last were deported and scattered about the New England colonies.
34 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
However justifiable this measure may have been, their sufferings call for the sympathy of all, and form the theme of Longfellow's Evangeline.
Meanwhile the French had made good their hold on the country from the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. The upper reaches of that river, still unknown when La Salle made his great voyage down to its mouth in 1682, had been visited in 1700, and the coureurs de bois had heard of the Lake of the Woods and of the Lac des Assiniboines (Lake Winnipeg). De la Verendrye, who commanded the out- post of Nipigon (founded in 1728), on the north shore of Lake Superior, continued these explorations, and in 1743 he saw in the distance a spur of the Rocky Mountains.
In 1749, de Bienville, who had been sent to establish the French control over the Ohio, found English traders there. Conflict at once arose. George Washington, sent to assert the English claims, found in the spring of 1754 that Fort Duquesne (Pittsburgh) had been built to withstand his advance. Next year the home government sent regular troops under General Braddock against the Fort, but his disastrous defeat inflicted a heavy blow on British prestige, which was not
HISTORY 85
removed by the defeat of the French regulars under Dieskau later in the year.
War had not yet been declared when the Canadians captured Fort Oswego in 1756. The French forces were under the com- mand of Montcalm, whose genius triumphed over the English ; and by the end of 1757 they had to admit failure at all points.
But Pitt changed all this. After a second siege of forty-seven days, in which Wolfe distinguished himself, Louisbourg was again captured by the English on 27th July, 1758. The repulse at Ticonderoga was followed by the capture of Fort Frontenac, and in November an English force reached Fort Duquesne only to find that it had been burnt and abandoned by the French. The French were beaten at all points. Help from France was denied them by the English fleet. General Amherst, who commanded the English forces, now assumed the offensive. Just before Christmas, 1758, Pitt named Wolfe to command an expedition against Quebec. It sailed in 1759, and was aided by expeditions from New England. Amherst advanced by Lake Champlain. Johnston, the conqueror of Dieskau, captured Niagara,
86 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
while Haldimand at Oswego beat off the French.
In these straits Montcalm remained at Quebec to withstand Wolfe. The latter obtained command of the river, and, after maturing his plans, landed at Wolfe's Cove on the night of 12th September, 1759. Next morning found him in battle array on the Plains of Abraham. The attack of the French failed, but Wolfe fell in the moment of victory, and his opponent Montcalm was also mortally wounded. This great and memorable victory sealed the fate of Quebec. Mont- calm's lieutenant, de Levis, was at Montreal. He advanced to the aid of the city, rallying the fugitives on the way, but the city sur- rendered on the day when he reached its walls. In the following spring he again advanced, and, after gaining the battle of Ste. Foy, invested the city, but, failing to effect its capture, he raised the siege in May. Montreal then remained the last stronghold of France in Canada, and its capitulation to Amherst on 6th September, 1760, marks the end of the French Empire in America.
By the Peace of Paris, signed on 10th Feb- ruary, 1763, the King of France renounced all pretensions to Nova Scotia, and ceded to the
HISTORY 37
United Kingdom Canada with all its depen- dencies, the island of Cape Breton, and all the islands in the St Lawrence. All the territory to the left of the Mississippi was declared to be British. The British flag waved over the whole coast of North America from Florida to the Arctic seas.
II. — LATER HISTORY (QUEBEC AND ONTARIO)
During a period of eighty years after the fall of Montreal, Canada experienced almost all the constitutional experiments of England. She had been under the despotic rule of the representatives of the French king; military rule followed the events of 1760. After a while civil administration in the hands of nominees of the English kings was substituted, then the legislature was made elective; but with curious blindness the Imperial Parlia- ment failed to perceive that representative government was not the whole secret of the British Constitution. Only after rebellion had broken out in 1837 did the genius of one man solve the problem by pointing out that representative government could not suffice so long as the representatives of the people
38 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
did not bear the responsibility of govern- ment.
The victors found New France under a regime which had been set up by an Edict of April, 1663. The Governor, the Intendant, the Bishop, and the Council held despotic power. The basis of the law was the Custom of Paris, and the Council formed the Supreme Court, hearing appeals from the three Courts of Quebec, Three Rivers, and Montreal. Petty jurisdiction was vested in the seigneurs, whose lands lying along the river front were cultivated by the habitants, who held under them.
Nowhere was there a vestige of popular government; not even a trace of municipal institutions. The Feudal system of France was transplanted to the banks of the St Lawrence.
The military rule established in 1760 by the English was to be replaced as soon as possible by self-government, which was indeed promised by the King's Proclamation of 7th October, 1763. The promised plan was impossible. Roman Catholics were excluded from Parliament in the United Kingdom, and the British Government found it impossible to alter the law for them
HISTORY 89
in Canada, where they numbered 69,000. Moreover, as the troubles which led to the founding of the United States arose and developed, it became highly impolitic to place power in the hands of the English settlers, who then sympathised with the malcontents.
Difficulties arose both as to the law of the land and as to the Roman clergy. The former was settled for the time by an opinion of the English law officers (14th April, 1766), that local customs and usages were to govern questions as to land ; the latter by the informal recognition of Mgr. Briand, who was in 1766 consecrated Bishop of Quebec.
The Quebec Act, 1774, endeavoured to settle these difficulties for ever. The law of Canada was declared to apply to all land except that granted as freehold by the Crown. Wills could be made in French or English form. The criminal law was to be English. The Roman Catholic clergy were confirmed in their rights. The government was vested in a nominated Council, whose number was fixed at a minimum of seventeen and a maximum of twenty-three, with power to levy such local rates as were necessary for purely local purposes.
The American Revolution did not extend
40 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
to Canada. The General Congress at Phila- delphia, in October, 1774, sent an address to the Canadians, and followed it in May, 1775, by attacks on Ticonderoga and Crown Point. But they recognised that Canada could not be compelled to come in against her will. Misled by a report of Philip Schuyler, who had been sent to ascertain the feeling of the Canadians, they made the attempt. Montreal was captured on 13th November, 1775, but an attack on Quebec became a blockade and was finally abandoned.
After the Peace of Paris in 1783, boundary disputes arose between the new Republic and the Canadians. In 1818 the line of the 49th parallel N. latitude was fixed as the boundary from the Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. In 1842 the Ashburton Treaty settled the Maine boundary dispute.
There was little demand for popular govern- ment, but the nominated Council failed to satisfy the needs of Canada. Constant friction arose between the English and French settlers, and with a view to settle the problem of administration the Constitutional Act, 1791, divided Upper from Lower Canada. Lower Canada (Quebec) kept, and still keeps, its French laws and customs. Upper Canada
HISTORY 41
(Ontario), where most of the loyalists had made their home, became subject to English law. Opposition as was natural came from the British minority in Lower Canada. Each had an elected Legislative Assembly, but the executive power remained with the Governor and his Council.
In Lower Canada there was little race hatred and no religious animosity. Until separate churches were built Protestant services were held in Catholic churches. In 1793, when the first Anglican bishop was appointed, there was no Anglican church building in Quebec, and only six clergymen in the Province, but religious differences arose, especially on educa- tional matters. In 1773 the Jesuit estates became forfeited. They were regarded as devoted to education, and, when George III. proposed to confer them on General Amherst, such a storm of protest arose that the project was abandoned. In 1832 they were definitely assigned for the purposes of education, and, consequently, on the formation of the Dominion became the property of the Province of Quebec. In 1888 the Province gave a full monetary equivalent to the restored Jesuit Order.
Lower Canada took her share in the fighting
42 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
with America in the war of 1812. The victory of Chateauguay was won by a force of 900 French Canadians and 50 Indians against overwhelming odds, and Quebec partici- pated in the feelings against the States to which the war gave birth.
The affairs of the Province did not prosper. Religious disputes accentuated racial feeling, and occasioned the founding of a French newspaper in 1806. The Executive was corrupt, but the suggestion, made in 1814, that appointments to the Executive Council should be made from the Assembly was not adopted. Later, the Roman Catholic Bishop was made a member of the Council. In 1818 a civil list was established.
Quarrels arose with Upper Canada over the customs dues. All imports came to that Province through Lower Canada, and conse- quently the customs revenue was divided. In 1819 the existing arrangement came to an end, and no fresh one could be come to. The deadlock raised the question of reunion, and in 1822 a bill to bring about this result was introduced into the British Parliament, but was fiercely opposed by the French Canadians, and supported by very few. Consequently only the settlement of trade disputes was
HISTORY 43
attempted by the Act, which became law as the Canada Trade Act, 1822. It provided that no fresh duty could be imposed without the sanction of Upper Canada, and that the question of the proper proportion due to Upper Canada should be submitted to arbitra- tion. The award (published 23rd July, 1825) fixed that share at one-quarter.
The Executive, largely composed of nominated English officials, failed to secure the confidence of the French Canadians, and ultimately strained their loyalty to the breaking point. The Administration suffered a crushing defeat in the elections of 1827, and a complete deadlock arose. The British House of Commons appointed a Select Committee to consider the best solution, but it occurred to no one to suggest the grant of responsible government.
Electoral reform in 1829 raised the number of the Assembly to forty, but did not reconcile it with the Executive. In 1832 election riots occurred at Montreal, and doubts whether the Constitution was compatible with free govern- ment were suggested. In February, 1884, the Assembly passed a series of ninety-two resolutions which form the French Canadian Declaration of Rights. Racial feeling ran
44 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
high, and the elections of that year were marked by great bitterness. Lord Gosford was sent out with a Royal Commission in 1835, but he utterly failed. Next year the Assembly directly claimed the right of responsible government, and in 1837 the Administration did not dare to call the Assembly together. Rebellion was being preached, in spite of the powerful protests of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Montreal. A riot occurred in that city on 6th November, 1837. Warrants were issued against Papineau, the chief leader, and twenty-five of his associates. Nine were arrested, of whom seven escaped and the other two were rescued. Insurrection at once broke out. The insurgents made a successful resistance at St Denis, but were crushed at St Charles, and the capture of St Eustache on 13th December, 1837, ended the short-lived struggle for responsible government.
Upper Canada had been passing through a similar cycle. At first nothing seemed less likely. About 10,000 loyalists and discharged soldiers settled in Upper Canada between 1783 and 1785 ; most of these came from the United States in order to live and die under the British flag. An Order in Council
HISTORY 45
of 1789 granted to each child of a loyalist 200 acres of land, and every loyalist and his children was to be distinguished by the letters 'U.E.' (United Empire). In 1791 the capital was fixed at Newark ; Toronto became the chief town in 1794.
Soon after the peace, American citizens began to cross the border, and fears arose that annexation to the States would result. In 1798 a steady flow of British immigrants, mostly from the Highlands of Scotland, commenced.
There was much intercourse with the States, but the war of 1812 marked a distinct change. Upper Canada was invaded. The invaders were met with determined opposition. General Brock, the Acting Governor, captured the invaders at Detroit in July, and in October an American force which attacked Queenston on the Niagara River was forced to surrender. In 1813 the chief events were the annihilation of the British lake fleet at the Battle of Lake Erie, and the Battle of Chateauguay. In 1814 the hard-fought battle of Lundy's Lane was claimed by both sides, but the Americans retreated, and no decisive fighting ensued. The war had a double result. It gave the Canadians confidence in them- selves and roused an antipathy against the
46 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
United States which still remains one of the salient factors of Canadian political life.
The government of Upper Canada was administered by a clique called, somewhat inaccurately, the 'Family Compact,' because those in control of the government were very closely related and often connected by marriage. The population was growing, and land colonisation under the Canada Company (founded 1824) and similar con- cerns was proving a great success. The Rideau Canal and the Welland Canal were completed about this period, but much 'jobbery' had marred these undertakings and roused feeling against the governing classes. Under these circumstances, it is not sur- prising that discontent was growing, and though Wm. Lyon Mackenzie's paper, The Colonial Advocate, failed, the feelings which it expressed were acute. Popular government was distinctly claimed in 1828.
Much discontent might have been avoided if the Administration had been wisely conducted, but the Governor and Council disagreed with the Assembly. Supplies were refused, but the only result was the defeat of the discontented at the election of 1884. Matters still remained in this unsatisfactory condition, when, on
HISTORY 47
5th December, 1837, without waiting for a Convention which had been summoned for the spring of 1838, Mackenzie at the head of 500 men marched on Toronto — to meet a crushing defeat.
With rebellion in both Canadas, the Home Government for once acted promptly. The constitution was suspended and the country placed under martial law. Lord Durham was sent out to administer the country, but his chief mission was to find a solution of the problems of government. He stayed barely five months, and resigned righteously in- dignant at the stupidly lukewarm support he was given in the Imperial Parliament. He left the French unconciliated, and the separatist movement in full force. At first sight he failed lamentably, but his triumph has been complete. He was the first to state the principle upon which alone this Empire can be based — that the government must be carried on according to the wishes of the people. In local affairs the Governor must follow, not his own views, not those of the Home Government, but the advice of those whom the people of the colony have chosen as their' leaders.
The Home Government accepted Lord
48 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Durham's advice and decided to reunite the two Canadas. Charles Powlett Thomson (Lord Sydenham and Toronto) was sent out as Governor to inaugurate the new system, but perceiving that the absence of local govern- ment was one of the chief sources of friction, he carried a scheme through the Special Council of Lower Canada. Then a Proclama- tion was issued declaring the Union of Upper and Lower Canada to come into force on 10th February, 1841. The elections were at once held, and a French Canadian was elected Speaker of the first Parliament. One of the first Acts was to provide Upper Canada with a system of local government. Many other useful Acts were passed. A system of Education was established, and a Board of Public Works instituted. The change at once worked an improvement. Immigration had dropped to 8000 in 1838; it now rose rapidly. In 1841 over 28,000 new-comers arrived; in 1842 over 44,000.
Lord Sydenham had completed his task and was about to sail for home when he died on 19th September, 1841.
His successors became involved in diffi- culties which showed that they had not taken to heart the secret which Lord Durham had
HISTORY 49
revealed, and it was not until the appointment of Lord Elgin that the principles of responsible governmentwere admitted in all their bearings. The elections of 1847 resulted in the defeat of the Ministry; he at once sent for the leaders of the victorious party to form a ministry, and loyally acted upon the advice of the leaders of the Parliamentary majority.
The Colony began to pass through serious financial crises, which strained its resources to the utmost. The potato famine in Ireland led to the influx of over 100,000 Irish, whose sufferings called attention to the need of immigration regulations. The British Corn Laws were repealed, and this reversal of the policy of centuries, restated so recently as 1843 in the Canadian Corn Act, caused a great dislocation of trade, which was not alleviated until the repeal of the Navigation Acts in 1849 completed the work of the reformers and threw the St Lawrence open to the shipping of the world.
Politics again came to the fore. Lord Elgin was asked to assent to the Rebellion Losses Bill of 1849, which indemnified rebels as well as loyalists. A storm of protest arose, but Lord Elgin gave his assent. He refused to refer it to the Home Government, nor
C.I.F. 6
50 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
would he veto it, rightly feeling that, as no Imperial question or charge was involved, the principles of responsible government forced him to accept the will of Parliament.
Riots at Montreal only resulted in a change of the seat of government. Parliament then sat alternately at Quebec and Toronto until 1857, when By town was selected as the capital and renamed Ottawa.
Before Lord Elgin departed the Colony had entered on a career of prosperity, aided by the Reciprocity Treaty which he negotiated with the United States in 1854. This treaty established free trade in certain natural products of both countries, gave equal rights of navigation on the St Lawrence, with its canals, and on the Great Lakes, and in addi- tion, reciprocal fishing rights in certain of the territorial waters of both countries. The treaty ceased to have force in 1866, having been denounced by the United States.
Problems of transport also began to attract attention. Samuel Cunard, in 1839, established the first liners to leave England for America. In 1849 Joseph Howe of Nova Scotia ad- vocated a railway from Halifax to the St Lawrence, a plan which was eventually realised by the Intercolonial Railway. The
HISTORY 51
Allan Line began to run to Europe from Halifax in 1852.
The beginnings of protection are visible in the Budget of 1859, which is remarkable for the convincing reply of Gait, the Canadian Finance Minister, to the complaint of the Colonial Secretary that duties were levied on English manufacturers. He strongly main- tained the right of self-governing countries to settle their own fiscal policy.
From 1861 the colony again began to experience difficulties. Responsible govern- ment implies party government, but the elections were so indecisive that no stable Government could be formed. Matters drifted until the Governments of Canada (Quebec and Ontario) seriously took in hand the negotiations which led to the formation of the Dominion.
III. — THE MARITIME PROVINCES
The expulsion of the French settlers in Acadia lefttheMaritime Provinces very scantily populated, but efforts were successfully made to attract settlers on a large scale, and after the Peace of Paris the influx of loyalists from the new American Republic so increased the
52 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
population that New Brunswick was con- stituted a separate colony in 1784.
Nova Scotia has always been in close touch with England. Halifax was until 1909 the headquarters of the North American squadron, and was garrisoned by British troops till 1905. Many Nova Scotians have served in the Royal Navy, and its forests have furnished many a ship. Agriculture and shipbuilding were the sole industries until 1798 when coal was discovered in Pictou County. Educa- tion was fostered by the founding of grammar schools in 1811 and of Dalhousie College in 1841. The feeling of Nova Scotians was strikingly manifested in 1840 when war threatened with the United States over the Maine boundary; the province called up all its militia, and voted £10,000 in support of the Mother Country.
Constitutional questions came to the fore in 1830. For many years the leading man of the Colony was the distinguished patriot, Joseph Howe. The same Council decided executive and legislative matters.
Cape Breton Island, which had a different history from that of Nova Scotia, was united to it in 1773, but separated in 1784. Immigration into the districts of Cape Breton Island was
HISTORY 58
discouraged, and as it was found impossible to form any stable council, the district was again reunited to Nova Scotia in 1820.
The full triumph of responsible government came with the Liberal victory at the poll in 1847. The full recognition of the principle dates from 1848, when the Ministry succeeded in cancelling the appointment (in 1844) of the Governor's son-in-law to the office of Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia. Lord Grey's despatch of 1847 stated the true principles upon which executive as distinct from administrative office should be held.
The coal mines of Cape Breton Island and Nova Scotia were ceded to the Duke of York in 1827, who transferred them to his creditors, and thus from that date till 1857 the General Mining Association controlled all Nova Scotian mines.
New Brunswick is the maritime province of the mainland. Its separation from Nova Scotia in 1784 was due to loyalist immigration. Its history is summed up in the fight for responsible government under the leadership of Lemuel Allan Wilmot. The chief points on which conflict occurred were the position of the Church of England and the allied problem of education.
54 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Prince Edward Island (lie de St Jean), so named in 1798 in honour of the Duke of Kent (father of Queen Victoria), was united to Nova Scotia in 1763, and separated in 1769. The administration in the old colonial days did not trouble overmuch about the advan- tage of the residents. Thus in 1767 nearly the whole of the island was alienated by the Crown to absentees, and all the consti- tutional questions which have arisen con- cerned the relation of the people (to whom a Representative Assembly was granted in 1773) and the landowners. These questions remained acute for many years, and after a Commission had sat in 1860, an Act was passed in 1864 to remedy the grievances of the inhabitants.
IV. — THE DOMINION
In the autumn of the year 1864 delegates from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island met at Charlottetown (P.E.I.), to discuss federation of the Maritime States. Before they had concluded their labours, the Ministry of Canada invited their adherence to a larger scheme — the federation of British North America. Accordingly delegates from
HISTORY 55
these colonies and Newfoundland met at Quebec in 1865 to consider the question. It was resolved to form a federation, not a com- plete union, and the decisions of the Conference were embodied in seventy-two resolutions and were adopted unanimously. Nevertheless matters did not progress smoothly. An election in New Brunswick turned out the provincial Ministry, and the legislature of Prince Edward Island repudiated the action of their Government, while Newfoundland stood aloof and has remained so ever since.1
The new Ministry in New Brunswick resolved to make an intercolonial railway a condition precedent to any union. Not until November 7th, 1866, did the delegates sail for England, but their efforts were so successful that the British North America Act, 1867, was passed, and July 1st, 1867, was fixed for the union to come into force.
One remarkable feature about the Act is that there is no formal recognition of the principle of responsible government. As in England, the system is allowed to rest on practice. Another feature is that the central
1 In 1895 Newfoundland applied to be admitted to the Dominion, but the Canadian Government did not accept the proposal.
56 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
legislature has the general power of legisla- tion; the provincial legislatures may only legislate upon local topics specially mentioned in the Act. The consequence is that the struggle has been to establish provincial claims against the federal government, instead of the claims of the federal government against state rights as in the United States and Australia.
The federation did not start under favour- able auspices. Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island agitated first against the measure and then for its repeal. Economic problems added to the difficulties of the Government, for in 1865 the United States had denounced the Reciprocity Treaty, which accordingly came to an end in 1866, and in the following year an abortive Fenian raid from Buffalo intensified the Canadian feeling against the United States.
The Union was not complete. It merely federated Canada (i.e. the two provinces, Quebec and Ontario) and the Maritime Provinces. The Dominion soon acquired the rights of the Hudson Bay Company, and in 1870 the Province of Manitoba was created. British Columbia joined the Dominion in 1871, stipulating for a trans-continental railway.
HISTORY 57
The necessary condition of Canadian pro- sperity— that it should extend from sea to sea — was thus fulfilled. The Treaty of Washington, 1871, settled all outstanding disputes with the United States, including the Canadian fisheries and the boundary of British Columbia. Prince Edward Island was admitted into the confederation in 1873. In this year the Government of Sir John A. Macdonald, United Canada's first premier, was defeated at the general election, and Alexander Mackenzie formed the Liberal Government that lasted until 1878, when Sir John A. Macdonald again carried the country. The fiercest controversy raged about the building of the Canadian Pacific Railway. Half Canada then derided the idea of this great transcontinental system. Ultimately a contract was signed in 1881, and success was achieved through the energy and perseverance of Lords Strathcona and Mount Stephen.
Although protectionist leanings are clearly visible in the Budget of 1859 of the Province of Canada, to which reference has already been made, the Canadians were not yet committed to that system. The loss of the Reciprocity Treaty and the difficulties of
58 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
negotiation with the Americans led to attempts to make Canada commercially independent of the States, and with a view to this end Sir John A. Macdonald, in March, 1878, moved a resolution embodying what has become the fiscal policy of Canada, viz., the protection of agricultural, mining, and manufacturing industries by taxing at a high rate all imported articles manufactured or likely to be manufactured in Canada. This 'National Policy,' as it was called, swept the Liberals out of office.
Negotiations with the United States, how- ever, still went on. Thus in 1887 much discussion took place on a proposed customs union with the States. In 1891 the Conser- vative Government at first put reciprocity on its programme, but soon changed front. It was found that the United States would not agree to reciprocity in natural products only, as was the case in 1854, but insisted on certain manufactures being included, and further, that Canada should give the States pref- erence against Great Britain. The M'Kinley Tariff tended to put the nations further apart. In 1896 the Liberals under Sir Wilfrid Laurier came into office, but all chance of agreement with the Americans was wrecked when the
HISTORY 59
Alaskan ooundary question became acute. In 1897 the Liberal Government inaugurated a system of preference to British goods, and this was further extended in 1907. In 1911 the Liberals negotiated a Reciprocity Treaty with the States, but the election resulted in their defeat on this question.
Questions of inter-provincial boundaries have been rare. In 1878 the Ontario- Manitoba boundary was settled by arbitrators, but no action was taken on it, and the Privy Council held it to be of no effect, as the Do- minion Parliament had not passed an Act confirming it. In 1889 the Home Parliament passed an Act to enable a settlement to be arrived at, but it was not till February, 1897, that a harmonious settlement was reached. This has again been altered to enable Manitoba to have a boundary on Hudson Bay to include Churchill, the terminus of the Canadian Northern Railway.
In 1904 the idea of a Canadian Navy took its rise. Even now the principles upon which it is to exist are not settled, the matter being still a matter of acute dispute between the two parties.
In 1905 the Provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta were carved out of the North-
60 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
West Territories, which had been organised together with Yukon Territory in 1898. In 1911 proposals were made for the inclusion of the Bahamas, with which the Dominion has an important trade, as a province, but so far nothing has been done. In April, 1912, the northern boundaries of the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba were ex- tended to the far north.
V. — THE PRAIRIE AND THE PACIFIC COAST
Soon after its formation the Hudson Bay Company extended its operations south and west, covering the land with a chain of posts. Its difficulties with the French Compagnie du Nord ceased after the Treaty of Utrecht, 1713, but it still had the competition of the voyageurs who penetrated to the West in search of furs. This irregular trade chiefly in furs brought in an annual income of over 1,000,000 dollars, and these traders, in order to prevent rivalry among themselves and to capture the trade of the Hudson Bay Company, formed a new company, the North- West Company, which in 1787, after a kind of private war, absorbed all the Canadian fur-traders.
HISTORY 61
In 1789 Alexander Mackenzie, who was their agent in charge of the Athabasca District, set out on a journey of discovery, in which he visited the Great Slave Lake, Great Slave River, and Mackenzie River. In 1793 he crossed the Rocky Mountains for the first time, reaching the Pacific on 22nd July, 1793.
Dissensions between the fur-traders again broke out, and in 1805 the X Y Company entered the lists. The fierce rivalry of the companies led to the demoralisation of the Indians. Under the influence of drink, which, as well as fire-arms, they could obtain in exchange for furs, they rapidly diminished in numbers, being unable through their ex- cesses to withstand the rigours of the winter or the strange diseases which they contracted from Europeans.
At this time no settlements existed, for the companies did nothing more than establish trading posts. Indeed, permanent settle- ments were harmful to the fur trade. In 1802 Lord Selkirk came to the conclusion that the land could support Europeans, and formed the plan of settling crofters from the Highlands. In spite of the opposition of the North-West Company, Selkirk secured a large grant of
62 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
land on the Red River, and named it Assini- boia (better known as the Red River Settle- ment). Settlers arrived in 1812 and 1814, but the opinion of Upper Canada was strongly in favour of the North -£Vest Company. In 1814 a quarrel broke out and most of the colonists were persuaded to leave. Indians were set on the others, and they were leaving the district when they were persuaded to return. In 1816 they were attacked by the North- West Company and driven off, but in 1817 Lord Selkirk took vigorous steps to punish the criminals. He came to terms with the Indians, but the North- West Company was too powerful for him. Most of the warrants he obtained were never executed, while he himself was convicted of opposition to lawful arrest. Nevertheless the settlement was never entirely abandoned, and his foresight has been abundantly justified since. In 1834 his interests were reacquired by the Hudson Bay Company.
In 1821 the Hudson Bay and North- West Companies amalgamated, and new head- quarters were fixed at Fort Vancouver in 1825. Meanwhile the Oregon dispute was raging, and not until 1846 was the boundary to the Rockies extended to the Pacific, and the sea
HISTORY 63
boundary so fixed that Vancouver island fell to Great Britain. In 1848 the Hudson Bay Company acquired this island, but its ad- ministration was admitted to be a failure. In 1857 the Red River Settlement alone remained independent of the fur trade. In fact, the interests of the Company could not be in favour of colonisation while Americans were spreading over the border and causing alarm as to the possible fate of the southern area between the Great Lakes and the Rockies. In 1857 a Committee of the British House of Commons considered the problem, and after hearing witnesses, one of whom (Chief Justice Draper, Upper Canada) advocated a railway across the continent, the Committee reported in favour of ceding the Red River and Saskatchewan districts to Canada and separating Vancouver Island from the Com- pany's control. In fact, a legislature was set up in Vancouver Island in 1856.
But before the report was published circum- stances changed. Gold was discovered on the Fraser River in 1858, and a great influx of prospectors made it impossible for the Hudson Bay Company to administer the district west of the Rockies, then known as New Caledonia, and it was organised into
64 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
a Crown colony under the name of British Columbia in November, 1858. Representa- tive government was demanded in 1861, and the only ground for refusing it was the doubt whether the population was sufficiently settled to remain after the gold fever had abated. In 1865 a movement for union of the two new colonies began, and was successful in 1866.
Meanwhile the old Hudson Bay Company had given way to a new Company, which abandoned the old ideals, and was ready to permit settlement at Fort Garry (Winnipeg). The idea of union was much in the air, and it was recognised that Canada must make good its hold on the prairies before it was too late. Federation between self-governing colonies and the Company was impossible, and the only solution was the cession by the Company of its regalities. A private arrangement was come to, and approved by an Imperial Act, and in November, 1869, the Company became a land and trading company, as it is at present.
The Indians and half-breeds of the prairies had all this time been discontented, and events led to rebellion. The annexation of 1st December, 1869, transferred to Canada the western lands before organisation was possible. Consequently, when the half-breeds rose
HISTORY 65
under Louis Riel, a half-breed Indian, there was no opposition to his provisional govern- ment. Riel set up a dictatorship, and mur- dered one of the attacking party. In May, i
1870, Lord Wolseley advanced to overcome the revolt, and by August had reached Fort Garry, when he found that Riel had fled. The Canadian Parliament had already arranged to create the Province of Manitoba, when in June a formal transfer of Ruperts Land and the North- West Territories was effected by Order in Council.
British Columbia came into the Union in
1871. In 1872 the final award of the German Emperor ended the dispute as to the water boundary of British Columbia and the United States.
The history of the West is mainly one of development. The founding of the Canadian Pacific Railway made settlement profitable, and united Canada in a manner that was impossible when the trackless prairies and rivers alone formed the means of communica- tion. The omission to provide for the half- breeds of the Territories in the same way as in Manitoba led to the short-lived rebellion of 1885, in which Riel suffered the fate of un- successful rebels.
66 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The great discoveries of gold in the Yukon area in 1897 led to disputes as to the Alaskan boundaries, which were settled in 1906 in a manner which aroused great feeling in Canada. It also led to the reorganisation of the Terri- tories in 1898, and the great influx of settlers rendered necessary the creation of the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905.
Canada has now entered into a period of prosperity. The fertility of the land has been demonstrated, but hard work is necessary to fit it for the race which has made its home there. A few years ago this great western country was known only to the hunter and trapper. Now, the pick of European and American emigrants are tilling their farms. Converting this great continent into farms and factories is a task which calls for all the courage, endurance, and fortitude that lies in man. Those who succeed emerge from the struggle, not only gainers materially, but fitted morally and physically for the imperial destiny which is their proud heritage.
THE CONSTITUTION 67
CHAPTER II
THE CONSTITUTION
The Constitution of the Dominion must be considered from two points of view. First, in its relation to the Empire; and, secondly, in its local bearing.
As one of the countries forming part of the Empire, the Dominion owes allegiance to the King. Its relations with foreign powers are entrusted to the Imperial Government. Amendments in its Constitution are made by the Imperial Parliament. The attitude of mind towards the Colonies has profoundly changed. At first their affairs were controlled by agents of the Imperial Executive; then, as they grew, they were given control of their own; now that they have gained experience, the vital problem is to settle the terms upon which they shall be admitted into the Councils of the Empire, so that they shall bear their part in guiding its destinies.
In all external matters the King is advised by the Home Government, upon whom lies
68 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the responsibility of settling the foreign affairs of the Empire. All communications having reference to the relations of the Dominion with foreign powers must pass through the hands of the Imperial Foreign Minister and of the Ambassadors, who are the King's repre- sentatives abroad. Nevertheless, these affairs are not arbitrarily decided. Upon matters which concern the Empire as a whole the Imperial Government reserves the sole right of decision; but, wherever possible, the opinion of the Dominions is obtained beforehand. Matters which concern the direct relations of a Dominion with a foreign State stand on an entirely different footing. Negotiations may be conducted in one of two ways. Either the Dominion Government discusses the ques- tions informally with the Consul-General of the State in question, and, on agreement being arrived at, the arrangement is then formally made through the accredited repre- sentatives of the King; or else the negotiations are carried on by the British Ambassador, with the assistance of persons delegated by the Dominion for that purpose.
It has been suggested that Canada should have power to make treaties, and also that foreign consuls in the Dominion should have
THE CONSTITUTION 69
diplomatic status, but so far nothing has been done. The existing arrangement has worked fairly well, and the complaints in the British House of Commons that Mr Bryce, in 1911, neglected Imperial interests during the Reci- procity negotiations with the United States are without foundation. In Canada a new office, that of Under-Secretary for External Affairs, was created in 1909. He works under the Prime Minister.
Communications between the Home Govern- ment and the Dominion pass through the Governor-General. Nevertheless Canada is not unrepresented in Great Britain. In 1879 Mr Gait was sent to England as Minister Resident, with the title of High Commis- sioner. The holder of this office has official status. The Provinces have also Agents- General, who have no official position, a fact which has at times given rise to some com- plaint.
The Dominion has the legislative limita- tions of a State with a denned Constitution. Theoretically, the Home Parliament has full legislative power over Canada, but this power is not exercised as a matter of course. It is used to bring about changes desired by Canada which are beyond its powers. Thus
70 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
doubts having arisen as to the validity of the Canadian Act which made Manitoba a province, an Imperial Act in 1871 set those doubts at rest. Federation itself was legally impossible without an Imperial Act. Imperial legislation is also passed to solve problems which affect the interests of the Empire. It is doubtful how far Canadian legislation is valid as to matters outside the limits of the Dominion, but this interesting problem is too wide to discuss here. The Colonial Laws Validity Act, 1865, lays down certain canons to which such legislation must conform, but it is correct to say that in Canadian matters the Dominion or the Provincial Legislature is supreme.
The King's representative in Canada is the Governor-General. He is at the same time an Imperial officer and the head of the Dominion. The selection of this officer is entrusted to the Home Government, but it is safe to say that no appointment will ever be made which is likely to be obnoxious to Canadians. In his absence the Chief Justice or, failing him, the senior judge (as happened in 1910) acts. The salary of the Governor- General is fixed at £10,000 a year, and he is provided with an official staff and a private
THE CONSTITUTION 71
secretary, who is appointed by the liovernor- General but paid by the Dominion.
His appointment is made by Letters Patent under the Great Seal, and is accompanied by instructions under the royal sign manual and signet. It is therefore not correct to say that he represents the King as deputy, for his powers are limited not only by the legislation concerning his office, but also by his instruc- tions. He is liable to legal proceedings if he exceeds his authority. Moreover, there are vague limitations to his power. He can- not exercise all the royal prerogatives. Thus he has no right to coin money, or grant charters of incorporation, or confer honours. The question, however, is not fully settled, as it is not clear how far some of the pre- rogatives of the Crown can be exercised in the Dominions at all.
His relations with the Legislature have already been touched upon. One great difficulty in the period of transition from Crown Colony to responsible government is that in the former the Governor is in fact as well as in law the head of the government of the Colony, and it is difficult to gauge the exact moment when he should step aside and register the opinions of the leaders of the
72 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
dominant party in local matters. He must, of course, reserve all bills which he is directed to reserve, or in which Imperial interests are involved, but responsible government is impossible unless the Governor-General is willing to be guided by the opinion of Ministers who command the support of the Legislature.
It follows then that in normal times the Governor-General must content himself with his honourable position. He is not, however, a mere figurehead. He is entitled to be informed beforehand of the intentions of the Ministry and to offer his opinion. His influence may be powerful, none the less so because he keeps within his con- stitutional position. As a rule he does not attend meetings of the Privy Council. Orders in Council are passed and then are submitted to him for approval privately. His most difficult and delicate task is to decide when to grant or refuse a dissolution at the request of Ministers, and it is the grave danger of a false step which renders it difficult to appoint members of the Royal Family to this office. An ordinary subject may step aside without exciting comment when his career of usefulness ends.
THE CONSTITUTION 73
Cases like the dissolution of 1891, which gave the Macdonald Administration a new lease of power, are sure to give rise to charges of unfairness. In 1896 another difficulty arose. The Ministry of Sir Charles Tupper was badly beaten at the election, but pending the session retained office. The Ministry con- tinued to act as if its tenure was secure, and Lord Aberdeen found it necessary to refuse to accept the advice of Ministers. The im- mediate consequence was a change of Ministry. Canada has, On the whole, been singularly free from difficulties of this kind, and its settled constitutional practice merited the honour of the appointment of H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught as Governor-General in 1911.
The Constitution set up by the British North America Acts is a federation of existing colonies. As a consequence, in every Province two bodies exercise sovereign powers. The Provinces and the Dominion each have their spheres of government, which are mutually exclusive. Many points of difficulty have arisen as to the exact division of powers between them. It was early settled that the Provinces were in no sense delegates of the Dominion. Owing to
C.I.F. D
74 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the provision of the Act of 1867, that the residuary powers are vested in the Dominion, the struggle has been for the Provinces to assert their rights against the Dominion, rather than, as in the United States and, Australia, for the central body to seek to extend its limited sphere of activity.
The Constitution implies the existence of two strong parties, and Canada has been fortunate in having them. The Dominion came into being with a Conservative Ministry, under Sir John Macdonald, to whom the cause of federation owed so much. In 1873 the Liberals came into power and held it till 1878. The Conservatives in their turn suc- ceeded in holding office until 1896, and then gave way to the Liberal Administration which fell in 1911. The periods of six, five, eighteen, and fifteen years show that the political feeling of the country is steady, a remarkable circumstance in view of the enormous change there is in the electorate between the elections. There are, of course, sectional parties. The Nationalists have a large follow- ing in Quebec, and Socialist candidates have appeared. The Conservative Party has been more protectionist than the Liberal Party, which has the credit of granting preference to
THE CONSTITUTION
75
English goods, and has attempted to obtain reciprocity with the United States. It has also supported provincial rights. The elec- tion of 1911 was fought on reciprocity, and the Conservatives won. Since then the ques- tion of the Navy and Imperial defence, which in 1909 was not a matter of disagreement, has given rise to acute differences of opinion, which will be dealt with elsewhere. The result of the election was a surprise; few expected it to be so sweeping.
|
Pbovince. |
Dissolution. |
AftebE |
LECT |
|
|
l. |
C. |
L. |
C. |
|
|
Ontario . . |
. 38 |
50 |
.. 13 |
73 |
|
Quebec . . |
. 53 |
12 |
.. 38 |
27 |
|
Nova Scotia . |
. 12 |
6 |
.. 9 |
9 |
|
New Brunswick |
. 11 |
2 |
8 |
5 |
|
Prince Edward Island 3 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
|
|
Manitoba |
2 |
8 |
2 |
8 |
|
Saskatchewan . |
9 |
1 |
9 |
1 |
|
Alberta . |
4 |
3 |
6 |
1 |
|
British Columbia |
2 |
5 |
0 |
7 |
|
Yukon . |
1 |
0 |
.. 0 |
1 |
133
88
87 134
The voting was — Conservatives, 669,577; Liberals, 625,096; Independents, 7177; Socialists, 8912; Labour, 1742. There were four unopposed returns.
In the Provinces, on the whole, political conditions have been steady, but there have been some unfortunate exceptions. Nova
76 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Scotia and Quebec have been Liberal, Prince Edward Island is now Conservative after a long period of Liberal predominance. Since 1900 Manitoba, since 1903 British Columbia, since 1905 Ontario, and since 1908 New Brunswick have been Conservative; Saskat- chewan and Alberta (election, April, 1913) are Liberal. The general tendency is for the party in opposition in the Dominion Parlia- ment to have the upper hand in the Provincial Legislatures. At present the chief point of difference between the Provinces as a body and the Dominion is the veto on pro- vincial legislation which the Provinces desire to abolish.
The Governor-General, the Privy Council, and the Houses of Parliament exercise the constitutional powers of the Dominion. The Act of 1867 set up a Privy Council upon the model of the British Privy Council; Executive Acts are carried out by Order in Council. As in Great Britain, the Privy Council com- prises persons who are not in the Cabinet, although all Cabinet Ministers are Privy Councillors. The Governor-General has ceased to preside, and he simply approves and signs Orders in Council after they have been passed by the Council.
THE CONSTITUTION 77
The Cabinet consists of fifteen Ministers, who hold definite offices, with three Ministers without portfolio.1 All are sworn of the Privy Council. There is nothing in the Constitution which requires them to be mem- bers of Parliament — the only provision is that members upon entering the Ministry must seek re-election. Nominally the Governor-General selects the persons who are to hold the offices created by law, and he is not bound to create a Prime Minister or to take all his Ministers
1 The first Cabinet had thirteen Ministers (five from Ontario, four from Quebec, two from Nova Scotia, and two from New Brunswick). They were : Minister of Justice and Attorney-General, Minister of Militia, Minister of Customs, Minister of Finance, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Inland Revenue, Minister of Marine and Fisheries, Postmaster-General, Minister of Agriculture, Secretary of State of Canada, Receiver-General, Secretary of State for the Provinces, and President of the Council. In 1878 the Liberal Ministry consisted of twelve Ministers with portfolio and two without. In 1873 the Secretary of State for the Provinces was abolished and the Minister of the Interior came into being. In 1879 the Receiver- General was abolished and the Department of Public Works was divided into two — Public Works and Railways and Canals. In 1909 a Minister of Labour was appointed. Mr Borden's Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, who is also President of the Council, Minister of Justice, Minister of Militia and Defence, Minister of Customs, Minister of Finance, Minister of Public Works, Minister of Railways and Canals, Minister of Inland Revenue, Minister of Marine Fisheries and Naval Affairs, Postmaster-General, Minister of Agriculture, Secretary of State, Minister of the Interior, Minister of Trade and Commerce, and Minister of Labour, and three without portfolio. The Solicitor-General is sworn of the Privy Council, but is not of the Cabinet.
78 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
from one party. Since 1847, however, the constitutional practice has been followed. The Governor-General calls upon the leader of the party which he believes to command a majority in the House of Commons to form a Ministry. If he accepts and succeeds, he is the head of a Government which depends for its existence on the continued support of the majority of the House of Commons, and that majority exists only so long as it enjoys the confidence of the electors.
Parliament consists of two Houses, the Senate and the House of Commons.
The Senate was intended to fulfil the constitutional functions of the House of Lords in the United Kingdom, but it cannot be said to have succeeded even as well as the latter institution. The original number was 72 (Quebec, 24; Ontario, 24; New Brunswick, 12; and Nova Scotia, 12), and power was given to add not more than six additional members. By additions the num- ber is now 87 (Quebec, 24; Ontario, 24; New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, 10 each; Manitoba, Prince Edward Island, Alberta, and Saskatchewan, 4 each; and British Columbia only 3).
The qualification is both by age and
THE CONSTITUTION 79
property. Each Senator must be resident in the Province for which he sits, and in Quebec in the electoral division which he represents, but residence at the capital for duties as a Minister is permitted. Senators are nomi- nated by the Governor-General on the advice of the Cabinet, and hold office for life or until resignation. The consequence is that on a change of Government the Senate has been found full of the opponents of the new Ministry, which is forced to redress the balance by appointing adherents to vacan- cies, and in a short time it is found that a Government majority has been acquired, and serious opposition to the Government ceases to be feared.
The result has not raised the prestige of the Senate, and men with Parliamentary ambitions seek election to the House of Commons. The Conservative Government which demitted office in 1896 is only accused of having nominated one Liberal as a Senator, and Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government which succeeded and lasted till 1911 is stated never to have nominated any Conservatives at all. The present figures, when vacancies are filled up, are — Liberal, 50; Conservative, 37. This majority, by rejecting
80 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the Navy Bill, has not only caused consider- able embarrassment to the Conservative Government, but has created a constitutional crisis bearing a striking analogy to that created in the Home country in 1909 by the House of Lords refusing to pass the Finance Bill of that year.
Reform of the Senate has been mooted for a long time, and it is not to be expected that the problem will be evaded much longer. Some provision for overcoming a vote in the Senate adverse to the Government, either by passing the rejected measure a second time through the House of Commons or by adding to the numbers of the Senate, is certain to be proposed. Another possible measure would be to make the Senate elective, and abolition is sure to be suggested.
The Navy Bill has therefore resulted in a discussion, not merely of Canadian defence, but also of the relations of the Dominion with the Mother Country, has caused a constitu- tional crisis which will probably lead to a revision of the Senate and of its position in relation to the House of Commons, has re- sulted in a drastic revision of the rules of procedure in the House of Commons, and has embittered party feeling. A result not
THE CONSTITUTION 81
intended by the Liberal party has been the acceleration of the Imperial Naval programme by the Home Government.
The House of Commons is composed of 221 members. The original scheme consisted of 181 members (Quebec, 65; Ontario, 82; New Brunswick, 15; and Nova Scotia, 19), and provided that every decennial census should be followed by a reassignment of seats. Quebec is to have 65 members always, and each of the other States so many as bear the same proportion to its population as 65 does to the population of Quebec.1 The Provinces send 221 members as follows: — Quebec, 65; Ontario, 86; New Brunswick, 13; Nova Scotia, 18; Manitoba, 10; British Columbia, 7; Prince Edward Island, 4; Alberta, 7; Saskatchewan, 10; and Yukon Territory, 1. On the figures of the 1911 census the Western Provinces sent one member for every 49,739 inhabitants, and the Eastern Provinces one for every 29,376. 2
x The Act for extending the boundaries of Quebec provides that the population of Quebec for this purpose shall only include those resident in the old part of the Province.
2 Redistribution will add 11 members on balance. The figures will be Quebec 65, Ontario 82, New Brunswick 11, Nova Scotia 16, Prince Edward Island 8, Manitoba 15, Alberta 12, Saskatchewan 15, and British Columbia 12.
82 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The franchise is regulated by the Provinces. The Dominion has power to legislate on this topic, and did so in 1885; but the Acts did not give satisfaction, and were repealed in 1898. The franchise, therefore, varies in each Province, and differs in minute details. As a rule there is a property qualification, but it is fixed so low that hardly any respectable citizen is without a vote. It is almost manhood suffrage.1 Plural voting survived in Quebec until after the election of 1911, and open voting was not abolished in Prince Edward Island till 1913.
As in England, the House of Commons is the mainspring of the Constitution. The parties in the House are well defined, and at present differences of principle exist between them. The Government leads the House, which is presided over by the Speaker, but the control is not so rigid as in the British House of Commons, and decorum is regulated by a slightly different standard. Thus in Canada singing during important divisions is not un- known. The debates are maintained at a high
1The question of women's suffrage is a provincial question, mainly in Quebec and Ontario. Nowhere in Canada do women have the Parliamentary franchise. It is most unlikely that the Dominion Parliament will ever deal with it.
THE CONSTITUTION 83
level, one of the best being the debate on the second reading of the Navy Bill, 1913. Subsequent debates have been less orderly.
Financial legislation has since 1840 been proposed on the responsibility of Ministers in the House of Commons, and, as everywhere in the self-governing Dominions, levying taxation without an Act of Parliament is illegal. The privileges of members are regu- lated by Canadian Acts under the authority of an Imperial Act of 1875, which gave full power to legislate, provided the privileges conferred do not exceed those of the British House of Commons in 1867. The language used may be French or English. English was made the official language in Canada in 1840, but the disability so created was repealed in 1848, and the British North America Act, 1867, s. 133, provides for the use of both languages. Dominion Acts and Quebec Acts are, therefore, printed both in French and English. The closure did not exist in 1912. There was a great deal of obstruction by the Conservatives during the reciprocity struggle in 1911. The determined opposition of the Liberals during the Navy debates of 1913 resulted in the closure of the Navy Bill. There is no time limit on
84 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
speeches, but one was imposed for debating the later stages of the Navy Bill.
The Speaker has a casting vote, but in the Senate the President has none. There, as in the House of Lords, a motion is lost unless there is a majority in favour. In the House of Commons the quorum is 20.
There are disqualifications not found in Great Britain. Thus members of Provincial Legislatures cannot belong to the Dominion Parliament, and vice versa. The salary of Senators and members is $2500 per annum, and a pass on all railways. Deductions are made for non-attendance.
Election petitions are tried by the Courts.
There is no provision for settling disputes between the Houses, and up to 1913 the need for it was hardly felt. Some provision ought to be made.
The Province. — As already stated, the Constitution of Canada gives the residuary legislative power to the Dominion Parlia- ment, and Provinces therefore have to struggle to increase their powers. The control of the Dominion Government is even more complete. The Lieutenant- Governor of the Province is named by the Governor-General, on the advice of the
THE CONSTITUTION 85
Dominion Ministry. He holds office for five years, but can be dismissed for cause given. The high character of the persons chosen for the office has resulted in singularly few disputes. The incidents of Mr Letellier in Quebec, in 1878, and of Mr M'Innes in British Columbia, in 1900, are striking exceptions.
The powers of the Provinces are by s. 92 of the British North America Act limited to sixteen topics.1
Although the Act was drawn with great care to avoid overlapping, disputes have been frequent, in spite of the fact that Provincial laws may be disallowed by the Governor- General in Council. One of the earliest points decided was that within its sphere the
1 The Amendment of the Provincial Constitution (except as to the Lieutenant-Governor); direct taxation for revenue for Provincial purposes; borrowing on the credit of the Province; Provincial offices (tenure, appoint- ment, and payment); Public Lands of Provinces; Public and Reformatory Prisons in and for the Province; Hospitals, Asylums, Charities (except Marine Hospitals); Municipal Institutions; Licences (shop, saloon, auctioneer, etc.) for Provincial, Local, or Municipal purposes; Local Works and Undertakings (but not shipping, railways, canals, telegraphs, etc., extending beyond the Province, nor works which are wholly within the Province, if declared by the Dominion Parliament to be for the general advan- tage of Canada or of two or more Provinces); Incorpora- tion of Companies with Provincial objects; Solemnisation of Matrimony; Property and Civil Rights within the Province; Administration of Justice in the Province; and generally all matters of local or private nature. Ss. 93-95 make special provision for matters of special
86 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Provincial Legislature is sovereign, and in no sense dependent upon the Dominion Parlia- ment. The Privy Council reports are full of discussions of Provincial powers, one of the latest being the exact force of the power conferred to make laws as to the solemnisa- tion of matrimony.1
The financial regulations of the Dominion and the Provinces are complicated. The Dominion was given all duties and revenues existing at the date of the Union so far as not reserved to the' Provinces. Speaking generally, local assets remained Provincial property. Upon the Consolidated Revenue Fund of Canada, which consists of all revenues of the Dominions, are charged first the
difficulty. By s. 93 the Provincial Legislatures have exclu- sive legislative rights over Education, but not so as to prejudice the rights of any denominational school existing in 1867. In Upper Canada the rights of Roman Catholic Bchools were extended to all dissentient schools. Where any system of separate or dissentient schools existed or is created, an appeal is given to the Governor-General in Council from any Provincial Act or Decree affecting the right of the Roman Catholic or Protestant minority. In cases of continuancy the Dominion Parliament is given power to make remedial laws. S. 94 empowers the Dominion Parliament to pass Acts for securing uniformity of law and procedure, but such Acts are not to be of force in any Province unless adopted by the Provincial Legislature. S. 95 provides that Provincial Laws as to Agriculture and Immigration are valid unless repugnant to any Act of the Dominion Parliament.
1 In re Marriage Legislation in Canada [1912] A.C. 880.
THE CONSTITUTION 87
expenses of collection and management; secondly, the interest on Provincial debts at the date of Union; and, thirdly, the salary of the Governor-General. Grants by the Dominion Parliament to the Provinces are made under an Imperial Act of 1907, replacing s. 118 of the Act of 1867. Provinces are created by the Act of 1867, or by adhesion under the terms of that Act, or by new crea- tion under the Act of 1871. The original Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick have been added to by the inclusion of Manitoba, British Columbia, Prince Edward Island, Alberta, and Saskatchewan.
The government of a Province is vested in the Lieutenant-Governor and the Executive Council, or, in other words, the Ministry. The number of Ministers is not limited by law, except in Nova Scotia, 9 (8 actually in office); New Brunswick, 9 (6 actually in office); and British Columbia (since 1911), 8 (7 actually in office). In Ontario there are 11; in Quebec, 9; Manitoba, 6; Prince Edward Island, 9; Saskatchewan, 5; Alberta, 4 Ministers. As a rule, several of the Ministers are without portfolio and are not paid. There is no legal necessity for the Lieutenant-Governor to choose his Ministry from members of the
88 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Legislature, but in practice it is invari- ably done. The contrary precedent in 1900 in British Columbia was followed by the dismissal of the Lieutenant-Governor. The political allegiance of the Provinces is remark- ably steady, having regard to the experience of other Dominions.
The normal Provincial Legislature is uni- cameral. Quebec and Nova Scotia have two chambers. In Quebec there are twenty-four members of a Legislative Council appointed for life by the Lieutenant-Governor. The qualification is the same as for the Canadian Senate. Financial legislation must originate in the elected house. In Nova Scotia the Legislative Council is similar, but has only twenty-one members. The Legislative Coun- cils of New Brunswick was abolished in 1891, of Prince Edward Island in 1893, and of Manitoba in 1896. None of the other Provinces have ever had a second chamber.
Time limits on speeches exist in Ontario (10 minutes on motions for adjournment) and Nova Scotia (l£ hours, unless the House gives special leave).
The North-West Territories are adminis- tered under the Dominion Government by a Commissioner, who is assisted by a Council
THE CONSTITUTION 89
(not exceeding four), all being appointed by the Governor-General in Council.
The Yukon is also administered by a Com- missioner, but since 1909 his Council of ten members has been elected.
The administration is carried on both in the Dominion and in the Provinces by the Civil Service staff. In the Colonies before Confederation great difficulty was experienced in avoiding political considerations. Nova Scotia attracted the attention of the Home Government on a number of occasions, notably in 1848 and 1862. In the Dominion several Acts were passed, and in 1882 the system was reorganised. In consequence of the Report of a Commission, a Civil Service Commission was created, and examination is substituted for nomination in the Ottawa service, and may be applied to all other posts. The great defects are the smallness of salaries in view of the absence of pensions, and that there is no provision for a special examination for men of superior education. It cannot be said that the influence of politics is quite absent, but much has been done to eliminate it, and there is growing up a healthy public opinion upon the matter.
The Courts. — The Governor-General on the
90 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
advice of his Ministers appoints the judges, who are taken from members of the Bar of the Provinces. The Supreme Court of Canada is usually recruited from the Provincial Courts. The Courts are of two classes — Dominion and Provincial (or Territorial).
I. Dominion Courts. — The chief Court is the Supreme Court of Canada, presided over by the Chief Justice, who is assisted by five other judges. It is the Court of Appeal of Canada, and it hears appeals from the Court of Exchequer and the highest Courts of the Provinces or Territories. The conditions of appeal vary greatly.
The Court of Exchequer consists of a single judge, and has jurisdiction in cases where the Crown brings actions or relief is claimed against the Crown, and also in revenue cases, and patent, design, and trade-mark cases. It is also a Colonial Court of Admiralty.
II. Provincial and Territorial Courts. — Alberta and Saskatchewan. — In each Province there is a Supreme Court of five judges with full civil and criminal jurisdiction. It hears appeals from the District Courts, which have jurisdiction in civil cases up to $100.
British Columbia. — The Supreme Court has both appellate jurisdiction and original
THE CONSTITUTION 91
jurisdiction in civil and criminal matters. The County Courts have jurisdiction up to $1000 (in equitable matters $2500), but the parties may consent to that Court trying matters involving greater amounts. Appeal lies to the Supreme Court. The Small Debt Courts have jurisdiction in personal claims up to $100. Appeals lie to the County Court or Supreme Court.
Manitoba has a Court of Appeal with appel- late jurisdiction only, a Court of King's Bench, which has general civil and criminal juris- diction; County Courts, which try actions in contract or tort where the amount involved does not exceed $500; and a Surrogate Court, which has jurisdiction in probate and such- like matters.
New Brunswick. — The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction and general civil and criminal jurisdiction. The County Courts have jurisdiction up to $400; the Justices' Courts up to $200; and the Parish Courts up to $80.
Nova Scotia. — The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction and general civil and criminal jurisdiction, except civil actions in- volving less than $20. The County Courts have jurisdiction in cases involving more
92 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
than $20 and less than $300. The Magis- trates' Courts have jurisdiction up to $80.
Ontario. — The High Court has general civil and criminal jurisdiction. Appeals are heard by a Divisional Court of the High Court, from which appeals lie to the High Court sitting as a Court of Appeal. The County and District Courts have jurisdiction in contract up to $800, and can try certain other classes of case. The Division Courts have juris- diction in personal actions up to $60 in debt, if the amount is ascertained by defendants' signature up to $200.
Prince Edward Island. — The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction and original jurisdiction in criminal matters and in civil actions involving more than $32. The County Courts have civil jurisdiction up to $150.
Quebec. — The Court of Appeal and the Court of Review are the appellate Courts. The Superior Court has original civil and criminal jurisdiction. Circuit Courts have jurisdiction up to $200 ($100 in Quebec and Montreal). Commissioners' Courts have jurisdiction up to $25. Appeal lies from the Commissioners' Court to the Circuit Court; from the Circuit Court appeal is to the Court of Review, to
THE CONSTITUTION 93
which appeal is also brought from the Superior Court when the amount involved does not exceed $500. If it exceeds $500, appeal may be brought either to the Court of Review or to the Court of Appeal. If the appeal does not involve more than $500 the decision of the Court of Review is final. If the Court of Review affirms the decision of the Court below, no appeal is allowed unless the amount involved exceeds $5000, and the case then goes straight to the Supreme Court of Canada. If the Court of Review reverses the decision of the Court below, appeal lies to the Court of Appeal if the amount involved exceeds $500. Appeal from the Court of Appeal lies to the Supreme Court of Canada in cases involving more than $2000.
North-West Territories. — Jurisdiction, both civil and criminal, is vested in the stipendiary magistrates.
Yukon Territory. — The Territorial Court has general, jurisdiction, both civil and criminal. The Supreme Court acts as a Court of Appeal in cases involving more than $500, but appeal may also be direct to the Supreme Court of Canada.
The above is a list of the Courts in Canada. There is also the Judicial Committee of the
94 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Privy Council, which hears appeals from the Supreme Court of Canada by special leave. That is the normal method, but appeals may in certain cases be brought from the Provincial Courts to the Privy Council. These cases vary from Province to Province, and are set out in Burge's Colonial Law, Vol. I, pp. 379-382.
ADMINISTRATION 95
CHAPTER III
ADMINISTRATION
The keynote of administration in the Dominion is popular control. The Dominion is entrusted with the general affairs of Canada, the Provinces with special matters which more nearly concern local interests. As in England, the judges are chosen by the Adminis- tration, but once appointed, they are free from molestation, and can decide the cases which come before them without outside interference.
The organisation is not so simple when the districts are taken. Each Province, wherever possible, is divided into counties, which have large administrative powers. Cities are also entrusted with the managemont of their own affairs. As a rule, a town of over 10,000 inhabitants (5000 in the West) is declared a city; the distinction between a town and village is more variously drawn; and hamlets, too small to have separate councils, are merged in the rural areas to
96 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
which they belong. The powers of munici- palities depend on the Provincial legislation.
A system which sounds strange to English ears is very common in America, viz., to entrust the management of the city or town to paid controllers or commissioners. These are either elected by the electors or chosen by the Council, and work side by side with the elected Council. Of course the idea is less strange on the Continent, where the burgermeister is often a paid official who earns promotion from small towns to larger by his successful administration. The root idea is to put the management of the town's business into the hands of specialists, who will give the town their whole unremitting atten- tion, instead of their leisure, which an ordinary business man has to snatch from his own affairs. It is successful to such an extent that towns which have controllers advertise the fact, and every year more towns are adopting the system. Nevertheless Canadians have no desire to create a bureaucracy, and the new system remains engrafted on the old; it is an addition, not a substitution.
The Civil Service of the Dominion and the Provinces is responsible to the elected of the people for the actual carrying out of the laws.
ADMINISTRATION 97
Customs and Excise officers are the most important of the ordinary civil servants, but railwaymen are the most numerous. The Dominion is the owner of the Inter-Colonial Railway, and many of the Provinces also own railways. The agricultural and forestry staff is on a scale and footing quite different from the similar organisations in the United Kingdom. All the Provinces, as well as the Dominion, are large landowners, and the management and development of their estates requires a large staff. Experimental farms and agricultural colleges are yearly increasing in number. A novel feature is the Hydro- Electrical Commission in Ontario.
Some idea of the foreign trade of Canada can be obtained from the figures as to Cus- toms receipts, for the Dominion taxes most manufactured articles coming into the country.
Port 1910-1911 1911-1912
$ $
Montreal . . . 18,437,597 19,955,560
Halifax . . . 1,774,986 2,117,107
Quebec . . . 1,564,836 1,759,817
St John . . . 1,344,505 1,456,283
Total from the four ports 23,121 ,924 25,288,767
The great predominance of the St Lawrence and, in particular, of Montreal is thus strik- ingly brought out.
C.I.F.
98 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Order is kept in the ordinary course by the police force, which is under local control. The parish constable has acquired a new lease of life. In 1911 the Privy Council were called upon to decide the exact amount of attention the chief and only constable of Chilliwack should give to his duties as jailer, in the face of the claims made upon him by his four or five other public offices. Fortunately this august tribunal solemnly absolved him from negligence in not being present when the local lock-up was consumed by fire with an un- fortunate prisoner inside. In parts of West, the local organisation is insufficient, and a body of men have been organised to patrol the districts — the Royal North-West Mounted Police, a force with a reputation extending far beyond the Dominion. It has 50 officers and 576 men, with 536 horses. Alberta has 73 detachments, and Saskatchewan 83, the North- West Territories (before April, 1912) 6, and the Yukon 8. There are eleven division posts.
In case of need, the militia is embodied. This force is the sole constitutional army in Canada, and members of it have seen service in Egypt and South Africa, not, of course, as embodied troops but as volunteers. When
ADMINISTRATION 99
Canada was first acquired a permanent military force was maintained, but this was decided to be incompatible with responsible government and the garrison was withdrawn, except from Halifax and Esquimault. These two ports were garrisoned because they were the headquarters of the British Fleet in the North Atlantic and North Pacific. These came under the Dominion in 1905, by the acceptance of an offer of the Dominion, made in 1902, to garrison them at its own expense. The transfer of the Admiralty property was made in accordance with the Naval Estab- lishments on British Possessions Act, 1909, under which Orders in Council transferred Halifax docks, etc., (23rd October, 1910), and Esquimault docks, etc., (4th May, 1911). The relations between the Dominion and the War Office have been cordial, and the co- operation of the Imperial forces and the Militia in 1870 was complete. In 1910 Sir John French visited Canada and inspected the forces. (His report is found in Canada Sess. Pap., 1911, No. 35a.).
The Military Forces of Canada are under a Minister of Militia and Defence (Colonel the Hon. Sam Hughes). The law is contained in the Revised Statutes, 1906, cc. 41-43.
100 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
There is a small permanent force, a larger Militia, and, in case of need, every able-bodied man is liable to be called on. There is a Military College at Kingston, Ontario.
Permanent Forces. — The peace establish- ment for 1911-12 consisted of 5383 officers and men, and was made up as follows : —
Establishment. Royal Canadian Horse Artillery, 2 Batteries . 289 Royal Canadian Dragoons, 2 Squadrons . 215
Lord Strathcona's Horse, 2 Squadrons . . 134
Royal Canadian Garrison Artillery, 5 Companies 795
260
1060
154
261
46
60
154
9
Royal Canadian Engineers, 3 Companies Royal Canadian Regiment, 10 Companies Canadian Permanent A.S.C. Canadian Ordnance Corps . Canadian Army Pay Corps . Corps of Military Staff Clerks Permanent Army Medical Corps Permanent Army Veterinary Corps
Militia. — The peace establishment (ex- clusive of the Permanent Force) is about 73,000, and consisted in May, 1911, of —
Cavalry . . 29 Regiments and 6 Inde- pendent Squadrons Field Artillery . 10 Brigades, 4 Independent Batteries, and 1 Ammunition Park, (was then being reorganised). 1 Field Troop, 5 Field Com- panies. Corps of Guides • 9 Detachments.
Garrison Artillery Engineers . .
ADMINISTRATION 101
Infantry . . 08 Battalions and 4 Independent Companies.
Signalling Corps . 13 Sections.
Canadian A.S.C. . 15 Companies.
Canadian A.M.C. . 2 General Hospitals, 4 Cavalry Field Ambulances, and 16 Field Ambulances.
Canadian A. Veterinary Corps.
Canadian Postal
Corps . . 8 Detachments.
Corps of School Cadet Instructors.
Reserve of Officers.
These troops are grouped in peace in six divisions, which, however, are not complete at present in all details. Several units, especially in Western Canada, are not included in the divisional organisation. There are also 35,000 cadets.
Divisional Ammunition Columns, Supply Columns, and Supply Parks do not exist as such in times of peace.
The war establishment of all units is prac- tically the same as in the British Army.
Transport is principally the local vehicles obtainable.1
The fate of the Navy is still undecided. The history of the fleet is, shortly, thus : In 1909 the Military and Naval Conference of the
1 Details as to the forces are taken with acknowledg- ments from Mr Bertrand Stewart's Active Service Pocket Book.
102 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Colonies met the War Office and Admiralty officials and discussed the whole question of the Navy, from both the Imperial and Colonial points of view. So far as Canada is concerned, the decision arrived at was that a start should be made to form a fleet of cruisers of the Bristol class and destroyers of an improved River class. In accordance with the decision arrived at, the Canadian Parliament authorised the purchase of the cruisers Niobe (now stationed at Halifax) and Rainbow (now stationed at Esquimault), and, as before stated, assumed control of the docks and defences at those two ports.
In 1910 the Dominion Parliament author- ised a Naval programme, whereby four cruisers and six destroyers were to be built in nine years. At the same time the Ministry of Marine and Fisheries was reorganised so as to form a separate department of Naval Affairs. The next step was to place the orders for the projected fleet. Tenders had been received, but, before they were accepted, Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government fell, and was succeeded by Mr Borden's Administration. The present Minister of Marine Fisheries and Naval Affairs is the Hon. Mr Hazen.
Mr Borden announced that he would take
ADMINISTRATION 103
no further steps until he had consulted the British Admiralty, and, accordingly, he and Mr Hazen visited England towards the end of 1911. The views of the Admiralty had undergone a considerable change since 1909, owing to the march of events, and its Memorandum on the Naval situation gives the data upon which its views are now based. Shortly, it is preferred to have three Dread- noughts under the Admiralty, than cruisers and destroyers chained to the shores of Canada. These three vessels, with the New Zealand and Malayan Dreadnoughts, were intended to be stationed at Gibraltar, and the Dominions concerned are to be consulted in times of peace as to their cruises. Canada was also to have a representative on the Imperial Defence Committee.
Accordingly Mr Borden produced his plan, and the uncompromising resistance which it evoked from the Liberal Opposition resulted in considerable modification of Canadian Par- liamentary procedure by the introduction of the Closure. The rejection of the measure in the Senate (51 votes against 27) has given rise to a constitutional crisis, the effects of which cannot yet be estimated. For the time being the British Admiralty dealt with the
104 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
crisis by accelerating the building of British battleships leaving Mr Borden a free hand to deal with the Canadian problem. After the next redistribution bill of the Canadian Parliament, now overdue, Mr Borden will be able to nominate about nine new Senators from the Western Provinces, and with the consent of the Imperial Government, six more Senators may be added under the British North America Act.
Education. — Except in Manitoba, elemen- tary education is compulsory; and in all Provinces, except Ontario and Quebec, the schools are unsectarian. In these two Pro- vinces, for reasons stated elsewhere, there are separate schools for Roman Catholics and Protestants.
The Provinces are divided into school districts, in each of which a school may be established. LThe management is local, and the expenses are met by local rates and Provincial grants. Education is no part of the functions of the Dominion, which accordingly has no Minister of Education ; but the Dominion is keenly interested in education, and has appointed a Royal Com- mission to consider technical education in Europe.
ADMINISTRATION 105
A school district can be created in every district five miles square as soon as the children of school age (6-16) reach a number which varies with the locality. In the Prairie Provinces it is usually ten ; in British Columbia, twenty. In the Eastern Provinces the small schools are being eliminated, as they have served their purpose. In the Prairie Provinces two sections out of every thirty-six are reserved as school sections. They are only sold to provide funds for erecting new schools.
There are over 1,200,000 school children in Canada, and teachers number 34,000, a pro- portion which ought to be decreased. Separate schools : Ontario, 467 Roman Catholic and six Protestant; Quebec, 4803 Roman Catholic and 845 Protestant.
The towns and cities have also estab- lished schools which provide advanced and technical education, and, naturally, the more dense the population the greater is the opportunity of acquiring an advanced education.
There are two special institutions under the Dominion Parliament : — The Royal Mili- tary College at Kingston, Ontario, where young men are trained not only for the
106 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Canadian but also for the British Army ; and The Royal Naval College at Halifax, opened in 1911, destined to provide for the needs of the Canadian Navy.
The chief Agricultural Colleges are the Macdonald College, at St Anne de Belle- vue, near Montreal ; the Ontario Agri- cultural College, at Guelph ; the Nova Scotia Agricultural College, at Truro ; the Manitoba Agricultural College, near Winnipeg ; and several universities have Faculties of Agriculture. In addition, there are a number of technical colleges destined to train students for particular professions.
The universities are much more numerous than in England. When the British Columbia University (authorised 1912) is in operation, there will be twenty-one. Some of the universities are denominational, but the majority are not.
The most important universities are Toronto and M'Gill, Montreal. The list is: —
Nova Scotia —
Dalhousie University and College, Halifax. St Francis Xavier University, Antigonish. Acadia University, Wolfeville. University of King's College, Windsor.
ADMINISTRATION 107
New Brunswick —
University of New Brunswick, Fredericton. Mount Allison University, Sackville.
Quebec —
M'Gill University, Montreal.
Laval University, Montreal.
Laval University, Quebec.
Bishop's College University, Lennoxville.
Ontario —
Toronto, Trinity College, and Victoria Universities,
Toronto. M'Master University, Toronto. Ottawa University, Ottawa. Queen's University, Kingston. Western University, London.
Manitoba —
Manitoba University, Winnipeg.
Saskatchewan —
Saskatchewan University, Saskatoon.
Alberta —
Alberta University, Strathcona (Edmonton).
A number of the colleges are affiliated to the Universities, and accordingly train students for the degrees in the same way as colleges of universities in England do. One instance is M'Gill University College, Van- couver, B.C., which is affiliated to M'Gill, Montreal. Toronto University really includes Victoria and Trinity Universities.
The university enrolments in 1911-12 were : —
108 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
|
Toronto ..... |
4100 |
|
M'Gill (not including 198 in B.C.) . |
1860 |
|
Queen's, Kingston .... |
1489 |
|
Ottawa ..... |
720 |
|
Dalhousie ..... |
402 |
|
M'Master (not including 67 at Bran- |
|
|
don and Okanagan) |
283 |
|
Manitoba ..... |
623 |
|
Saskatchewan (Arts course) |
152 |
|
Alberta ..... |
180 |
Many Canadians come to England to attend lectures at the universities (including Rhodes scholars) and at the various hospitals. Except in the Prairie Provinces, the supply of teachers in Canada is sufficient, and throughout the Dominion the Provincial certificate of pro- ficiency is required, and in many instances can only be obtained by attending a normal school in the Province.
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 109
CHAPTER IV
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION
On 1st June, 1911, the population of Canada was 7,206,643, an increase of 1,835,828 on the population in 1901 (5,371,315). As the immigrants during that period numbered 1,715,325 (of whom 5626 were deported), it shows a natural increase (excess of births over deaths) of 125,629, a figure much below the expected result, and not borne out by the vital statistics. Some explanations may be suggested. In the first place, criticisms have been made as to the method of enumera- tion employed. Again, it must be extremely easy to miss out homesteads in a country like Canada. This occurs even in England, where it is much less difficult to cover the ground. Thirdly, the movement of population over the long boundary of the United States must be very difficult to trace. The great increase of immigration since the Census makes it certain that the population is over 8,000,000. The distribution of the population between
110 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
country and town is, roughly, 4,000,000 (rural) and 3,200,000 (urban). The urban population increased 63 per cent, and the rural only 16 per cent. There were 1,413,913 occupied dwellings and 1,488,353 families. The average number living in each house was 501.
The population of the Provinces can best be shown by a table : —
|
Province |
1911 |
1910 |
Increase |
|
Ontario |
2,523,208 |
2,182,947 |
342,261 |
|
Quebec |
2,002,712 |
1,648,898 |
353,814 |
|
Saskatchewan |
492,432 |
91,279 |
400,153 |
|
Nova Scotia |
492,338 |
459,574 |
33,764 |
|
Manitoba . |
455,614 |
255,211 |
200,403 |
|
British Columbia |
i 392,480 |
178,657 |
213,823 |
|
Alberta |
874,663 |
73,022 |
301,641 |
|
New Brunswick |
351,889 |
331,120 |
20,769 |
|
Prince Edward I |
s. 93,728 |
103,259 |
9,531 |
|
Territories — ■ |
|||
|
North West |
16,951 |
20,129 |
8,178 |
|
Yukon . |
8,512 |
27,219 |
16,707 |
Arranged in districts, the population is : —
Maritime Provinces . . 937,955 45,002 St Lawrence and Great Lakes
Provinces . . . 4,525,920 696,075
Prairie Provinces . . 1,324,709 902,197
Pacific Province . . 392,480 213,823
Northern Territories . . 25,463 19,885 l
This clearly shows the shifting of the population westward, a movement which is 1 A decrease.
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 111
also shown by the census returns of the United States. The immigrant arriving in Canada hurries past the seaports towards the Golden West.
It is difficult to describe the tremendous increase in the population of Canada. In 1663 it amounted to 2500, but this only refers to the existing Provinces of Quebec and Ontario. This number was more than doubled within the next ten years, and by the British occupation in 1760 had reached 65,000. This number was soon increased by the influx of Loyalists from the United States, and in the nineteenth century a constant stream of immigrants arrived every year. In 1881 (when the Prairie Provinces were almost uninhabited) the population had reached 4,336,504, and in 1911, 7,206,643.
The increase of population is — Males, 1,054,642; and females, 757,330; so that the surplus of males has increased during the decade from 131,101 to 428,413. Manitoba had 44,523 more males than females; Sas- katchewan, 90,336; Alberta, 73,400; and British Columbia, 106,883.
The growth of the population in the Provinces by percentages is : Alberta, 411; British Columbia, 183; Manitoba, 78;
112 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Saskatchewan, 39; Quebec, 21; Ontario, 13; New Brunswick, 6; Nova Scotia, £; and Prince Edward Island a decrease of 9 per cent. The percentage increase for the Dominion is 32.
The inhabitants per square mile in 1901 were 1*44, and in 1911 1-90. This compares with England and Wales, 558, and U.S.A., 25.
The French-Canadian population is now in a majority in all the counties of Quebec. In 1891 there was an English majority in eleven counties. The French-Canadian popu- lation in Ontario has increased from 112,000 in 1891 to 225,000 in 1911, and is in a majority in fifteen counties.
The population is extremely religious, a circumstance which is brought to light by the census returns; for, unlike England, Canada requires inhabitants to state their religion or want of it. About two-fifths of the popula- tion are Roman Catholics. The Church of England has greatly improved its figures.
|
Belief |
1911 |
1901 Inc. or Dec. |
|
|
Roman Catholics |
2,833,041 |
2,229,600 |
+ 603,441 |
|
Presbyterians |
1,115,324 |
842,442 |
+ 272,882 |
|
Methodists |
1,079,892 |
916,886 |
+ 163,006 |
|
Anglicans |
1,043,017 |
681,494 |
+ 361,523 |
|
Baptists |
386,666 |
318,005 |
+ 68,661 |
|
Lutherans . |
229,864 |
92,524 |
+ 137,340 |
|
Greek Church |
88,507 |
15,630 |
+ 72,877 |
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 118
|
Belief |
1911 |
1901 Inc. or Dec. |
|
|
Jews . . . |
74,564 |
16,401 |
+ 58,163 |
|
Salvation Army . |
18,834 |
10,308 |
+ 8,526 |
|
Other Christian Sects |
218,193 |
158,012 |
+ 60,181 |
|
Other Non-Christian |
|||
|
Sects |
57,114 |
38,368 |
+ 16,746 |
|
Agnostics . |
3,110 |
3,613 |
-503 |
|
No religion |
26,027 |
4,810 |
+ 21,217 |
|
No religion stated |
32,490 |
43,222 |
-10,732 |
The non-Christian sects were — -Buddhists, 10,012; Confucians, 14,562; Mohammedans, 797; Mormons, 15,971; Pagans, 11,840; Shintoists, 1289; Sikhs and Hindus, 1758; Spiritualists, 674; Theosophists, 177; Deists, 84. The Doukhobors numbered 10,493, an increase of 1718.
Population of Towns. — Towns with over 100,000 inhabitants are four in number : Montreal, in the Province of Quebec; Toronto, in Ontario; Winnipeg, in Manitoba; and Vancouver, in British Columbia.
|
1911 |
1901 |
Increase. |
|
|
Montreal . , |
466,197 |
267,730 |
198,467 |
|
Toronto . , |
376,240 |
208,040 |
168,200 |
|
Winnipeg . |
135,430 |
42,340 |
98,090 |
|
Vancouver . , |
100,333 |
27,010 |
73,323 |
Towns with over 50,000 are three in num- ber : Quebec, and Hamilton, and Ottawa, in Ontario.
114 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
|
1911 |
1901 |
Increase. |
||
|
Ottawa . |
. |
86,340 |
69,928 |
26,412 |
|
Hamilton, . |
. |
81,879 |
52,634 |
29,245 |
|
Quebec |
. |
78,067 |
68,840 |
9,227 |
Towns with over 40,000 are four in number : London, in Ontario; Halifax, in Nova Scotia; Calgary, in Alberta; and St John, in New Brunswick.
London Halifax Calgary St John . . 43,363 40,832 1,652
Towns with over 30,000 number three : Victoria, in British Columbia; Edmonton, in Alberta; and Regina, in Saskatchewan.
|
1911 |
1901 |
Increase. |
|
46,177 |
37,976 |
8,201 |
|
46,081 |
40,832 |
5,249 |
|
43,736 |
4,097 |
39,639 |
|
1911 |
1901 |
Increase. |
|
|
Victoria . • |
81,620 |
20,816 |
10,804 |
|
Edmonton and |
|||
|
Strathcona |
80,462 |
3,176 |
27,286 |
|
Regina . . |
30,214 |
2,249 |
27,961 |
In addition, there are thirteen towns with populations between 10,000 and 30,000 in Ontario, seven in Quebec, two each in Nova Scotia, British Columbia, and Saskatchewan, and one each in Manitoba, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. The occupations were recorded of 1,866,129 persons (of whom
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 115
1,824,164 were over 16 years old). The vast majority were males, viz. 1,615,431. These figures do not exhaust the numbers employed in various occupations, but serve as a guide to the relative importance of different avoca- tions. Agriculture, 716,937; domestic and personal employments, 277,755 ; fisheries, 25,054 ; lumbering, etc., 17,113 ; manufac- tures, etc., 389,873 ; mines, 36,908 ; profes- sions, 94,639; trades and transport, 234,236.
The ideal immigrant is a healthy young man of about twenty-five, able to read, write, and cast accounts, trained to farming, and with some idea of farriery and rural car- pentry. If he has money, so much the better, but it is not indispensable. The woman should be over twenty-one years old, and accustomed to housework and dairying, and the usual routine of the farm. Professional men, trained mechanics, and teachers of all kinds will find the field already occupied. The best time of the year to arrive is April and May.
Before leaving England the immigrant should have some idea of his plan of cam- paign. He can easily obtain information from the Dominion Government Departments in England, the Agents-General of the
116 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Provinces, the principal railway companies, or the reputable land companies. He may proceed at once to take up a free grant, or he may have obtained a job which will enable him to become acquainted with the country. A woman immigrant must have a definite engagement, and arrange to be accompanied or met by some one connected with one of the societies who undertake this task.
The Dominion authorities state : 4 Farmers, farm labourers, and female domestic servants are the only people the Canadian Immigration Department advises to come to Canada. All others should have definite assurance of employment in Canada before leaving home, and have money enough to support them for a time in case of disappointment.'
The Dominion Government does not give free or assisted passages. Such assistance can only be obtained from societies and friends. It does pay a bonus to certain agents. There are no free railway journeys, but Canadian railways offer special terms to persons arriving for the first time to settle in Canada.
The Government does not lend money, stock, or implements to immigrants. Some- times destitute persons have been supplied
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 117
with food and fuel, and in certain cases farmers who have lost their crops through hail, frost, fire, and other unavoidable calamities have been supplied with seed corn, but the cost has been secured by charge on their homesteads.
Clerks, mechanics, artisans, and other skilled workmen (not being agriculturalists) are not advised to come, and the Government will not make any effort to find them employ- ment. The development of Canada's manu- factures is, however, beginning to create a demand for skilled workmen.
It is best to go direct to Canada, and one has the choice of seven companies, whose fares are identical. Each immigrant must have on arrival, besides sufficient money to reach the destination selected, $25 (£5), but this amount is raised to $50 (£10) if the immigrant arrives between October and March. The following will not be allowed to land : Feeble-minded, insane, and idiotic persons, and those who have been insane within five years; those afflicted with loath- some, contagious, or infectious disease; paupers, destitute persons, professional beg- gars and vagrants; persons likely to become a charge on the public; prostitutes, persons living on the proceeds of prostitution, and
118 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
convicted criminals. Persons who are blind, deaf, or otherwise physically defective may be admitted if they have sufficient money or have a legitimate means of earning a liveli- hood, or if accompanied by members of their family who are responsible for them.
The white population of Canada is naturally entirely composed of immigrants or their descendants.
The historical sketch mentions some of the earlier settlements. As recently as 1897 the yearly total only reached 21,716. Figures for the last ten years are : —
|
British. |
U.S.A. |
Others. |
Total. |
|
|
1901-2 |
17,259 |
26,388 |
23,732 |
67,379 |
|
1902-3 |
45,792 |
49,473 |
37,099 |
128,364 |
|
1903-4 |
50,374 |
45,171 |
34,785 |
130,330 |
|
1904-5 |
65,359 |
43,652 |
37,255 |
146,266 |
|
1905-6 . |
86,790 |
57,919 |
44,349 |
189,064 |
|
1906-7 (9 months) 55,791 |
34,659 |
34,217 |
124,667 |
|
|
1907-8 |
120,182 |
58,312 |
83,975 |
262,469 |
|
1908-9 |
52,901 |
59,832 |
34,175 |
146,908 |
|
1909-10 . |
59,790 |
103,798 |
45,206 |
208,794 |
|
1910-11 . |
123,013 |
121,457 |
66,620 |
311,084 |
|
1911-12 . |
138,121 |
133,710 |
82,406 |
354,237 |
|
1912-13 . |
150,542 |
139,009 |
112,881 |
402,432 |
Some of the immigrants from the United States are no doubt natives of the United Kingdom, who, after gaining experience in the States, have decided to settle in Canada. Until 1911 the number of immigrants from
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 119
the United Kingdom to the States exceeded the number who emigrated to Canada; but in that year the majority came to Canada, and this result has been maintained. Some idea of the number can be obtained from the fact that during the summer months of 1912 over 1000 new-comers arrived at Winnipeg every week.
The percentage of English-speaking im- migrants is 74 ; about 65 nationalities are represented. The proportion of adult males is 4 out of every 7 immigrants, of the other three 2 are adult females and one a child.
In December, 1902, the Medical Act came into force as to ocean ports, and this was extended to arrivals from the United States in April, 1908.
The number of persons detained and excluded is : —
|
Ocean Ports |
|||
|
Detained. |
Ultimately Rejected. |
||
|
1902-3 |
• . . |
273 |
273 |
|
1903-4 |
. . |
1,835 |
274 |
|
1904-5 |
• • < |
2,559 |
611 |
|
1905-6 |
. . |
3,570 |
524 |
|
1906-7 (9 months) |
3,543 |
440 |
|
|
1907-8 (15 months) |
4,573 |
1,172 |
|
|
1908-9 |
. , |
3,544 |
509 |
|
1909-10 |
. . |
7,202 |
1,515 |
|
1910-11 |
. . < |
8,457 |
2,210 |
|
1911-12 |
• |
5,802 |
972 |
41,448
8,500
120 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
U.S.A.
Rejections.
1908-9 4,580
1909-10 8,997
1910-11 15,404
1911-12 22,034
51,015 Total rejections, 1902-12 . . 59,515
The chief causes are not altogether medical. Thus 406 were rejected as accompanying patients; 87 as contract labour; 25 as con- travening Orders in Council; 61 criminality; 55 hernia; 98 immorality; 170 indirect passage; 92 insanity; 1471 lack of funds; 1712 likely to become public charge; 121 mentally deficient; 43 no passport; 113 poor physique; 42 senility; 509 stowaways; 2727 trachoma (eye disease); 96 tuberculosis.
Intending emigrants should therefore under- go a thorough medical examination before they book a passage.
The rejected came chiefly from — Bulgaria, 462; Great Britain, 1080; Russia (Jews), 512; Italy, 1014; Japan, 377; Poland, 386; Russia (non-Jews), 941; Turkey, 918; and India, 868.
Deportations 1902-12 total 5626. The chief reasons are : 129 accompanying patients; 45 alcoholism; 749 criminality; 226 general
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 121
debility; 648 insanity; 183 mental weakness; 44 prostitution; 2461 becoming a public charge; 103 rheumatism; 271 tuberculosis; 253 vagrancy. The nationalities were chiefly Austro-Hungary, 130; Bulgaria, 189; Great Britain, 3299; U.S.A., 689.
It is instructive to note how far the ad- vice of the Dominion Government has been accepted by intending settlers.
Occupations of Immigrants I. — Ockan Ports
|
First |
Last |
||
|
Period. |
Year. |
Year. |
|
|
1903-12 |
1903-* |
1911-12 |
|
|
Farmers and farm labourers 367,702 |
80,278 |
78,828 |
|
|
General labourers . |
. 299,815 |
19,354 |
61,752 |
|
Mechanics . |
. 251,251 |
14,715 |
24,133 |
|
Clerks, traders, etc. |
80,088 |
8,536 |
14,158 |
|
Miners . . , |
82,265 |
8,493 |
4,348 |
|
Domestics . . , |
78,776 |
8,504 |
18,390 |
|
II. — From |
United States. |
||
|
First |
Last |
||
|
Period. |
Year. |
Year. |
|
|
1903-12 |
1903-1 |
1911-12 |
|
|
Farmers and farm laboui |
ers 384,641 |
16,917 |
59,560 |
|
General labourers . |
107,167 |
2,798 |
44,777 |
|
Mechanics . |
46,357 |
1,435 |
10,795 |
|
Clerks, traders, etc. |
20,071 |
1,240 |
8,434 |
|
Miners |
11,592 |
321 |
2,716 |
|
Domestics . . , |
5,111 |
84 |
2,300 |
It will be noticed that nearly half the general labourers from the U.S.A. arrived in 1911-12.
C.I.P.
122 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
In the two years 1910-12 they numbered 71,405.
The expenditure on immigration has in- creased from $261,194 in 1897-98 to $1,354,736 in 1911-12. In 1911 the expendi- ture was divided thus : British Isles, $376,726; Europe, $30,546; U.S.A., $368,655; Canada, $578,809.
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 128
CHAPTER V
THE DOMINION AND THE PROVINCES
It is difficult even for a Canadian to form an idea of the Dominion. Its vast extent, its varied characteristics, its differing climate, occupations, and development astonish the mind. For example, though in 1912 huge areas were taken from the North- West Territories — no less than 680,000 square miles being added to Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba — yet 1,250,000 square miles still remain.
In former days the definite division into Maritime Provinces, Upper and Lower Canada, the Fur Trading Country, facilitated appre- hension of the magnitude of the country; but the Dominion cannot be conceived as a whole merely by dividing the country into Provinces and considering them one by one.
Canada extends across from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and bears another ocean in its bosom. Towards the Atlantic its aspect is stern. Past the banks of Newfoundland one
124 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
approaches a rocky coast. Once arrived, whether it be at Halifax or St John, or in the St Lawrence River, the country changes. The smiling beauties of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick remind the traveller of home; the majestic stream and lofty banks of the St Lawrence impress him with the grandeur of the New World. Halifax, St John, Quebec, Montreal, welcome the immigrant, and he feels that he has arrived at a new home. He is greeted by the same people, the same flag, and the same loyalty and devotion to the Empire to which he so lately bade farewell in the Old Country.
But the physical characteristics of Canada are unlike those of England. The mountains do not form a backbone sheltering the country from the northern winds. Canada lays bare her bosom to the Arctic winds. In the East are mountains and hills, and in the West are mountains ; but in the centre the rolling plains stretch for thousands of miles, crossed by mighty rivers and relieved by inland seas. Toward the Pacific the Dominion offers a most pleasant prospect. Canada always smiles towards the West. There fertile islands and majestic fiords, sheltered by the mountains and laved by warm ocean
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 125
currents, enjoy a climate granted to the rest only in summer.
Canada has been deprived of her North- East and North-West coasts. The bleak shores of Labrador belong to the island Colony of Newfoundland. From Portland Channel northwards British Columbia is shut off from the Pacific by a narrow strip of Alaska.
Until 1912 Canada could be divided into five districts : the Maritime Provinces, the River and Lake Provinces, the Prairie, the Pacific Coast, and the extreme North. But now Quebec extends to the Arctic Circle and reigns over the whole of the North-East, and Manitoba has a sea-coast on Hudson Bay, the shores of which are divided between Quebec, Ontario, and Manitoba. With the development of that sea-coast Manitoba may dispute the centre position with Ontario even earlier than seemed possible. As yet the old division retains its convenience.
The Maritime Provinces (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island) came first under English sway. With their hills and dales, lakes and rivers, mines, manu- factories, fields and pastures, they resemble Scotland in many respects. Quebec, the Laurentian Province, is French in character.
126 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The long rule of the French King and the tenacity with which its subjects have clung to their habits and religion and language have brought about this result. Ontario, settled by English loyalists, monopolises the Great Lakes, and is the foremost Province in wealth and population.
Manitoba, the first fruit of the Federation, begins the Prairies, which are continued in their rolling uniformity through Saskatchewan and Alberta, the twin sisters of the Dominion, up to the Rockies. British Columbia, with its four mountain ranges from north to south, was a whaling station until the fur traders burst through the Rockies and extended their sway to the Pacific. The discovery of gold brought her population ; fisheries and agriculture have kept them and added to them a hundredfold.
The North still recalls the old days of the Hudson Bay Company. The trappers coming from England to Hudson Bay, and thence covering the Continent with a net- work of trading posts, or from the Lakes, establishing rival posts and engaging in bitter struggles and even in war, have yielded their land to the farmer, and retired to the extreme North. Yet even there they are not
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 127
alone. The recent discovery of gold in the Yukon has attracted many to that stern country.
To the early settlers the rivers and lakes were the binding link — the universal highway. Where the water failed or refused to flow in the right direction, no settlers came. Modern life depends upon the railway, which triumphs over all obstacles and connects the most distant parts. In Europe the railwayman follows the road maker and the riverman to supply an existing need. In Canada he is a pioneer going into regions where no man has trod, creating the need and bringing the road- maker in his train. When federation was dis- cussed in the early days, the leaders, both of the Atlantic and Pacific regions, saw clearly that without a railway there could be no united Dominion. Soon three railways will cross Canada from East to West, and one from North to South, all bringing prosperity in their train.
Canada's chief wonders are its rivers and lakes. The mighty St Lawrence is one of the great rivers of the world, connecting the Great Lakes with the sea. Indeed, the United States have argued that it is not so much a river as a strait. Yet the St Lawrence and the
128 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Great Lakes are but a fraction of the waters of Canada. Every Province has its own rivers and lakes, forming waterways of un- rivalled length. Their drawbacks are indeed numerous. In winter they are frozen; in summer the numerous rapids and falls make river travelling a labour, and many of them, unfortunately, flow towards the Arctic Ocean, where trading vessels are unknown. But in their scenery they are unrivalled; and their fish are a source of great profit. Canada is an angler's paradise. The falls are wonderful. Niagara is the most celebrated, but is by no means the only mighty waterfall.
The forests stretch in unbroken series for miles on miles. On the Prairies, it is true, they are scarce, and up north, beyond the limit of tree life, they are unknown. Else- where the clearings have not altered the face of the land except in Quebec and the Mari- time Provinces.
Again, Canada is a country of minerals. Nearly every known mineral is mined there — some are hardly known elsewhere. Yet vast areas remain unknown, and much of the mineral wealth is not exploited.
Agriculture is the source of Canada's prosperity. On the Prairies corn is grown
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 129
for the Old World; everywhere is grain grown. In the East, in the country around the Great Lakes, and again on the Pacific Coast, the orchards are celebrated. Every- where dairying is carried on. The climate favours the farmer. It is warm in summer, and the abundant snows which protect and fertilise the ground in winter quickly disappear in the short spring. The cold is often intense, and the wind howls over the plains during the winter storms, but the air is so dry that the immigrant can easily stand a degree of cold that would be intolerable in the damp British Isles. The climate needs a hardy race, such as could not be bred in warmer climes.
Canada is as yet in the making. Her people number 8,000,000, in a land where twenty times the population could dwell in affluence. Every year more and more people flock to her shores. Farms are staked out, and towns grow up as day follows day.
THE MARITIME PROVINCES
I. Nova Scotia naturally has the first claim to notice. It was the scene of the first settlement, was the first acquisition of the
130 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
British Crown, and is nearest to the Mother Country. Its ports are never closed to ships by ice. For centuries it was a naval station of the Royal Navy.
In shape it is a long, narrow peninsula, running from south-west to north-east, joined to the mainland by an isthmus fourteen miles wide at the north-west angle. Cape Breton Island, separated by a strait nowhere two miles wide, continues the line on towards the north-east. Cape North, its extreme point, looks across Cabot Strait towards Cape Ray in Newfoundland. The mainland constitutes four-fifths of the area, and Cape Breton Island the remaining fifth. The total area (21,428 square miles) is about two-thirds that of Scotland.
Nova Scotia is not merely named after Scotland; it resembles it in many respects, and so many Scots have settled there that both the people and the land remind the visitor of the country north of the Tweed.
Nova Scotia is essentially a maritime country. On the north are the Gulf of St Lawrence and Northumberland Strait, on the east the Atlantic, and on the west the Bay of Fundy, with arms of the sea running up into the land. Cape Breton Island presents
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 131
a wild appearance from the sea, and is dan- gerous in stormy weather. It is renowned in the history of Canada. Nowadays it is re- markable for its inland seas, the Bras d'Or, and its important coal and iron industries, which are rapidly extending.
The mainland, old Acadie, is extremely diversified. Like Cape Breton Island, its rocky islet-fringed shore offers at first sight a cold welcome to the new-comer. But this appearance of frowns disappears on landing. The country smiles at the wanderer. The hills, nowhere exceeding 1200 feet, the valleys with their farms, the lakes and streams, all remind him of home.
The people are thoroughly British. They are reproached for lethargy, but their deeds refute the charge. The pioneers of federation, the founders of trans-Atlantic shipping, the advocates of trans-continental railways came from Nova Scotia, which has given many of its sons to the British Navy. Three Premiers of the Dominion have come from this Province. In the days of wooden ships, Nova Scotia owned more shipping per man than any country in the world. Nova Scotia flourished years ago when the West was a wildernes?, and having attained great prosperity, rested
132 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
upon its labours, and has watched the money of the Dominion being used to attract new citizens to other parts. The Province has awakened and is attracting immigrants in considerable numbers. One misfortune is that immigrants are rightly advised to come to Canada in the season when so many of the liners leave Halifax alone.
The population in 1911 was 492,229, and mining and manufacturing, shipbuilding, fish- ing, agriculture, fruit-farming, and stock- raising are the chief occupations. 1912 was the most prosperous year that Nova Scotia has known. Its 1480 factories, with their 28,795 hands, produced an output valued at $52,700,000. The mines raised 6,383,000 tons, 691,000 more than in 1911. These mines are located in Cape Breton, Inverness, Pictou, and Cumberland counties, but pits will be opened elsewhere. Iron, gold, man- ganese, antimony, and tungsten were mined; limestone, grindstone, building stone, and gypsum were quarried, and clay products made in large quantities. The output in 1910 was worth $14,196,000; in 1912, $18,843,000. Fisheries in 1912 yielded a catch worth $9,860,000. Its lobsters and oysters are justly celebrated. In spite of their great increase,
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 133
Nova Scotia's fisheries have now been out- stripped by British Columbia. In 1912, agri- culture brought in $28,800,000, of which the field crops represent $14,100,000. Hay and forage yielded 846,000 tons from 487,000 acres; 98,000 acres were under oats; 29,500 under potatoes; 13,500 under wheat; 11,500 under buckwheat; 10,750 under turnips and man- gels; 6000 under barley. Quantities of pease, beans, rye, and vegetables were also grown.
Fruit growing, so celebrated in the past, has not kept in the forefront, mainly because of want of care in packing and grading. Nova Scotians are remedying these faults and will make a great effort to overtake Ontario and British Columbia.
Ninety-seven farms out of every 100 are farmed by the owner. The average farm is 103 acres in area. Only 89 per cent, of the total area is under cultivation.
Agriculture is improving, both by voluntary effort and State encouragement. The Pro- vincial College at Truro and the Dominion Experimental Farm at Nappan are flourishing institutions which are much appreciated. In 1912 the Province passed a scheme for financing farmers — a kind of land-bank, which enables practical men to acquire improved farms.
134 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The Province is within the Eastern Forest, and lumbering flourishes. In 1912 nearly 800,000,000 feet of timber were produced. The Government takes active steps to prevent the destruction of the forests. The success of the steel and iron works has led to a revival of shipbuilding. Steel ships are now made in the Province.
Altogether, in 1912, the occupations of the Province yielded $134,000,000.
Nova Scotia is a favourite holiday resort for the people of the other Provinces and of the United States. The historical associa- tions of the Province — Indians, the Acadians, the French struggles, and the settlements of the Loyalists — invite pilgrimages, while the attractions of sport are irresistible. An angler satiated with his sport can find a new experience in catching, or trying to catch, leaping tuna with rod and line.
The Province is represented in the Dominion by ten Senators and eighteen members of Parliament. The Provincial Government is vested in a Lieutenant-Governor, whose Executive Council, the Cabinet, consists of eight Ministers (only three with portfolios). Nova Scotia shares with Quebec the distinc- tion of having two Houses in its Legislature —
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 135
the Upper House with twenty-one nominated members, and the Legislative Assembly. The Government is Liberal. Taxation is light, and educational facilities are excellent. There are 2639 schools, 2804 teachers, and over 100,000 pupiis. Much is now being done to improve education by 'consolidated' schools. There are a number of first-class secondary and technical schools, and four universities: Dalhousie at Halifax, St Francis Xavier (R.C.) at Antigonish, Acadia (Baptist) at Wolfeville, and King's College (Church of England) at Windsor.
The cities and towns of Nova Scotia are interesting in many respects — history, in- dustry, and beauty. Halifax, the capital (46,081 at 1911 census), is celebrated for its harbour. It is the open port of Canada. Its facilities, including dry docks, are exten- sive, and are being improved. New services with the States and elsewhere are being organised. The exports from Halifax in- creased during 1912 by $3,300,000, its imports $1,675,000, and Customs receipts $342,000, the totals for the year being $15,467,000, $11,500,000, and $2,117,000. Local works have been so busy that they were unable to accept all orders.
136 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Annapolis Royal, on the Bay of Fundy, the oldest town in Canada, has celebrated its tercentenary (1605-1905). It is the chief town of the famous Annapolis Valley, the fruit-growing district of Nova Scotia. Digby, close by, is a seaside town and fishing village. Yarmouth, in the south, was celebrated for its wooden ships. It is now a port and fishing town. Here shipbuilding began in 1761. On the shore have been found two stones said to bear Runic inscriptions. Shelburne, in Shelburne County, the extreme south-east of the Province, sprang into existence as the settlement of Loyalists in 1783, but has lost its importance. Liverpool, half-way between Yarmouth and Halifax, is a fishing and lumbering port. Lunenburg, settled by Ger- mans in 1751, is a large fishing centre. Truro, at the head of Cobequid Bay, is the seat of the Provincial Agricultural College, and is near the iron mines of Nova Scotia. Pictou is the pioneer coal-mining town of Canada. Amherst, the outpost of Nova Scotia when New Bruns- wick was part of French Canada, now con- tains over 10,000 souls, and is a flourishing coal-mining town.
In Cape Breton there are a number of towns occupied in the coal and iron industries —
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 137
Sydney, North Sydney, East Sydney, Sydney Harbour, Sydney Mines, and Glace Bay. The two principal towns are Sydney (17,617 in 1911, by 1913, 25,000) and Glace Bay. Louisbourg, the famous French stronghold, is now a fishing village. Inverness County, on the west of Cape Breton Island, is a centre of the coal-mining industry.
II. New Brunswick, the largest .of the Maritime Provinces, has also a large sea-coast. On the north it is bounded by the Province of Quebec and Chaleurs Bay; on the east, by the Gulf of St Lawrence and Northumberland Strait; south-east and south, by the narrow isthmus which joins Nova Scotia to the mainland and the Bay of Fundy, with its northern arm Chignecto Channel; on the west lies the State of Maine. It extends, from north to south, 250 miles ; from east to west, 190 miles; and its total area is 27,985 square miles — as large as Scotland. Its streams flow into all the seas and bays which wash its shores. Its climate resembles that of Nova Scotia, and its general appearance is similar.
The people are descended from the Loyalists, whose settlement here, following the Peace of Paris in 1782, caused New Brunswick to be made a separate colony.
188 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Agriculture is the chief industry, and the fertile valley of St John, which occupies the west of the Province, is celebrated for its farms. Only 25 per cent, of the total area is under cultivation, and there is a great oppor- tunity for practical farmers. Fredericton, the capital, is the centre of a large fruit-growing district. Lumbering and fishing give employ- ment to thousands. Coal is worked at Grand Lake, iron ore at Bathurst in Gloucester County. Oil and natural gas are found in Albert County, and gypsum, antimony, and tungsten are found. The production was valued at $581,942 in 1910, and at $806,504 in 1912.
The Province is visited by many persons every year for hunting and fishing. The 'bore' of the Bay of Fundy is a great attrac- tion.
The Province sends ten Senators and thirteen members of Parliament to the Dominion Parliament. The Provincial Govern- ment is administered by the Lieutenant- Governor and a Cabinet of six Ministers. The Legislature consists of a single House. There are 1700 elementary schools and many secondary and grammar schools. There are two universities : New Brunswick (State) at
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 139
Fredericton, and Mount Allison (Methodist) at Sackville.
In 1912 New Brunswick produced field crops worth $16,300,000; its 1158 factories, employing 24,755 hands, had an output valued at $35,422,000. The manufacture of dairy products has lately shown a decrease from causes which are inexplicable, as the demand for such products in Canada is so great as almost to exhaust the supply.
Fredericton, the capital, is beautifully situated on the River St John. It was founded in 1786 by Sir Guy Carleton as St Anns. Its population is 7208 (1911). St John, New Brunswick's seaport, is the most important town, and is situated at the mouth of the St John River. Its harbour and works are being rapidly developed and improved. Moncton, the headquarters of the Inter-Colonial Rail- way, is a manufacturing town, and a most important railway centre. There are numer- ous other towns. Grand Falls, where the river drops 180 feet, has large timber industries, and has a great future as a 'power' town.
III. Prince Edward Island. — This island, the smallest Province of Canada, lies in the Gulf of St Lawrence, and is separated from the north coasts of Nova Scotia and New
140 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Brunswick by Northumberland Strait, which, never very wide, is at one part only nine miles across. The area is 2184 square miles. It was first discovered, most probably, by Jacques Cartier, in 1584. The Indian name, Abegweit (Home on the Wave), was changed to lie de St Jean by Champlain, and this name, though disliked, lasted until 1799, when the present name was adopted. The island passed into British hands in 1758, following the fall of Louisbourg. It was united to Nova Scotia, but was finally separated in 1769.
The island has no history. By 1728 it had only about 300 inhabitants; in 1745 about 1000; but in 1755 numbers of the Acadian s, fleeing to escape deportation to New England, settled there. In 1808 the Earl of Selkirk brought 800 Irish and Scotch emigrants. Politics are chiefly interesting because of the struggle with absentee landlords, to whom most of the land was granted in 1767. They were ultimately bought out, as a con- dition of the Province joining the Dominion, for £160,000.
The Province joined the Dominion in 1873, and owing to the great development of popu- lation elsewhere stands in some danger of
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 141
losing all but one of its representatives in the Dominion House of Commons.
The Provincial Government is carried on by a Lieutenant-Governor and a Legislative Assembly of thirty. Responsible government was obtained in 1851. There were two Houses. In 1862 both were made elective, and in 1893 amalgamated, so that fifteen members (Assemblymen) are now elected by the general population, and fifteen (Councilmen) by the property owners. The voters number 19,000. The Cabinet consists of three paid Ministers and several Ministers without portfolio. The annual expenditure is about $420,000, of which about $125,000 is spent on educa- tion. There are only four municipalities : Charlottetown, Summerside, Souris, and Georgetown.
The revenue is chiefly derived from the share of the Federal Revenue. The income- tax and land-tax are low, and their annual yield small.
The island has been called the Garden Province, and deserves the name. Less than one-seventh of the land is unoccupied, and most of that is cultivable. The climate is good; the land undulating, well watered, and wooded.
142 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The usual route to the island is by steam- boat to Charlottetown from Pictou (N.S.). The island will be greatly benefited in the future by the construction of a car ferry, which will overcome difficulties of reaching the island during the winter. In order to take the trucks used on the mainland the Prince Edward Island Railway, owned and worked by the Dominion Government, will be made 4 ft. 8J in. gauge (instead of the present 8 ft. 6 in.). Goods will then be transported with- out transhipment.
The islanders are tolerably prosperous, for the poor relief of the island costs but £1320 a year, including £600 for the poorhouse.
Education is not as well advanced as it ought to be, but something has been done by Sir William Macdonald's benefactions in 1905, and a general improvement is taking place. There are two good colleges (one R.C.), and also a teachers' training college. The schools number 478, with 591 teachers and 17,500 pupils.
The soil is well suited for growing wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, swedes, hay, etc. There is natural manure obtainable from the mussel mud of the bays, marsh mud, seaweed, fish offal, and limestone. Dairy farming is on the
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 143
increase, and butter and cheese making flourishes. Pigs, sheep, and poultry are somewhat neglected, but there is a good market for horses. There is a Government Experimental Farm, but for technical instruc- tion farmers go to the Agricultural College at Truro, N.S.
A new industry — the rearing of silver foxes in captivity — has recently sprung up. The island is better suited for this purpose than any other part of the Dominion. Large sums are made by the fortunate, but the risks of loss by untimely death are so great that no one should undertake the pursuit without ample capital and thorough knowledge. The island shares in the fisheries of the coast; its oysters and lobsters are valuable assets.
In 1912 the field crops were worth $9,133,000, and its 442 industrial establish- ments employed 8762 hands, turning out an output of $3,136,000.
The population has declined of late years. In 1901 there were over 103,000, but they had declined to 93,728 in 1911. Charlottetown, the capital, has 11,200.
The Province has sanctioned a scheme to attract farmers with a capital of £200 to pur- chase improved farms. There is a demand for
144 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
farm labourers and others who can help to develop fisheries, brickworks, fruit and vege- table canning. Persons of fixed income can find a pleasant, inexpensive home in any of the four towns.
THE ST LAWRENCE PROVINCES
I. Quebec. — Quebec embraces the whole of Eastern Canada lying east of Hudson Bay and the Ottawa River, except the Maritime Provinces. Since the incorporation of Ungava in 1912, the area of the Province is over 700,000 square miles, and it has become the largest in the Dominion. The accession has not increased the population materially, and in that respect the Province still stands second to Ontario.
The population in 1911 was 2,002,712, of whom nearly 1,700,000 were Roman Catholics. The Province is French in habits and language. Eighty per cent, of the inhabitants are of French origin. It is represented in the Dominion Parliament by twenty-four Senators and sixty-five members of Parliament. The number can only be changed by an Imperial Act of Parliament.
The Provincial Administration is vested in
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a Lieutenant-Governor and the Cabinet of nine members. The Legislature has two Houses : a Legislative Council of twenty-four life members (nominated from persons quali- fied to be Senators of the Dominion for Quebec) and an elected Legislative Assembly. Both in the Dominion and Provincial Legislatures Quebec returns a Liberal majority. There are a large number of Nationalists, whose secession in 1911 contributed to the fall of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government.
The finances of the Provinces are flourishing and taxes are light. Sir Lomer Gouin, K.C.M.G., on becoming Premier in 1905, found the consolidated debt was $34,731,000. No new loan has been contracted, and the debt was reduced to $25,412,000 by January, 1912.
The judges are chosen by the Governor- General from the Quebec Bar. The magis- trates and justices are appointed by the Lieutenant-Governor. The law of property and civil rights is based on the French law; in other respects the English law is followed. Both systems have been modified by Canadian and Quebec Acts of Parliament.
Quebec is extremely flourishing. Its chief industry is agriculture, including dairy-farming
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and fruit-farming. Manufactures and mining are carried on extensively. Lumbering is active, and pulp and paper making are rapidly extending since the prohibition, in 1910, of exporting wood for pulp-making.
The Province is intensely religious. The Roman Church, which has most adherents, was, in 1909, placed directly under the See of Rome. The Province is divided into two Archbishoprics — Quebec and Montreal — but a small portion comes within the Arch- bishopric of Ottawa. There are about 8000 priests. The Quebec Act, 1774, guaranteed the legal right of the clergy to their accustomed dues, and these are still paid by the Roman Catholic population. All religious denominations flourish.
One effect of the religious feeling in the Province is the absence of a State educational system. The Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion presides over the Council of Education, which governs the educational affairs of the Province. There are two Committees (Roman Catholic and Protestant), and these dominate education. There are over 6700 elementary schools, with over 14,000 teachers (of whom more than 5800 are ecclesiastics) and nearly 400,000 scholars. There are also Agricultural
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Colleges and a School of Higher Commercial Studies at Montreal, and the Quebec Technical School. In addition, there are schools which provide a classical and mathematical educa- tion and the universities.
The Quebec farming community is learning the utility of rotation and manuring, and also the introduction of new blood into its stock. The Provincial Department is under the Minister of Agriculture and Highways. There are 664 agricultural clubs, 83 agricultural societies, 34 co-operative agricultural societies, 12 experimental farms for fruit growing, a large dairy school at St Hyacinthe, a dairy society, 3 agricultural colleges, and a vet- erinary college at Montreal. The Department sends out inspectors and instructors. The total value of all agricultural products for 1911 is estimated at $150,000,000. The chief crops were hay, etc., 5,742,000 short tons ($58,500,000); pasturage (profits of dairy produce and beasts) about $30,000,000; grain (chiefly oats), 123,000,000 bushels ( $2,000,000); and potatoes, 51,000,000 bushels ( $12,500,000). Field crops in 1912 were worth $65,500,000. Store and dairy cattle are raised in large num- bers, and horse-breeding is carried on on a large scale. Funds for the improvement of sheep
148 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
are raised by a dog tax. Cheese factories and creameries are extremely active, and their annual output is worth many millions. The production of tobacco is increasing in the Yamaska Valley, where there is a Planters' Co-operative Society.
The forests of Quebec are the Eastern and Northern. Since 1906 no fresh timber lands have been sold. In 1895 the Laurentides Park was founded as a forest and game reserve. It then had an area of 2500 square miles, but has been extended to 3700 square miles. There have been established since 1905 forest reserves at Gaspe" Park (2523 square miles), Rimouski (1250 square miles), Chaudiere (156 square miles), Tennswater (227 square miles), Bonaventure (1783 square miles), Labrador (110,000 square miles), Bachois (113 square miles), St Maurice (21,121 square miles), Ottawa (27,652 square miles), and Riviere Ouelle (340 square miles) — a total of 165,115 square miles, an area exceeding that of the forest reserves of the United States. In 1912, 70,000 square miles of timber were under licence, and there is also a large area in private hands. Lumbering was first established on the Saguenay and Lake St John in 1810. There are nineteen
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pulp and paper making works, but more are being built.
The minerals worked include asbestos, copper, gold, silver, iron ore, ochre, chromite, mica, phosphate, graphite, slates, cement, magnesite, marble, flagstone, granite, lime, limestone, kaolin, felspar, glass, sand and sand quartz. The value of the mineral products was $8,679,786 in 1911, and $11,017,046 in 1912. The asbestos produced in the Eastern townships amounts to over 85 per cent, of the world's supply. In 1912 the 6584 factories of Quebec employed 158,207 men and turned out products to the value of $350,000,000.
The vast area of Quebec is extremely diversified. The plains of the North, which look out on to Hudson Bay and the Arctic, are almost undeveloped. The people are Esquimaux, and hunters and fishermen, but there are great possibilities. The forests are mostly undeveloped; the water-power is enormous (one fall has a clear drop of 312 feet and a series of 700 feet); and the mineral wealth yet unknown. This area is separated from the St Lawrence watershed by an almost imperceptible rise. The St Lawrence itself flows through a diversified region. There are
150 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
mountains and valleys, lakes and streams, woods and plains. The land is full of game of all kinds, the water swarms with fish. The St Lawrence passes through scenes full of memories of early times — of the conflicts with Indians, the struggle between the French and English. Nowadays it is the gateway to the West, through which every year thousands of immigrants throng to new homes. The weather is severe but bracing in winter, but the snowfall fertilises the soil, and the spring and summer produce abundant crops.
The capital of the Province and the centre of French life is the City of Quebec, at the con- fluence of the St Charles and the St Lawrence, the first stopping-place of ocean steamers. The magnificent view is a fitting greeting to the new-comer, as he approaches. The city was founded in 1608, and captured by the British in 1629. Its fall in 1759 marked the end of the long struggle between French and English in North America. In 1775 it was besieged by the American forces, but without result. The population is 78,000. The city is full of fine buildings, both new and old, including the Parliament building and the University, and many churches.
Montreal, near the Ontario boundary, is
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the commercial capital of Canada. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1542, and its fall in 1760 was the last incident in the war with France. The population in 1911 was 466,000 (with suburbs, 600,000); the subsequent in- crease has been enormous. It is the adminis- trative centre of the railways and the summer terminus of the Atlantic liners. The dry dock is the largest in Canada, and the Vic- toria Pier has enormous quay accommodation, which is hardly sufficient for its needs. The manufactories of the city make almost every known manufactured article. M'Gill Uni- versity is one of the most important centres of education in Canada.
West of Montreal lies an English-speaking district bordering on Ontario. In this area lies Chateauguay, where, in 1812, a French Canadian with a small force routed an American force ten times as numerous, with a loss to himself of only two killed and sixteen wounded.
On the south bank of the St Lawrence, the point nearest the ocean, is Gaspe" Peninsula, the inhabitants of which are a race apart. Latterly farming has been followed more, and on the completion of the Gaspe" Railway the district will go ahead
152 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
rapidly. Forty miles from Gaspe" is the Island of Anticosti, which has entered on a new career since it was acquired by M. Menier. It is a thriving pulpwood centre, and farming, fishing, lobster catching, and fox-farming are carried on, and it has a railway.
Between Gasp6 and the Eastern Townships lies one of the most charming countries in Canada. It is full of beautiful scenery and flourishing farms. The fishing, especially salmon fishing, is superb. Riviere du Loup is the most important town. Farther east is the Matapedia Valley, celebrated for its fishing.
The Eastern Townships form a compact group on the south of the St Lawrence west of Montreal and close to the United States boundary. Until thirty years ago the district was a flourishing British farming country, but the discovery of the asbestos mines at Thetford has led to a great influx of French workmen, and the British population has declined owing also to the rush to the Prairie Provinces.
Flourishing towns abound in Quebec: many of them live in the pages of history. Three Rivers, on the St Lawrence, founded in 1642, was one of the three chief towns of French
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Canada. It is a busy manufacturing town of 14,500 souls. Sorel, 51 miles from Montreal, was once the summer residence of the Governor-General. The Duke of York, father of Queen Victoria, was living there when the news of the execution of King Louis XVI. reached Canada. La Prairie is a small town, noted for the first railway in British North America.
Northern Quebec is to be taken vigorously in hand ; a railway is to be run to James Bay, and the whole area surveyed and its possibilities reported on by competent surveyors.
II. Ontario, the centre Province, is the most populous and the most prosperous. On the north it is bounded by James Bay and Hudson Bay; on the east by the Ottawa River to Lake Temiscaming, and thence by a straight line drawn northward to James Bay. On the south its boundary from east to west is the St Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and then the string of lakes which ends in the Lake of the Woods. On the west it is bounded by Manitoba, not as usual by lines drawn along parallels of longitude, for at 51 degrees north the boundary-line runs north-east, so as to
154 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
give Manitoba Churchill and Port Nelson on Hudson Bay.
Ontario is divided into two districts — Old or Southern Ontario, New or Northern Ontario. The former, 77,000 square miles in area, is by far the most settled; the latter is much larger, and the disproportion has been increased by the annexation of the District of Patricia, so that its area is 830,000 square miles. The total area of the Province is 407,262 square miles, and it is second only to Quebec in size. The population, 2,523,208 in 1911, is mostly found in Old Ontario, which roughly comprises the district between Ottawa River on the east and Georgian Bay on the west, with the St Lawrence and Lakes Erie and Huron on the south. It is a busy dis- trict, fully occupied in manufactures and agriculture, with fruit farms which are more productive than even those of Nova Scotia and British Columbia. As in Quebec and the Maritime Provinces, oats are a bigger crop than wheat. Large areas are under peas, beans, and roots of various kinds. Hay and clover are grown on three and a half million acres. Sugar-beet growing is a new industry of great promise. The field crops comprise more than one-third of the total for Canada; in
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1911, $193,260,000 out of $565,710,000, and in 1912 $204,549,000 out of $635,473,000.
Ontario grows more than half the apples, cherries, and plums, nearly all the pears and peaches, and practically all the grapes of Canada.
The annual value of all agricultural crops exceeds $300,000,000. There are 875 agri- cultural and eighty horticultural societies. The Guelph Agricultural College is cele- brated throughout the world, and there is also a prison where criminals are taught farming.
Ontario commences the Prairies of Canada, but its prairie district is less developed than Manitoba. Northern Ontario is being devel- oped in the east up to Temiscaming, where a railway serves the mines of Cobalt and Porcupine, and links up the C.P.R. with Cochrane on the Transcontinental Railway. A little farther west, Sudbury's nickel mines have attracted many workers, and the Algoma Railway has developed the district north of Sault Ste. Marie. On the west border Kenora (formerly Rat Portage) and Rainy River are beginning to forge ahead, and the Lake ports of Fort William and Port Arthur are flourish- ing entrep6ts for the West. Beyond lies an
156 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
enormous fertile area crossed by two railways, where there are as yet few settlers. The Government is pushing forward the survey of the northern district, and its possibilities will soon be known.
The mines of Ontario produce gold, silver, cobalt, nickel, copper, iron, and zinc in large quantities. The chief non- metals are arsenic, cement, and lime, petroleum, natural gas, and clays. The minerals of Ontario form two-fifths of the total production of Canada, and in 1910 were valued at $43,538,000, a total which in 1912 was increased to $51,023,000. The timber produoed in 1910 was valued at $30,000,000 — a third of Canada's output. The lake and river fisheries yielded in 1912 a catch valued at over $2,200,000. The factories of Ontario lead the way. In 1912 there were 8001 factories employing 515,203 hands, and their output was valued at $579,810,000 — more than half the total for the Dominion.
These figures are encouraging, not only to Ontario but to the rest of Canada, for they show that as population increases the power of production, agricultural as well as manu- facturing, increases to an even greater extent. Ontario's productive area is never far from
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the Lakes. It has produced a new industry — that of making electricity by water-power, and now the utilisation of water-power is proceeding apace all over the Dominion. In Ontario there is a Commission to regulate the industry.
The educational organisation of Ontario is excellent. There are over 6500 elementary schools, with 8500 teachers and 500,000 scholars, 146 high and collegiate schools, and 128 continuation schools. There are seven universities. Toronto University has the greatest number of students in Canada. At Toronto there are also the University of Trinity College and Victoria University (both affiliated to Toronto University), and McMaster University. At Kingston there is Queen 's University ; at London, the Western University ; and at Ottawa, the University of Ottawa. The population is 2,523,294 (1911).
The Province is represented in the Dominion Parliament by twenty-four Senators and eighty-six members of Parliament. The Con- servative majority in the members from Ontario exceeds that for the whole Dominion. The Provincial Government is carried on by the Lieutenant-Governor and a Cabinet of eleven Ministers (three without portfolio). The
158 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Legislature consists of one House, elected every four years. The revenue is so large that grants are made to municipalities. The administration is in the hands of the Conser- vative Party.
There are over 290 cities, towns, and vil- lages in the Province, which possesses the Federal capital, Ottawa, as well as its own capital, Toronto.
Ottawa is situated on the Ottawa River, where the Rideau River falls into it. Its population is 86,840. Besides the numerous Government buildings, it has over 180 fac- tories. It was known as By town until 1854, and became the Federal capital in 1867. The commencement of the Rideau Canal is at Ottawa.
Toronto, the Provincial capital, is a thriving manufacturing town and lake-port on the north-west shore of Lake Ontario. It was founded in 1794 as York, and was captured by the Americans and held for a few days in 1813. It was first called Toronto in 1834. Its popu- lation, 9000 in 1834, 25,000 in 1850, 250,000 in 1907, reached 376,240 in 1911, and has increased even more rapidly since. Hamilton, on Burlington Bay, Lake Ontario, is a railway centre and lake port, with important woollen
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and steel and iron works. London, in the south-west peninsula, is the capital of Middle- sex County, and has over 200 factories, with a varied output. Its power is hydro-electricity from Niagara Falls. Brantford, on the Grand River has important agricultural manufac- tures. It is a railway centre (both steam and electric).
Kingston, at the outlet of Lake Ontario, was formerly Fort Frontenac, and was occupied by New England Loyalists after the war. It was the old capital of Upper Ontario. It has vast stone quarries and mineral springs. Peterborough and Windsor, on Detroit River, are busy manufacturing towns. Fort William, at the head of Lake Superior, is the lake port for Manitoba. Berlin is noted for its furniture-making and its syndicate which introduced hydro-elec- tricity to commerce. Guelph, besides its Agricultural College, has important iron and wood works. It is impossible to give a complete list of the towns of the Province. St Thomas, Stratford, Owen Sound, St Catherine's, Port Arthur, Sault Ste. Marie, Chatham, and Gait all have a population exceeding 10,000. Niagara Falls has sprung into importance through its electricity works.
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Cobalt and Sudbury are mining towns famed for their silver and nickel mines. Everywhere there is an increase of trade.
THE PRAIRIE PROVINCES
The most remarkable fact of recent years has been the realisation of the importance of these Provinces. Even so recently as 1890 settlers were few, and Alberta and Saskatchewan empty. Lack of transport was no doubt largely responsible for this. The waterways do not lead to the trade routes, and the absence of railroads made it impossible to market a large harvest. These Provinces have been made by the railways, and this remains so true that immigrants are warned not to expect to succeed if they settle out of reach of the railway. The Canadian Pacific Railway, which was completed in 1885, first made the West accessible, and the lead has been followed by other lines. In America the railway precedes settlement ; it does not supply a need; it creates its own market. The line reaches out into the wilderness, and the wilderness becomes a garden. Roads follow the railways. When a railway centre is established, then the roadmaker connects it
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with the district. Every year each Province devotes large sums to roadmaking. The process is the reverse of that which obtains in the Old World. In twenty years the prairie has become a farm : the land which supported a few Indians and hunters is now peopled by a host of farmers, whose exertions provide the Old World with bread.
Of the scenery there is little to be said. In most places the • bald-headed prairie • bounds the vision on all sides. Its rectangular sections and quarter sections, full of ripening grain, are a comforting sight to the farmer, but yield little relief to the eye.
I. Manitoba. — This Province, the first created after the Union, was a fur-trading country given over to Indians and hunters until the nineteenth century. Then the Red River and Assiniboine settlements were formed. Their vicissitudes were only partly due to lack of means of communication; the existence of an agricultural community was opposed to the interest of fur-trading com- panies, and laughed at as a dream. In 1868 the Dominion made a statutory bargain to acquire the territorial rights of the Hudson Bay, and, after the suppression ot the Red River troubles in 1870, the Province
162 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
of Manitoba was organised, and incorporated into the Dominion.
The boundaries were almost entirely arti- ficial, depending on the lines of latitude and longitude, except where the Province touches the Lake of the Woods and Hudson Bay.
The Province has recently been extended to correspond with Alberta and Saskatchewan in length from north to south, and the eastern boundary has been drawn from the old north- east corner of the Province in a north-easterly direction so as to include within the Province a part of the western coast of Hudson Bay. Manitoba has thus changed from an inland Province, over 1000 miles from the nearest seaport (Montreal), to a country having an extensive coast with two excellent harbours, Churchill and Port Nelson. The organisation of a steamship service in the summer to these ports and the construction of the Canadian Northern Railway from thence to Winnipeg will bring the Province hundreds of miles nearer Europe. The area of Manitoba has increased from 93,000 square miles to 251,832, and thus slightly exceeds Saskat- chewan-.
The Province has many lakes, the largest being Lake Winnipeg, and a number of rivers,
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but the waterways are not of such great importance as the railways, which have made Manitoba prosperous. The fertility of the soil of the undulating prairies is capable of producing abundant harvests; the railways were essential to carry the harvest to the world's markets.
The Province in 1911 contained a popula- tion of 454,681, an increase in ten years of 200,000. In 1871 the population was 25,228. Winnipeg, the capital, is the third city of Canada, and is increasing rapidly.
The Government is administered by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Cabinet, which is composed of Ministers. The Pro- vince also returns four Senators and ten members of Parliament to the Dominion Houses of Parliament. The Act extending its boundaries has provided that the number of Senators may be increased to six.
The education struggle has been over religious and undenominational education, complicated by the question of provincial rights, and the final victory of the Provincial Legislature in 1896 was thought to prejudice Sir Wilfrid Laurier on his accession to office as Prime Minister of the Dominion. It is free and undenominational. There are 1551
164 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
school districts and 2774 teachers, with 76,000 pupils. The University of Manitoba is at Winnipeg.
Agriculture is the main industry, and grain is the staple crop. Cattle and dairy farming exists, but is not regarded with favour, and fruit farming is almost non-existent. Mining and lumbering have hitherto had little place in the life of the Province, but now that the northern area is being opened prospecting will be carried on, and the northern forests exploited. The fresh-water fisheries are only of local importance; to them must now be added the fishing in Hudson Bay. Hunting and trapping is also carried on in the new district.
The chief crop is wheat. The value of the field crops is enormous, and amounted in 1911 to $73,136,000 and in 1912 to $105,736,000. The output of the mines in 1910 was valued at $1,500,000, and in 1912 at $2,315,000.
The climate is warm in summer and cold in winter, being of a true continental type; the old Province was suitable for grain grow- ing, but the northern part is too subject to late frosts. Nevertheless, there are large areas open to development. The scenery on the
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lakes is charming, but the general character of the country is monotonous. It is sparsely wooded in the south, and the changes of elevation are so gradual and so small as not to attract attention.
The chief town is Winnipeg, which in 1911 had 136,000 inhabitants, has enormously increased since then. It is the first resting- place of immigrants, who mostly push straight on there from the steamer. During the season over 1000 immigrants arrive there every day. It has grown enormously and absorbed nearly one-half of the total increase of population of the Province during the decade (93,000 out of 200,000), due to its position as the agricultural centre of the West. There are numerous other cities and towns, the chief of which is Brandon, an important railway junction on the south bank of the Assiniboine River, and a great wheat city. The Govern- ment Experimental Farm is there. Churchill and Port Nelson will be important ports when the steamer and railway service is organised.
II. Saskatchewan is a quadrilateral bounded on the south by the 49° north, on the north by 60° north, on the west by 110° west, and on the east by a line which nearly corresponds
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with 102° west. The area is 250,700 square miles.
Like Manitoba, it is agricultural, and the area under cultivation, some 5,384,082 acres, is almost entirely devoted to grain.
The Province is administered by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Cabinet, which consists of five Ministers. The Legis- lature is a single House with forty-one mem- bers. The Province is represented in the Dominion Parliament by four Senators and ten members of Parliament.
The Province has no history. It was raised to that rank on 1st September, 1905, and has since enjoyed considerable prosperity. Its increase of population has been phenomenal. During the census decade it amounted to over 400,000, and the population in 1911 numbered 458,508. The towns are numerous and pros- perous, but have not developed at the expense of agriculture, for the rural population is much greater than the urban.
The chief crop is wheat. Saskatchewan is the second of the wheat-producing States in America.
Oats are a good second to wheat. The field crops of all kinds were valued at $152,239,000 in 1912. Dairy farming and
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ranching are not carried on to any great extent.
Mining is, of course, carried on, but the yield is not large. The chief mineral is coal. Natural gas has been found near Swift Current. The mineral output was worth in 1910 $498,122 and in 1912 $909,934. The timber is used for local needs. Fishing is not carried on commercially. The manu- factures of 173 factories, employing 3250 hands, was valued in 1912 at $6,332,000.
The climate is practically the same as in Manitoba. The country is also part of the same prairie land, but is not so well watered.
Education is under the control of the Province, and is managed by elected bodies. There are 2110 schools, 3491 teachers, and 70,500 pupils. In the towns there are schools where advanced education is provided.
The chief towns in Saskatchewan are Regina, the capital, a town of 30,210 inhabi- tants (estimated at 45,000 in 1913), a distri- buting centre for the Province; Moose Jaw, which has important flour mills and other works; Saskatoon, on the South Saskatchewan River, is the seat of the University; and Prince Albert, a rapidly developing town on North Saskatchewan River, is interested in
168 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
lumbering and marble and granite works. The R.N.W. Mounted Police patrol the rural areas, and there are eighty-three detach- ments in the Province.
III. Alberta, Saskatchewan's twin, came into existence on 1st September, 1905. Its north and south boundaries are the same parallels as the boundaries of Manitoba and Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan is its eastern boundary. On the west, from the north-west corner, the boundary southwards is the 120th west line of longitude until the centre range of the Rocky Mountains is met; that range then forms the western boundary until the southern boundary is met. The total area is 255,285 square miles, double that of Great Britain.
Alberta has the same general characteristics as the other Prairie Provinces until the land rises towards the Rocky Mountains. There the height of the land increases rapidly, and the southern part is deficient in rainfall in consequence. Much has been done by irriga- tion, and the success attained has led to corresponding results in the dry districts of Birtish Columbia.
The Lieutenant-Governor has a Cabinet of four Ministers. The Legislature consists of
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a single House. Taxation is light. Education follows the same lines as in Saskatchewan and Manitoba. There are 1784 schools, 2651 teachers, and 61,600 scholars, of whom more than half are in rural schools. The University of Alberta is at Strathcona, Edmonton.
Agriculture, especially grain growing, is the mainstay of Alberta's resources, but does not occupy so great a part in the life of the Pro- vince. The field crops are worth upwards of $58,523,000. Mining is carried on in Southern Alberta; the chief minerals are coal, salt, and asphalt. The yield in 1912 was valued at $12,111,000. The supply of natural gas obtainable at many points is extremely valuable, and the supply is so great that it is cheaper to keep the street lights at Medicine Hat burning all day than to extinguish them. Alberta's 290 factories find employment for 6980 workers, and their output is valued at $18,789,000.
The Rocky Mountains afford supplies of stone and offer opportunity for sporting expeditions. Valuable grazing is found for cattle on the foothills. Fishing here is not a commercial proposition, and lumbering is not carried on to any great extent; there is great opportunity for pulp and paper works.
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The chief towns include Edmonton, the capital, which has coal-beds and brick clay deposits, and is an agricultural centre. Medicine Hat has natural gas and clay works. Calgary, the largest town, is rapidly forging ahead owing to its railway works and mineral resources ; and Lethbridge, the centre of Alberta's ' dry '-farming area, is also a busy mining town. The population of Alberta was in 1881 18,075 and in 1891 22,277; by 1901 it had risen to 73,022, and at the last census had reached 372,919.
IV. British Columbia. — This Province, until recently the largest of the Dominion, monopo- lises the western coast of Canada. It is an irregular quadrilateral stretching from the central range of the Rocky Mountains on the east (where it is bounded by Alberta) to the Pacific. The United States and San Juan de Fuca Straits form its southern boundary. On the northern boundary lie Alaska (U.S.A.), — which cuts the Province off from the ocean at 60° N., — the Yukon, and North- West Territories.
Between the Rocky Mountains and the Selkirk Ranges there is a valley of uniform width stretching for 700 miles from the southern boundary northwards. West of the
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Selkirks is a plateau intersected by many rivers and lakes, and along the Pacific the Coast Range breaks up the sea-coast into a series of magnificent fiords and harbours. The islands off the mainland form a fourth range, the Island Range. These mountain ranges show many traces of volcanic dis- turbances and glacial action.
The area of the Province is over 870,000 square miles. Its width from east to west is about 400 miles, and its length 700 miles.
The climate is extremely diversified. In the north the winters are severe, but in the south the weather approximates to that of the United Kingdom. The effect of the sea breezes blowing from the west across the four mountain ranges is to produce moist and dry belts alternately. Consequently some areas require irrigation, while in a few places the excess of moisture has formed marshes.
The Province has a short but varied history. Juan de Fuca, in 1592, discovered the straits which bear his name, but probably he was not the first-comer. Captain Cook visited the coast in 1778 on his last voyage. Captain Mears settled at Nootka, in Vancouver Island, in 1788, and his expulsion by the Spaniards
172 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
led to the Nootka Sound dispute, which resulted in the Spaniards renouncing their claims and paying compensation. In 1792 Captain Vancouver surveyed the coast. Next year Alexander Mackenzie reached the Pacific across the Rockies. In 1800 Thompson also crossed the Rockies. An Assembly was granted to Vancouver Island in 1856. The mainland, then known as New Caledonia, remained a fur-trading country until the discovery of gold on the Fraser River in 1858, and the rush to the diggings led to its forma- tion into a Colony under the name of British Columbia (bestowed by Queen Victoria). The two Colonies united in 1866, and joined the Dominion in 1871, but the railway for which the Province stipulated was not completed till 1885. The population in 1901 was 178,657 and in 1911 362,768. Since then the rate of increase has been maintained.
The Government is vested in a Lieutenant- Governor, who is advised by the Cabinet of seven members. The Legislature is a single House of forty-two members. An election occurs every four years, unless the House is dissolved before then.
The Dominion representatives are three Senators and seven members of Parliament.
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 173
Taxation is light, and it is expected that the receipts from natural resources will soon enable all direct taxation to be taken off. The revenue for 1912-13 exceeded the esti- mate by nearly $3,000,000. Road-making is being pushed forward. 1500 miles of standard roadways were made in 1912, and 1500 miles improved to standard.
The great industries of the Province are mining, fishing, lumbering, and agriculture. The total production for the year 1912-13 reached $125,000,000.
The products of the mines in 1912 realised $29,555,000, against $24,000,000 in 1911, and $26,000,000 in 1910. The chief minerals are gold, silver, lead, zinc, copper, and coal. The extensive iron and zinc mines are almost undeveloped. The precious metals are widely distributed. The principal existing coal mines are in Vancouver Island, East Kootenay, and Yale, but many coal measures are still un- worked. There is enough coal to supply the world for centuries. Iron and steel works are beginning to be formed. Among the minerals discovered are plumbago, platinum, cinnabar, molybdenum, chromic iron, man- ganese, asbestos, mica, magnesite, asphaltum, pyrites, and petroleum. There is an abundant
174 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
supply of stone and clay, and slate has been found on Queen Charlotte Islands. All these await development.
The next industry is lumbering, and the output is increasing rapidly. There are over 225 sawmills and sixty shingle mills in the Province. The production, which in 1904 was 825,000,000 feet, has now grown to 1,262,000,000 feet. All undisposed- of land was declared reserve in 1907. The industry was formerly confined to the coast, but the mountain mills are now large producers.
Fisheries have increased, so that now British Columbia holds the lead in Canada. The rivers and lakes swarm with fresh- water fish, and the sea-fishing is even more exten- sive. Sealing has declined, but whaling is actively carried on. The chief fish caught are salmon, halibut, and herring. Dog fish are caught for making fish oil and manure. The value of the fishing catch, which in 1908 was $6,500,000, now amounts to upwards of $13,678,000. Some idea of the relative im- portance of the various fishes can be shown by the items in the 1910 catch— salmon, $8,750,000; halibut, $1,000,000; herring, $550,000; whales, $300,000.
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 175
Agriculture does not occupy the same position as elsewhere in Canada. The dry belts, the woods, and the mountains prevent its development on the same scale as on the east of the Rockies. Wheat is little grown, even where it can be cultivated with success. The principal grain crop is oats. The farmers in British Columbia mostly engage in diversified farming. Agriculture is increasing every year, the field crops having reached a value of $7,225,000. Dairy-farming is very profitable, and much is being done in poultry-farming and the growing of roots. Hops of excellent quality are grown in the Okanagan, Agassiz, and Chilliwack districts, and Okanagan also produces quantities of tobacco. The fame of agriculture here rests on its fruit, which has a world-wide reputation. Since 1904 gold medals have been won in open com- petition at the Royal Horticultural Society's Shows in England. The existing fruit dis- tricts are south of 52° N., and include Van- couver Island (south), the Gulf Islands, Lower Fraser River, Thompson River, Shus- wap Lake, Okanagan, Nicola, Upper Columbia Valley, Kootenay, Lake Arrow, Lower Columbia River, and Grand Forks. In 1901 the fruit production did not supply the demand
176 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
of the Province; now there is an extensive trade, especially to Alberta and Saskatchewan. The acreage under fruit in 1891 was 6500 and in 1901, 7500 ; by 1905 it had grown to 29,000, and is now over 100,000 acres ; indeed, new orchards are being established almost every day. Peaches and grapes are being grown, but have not yet threatened Ontario's pre-eminence. Fruit- packing is a fine art in British Columbia, and other countries are learning her methods.
Education is under the care of the Legis- lature, and costs about $400,000 a year. Attendance is compulsory. There are over 450 schools with 45,000 pupils and 1179 teachers. Twenty of these schools are high schools. There are university colleges affili- ated to M'Gill at Victoria and Vancouver, and funds have been provided for the sup- port of a university.
Sport in British Columbia is excellent. There are big-horn sheep, goat, caribou, and deer on the Rockies, and goat and deer on all the mountains. Grizzly bears are found in a number of places, and black bears abound. Waipiti (elk), extinct on the mainland, is found on Vancouver Island. Grouse and
DOMINION AND PROVINCES 177
wild fowl are abundant. The rivers teem with salmon and trout.
The chief town is Vancouver, the fourth city of Canada. Its population in 1911 was 100,000, and has rapidly gone ahead since. The city is the distributing centre of the Pacific districts, and is the mainland terminus of the Canadian Pacific Railway and Canadian Northern Railway, and the port of the Pacific steamship companies trading with Canada.
Victoria, the capital, is situated on Van- couver Island, and is one of the most beautiful cities of the world. It was founded in 1846 as Camosun, a trading post of the Hudson Bay Company. It disputes with Vancouver the sea trade of British Columbia. The public buildings are fine specimens of architecture.
Esquimault was formerly the headquarters of the North Pacific Squadron, and was designed to serve the same purpose for the Canadian Navy in the Pacific. New West- minster, the former capital, is the centre of salmon-canning, and has an extensive lumbering and general trade. Nanaimo, on Vancouver Island, is chiefly engaged in coal- mining and the herring fishery. Rossland,
178 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
in West Kootenay, eight miles from the United States boundary, is an important mining town. Prince Rupert is at present only a flourishing town, but when the Transcontinental Railway of which it is the western terminus, is completed, it will be one of the most important ports on the Pacific coast.
NATURAL RESOURCES 179
CHAPTER VI
NATURAL RESOURCES
Some idea of the vast resources of Canada will have been gathered from preceding pages. Their significance will be perceived in this chapter, where they are enumerated under the headings Agriculture, Minerals, Forests, and Fisheries. These, of course, do not exhaust the list, which cannot be fully stated. Canada is still in a state of transition. In some parts the foot of man has not trod, and the possibilities of these districts cannot even be guessed at; in other parts the wilderness is being rapidly opened up and some idea can be formed; in yet other parts life is settled, and large areas are the scene of highly- developed industrial life, not only providing everything necessary for the comforts of existence, but also sending out its manufac- tures to aid the pioneer in his struggle against nature. Canada is still in the process of formation, and can, for years to come, provide amply for the land-hunger of the peoples of the Old World.
180 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Agriculture. — Agriculture is the chief of Canada's resources. The whole of the Domi- nion is engaged in growing crops, but the area under cultivation is small compared with the area open to settlement. Thus in Alberta the acreage, if put together across the Province, would form a band only eighteen miles wide, and the area in Saskatchewan is less than the spaces allowed for roads. Great as is the production of Canada, its possibilities are far greater. It has been found that cereals can be grown much farther north than was thought possible — at least up to 200 miles north of Edmonton, and the Dominion Government's Cerealist has announced the cultivation of a new wheat, 'Prelude,' which he claims can be grown at least 200 miles farther north than has yet been done. Even at Dawson City, up in the Yukon, cereals have been successfully grown. Oats as a crop are slightly in excess of wheat. It is less liable to damage from early frosts.
British Columbia is the least agricultural country, but it is making rapid strides. The only dry belts are found in that Province and Southern Alberta, but the disadvantages have been overcome by irrigation and 'dry' farming.
NATURAL RESOURCES 181
Vegetables and roots can be successfully grown beyond the limit for growing cereals.
The yield of field crops is now up- wards of $630,000,000. By Provinces the yield is : —
Province. 1911 1912
$ $
British Columbia . 1,290,000 7,223,300
Prince Edward Island . 8,846,700 9,133,600
14,297,900 14,098,200
16,797,000 16,300,300
47,750,000 58,523,000
73,136,000 105,736,700
. 103,187,000 65,476,000
. 107,147,000 152,239,000
. 193,260,000 204,549,000
Nova Scotia
New Brunswick
Alberta
Manitoba .
Quebec
Saskatchewan
Ontario
Total . . 565,711,600 633,279,100
The most valuable crop is hay and clover; next comes spring and fall wheat, closely followed by oats. The acreage under field crops in Canada during 1911 was — Fall wheat, 1,172,119 acres; spring wheat, 9,201,839; oats, 9,219,920; barley, 1,404,352; rye, 142,571; pease, 287,135; buckwheat, 359,367; mixed grains, 559,991; flax, 1,131,586; beans, 60,630; corn for husking, 316,104; potatoes, 459,097; turnips, etc., 227,141; hay and clover, 7,903,242; fodder corn, 285,321; sugar- beet, 20,878; alfalfa, 101,781. A total of 82,853,000 acres.
182 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The increase of the corn-growing areas can be seen from the tables as to the North- West Provinces : —
Area under Corn (in Acres)
1900 1906 1911
|
Manitoba — |
|||
|
Wheat . |
1,965,193 |
2,721,079 |
2,979,734 |
|
Oats . |
573,848 |
931,282 |
1,260,736 |
|
Barley . . |
139,660 |
336,986 |
433,067 |
|
Saskatchewan — |
|||
|
Wheat . |
487,170 |
2,117,484 |
4,704,660 |
|
Oats . . |
141,517 |
901,646 |
2,124,057 |
|
Barley . . |
11,798 |
77,573 |
172,253 |
|
Alberta — |
|||
|
Wheat . |
43,103 |
223,930 |
1,616,899 |
|
Oats . |
118,025 |
476,511 |
1,178,410 |
|
Barley . . |
11,099 |
108,175 |
156,418 |
Yield (in Bushels)
1900 1906 1911 Manitoba —
Wheat . . 18,352,929 54,472,198 60,275,000
Oats . . 10,952,365 44,643,300 57,893,000
Barley . . 2,666,567 11,979,554 14,447,000
Saskatchewan —
Wheat . . 4,306,091 50,182,359 97,665,000
Oats . . 2,270,057 41,899,257 97,962,000
Barley . . 187,211 2,828,587 5,445,000
Alberta —
Wheat . . 797,839 5,932,267 36,143,000
Oats . . 8,791,259 24,027,071 66,964,000
Barley . . 287,343 3,876,468 4,151,000
NATURAL RESOURCES 183
The average rates of yield per acre in 1911 were as follows : — Fall wheat, 22-19 bushels; spring wheat, 20*63; oats, 87*76; barley, 28*94; and flax, 11*41. The average yield of hay per acre was 1*61 tons, and of alfalfa, 2 1 tons. The average profit per acre is $5*50.
Live stock farming is not popular enough, and the country is an importer of meat. There is a tendency, however, for the farmers, especially in the older Provinces, to turn their attention to secondary products of the farm, e.g. meat and milk. Mixed farming and the rotation of crops are coming more into vogue, especially in the Maritime Provinces and British Columbia. Cattle and horses are raised with success in the Eastern Provinces and on the foothills of Alberta.
Dairying is an industry which has developed immensely in the last few years, and is fostered by agricultural societies and by the Provincial and Dominion Governments. There are four thousand cheese factories and creameries. The output of butter and cheese is difficult to estimate, because nearly all of what is made at the dairy farms is consumed at home. The annual production cannot be much less than $100,000,000 in value. The exports for the
184 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
fiscal year ended 31st March, 1911, were valued at $23,710,129, of which cheese was worth $20,739,507 ; butter, $744,288 ; cream, $1,714,528; condensed milk, $469,406; fresh milk, $5391 ; and casein, $37,009. The great increase of home consumption has checked the increase in exports, and Canada now imports butter in large quantities.
Sheep have been rather neglected, and the number decreased since 1881 from 3,048,000 to about 2,398,000. The country is in many parts ideal for sheep, and they are again corning into favour. The breed is being steadily improved, especially in Nova Scotia and Ontario, by the importation of champion animals from the United Kingdom and else- where. Hogs are not reared in any great number, and the possibilities of poultry farm- ing are not realised, except near the great industrial towns, where market gardening has also taken root.
Fruit farming is so important as to be a special industry. The chief centres of culti- vation are Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, where apples are the chief crop, Ontario, where all kinds of fruit are grown, and British Columbia, where apples are again the chief crop, but much progress is being made with
NATURAL RESOURCES 185
stone fruit and grapes. Strawberries and raspberries are a good crop, if there is a local market. The fruit and vegetable canning industry is making rapid strides.
Tobacco is successfully grown in Quebec, Ontario, and British Columbia. The crop produced is valued at $2,000,000 per annum. Sugar beet is also grown.
Minerals. — The minerals of Canada are so numerous and so little exploited that immense developments are to be expected. All over the Dominion mining is proceeding; the chief mining Provinces are Nova Scotia, Ontario, and British Columbia.
Mining statistics only date from 1886, when the total value was $10,221,255 (roughly £2,000,000). In 1892 this had increased to $16,623,415 (over £3,000,000). In 1902 the figure was $63,231,836 (roughly £12,500,000); it is now over $133,000,000 (over £26,500,000). The production per capita was in 1886, $2*23, and in 1912, $1800.
The most important minerals are — Coal, silver, nickel, gold, clay products, copper, and cement. Asbestos, gypsum, and natural gas are also of great importance. Petroleum, which a few years ago was sufficient to supply one-half of Canada's demand, now only
186 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
supplies one-twentieth. In spite of the great increases in the production of minerals, there are enormous imports; this is especially notable in the case of iron ore. The mines of Canada do not supply the requirements of the Dominion.
|
Mineral Production |
||
|
Values |
||
|
Provinces 1908 |
1910 |
1912 |
|
$ |
$ |
$ |
|
Ontario . 30,623,812 |
43,538,078 |
51,023,134 |
|
British Columbia 23,704,035 |
24,478,572 |
29,535,323 |
|
Nova Scotia . 14,487,108 |
14,195,730 |
18,843,324 |
|
Alberta . 5,125,505 |
8,996,210 |
12,110,960 |
|
Quebec . . 6,372,919 |
8,270,136 |
11,675,682 |
|
N.-W. Territories 8,669,290 |
4,764,474 |
5,887,626 |
|
Manitoba . 584,374 |
1,500,359 |
2,314,922 |
|
Saskatchewan 413,212 |
498,122 |
909,934 |
|
New Brunswick 579,816 |
581,942 |
806,584 |
Totals
85,557,101 106,823,623 133,127,489
Percentages of Values
|
1908 |
1910 |
1912 |
|
|
Ontario |
85-79 |
40-76 |
88-33 |
|
British Columbia |
27-71 |
22 92 |
22-20 |
|
Nova Scotia |
1693 |
13-29 |
1415 |
|
Alberta |
5-99 |
8-42 |
910 |
|
Quebec |
7-45 |
7-74 |
8-77 |
|
N.-W. Territories |
4-29 |
4-46 |
4-42 |
|
Manitoba |
068 |
1-40 |
1-74 |
|
Saskatchewan |
0-48 |
0-47 |
0-68 |
|
New Brunswick |
0-68 |
054 |
061 |
100 00
10000
100 00
NATURAL RESOURCES 187
Table of Metals : Values
|
1910 |
1911 |
1912 |
|
|
$ |
$ |
$ |
|
|
Gold . |
10,205,835 |
9,781,077 |
12,539,443 |
|
SUver . |
17,580,455 |
17,355,272 |
19,425,656 |
|
Copper . |
7,094,094 |
6,886,998 |
12,709,311 |
|
Nickel . |
11,181,810 |
10,229,623 |
18,452,468 |
|
Lead |
1,216,249 |
827,717 |
1,597,534 |
|
Pig Iron |
1,650,849 |
613,404 |
450,886 |
|
(Canadian Ore |
) |
Other metals include cobalt and zinc. The value of metals not specified in the table amounted in 1912 to $982,676, an increase of $571,344 over 1911. Tungsten and antimony are worked in Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick. Although pig-iron from Canadian ore shows a progressive decrease, that made from imported ore shows an increase. Thus the value of the latter in 1911 was $11,693,721, and in 1912 $14,100,113. The iron mines of Canada are capable of great development. The increase of value in silver in 1912 was due to rise of prices, the decrease in produc- tion being 627,334 oa.
Table of Non-Metals : Values
1910 1911 1912
$ $ $
Asbestos . 2,535,974 2,943,108 2,979,384
Coal . . 30,909,779 26,467,646 86,349,299
Gypsum . 934,446 993,394 1,320,883
188 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
|
Table of Nc |
»n-Metals : |
VALUES — co\ |
ttinued. |
|
1910 |
1911 |
1912 |
|
|
$ |
$ |
1 |
|
|
Natural Gas . |
1,346,471 |
1,917,678 |
2,311,126 |
|
Petroleum |
388,550 |
357,073 |
345,050 |
|
Salt |
409,624 |
443,004 |
459,583 |
|
Cement |
6,412,215 |
7,644,537 |
9,083,216 |
|
Clay Products |
7,629,956 |
8,359,953 |
9,343,321 |
|
Lime |
1,137,079 |
1,517,599 |
1,717,771 |
|
Stone |
3,650,019 |
4,328,757 |
4,675,851 |
|
Miscellaneous . |
1,555,523 |
2,142,842 |
3,364,017 |
Among the minerals not specifically set out are mica, corundum, mineral waters, pyrites, sand -lime, bricks, and sand and gravel ex- ported.
The total values of mineral products for the three years, 1910-12, are: —
1910 1911 1912
Metallic . 49,438,873 46,105,423 61,177,989
Non-Metallic . 57,384,750 57,115,571 71,649,500
Totals . 106,823,623 103,220,994 133,127,489
It is thus seen that the slight set back in 1911 (the total for which is far above any former year except 1910) was more than over- come in 1912.
The chief exports of minerals are silver, nickel, copper, gold, coal, and asbestos. These six form over 90 per cent, of the total. The greatest quantity goes to the United
NATURAL RESOURCES 189
States. The manufactured exports are chiefly iron and steel goods, coke, and aluminium (the last being made from imported ore).
Timber. — Timber is found over the whole of the Dominion, except in the north, where the climate is too rigorous in the winter. 120 different kinds of trees grow in the Canadian forests. There are few forests in the Prairie Provinces, while in the east clearings have denuded large areas. Forest fires, too, every year destroy the growth of many years. Still there is an enormous area ready for working ; so much, that afforestation is in its infancy. Most of the Provinces, however, have stopped excessive cutting by the simple process of refusing any more licences to cut timber or to sell timber land — as in the case of British Columbia after 1907. Some of the Provinces prohibit the export of wood pulp, and gener- ally efforts are made to confine within the Dominion paper and wood pulp making from Canadian wood. The great demand for wood pulp comes from the United States, which has suffered from excessive clearing.
There are four main forest regions — the Eastern, the Northern, the Rocky or Moun- tain, and the Coast. The first is at present
190 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the most valuable and the most worked. It extends over the Maritime Provinces and the parts of Quebec and Ontario which drain into the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes. In 1909 there were sixty-eight pulping mills, while more than the amount they took was exported to the United States. The legisla- tion above referred to has greatly stimulated their activity, and the number of mills has greatly increased. The exports of pulp-wood in 1909 were $5,600,000; in 1912, $4,900,000, but the total pulp-wood produced was worth $9,680,000.
The best hard wood is white and red pine, now almost entirely found in Ontario and Quebec. There is an enormous supply of spruce and balsam fir, and a great deal of cedar and larch, besides other varieties.
The Northern Forest lies to the north of the Eastern Forest as far as trees will grow. It stretches right across the Dominion. The chief varieties are black and white spruce and poplar, Banksian pine, balsam fir, larch, and birch. This belt of forest land is not easily accessible, and is hardly likely to become a commercial proposition outside the district itself.
NATURAL RESOURCES 191
The Mountain Forest runs along the Rocky Mountains and other ranges of British Columbia, except the Coast Range. Its nature varies from south to north. In the south, bull pine, Engelmaun spruce, larch, silver pine, Douglas fir, cedar, hemlock, and lodge pole pine are found; in the north and higher parts of the mountains, pine, spruce, larch, and fir. Most of this area is owned by the Province or the Dominion, and speculation is limited almost entirely to that part which has already passed into private ownership. As in the Northern Forest, fires are numerous.
The Coast Forest, like the Coast Range, is found on Vancouver Island and the fringe of islands to the north. There is also a strip on the mainland which is 150 miles wide at the United States boundary, but is soon restric- ted to twenty or thirty miles from the coast. Douglas fir and red cedar are found in and near to Vancouver Island. All over this area grow hemlock, cypress, Sitka spruce, and balsam. The danger from fire is small, and the proximity of the sea and the abundance of water transport make this forest extremely valuable.
The distribution in 1908 was as follows : —
|
Acres |
|
|
6,030,080 |
470,000 |
|
792,295 |
2,000,000 |
|
17,616,160 |
1,786,000 |
|
56,200,000 |
980,000 |
|
10,438,400 |
278,000 |
|
4,000,000 |
25,000 |
|
200,000 |
none. |
192 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Area Area
(total) '(leased or sold) Revenue
Acres Dominion Lands 100,000,000 British ColumbialOO,000,000 Ontario . 70,000,000
Quebec . . 100,000,000
New Brunswick 12,800,000 Nova Scotia . 4,200,000 Prince Edward Is. 200,000
It will thus be seen that all the forest land in Prince Edward Island, by far the greater part in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, and over half in Quebec, have passed into private hands.
Fisheries may be classed as sea and fresh- water, or as professional and sporting.
Sea-fishing is either deep sea or inshore. The chief fish is the salmon on the Pacific coast, but everywhere the cod, herring, and halibut furnish rich returns. Lobsters are a catch in the Maritime Provinces only, where also the oysters are celebrated.
Fresh-water fishing is carried on in every Province, though naturally Ontario's lakes are the most important.
Anglers who come to Canada for sport can catch bass, sea bass, maskinonge, mullet, pike, salmon, sturgeon, speckled trout, and other kinds of trout and salmon trout, even leaping tuna have been caught by rod and
NATURAL RESOURCES
193
line. There are close seasons in most Provinces, and in Ontario and Quebec there are close seasons.
The fishing fleet numbers 1680 vessels and tugs, and nearly forty thousand small boats. These are manned by seventy thousand fishermen, and in addition twenty-five thousand persons are employed on shore in canning and other ways of preparing fish for market.
The total production has risen since 1910 from $29,629,168 to $34,660,000. British Columbia, with a value of $13,677,000, has now wrested the first place from Nova Scotia, which only realised $9,368,000. The following table of values by Provinces shows that every Province shares in the fisheries: —
|
1911 |
1912 |
|
|
$ |
$ |
|
|
British Columbia |
9,163,235 |
13,677,125 |
|
Nova Scotia |
10,119,243 |
9,367,550 |
|
New Brunswick . |
4,134,144 |
4,886,157 |
|
Ontario |
2,026,121 |
2,205,536 |
|
Quebec |
1,692,475 |
1,868,136 |
|
Prince Edward Island |
1,153,708 |
1,196,398 |
|
Manitoba . |
1,302,779 |
1,113,486 |
|
Saskatchewan |
172,903 |
139,436 |
|
Yukon |
118,365 |
111,825 |
|
Alberta . . . |
82,460 |
102,325 |
|
' |
29,965,433 |
84,667,972 |
|
CI.P. |
I |
194 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The chief catches are salmon, cod, lobsters, herring, halibut, and haddock. The table following shows value in 1911 according to fish:—
1911 1912
|
Salmon |
7,205,871 |
10,333,070 |
|
Cod . |
5,921,248 |
4,201,760 |
|
Lobsters |
3,784,099 |
4,790,203 |
|
Herring |
2,278,842 |
2,545,491 |
|
Halibut |
1,251,839 |
2,278,824 |
|
Haddock . |
1,318,759 |
— |
|
Whiteflsh . |
983,594 |
1,316,418 |
|
Trout |
825,290 |
— |
|
Smelts |
797,066 |
— |
|
Sardines |
539,227 |
— |
|
Rikeral |
508,573 |
— |
|
Hake and Cusks . |
508,354 |
— |
|
Pollock |
405,925 |
— |
|
Mackerel . |
400,182 |
— |
|
Pike . |
330,729 |
— |
|
Clams, etc. |
383,529 |
— |
|
Oysters |
198,689 |
— |
|
Alewives |
137,278 |
— |
|
Eels . |
110,802 |
— |
In 1912, whaling in British Columbia produced a catch of 1095 whales, valued at $650,000. The total was 1244 fish.
The necessity of re-stocking the fisheries is realised. 41 fish hatcheries have been established and every year hatch out over 1,300,000,000 small fry.
Big Game may be counted as one of the
NATURAL RESOURCES 195
resources of Canada. The best Provinces are British Columbia and New Brunswick, but all the Provinces can provide excellent sport. As a rule expeditions are not formed for wild- fowl shooting, but all hunters provide them- selves with shot guns in order to take advan- tage of the numerous opportunities for sport that offer. Grizzly bears are only found on the Rockies, and elk only on Vancouver, an attempt to introduce them into Laurentides Park having failed. Bison are strictly pro- tected, as only the one herd now exists, an importation from Montana.
All the Provinces now have close seasons, and it is necessary to obtain licences and limit bags. The Yukon is at present without restrictions and offers more personal risk than the Provinces. Moose deer and caribou are found all over the Dominion; waipiti and antelope in Manitoba; elk, mountain sheep, and goats in British Columbia; antelope and mountain sheep and goats in Alberta ; and big-horn in the Yukon. Bears can be found in many places, but are getting scarce except in the Polar regions, British Columbia, and the Yukon.
The utilisation of water-power is reserved for Chapter VIII.
196 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
CHAPTER VII
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES
As a country advances in wealth and popula- tion, the production of raw materials becomes less important than manufacturing, until at last the country ceases to be self-supporting, and has to import the means of sustaining life. Canada has arrived at the stage when raw materials, although of prime importance, no longer bear so great a proportion to manu- factures as they did. In the Eastern Provinces a number of districts can be definitely marked as manufacturing, depending upon the sur- rounding districts for their food supply. In other parts, this stage has not definitely arrived, imports are of manufactured articles, and raw materials are the exports.
Nevertheless, all over the Dominion produc- tion has reached a more developed stage. Iron and steel works are in operation, and shipbuilding is actively carried on. The pro- ducts of the farm are sent out as flour instead of corn; meat, butter, and cheese instead of
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 197
fodder; and canned fish and vegetables are replacing the fresh product. Pulp-wood exports are giving place to wood-pulp exports - — a movement which is stimulated by legisla- tion in Quebec and Ontario. Local situation often determines the manufacture which is established. A port backed by forests and rivers is certain to establish pulp and paper works; while the corn-lands supply straw, which in many places is used to make card- board and strawboard. Agricultural imple- ments are manufactured in the towns which supply the Western Provinces.
Canada's position in relation to the trade of the world and in particular to British trade cannot be now estimated with such accuracy as before. The near future will introduce new factors, the importance and bearing of which time alone can reveal. The preference to British trade has certainly increased Great Britain's share of the imports of dutiable articles, but the proximity of the United States is so great an advantage that the bulk of Canada's trade is, and probably always will be, with its neighbour, and the removal of the surtax on German goods increases the competition of Germany.
The new factors are three : the Panama
198 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Canal, the completion of the new trans- continental lines, and the United States tariff (which will be known as the Underwood Tariff).
The Panama Canal will be opened in 1914, and may both help and retard Canada's trade. The route from England to Australia across Canada by steamboat and rail certainly could not enter into economic competition with the Canal, and the consideration of that service, which has been advocated by Canada at every Imperial Conference, has been deferred in consequence. On the other hand, the Pacific coast ports of Canada will be brought much closer to the Eastern ports and to Europe, and this will be also accomplished by the completion of the two new trans- continental lines, which will enormously in- crease the facility of internal communication.
The recently introduced tariff of the United States has yet to survive its journey through Congress. Many a tariff has commenced by lowering duties, but emerged as a law with increases in its schedules. The proposals of the Underwood Bill are to remove or greatly lower the import duties on foodstuffs and other articles which come in large quantities into the States from Canada and other places.
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 199
On the whole, therefore, it is reasonable to expect that the development of Canada will be aided and not retarded by the result of these influences.
British manufacturers might do much more with Canada, but the preference alone is not enough to secure the trade. The competition is particularly keen and wide-awake, and the market cannot be captured without a thorough acquaintance with local needs and seizing the opportunities of the market on the spot.
The imports and exports of Canada show large progressive increases. The increase in trade in 1912-13 was 13*67 per cent, against the previous year, and shows in ten years an increase of 106-33 per cent., a figure which is only exceeded by Argentina, the bulk of whose trade is much smaller. In 1911 the United Kingdom sent goods to the value of $110,584,004, and took goods to the value of $136,962,971; the figures for the rest of the British Empire were $129,520,664 and $54,106,107 respectively. With these figures maybecompared — United States, $284,325,321 and $112,208,676; Germany, $10,087,199 and $2,668,017; and France, $11,755,037 and $2,782,092 respectively.
200 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Values of Imports and Exports
1910-11 1912-13
$ $
Imports . . . 462,041,330 691,943,515
Exports . . . 290,000,210 893,232,057
Total . . . 752,041,540 1,085,175,572
Banking in the Dominion is in a very satis- factory condition. Depression has often been foretold, but this gloomy anticipation has not been realised. Canadian banks are always ready to open new branches wherever the increasing population suggests openings for business. Substantial persons can readily obtain advances for legitimate farming or trading purposes, but little or no encourage- ment is given to speculation of any kind. Borrowing on a large scale is usually effected in the United Kingdom, where the financial houses are perhaps too little disposed to advance money for developments of trade. The United States are very active both in risking capital in establishing enterprises in Canada and also in advancing money to Canadian business concerns. Canada suffers from two opposite evils — too little money in some industries because too much money is diverted to more favourite ventures.
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 201
|
Bank |
Statistics |
|
|
1911 $ 107,994,604 |
1912 $ 114,881,914 |
|
|
Paid-up Capital . |
||
|
Circulation |
102,037,305 |
110,048,357 |
|
Demand Deposits |
353,020,653 |
379,777,219 |
|
Savings Deposits |
674,213,748 |
632,641,340 |
|
Call Loans in Canada . |
90,550,526 |
70,665,661 |
|
Current Loans . |
774,909,072 |
881,331,981 |
Relations between employers and men are more free and easy than in England. On the other hand, men have much greater oppor- tunity of improving their position, and can much more easily become their own masters. There are over 1700 labour organisations in the Dominion, of which a considerable number are affiliated to larger organisations in the United States, and therefore controlled by non- residents. Strikes and lock-outs are not numerous, varying from 160 in 1903 to 66 in 1908. In 1911 there were 98 strikes and lock-outs. Legislation has been passed to establish Conciliation Boards, which do much good work in preventing strikes and lock-outs. It is a criminal offence to strike or lock-out before the grievance is submitted to arbitration.
There is legislation as to accidents to work- men in some Provinces, and in all probability
202 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
all will have established some system in a few years. Old-age pensions are, as yet, unknown, but pauperism, except among un- successful recent immigrants, is almost as rare.
Canada's manufactures are rapidly develop- ing, and the totals are attaining large pro- portions. The manufactures are various, numbering about 800 different classes of products. The figures for 1912 were : —
|
Establish- |
Value of |
||
|
Province. |
ments. |
Employees. |
Output. $ 579,810,225 |
|
Ontario . , |
8001 |
237,895 |
|
|
Quebec . |
6584 |
158,207 |
850,000,000 |
|
British Columbia |
651 |
83,312 |
65,204,235 |
|
Manitoba |
439 |
17,325 |
53,673,609 |
|
Nova Scotia . |
1480 |
28,795 |
52,706,184 |
|
New Brunswick |
1158 |
24,755 |
35,422,302 |
|
Alberta |
290 |
6,980 |
18,788,826 |
|
Saskatchewan |
173 |
3,250 |
6,332,182 |
|
Prince Edward Isla |
rid 442 |
8,762 |
3,136,470 |
Canada . . 19,218 615,203 1,165,975,000
These figures may be compared with those for 1868, viz. — Employees, 187,942 ; value ofproducts, $221,617,773; and 1905, employees, 383,920 ; value of products, $706,446,578.
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 203
Manufactures connected with Agriculture. — The development, already alluded to, of reducing the first products of the farm to more finished products before sale has resulted in many creameries, cheese factories, fruit and vegetable canning, sugar-beet, and other allied industries, and these enjoy great prosperity. They are found all over the Dominion, but more especially in the Eastern parts of the country. Dairying in 1911 is estimated to have yielded over $100,000,000, on the assumption that about 77 per cent, of the dairy products were consumed in Canada and the remainder exported. The value of the exports was $23,710,129, made up as follows: cheese, $20,739,507; butter, $744,288; condensed milk, $469,406; casein, $37,009; and the balance cream and fresh milk. The bulk of these exports are taken by the United States.
The enormous increase in consumption of dairy produce in Canada has led to the re- markable fact that exports of butter to the United Kingdom dropped from 6,935,000 lbs. in 1911 to 4250 lbs. in 1912, in spite of a greatly increased production. Canada has become a large importer of dairy products. The exports in 1912 were valued at $24,104,876.
204 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The milling industry resulted in exports of flour worth $13,854,790, and new milling plants are being rapidly erected.
Timber supports a large number of saw- mills and other works. The sawmills are found all over the Dominion at every conven- ient spot where timber is conveyed from the forests. Of recent years there has been a great alteration in the method of dealing with the wood destined for paper-making. This pulpwood used to be exported to the United States, where the manufacturing processes were carried out. Latterly Canada has estab- lished paper and pulping factories, and the industry is rapidly extending in area and importance. Especially is this so in Quebec, which, with Ontario, forms the chief source of the supply. The exportation of pulpwood is restrained. The United States protested against legislation which was aimed at its own industries. The Dominion refused to interfere with matters which the Provinces had power to deal with, and, as a consequence, retaliation clauses are found in the Under- wood Tariff of the United States. As the timber supplies of the States are insufficient, this retaliation does not affect the Canadian trader at all. The pulpwood cut was worth
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 205
$9,217,000 in 1908, and this increased to nearly $9,800,000 in 1910. About 60 per cent, went to the United States, the rest was dealt with at home. The Dominion had sixty pulp mills in 1910, of which the greater part were in Quebec. The number has increased all over the Dominion. Thus, in 1912, British Columbia had two, with an output worth $1,250,000, and in 1913 five. The export of pulp for the whole of Canada in 1909 was 281,000 tons, and in 1910 329,000 tons, and it is going up by leaps and bounds.
The wood-working industries include the shaping of wood for construction work of all kinds : buildings, bridges, railways, etc., and furniture.
Iron and Steel Works are almost entirely confined to Eastern Canada, where iroji and coal beds are found close together. Every year these works increase in number, output, and variety of manufactures. Metal work of almost every description is turned out — steel rails, bridges, wires, rods, agricultural machinery, and railway machinery.
Steel ships are a comparatively recent departure, and building is taking place at Nova Scotia and at the ports on the Great
206 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Lakes. At Sorel the Government yards construct vessels for light and buoy and dredging work. Other works are in con- templation, notably at St John.
The greatest scope for development is on the Lake service, as vessels more than 260 feet long cannot pass the Welland Canal, whereas ships of thousands of tons burden navigate the Great Lakes. Hitherto most of these have been built in the States, but the existing shipyards are busy. A number of vessels of 10,000 tons burden and upwards have been built, and many more are building. On the East coast competition with Europe is quite open, while wages are at least one- third higher, and trained labour is scarce. In addition, machinery is dear. The effect of these causes on Canada is strikingly illustrated by the estimate of the increased cost of building the projected Dreadnoughts in Canada instead of in the United Kingdom, given in a White Paper published on 17 th March, 1913. On the West coast conditions are even more adverse. Motor boats and launches are made in large numbers.
Railway construction is on a different footing, and Canada is well to the fore in the making of railways, including their machinery
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 207
and plant. Motor-car works exist in several of the Eastern Provinces, and turn out a large number of motor-cars every year. Their chief competitors are the works in the United States.
Hydro-Electricity is not a new thing, but its development in Canada is remarkable for itsuse at long distances from the generating stations. Ontario has created a Hydro-Electric Com- mission, which, in 1911, had 376 miles of trans- mission line, with 100 miles of tributary lines. Its 110,000 volt line was 281 miles long. The most important site at present is Niagara Falls, which is worked at present by four companies on the Canadian side. The horse- power which might be developed is over 1,300,000, but the actual development in 1911 was 220,700 h.p. In the Province of Quebec 80 per cent, of the power used is water-power. In Nova Scotia water-power develops about 15,200 h.p. Great power works are projected in British Columbia and Alberta especially.
The development of this industry operates in two ways : it effects an enormous saving of coal, which in many districts has to be im- ported, and also saves a great deal of smoke and heat which would tend to make manufac- turing towns dirty and unhealthy.
208 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR Hydbo-Electeicity in 1910
|
Electricity. |
and Pulp Works. |
Other Works. |
|
|
H.F. |
H.P. |
H.P. |
|
|
Ontario . , |
400,000 |
57,500 |
74,000 |
|
Quebec . . , |
191,250 |
77,000 |
32,000 |
|
British Columbia |
88,000 |
8,500 |
4,250 |
|
Manitoba . , |
48,250 |
— |
— |
|
New Brunswick |
3,500 |
3,000 |
3,500 |
|
Nova Scotia . |
2,000 |
12,000 |
1,500 |
|
Alberta |
7,300 |
— |
— |
|
Yukon . . , |
2,000 |
— |
— |
It is estimated that the total development of horse-power was over 1,000,000, of which 750,000 was used for electricity.
Textiles are an important branch of Cana- dian manufactures, and account for large importations of machinery from Great Britain every year. All kinds of cotton and woollen goods are made. The following table of the number of spindles will give some idea of progress made since 1844, when statistics first became available : —
1844 1900 1910
1,200 638,000 855,000
The average number of spindles per mill is 30,000. The capital invested exceeds $75,000,000.
Waterworks exist in most districts. Canadians use on an average 113 gallons
TRADE AND MANUFACTURES 209
of water each person every day. The con- sumption in New Brunswick is 161 gallons per head every day. The average cost is 10 cents per 1000 gallons.
The above statements do not give a com- plete account of the manufactures of Canada. For instance, nothing has been said as to the numerous clay and brick works which turn out millions of dollars' worth of bricks, china, and other clay products every year. So, too, cement-making is on a large scale, and there are many other important and subsidiary industries.
Another industry upon which a word may be said is the land-making industry. The Dominion, the Provinces, the railway com- panies, and many public and private com- panies are hard at work developing land, so that it may be made fit for the use of man. This is not a manufacture in the usual sense, but when one considers the value of uncleared land miles from any river, road, or railway, as compared with similar land which has been cleared and ploughed, and to which access has been made easy and water is supplied, the part which is played by industry is so great as almost to deserve the name of manufacture.
210 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
With so many authorities working with the aim of attracting the right kind of inhabi- tant, there is no reason why the immigrant should allow himself to be caught in the toils of the mere land speculator.
This chapter has dealt with some of the principal features of the trade and manu- factures of the Dominion. It cannot pretend to be exhaustive. The limits of space forbid anything but the merest cursory glance at the most important features. The aspect of Canadian affairs is rapidly changing, and in no respect more than in the development of commerce.
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 211
CHAPTER VIII
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS
The white man first came to Canada over the seas, and spread along the rivers and lakes to found the French dominion in North America. The English followed, and through the command of the seas, overcame theFrench. Less than three generations ago Canada depended upon its waterways. Roads were few and railways unknown.
Now the great factor in communication is the railway. It is true that the new-comer must pass the ocean, but in most cases he will reach his destination by the railway, seeing the mighty rivers and lakes only from the windows of the train.
The great railway companies have far out- stepped their original plan. They own mighty fleets. Thus the Canadian Pacific Railway, to name but one, has ocean liners, coasting fleets, and lake steamers, so that water and rail serve the same masters. Nor is that their only departure. The huge land grants have
212 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
made the railway companies large land- owners, whose wisdom in developing their land along scientific lines has done so much for Canada. Even the mining industry owes something to them, for some of the best- known mines were discovered by their em- ployees when surveying or constructing their lines.
Ocean Services. — Samuel Cunard, of Halifax, commenced an ocean service in 1840, and the Allan Line began in 1852.
A passenger from Europe will, between April and November, be taken to Quebec and Montreal; between November and April to Halifax and St John, for the St Lawrence is ice-bound in winter. The mail contract provides for three sailings from Quebec via Rimouski every week during the summer, and two sailings from Halifax every week during the winter. The subsidy, which has been raised from $600,000 to $1,000,000 per annum, is shared between the Allan, Canadian Pacific Railway, and White Star Dominion Lines, sailing from Liverpool, and the Royal Line (Canadian Northern Railway) sailing from Bristol. The Cunard liners sail from London via Southampton (Halifax in winter), the Donaldson liners from Glasgow (St John in
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 218
winter), and a few passengers are carried by the Manchester liners from Man- chester (Halifax and St John in winter). A service to the West Indies from St John and Halifax has been organised, and receives a Government subsidy of $250,000 a year.
Halifax has extensive docks, with facilities, for dry docking, etc. It has regular services with Newfoundland, Prince Edward Island, United States ports, and other places. St John is carrying out extensive improvements, and has regular sailings to Canadian and United States ports. Quebec is the terminus of the larger ocean liners, because their draught prevents them ascending higher up the river. Montreal is the chief port, and most of the liners and cargo vessels discharge there for transhipment to the river and lake service.
On the Pacific coast, the chief port is Vancouver. Many cargo steamers ply between that port and the East, and there are regular sailings to Vancouver Island, United States, Pacific ports, New Zealand, Australia, China, and Japan. Victoria has sailings to San Francisco, Alaska, Mexico, and other Pacific ports. Prince Rupert is the Canadian Northern
214 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Railway seaport for Vancouver, Victoria, and Seattle. Further developments await the completion of the line. Bsquimault, Nanaimo, and New Westminster are also ports to which vessels ply.
The Hudson Bay route is not yet used except by the two Hudson Bay Company's vessels, who make regular visits. The future of Churchill and Fort Nelson depend upon the line to Winnipeg now being planned. All ships which use Hudson Bay must be specially constructed to resist ice, and it is as yet doubtful whether the cost of constructing vessels to make fast ocean voyages on this route does not more than counterbalance the advantage of the saving in distance.
Internal Waterways. — The chief internal waterway of Canada is the St Lawrence as far as Lake Ontario, and thence across the Great Lakes as far as Fort William. In connection with this enormous stretch of rivers and lakes there are several canals. Among these are the Rideau Canal, which leaves the St Lawrence to ascend the Ottawa River, thence along the Rideau River, and back to Kingston on Lake Ontario. It was commenced in 1825, and completed in
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 215
1832. Its object was strategic, viz. — to have a free water route from Lake Ontario to Montreal without touching United States territory, a reason suggested by the events of the war of 1812. The Welland Canal, completed in 1829 (but widened and deepened since), is absolutely essential for through navigation, for the Niagara River, leading from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is quite impossible to navigate because of the cele- brated Falls. Unfortunately, this canal is not large enough to admit vessels beyond 260 feet long, as their beam and draught are too great. There are large numbers of ports on the Canadian part of the Lakes, of which the principal are Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, Windsor, Fort William, Port Arthur, Owen Sound, Sault Ste. Marie, Samia, Brockville, Collingwood, and Welland. These ports do an enormous trade both as distributing centres of goods destined for the interior, and as receiving depots for the harvests sent in to be exported to other parts.
The revenue from the Dominion canals is large and increasing rapidly. There is on foot a project for constructing a canal to Georgian Bay, which would enormously facili- tate the lake service.
216 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
|
Canal Traffic |
||
|
1911 |
1912 |
|
|
Tons |
Tons |
|
|
Sault Ste. Marie . |
30,951,000 |
39,669,000 |
|
Welland ... |
2,537,000 |
2,851,000 |
|
St Lawrence |
3,105,000 |
8,447,000 |
|
Chambly |
599,000 |
618,000 |
|
St Peters . |
75,000 |
74,000 |
|
Murray |
163,000 |
170,000 |
|
Ottawa |
320,000 |
392,000 |
|
Rideau |
172,000 |
160,000 |
|
Trent . |
57,000 |
77,000 |
|
St Andrews |
47,000 |
95,000 |
|
38,026,000 |
47,553,000 |
Steamers ply for hire on most of the rivers of the Maritime Provinces, Quebec, and Ontario, which are deep enough for river navigation; and in British Columbia there are many services on the Fraser and other rivers. The North and South Saskatchewan Rivers offer many hundred miles of navigable water- ways in the Prairie Provinces, which will be utilised to a much greater extent than hither- to; but rivers which empty into the Arctic seas or Hudson Bay, such as the Albany, Churchill, and Mackenzie (the lower reaches of the Peace and Athabaska Rivers), are of little use at present except for voyageurs. The lakes in the north, though of great
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 217
extent, are shallow. All over Canada there are many lakes, rivers, and streams which are navigable by boat and canoe, and when- ever possible are used by travellers and lumbermen, for, in spite of the numerous portages they force the voyager to make, in the absence of roads, land travel is much slower and more difficult. As the population increases these rivers could easily be canalised, and thus form a cheap and easy means of transport.
Railways. — The history of the railways is one of the most romantic in Canada. The railway came very early, and in 1832 a small line existed at La Prairie, near Montreal. The real start must be placed in 1836, when sixteen miles of line existed; no addition was made till 1847, when the total reached fifty-four. A second increase to sixty miles occurred in 1860, and since then a yearly advance has been the rule. There was no addition in 1866, a decrease of eight miles in 1867, and another slight decrease (twenty-one miles) in 1888. The mileage first exceeded 1000 in 1856 (1414 miles), 2000 in 1860 (2065 miles), 8000 in 1873 (3832 miles), 4000 the next year, and 5000 two years later; 10,000 was passed in 1884, and 20,000 in 1905. The
C.I.F. K
218 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
total in 1912 was 26,727. Very shortly the lines will exceed 30,000 miles.
The pioneer line is the Grand Trunk, which finally succeeded in overcoming the difficul- ties, engineering and financial, of constructing a line to link up the Eastern Provinces. The Intercolonial (Government) line was con- structed in order to fulfil a condition exacted by the Maritime Provinces when forming the Dominion. The British North America Act, 1867, provided expressly for its construction. It showed a profit for the first time in 1912.
The first, and, so far, the only system which crosses the Dominion is the Canadian Pacific Railway. Its early history was depressing. British Columbia, on joining the Dominion in 1871, insisted that a transcontinental railway should be constructed, and a com- pany was chartered to fulfil the condition. The engineering difficulties proved far greater than was anticipated, and the consequent delays and stoppages caused great irritation.
The Liberal party succeeded to office in 1873, and undertook the construction of the railway as a public work; but the engineering difficulties and other obstacles so delayed the work that it seemed impossible to complete it.
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 219
British Columbia even threatened to secede, and matters came to a standstill.
At this juncture Lords Strathcona and Mount Stephen, two great Scotsmen in Canada, took up the task. Public opinion was so prejudiced that it seemed impossible. Nevertheless, after a great struggle, in which they were ably assisted by Sir Thomas Skinner, Bart., of London, they induced capitalists to come in, and after superhuman exertions success crowned their efforts. The present Corporation, known as the Canadian Pacific Railway Company, was, in 1881, incorporated by Dominion Statute. The railway was completed in 1885.
In early days the tendency was to construct small railways, many of which have since been taken over by and absorbed into the larger systems. Construction on a large scale is at its height; and by the end of 1914 the three trans- continental railways should be in operation.
The importance to the country of adequate railway systems has led to railway policy forming a greater part in politics than in the United Kingdom. Especially is this so in the West. Alberta's Liberal Ministry was recon- structed in 1911 owing to differences on railway questions, and the issues of the
220 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
election of 16th April, 1913 (which again returned the Liberals, but with a reduced majority), turned upon railway matters.
The Railway systems of Canada exceed those of the United Kingdom. In 1911 the ninety railways had a mileage of 25,400, and in 1912 26,730, not counting many miles actually in operation but officially classed as being under construction. With second tracks and sidings the mileage was 32,559. On another 3833 miles the track was laid or being laid, and yet again 6222 miles were graded and being graded preparatory to construction work.
Canadian railways are different from those of England. The track is often a single one. The locomotives are huge, with a large bell which is constantly clanging. Cow-catchers are not so common nowadays in the Eastern States as they were; a searchlight is always fixed in front of the engine. Corridor trains, which have made such gradual progress in England, are the rule, and on important routes observation cars are provided, where the traveller can view the scenery at his ease; this idea is only just beginning to be appreci- ated in England. The constant importunities of the newspaper and candy sellers outweigh the convenience that they offer. The danger
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 221
of the railv ay crossings will be realised by the fact that cf the 20,034 crossings in use in 1911 only 1353 were protected in any way what- ever. No fewer than 2026 unprotected cross- ings existed in urban areas alone. Even this was a great improvement over previous years.
Railway construction is a fine open-air life for a healthy man who does not mind hard work and roughing it. Large gangs of men are constantly employed, and there is plenty of opportunity for any one who is out of work. But he must 'make good.' As every- where in Canada hard work is essential to live at all, but he who can work hard has opportunity at his hand. The railroad stretches out into the waste lands and brings behind it an abundant population, so that wherever it penetrates the desolate places become smiling cornfields.
The progress of railways can be gathered
from the following tables : —
Passengers, Freight, and Gross Revenue
Freight Gross
Year. Mileage. Passengers, (short tons). Revenue.
$ 1875 . 4,804 5,190,416 5,670,837 19,470,539 1885 . 10,773 9,672,599 14,659,271 32,227,469 1895 . 15,977 13,987,580 21,524,421 46,785,486 1905 . 20,487 25,288,723 50,893,957 106,467,198 1911 . 25,400 37,097,718 79,884,282 188,733,493
222 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
It will be noticed that the number of passengers and freight tons was almost equal in 1875, but that, in spite of the large increase of passengers, the freight traffic has quite out- distanced the former.
Classification of Goods
|
1011. |
1912. |
||
|
(short tons) |
(short tons) |
||
|
Products of Agriculture 13,809,536 |
17,300,945 |
||
|
Products of Animals |
3,190,702 |
3,159,280 |
|
|
Products of Mines |
28,652,236 |
81,467,799 |
|
|
Products of Forests |
13,238,347 |
14,152,721 |
|
|
Manufactures |
13,573,987 |
16,241,081 |
|
|
Merchandise |
2,438,089 |
2,711,963 |
|
|
Other Goods |
4,931,385 |
4,410,552 |
|
|
79,884,282 |
89,444,341 |
||
|
MlLEAG |
e by Provinces |
||
|
1907 |
1909 |
1911 |
|
|
Ontario |
, 7,638 |
8,229 |
8,322 |
|
Quebec |
3,576 |
3,663 |
3,882 |
|
Manitoba |
3,074 |
3,205 |
3,446 |
|
Saskatchewan . |
2,025 |
2,631 |
8,121 |
|
British Columbia |
1,686 |
1,796 |
1,892 |
|
New Brunswick |
1,503 |
1,547 |
1,548 |
|
Alberta |
1,323 |
1,321 |
1,494 |
|
Nova Scotia |
1,329 |
1,357 |
1,354 |
|
Prince Edward Island |
267 |
269 |
269 |
|
Yukon . . |
91 |
91 |
102 |
22,452 24,004 25,400
These figures have been enormously in- creased. Thus at the end of 1912 there were
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 223
over 3000 miles in Alberta, and in 1913 the mileage under construction in British Columbia was equal to the total mileage in 1911 in that province.
Gross Earnings and Operating Expenses
|
Operating |
|||
|
Year. |
Earnings. $ 19,470,539 |
Expenses. Percentage <5 |
|
|
1875 |
9 15,775,532 |
811 |
|
|
1885 |
82,227,469 |
24,015,351 |
74-5 |
|
1895 |
46,785,480 |
32,749,668 |
69.9 |
|
1905 |
106,467,198 |
79,977,573 |
75-2 |
|
1911 |
188,733,494 |
131,033,785 |
69-4 |
The total gross earnings in 1912 were $219,403,753, an increase of $30,670,259 for the year.
Gross and Net Earnings and Operating Expenses per Mile of Line
Gross Operating Net
Year. Earnings. Expenses. Earnings.
|
1875 |
. 4,054 |
3,284 |
769 |
|
1885 |
. 2,992 |
2,229 |
762 |
|
1895 |
. 2,928 |
2,050 |
879 |
|
1905 |
. 5,196 |
8,904 |
1,293 |
|
1911 |
. 7,430 |
5,158 |
2,272 |
The gross earnings and operating expenses have both considerably increased, but the increased profits have been such that each
224 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
mile of line in 1911 earned three times the amount earned by each mile in 1875.
The rolling stock in 1911 was as follows : Locomotives, 4219 (and 70 leased); cars (passenger 4513, freight 127,158, company's service 9578), 141,249 (and 1864 leased). The largest freight cars have a capacity of 50 short tons. The 5 and 10 ton trucks, which form so large a proportion of the, English freight trains, are almost non-existent. The chief sizes used in Canada are 20, 30, 40, and 50 ton trucks.
The number of miles run have naturally increased tremendously : 1875, 17,680,178; 1885, 80,623,689; 18S5, 40,661,890; 1905, 65,934,114; 1911, 89,716,533.
The construction of railways is so necessary to the development of the country that it is encouraged by the various Legislatures. The majority of the public Acts passed in the Dominion Government are railway Acts, and the Dominion is a large railway owner. Encouragement is given in various ways — by direct cash payments, by land grants, and by guarantee. The former method is not now popular, and the amounts paid are growing smaller every year. Thus in 1910 $1,789,723 were paid in this way, but in 1911 only
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 225
$1,426,192, made up as follows — by the Dominion, $1,284,892; by Provinces, $82,300; by Municipalities, $59,000.
Land grants have been largely made. The total in 1911 reached 55,256,429 acres. As, however, the grants by the Province of Quebec were subject to an alternative of cash at the rate of 52c. instead of an acre, the total area actually granted is reduced to 42,000,000 acres.
The grants by authorities were as follows:—
Acres.
32,004,486
13,324,950
8,119,221
1,647,772
160,000
55,256,429
The land grants of the Dominion were
apportioned as follows : —
Alberta Railway and Irrigation Company 1,114,368 Calgary and Edmonton Railway (C.PJt.) 1,893,841 Canadian Northern Railway (Lake Mani- toba and Canal) .... 3,451,533 Canadian Pacific Railway . . . 19,914,628 Great N. W. Central Railway (C.P.R.) 320,000 Manitoba and N.-W. Railway (C.P JR.) . 1,501,376 Manitoba S.-W. Colonisation (C.P.R.) . 1,899,640 Manitoba and S.-E. Railway . . 682,572 Qu'Appelle, Long Lake, and Saskat- chewan Railway (C.N. Railway) . 1,627,536 Saskatchewan and Western Railway . 98,880
Dominion .
Quebec
British Columbia New Brunswick Nova Scotia .
226 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Guarantees have been given to the Canadian Northern Railway by the Dominion (£3,545,893 19s. 9d\), and by the Provinces of Manitoba ($20,899,660), Alberta ( $11,960,000), Saskatchewan ( $9,490,000), Ontario ($7,860,000) and British Columbia ($21,000,000). The guarantees to the Grand Trunk Pacific are : by the Dominion, 75 per cent, of the cost of construction, but not exceeding $13,000 a mile; by the Provinces of Alberta $6,383,000; and Saskatchewan, $2,509,000. Other guarantees are by Alberta to the Alberta and Great Waterways Railway, $7,400,000; by Nova Scotia to the Halifax and S.W. Railway, a loan of $13,500 a mile; by New Brunswick to the New Brunswick Coal and Railway Company, $700,000; by Quebec to the Montreal and Western Railway, $476,000; and by British Columbia to the Shuswap and Okanagan Railway, 4 per cent* interest on $1,249,760 for twenty-five years; to Victoria and Sydney Railway, 2 per cent, interest on $300,000 for the same period; and to the Nakush and Slocan Railway, 4 per cent, interest on $647,072 for the same period. The total guaranteed by the Dominion and Provinces amounts to $245,070,045.
The capital of the companies is enormous.
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 227
In 1876 the total was $257,035,188 (includ- ing $76,079,531 funded debt); in 1886, $486,501,254 ($169,359,306 funded debt); in 1896, $697,212,941 ($336,137,601); in 1906, $1,065,881,629 ($504,226,234); and in 1911, $1,528,689,201 ($749,207,687 share capital, and $779,481,574 funded debt). The funded debt exceeded the share capital for the first time in 1908. The Intercolonial, Prince Edward Island, Temiscaming and North Ontario, and New Brunswick Railways are Government owned, and their capital cost must be added, i.e. $119,615,666, making a grand total of capital and funded debt, $1,648,804,867. The net earnings were 7*3 per cent., and the dividend 2*17 per cent of the share capital in 1907, and 7*7 per cent, and 4*08 per cent, of the share capital in 1911.
The Grand Trunk Railway has a perfect network of railway in Southern Ontario, and connects Canada with Portland, Boston, Detroit, and other places in U.S.A., and also connects most of the Canadian ports on Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, and Georgian Bay with Toronto, Ottawa, Montreal, and Quebec. Its total length is 8693 miles.
The Intercolonial Railway runs from Hali- fax to Montreal, with branches to Sydney
223 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
(Cape Breton Island), St John, and Frederic- ton (N.B.). The administration to the system is at Moncton (N.B.). Last year the railway of the Nova Scotia Steel Company was taken over. The Dominion owns this line (1503| miles), and works it in connection with the Prince Edward Island Railway (269 miles), which is being widened in gauge so that trains may be ferried from the mainland strait on to the track. The Intercolonial Railway made a profit of $1,000,000 in 1912, the first surplus ever realised. Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government placed the management under a Board, but in 1913 this system was super- seded, and a single manager was appointed to control the working.
The Canadian Pacific Railway is the chief railway system in Canada, and the largest in the world. It has a continuous track from St John (N.B.) to Vancouver (B.C.). From Halifax its trains run over the Intercolonial Railway. It has forty-seven branches running from the main line, and also controls thirty-nine leased lines. New developments are being pushed forward ; the main line is being double-tracked. St John (N.B.) is to be developed in connection with a shipbuilding scheme and a dry dock
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 229
scheme. The Fraser Valley line is to be electrified. A tunnel, sixteen miles long, is going through Kicking Horse Pass in the Rocky Mountains. This construction will take seven years, and though the saving of distance is only five miles, the grades will be reduced from 2| per cent, to under 1 per cent. Other developments which may be expected are lines to the Pacific, one via Souris and the other via Saskatoon and Edmonton.
The length of main line in 1911 was 2909-6; of branches, 3352-1 — total, 6261-7. The lines leased amounted to 3948-6, giving a total mileage for the whole system of 10,210-3. It also controls the Alberta Railway and Irri- gation Company's line (111-82 miles), and the Dominion Atlantic (W. and S. of Nova Scotia, 278-87 miles), and the Esquimault and Nanaimo (Vancouver Island, 78 miles). The main line runs direct from New Brunswick to Montreal, and consequently passes out of Canada into Maine (U.S.A.).
The Canadian Northern Railway will event- ually run from East to West. The main line, when completed, will run from Quebec to Ottawa, through Sudbury District to Fort William, on to Winnipeg, and thence through North Battleford and Vermilion to
230 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
Edmonton. Thence the line runs across Yellowhead Pass, near the Grand Trunk Pacific line, and when across the Rockies turns south-west and runs near the Canadian Pacific Railway line from Kamloops to Vancouver and Port Mann. The line will be complete from Quebec to Yellowhead Pass in the autumn of 1913.
The line actually in operation is 3087 miles, and the lines within its system include the Qu'Appelle line (250 miles), Quebec and St John Lake Railway (286| miles), Halifax and S. W. Railway, Manitoba Railway, and others. The main line, when complete, will be 8688 miles long, and the total mileage under the control of the system over 5500.
Sanction has been given for a line to run from Winnipeg to Port Nelson and Churchill, but the Government track from Hudson Bay Junction is only now being surveyed. It must be some years before the actual con- struction is complete.
The Transcontinental Railway (Grand Trunk Pacific) runs from Moncton (N.B.) to Prince Rupert (B.C.), and is rapidly nearing com- pletion. From Halifax to Moncton the Inter- colonial Railway track is used, thence the lines runs to Quebec, and this, the Eastern
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 231
section, will be in operation by the autumn. The bridge over the St Lawrence cannot, however, be finished before 1917, and conse- quently through trains cannot be run. From Quebec the Western section runs to Winnipeg, through undeveloped parts of Quebec and Ontario. At Cochrane, near the boundary between these Provinces, there is a connection with the Temiscaming and Northern Ontario Railway. From Winnipeg to Edmonton the line is completed, but after that progress is not maintained; the line runs through Yellow- head Pass (Tete Jaune), and follows the valley of the Fraser River in a north-west direction, and then strikes off along the Skeena River Valley to Prince Rupert. Two hundred miles of the track are in operation eastward from Prince Rupert. Branches are building, or built, to Fort William (Lake Superior), to Regina, to Prince Albert, and to North Battleford, and just before Edmonton another branch runs south to Calgary. The length, when completed, will be 3560 miles, and from Halifax to Moncton another 186 miles must be added. The line will be in direct connection with the Grand Trunk system.
There are many railways which serve only one Province, or mainly one, though
232 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
communicating with towns in other Provinces. The Prince Edward Island Railway has already been mentioned. In Nova Scotia the chief of the Provincial lines are the Halifax and S. W. Railway, which runs from Halifax to Yarmouth in the south, along the east coast; the Dominion Atlantic Railway, from Windsor in the west of the Province, through the Annapolis Valley to Yarmouth, with a branch direct across the Province to Halifax from Windsor.
New Brunswick has a large number of short lines linking up the main lines of the trans- continental systems and of the Intercolonial Railway with ports on its coasts. The Temiscouata Railway links up the Edmundston (N.B.) branch of the Canadian Pacific Rail- way with the Intercolonial Railway at Riviere du Loup (P.Q.).
In Quebec the railways become more numerous and more lengthy. Quebec and Montreal are linked by several systems, and from these towns lines branch out to connect with outlying districts and with other railway systems in Canada and the United States. There are several lines connecting the Province of Quebec with Ontario. The Quebec Central connects Levis (opposite
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 233
Quebec) with the Grand Trunk, Canadian Pacific, and Boston and Maine systems at Sherbrooke. The Montreal and Atlantic connects with the Connecticut, Grand Trunk, and other railways. The Canadian Northern Quebec connects Quebec and Montreal, and has other branches. A railway to James Bay is projected.
In Ontario the railways reach their greatest development. Southern Ontario is a network of lines, both steam and electric, establishing through connections with the great lines of Canada and the United States. The Canada Southern runs from Windsor (Ont.) to Niagara Falls, the Algoma Central and Hudson Bay reaches northward from Sault Ste. Marie, the Algoma Eastern taps the mines at Sudbury, and the Temiscaming and Northern Ontario runs from North Bay to Cochrane through the Cobalt district, and has a branch to Porcupine.
Manitoba's railways are in the south, and are almost all owned or controlled by the great systems. Winnipeg is a great railway centre, and so is Brandon, and the lines radiate from them southwards, eastwards, and westwards. Direct communication with the north is decided upon, but the line is only just being
234 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
surveyed. Saskatchewan and Alberta are in a railway sense a continuation of Manitoba. Again, the great systems have absorbed most of the small railways, using them as branch lines.
The situation of British Columbia has been even more favourable to the existence of the smaller railways than that of the Eastern Provinces. Lines like the Eastern British Columbia Railway, the Kaslo and Slocan Railway, Lenora Mount Sicker Railway, Kettle Valley Railway, New Westminster Southern Railway, Victoria and Sydney, and Vancouver, Victoria, and Eastern Railway are designed to serve local needs. The great extension of the large railways will undoubt- edly lead to the linking up of these systems to establish through connections with other parts of America. The Pacific Great Eastern Railway will, by 1915, run from Vancouver through the centre of the Province to the Grand Trunk Pacific at Fort George. It is guaranteed by the Province.
Yukon shares with British Columbia the British Yukon (White Pass and Yukon Railway), which runs from Skagway in Alaska over the White Pass into Yukon, where it ends at Whitehorse Spur. This line has deprived the Pass of almost all its terrors.
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 235
Yukon also has the most northern line in Canada — the Klondike Mines Railway, which runs from Dawson City to Sulphur Springs. The North-West Territories have as yet escaped the railway, and seem likely to remain untouched for many years.
The great characteristic of Canadian rail- ways is the fact that, in general, they run east to west, and the lines which run from north to south are, as a rule, connecting links. This is inevitable, as the northern parts of Canada are as yet unpeopled. The develop- ment of trade with Hudson Bay may lead to a change, which nevertheless will leave the general characteristic untouched.
Electric Railways. — Since England led the way with the City and South London Railway, electricity has begun to play a great part in railway development. So far the lines have been mainly urban, connecting districts not far apart. The proposals to electrify the Rocky Mountain sections of the main railways in Canada mark a distinct advance, but so far Canada has followed the same course as to electric railways as the rest of the world. Its abundant supply of water-power gives it unique facilities for running electric lines at small cost.
236 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
The main lines have increased from 557 miles in 1902 to 1223 miles in 1911, when with second tracks, sidings, etc., the mileage reached 1587 miles. The capital liability increased from $74,658,000 (of which $31,166,000 was funded debt) in 1907 to $11,532,000 ($19,281,000 funded debt) in 1911.
Most of these railways are worked at a profit. In 1911 the total income (mostly passenger traffic) reached $22,000,000, and the net income $6,592,000. Operating ex- penses averaged 59-42 per cent, of the gross earnings. The passengers carried — 120,934,656 in 1901 — rose in ten years to 426,296,792. Freight carried in 1911 amounted to 2,496,000 short tons. The number of lines, including leased lines, was fifty-four. The largest was the British Columbia Railway, which serves Vancouver and district, with 182| miles of first main track (total mileage, 233£), but in point of traffic it is only second, the first in passengers being the Montreal Street (seventy-six miles).
Other lines exceeding twenty miles in length are the Brantford and Hamilton (Ont.), Cape Breton (N.S.), Chatham, Wallaceburg,
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 237
and Lake Erie (Ont.), Grand Valley (Ont.), Hamilton, Grimsby, and Beamsville, Hamilton Radial and Hamilton Street (Ont.), London and London and Lake Erie (Ont.), Montreal Park and Island (P.Q.), Niagara, St Catherine 's, and Toronto (Ont.), Ottawa (Ont.), Port Arthur (Ont.), Quebec (Montmorency), Sand- wich, Windsor, and Amherstbury, Toronto Street, Toronto and York Radial, and Windsor, Essex, and Lake Shore Rapid (Ont.), Winni- peg and Winnipeg Selkirk, and Lake Winnipeg (Manitoba). It will be noticed that a great number are really tramways. No fewer than twenty-eight carried over 1,000,000 passengers in 1911. Hamilton Street and Ottawa each carried over 10,000,000, Winnipeg nearly 35,000,000, Toronto Street nearly 115,000,000, and Montreal Street nearly 115,500,000.
Other Means of Communication. — Canada is backward in road-making, but the authori- ties have not forgotten the subject. In 1913 the Dominion Parliament considered a scheme for road construction from the standpoint of Canada as a whole. In all the Provinces road-making is progressing rapidly, every year large sums are spent in making and improving roads ; but the needs of
238 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
districts are so great that trunk roads are almost unknown. Nevertheless the im- portance of working on a general scheme is recognised in every Province. There are no transcontinental roads, and very few opportunities of continuous travel over good made surfaces. A few years will remedy this.
Telephones and telegraphs are much more used than in England. There is a complete transcontinental system of telegraphs, and Dawson City (Yukon) is connected by a land- wire with Vancouver. Telephones are used by almost every one, and in every Province there are long distance and rural telephones. There were, in 1912, 683 telephone com- panies in Canada, an increase of 146 in the year. Ontario had 369, Saskatchewan 206, Quebec 62, New Brunswick 17, Nova Scotia 12, British Columbia 10, Alberta 8, Manitoba 3, and Prince Edward Island 1. The capital is $46,277,000, averaging $124| per telephone on a total of 370,884 (one for every twenty inhabitants). The gross earnings were $12,273,620, and the net $3,178,987 ; the operating expenses being 74 per cent, of the gross earnings. In 1913 the Government contracted for a wireless
WATERWAYS AND RAILWAYS 239
telegraph service between the Dominion and England.
The Canadian postal service is well organised and very efficient, though in remote parts letters necessarily take a long time to deliver. There are 13,859 post offices dealing with 766,000,000 postal packages a year, and yield- ing an income of $10,480,000. The total mail is made up of letters, 566,000,000 ; post cards, 54,000,000 ; registered letters, 13,000,000; free letters, 18,000,000; second class matter, 11,900,000 ; third class matter, 94,000,000; and fourth class matter, 8,400,000. Wherever possible the river and railway services are used to convey the post.
Canada has realised the importance not only of easy access within its borders, but also the need for communication between the Mother Country and the Dominions. At every Colonial Conference it has urged an 'All-Red Route,' whereby mails, goods, and passengers could pass round the world under the British flag. The ideal has been realised so far as the telegraph is concerned, for Canada is linked to England by a cable, and thence the telegraph carries the message to the Pacific Coast, where the Pacific cable trans- mits it to New Zealand and Australia. How
240 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
far this will be affected by wireless telegraphy is uncertain. The question of a State-owned cable to England is shelved until the wireless telegraph service has been thoroughly tested. The organisation of a steamship service is in abeyance, as the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 creates a new factor, the importance of which time alone can reveal.
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 241
CHAPTER IX
RELATIONS BETWEEN THE MOTHER COUNTRY AND THE DOMINION
The links which unite Canada to the Empire are, first of all, allegiance to the King; next, the powers vested in the King's Ministers in the United Kingdom, the legislative powers of the British Parliament, and the jurisdic- tion of the Privy Council; thirdly, the pro- tection afforded by the British Navy and Army; fourthly, the mutual trade of Great Britain and the overseas Dominions, and the unrivalled opportunity which Canada offers to those who prefer an opening outside the Mother Country; and, lastly, the community of race which joins the peoples of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Dominions in one family, sharing the same interests and aspira- tions, and working out the same destiny.
The loyalty of the Dominions to the King is so well known , that it is curious to find that hitherto they have had no power to admil foreigners to full British citizenship.
They may admit them to full rights within
c.i.f. " x,
242 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the Dominion1 within which the new-comers have made their home, but not elsewhere in the Empire. This is to be remedied by Acts carrying out a scheme adopted by the Imperial Conference of 1911. All European nations are made welcome in Canada, and the treatment of the native Indians has led to no serious problems. The immigration of the peoples of the East into British Columbia has given rise to serious troubles. From 1898 to 1908 that Province struggled to secure assent to legislation aimed directly or indirectly at Asiatics, but the Bills have been disallowed. In 1902 a Royal Commission reported against exclusion, pointing out that the Japanese Government had taken measures to prevent the emigration of its subjects to Canada. The Anglo-Japanese Treaty certainly did not make exclusion any easier. The Treaty of January, 1908, settled the question for the time being, and the Canadian Parliament, in 1913, passed legislation to put into force the pro- visions of the Anglo- Japanese Treaty of 1911, to which it had hitherto refused acceptance.
In all matters relating to foreign affairs the King is advised by the Home Government.
1 Naturalisations in 1911 numbered 24,128, making a total of 170,961 to the end of 1911.
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 243
The responsibility naturally carries with it the corresponding burdens. Throughout the debates at the Imperial Conferences, Canada has taken up the attitude that any arrange- ment for drawing the formal bonds closer must involve a sacrifice of powers which Canada at present enjoys. Any Council which, whether it includes Colonial members or not, has power to decide important questions, must have power to commit the Empire by its decisions. Sir Wilfrid Laurier has always taken up the position that although Canada is liable to attack, such a contingency is unlikely; if Canada is to be represented on such a Council it will be committed to the decisions arrived at, consequently he wishes to keep Canada free to decide on each occasion whether it will actively interpose. The past history of Canada, which sent troops to assist the British forces in Egypt in 1887 and in South Africa 1899-1902, shows that in the hour of need Canada can be relied upon.
The Home Government does not seem dis- posed to accept any such scheme, because it would involve serious alterations in the present system. It is recognised that Dominions should be consulted if a projected treaty will affect them — as in the case of the renewal
244 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
of the Japanese Alliance, 1911 — and repre- sentations as to existing treaties receive sympathetic consideration. Sometimes inter- national arrangements are so worded that a Dominion is not bound until its Legislature has accepted it.
The services of the British Ambassadors are at the disposal of the Dominions. The Home Government welcome the attendance of experts from the Dominion, and, moreover, Canada has sometimes concluded provisional arrangements with the Consular officers of a foreign country, and then referred the matter through the usual diplomatic channels for formal ratification. In such cases the Home Government is kept informed of the course of the negotiations.
The power to disallow legislation is exer- cised less and less as the functions of the Dominions become more settled. Legisla- tion is not rejected unless it infringes some Imperial interest or harms another Pro- vince or Dominion.
The legislative power of the British Parlia- ment is much more sparingly exercised. Acts altering the constitution of the Dominions naturally require to be passed by it, but the form is settled by the Dominion's representa- tives in consultation with the Colonial Office,
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 245
and amendments are rare. Acts upon other matters are only passed if it is necessary that the law of the Empire should be the same. Still, as in the case of the Copyright Act, 1911, * it is often provided that the Act shall only come into force in a Dominion if accepted by its Parliament. The Bill for carrying into effect the Declaration of London was made binding in the first instance, but in that case not only would it have been impossible to admit a diversity in the law, but the principle had been accepted at the Imperial Conference of 1911.
As already stated, the Governor-General, who communicates with the Colonial Secretary, is the formal link between Canada and the United Kingdom, but the trade interests of both countries are not left unprovided for. Since 1879, when Sir Alexander Gait was appointed High Commissioner, the Canadian Government has had an accredited Minister in London, and most Provinces have now Agents as well. Since the Conference of 1907, the United Kingdom has appointed Trade Commissioners in Canada, who look after the interests of British trade in
1 See Sects. 25-27. The law had been considered by the Dominions at the Copyright Conference, 1910.
246 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
the same way as the Consuls of foreign countries.
The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has often been criticised. In 1879 a Canadian proposal was made to abolish the right of appeal; and, at the present time, the Senate has before it a proposal to abolish direct appeal from the Provincial Courts. Every Imperial Conference has discussed the Court, but agreement as to an Imperial Court of Appeal has not been reached. One result of the Conference of 1907 was a revision of the rules of procedure, and proposals for strengthening the judicial staff are before the British Parliament. No doubt has been raised as to the ability or integrity of the members, but it is felt that if appeals are heard by judges who have no personal know- ledge of the Dominion from which the appeal comes, the Court fails to appreciate and give due weight to local conditions. Nowadays, whenever possible, a member, who has held judicial office in the Dominion in question, is summoned to attend the hearing.
Canada has shared the glories of the British Navy and Army. Until 1909 the British Navy had stations at Esquimault and Halifax. Nova Scotia, ih particular, has given many of
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 247
its sons to the Navy,1 and in the days of wooden ships provided many vessels. The Admiralty have not been consistent in dealing with the problem. At first antagonistic to local Navies, it had by the Naval and Military Conference of 1909 accepted the view that Canada should provide its own Navy, and a scheme was drawn up defining its sphere. Before tenders for the necessary ships were accepted, the Conservatives defeated the Liberals, and Mr Borden assumed office. He at once consulted the Admiralty, and has produced a plan for a money grant of $35,000,000 for the purpose of provid- ing Dreadnoughts for the British Navy. Canadian opinion is divided. The Con- servatives say that the condition of international affairs is such that there is an emergency which Canada must meet. The Liberals, while maintaining the principle of a Canadian Navy, have admitted the justice of the proposal if an emergency exists, but deny the emergency. There is also a not unimportant body of persons who believe that there is no need for either grant or Navy. In 1909 there was a complete agreement. Now,
1 It was to Nova Scotia that the Chesapeake was brought by the Shannon under the command of a Nova Scotian.
248 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
although there is agreement as to the end, there are important differences of principle between the parties as to the means of attaining that end.
The attitude of Sir Wilfrid Laurier on the question of a war in which the United King- dom is involved is clear. He has often stated it, notably in 1908, 1910, and 1913. In his view, although Canada is open to attack by the other belligerent, such a contingency is unlikely, and it rests with Canada to say whether it will take an active part in the war. It is, however, open to question whether the Canadian Navy would be kept from partici- pation. It would be an almost irresistible bait for an enemy's fleet to add to its strength — if the fleets met a conflict would be inevitable. Experts are not agreed upon the matter.
The Imperial Government has always de- clined to garrison a Dominion permanently with Imperial troops. Friction is bound to occur when a body of men live in a self-govern- ing community which has not complete con- trol over them. Except for Imperial purposes, or in dangers from external or internal foes, therefore, a Dominion relies upon its own forces. Thus, in 1905, the garrison of Halifax, which had been maintained for purposes of the Navy, was withdrawn.
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 249
Nevertheless, the Dominions are not with- out assistance. Advice can be obtained as to naval and military problems from the Overseas Defence Committee, which is speci- ally charged with problems of Colonial defence, or even from the Imperial Defence Com- mittee, created by Mr Balfour, for considering Imperial strategic questions. Officers are sent to the Dominions to advise and assist the Governments, and the training colleges are open to Colonials who desire to enter their own Army or Navy. If Mr Borden's scheme is eventually accepted, a Canadian Minister will have a seat on the Imperial Defence Committee, a step which will un- doubtedly lead to the admission of Ministers from the other Overseas Dominions.
The trade relations between the Home Country and the Dominions are on the footing of complete independence. Since 1859, when Mr Gait laid down the principle that Canada must settle its own fiscal policy, and especially since 1879, when the Canadian tariff became distinctly Protectionist, the United Kingdom and Canada have adopted entirely different policies. Canada, in this respect, is in the same position as the other Dominions. At each Imperial Conference resolutions have been
250 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
passed in favour of Intercolonial and Imperial preference. In 1898 Canada, of its own motion, gave a 25 per cent, preference to British goods, and a further preference in 1907. In 1902 the Dominions of Australia, New Zealand, Cape Colony, and Natal also promised to give a preference, and at once redeemed their pledge.
There is some misconception in the United Kingdom upon this question. The Dominions do not make the preference they grant either as an offer for further favours, nor as a lever to bring pressure upon the United Kingdom. It is simply an expression of their goodwill to the Mother Country. It is true that they desire Imperial preference, but they recog- nise that it is impossible without a complete change in the present state of affairs, and that it is for the electors of the United Kingdom to decide for themselves what fiscal system they shall follow. Adherence to Free Trade does not weaken a single link of the bonds of Empire.
The organisation of the Empire as such is elastic, and many schemes for reducing it to a formal system have been proposed. It is easy to formulate general principles of Imperial federation — as easy as it is difficult to realise them in practice. The Empire is
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 251
built up on the principle that each self- governing Dominion has complete control of its internal affairs; a closer union may, indeed must, to some extent limit the applica- tion of that principle. But consultation is not inconsistent with it, and the Empire gains immeasurably by its responsible leaders meet- ing face to face to discuss the problems which affect them all. Mutual understanding is promoted : the risk of friction is decreased.
The Jubilee of Queen Victoria, in 1887, was the first opportunity of the Premiers being together in one place, and advantage was taken of the occasion to call the first Colonial Conference, which sat in London from 4th April to 9th May, 1887. New South Wales insisted on the question of Imperial federa- tion, but almost every other question affect- ing the Dominions was discussed.
In 1894 the Canadian Government called a Conference at Ottawa. Great Britain, Canada, New South Wales, Tasmania, South Australia, Victoria, Queensland, New Zealand, and Cape Colony were represented. Resoki- tions were carried in favour of Imperial preference, of a Pacific cable between Canada and Australasia, of steamship services between Canada 3ii6 Great Britain, and between Canada
252 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
and Australia, and the Home Government was asked to give power to make inter- colonial trade arrangements and to denounce treaties which prevented them being made. In reply, the British Government was willing to allow intercolonial preference, but not to denounce the treaties with Belgium and Ger- many, which were the only ones in the way, and laid down definitely that all negotiations with foreign countries were to be made through the King's representative, and that no arrange- ment should be made which did not extend the same advantages to British trade or which injuriously affected British interests.
The Conference of 1897 was held in London, in connection with the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria. The Conference passed resolutions in favour of Imperial preference and of denouncing the above- mentioned treaties. Accordingly, the com- mercial treaties with Belgium and Germany were denounced, and ceased to operate on 30th July, 1898. The immediate effect was retaliation on Canada by Germany, which led to strained relationships between those two countries.
So far, the two Conferences had been held on special occasions, but now a resolution
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 253
was passed in favour of periodic meetings. New Zealand and Tasmania advocated a more formal bond; the other Dominions were not prepared to accept this. An Imperial penny post was declared impracticable, but a special Postal Conference in July, 1898, succeeded in making the necessary arrangements. The Pacific cable was again considered.1 Imperial Defence was discussed. The First Lord declared that the Admiralty should have a free hand in the disposition of the fleet.
In 1902 the coronation of King Edward VII. was marked by the third Colonial Conference. It passed a resolution in favour of similar Conferences at least every four years. The Premiers also expressed the views that they should be consulted as to treaties. Imperial preference was again put forward.
In 1905, Mr Lyttleton, then Colonial Secretary, suggested that the name should be changed to Imperial Council, having perma- nent committees for consulting and advising. He also suggested a permanent office and staff in London. The main opposition came from Canada in its reply of 13th November, 1905. The fear was* expressed that the
1 Authorised by the Pacific Cable Act, 1001 (amended 1909), and commenced in 1902.
254 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
arrangement might develop into encroach- ments on the powers of the self-governing Dominions, and it was for this reason that the proposals fell through at the Conference of 1907. This was the first periodic Con- ference, and practically all its proceedings were published. Resolutions were passed that the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom should preside (in his absence the Colonial Secretary), and that all the Premiers of the self-governing Dominions should be members, that a permanent staff should be organised under the Colonial Secretary, and that sub- sidiary Conferences should be held as to urgent matters or on questions of detail.
The Conference favoured the establishment of a General Staff for the Empire, which should advise the Dominions as to their military forces, and it was agreed that the Committee of Imperial Defence should advise on local questions if necessary, and for that purpose might summon a representative of the Dominion seeking advice to attend the dis- cussions. The Judicial Committee was criti- cised, but no resolution for reorganising it was passed.1 Imperial preference was again
1 New Orders in Council regulating procedure were issued.
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 255
carried, and many questions relating to trade interests, uniformity of law, naturalisation, the establishment of an *A11 Red* mail service, and other like topics were discussed.
Subsidiary Conferences were held in 1909 (Naval and Military) and 1910 (Copyright). A Surveyors' Conference met in 1910, and an Inter-Departmental Committee was ap- pointed in 1908 to consider the law of Naturalisation with a view to discussion at the 1911 Conference.
The preliminary work for the Conference of 1911 led to a debate in the Canadian Parliament, in which the Opposition blamed Sir Wilfrid Laurier's Government for luke- warmness. He rebutted the charge, and explained that Canada had not proposed any resolutions because of the number of matters already down for discussion.
The Conference of 1911 met in London on 23rd May, and sat until 20th June. On the solitary occasion when neither the Prime Minister nor the Colonial Secretary could be present, Sir Wilfrid Laurier took the chair.
Sir Joseph Ward proposed that the Mother Country and the self-governing Dominions should elect a Parliament for defence purposes, that the Dominions should also be
256 CANADA AS AN IMPERIAL FACTOR
represented on the Imperial Defence Commit- tee, and that there should be an Executive Council of fifteen members. The proposal was not supported. Sir Wilfrid Laurier put his finger on the weakest point — that the power to expend was not accompanied by power to tax. The Home Government opposed on the ground both of its inter- ference with its own position and also of its inconsistency with the self-government of the Dominions.
In international matters the Conference expressed its view that the Dominions should be consulted as to international agreements. This was in special relation to the Declaration of London. British shipping questions were discussed in detail. The question of the Privy Council was again discussed, when the Lord Chancellor intimated his intention of propos- ing legislation to strengthen the Court. A proposal that naturalisation in the Dominions should have validity elsewhere was adopted, and legislation will soon remedy that grievance. The real difficulty in this matter now is to secure agreement among the Dominions themselves.
One important result of the discussions has been the reorganisation of the Colonial
BRITAIN AND THE DOMINION 257
Office. The affairs of the Dominions are now entirely separated from those of the Crown Colonies, so that the risk of officials forgetting for the moment the essential differences between them has been entirely eliminated.
To the man or woman with health and strength, and ability to persevere, Canada offers countless opportunities. There one may find a home and friends, the same interests, the same cares. Success does not come to all. Only the man who can see and grasp his opportunity, and follow where it leads him with courage and endurance, can attain success. Canada calls for the exercise of the highest gifts of man, but rewards him who obeys the call. There is no room for sloth ; even he who has succeeded must continue to strive while his strength is at its greatest. Such a country must breed men and women fit to bear the burdens of Empire and to use its resources wisely.
To those who look for a new home, for free- dom, friends, health, and happiness, Canada extends her arm. For them there is the sure promise of a new life and a new hope.
APPENDIX
FRENCH GOVERNORS OF CANADA
Samuel de Champlain Chevalier de Montmagny Chevalier d'Ailleboust Jean de Lauzon Vicomte d'Argueson Baron d'Avaugour Sieur de Mesy . Marquis de Tracy1 Chevalier de Courcelles Comte de Frontenac Sieur de la Barre Marquis de Denonville Comte de Frontenac Chevalier de Callieres Marquis de Vaudreuil Marquis de Beauharnois Comte de la Galissoniere Marquis de la Jonquiere Marquis Duquesne Marquis de Vaudreuil2
1632-1635 1636-1648 1648-1651 1651-1657 1658-1661 1661-1663 1663-1665 1665-1667 1665-1672 1672-1682 1682-1685 1685-1689 1689-1698 1699-1703 1703-1725 1726-1747 1747-1749 1749-1752 1752-1755 1755-1760
1 While Tracy was in Canada he was Governor-General and Courcelles was Governor.
3 Son of the previous Governor of that name.
APPENDIX
259
BRITISH GOVERNORS OF CANADA
James Murray 1763-1766
Guy Carleton . ... . 1766-1778 Frederick Haldimand . . . 1778-1784
Lord Dorchester (Carleton) . . 1786-1796
Robert Prescott (not resident after 1799) 1797-1807 Sir Robert Milnes (Lieutenant-Governor) 1799-1805 Thomas Dunn (Acting) . . . 1805-1807 Sir James Craig . . . . 1807-1811 Sir George Prevost . ... 1812-1815
Sir Gordon Drummond (Acting) . 1815-1816
Sir John Coape Sherbrooke . . 1816-1818 Duke of Richmond .... 1818-1819 Earl of Dalhousie .... 1820-1828 Sir James Kempt .... 1828-1830
Lord Aylmer 1830-1835
Earl of Gosford .... 1835-1838
Sir John Colbourne (Acting) Feb., 1838-May, 1838 Earl of Durham . . May, 1838-Nov., 1838
Sir John Colbourne (Acting) Nov., 1838-Oct., 1839 Charles Poulett Thomson (afterwards
Lord Sydenham) . . . 1839-1841
Sir Charles Bagot .... 1842-1843 Sir Charles Metcalfe (afterwards Lord
Metcalfe) .... 1843-1845
Earl of Cathcart .... 1846-1847
Earl of Elgin 1847-1854
Sir Edmund Head .... 1854-1861 Lord Monck 1861-1867
260
APPENDIX
GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA
Lord Monck . . . . . 1867-1868 Sir John Young (afterwards Lord Lisgar) 1868-1872
Earl of Dufferin .... 1872-1878
Marquis of Lome .... 1878-1883
Marquis of Lansdowne . . . 1883-1888
Lord Stanley of Preston . . . 1888-1893
Earl of Aberdeen .... 1893-1898
Earl of Minto . ... . 1898-1904
Earl Grey 1904-1911
H.R.H. the Duke of Connaught . 1911-
PREMIERS SINCE CONFEDERATION
Sir John Macdonald (C.) Alexander Mackenzie (L.) Sir John Macdonald (C.) Sir John Abbot (C.) . Sir John Thompson (C.) Sir Mackenzie Bowell (C.) Sir Charles Tupper (C.) Sir Wilfrid Laurier (L.) R. L. Borden (C.) .
April,
1867-1873 1873-1878 1878-1891 1891-1892 1892-1894 1894-1896 1896-July, 1896 1896-1911 1911-
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY AND DESCRIPTION
Bradley, A. G. Canada in the Twentieth Century.
Pop. Ed., 1905. Constable. 5s. net. Copping, A. E. Canada To-day and To-Morrow.
1911. Cassell. 7s. 6d. net. Dawson, Samuel Edward. North America (Vol. I.,
containing Canada and Newfoundland). 1897-8.
Stanford. 15s. Historical Geography of the British Colonies. Vol. TV.
Canada (with Newfoundland). Clarendon Press.
Part I., 6s.; Parts II., III., and IV., 4s. 6d. each. Greswell, W. P. Geography of the Dominion of
Canada and Newfoundland. 1891. Clarendon
Press. 6s. Griffith, W. L. The Dominion of Canada. 1911.
Pitman. 7s. 6d. net. White, James. Atlas of Canada. 1906. Toronto :
Department of the Interior.
HISTORY Bourinot, Sir J. G. Canada under British Rule,
1760-1900. 1900. Cambridge University Press.
4s. 6d. net. Bourinot, Sir J. G. Canada. (Story of the Nations.)
Rev. Ed., 1908. Unwin. 5s. Bradley, A. G. The Fight with France for North
America. Third Ed., 1908. Constable. 5s. net. Bradley, A. G. The Making of Canada. 1908.
Constable. 12s. 6d. net. Bryce, George. The Remarkable History of the
Hudson's Bay Company. 1900. Low. 14s. net. Parkman, Francis. Works published by Mac-
millan, 8s. 6d» net per volume.
262 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Imperialism
Douglas, L. Canadian Independence, Annexation,
and Federation. 1894. Putnam. Egkrton, Hugh Edward. History of British Colonial
Policy. 1908. Methuen. 7s.6d.net. Evans, W. S. Canadian Contingents and Canadian
Imperialism. 1901. Unwin. 6s. Ewart, J. S. The Kingdom of Canada, Imperial
Federation, and other Essays. 1908. Morang,
Toronto. Hatheway, W. F. Canadian Nationality. 1906.
Briggs, Toronto. Lawson, W. R. Canada and the Empire. 1911.
Blackwood. 6s. net. Military Editor of ' The Times.' Imperial Strategy.
1906. Murray. 31s. net. Milner, Viscount. Constructive Imperialism : Five
Speeches. 1908. 'National Review.' ls.net. Milner, Viscount. Imperial Unity : Speeches
delivered in Canada. 1909. Hodder and
Stoughton. 2s. 6d. Robinson, C. W. Canada and Canadian Defence.
1910. H. Rees. 6s. net.
ECONOMICS
Canada, British Trade in : a Report by R. Grigg.
1908. Wyman. Is. 5d. Beaton's Annual : the Commercial Handbook of
Canada, and Board of Trade Register. 1911.
Simpkin. 5s. net. Jeans, J. S. Canada's Resources and Possibilities,
with Special Reference to Iron and Allied Industries.
1905. British Iron Trade Association. 15s. net. Rodger, H. J. Canada, British Trade in. 1909.
'Canada' Office. Is.
INDEX
Aberdeen, Lord, 73.
Acadia, 81, 88.
Administration, 95.
Agriculture, 147. (See also under Provincesl)
Agricultural Colleges, 106.
Alaskan boundary, 59, 66.
Alberta, 59, 168, 179-210.
'All-Red Route,' 239.
American invasion, 1812,45.
American Revolution, 89.
Ashburton Treaty, 40.
Assiniboa, 62.
Barley (see Cereals).
Borden Ministry, 77, 102, 247.
Boundaries, 40.
British Columbia, 56, 64, 65, 170, 179-210.
Cabinet, The, 77.
Canada Trade Act, 1822, 43.
Canadas, Union of, 48.
Canadian Northern Rail- way, 229.
Pacific Railway, 228.
Canal traffic, 214.
Cape Breton Island, 81, 82, 33, 52. (See also under Provinces.)
Cartier, Jacques, 26, 27.
Cereals, 147. (See also under various Provinces.)
Champlain, 28.
Civil Service, 96.
Coal (see Minerals).
Conservatives, 79, 102, 241- 257.
Constitution, The, 67.
Copper (see Minerals).
Courts, The, 89.
Discovery and Explora- tion, 25.
Durham, Lord, 47.
Education, 176. (See also under various Provinces.)
Elgin, Lord, 49.
English colonisation, 27. English conquest, 35-86. Exports, 199, 200. 'Family Compact,' 46. Farming (see Agriculture). Fiscal policy, 57. Fisheries, 192. (See also
under various Provinces.) Fishing, 152, 192. Fox-farming, 143, 152. French colonisation, 28, 34. Fruit growing (see Agri- culture). Game, 194.
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 27. Gold, 63, 66. (See also
Minerals.) Governor-General, 69. Governors, List of, 258. Grand Trunk Railway (see
Railways). Halifax, 135. High Commissioner, 69. Hudson Bay Company, 60,
62, 64. Hudson, Henry, 32. Hydro-Electricity, 207. Immigration, 45, 48, 109—
122. Imperial conferences, 243. Imperial defence, 99. Imperial relations, 241. Imports, 199-200. Iron and steel works, 205. Labrador, 26. Land laws, 89. La Salle, 30. Laurier, Sir Wilfrid, 79,
241-257. Lead (see Minerals). Lumbering (see Timber). Macdonald, Sir John A.,
57, 73. Mackenzie, Alexander, 61. Manitoba, 56, 161, 179-210. Manufactures, 196.
7
264
INDEX
Maritime Provinces, 51. Means of communication,
237. Military forces, 100. Minerals, 128, 185. (See
also Provinces.). Montcalm, 85. Montreal, 27, 150. Mother Country and the
Dominion, 241. Mount Stephen, Lord, 57,
219. Natural resources, 179. Navy, 59, 75, 80, 177, 247. New Brunswick, 52, 53,
137, 179-210. Newfoundland, 27, 83. Nickel (see Minerals). North- West Company, 60,
61. North-West Territories, 88. Nova Scotia, 26, 29, 33,
52, 129, 179-210. Oats, 180. (See Cereals.) Ocean services, 212. One Hundred Associates,
Company of, 29. Ontario, 87, 41, 153, 179-
210. Ottawa, 50. Panama Canal, 198. Paris, Peace of, 36. Parliament, 78. Petroleum, 185. Physical characteristics,124. Plains of Abraham, 86. Political parties, 75, 102,
241-257. Population, 109. Postal service, 239. Premiers, List of, 260. Prince Edward Island, 139,
179-210. Privy Council, 76. Provinces, 84, 123. Quebec Act, 1774, 89.
Quebec City, 27, 38, 41,
113-114, 150. Quebec Province, 110-112,
144-153, 179-210. Railways, 127, 211, 217-
235.
, Electric, 235.
Rebellion of 1837, 44. Reciprocity, 75. Red River Settlement, 161. Responsible government,
44, 49, 53. Rideau Canal, 46. Riel, Louis, 65. Road-making, 237. Rocky Mountains, 169. St Lawrence River, 27. Saskatchewan, 59, 165, 179-
210. Selkirk, Lord, 61. Senate, The, 78. Silver (see Minerals). Strathcona, Lord, 57, 219. Sydenham, Lord, 48. Telephones and Tele- graphs, 238. Timber, 189. (See also
under various Provinces.) Toronto, 47, 158. Trade, 196. Transcontinental Railway
(see Railways). Transport, 50. Tupper, Sir Charles, 73. Underwood Tariff, 198. Universities, 106. Upper Canada (see Ontario). Vancouver, 62. Voyageurs, 60. Washington, Treaty of, 57. Water-power, 207. Waterways, 211. Welland Canal, 46. Wheat (see Cereals). Wolfe, 36. Yukon, 66.
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