aiOhAGE ITEM PROCESSING- •CNE Lpl-FISH U.B.C. LIBRARY \ ^ /?'7 /(i^ /tw ■* Advertisements. 4 0h^'t^/^,J^ THE FIRE EXTINGUISHER JVIanufacturing Company. Incorporated by Special Act of Parliament, 1873. JOHN FISKEN, Esq., President. C. H. WATEROUS, Esq., Vice-President. DIRECTORS. THE LIBRARY OFFICE El FOR THE TORONTO. wer 1 1 Price for " On Mon White k Co., of goods was workinj;, Mr. the fire out a for his thougl was preventei covered by in Forfu THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Gift of Mr. J.W. Eartham urnishes a first- t work that even One person can han twenty men $50.00. Send for Circular. VVlVl. IVI 1874. Rtore of Messrs. David i considerable quantity before it commenced bed the spot, and put i deserves great credit EiDother ^reat calamity . |2,000, which is fully uREISON. The Piiblic is hereby cautioned ag.ainat buying other Chemical Engines, using Carbonic Acid Gas as the extinguishing agent, thereby rendering themselves liable for heavy royalties, as it is the intention of the owners of this Patent to deal rigorously with any encroachment on their rights. n Advertisements. Just Published, 1 vol., Demy 8vo., 600 pp. ■ Toronto ofOld: COLLECTIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE Early Settlement and Social Life of the Capital of Ontario. By REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D, Embellished with Two Steel Portraits : one of the founder of the city and first Governor of the Province, Lieut. -Gen. Simooe ; the other, the first Chief Justice of Upper Canada, Hon. Wm. Osgoode ; also, with app;opriate woodcut head-pieces to the opening of chapters. PRICE, in Oloth extra, $4.00; in Pall Leather, gilt edges, $5.00; Half Calf or Half Morocco, gilt edges, $5.00 ; Pull Morocco extra, gilt edges, $6.00. PRESS NOTICES. * ' The volume is an exceedingly handsome one in every sense : typography, paper, workmanship, all manifest great care, and a desire on the part of the enterprising publishers to make the work worthy of the citj'' whose early history it so ruUy and 80 particularly illustrates." — The Globe (Toronto). "It is very fortunate that the task has been undertaken by one who was in all respects so peculiarly fitted to fulfil it. . . He has given us just such a happy picture of the early life of our city as we might have expected at his hands." — The Mail (Toronto). " Events in the new world move rapidly. Within the compass of a few decades we seem to have crowded the interest of a century's history of the old world. A new world has been opened up : nature has been wrestled with : races have been con- quered : tribes subdued : civilization has displaced the rude and primitive : sava^^'ery has given place to law : the di-icoverer has become the pioneer : the pioneer the col- onist : and fi'om the colony we have now the nation. . . . Few memorials or reminiscences, which intimately link the present with the past, have been of so unique a character : and rarely has there been a more important contribution to our national literature." — The Canadian Monthly. "Dr. Scadding's 'Toronto of Old' contains a good deal of curious and interesting information regarding the early history and actual monuments of a p. ace wh-ch ^^as risen, within a century, from the rank of a J-Vench trading post to that of a Pro- vincial Capital of the Canadian Dominion." — Saturday Renew, London. " Of abounding interest even to the stranger, but- especially to every Western col- onist."-P«6. JSTote. ADAM, STEVENSON & CO., TORONTO, PUBLISHERS. Jf.B. — Copies of the above can be supplied through any of our authorized Agents; or^ direct, Express or Postage paid, on receipt of price, from, JAMES ADAM & CO., 36 KIKG SIBJEET EAST, lOROHlO, ONT. V Advertisements, H. E. IVES So CO., SUCCESSORS TO COMPOSITE IRON RATLING for Public and Private Buildings, Balconies, Roofs, Cemeteries, Offces, Window Guards, &c. Improved WIRE WORK of every description, Cheap Cottage and Farm Fences, Flower Stands. Baskets, &c.. &c. MEDi:^VAL IRON WORK for Church purposes. Chaste and Elaborate Designs executed in Wrought and Cast Iron. WROUGHT IRON BEDSTEADS, for Hospitals, Convents, &c. ORNAMENTAL IRON WORK of Every Description. Cj^^TXJSTG-S to OIiX>EI?.. Send for Cuts and Prices of Bailings, (&c. QUEEN STREET, - MONTREAL. JA.]VLli:S ADAM & COIMI^Y., Respectfully beg to offer their services to AUTHORS For the Publication of their MSS., and for passing the same through the Press, Bind- ing, Copyrighting in United States and England, &c., either upon a mutual equitalle basis, or upon Author's own account, and from their long experience, knowled'^e of ihe requinmonts of the Canadian Market, combined with their unequalled facilities j or dit-posing of tditions of jiopular woiks, they can guarantee the utmost possible satis- faction to those desiring to publish. JAMES ADAM & COMPANY, 36 K1^G STREET EAST, TORONTO, ONTARIO. ^dvertisermnts. ONTARIO VETERINARY COLLEGE IK CONNECTION WITH THB Council of the -Agricultural and Arts Association of Ontario. PATRONS: The Right Hon. The Earl of Dufferin, K.P., K.C.B., Governor-Gen. of Canada. The Hon. William P. Howland, C.B,, iS'j; Lieutenant-Governor of Ontario. The Hon. Arch, McKellar, Commissioner of Agriculture and Arts for Ontario. PROFESSORS: Andrew Smith, V, S., Edin,, Vnnci^dX.... Anatomy and Diseases of Farm Animals. J. Thorburn, M D. Edinburgh Veterinary Materia Medica. M. Barrett, M. D Physiology. Andrew Smith, V. S. and Assistant Clinical Instruction. H. H. Croft, D. C. L., University College Chemistry. Geo Buckland.. The History ^ Breeding &' Management of the Domesticated Animals. . . Assistant Demonstrator of Anatomy. Students intending to prepare themselves for the practice of the Veterinary Art aa a Profession are required to attend two sessions at least, and pass the examinations. The Diploma will be granted on passing the final examination, certifying that the holder thereof is competent to practise his profession. Students are strictly required to devote the interval between the sessions to the practice of the profession under some approved and duly qualified practitioner. In addition to the above, provision is made to meet the wants of young men in- tended for or already engaged in Canadian farming, by a course of familiar instruction in the science and practice of Agriculture. In this Department Professor Buckland is assisted by several of his colleagues— the Professors of Chemistry, Geology, Natural History and Meteorology, in University College. Students attending two sessions of this Institution, can obtain the Diploma of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, or that of Edinburgh, after attending one session and passing the examination at either of the Colleges of London or Edinburgh. A new and commodious building has been erected, contiguous to the Infirmary, offering students every facility for the practise of dissection, observing the treatment of disease, and the performance of surgical operations ; thereby affording them ample opportunities of becoming thoroughly acquainted with the theory and practice of the profession. For fees and other particulars relative to the Veterinary Department, apply to Mr. Smith, Veterinary Surgeon, Temperance Street, Toronto. N.B. — This College is the most successful Veterinary Institution on the American continent. Many of its graduates are practising with great succe>is in the United States, as well as throughout the Dominion, and from whom its conductors hear from time ta time most gratifying reports . H. 0. THOMSON, Secretary of Agricultural and Arts Associntion. Office of Agricultural and Arts Association, Toronto, fune, 1874, Advert isements. PRIVATE SURETYSHIPS ABOLISHED ! CANADA SUAiiNTEE OiUPiNY givfctorjsi. President SIR ALEX. T. GALT, K.C.M.G., Montreal. Vice-President TNO. RANKIN, Esq r Montreal. THOMAS CRAMP, Esq., Montreal. D. LORN MACDOUGALL, Esq., " EDWARD MACKAY, Esq., JOHN MOLSON, Esq., R. J. RLEKIE, Esq., TAMES ROSE, Esq., Manager and Secretary EDWARD RAWLINGS JOHN L. BLAIKIE, Esq., Toronto. WM. GOODERHAM, Esq., " A. R. MACMASTER, Esq., DONALD MclNNES, Esq., Hamilton. JAMES G. ROSS, Esq., Quebec. THE business of this Company is solely that of granting Bond§ of SureiyNliip for the faithful discharge of the duties of Employes in all positions of trust. In this it takes the place of private suretyships, and obviates the necessity which formerly existed, for these dangerous responsi- bilities being assumed or continued in the future by -Individuals. This Company has been especially approved and authorized by the Dominion and Provincial Oovernmeiits, to issue Bonds of Surety for Officers of the Finance, Post Office, Customs, Inland Revenue, and other departments of the civil service. Also for Registrars, Sheriffs, Crown-Land Agents, Division Court Clerks, and all other Officers of the Crown. // is the only Company licensed by Government to grant Guarantee Bonds throughout the Dominion. The Bonds of this Company are also accepted (in some cases exclus- ively) by the Banks, Railways, Boards of Trade, Municipal Corporations, Commercial Institutions, and Mercantile Firms generally, as security from their Employes. The Bonds may be obtained without delay, or any expense whatever beyond the actual Premiums — which are so moderate as to render this valu- able and independent system within the reach of all. Ooveriiment Officers, and Employes of every description, are, therefore, now enabled not only to avoid the unpleasant necessity of asking their friends to become their Sureties, but they can AT ONCE RELEASE THEIR EXISTING Private Sureties from all future responsibility (as many have already done), and constitute themselves, as it were, THEIR OWN BONDSMEN through the medium of this Company. 'Ihe great amount of benefit derivable from the adoption of this system of Guarantee, when considered with the comparatively trifling outlay required to effect it, commends the principle to every thinking person, be he Surety, Employ^, or Employer. Full particulars. Prospectuses and Forms of Pioposal, will be afforded on application to the Manager at the Head Office, Montreal. EDWARD RAWLINGS, Manager. Agents are desired to act for the Company in places not yet represented. Applications are invited from gentlemen of injiuetice for that purp>ose. .^~ '■ J ' ^-y W -:j /^ ^-szip-y /^>o / THE CANADIAN FAEMEE'S MAN^UAL OF AGRICULTURE. 'O^/- 0^^ Uj •A-M^^HU./"^ irf6~ C' 0 /^ ^ /fb- ./"/Qr ' ^■-^, lA^i^Oi-c > ^ U i^— - /t -J?/- ^^LlBRls ^^' / '^HrfASTftN*^ ^^•^ ^ /^.^^ / L* I y? L<-^-H. 0/ ^-^ THE CANADIAN FAEMEKS MA^UAI. OF AQEICULTUEE ; THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF MIXED HUSBANDRY, AS ADAPTiSD TO CANADIAN SOILS AND CLIMATE. COMPRISING : The Field ; Produce of the Farm ; Stock : raisirgand m«i,Daffement; ManufaotTiTes of the Farm ; Dairy; Diseases of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Pigs ; Faim Buildings ; Modern Machineiy and Implements ; COUNSEL TO THE IMMIGRANT-SETTLER,, ETC., BY CIIAKLES EDWARD WHITCOMBE, 0/ the Hoyal Agricultural College, Cirencester, England, and a Practical Farmer in Ontario. WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ILLUSTRATIONS ; Tables, aTid Forms of Simple Farm Account Keeping, prepared expressly for the Work, AND AN INTRODUCTION BY PROFESSOR H. MCCANDLESS, Principal of the Ontario School of Agriculture, GudpJi. Wherefore come on, 0 young husbandman ! , Leam the culture proper to each kind.— Vmeik 6^ ^\ TORONTO: JAMES ADAM AND COMPANY. 1874. Fuhlished and sold exclusively hy Subscription. Entered according to the Act of the Parliament of Canada, in the year One Thousand Eight Hundred and Seventy-four, by James Adam& Companv, in the Office of the Minister of Agiiculture. IIUNTKH, ROSE & CO. Priutera, SjUreotyt rs and liookbindcra, TOKUNTO. Palmam qui meruit ferat/ TO THE HONOURA.BLE THE MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE FOR CANADA, WHO IS WORKING FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF AGRICULTURE IN OUR YOUNG DOMINION, AND WHO IS EARNESTLY ENGAGED IN THE CARRYING OUT OF AN ENLIGHTENED IMMIGRATIONAL POLICY, THIS WORK IS, BY SPECIAL PERMISSION, MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR, X e>- INTRODUCTION. In all countries, and under all circumstances, the principles that underlie the art of husbandry are identical, but the practice through which they are brought to bear upon the cultivation of the soil must necessarily vary, owing to the modifications that are indispensable to bring that practice into harmony with sur- rounding circumstances. Hence, while the scientific or theoretical literature of agricul- ture is of universal application, and may with success be imported, that relating to the practice of the farm should, to be of sub;5tantial use, be a home, and not a foreign production. The present condition of Canadian agriculture demands the in- crease, if not indeed the introduction, of such a literature, and it is gratifying to find that this want has a fair prospect of being sup- plied by the publication of such works as that which follows this in- troductory notice. In it the author has kept steadily in view the fundamental principles of true husbandry, and has, in harmony with them, endeavoured to sketch an agricultural practice in no way antagonistic to the modifying influences peculiar to the country. This harmony is indispensable to successful farming, and un- less it be established, no matter how suitable to a country a system of husbandry may otherwise be, it must inevitably fail to be successful. It may, under exceptional circumstances, appear for a time to be successful, but permanent it cannot be. The system of cropping introduced by the early settlers of Canada aiSbrds a striking illustration of this fact; for a time it appeared to be everything that could be desired, but, owing to the fact that it was opposed to the fundamental principles of true viii Introduction. husbandry, in depending upon the unaided resources of the soil, it was not, and could not be, permanent. Its success, even for a time, was due to the exceptional fertility of a rich virgin soil. Now, however, particularly in the older settlements, that exceptional fertility has been exhausted, and the skill of the true farmer be- comes indispensable to successful cultivation. Canadian agriculture is now in a trasition state ; it is gradually, but steadily, assuming the character of real husbandry, and to aid it in this transition is the mission that its agricultural literature has to perform. Under such circumstances, no elaborate treatises on scientific or theoretical ao^riculture are demanded. What is wanted is a litera- ture that will aid the farmers of the country in applying to the work of the field and farm-yard the principles upon which hus- bandry is based, and this has evidently been the aim of the author of the Manual of Agriculture. In it the farmer will find no elaborate theories or intricate prob- lems discussed, but a reliable book of reference that may be promptly consulted on almost any subject connected with his daily avocations. To be of practical utility for this purpose, that reference must be easily made, and the convenient arrangement of the work makes it so. Does the farmer require information on the building of a house or barn, on the treatment of his cattle in sickness, on the special cultivation of any particular crop, or, in short, upon any matter connected with the daily routine of farm management, he has but to oi)en the index, and, without loss of time, refer to the page on which information upon that subject is given, and he will seldom refer to it and be disappointed. Such a work must be of much value to the practical farmer, and it is to be hoped that thousands will avail themselves of the infor- mation it contains. H. McCANDLESS, Principal of the Ontario School of Agriculture. GuELPH, 28th May, 1874. PREFACE. TO MY BROTHER FARMERS OF CANADA- The waiit of a standard work on Canadian agriculture has long been felt by our class. I have endeavoured to step in and fill the breach by laying before you the accompanying work, entitled "The Canadian Farmer's Manual of Agriculture." We are all well aware that farming is no sinecure in the way of work in Canada. Stout hearts and willing hands must be em- ployed to win a way to fortune on our farms. But these are not the only necessary qualifications — wages are high and hands are scarce ; to pay the one and create a substitute for the other, in- creased knowledge and intelligence must be the instruments. To make farming profitable we do not require larger holdings ; but the one thing needful is larger yields per acre. To attain such a desirable increase of production, a more thorough knowledge of the laws of growth, and the requirements of plant-life becomes necessary. This knowledge, which is in itself indefinite, I have endeavoured partiall}' to provide in the following pages. It can- not be that any single work, especially of the proportions of the present, can cover all the ground necessary to be touched upon in a treatise on the Principles and Practice of Agriculture. This work is not and could not be exhaustive, but where it fails to give full information, I trust it may at least set the reader *' upon the right track." The farmer in Canada must be essentially a practi- cal man. The reader will find advanced no theories that have not stood the test of practice. It has been my constant aim to adapt every chapter to the present state of agriculture in Canada. Topics on which the opinion of eminent farmers are divided, are treated from every stand-point : where I have given a pei'sonal opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov- erned by my own and my neighbours' practical experience. ^^ V 2 (Preface. opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov- erned by m}^ own and my neighbours' practical experience. For instance, in the chapter devoted to Barnyard Manure, I have set down the arguments of the advocates of Raw or Rotten, Long or Short ; and the subject being one on which I do not feel decided, I have refrained from the expression of any dogmatical opinion. Whilst this is not a work of compilation, the reader, will find scattered through its pages many quotations, in the citation of which I have endeavoured to give due credit. These selections, appropriate to the several subjects, I have been careful to obtain in the majority of cases, from such authorities as I am aware are or have been engaged in actual farming in Canada, or in those States of the Union in which the soils, climate, and systems of husbandry are generally of a nature similar to those of our Dominion. The central object which this work is intended to keep in view, is the demonstration of how farming may be made to pay — by the general improvement of the soil, of seeds, and of methods of cultivation. With these few prefatory remarks, I leave " The Canadian Farmer's Manual " in the hands of my brethren of the plough. That it may prove useful to them, and a welcome addition to the agriculturist's library, is the sincere wish of the author. C. E. W. -v/^., ^ TABLE OF CONTENTS ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED. A PAGE ACCOUNTS : Farm : Advantages of keeping 520 Breeders' Calendar 520 " Statement 526 Calving Table 521 Dairy 527 Diary and Journal combined 525 Ledger 523 Livestock 522 Produce ... 524 AGRICULTURAL Exhibitions : Undue encou- ragement of Trotters 385 Steamers 500 ALLUVIAL SOIL 79 ASHES U6 AXLES 481 B BARLEY : Cultivation; Shallow 180 Position in Rotation 180 On Wheat Stubble 180 Seedbed 181 Rolling 181 Harvesting 182 Seed and SowfNG : Checks from Frost 182 Steeping 181 Time of Sowing 181 BEETS 230 BINS, Capacity of 508 BOILERS, Agricultural 500 BONES 138 BREEDING 306 BREEDS of Cattle 304 BREEDERS : Our Canadian 347 Calendar 520 BROOM CORN 196 PAGE- BUCKWHEAT : As a Manure 162 Cultivation 185 Flour, Value of 187 Harvesting and Threshing... 186 Seed and Sowing 186 Use as a Crop 186 Where to Grow , 186 BUILDINGS, FARM : Barns, Height of 40 Plans for 41 •Roofing for 45 Ventilators 21 Basements, Accommodation in 23 To excavate for 21 Cellars, Concrete for Walls... 25 To make Frost-proof 26 To keep dry 25 Floors, Asphalt 26 Brick 29 Cement 29 Wooden 28 Granaries 21 Lightning Rods 48 Electricity ; how it acts 48 Paint : Cheap Wash 47 Crude Petroleum 47 How to apply 47 For Bricks 47 Roofs : To find No. of Shin- gles for 46 Shingles, Paint for 46 To prevent decay of 47 Stables : Feeding Troughs... 30 Mangers 39 Oat Boxes 39 Stalls 30 To purify 39 To tie Horses in 39 Unclean, a source of disease 34 Stone 23 Ventilation, danger of bad. . 26 Table of Contents. PAGE BURNT LAND, Treatment of . . 73 BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.. 528 Account Books as Evidence. 533 Husband and Wife 531 I. 0. U 531 Landlord and Tenant 528 Leases 529 P;jrchasing Property 528 Stamps for Promissory Notes 531 Wills 532 CABBAGES 238 CALVES : Abominable butchery of 344 At Hohenheim 346 Costiveness of 343 Fattening 345 Feeding 343 Raising 341 Secret of raising 344 Weight of at Ten Months.... 344 Youatt's Opinion 343 CAPITAL, How to Invest 18 CARE OF HORSES, Lies in a Nutshell 399 CARROTS AND PARSNIPS ... 230 Cultivation 234 Harvesting . 234 Seed Raising 235 Seed and Sowing 233 Soil 232 Sowing in the Fall 235 Value of 231 Varieties of 231 CATTLE 303 Breeds : Ayrshires 305 Alderneys and Jerseys 305 Durham .' 304 Dutch or Holstein 305 Devon 304 Herefords 304 Milch Cows 326 Breeding : Co-operation to obtain Bulls. 307 Generous Feed for ' Blood'.. 307 Grade Bulls should never be used 307 Parents, Influence of 308» Pedigree 308 Selection by Character 308 Th.oroughbred Males desir- able 306 Breeders, Our Canadian 347 PAGE CATTLE : Diseases of : Abortion 433 Aptha 434 Black Quarter 434 Bloated (see Hoven). Brain 434 Bronchitis 434 Constipation 435 Choking 435 Colic (see Hoven). Cow-pox 436 Cud, Loss of 436 Diarrhoea 436 Dnim-Belly (see Hoven). Eye 436 Fever 437 Flooding ... 437 Garget 437 Hidebound 438 Hoven 438 Jaundice 438 Joint Felon (see Black Quar- ter), Lice (see Cow-Stables). Milk Fever 439 Murrain 439 Pleuro-pneumonia 440 Quarter- evil (see Black Quar- ter). Red Water 442 Ringworm 442 Teats 442 Thrush (see Aptha). Warbles 443 Yellows (see Jaundice). Fatting : Buying for 314 Live and Dead Weiiiht 317 Management in Stalls 316 Overfeeding 317 Rule i for tinding the Weight 310 Selecting for 315 When to stop 317 Fastenings : Chain 33 Stanchion 32 Feed : Clover, Analyses of 312 Comparative Equivalents of various kinds of Food 312 Cutting 321 Nutritive Value of various Foods 311 Quantities contained in an acre of various Crops 311 Steaming 321 Table of Contents. PAGE CATTLE : Feed — Continued , Soiling 324 Theory of 309 Indications of Quality : For Beef-producing 309 For Milking 309 For good Constitution and Early Maturity . 309 Medicines 450 Lice and Mange 35 Kind Treatment OF 313 Milch Cows : Breeds 326 Breeding from 332 Management of 328 Management in Winter Quar- ters 331 Milking ... 333 Milking Kickers,.. 335 Milk : Cheese from Skim 341 Composition of 338 Properties of 338 Quality of 339 Taint, causes of 340 Overfeeding for Exhibition 348 Oxen 346 Shorthorns 347 Store 313 CELLARS 25 CHEESE, Skim Milk 341 CHESS AND WHEAT 179 CISTERNS, Capacity of 507 CLAY SOILS 75 CLOVER , 251 Alsike 269 As a Manure 160 For Pasture 263 COLTS : Management of 390 Breaking 392 First year's care 391 Shying 393 Teaching to Walk Fast 391 Weaning 390 Whip, when needed 393 CORN and Potatoes together.... 225 Broom 106 Care of Crop 193 Cost and profit from an acre of 198 Cribs 198 Culture 191 Fodder 194 Harvesting 196 Hills or Drills 192 PAGE CORN — Continued. Husking 193 Planting 192 Shall we hill up 193 Shellers 498 Soiling 199 To keep Birds from 197 Varieties of 190 COUCH GRASS 284 CRUSHERS, Grain 498 CULTIVATION : Burnt Lani>, Treatment of . . . 73 Ploughing 52 Cross ... 53 Deep for Drainage 56 Deep or Shallow 64 Fall 58 For permanent Pasture 52 On Clay Lands 53 On Hilly Lands 53 On Light Lands 52 Quantity per Day 53 Subsoil , 56 Width of Lands 52 Without Lands 52 Rotation of Crops 64 Sowing, Broadcast 63 Drilling 63 Summer Fallow 59 Operation of 61 Depth of 62 Thorough 50 CULTIVATORS, or Grubbers... 475 D DETERIORATION in Wheat Crop, Causes of 163 DEW, how formed 264 DISEASES : Common to Horses (see Horses). Common to Cattle (see Cattle). Common to Sheep (see Sheep). DITCHING MACHINE 503 DRAUGHT, Principles of 467 DRAINS 81 Depth of 85 Distances of, apart 90 Government should institute a private fund for drainage 92 Material for 85 Spade for 502 Time to Dig 84 To Level for 89 6 Table of Contents, PAGE DRILLS, Grain 478 DRY EARTH SYSTEM 120 DUNG (see Manures). ELECTRICITY, how it acts 48 EMIGRANTS, A Few Words to 534 Advice to 537 Beware of Whiskey 547 Hard Work necessary to Suc- cess 545 The Backwoods Settler 546 The Settler's Position in a new Land 547 The Settler's Duty in a new Land 548 When to go to the " Bush". 547 Agricultural Advantages of Canada 536 Average Wages paid to La- bourers, Mechanics, &c 538 Chances to become a Farmer 536 Climate oy Canada 537 Comparison between Produc- tions of United States and Canada 543 Cost of Living in Canada ... 539 Educational System of Can- ada 543 Elbow-room in Canada 534 Equality, Fraternity and Liberty 535 Extent of Canada 536 Extent of Canada, compared to England and Wales 536 Financial Aspect of Canada 542 Forest Produce, Exports.... 541 Imports and Exports of Can- ada 541 Labour is the Poor Man's Capital 534 Labour required in Canada 551 Prices of Land 549 The Nationalities from which the People are drawn 540 The Religious Denomina- tions in Canada 540 To convert British Money into Canadian 537 To the Old Countuy Farmer as an Emigrant 548 United Statics compared So- cially with Canada 535 Ways of obtaining Land : 1. Free Grants 544 PAGE EMIGRANTS. Ways of obtaining Land — Continued . 2. Purchase of Wild Lands. 544 3. Purchase of Cultivated Farms 544 What is Grown in Canada.. 542 Younger Sons of English Gentlemen as Farmers in Canada 550 F FANNING MILLS 498 FASTENINGS, Cattle 32 FATTING CATTLE 314 FENCES, Board 290 Comparative Cost of ■"'arious Kinds 295 G.\TES, Farm 300 Hedges, Live 295 Afterculture 297 And Mice 300 Arbor VitEB 300 Beech 298 Buckthorn 298 Deciduous Plants 298 Hemlock 300 Honey Locust 298 Norway Spruce 300 Pruning 297 Setting out Plants 296 Thickening neglected 297 To prepare Bed for 296 Wild Plum 299 Hurdles, Movable 302 Rail 288 Stone 295 To Secure Posts 291 Wire 293 FERTILIZERS, Special 127 FLAX 199 FLOORS 26 FLOUR: Wheat 178 Buckwheat 187 FODDER, Indian Corn for ...... 194 Peas for 190 G GATES, Farm 300 GANG PLOUGHS 477 GOVERNMENT should insti- tute a Private Drainage Fund 92 Table of Contents. PAGE ORAIN CRUSHERS 498 GRANARIES 21 GRASSES : Clover : Alsike 269 Analyses of 259, 312 For Seed 262 Hay 257 Pasture 263 Seed and Sowing 253 Soiling 263 When to Cut..... 261 Hungarian 274 June Grass 273 Lucerne 271 Seeds , 266 GRAVELS 78 GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR 475 GYPSUM... 150 H HAIR, as Manure 146 HARROWS (see Implements). HAY TEDDERS 502 HEMP, Essay by H. G. Joly, Esq., M.P 201 HEN MANURE 126 HOE, Expanding Horse 478 HOPS 241 Baling 248 Cost and Profit of an Acre 248 Drying 247 Management : 1st year 244 2nd year 244 3rd year 246 Picking 246 Preparation for 243 Soil FOR 242 Time of Planting 244 Trellis Work. 250 Varieties of 241 HORSE POWERS 496 HORSES 381 Breeds : Thoroughbred Racer ... 384 Arab 384 Suffolk Punch 385 Clydesdale , 385 N orman or Percheron 385 French Canadian 385 Trotting Horses 385 Morgans, Blackhawks, Tem- pests, Royal Georges are all mongrels 385 HORSES— Continued. Brood Mares Care of, lies in a nutshell .... Colts (see Colts). Common Diseases of : Absces? Accidents : Apoplexy Bite from Mad Dog Bleeding Bowels, Inflammation of .... Broken Knees Back Sinews, Strain of Bots (see Worms). Chill Cold Colic Spasmodic, Belly-ache or Gripes Constipation Cough Curb Chest Founder Cow-hocks Diarrhoea Distemper Eye, Diseases of Farcy Feet Fever Fits Gleet (nasal) Glanders Heaves Hide-bound Influenza (see Distemper). Lampas Lung Fever Pneumonia Pleurisy. page , 389 , 399 Maggots Megrims Poll Evil Polypi Proud Flesh Ringbone Saddle Galls Shoulder Lameness. Side Bones Sitf asts Sores Spavins Sprains Staggers, Stomach. Staggers, Mad Staked Stinos 406 407 407 407 408 400 410 410 411 411 411 411 412 412 412 412 412 413 414 414 416 419 419 420 420 422 422 423 423 423 423 424 424 424 424 424 424 424 425 426 426 426 426 427 427 428 429 , 429 8 T able of Contents. HORSES : Common Diseases of — Conti- nued. Stifled Strang] es String Halt Sunstroke Swelled Legs Thoroughpin Ulcers Warbles (see Sitfasts). Windgalls Worms Warts Washiness Wolf Teeth Unsoundness Warranted Sound Farmers Food And Water Humanity Mares : Better than Geldings To breed from Medicine for (see Medicines). Points of a Good . . Stallions Of pure Blood To Drench Undue Encouragement at Agricultural Shows given to Trotters Unsoundness Hereditary ... Vices Common to Bad to Shoe Balking Biting Orib-biting Hard Mouthed Interfering Kicking Overreaching Paw mg Pulling on the Halter Rearing Rolling in Stall Runaway Shying Slipping the Halter Stumbling Getting bit in the Cheek HOT-BED, To Make a HOUSE .SLOPS, Valuable as Manure HUNGARIAN GRASS PAGE 429 429 429 429 430 j 430 I 430 ! 431 431 431 431 431 432 431 386 396 398 393 386 387 381 389 386 403 385 387 400 404 400 403 406 402 405 400 405 404 401 404 404 404 404 405 405 403 518 145 274 PAGE HURDLES 302 HUSBAND AND WIFE 531 I IMPLEMENTS 461 Broadcast Sower 480 Corn Shellers 498 Cultivator 475 Ditching Machine 503 Ditcher, Open 504 Drag Saw 498 Draining Spade 503 Fanning Mills 498 Gang Plough 477 Grain Crushers 498 Grain Drills 478 Grass Sped Sowers 481 Great Variety in 463 Grdbbers . 475 Harrows 473 Chain 474 Rotary or Revolving 474 Brush 474 Horse Hoe 478 Horse Rakes and Tedders. 502 Mowing and Reaping Ma- chines 486 The First Invented 486 Qualifications of 487 Trials at Agricultural Shows 490 Must be Strong 464 Ploughs : Anti-friction Wheel 470 Beam, Land-Side, Share, &c 467 Construction of 466 Gray's Double Furrow Plough 471 Gray's Triple Furrow Plough 473 Hill's Patent 471 Jointers 469 Line of Draught 467 Other Swing 472 Swing 468 Swivel or Side Hill 470 Trial of, at Paris, in 1871 ... 469 Poor Tools cannot Pay 465 Powers 496 Roller 477 Root Pulpers 500 Saving of Labour effected BY 462 Steamer AND Boiler 500 Straw Cutter 499 Stump Pullers 601 Table of Contents. 9 PAGE IMPLEMENTS— Contmi^ed Threshing Machines 492 Separator .* ..... 493 Little Giant 494 The Agitator 495 CloTer Threshers 496 Turnip Drills 479 Waggons 481 Dishing of Wheels 483 Principle of resistance in Draught 483 Width of Wheels 483 Warehouses in Toronto and London 465 Will not stand Exposure ... 464 INDICATIONS OF QUALITY IN CATTLE 309 J JUNE GRASS 273 L LAMBING 354 LAMBS, Management of 357 LANDLORD AND TENANT... 528 LEASES 529 LEAVES, for Manure 146 LICE, To cure, on Cattle 35 LIME, as a Manure 154 LIQUID MANURE .. 122 LOAM 79 LUCERNE 271 M MACHINES (see Implements). MANGE, To cure on Cattle 35 MANGEL WURZELS 236 MANURES : Amounts voided by differ- ent Animals 113 Application : On Grass Lands 113 On Heavy Lands Ill On Light Lands 112 Quantity per Acre 1 14 Repeated 115 Spreading 112 Surface 108 Ashes 146 Barn Yards 99 Compost Heaps 105 Evaporation of 100 How it acts on Land 101 PAGE MANURES : Barn Yards — Continued. Manajjement of 100 Site of Dung-hills 99 Straw for 98 Bones 138 Buckwheat, Ploughed down.. 162 Clover, Ploughed down 160 Fertilizers, Special 127 Guano 129 Nitrate of Soda 129 Sulphuric Acid 129 Superphosphate of Lime 129 Hair 146 Hen 126 House Slops 145 Leaves 146 Lime 154 Liquid 122 Pump for 125 Tanks for 124 Management of 115 Night Soil 116 Compared with Guano 117 Dry Earth System 120 Table of amounts voided by Human Beings 119 Peat or Turf ] 45 Plaster of Paris 150 Salt 153 Sawdust 144 Seaweed 145 Swamp-Muck 143 Tables : Shewing amount of incom- bustible ingredients in va- rious Crops 132 Shewing Chemical Ingre- dients in various Manures 137 Tallow Chandlers' Refuse. . 145 Turnips Ploughed down 161 Wool Waste 145 MARES : Better than Geldings for Farm Purposes 386 Brood . 389 To Breed from 387 MEASUREMENTS (see Tables). MEADOWS, Pasturing 270 MEDICINES : Astringents 450 Alteratives 450 Antispasmodics. 455 Blisters 453 Caustics 455 Clysters 454 10 Table of Contents, PAGE MEDICINES— Continued. Colic Remedies 455 Cordials 454 Coughs and Colds 455 Disinfectants or Purifiers — 456 Diuretics 456 Embrocations, Liniments, Lotions, &c 452 Febrifuges (Fever) 456 Injections 454 Ointments 453 Poultices 458 Purging 457 Rheumatic Applications 458 Sedatives 458 Skin Diseases 459 Tonics 459 Vermifuges (Worms) 460 MILCH COWS 326 MILK 338 Cheese from Skim 341 Composition of 338 Properties of 338 Quality of 339 Tainted 340 MILKING : Qualities of Cows 309 Kickers 335 MILLET 274 MUSTARD, Wild 286 N NIGHT SOIL 116 0 OATS 183 Cut early 185 Rust in 184 Sowing, thick or thin 183 Value of Straw 183 Varieties of 184 Where they will gro\, 183 Wild 283 OBJECTIONS to Buckwheat as a Crop 187 OVERFEEDING for Exhibition 348 OXEN 346 P PARSNIPS 230 PASTURES : Clover for 263 How to Stock 269 PAGE PASTURES— Co n^i^mec?. Permanent 273 Rye for- 270 Sheep 360 PASTURING MEADOWS 270 PEAS .. 187 A Cleaning Crop 189 A Green Crop 189 A Green Manure 189 For Fodder 190 How ''bugs" get into 190 Preparation for 188 Sowing 188 Varieties of 188 PEAT: For Manure 145 Soils 80 PIGEON WEED , . 286 PIGS 364 Breeding of 369 Breeds OF 365 Dentition, Table of 378 Diseases... 447 Catarrh or Cold 447 Cholera 448 Diarrhoea 448 Drench, How to 447 Fever 448 Inflammations ... 448 Itch (see Mange). Jaundice 448 Mange 449 Measles 449 Protrusion of Rectum 449 Rheumatism 449 Surfeit or Indigestion 449 Tumors 449 Fertility of 371 Parts of 376 Rearing 371 Spring 375 Store 371 Thoroughbred 370 To Catch 380 Value of 364 PLASTER OF PARIS 150 PLOUGHING 52 PLOUGHS (see Implements). Gang 477 PORK, Curing 378 Value of 364 POSTS 290 POTATOES 208 After Culture of 215 And Corn together 225 Computatiou of Crop 218 Table of Contents, 11 PAGE POTATOES— Con^irwcc^. Culture of 210 Digf^ing 215 Diseases of 217 History of 208 Not exhaustive 210 Planting, Mode and Time of 212 Seed 213 Storing 216 Soil for 209 Value of, as Food 209 Varieties of 219 POWERS, Motive 496 Q QUACK GRASS 284 R RAIN, Signs of 259 RAlNFALL,Tablefe of, in Canada 136 RAKES, Horse 502 RAMS, Use of 353 RED ROOT 286 ROLLER , 477 ROOFS 45 ROOTS : To measure quantities of ... 508 Deep Cultivation £or 239 Relative Feeding Qualities of , 240 Pulpers ; 500 ROTATION OF CROPS 64 RYE FOR PASTURAGE.., 270 s SALT 153 SANDY SOILS 76 SAWDUST 144 SEAWEED 145 SHEEP 349 Age by Teeth 351 Breeding 352 Breeding Ewes 354 Breeds of 350 Diseases of 443 Colic or Stretches 443 Costiveness 443 Chronic Cough 443 Eruptive 443 Foot Rot 443 Grub in the Head 444 Inflammation of Bowels 444 Rot 445 PAGE SHEEP : Diseases of — Continued. Scabs 445 Scouring 446 Staggers 447 Fall Feed 360 Lambing 354 Lambs, Management OF 357 Medicines for (see Medicines). Pasture 360 Points of Excellence in 354 Shearing 363 Tar 359 Ticks 363 Use of Rams 353 Winter Management 360 Wools 352 woolwashing 361 SHORTHORNS 347 SOILING 199 Clover for 263 Cattle 324 SOILS 75 Alluvial 79 Clay 75 Gravels 78 Loam 79 Peats 80 Sand 76 SORGHUM 275 SORREL 285 SOUNDNESS, in Horses 432 SOWING MACHINES 478 SPREADING MANURE 112 STABLES (see Buildings). STALLIONS : Of Pure Blood 386 In Canada 389 STEAMING FOOD 321 STONE FOR BUILDING 23 STORE CATTLE 313 STRAW CUTTER 499 STUMPING MACHINES 501 SUMMER FALLOW 59 SURFACE MANURING 108 SWAMP-MUCK : In Manure 107 As Manure ... 143 SWEDES (see Turnips). TABLES : Analyses of Farm Produce.. 517 Ashes of Various Crops 514 Dry Beef and Blood 517 12 Table of Contents, PAGE TABLES— Continued. Average Wages paid Labour- ers and Mechanics 538 Composition of — Green Rye 511 Linseed Cake 510 Meadow Grass 511 Milk 338 Parsnips and Carrots 512 Pea and Bean Gtrav/ 511 Potatoes 512 Rape Cake ... 510 Rich and Poor Milk 513 Swedes 512 Vetches 511 Wheat, Barley and Oats 510 White Turnips 512 Cost of Living in Canada .... 539 Cost of Various Kinds of Fencing 295 Dentition of Pigs 378 Discharge op Water from VARIOUS sized Pipes 509 D [STANCES APART OF DrAINS 90, 509 Extent of Canada 536 Feeding Value of various Substances 514 Imports and Exports 541 Labour required in Canada. 551 Measurements, &c. Avoirdupois Weight 506 Bread Weight 506 Capacity of Bins 508 Capacity of Cisterns 507 Commercial Numbers 507 Corn in the Ear 508 Dry Measure 506 Land 505 Length 505 Roots 508 Solid Bodies 505 Surface 505 Time and Motion 506 Nationalities from which the People are drawn 540 Number of Plants to an Acre 518 Rainfall in Canada 1 36 Religious Denominations ... 540 Soils and Trees 517 Statistics of Panics 642 Temperature of Canada 134 Value of Manures obtained from one ton of various foods 513 TALLOW CHANDLERS' Re- fuse ...• 145 PAOS TARES (see Vetches). TEDDERS 502 TEMPERATURES 133 TENANT AND LANDLORD . 528 THEORY OF FEEDING 309 THISTLES 278 THRESHING MACHINES .... 492 TREAT ANIMALS KINDLY.. 313 Humanity to Horses 393 TURF 145 TURNIPS 225 As a Manure 161 Artificial Manures for 228 Drilling up for 228 Harvesting 230 Insect Enemies 230 Preparing Ground 227 Seed and Sowing 229 Soils for 226 Sower 479 Thinning 229 Varieties 226 VENTILATION, Danger of Bad 26 VENTILATORS 21 VETCHES 276 VICES COMMON TO HORSES (see Horses). W WAGGONS 481 WARRANTY OF SOUNDNESS of a Horse 431 WEEDS 276 Canada Thistle 278 Couch or Quack Grass 284 Mustard 286 Pigeon Weed 286 Sorrd 285 Various 287 Wild Oats 283 WEIGHTS, Tables of 506 WHEAT 163 And Chess 179 Canada a Wheat Producing Country 163 Causes of Deterioration of 163 Cost of Producing an Acre.. 179 Fall or Winter 164 Essay on 169 Cultivation for 16( Good Land for 166 Mulchinjr ^"^ List of Illustrations. 13 PAGE WHEAT : Fall or Winter — Continued. On Clover Sod 166 On Pea Stubble 168 Seed 172 Sowing 173 Spring, Management of 175 Varieties of ] 65 Flour 178 Spring 176 Rust in 177 Smut in 178 FAOI WHEAT : Spring — Continued. Varieties of 177 WILLS 532 WOOLS 352 Washing 361 Shearing 363 WOOL WASTE 145 Y YARD, BARN, Manure 97 LIST OF ILLUSTEj^.TIOIfS. PAGE Diagram shewing Form of Excavation for Basement Barns 21 Do Natural Slope of Ground for do 22 Movable Manger for Stalls 31 Movable Stanchion Principle for securing Cattle 32 Do do Sections of, and Details 32 Chain and Ring Mode of securing Cattle 33 Do do Modification of 34 Secure Plan of Fastening Cattle by Chain 34 Stable and Stall, side view of recommended 34 Horse Halter and Mode of Attachment in Stall 39 Do do showing working 39 Barn Building, Gable View of recommended 41 Do Plan of principal Floor of 41 Do Perspective View of 42 Do Basement Plan of 42 Do Longitudinal Section of 44 Do Second Floor Plan of 44 Bam Construction, View of 45 Roof, Woodcut of (To illustrate Rule for finding number of Shingles required) 46 Theory of Electricity illustrated 48 Do Cloud and Barn Attraction 49 Do Cloud and Lightning Rod Attraction 49 Diagram of Ploughing on Clayey Lands 53 Simple Attachment to stir up soil beneath Plough, when subsoil ploughing 58 Diagram of " Drilled Wheat " and " Broadcast Wheat " 64 14 List of Illustrations. PAGB Diagrams illustrating System of Under-draining (2) 84 Simple Levelling Instrument for Farmers' use in Draining 89 Liquid Manure Pump, and Valve 125 Improved Corn Crib 198 Potato Digger 216 Head Halter for Cows, to prevent self- sucking 337 Plan of Sheep Pen for Early-lambing Ewes 355 Form of well-fatted Hog 364 Gray's Champion Single Furrow Plough 468 Combined Cast Beam Plough 469 Yankee No. 22 Jointer Plough (two or three Horse) 469 Anti-Friction Wheel Plough 470 Swivel or Side-Hill Plough 470 Hill's Patent Plough , 471 Gray's Double-Furrow Plough 471 Grubber or Cultivator 475 Morgan's Two-Horse Cultivator 476 Patent Flexible Iron Cultivator 476 Gang Plough o 477 Field Roller ". 477 Expanding Horse Hoe 478 Wethersfield Seed Drill 480 Cahoon's Broadcast Sower 480 Grass Seed Sower 481 Illustration of Principle of Friction between Wheel and Axle 484 Improved Thresher and Separator 493 Patent Wood Frame Grain Crusher 499 Straw-Cutter, for Manual or Horse Power 499 Agricultural Steamer and Boiler 500 Simple Stump Puller 501 Dick's Patent Potato Digger 502 English Draining Spade 503 Carter's Improved Ditching Machine 503 Carter's Open Ditcher, Road Grader and Subsoiler 604 ILLUSTRATIONS IN APPENDIX. PAOB Gray's Triple-Furrow Plough 553 Diagrams of Harrows (Square Frame and Askew Frame) 554 Eyer's Patent Harrow and Tooth 554 Improved Grain Drill 555 Broadcast Sower of Plaster, Guano and General Fertilizers 556 Improved Turnip and Seed Sower 556 Single Mower, with Forward Cutting Bar 657 Single Mo w 6r, with Cutting Bar in Rear 558 List of Illustrations. 15 PAGE *' Caynga Chief " Mower 558 " Ayr Clipper " Mower 559 * ' Ayr Clipper " Reaper 560 Johnson Self-Rake 501 Kirby Combined as a Self-Raking Reaper (Dodge Rake) 562 Improved Ten Horse Pitt's Separator 563 *' Little Giant " Thresher and Separator 564 ** The Agitator " Separating Threshing Machine 565 Ten-Horse Power 566 Totman's Farmer's Horse-Power 566 Totman Horse- Power applied to a Straw Cutter 567 Totman Drag Cross-cut Sawing Machine 567 Screw Stump Machine 568 Sulkey Revolving Horse Rake 569 Lock-Lever Sulkey Hay Rake 569 THE CANADIAN FARMB:R'S MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE. CAPITAL. When the day arrives at which farming shall be recognized as in every way a profession, requiring as thorough knowledge and as regular business habits as any other calling or trade, we may look for an advance in the agricultural progress of the country, commensurate to raise her to the highest position in the scale of nations. The man who, relying from the first upon credit, enters into the business of manufacturing or of storekeeping, cannot succeed. As well purchase a large factory or commodious store, and then, deficient of means to stock the same, sit down and think of the ways and means of establishing a trade, as to buy a farm and hope to work it profitably without a sufiicient stock of horses, cattle, implements and seed. The man who enters upon a farm relying upon his credit for the purchase of the necessary stock, seldom, if ever, succeeds in his business. To-day an immense number of farms in Canada are mortgaged ; the first incumbrance upon the property was in many cases the means by which necessary capital was secured, and only in the case of a few men of indomitable energy and untiring perseverance has the farm been ever cleared from its first imposed debt, but rather that debt has accumulated until the day of forced sale has arrived. The man who has not sufiicient capital to thoroughly stock one hundred acres should be content with a farm of half that size, for experience has shown that whilst, on the one hand, a large farm is more economically worked than a smaller, yet on the other a farm of say fifty acres, properly stocked and started, will yield one hundred per cent, more profit than a larger holding insufficiently stocked or hampered with incumbrances. 2 18 The Canadian Farmer's It has been too much the fashion in Canada for the farmer, when surplus produce has been sold, to rush to the purchase of more land, without staying to place all the capital upon the old land which was absolutely required, and, as a consequence, we can point to many of our " large " farmers who do not sell as much off their immense area, insufficiently stocked and imperfectly worked, as do "smaller" neighbours upon lands which carry a full Complement of necessary stock. HOW CAPITAL MAY BE INVESTED ON THE FARM TO BEAR GOOD INTEREST. By removing stones from the fields, hy stumping and cleaning, by squaring the fields so that all operations are performed in a rectangular manner, and great saving of time effected. The chief loss of time in the daily work of a team at ploughing, harrowing, or in any field operation, is in turning ; make the fields right- angled, and the turning will be reduced to a minimum. By good fencing. — It is as poor economy to have bad fences as to leave the till unlocked and invite the burglar to remove its contents. Good fences once put up are an economy in many ways. Not onl}^ is the cost of repairing and patching reduced, but cattle do not learn to breach. The animal that has once broken bounds into the rich clover field, or filled his belly in the ripe grain, will in future assuredly seek for and find out ever}^ weak spot in the protecting fence. We have seen as much damage done to a wheat crop in one season, in this manner, as would pay for a hoard fence round the whole field. By buying the best of tools. — The carpenter cannot make a good job with bkmt chisel or ill-set saw, neither can the farmer with inferior implement or poor seed. We have seen a heavy team struggling along before a short cast-iron plough with iron mould-board, sole and land plate ; while upon the opposite side of the road, in exactly similar soil, a light, active team would be drawing with perfect ease the light-made plough, in which all friction acts upon steel that shines like polished silver. By good accommodation for live stock and implements. — It is useless to attempt to keep animals in winter with insufficient accommodation. Unless we provide shelter and warmth to every head of stock, we shall require to feed so much more to keep up the necessary animal heat. Each 3^ear, then, the extra amount of feed required to keep in the cow or pig, &c., the requisite amount of animal heat, might be to far greater advantage expended on warm accommodation. The former plan, of supplying the heat requisite, must be repeated each year, wliile suitable buildings will hist for very many seasons. Manual of Agriculture, 19 Avoiding the first accumulation of mechanics'' and tradesmen's bills. — The first year upon a farm is invariably one of loss. An accumulation of extraneous accounts often throws a man so far back that it becomes a chance whether he ever recover his lost ground. In entering on a farm, sufficient available capital should be kept over to pay all possible expenses for the first year. Never, if it be possible to avoid it, trust to a future return to pay current accounts. The perspective of the return generally recedes towards a point, while the bulk of accounts usually exceeds all anticipation. Interest increases on the bills, while it is a constant drain upon the value of crops in prospective. Under draining. — It has been demonstrated by the most ex- perienced and practical farmers, both in England and in America, that the surplus produce upon well-drained land will pay for the expense of underdraining in three years ; or, in other words, that capital invested in this form will yield interest at the rate of thirty- three and one-third per cent, per annum in actual returns, while the market value of the land is improved to the full amount of expenditure. On the purchase of Unproved stock — While we do not advocate the raising of thorough-bred stock by the generality of farmers, it must be a self-evident fact, that the animal which produces the largest amount of meat, wool or milk for a given quantity of food must be the most valuable. It is demonstrated yearly at our Exhibitions, and by the written and spoken experience of practical men, that good grade cattle, sheep and hogs produce a greater amount of meat, wool or milk than the coarse, bony, ill-bred animal. The more capital, then, that can be retained for the purchase of stock, the greater the interest that will accrue. Safe speculation in live stock— The sound principle of safety known as small profits and quick returns applies with as great force to the business of the farmer as to that of the merchant or tradesman. The value of live stock is constantly fluctuating. With a cash capital attainable at any day, the farmer may take advantage of the fluctuation of the market by buying cheaply and selling at a profit. It is not an uncommon thing for the price of pork, beef or mut- ton to rise one hundred per cent, in a very short time. The man who has always cash available is at any time prepared to buy cheaply, and can sell as soon as the advance will yield him a profit. It is this very want of ready cash amongst the farmers gene- rally that tends to bring about these sudden and rapid fluctua- tions. Produce being down in value is often the result of a neces- sity that drives the many producers to sell even at a sacrifice ; whilst in a short space of time the reaction in the market must 20 The Canadian Faimer's set in, and yield a profit to him who can keep over or who has bought in the decline of the market. An attempt to dictate the amount of capital requisite upon a given acreage would be futile in such a work as the present. There are so many circumstances — the condition of the land, the state of improvements, or the st34e of husbandry required — that it would be impossible to lay down any arbitrary rules based upon the size or locality of various farms. Most farmers are anxious for large occupations, and a great number thus fall into the error of attempting to work more land than they possess capital to manage properly ; some are seduced by delusive hopes of making up all present deficiencies by future savings ; while others are led forward by the vanity of being greater landholders than their neighbours. From these causes arise a meagre stock, imperfect cultivation, and consequent scanty returns, and in their train follow debt, dis- tress and final ruin. On the other hand, the man who is content to commence with as many acres as he has capital to properly work and cultivate, may look forward with certainty to a full return from his land, will not be ever running into debt, and will obtain in his daily occupations contentment of mind, while laying the sure foundations of a future fortune. ON FARM BUILDINGS. Convenience and simplicity should never, in the arrangement of farm buildings, be sacrificed to sj^mmetry. Neatness, compact- ness and warmth are the great points always to be carefully stu- died by the farmer in laying out or adding to his cattle-houses or barns. '' Time is money," and any arrangement which will render the work of feeding and attending on cattle easier, and to be per- formed in less time, should be carefully carried out, especially in Canada, where seasons are short and wasies are hi oh. Besides, if hired men ])erceive a neatness and compactness in the internal fittings of a building, evincing a desire to make their work less onerous, they will generally take a pride in the superiority of their employer's arrangements over those of the neighbours, and will attend more carefully to, and carry out more thoroughly, the operations of winter feeding, «Sz;c. Such buildings as are erected should be on the north, east and weso sides of the yard, leaving the south open to the full benefit of the mid-day sun. In Canada, where warmth is so great a requisite, the bank barn is, undoubtedly, the most convenient, giving a great capacity in room on a comparatively small scale. Homesteads, however, must vary with farms, and it would be as inconsistent to dictate the plan of farm buildings as of the farms themselves. Manual of Agriculture 21 We will merely point out those general rules which should be carefully weighed ere the farmer engage in either new building accommodation, or additions to former barns and out-houses. Convenience and economy of space are here almost synonymous terms, and are points to be carefully kept in view. Good ventilation is as essential to the well-being of stock as of man. Cattle and pigs require plenty of warmth, while horses and sheep should be kept in cool, well-sheltered steadings, where thorough ventilation has been carefully secured. Ammonia and other noxious odours that emanate from animal manure are very injurious to health, and means should be em- ployed to carry off all such poisonous gases. Grain, hay and roots also require good ventilation, and for this reason there is great objection to the not uncommon system of close-battening barns. Ventilators should be provided for all barns and cellars, to carry the heated air caused by fermentation out at the roof of the building. Granaries should not be built in under the swinof-beam of a barn, surrounded by solid masses of grain, hay or straw. We should advise, if possible, the building of a granary in the shape of a lean-to, or, better, as a detached building from the main barn, allowing the free play of air upon every side. We shall at a future page speak more particularly on the subject of granaries. Basement Barns. — Every barn should have a basement, wher- ever stone to build one is accessible. The sills are thoroughly protected from rot by being placed high and dry above the ground. The basement is well adapted to fatting cattle, hogs and milch cows, while a cellar for the storage of roots may be built at the back end. It is a great advantage to have roots stored upon the same level as the feeding stalls, as there is a great loss of time in carrying large quantities of roots up stairs or ladders. Where a site upon a hill side can be obtained, there is nothing but a simple excavation to be made, the labour becoming greater as the slope of the land approaches a dead level. The accompanying diagram shows the form of excavation where Diagram L 22 The Canadian Farmer's the slope is slight, the earth taken from the basement being thrown out on the upper side to form the road- way to the barn. Here x y shows natural slope of ground, making an angle of 5° with the horizon. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, sufficient earth is ob- tained to make a raised road to the top of a basement wall, D B, nine feet high. Raised road running out twenty feet from the barn floor to the natural ground, and making an incline of three feet in twenty, up which to take waggons into the barn. If the site should be a dead level, earth must be obtained else- where to make a protection to those walls of the basement forming the outside of the cellar. DiAQKAM 2. X y shows the natural slope of the ground, being say three feet in forty. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, earth sufficient is obtained from the excavation to make a raised road to the top of a nine-foot basement wall ; such raised road running forty feet out to meet the ground, has only an incline of three in forty, up which to draw on to the barn floor. If the site should be a dead level, the cost becomes far greater, as the earth required to protect the outer walls of the cellar would have to be drawn to the spot, whilst if the basement be commenced on the crest of the elevation, as in Diagram 2, the labour of excavation is reduced to a minimum. A basement wall resting against a bank should be built of stone and first-class mortar, and should be at least 1 J feet thick. Masons generally slope such a wall upwards and outwards to the bank, giving as their reason that the slope overcomes the pressure of the contiguous earth. To keep the Avails free from dampness, and to still further lessen any danger from the crowding of the baiik, small stone or coarse gravel should be filled in for about twelve inches in width be- tween the wall and the bank, and this gravel rest over a drain below. In this manner all wet, especiall}^ in spring, escaping from the ground, will filter through the gravel, and, before reaching the cellar wall, will escape by the drain beneath. Manual cf Agriculture. 23 Accommodation in a Basement. — For the purpose of approxi- matioD, it will be near enough to calculate that ten bushels of roots require fifteen cubic feet of space. On this basis the following Table will serve to measure the ne- cessary size of a cellar to contain various quantities of roots : — 1,000 Bushels of roots will require 1,500 cubic feet, or f 20 x 84x9 high. i or, 20 X 9-4x8 " 1,500 " « 2,250 "■ ( 20 X 12*6 x 9 " \ or, 20 X 14-0 X 8 " 2,000 " " 3,000 " f 20 X 16-8 X 9 " 1 or, 20 X 18-9 x 8 " 3,000 " " 4,500 " f 20 X 25-0 X 9 " 1 or, 20 X 2S-0 x 8 " 4,000 « «* 6,000 " f 20 X 33-4 x 9 *' |or, 20X37-6X 8 " 7,000 " " 10,500 " ) 20 X 58'4 X 9 " tor, 20X65-7 X 8 " 10,000 " " 15,000 « 5 20 X 83-4 X 9 " \ or, 20 X 93-9 X 8 " And so on. TO SELECT BUILDING STONE. The following instructions for the selection of building stone are taken from the London Builder., and are of great interest to all who may have anything to do with such work : — " In select- ing a quarry from which to get the stone best suited for the pur- pose, great care is required. Having first satisfied yourself that stone of the size required can be obtained, and at a reasonable price, the next and most important step of all is to find out if it be durable stone. Too much weight must not be placed on the assurance of quarrymen that the bed which is the cheapest for them to get at is the best and most durable, nor the best looking and easiest to work. It does not follow that because certain old buildings in the neighbourhood have lasted well, therefore all the quarries in the neighbourhood produce the same stone. " It often occurs that a quarry on one side of a hill produces much better stone than that on the other. Specimens, dressed up square and sent out by the quarry man or agent, are very dangerous things to form an opinion on ; because what looks very well in small pieces, is really often of an inferior quality, and a stone that would appear coarse and rough in the specimen would not do so when in the mass. Stones that rub up to a smooth face are often not so durable as those of a rougher texture. " To give an example, ' best bed ' Portland is much superior in colour and texture to ' brown bed ' Portland, but fiir inferior to it in durability. Examine all the different beds in the quarry, noting the particular grain, texture and colour of each bed ; com- pare them with the buildings around ; and if there be any old quarries near with the face exposed, see which of the beds stand 24 The Canadian Farmer's out the most and show the old tool marks, and consequently have yielded to the action of the weather least. It frequently happens that the best stone is neglected, or only in part worked, from the cost of removing the rubbish with which it may be associated. " As an economical supply of stone in particular localities would sometimes appear to depend on accidental circumstances, such as the cost of quarrying, the degi^ee of facility in transport, and the prejudice that generally exists in favour of a material which has been long in use ; and as the means of transportation have of late years been greatly increased, it becomes essential to ascertain whether better materials than those which have been employed in any given place may not be obtained from other, although more distant, localities, offering equall}^ advantageous terms. The rela- tive facility with which good materials may be obtained in a dis- trict is to a certain extent marked by the appearance of the towns and villages, the comparative cost in obtaining them being in general better shown by the character of the ordinary buildings than by that of the public buildings and large mansions, the stone for which may sometimes have been brought from comparatively considerable distances. " From the frequent practice, however, of selecting those stones which yield readily to the tool, and are hence commonly called freestone, whatever may be their mineralogical characteristics, the most durable and therefore the cheapest are far from being always employed ; and it sometimes happens that we find the common cottages built of durable materials, while large mansions and public buildings are not, the materials for the latter having been selected only because they were so readily worked up for ornamen- tal parts, while those for the former may have been thrown aside in the same quarries because they yielded less freely to the tool." For the reverse process, or to find how many bushels can be stored in a given cellar : RULE. Multiply the length, breadth and height of the cellar together, to obtain the number of cubic feet in space — divide b}^ 15, and multiply result by 10. Example. — Wanted to find the number of bushels of roots that a cellar measuring 37 feet in length, 33 feet itiinnWinBl ^^ Manual of Agriculture. 33 beam. When thrown open, the movable stanchion has a slope, as shown by the dotted lines ; when closed upon the neck of the beast, it is secured, at a distance of 6 J to 7 inches, by means of an iron, d, of a wedge, e, or a pin as at g. Of these three fastenings, the wedge is undoubtedly the safest, unless the pin be secured in its place by a key through the smaller end. The upper beam, which should be about 4 feet 6 inches from the floor, is also of great use in preventing animals raising their heads when they are about to swallow an awkward sized piece of turnip ; if the animal be unable to raise his head he will very seldom choke. PI.ATB 8. Plate 8 shows a chain which passes round the neck, and is attached to an iron ring which slides upon a post. This fastening secures to the animal more freedom of head, but is not so secure as the former, whilst it has the dis- advantage of allowing a milch cow to move further back, and perhaps soil the udder by lying in manure. Plate 4 shows a modification of the former, and will readily explain itself ; the bar being of good iron and secured to the post by being passed through at the ends, and nutted upon the back side. Plate 5 represents a more secure plan of fastening by chain. This plan gives the advantage of the stanchion in keeping the beast forward, whilst allowing rather more freedom to the head. In all cases a beam or pole over the cow's neck, at a height of about four feet and a half from the floor, is a very useful adjunct to secure against choking by pieces of turnip or other roots. Plate 6 gives a side view of such a stable and stall as has been reeommended. 3 34 Platb 4. The Canadian Farmer's Plate 6. Plate 5. Passage, four feet wide ; manger, 2 feet wide at the bottom ; stall, 6 feet from front to rear ; floor, 5 feet from manger to gutter; gutter, IJ feet wide and 7 inches deep, with the stalls from 3 to 4 feet wide, and a beam over cows' necks 4J feet from the floor. Light must be carefully secured in all stables for milch cattle or for young stock ; though it is usually considered that a dark place is better for fatting animals, as in- ducing a desire to lie down more frequently. GENERAL CLEANLINESS. It is imperative that at all times, and, as far as possible, under all cir- cumstances, general clean- liness be carefully secured - and rigidly enforced. A COMMON FORM OF DISEASE ARISING FROM UNCLEANLINESS. The most prevalent form of disease among cattle, arising from want of proper and sufficient cleanliness, is that of lice. When these appear upon any individual in a lot, the affection almost invariably spreads throughout the whole herd. It is impossible to keep up the condition of an animal, when once troubled with such parasites ; and as there is often much trouble in destroying the evil when it has once put in an appearance, and as all applications of tobacco water, carbolic acid, coal oil, sulphur or mercurial ointment are attended with more or less risk to the beast, we would Manual of Agriculture. 35 impress upon the farmer the importance of strikinnr at the root of such diseases by taking preventive measures. The best preven- tive to the spread of this evil is a thorough whitewashing of the stalls, ceilings and manger. Take your pail of whitewash, and drop into it about 3 tablespoonfuls of the commercial carbolic acid ; as the lime and water is renewed in the whitewash, also renew the carbolic ; take an old broom and thoroughly wash everything round and about the animal, not forgetting the floor overhead. Not only is the stable thus purified and these insects driven off, but a coat of whitewash with carbolic acid is a perfect disinfectant, is at all times conducive of health to animals, and makes every thing lighter, assimilating the light in the stables to that of the dazzling snow without. Whilst upon the subject of these parasites, we will give a few of the methods of cure most efficiently recom- mended for their removal from the affected animal. TO CURE LICE AND MANGE IN CATTLE. As far as the cure is concerned, these two diseases may be classed under the same head. The cause of mange is the presence of a minute insect (or acarus) which burrows its way from the surface Underneath the cuticle or outer skin. Though the acarus, in each case, rnay vary in size and form, yet mange in the horse and ox and scab in the sheep are one and the same affection. Of the primary cause of the appearance of this insect we have no certain knowledge. Poverty of the animal and uncleanliness of stables are, however, most certainly causes, while a plethoric state of the system caused by blood-heating food is undoubtedly a predisposing agent. It is, however, more common in poverty- stricken and debilitated animals than in those that are kept sleek and fat ; though the latter are not free from the disease, as may be seen by the very common appearance of a mange on animals to whom is fed a quantity of meal. The disease spreads rapidly by contagion. When an animal affected with mange or ilice is introduced into a herd, the disease is sure to spread througkout, and it is, therefore, very important that affected animals be isolated without delay. The symptoms of mange are a constant rubbing and itchiness of the animal, and are usually first observed about the root of the tail and along the crest of the neck. On examination it will be found that the location of this ii'ritation is bare, and covered with a dry scurf If this scurf be removed by the nail, small raw-look- ing pimples will be found beneath, discharging a yellow serous fluid. The acari beneath this scab may be plainly seen through a microscope. In chronic cases, or in those of long continuance, the skin thickens and falls into wrinkles and folds. 36 The Canadian Farmer's To treat mange effectually, two things must be accomplished — primarily to remove the insect and all ova, and then to renew the healthy action of the skin. Nearly every poisonous compound known in the Pharmaco'po&ia has been used for this purpose, and all are more or less dangerous to the animal. Compounds containing a proportion of arsenic will assuredly kill the insect, but are very apt to be fatal also to the patient. These compounds should never be used by men unskilled in medicine. Mercurial Oinbnents are very effectual, but must be used with extreme caution, as mercury has a tendency to produce salivation or ptyalism ; if mercury be used in any form, the animal must be kept carefully from cold, and especially from getting wet If the case is bad enough to warrant the use of mercury, take : Soft-soap one pound, and mercurial ointment (blue ointment) four ounces. Let these two be thoroughly mixed ; rub small quan- tities well into the parts affected ; let it remain for a few days, and then wash off with warm water and a brush. When the disease is not too strongly developed, oils of all kinds, especially animal oils, will destroy tae insect, and are perfectly innocuous to the beast. Sulphur is an effectual remedy, but should also be used with the precaution of keeping the animal dry after application. The best form of employing sulphur is to take sulphuret of potassium (liver of sulphur) one ounce, water eight ounces ; and apply the lotion twice a day In very bad and long-standing cases take equal portions of oil of tar, oil of turpentine, and linseed oil, and rub it well into the skin about every other day with a hard stiff brush. In using any of these remedies, it must be borne in mind that no one agent can be considered as a certain specific After a number of applications, any one remedy, even the most potent, is apt to lose its effect. In this case a change of remedy even from severe to mild will often ensure success. In dases that will yield to no milder application, a solution of bichloride of mercury may be made, two drachms of the bichloride to a quart of soft water ; but this should not be used without the superintendence of or advice from a qualified veterinary surgeon. Amongst other remedies are : — An infusion of quassia (one pound to the gallon of boiling water) is very safe and often effec- tual. Miller's Tick Destroyer^ carefully used in accordance with the patentee's printed directions, is in oi-dinary cases effectual. The following are peculiarly effective in the case of the large lice :— The Hoeraatopinus Eurysternus, or Honmatopinus ani et vvlgce (respectively those that appear on the neck and such as appear about the anvs and thighs). Manual of Agriculture. 37 A decoction of tobacco — two drachms of tobacco to about a pint of water. A snfe and effectual dressing is : Stavesacre seeds four ounces, white hellebore one ounce ; boil in a gallon of water down to two quarts, and apply with a brush to the affected parts. Again, when other methods fail, take red precipitate a teaspoonful (this is mer- curial, and the cautions given above with regard to the use of mer- curial compounds mast here be adopted), and mix in a pound of hog's lard ; apply it with the finger to the parts most seriously affected, but not all over at once — say to five or six different spots at a time — and be sure and keep the animal warm and dry under this treatment. The following plan has been recommended by a practical farmer who is extensively engaged in cattle-raising, and, if eflfectual, is certainly perfectly safe : Dissolve about a pint of strong soft-soap in a pail of warm soft water ; saturate the whole surface of a lousy cow's body with it ; after about thirty minutes repeat the operation, and in another half hour take a pail of clean warm water, and quickly and thoroughly wash out all the soap water and dead lice, put her in a warm stable, and cover her with a dry blanket. Again, take flowers of sulphur a pound, common turpentine four ounces, mercurial ointment two ounces, and linseed oil a pint ; warm the oil, and melt the turpentine in it ; when the mixture begins to cool, add the sulphur, and stir the ingredients well together, and afterwards incorporate the blue ointment with the mass by rubbing them together on a marble slab, and apply to the infected spots. It is well, however, not to confine the treatment to local appli- cations. Give wai'm mashes, and if the animal be poor and weak endeavour to raise the system. It should be borne in mind that when mixtures are applied local- ly, a small quantity well rubbed in is more effectual than a greater mass smeared on. Horse Stables. — The most essential points to be considered in the fitting up of horse stables are, in addition to those appertaining to convenience of feeding, freedom from dust, cleanliness and abundance of light. The stable which has a loft over it should be at least twelve feet high, and perfect ventilation should be secured either by tubes carrying the foul air away at the roof or by gratings close to the ceiling. These gratings should be so arranged that, whilst effecting perfect ventilation, they may also be made the means of securing cool currents of air in spring and summer. It has too long been considered by the groom that a glossy coat can only be associated with a hot stable. To this we would 38 The Canadian Farmer's reply that a thin glossy coat is not at all times desirable, for when cold weather approaches nature provides the animal with thick and warm clothing. Man in winter puts on additional clothing, and the horse in like manner requires additional cover- ing, and to the farm horse no blanketing can properly take the place of his natural winter coat. The coat, however, need not be so long as to be unsightly; warm clothing in a cool stable, with plenty of honest grooming, will keep the hair sufficiently glossy to please any but the most over- fastidious. The over-heated air in a close stable saves much of this groom- ing, and for this reason the unscrupulous attendant will sacrifice his horse's health. The air of the improperly close and heated stable becomes con- taminated by the urine and dung, which, rapidly fermenting, give out stimulating and unwholesome vapours. When a person first enters such an ill-managed stable, and especially in the early morning, he is annoyed not only b}^ the muggy heat of the confined air, but by a pungent smell resembling that of harts- horn. Can he then be surprised at the inflammation of the eyes, the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the ani- mal, who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmosphere, is often attacked, or when farcy and even glanders should break out in such a stable ? Chemistry shows us that urine contains a large amount of ammonia, and moreover that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, the ammoniacal vapour begins to be given off" rapidly almost immediately after the urine has been voided. THE CEILING OVER HORSES SHOULD BE TIGHT. For this there are two especially important reasons: first, as a preventive against the ascension of the carbonized and foul air exhaled by the horse; and secondly, as against its circulation through the feed above ; thus injuring both its taste and whole- someness, and rendering it distasteful to the horse. The fact of the breath of one horse rendering food unpalatable to another is dail}^ illustrated in our public stables in town. By close observa- tion, the reader may notice that his horse will often refuse the hay in the racks from which another horse has previously been eating, while if fresh hay of just the same quality be provided he will no longer leave it untouched. There should never be trap-doors directly over hay racks — for immediately the attendant commences to pass down hay, the horse will look upwards ; and, by this means, particles of dust or hay seeds are often dropped in his eyes, and may cause severe inflam- mation, and in many instances lasting injury. Manual of Agriculture. 39 Fio. 7. STABLES SHOULD BE ALWAYS KEPT WELL PURIFIED. This is best effected by liberal white was! ling and the occasional addition of disinfectants, chief among which ranks carbolic acid ; moreover, the whitewash keeps a stable light. Mangers should be made so that they may be cleaned from the front and filled by the attendant without interference by the horse. Oat-boxes should be built deep, to prevent the horse casting out with his nose any feed. There is only one proper way by which to attach a horse's hal- ter to manger or stall, and that is by a rope or strap running through a ring and fastened to a block just large enough to pre- vent it coming through the ring. More horses have been injured by getting their fore leg over the halter-shank, and in consequence being cast, than in any other manner in the stable. In accompanying diagram, a shows the position of the tie- rope when the horse is standing back, holding his head up high, or lying down ; when the horse stands up, instead of the rope forming a loop over which he can get his foot, the weight at the end causes it to run through the ring, and keeps it straight, and at all times tightened. The feeding and management of horses, mares and colts will be treated of in a subsequent chap- ter. THE BARN. Building Timber. — Much more economy might by a little fore- sight be practised in the use of building timber than has been for- merly. For instance, in many cases the logs used for the sills, plates or beams of a barn are large enough to make two or even four pieces, had they been only sawn through the middle. Where a saw mill is not too far distant it will pay, at the present value of timber, to convey such large logs to the mill to be sawn in two. To carry a long stick, take an ordinary strong lumber waggon, attach a reach to both fore and hind parts, and lash the free ends of these reaches to the stick, while the same is securely chained 40 The Canadian Farmer's and boomed to both axles. Neither is there any unconquerable difficulty in sawing a stick through, even should it be twice as long as the saw mill carriage. Sticks sawn in this manner, from a large log, are even better than ordinary squared timber for build- ing purposes. Where the heart is near the centre of a beam, the timber will often crack badly while drying, from the centre towards the outer surface. If a tree be, however, sawn through the centre, the heart being outside, these cracks will not appear. Economy. — In many buildings, where the framework rests upon solid masonry, sills one foot square are rested on the wall, and gains are cut in for each joist. In this case, the large stick of timber is reduced to the thickness of a plank beneath the joists, and the large amount of timber between these joists is useless for any prac- tical purpose. Much saving may be effected by replacing the large sill with a heavy plank, from two to four inches in thickness, and allowing the joists to extend clear across the top of the wall, and flush with its outer face. Buildings sometimes spread under the old system from the ends of the joists starting out of the gains. By the plan advocated above, where the joists are laid right across the wall and secured by spikes, there is no possibility of any lateral pressure causing a spread, while the expense of material is reduced to one-half of the cost under the old-fashioned system. As a partial estimate of the solidity of various woods, we here quote the weight per cubic foot of various kinds of wood : Hickory, 52 lbs per cubic foot . Beech, 40 " " " Birch, 45 '* " *' Pine, Yellow, 38 lbs. per cubic foot. Cedar, 28 " " " '* Pine, White, 25 " '* *« '* The Depth of Joists is dependent more upon the length over which they, unsupported, spread, than upon the superincumbent pressure. The rule in this case is, — The depth must increase as the square of the distance from the point of support on a ivall. Height of a Barn. — In building a barn for the storage of hay or grain, height should be considered as a general principle in economy of space. While adding a few feet in height to the frame of a barn is not a great extra expense, the additional room attained by extending the barn horizontally would cost very much more in material and work, for in the one case there is no extra roofing or flooring. Where it can be attained, it is a good plan to build a high barn, the inner frame being so constructed as to admit of two floors, one above the other, in such a manner that the loaded team can drive on to the upper floor and throw its load doivn for perhaps nine feet. Even where this costs the erection of a long bridge, it will be found economical in saving much work at busy times, while we question if the material requisite for an increased area for the storing of hay and grain crops will not more than pay for any Manual of Agriculture, 4x bridge required. The accompanying diagram illustrates the prin- ciple by showing the gable view of a barn so constructed. Fie. 8. Now that the use of the horse-fork is becoming very general, m the plan of a barn, the upper old-fashioned cross beams should be avoided. We shall presently, by plan, show a barn constructed on this principle. Among the many plans for barns that we have in view, we select one which appeared not a long time ago in the columns of the Country Gentleman as one that admirably suits the system of farming in, and the climate of Canada, and as one from which many valuable ideas may be gained by the intending builder, and which is susceptible of modification to suit almost any locality and site. The accompanying plan is for a barn of a size suitable for about 75 acres of land under cultivation on the system of mixed hus- bandry. Fig. 9. The barn is 42 x 60 ft. Figure 1 shows the common or principal floor, and is so constructed that a loaded waggon is driven in at one end and when emptied is driven out at the other. The arrangement for this pur- pose, so as not to interfere with the cellar or basement, is shown in the perspective view, figure 2, an embank- ment being made at each end, which would be faci- litated if the building were placed between two slight knolls or in a moderate hol- W^»,,,,»,,,,,,,W-J.'^^JJ^JM'J'V'.l^^,-.l.V^^JAVr^^^^ BAY. tf X60 JvL rxj ii'i('iis FLOOR. I3XC0. HORSC STABLf.'y]ISX50 1. Principal Floor. 42 The Canadian Farmer's low, in which case ample drains should be provided round the whole. The plan fig. 1, mostly explains itself; V V being venti- lators or haj^ shutes ; A, trap door for throwing down chaff or straw ; G, granary ; and S, stairs. The bay contains 950 square feet, and will hold nearly 40 tons of compact hay of about 500 cubic feet to the ton when well settled. The space over the horse stables and platforms over the floor will hold at least 20 tons more, making a complete available space for 60 tons of hay. By marking or graduating one of the ventilators in the large bay into feet, the owner can see about how many tons of hay he has on hand at any time. Fia. 10. ^^ K -->^,,^J^J>>;Jt^.^g^^^g.,^gtft>;:g) ^S— ^^ Roors. 10X36. A A 2. Perspective View. Figure 8 represents the basements. The roots are drawn in on the barn floor and dumped down the trap A ; fig. 1, A A A A, j., ^ 2 3vr ft 3 J n Longitudinal Section. Fi9. 18. Second Floor Plan. Still, a cistern would be handy , for water is often required to mix ground grain with chaff, for watering fatting cattle, sick beasts, and for many other purposes, immediately within the build- ing. Neither are racks shown, as the writer prefers feeding cut fodder. The large doors in the sheds at the end are designed, among other purposes, to allow of a team being driven in through the sheds to carry away the manure. We have not space, in a work of the proposed dimensions, to enter more fully into the various forms of barn buildings. We believe there are works to be obtained, specially devoted to this Manual of Agriculture. 45 subject, and these may be, with advantage, perused by the farmer proposing to build or increase. Fia. 14. We should like to have given more plans, for we consider that the saving of trouble and labour is, in a carefully schemed steading, of no small magnitude. We now proceed to some practical remarks on the various mate- rials brought into requisition in the construction of farm buildings. ROOFING MATERIALS. Our pine woods have so far provided us with an abundance of material for the covering of our buildings, but the time cannot be far distant when this source will not be so readily at hand, and when we must look to some other and more lasting material for the purpose. Tiles, being made of burnt earth, are fireproof, and as such are valuable, but from their weight it is necessary that the woodwork be of sufiicient strength. Moreover, to prevent the snow and rain beating under, it becomes necessary to lay them in mortar, and this again forms an additional weight upon the framework of the build- ings. Tiles must be laid on a steep roof, at least a quarter pitch; i.e., the rafters being at right angles with