astenrapresdsabstecteibest nee sper . bea SPE fe tniede Tato “a a IS ; ) CANADIAN JOURNAL SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND HISTORY ;” CONDUCTED BY THE EDITING COMMITTEE OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, NEW SERIES. : BS ts VOL. XII. a f» a 7) f i I!e B ia TORONTO: PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE BY COPP, CLARK & C0., KING STREET EAST. MDCCCLXX. PRINTED BY COPP, CLARK & CO. KING STREET EAST, TOR ; Vil CANADIAN INSTITUTE. —~-—- EDITING COMMITTER. == == GENERAL EDITOR—REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D. - Geology and Mineralogy: E. J. Cuapman, LL.D., Ph. D., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, Univ. Coll. Toronto. . Physiology and Natural History: Rev. Wu. Hivoxs, F.L S.,*Professor of Natural History, Univ. Coll. Toronto. |. Ethnology and Archeology: Dante. Wi1s0n, LL.D., Professor of History and inelish Literature, Univ. Coll. Toronto. . Meteorology: G. T. 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BARRETT, M.D. ‘The Canapran Journat is printed exclusively for gratuitous distribution — among the Members of the Canadian Institute, and such Institutions and Societies as the Council may determine ; but Members may purchase extra copies at 50c. Pee number, and Provincial Literary and Scientific Societies may obtain the Journal at the same rate, by an annual payment in advance. *.* Communications for the Journal to te addressed to the General Editor, Rev. Dr. Scapprxe, 10 Trinity Square, Toronto. Communications _ on general business of the Institute to be addressed to W. Morrmer Crarx, a Esq, Corresponding Secretary, or to Mr. Jans Jounson, Assistant Secre- q 5 ee Institute, Toronto. : ; “Opio7O [Sees 7 WO4S 5 DM. Pe ael = Sper 2.8) a4 | | xw'f VILdvw WA Wflvd WNIZoWdas Liyarar THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No. LXVI.—DECEMBER, 1868. CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. BY THE REV. JOHN McCAUL, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO, ETC, V. THOSE IN WHIcH THE OccUPATION OR PosITION IN LIFE OF | THE DecEASED 1s StTaTED—( Continued.) (m) To a sacred virgin :-— 74. PRIEIVNPAVSA BETPRAETIOSA ANNORVMPVLLA VIRGOXTITANTVM ANCILLADEIETXPI FL- VINCENTIOET FRAVITOVC : CONSS (In coem. Callisti ; De Rossi, n. 497.) Prie (pridie) [Kal.] Junias pausabet (pausavit) Preetiosa, annorum pulla (puella) virgo XII tantum, ancilla Det et Christi, Flavio Vincentio et Fravito, Viris Clarisstmis, Consulibus. “On the day before the Calends of June, Preetiosa went to her rest, a young maiden of only twelve years of age, a hand-maid of God and of Christ, in the Consulship of Flavius Vincentius and Frayitus, most distinguished men,” «, ¢. May 31st, 401, a, v. ae abies 3 x er glee RE nae gd Oe Se Geen Veggies Theo a NX CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF To. i _ HIC QVIESCIT GAVDIOSA CF ANCILLA DEI QVAE X VIXIT ANNVS XL ET MEN vs DEP: X-KAL: OCTOB: CALLEPIO VOC CON f (In 8. Pauli; De Rossi, n. 739.) Hic quiescit Gaudiosa, Clarissima Femina, ancilla Dei, que vixit annus (annos) AL et menses V. Deposita, X Kalendas Octobres, Callepio, Viro Clarissimo, Consule. ‘“‘ Here rests Gaudiosa, a most distinguished woman, a hand-maid of God, who lived forty years and five months. Buried on the tenth day before the Calends ef October, in the Consulship of Callepius, a most distinguished man,” 7. ¢. September 22nd, 447, a. p. VI. THOSE IN WHICH THERE IS MENTION OF OR REFERENCE TO THE PLACE oF BURIAL. fa.) Locus factus :-— 76. (a.) LOCVSBASILEONIS SEBIBOFECIT — XENEBENEMEREN TIINPACE - DPRID NONASNOVEMB CONSS:HONORI AVG-VIL-ETTHODO 4 SIITHR:AVGG (Ad 8. Lauwrentti in agro Verano ; De Rossi, n. 576.) Locus Basileonis, se bibo (se vivo, vivus) fecit. Xene (Xenx} mn benemerentt in pace. Deposita, pridie Nonas Novembres, Consulatu = Honorii Augustt VII et Thodosi (Theodosii) dterum Augustorum. “The place of Basileo. He when alive made it. To Xene well-deserving in peace. Buried on the day before the Nones of November in the Consulship of Honorius Augustus, for the seventh time, and Theodosius for the second time, the two Augusti,” ¢. e. November 4th, 407 a. p. 1. 2. se bibo. In Pagan epitaphs such forms are found as se vivo, se vivus, se vivis, me vivus. Fecit. This word is used in various con- nexions. In n. 31, I have noticed its use with cum in the sense “spend.” We find it, also, with fatum, scil. fatwm fecit = died; and with titulus, scil. titulum fecit = “made the inscription” or ‘caused the inscription to be made ;” also with locus, scil. locum fecti=“ made THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. i 3 the place of burial” or ‘caused the place to be made.” F.C.= factundum curavit, so common in Heathen epitaphs, is very rare in Christian. In both cases, I suspect, the place of burial was, some- times, actually made by the person himself. Thus in Henzen’s n. 63894 — communi labore sibi fecerunt. 1.3. Xene. I have regarded this name as Greek, although I do not recollect having ever met with an example of it. Xenis occurs, and also Xinna, which Reinesius strangely believed to stand for Cinna. This stone is remarkable as presenting the most ancient example of the representation of the cross in dated epitaphs. This symbol of Christianity, so common in inscriptions from the latter part of the fifth century, does not appear in any one of those of the first four cen- turies. The monogrammatic cross, as it is called, was used before this, not however as early as 209, as Zannoni inferred from an inscription given by Boldetti, p. 83. There is, certainly, a monogrammatic cross in that epitaph, but the date is 456, as is evident from the words DN AVITI, te. Domini Nostri Aviti scil, the emperor of that name. Boldetti, who was not aware of the Consulship of Avitus Augustus, interpreted the words as referring to Avitus, Consul in 209. The same careless investigator, p. 351, introduced a new fashion of cross on the authority of a stone that he found in the Catacomb of St. Acnes. This he not only figured, but described as a decussated cross trans- fixed with a spear, whilst it is really no more than an imperfect Constantinian monogram. His mistake led to serious waste of time and _ trouble, for some learned men, as De Rossi remarks, arcanam signi- ficationem imant labore investigarunt. See Cavedoni, Bull dell’. Ist. 1843, p. 152. Aringhi, vol. ii. pp. 377-880, furnishes another example of the result of extravagant symbolism. More than four columns of his work are devoted to the explanation of certain figures, that he calls representations of the heart, in the inscriptions found in the Catacombs, and the subject is illustrated by various quotations from the Holy Scrip- tures, the Fathers, and Greek and Latin heathen authors. These figures, however, on which so much learning is wasted, are in reality nothing more than leaf-points, or leaf-decorations, that are commonly found in both Christian and Pagan inscriptions. See examples in Plate iii. 2. Nor was this ridiculous mistake limited to Aringhi. Boldoni suggested that the figure—unquestionably a leaf with a stem—signified dolorem cord: intimum, and Grasser believed that it was the representation cordis spina transfixt, and meant cordolium ! CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF - The Constantinian monogram is, as might be expected, of frequent - oecurrence on Christian sepulchral stones, but a great object of search relative to this symbol has been to find an example before the year _ $124.pd. It was believed that one was found on a stone discovered _by Boldetti, of the date 291 a. p., but De Rossi, n. 17, has, I think, correctly regarded this figure as merely an ornamental point. He himself, however, gives an example (n. 26), which may be, but cannot certainly be proved to be, of the date 298 a.p. The *earliest that I have noticed is of the date 531 A.p. (b) Locus emptus :-— Fal Ue COSTATINOS - EMIS SE IANVARIVM - ET: BRI TIAM LOCVM ANTE DO MNA EMER ITA AEOSSO RIBVS BVRDONE ETMICI NVM ET MVSCO RVTIONE AVRISOLI O VM VN SEMES-CONS: D-D-N-N-THAE ODOSIO: ET: VALENTINIANO - II (In coenobio 8, Pault ; De Rossi, n. 653.) Oo(n)siat nos emisse, Januarium et Britiam, locum ante domna (dominam) Hmerita (Hmeritam), a eossoribus (fossoribus) Burdone et Micinum (Micino) et Musco, ratione auri solidum (solidi) wnum (unius)y semessem (semissis), Consulibus Dominis Nostris Theodosio et Valen- tiniano iterum. “It is unquestionable that we Januarius and Britia bought a place in front of (the sepulchre of) Lady Emerita from the diggers Burdo and Micinus and Museus for the consideration of one solidus of gold and a half in the Consulship of our Lords Theodosius and Valentinian for the 2nd time,” i, e. 426 a. D. The formula constaé nos emisse is not rare in monuments of this age, whence it appears that the line between costat and nos is merely a mark of punctuation. The sepulchre of Saint Emerita was in the _ cemetery of Commodilla, behind the basilica of St. Paul. She and Digna are said to have suffered death at Rome, under Valerian and Gallienus. * I do not take into account the use of crosses and monograms before Chris- ._Uanity, the meaning of which was of course different from the Christian signifi- ‘\ cetion, Ixamples of the gammadion occur on Roman altars found in Britain. THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 5 The solidus was originally called the awreus. It had different values at different periods. From the time of Constantine there were 72 (OB) coined to the pound of gold. The semdssis and tremissis were coins respectively $ and 3 of the solidus. Northcote, “‘ Roman Cata- combs,” p. 28, notices this inscription, and remarks, ‘‘ A solidus and a half the price paid for a single [7] grave was a sum equivalent to about eighteen shillings [sterling] of our own coin.” (ce) Locus *donatus :— 78. HIC REQVIESCIT IN PACH AMEN...... -.- SQVI FECIT + CVM OXVRE ANN... dep tn LOCVM QVEM DONAVIT DOMINVS PAPA HORMISDA POSSEDATVR LOCS EVM NE QVIS MREMOBAT DEFVNCTVS EST NON NOVEMBRIS FL: SYMMACO ET VOETIO VV CC. (in 8. Martini in montibus ; De Rossi, n. 980.) Hic requiescit in pace Amen — 8, gut fectt cum oxure {uxore) annos [Depositus] im locum. (loco) quem donavit Dominus Papa Hormisda. Possedatur (possideatur) locus ; ewm ne guis unguam remobat (removeat). Defwncetus est, Nonas (Nonis) Novembris (Novembres, Noverabribus), Flavio Symmaco (Symmacho) et Voetio (Boetio), Viris Claressimis. “ Here rests in peace Amen 8 who passed with his wife years. Buried in the place which the Lord Bishop Hormisda gave (to him). Let the place be held in possession; let no one ever remove it (or him). He died on the Nones of November, in the Consulship of Flayius Symmachus and Boetius, most distinguished men,” ¢. e, November bth, 522 a. v. (d) Locus bisomus :— 79. PHTRONIVS IN PACH XVIT KALENdes 0s NIS QVI VIXIT ANNVS LXVI-CONSVLAT» olybrio et PROBINO VV OG: HIC REQVIESCIT IN Pace... que SEBIBA FECIT BISOMVS VACAT. Petronius in pace, XVII Calendas —— nis qui vixit annus (annos) LXV, Consulatu Olybrio (Olybrii) e¢ Probino (Probini) Viris Clarissimis (Virorum Clarissimorum). Hic requiescit in pace ——- que se biba (se viva) fecit. Bisomus vacat. * For locus concessus see Epitaph 67. RUE TET MRL Ae OTR Mer IMU pM ey eT GEN LAVIN AUR ARUN DRS Te) ONO ROR Y OG yr iph ae a) MAE AP ry ah ny A AN pe riirank ‘ + 6 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF “Petronius in peace on the seventeenth day before the Calends of ————, who lived 66 years, in the Consulship of Olybrius and Probinus, most distin- guished men, 7. e. 8395 a.p. Here rests in peace ————— who in her life time made this. Space for two bodies is unoccupied.” mts ]. 2. nts. The beginning of the word, of which this is the ending, ia was in the preceding line. Consulatw Olybrio. See note on epitaph 58. i, _ {Bisomus vacat. Was this an intimation that it was for sale? I have a not seen Ratti’s comment on this inscription, which was published in ‘ Atti della pont. accad, d’arch., but De Rossi’s notice of it is very unfavorable. He says that his observations show nothing but éneredi- ‘: ilem ejus in re epigraphica inscitiam et summam judicir levitatem. ©) Locus trisomus :— 8). | a ALEVIVSBENDIDITAVINTRISOMVVBIPOSITIERANTVIN a [IETCALVILIVSET LVCIVSINPA tae Sat (£ coemeterio SS. Quarti et Quinti ; De Rossi, n, 489.) Calevius vendidit Avin (Avinio) trisomu (trisomum), whi posite erant vini (bini) et Oalvilius et Luctus in pace, Consulatu Stilichonis. ‘ *‘Calevius sold to Avinius a place for three bodies, where both Calvilius and { Lucius had (already) been placed in peace, in the Consulship of Stilicho,” 2. e, 400 A.D. The stone that bears this inscription is remarkable on account of the symbols that are cut on it, viz., the monogram, the balance, the fish, the candelabrum with seven lights, the house, and the mummy ina receptacle approached by steps. Of the monogram and the fish I have already spoken. The candelabrum with seven lights, or the seven- ‘ branched candlestick, is frequently represented on the grave-stones of Jews, and was adopted from them by Christians, with, perhaps, a diffe- rent meaning. The balance may have been derived from the notion of Psychostasy, which was Hastern in its origin, and to which the weigh- a ing of the Fates of Achilles and Hector in the Iliad is analogous. With it may be compared the expression used relative to Belshazzar in Daniel, v. 27. Or does the symbol merely indicate the just dealing of the deceased ? + I have given this epitaph in illustration of locus bisomus, chiefly on account of the words bisomus vacat ; but the locus seems to have been guadrisomus, space for two bodies being unoccupied. THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. ve ‘The house may have been used as indicative of the last dwelling-place, and the mummy certainly represents Lazarus and is symbolical of the vesurrection. De Rossi refers to the discussion of these symbols by Mamachi, Orig. ch. ili., Munter, Sinnbilder, p. 57, Didron, Hist. de Dieu, p. 339, Raoul Rochette, Mem. de ? Acad. des inscr. xiii. 244, and by himself in Spicil. Solesm. iii. p. 549. Aringhi, ii. p. 357, figures the stone and illustrates the meaning as usual, by citations of all kinds from the authors of the Old and of the New Testament, from Origen, Irenzeus, Jerome, Augustine, Chrysostom, and Gregory. And yet in this, as in other collections of quotations in Aringhi’s work, the result, so far as definiteness of explanation is concerned, is very unsatisfactory. {f) Locus quadrisomus :— 81. : FL: TATIANO ET QVINTO AVR :SVMMACOVORIS CI RISSIMIS EGOZITA LOCVM QVADRIC SOMY IN BSILIC ALVA EMI _(£ basilica supra coem. Domitille ; De Rossi, n. 395.) Fl. Tatiano et Quinto Aur. Summaco (Symmacho), Viris Clarissimis, ego Zita locum quadrisomum in basilica salva emt. “Tn the Consulship of Flavius Tatianus and Quintus Aurelius Symmachus, most distinguished men (7. ¢, 391 a. p.) I, Zita, whilst alive, bought a place for four bodies in the Basilica,” Cg) Moqysiov :— 82. "Excto0n TO pyynpetov tod paxapiov Ltegdvov and "Anapetacs[? | & pyvi "Anedhaiw ivdixti@vosg € cob et0vUC dy. (Schmurrin in Syria ; Kirchhoff, n, 9146.) “This monument of the blessed Stephen from Apamea was erected in the month Apellus, in the 7th Indiction, in the year 438,” of the epoch of the Bostrent (which counts from 105 a. p.)=December 544, A, p, I have given only the expansion, as I am unable to present a copy of the original without type cut for the purpose. Other terms applied to the tomb are prjya, téxos, O47, swpato0yxn, Rooetov, xapactatixoy, mia, yosocdptoy, Tou[30S, xotynTyptov, olxos aldytos. 8 CHRISTIAN EPITAPIS OF (h) In Basilica :— 83. Vict OR IN PACE FILIVS EPISCOPI VICXORIS Civit ATIS VCRESIVM VIXIT ANNIS XXXIIT Mensibus VIL DECES D XI KAL: NOVEBR : CONSVLATV d. n. honor IVI AVG DEPOSITVS IN BASILICA SANCTO yum NASARI ET NABORIS SECVNDV ARCYV IVXTA f ENESTRA : (In vico quodam ad S. Marie supra Minervam ; De Rossi, n. 584.) Victor én pace, filius Episcopt Viexoris (Victoris) civitatis Ucresium. Vixit annis XX XIX mensibus VIZ. Decessit die XI Kalendas Novem- bres, Consulatu Domini Nostri Honortt sextum Augustt. Depositus om Basilica Sanctorum Nasarii et Naboris secundo arcu juxta fenestram. “Victor, in peace, son of Bishop Victor of the City of the Ucrenses. He lived 89 years 7 months. He departed on the 11th day before the Calends of November, in the Consulship of our Lord Honorius, for the sixth time, Augustus (i. e. October 22nd, 404 a. p.) Buried in the Basilica of Saints. Nasarius and Nabor, in the second arch near the window.” The Italics in the text are De Rossi’s restorations. I have followed him in substituting G for C in the 2d line, and in reading I for T, before VI, in the 4th line. 1.1. Episcopi Viexorts (Victoris). This is the usual order—not Victoris Episcopt Civitatis Ucresium : thus also Papa Hormisda, Papa loanne. See De Rossi, n. 989. In an inscription, found at Narbonne, (Mai, p. 88, Gruter, 1059, 1); of the year 445 a. D.— Valentiniano Aug. v.—we have— RVSTICVS: EPVS-: EPI - BONOSI: FILIVS: EPL: ARATORIS- [DE - SORORE: NEPVS: EPI - VENERI -SOCI-IN- MONASTERIO COMPRB - [ECCLE- MASSILIEN, &c. Rusticus episcopus, episcopt Bonosi filius, episcopi Aratoris de sorore nepos, episcopt Wenerit soctus in Monasterio, compresbyter ecclesize Massiliensis. 1.2. Ucresium. De Rossi regards this as used for Urcensiwm or Urgensium. There was a town called Urg?, in Numidia, and another called Urct in proconsular Africa. Each of these had its own Bishop. in the fourth or fifth century. Nasarius (or Nazarius) and Nabor, soldiers, are said to have beew beheaded at Rome, in the persecution of Diocletian and Maximian. THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 9 (7) Sepulerum :— 84. VOSPER CRISTVM NEMIHIABALIQVOVIO LENTIAMFIATETNESEPVL CRVMMEVMVIOLETVR DEPDIEViIIIDAVGVSTAS ADELFIO VC CONSS (fn Bfus, Lat. ; De Rossi, n. 752.) [Adjuro] vos per Cristum (Christum), ne mihé ab aliquo violentiam {violentia), yiat et ne sepulcrum meum violetur. Depositus, die VII Idus Augustas, Adeljio (Adelphio), Vivo Clarissimo, Consule. “T conjure you by Christ that no violence may be offered to me by any one, aud that my sepulchre may not be violated. Buried on the seventh day before the Ides of August, in the Consulship of Adelphius, a most distinguished man,” ve. August 7th, 451 a. p. Such *prayers and injunctions to respect the sanctity of the sepul- chre are found in Pagan epitaphs: in both also the stronger form of imprecations is used. In a Heathen epitaph, we have sé quis violaverit ad inferos non recipiatur; in a Christian, male pereat, insepultus jaceat, non resurgat, cum Juda partem habeat, si quis sepulerum hunc violavertt. Sometimes the anathema is resorted to, as in the following, found in the island of Salamis, and given by Kirchhoff, n. 9303 : Otxos al@ytos “AydOwvos Gyayvwotov xat Edenpiag ev duct bxjxatg ita éxdorw judy. Et 0d teg tay Wiwy} erepds tts todujon Oma xatabécbae eytav0a mapeS tO» O00 Hud», ROyov dan TO OO xa ddbeya Frw papavabdy. %. e. “The everlasting dwelling of Agatho, a reader, and Euphemia, in two graves, one for each of us separately. If any one of our relatives or any one else shall presume to bury a body here, besides us two, may he give account to God and let him be anathema maranatha ” * In Henzen’s n. 6871 there is a similar prayer. I subjoin the inscription, as it is in some respects peculiar :—Alexander Augg. ser. fecit:se bivo Marco filto dulcisimo, caputafricesi, qui deputabatur inter bestitores (vestitores) gui vixit annis AVI mensibu VIL diebu V. Peto a bobis (vobis) fratres boni per unum Dewn ne quis vit titele molestet post mortem. See Orelli, n, 2685. 10 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS oF (k) Sarcophagus :— 85. DEP FL-:IVLIVS ZACONVS ET IVL AVRELIA MERIA CON ZACO IVX EIVS HOC SARCOFA NIS GVM SIBI VIBI POSVERVNT DIE IIIT SI QVIS POST NOSTRAM PAV NOVEM SATIONEM HOC SARCOFA BRES GVM APERIRE VOLVERIT IN DATIA FERAT ECCLESIAE SALON: AR NO RT GENTI LIBRAS QVINQVAGINTA CERHKA LE COSS (Salonis ; Muratori, 381, 2,) Flavius Julius Zaconus (Diaconus) et Aurelia Meria conjux ejus hoc (hune) sarcofayum (sarcophagum) sibt vibt (vivi) posuerunt. Si quis post nostram pausationem hoc (hune) sarcophagum aperire voluerit inferat ecclesive Salonitane argenti libras quinquaginta. Depositus Julius Zaconts (Diaconus) die IV [Kalendas] Novembres, Datiano et Cereale Consulibus. “Flavius Julius, a deacon, and Aurelia Meria his wife, whilst living, erected this sarcophagus for themselves. If any one after our decease shall take on himself to open this sarcophagus, let him pay as the penalty fifty pounds of silver to the church at Salone.” “Julius, the deacon, was buried on the fourth day before the Calends of November, in the Consulship of Datianus and Cerealis.” % e. October 29th, 358 A. D. 1.1. Zaconus. See note on epitaph 65. Muratori observes :— “Zaconus et Zaconis est pro Diaconus et Diaconis, uti Zabulus pro Diabolus, Zeta pro Dicela,” I have regarded Zaconis as given in mistake for Zaconus, and think that the correctness of this view is confirmed by the name “ Julius.” 1. 7. Inferat, &e. The naming of a penalty for violation of the grave is of very common occurrence in Pagan epitaphs, both Greek and Latin. There is scarcely one of the *designations of the place of burial used in Christian epitaphs, so far as I recollect, that is peculiar to them. Locus, tumulus,*memoria, cubiculum, sepulehrum, sarcophagus, &e., * [have not observed guadrisomus in any Pagan epitaph. THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES li are found in Pagan inscriptions, from which, also, tdomus eterna, although inconsistent with belief in the resurrection, has been inadver- tently borrowed. See De Rossi, nn. 159, 1738. VII. TsHose WHICH CONTAIN CychIC MARKS OF TIME. (a) Day of the month, day of the week, and day of the moon with- out the year :— 86. BALENTINE QVE VIXIT ANNOS XXXVI DECESSIT - VIKAL- MAR: DIEBENERIS LNAXVII. (In coem. Priscille ; De Rossi, n. 597.) Balentine (Valentines), que (que) vixit annos XXXVI. Decessit VI Kalendas Martias, die Beneris (Veneris), luna X VII. “To Valentina, who lived thirty-six years. She departed on the sixth day before the Calends of March, Friday, the seventeenth day of the Moon,” i, e, February 24th, 411 or 327 a.p. \ In this inscription the Consuls are not mentioned; nor is there any other form of expression for the year used; and yet the full date may be inferred from what is therein stated. It is plain that it must be a year in which February 24th and the 17th day of the Moon fell on Friday. Marini’s comments are :— “ Hujus inseriptionis characteres, &t auctor veterem ecclesiz cyclum annorum LXXXIV sequutus est, pertinere possunt ad annos 327, 411, 495, gui cycli XXX sunt, atque exordiuntur die solis luna XXII; proindeque noviluntum Januarii contigit die X, Februarii die VIII, a qua ad VI Kal. Martias, seu ad diem XXIV Februarti dies sunt XVII.” ‘De Rossi discusses the subject, aud shows that the choice lies between 527 and 411, as in 495 the Victorian canon was in use at Rome, according to hich we should have had luna XV, not XVZI. Of the two the first, 327, is preferable, as the characteristics of the inscription, 7. e. the figs of contractions and the use of the ancient term drcessit, point to the earlier date. + This form or domus eternalis is unusually common in the epitaphs of Pomaria in Algeria. See Renier, n. 456. In different localities, as might be expected, different forms were popular. Thus pius often occurs in African, and carus suis in Spanish epitaphe. te ia 12 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF (b) Hour, day of the month, and day of the Moon with year :—87. PVER NATVSA 2 DIVOLOVIANO AVG: ET VARRONIANO COSS ORANOCTIS - IIIT IN VXIT VIIL-IDVS MADIAS DIE SATVRNIS LVNAVIGESIMA SIGNO APIORNONOMINFSIMPCCIVS (In Mus, Capitolino ; De Rossi, n. 172.) Puer natus, (Alpha Omega) Divo foviano Augusto et Varroniano Consulibus, ora (hora) noctis IV, tn vit VILL Idus Madias (Maias) die Saturnis (Saturni), Luna vigesima, signo Apiorno (Capricorno), nomine Simpecius (Simplicius). “A boy born (Alpha Omega) in the Consulship of the deified Jovian Augustus, and Varronianus (7. e. 864 a.p.), in the fourth hour of the night, the eighth day before the Ides of May, ¢.e. May 8th, on Saturday, the twentieth day of the Moon, in the sign of Capricorn, by name Simplicius.” ]. 1. Puer natus. This is no uncommon beginning. See n, 88, and notes on it. 1.2. Divo Joviano. This Kmperor died on the AJV Kal. Martias, in the year 554 a.p., and after that date was styled, ag was usual, Divus. Christians used the ordinary term, in the sense * deceased” or “ late,’”’ without regard to the sense assigned by Pagans. 1. 5. Inveit. It is difficult to determine what was the word intended by the unskilful workman who cut the inscription. Maffei, A/us. Ver. p- 252, makes two attempts at it :—‘‘fortasse inluxit intelligendum, hoc est lucidus moriendo evasit ; fortasse inussit, pro inustus est jfider nota, sew baptismate.’ Le Blant, Inscr. Ohrét. dela Gaule t.i. p. 479, reads “induxit,” ¢. e. dnduxit albas==was baptized. See n. 88, and notes on it. Guasco, iii. p. 141, n. 1235, suggests “ inluxit,” in the sense (according to De Rossi)—Simplicium natum hora noctis quarta simul ac inluserat dies VIII Idus Maii. De Rossi objects to this— that the hours were astrologically counted not from midnight but from sunset, and, after stating Maffei’s and Le Blant’s views, remarks that the words are nove prorsus et Christianis titulis inaudite. He him- self suggests, “In vixit” in the sense—vixit in VILL Idus Maas, 2. e. Simplicius was born in the fourth hour of the night and lived only for the one day—May 8th. There are, I think, but few scholars that would accept the views of Maffei or Le Blant. Guasco’s is recom- THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 13 mended by similar phraseology ia Muratori’s n. 2, p. 481—‘ Odii bone memorize Cxsaria medium noctis die Dominica inlucescente VI id. Decembris.’” Thus also Suetonius, Cesar, e. 81—Ha nocte, cud illuxit dies cacdis, Ke. In Kirchoff’s n. 9119 we have the correspond- ing Greek phrase — émugwoz[obons cis] 6y8dq tod 7A [Oup] pyvds. But I am not satisfied. The objection to De Rossi’s reading is—that he does not supply the letter in the place left vacant by the stone cutter sc7l. between Nand VY. Can it be that the vacant space was intended for the monogram, with the letters AQ incorporated with it, as they often were, and that this having beea omitted either from the ignorance or inadvertence of the workman, AQ were cut in the corner, but yet should be read between Jn and vixit—scil. “ in AQ vixii” Zz. e. in Deo or Christo vizit, in the sense “lived in God,” “died?” See n. 65, Xe. 1.6. Die Saturni luna vigesima signo Capricorno. This inscrip- tion has been discussed chronologically and astronomically by Blan. chini, Lupi and Marini, but De Rossi is the first who has shown that the notices in it are really astrological, and that they should be regarded as forming a horoscope of birth. Thus, p. LX XXIV, he proves that each of these characteristics — scil. the fourth hour of Saturday, the Moon in Capricorn, and the twentieth day of the May moon — was regarded as unlucky. See also his comment. (c) Day of the month, octave of Easter, and year :-— 88. NATV -SEVERINOMINEPASCASIVS DIESPASCALESPRIDNOVAAPRILN DIELOBISFL:CONSTANTINO ETRVFOV VCCCONSSQVIVIXIT ANNORVMVI- PERCEPIT XIKALMAITASETALBASSVAS OCTABASPASCAEADSEPVLCRVYM DEPOSVITD - IITIKALMAIFLBASILIO VCCOns Natu (s) Severi nomine Pasc(h)astus dies Pasc(h)ales pridie Nonas Apriles, in die Jovis, Flavio Constantino et Rufo, Viris Clarissimis, Consulibus, qui vixit annorum (annos) Vi. Percept XI Calendas Maias et albas suas Octavas (Octavis) Paschz ad sepulcrum deposutt, iV Kalendas Muias, Flavio Basilio, Viro Clarissimo, Consule. 14 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF «Severus, who had also the name Paschasius, was born on one of the Paschal days, the day before the Nones of April (7. e. April 4th), on the day of Jupiter, (Thursday), in the Consulship of Flavius Constantinus and Rufus, most distin- guished men (7. e. 457 a. p.), who lived six years. He received baptism on the eleventh day before the Calends of May (2. e. April 21st), and laid aside his albs at the sepulchre, on the Octave of Easter, on the fourth day before the Calends of May, in the Consulship of Flavius Basilius, a most distinguished man,” i, e. 463 A. D. 11. nomine. Whether we regard Severi as used for Severus, or governed by some word understood, it seems certain that nomine should be joined to the name following, as in De Rossi’s nn. 41, 49, 172, 229, &c.. De Rossi remarks: “ Jile, cujus hoc est epitaphium, paterno sive materno cognomine Severus appellatus Paschasti quoque agnomen habuit, quod natus erat anno 457 die Jovis paschali.” 1. 2. dies Pas- chales. Used for die Paschali. These dies Paschales, as we know from a law of the Emperor Valentinian, Cod. Theodos. ii. 8, 2, were in number 15, 7 before and 7 after Haster-day. pridie Nonas Apriles die Jovis, t.e. on Thursday, April the 4th, in Easter week, for in the year 457 a.p. (scil. the year in which Constantine and Rufus were Consuls), according to both Roman and Alexandrian calculation, Haster-day was observed on March the 31st. 1.5. wpercepit, é. e. baptisma percepit, ‘received baptism.” *Percipio is similarly used in heathen inscrip- tions, where it is applied to those who had participated in the mystic rites of the Mater Deum Magna Idxa or of Mithras, known as the {+ Laurobolium and Criobolium. Thus we have — percepto Teurobolio Crieboliogue, in an inscription, given by De Rossi n. 24, of the date * Jn some instances, where this verb is used, it is difficult to decide whether the inscription is Christian or Pagan. Thus in Henzen’s n. 6147:—D, If, Murtius Verinus pater Murtie Verine et Murtie Florianeni filiabus malemerentibus crudelis pater titulum iscripsit. Verina percepit M. X, vicait annos XLII, mensesV, Florianes percepit M. XII. vicxit annis VIZ, M. IIT. Innocentes acceperunt a suo patre quod ei debuerant ; and in Mommsen’s 1. N. n. 3160:—D. Ingeniose gue viait annis Il, M.V, Dies XXI. Fide percepit mesorum VI. Aur. Fortunius pater filie. Henzen regards fide as used for jidem ; I am inclined to take it as an adverb. + The Taurobolium and Criebolium were respectively sacrifices of a bull and a ram, on the occasion of initiations. The persons who received them (qui per- ceperunt) descended into a deep pit, which was covered over with a wooden platform composed of pierced planks. On this platform the animal was killed, and the persons beneath presented their bodies to receive the blood, as it descended through the holes. The result was believed to be purification that lasted for twenty years, or everlasting regeneration. THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 15 319 A.D.; in Orelli’s n. 2180, of the date 390 A.D.; in his n. 2335 of the date 876 a.D.; in Henzen’s n. 6040, of the date 570 A.p.; in Muratori’s n. 4, p. 389, of the date 383 A. p.; and also in Reinesius, Cl. 1, 40 (without date), whose note is worth reading. In Muratori’s n. 2, p. 871, of the date 805 A.p., we have the words Tauroboliwm percepi felic(iter). The oldest example of the tawrodolium, of which I am aware, was in 175 a.v. See Fleetwood, p.11; Fabretti, p. 665; and Reinesius, as above. Another term, in which there is a strange agreement, is renatus, applied by Christians to the baptized—as in De Rossi’s n. 270, (ca) elestt renatus (ag)ua qui vivit in (aevum) (see also n. 36—natus est in eeternum)—and by Pagans to the Teuroboliati. Thus Taurobolio Criobolioque in aeternum renatus, in Orelli’s n. 2352, of the date 876 A.D.; and arcanis perfusionibus in xternum renatus Taurobolium Crioboliumque fecit in Henzen’s n. 6040. These mystic rites seem to have been a mixture of the cults of the Magna Mater and Mithras, with the addition of some Christian principles and terms. 1]. 6. XI Calendas Maius. From the words Octavas Pasche, and Basilio Consule, it is evident that this day — seid. April 21st — was Haster-day in the year 463 A.pD., and that Severus was baptized, according to custom, on its vigil, the day being counted, as usual, from Saturday to Sunday evening. But here a great difficulty presents itself. According to the tables of Noris, Haster-day should in this year, conformably to Roman calculation, have been celebrated on LX Calendas Apriles, i.e. March 24th. The learned Cardinal discusses the subject ad fastos consulares anonymi and de pasch. Lat. cyclo, where he suggests two solutions, both of which have been proved to be erroneous, one by Van der Hagen, and the other by De Rossi. The latter shows that by the old Roman calculation of the cycle of 84 years, before it was amended by Prosper, and also by the Victorian correction, Haster- day was observed tn the year 463 a.p., on the XZ Calendas Maas, z.e. April 21st, not on the LY Calendas Apriles, or March 24th. ‘Il. 6, 7. albas suas Octabas Pascee ad sepulcrum deposuit. White dresses (alle) were worn by those receiving baptism. On the Sunday next after Haster Sunday, 7. e. the Octave of Haster-day, these dresses were laid aside, whence this Sunday was called Dominica in Albis. Paschasius was buried on the day on which, according to usage, he should have laid aside his albs or white clothes. 16 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF VIII. MuiscELLANrovs. (a) The most ancient dated epitaph :— 89. (See Plate IV, 3.) (In Mus, Lateran. ; De Rossi, n. 1.) [A]ug(ustas) Vespasiano LIT Consule—Jan(uarias.) ft before the Calends (?) of August, in the third Consulship of Vespa- sian” (7, e. 71 a.p.) “ before the Calends of January.” This fragment has been received as a part of a Christian epitaph by Reggi, Marini, and De Rossi. It is the most ancient of all such that bear dates. The chief grounds on which it has been regarded as Christian are that the slab is of the same kind as those used to close the tombs in the Catacombs, and that it had adhering to it the mortar by which such slabs were fixed in their places. To these grounds De Rossi has made an important addition, by his reading IAN as Januarias, thus showing that the stone closed a locus bisomus, containing the bodies of one who had died—before the Calends [?] of August, and of another who had died—before the Calends of January. In the year 71 Vespasian was Consul for the third time, with Cocceius Nerva as his colleague. On the Ist of March or April he resigned the office, and, on the Ist of July, L. Flavius Fimbria and Attilius Bar- barus were made conswles suffect?. The year then is marked here, as in other Christian epitaphs, not by the names of the suffect?, but by that of one of the ordinariz. (>) Unexplained numerals :-— yh Ue N-XXX: -SVRA ET SENEC- COSS: (Z coemet. Lucine ; De Rossi, n. 2.) N XXX Sura et Senecione Consulibus. “In the Consulship of Sura and Senecio,” 7. ¢. 107 a. p. The numeral III is omitted after SVRA and IL after SENEC. See De Rossi’s note. I have not attempted to translate “ N-XXX-,” as their meaning is unknown. The interpretation that has been generally received is that they stand for numero XXX, indicating that martyrs were buried there in number thirty. This view has been taken by Visconti, Cavedoni, Raoul Rochette, and Wiseman. Roestel also assents, but regards the inscription as commemorative of a past age. De Rossi THE FIRST SiX CENTURIES. Dy objects, in my judgment with good reason, to this *interpretation. He calls in question the genuineness or analogy of the other inscrip- tions usually compared with this as confirming the sense assigned to it, and points out the improbability that the stone marked a doculus in the Catacombs, as the greatest number of bodies contained in such is 4. He suggests that the inscription may be imperfect, and that thus N may be regarded as the last letter of ANN. ¢.e. annorum, scil. annorum ALY, the person, whose name preceded, being of thirty years of age. It is remarkable that in this De Rossi was anticipated by Maitland, who (p. 58) “ reads the words as the fragment of gue viait ann. XXX Syrra et Senec. coss, who lived thirty years. In the Consulate of Syrra and Senecio; that is, A.D. 102.’ I cannot concur in this expla: nation. It suits this particular case, but is wholly inapplicable in others e. gr. in Fabretti, p. 574, 61, we have the epitaph of Leopardus, a boy whose age is stated to have been 7 years and 7 months. At the commencement of it are the letters—-DMASACRVM XL, t.e. Dis Manibus Sacrum. 40. Again, in the Catacomb of St. Agnes, De Rossi found LIX on the loculus of an infant. Nor can Amati’s positive assertion that they indicate loculorum ordines be received, for this is contrary to the experience of those who have personally examined the Catacombs. To me it seems evident that there is no sufficient reason for believing either that these numerals indicate the number of bodies buried within, or that the déceased were Martyrs. I can offer no satisfactory solution: it has seemed to me, however, not improbable that the numbers were the marks of workmen —the fossores or their assistants—-who may have been paid according to the number of doculi excavated or of slabs put up. I have observed a similar notation in a Pagan epitaph, given by Orelli, n. 5003 :— N. I. Id. Nov. Diis Manibus Didiex Q. F. Quintine Luetina Priscus uxort optime V. A. XXVII. Wabus remarks: — “ Numero tertio, Idibus Novembribus : cioé la pietra, il cippo, il monumento ece. era posto nel terren sacro al No. 3.” * This view might seem to be as old as the time of Prudentitis (sci/. the 4th century), for he writes :— , Sunt et multa tamen tacitas claudentia turbas,; Marmora que solum significant numerum, But the reference here seems to be to Polyandria—pits containing many dead bodies—not to locudi, of which, so far as I am aware, there is no example of their containing more than four, 2 18 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF (c) Specimen of Palezeography :— Sk (See Plate III, 1.) (Z coemet. Cyriace ; De Rossi, n. 21.) Decesit (decessit) Serotina pride (pridie) Kal. Martias m (ensium) X, dier(um) XX, Diocl(etiano) G (VI) consule. “Serotina departed on the day before the Calends of March, (aged) tén months, twenty days, in the sixth Consulship of Diocletian,” 7, e, February 29th_ 296 A. D. (d) Use of D. M. by Christians :— 92. D M: P-LIBERIO VIXIT ANN N-V: MENS N III DIES N VIIT RANICIO FAVSTO ET VIRIO GAL- (Z coem. ?; De Rossi, n. 24.) Diis Manibus. Publio Liberio, vixit annos numero V, menses numero III, dies numero VIII. Fecessit Anicio Fausto et Virio Gallo (Consulibus). “To the Gods the Manes. To Publius Liberius. He lived years in number five, months in number three, days in number eight. He retired (from this world) in the Consulship of Faustus and Virius Gallus, ¢. e, 298 a.p.” We have here an example of the use of the heathen formula D. M., Diis Manibus, in an epitaph that De Rossi and other scholars regard as Christian. I have noticed this anomaly in Part XI of my “‘ Notes on Latin Inscriptions found in Britain” (Canadian Journal, X. p. 95), and ascribed it either to thoughtless use of the form, produced by familiarity with it as the ordinary commencement of a sepulchral inscription, or to the fact, that grave-stones were kept for sale with these letters cut on them, and were purchased by Christians without consideration of their appropriateness. Fabretti insists that these letters when they occur in a Christian epitaph, stand for Deo Magno, or Deo Maximo; but there is no doubt that his opinion is erroneous, for the form is found, in at least one such inscription, in extenso, 2. e. Diis Manibus. See Orelli, n. 44584723, and compare Maitland, “ Church in the Catacombs,” pp. 59, 60, 61, who regards this inscription to Liberius as ‘almost certainly Pagan.’ The same view of it is taken by Roestel. I incline, however, to the belief that it is Christian. My reasons are that it was found in one of the Catacombs, that the stone was not broken, and that we find in the inscription the letter R used THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES, 19 for recessit, requiescit, or reddidit. See Epitaph, n. 1. Maitland’s version of this inscription is liable to just censure. In his text, he gives R before ANICIO, but takes no notice of it either in his trans- Jation or in his remarks. Again, the date is given by him as A.p. 98; and although one would be disposed to explain this error by supposing that 2 was accidentally omitted before 98, by a typographical mistake, it is impossible to accept this solution, for, in pp. 58, 59, he notices this inscription as of earlier date than two others, one of A.D. 102, and the other of A.p. 111. In Westropp’s ‘“‘ Handbook of Archzeology,’’ p. 400, we have the same inscription, with the same neglect of R in translation, and with the date A.p. 102. The same author assigns A.D. 130 for the inscription relative to Marius, and A.p. 160 for that relative to Alexander, without sufficient ground for assigning either year. The most remarkable of the Christian epitaphs, that have the heathen formula in the commencement, is a well known one to Leopardus, discussed by Fabretti, p. 574, and by Raoul Rochette, in a ‘‘Memoire sur les antiquités chrétiennes des catacombes,” in Mem. de ? Académ. des inscript. et belles lettres, XIII. The inscription, as given by Fabretti, stands thus: DMA SACRVM XL LEOPARDVM IN PACEM CVM SPIRITA SANTA +: ACCEP TVM EVMTE ABEATIS INNOCINEM POSVER:PAR-Q:AN:-N-VIL: MEN: VI1- In Raoul Rochette’s *copy, we have evinte for ewmte in the fourth line, and G for Q in the fifth. Mabillon discovered in this inscription a manifest reference to the rite of confirmation. Fabretti gravely eorrects this interpretation, as he found in it a manifest reference to the rite of baptism! Raoul Rochette judiciously maintained that {neither was right. He remarks—‘ Tl n’ est question, dans ces expres- * As given in Dictionnaire a’ Enpigraphie Chrétienne, ii. p. 758. + Lupi held the same opinion, viz., that there was no reference to either baptism or confirmation, He explains the 2d, 3d, and 4th lines thus: Leopar- dum im pacem (pace) cum Spirita Sancta (Spiritus Sanctos, Spiritibus Sanctis) acceptum eumte (eumdem) abeatis innocinem (habeatis innocentem). Corsini, Not. Gree. Diss. ii. p. xxxvi, rejects this view, and proposes the following as preferable:—Leopardum in pace cum Spiritu Sancto (the Holy Spirit). -Acceptum eundem a Beatis (the Blessed) innocentem posuerunt Parentes. 20 CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF sions d’ une latinité barbare, d’ aucun de ces sacrements de |’ Eelise; ou reconnait une foule d’ exemples de ces mots; cum spirito, tspirito, hispirito sancto, cum spirita sancta, altévés d’ une maniére plus ou moins vicieuse, et qui ne peuvent s’entendre que de l’ame méme du chrétien, admise aprés la mort dans le séjour des bienheureux, en vertu de la synonymie connu des mots anima et spiritus, dans le vocabulaire de la basse latinité.’” He closes his observations on the inscription by proposing the following expansion : “ Divis martyribus sacrum quadraginta Leopardum in pace cum Spiritu sancto accep tum eumdem habeatis. *Innocentem posuerunt parentes. qua [vixit] annis VII, mensibus VII.” It is very difficult to infer from the two copies that I have before me—viz., Fabretti’s and Raoul Rochette’s—the true reading of the inscription; but I entertain no doubt that both Mabillon’s and Fabretti’s interpretations should be rejected, and that Raoul Rochette’s view as to cum spirita santa is correct. At the same time, his expan- sion—Divis Martyribus sacrum quadraginta—is clearly inadmissible. There is no authority in any epitaph for this rendering. Nor is there any reasonable doubt that the letters DMA stand for Diis Manibus, as Mabillon understood them; whilst the signification of XL, as I have observed in my note on Epitaph, n. 90, remains to be discovered. The rest of his expansion is probable, except the omission of nwmero after annis, which should be introduced, if Fabretti’s punctuation be correct. But another, and a very remarkable, peculiarity of the inscrip- tion, hitherto unnoticed, remains to be considered—~, e. the use of the ‘expression acceptum habeatis with the dedication Dis Manibus in a Christian epitaph. If we compare this with the words—Manes sanc- ‘tissimee [sic] commendatum habeatis meum conjugem in Orelli’s n. 4775, a Pagan epitaph, and Sanctigue tut Manes nobis petentibus adsint in Gruter’s, 1061, 7, a Christian epitaph, there can, I think, he but little doubt that some Christians of the early ages retained * T have given this whole expansion, as it appears in Dictionnaire @ Epigra. phie Chrétienne, for I am unable to refer to the original article in the Mem. de Y Académie. I have but little doubt, however, that neither the presence nor the absence of the points is as Raoul Rochette intended: the authority of the Dictionnaire is not worth considering. THE FIRST SIX CENTNRIES. 21. some of the Pagan superstitions. See Mabillon, p. 75, and Morcelli, Stl. u. 71,72. To me it is plain, that whatever difference of opinion may arise as to the exact reading of this inscription to Leopardus, — there can be no question that in it his parents asked the Di Manes, the Pagan deities of the unseen world after death, to receive with favor their innocent son. Nor can there be any doubt that the in- scription is Christian, fur this is proved by the use of the terms— in pacem, cum spirita santa. On the latter see Epitaph, n. 42; and on the use of Christian terms in Pagan inscriptions, see notes on Epitaphs 49, 88. (e) Specimen of Palzeography :— 93. (See Plate IY, 1.) (In Mus. Capitolin. ; De Rossi, n. 50. Anime (Anime) innocenti Gaudentizx, que (que) vixit annos V, menses VII, dies XXII, in pace. Mercurius pater filiae d (eposite) ¢ adus Novemb. Urso et Polemio coss. ‘To an innocent spirit Gaudentia, who lived five years, seven months, twenty- two days, in peace. Her father Mercurius for his daughter buried on the sixth day before the Ides of November, in the Consulship of Ursus and Polemius,” z, e. November 8th, 338 a. p. (7) Use of puer as applied to persons of mature age :— 94. VERSO ET POLEMIO CONSS NATVS PVER NOMINE MERCVRIVS D IIII KAL APRILI DEPOSITVS VIL:-KAL-SEPT-QVI VIXIT ANN: XXIII -M- VILT-DXV-BENEM - INP (Pisauri ; e coem. Urbis ; De Rossi, n. 49.) | Urso et Polemio Consulibus, natus puer, nomine Mercurius, die IV Kulendas Apriles, depositus VII Kalendas Septembres, qui vixit anno$s AXIV, menses VII, dies XV, benemerenti in pace. “In the Consulship of Ursus and Polemius (7. e. 338 a.p.) a boy was born by name Mercurius, on the fourth day before the Calends of April (7. e. March 29th). Buried on the seventh day before the Calends of September (2. e. August 26th), who lived twenty-four years, seven months, fifteen days; to him well deserving in peace.” On first sight of this inscription, it seems strange that a person of twenty-four years of age should be called puer, and that he should be said to have been born and buried in the same year. The explanation is that natus is used with reference to birth by baptism, estimated by gg CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS GF which Mercurius was but puer at the time of his death. See De Rossi’s nn. 178, and 198. (g) Mention of time of sickness before death :— 95. PERPETVO BENEMERENTI IN PACE QVI VIXIT: ANNOS: PLM: XXX MEnses ... DEPOSITVS IDVS APRILIS DEFVNetus ne OFITVS PERIT:- IN DIES-V- POS CONSVLATYV - VICTORIs et VALENTINIANI +: NOBI lisssmi puert (In Mus. Vat. ; De Rossi, n. 214.) ' Perpetuo bene merenti in pace, qui vixit annos plus minus XXX, , menses Depositus Idus Aprilis (Idibus Aprilibus), defunctus neofitus (neophytus), perit in dies V, post Consulatu (Consulatum) Victoris et Valentiniant, Nobilissime Puert. “To Perpetuus, well deserving, in peace, who lived thirty years more or less, months. Buried on the Ides of April (April 13th), died a neophyte, was sick for five days, in the year after the Consulship of Victor, and Valentinian, the most noble boy,” 7. e. 370 a. D. 1.4. Perit in dies V. This notice of the period of sickness is very . rare. We have another example in De Rossi’s n. 8 :—évdanoev Apygoas (3. 1. 5. Post consulatum Victoris et Valentiniani. It is strange that this form should be used to denote the year, instead of the ordinary form— Valentiniano III et Valente I/[—especially as we have exam- ples of the use of this latter in Christian epitaphs of January and March. No satisfactory reason can be assigned for this variation, which is algo used in other cases apparently capriciously. (h) Domini Nostri applied to Consuls not August: :— 96. DD NN: CLAEARCO ET RICOMEDE VVCC CONSVLIBVS BENEMERENTI OLIBIONI QVI VLIXIT ANNVS XV: MESIS VI DIES XX DECESSII DIK XII KALENDAS OCTOBRES IN PACH Dominis Nostris Claearco (Clearcho) et Ricomede (Ricomere), Viris Clarissimis, Consulibus. Benemerenti Olibioni, qui vixtt annus (annos) XV, mesis (menses) VJ, dies XX. Decessii (decessit) die XIT Kalendas Octobres in pace. “Tn the Consulship of our Lords Clearchus and Ricomer, most distinguished men (i. ¢. 884 ap.) To the well-deserving Olibio, who lived fifteen years, six THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 23 maonths, twenty days. He departed on the twelfth day before the Calends of October, in peace,” 2. e. September 20th. 1. 1. DDNN. The phrase Domini Nostri is commonly applied to the Emperors; here it is used regarding private persons, who were Consuls. There are, also, other examples of this of earlier date. Hence Corsini, Zaccaria, and Cancelleri inferred that from the close of the 4th century, Consuls were usually styled Domini. Muratori, Hagenbuch, and De Rossi, more correctly, ascribe this use to inadver- tency and mistake on the part of the stone-cutters. (7) Opisthographa:— 97. (1) HIC - POSITVS : EST VICTORIANVS QVI VIXIT ANN-PLVS MINVS L DIPOSI TOS-IN PACE: DIEM ITII- KAL IVN- DDNN- TL CAESARIO ET NONIQ: ATTICO: VVCC {2) DM Q. VERGILIVS. FELIX QVI VIXIT. ANNIS. III MES. VI. DIEB. XVII. (Z coem. S. Hippolyti ; D. Rossi, n, 445.) (1) Hic positus est Victorzanus, qui vixit annos plus minus L- Dipositos (depositus) in pace diem (die) IV Kalendas Junias, Dominis Nostris Ti. (Flavio) Cxsario et Nonio Attico, Viris Clarissimis. (2) Dits Manibus. Quintus Vergilius Felix, qui viait annis (annos) ITI, mes (menses) VJ, diebus (dies) XVII. (1) Here has been placed Victorianus, who lived fifty years, more or less- Buried in peace on the fourth day before the Calends of June, in the Consulship of our Lords, Flavius Cesarius et Nonius Atticus, most distinguished men,” 2. e. May 24th, 397 a. p. (2) “To the Gods the Manes, Quintus Vergilius Felix, who lived three years six months [and] seventeen days.” I have given this as an example of the tabule opisthographe, that are sometimes found in the Catacombs, sc7/. tablets on which a Pagan inscription had been cut, but which were subsequently used for a Christian epitaph. - Nonius Atticus had Maximus as his agnomen. It has been inferred from a lamp bearing the monogram, and his name—Noni Attici VO et 24: CHRISTIAN EPITAPHS OF Inlustris, that he was a Christian. This inference has been confirmed by a proof of the Christianity of the Nonian family at this period, given by Minervini, in Bull. Nap. Ser. 2 t. 1 p. 15, to which De Rossi, p- 198 refers, but which I have not seen. (£) Specimen of Paleeography :— 98. (See Plate IV, 4.) (Z# coemeé. 8, Zotici > De Bossi, n. 530.) Lepusclus (Lepusculus) Leo, qui vixit anum (annum) et mensis (menses) undect (undecim) et dies dece (decem) et nove (novem) perit septimu (septimo) calendas Agustas (Augustas) Onorio (Honorio) sexis (sexies) Agusto (Augusto). “‘Lepusculus Leo, who lived a year and eleven months and nineteen days. He died on the seventh day before the Calends of August, (in the Consulship of). Honorius for the sixth time,” 7. e. July 26th, 404 a. p. Lepusculus, as Muscula, was, probably, a pet name. Compare the modern Leporello. I have translated perit as standing for perdt, but it may be used as tedcur@ in Epitaph 23. (2) Posture in prayer :— 99° (See Plate IV, 2.) (£ coemet. Commodille ; De Rossi, n. 251.) Petion‘x digne coiugi (conjugi) que (que) vxit annis (annos) ANT, et fecit cum conpare (compare). swo menses X, dies V. [Deposita}. Kalendis Novembribus pos (post) Consulatum Gratiani ter et Hquiti, Ursus maritus sibt et tnnocentt compari fecié. Cesquet (quiescit) in pace. “To Petronia, a worthy wife, who lived twenty-one years, and passed with her mate ten mouths, five days. [Buried] on the Calends of November, in the. year after the Consulship of Gratianus, for the third time, and Equitius (. e. November Ist, 375 a.p.) Ursus, her husband, made (this) for himself and his. blameless mate. She rests in peace.” I have selected this epitaph chiefly because the stone presents an illustration of the attitude of a person praying. This position was at one time so general, that those, who were suffering penance, were not permitted to stand up in the church during prayer. The outstretched arms and uplifted hands were common to both. Jews and Pagans. At one time this figure in the attitude of prayer was regarded as an emblem of martyrdom; and the crown and the: S SALINYW SASUA IX UKA WA NY SLIX NY DA\ $0) ILDON YISYISIA XN q OGL) ge loysbil ee NODSOd¢40N= vy MIAN WAD LIOFS Li IxXX AA )HYNSIGAVINOW a «60 SS —— ava quynoHin pih-pieehinbivdard arly OAVILNIMY9O IL DONNIIWINY a ‘ | j a ; 7 u ; A Epkiaph N2 98 vA i 4 evr VE fe) ANIMEINNOCEN FVIVIXIT AN VM TIGAVDENTIAEQVEVI | Sic. VAS NIIBOKI CE c cod beltinat domoutn upye Fpolemio Off eee i: OND RIV LA lio PETRONIAE DIGNAE CO IVGI QVE VIXIT ANNIS XXI ET fECIT CVM CONPARE SVO &X DV KA «NOB POS CONSS GRATIANI TERETEQVITI VRSVS MARITVS SIBI ET INNOCENTI CO SS MPARI FECIT CESQVET IN PACE sa lees a aa al eee | | | CR RE tee Ia eam rn on eg ee a Mt «ee em de THE FIRST SIX CENTURIES. 25 palm-branch, also, were interpreted as having similar significance, but these theories have not stood investigation. The figure in prayer is certainly a proof of Christianity, but the erown and the palm-branch are found on Pagan tomb-stones. See Muratori Nov. Thesaur., 1828, 5, Antig. Jtal. diss. LVIIL; Raoul Rochette, Mem. sur les Antiq. Chrét. p. ii. § 2; Cardinal Mai, Vet. Script. Nov. Collect. V, p. 8, n. 1; and De Rossi, n. 30. No symbol has so far been suggested as a criterion of martyrdom, that has been universally accepted by scholars. And yet there are at present few, if any, who would give their assent to Dodwell’s opinions de paucitate Martyrum, or to Burnet’s views, in his ‘“‘ Letters from Switzerland, Xc.,” regarding the identity of the catacombs and puticuli. Birds form one of the favorite decorations of Christian tombstones. The most common of these is the dove, represented singly or in pairs, with or without a branch in the mouth, sometimes perched on a tree, sometimes pecking at a bunch of grapes, and sometimes standing on a © vase. Singly it has been regarded as the emblem of peace or of simpli. city—in puirs it may have been, in some cases, the symbol of affection. It is Jewish in its origin, and was, doubtless, derived from the history of Noah. ‘Two other birds are occasionally represented, the peacock - and the phoenix. They are both Pagan in their origin, but were used» by Christians as symbolical of the resurrection. (m) Interval between death and burial :— 100. DN:-MAGNO MAXIMO AVG-II CONSS III IDVS MAIAS FATVM FECIT LEO ET DEPOSITVS PRIDIE IDVS MAIAS BENE MERENTI IN PACH (£ coem. Cyriace ; De Rossi, n. 374.) Domino Nostro Magno Maximo Augusto iterum Consule, III [dus Maias fatum fecit Leo et depositus pridie Idus Maias. Bene merenté in pace. “In the second Consulship of our Lord Magnus Maximus Augustus (i. e. 388 A.D.), on the third day before the Ides of May (7. e. May 13th), Leo died, and was buried on the day before the Ides of May (i. e. May 14th), To him well deserving in peace.” 1.2. Fatum fecit. This rare expression for defunctus est is found in some other Christian epitaphs. See Corsini, Not. Grace. Diss. 1, (De DOG EAN 26 MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. 1.8. Deposttus pridie Idus Maias. Were the deceased was buried on the day after his death. Thus we find in Gruter, 1054, 8—que vecessit die Mercuri hora VIII et deposita die Iovis Iduum Maiarum, z.e. she died on Wednesday and was buried on Thursday. See other examples in Corsini, Diss. i, p. 12. In Muratori’s, 1959, 9, we have an example of an interval of two days—De/unctus die XVI Kal. April. depositus XIII Kal, t.e. he died on March 17th, and was buried on March 19th. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. No. 3. BY REV. PROFESSOR HINCKS, F.1L.S. The class Gasteropoda next claims our attention. It is considerably the largest in the Molluscous sub-kingdom; is the best representative of its characteristic structure, and occupies the same position among the Molluscous classes which the whole branch occupies among the greater divisions of tke animal kingdom, being therefore the typical class in which the greatest number and variety of forms might reasonably be expected. Many attempts have been made at the proper sub-division of this vast assemblage of animal forms. The history of these is not required in connection with my present plan. So far as I can judge the best orders proposed are those of Cuvier with some combinations and modifications more recently suggested. These then I shall assume as a basis and after explaining their distinctions and discussing their mutual relations, I shall enumerate the families belonging to each order, combining or further sub-dividing as may seem to be required. But I must begin by a few observations on the kind of characters employed and their comparative value. Cuvier’s orders are founded on the position and structure of the organs for aeration. The Ist he calls Pulmonifera, having lungs in- stead of branchiae, by which he means to express breathing air directly, not through the medium of water. Since, however, these organs are not homologous with the lungs of higher animals, but are strictly so with the branchiae of other mollusks, it is better to adopt DeBlainville’s name Pulmobranchiata. The order is generally admitted to be a natu- ral one. 2. Nudibranchiata: I shall as we proceed venture an opinion — on the proper series of these orders. It may be supposed that Cuvier MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. 27 was influenced by the resemblance of the nudibranchiates to the naked air breathers known as slugs; but though these sea-slugs form a very distinct and natural group, which I cannot help thinking require to be kept separate as an order, the great difference both in their aerative ap- paratus and their habits of life should prevent these two orders being brought near to one another, and it seems probable that they will ultimately take their places in very different parts of the system. The 8rd order Inferobranchiata, distinguished from the preceding by the branchiae being arranged in two rows under the projecting border of the mantle instead of on the back, bears a close resemblance to it in the form of the animals, but conforms essentially to the character of the next order, of which more recent Malacologists make it the last family. 4. The order called Tectibranchiata is known by the branchiee, more or less divided, but not symmetrical, situated along the right side or on the back, being covered by the mantle, which usually encloses a shell. The animals are marine and like the preceeding orders are hermaphrodite. The 5th order has been accounted a class under the name [Heteropoda, but certainly presents only a deviative form of Gasteropoda, and as an order of that class has been named Nucleo- branchiata. It includes swimming mollusks with the foot converted into a sort of fin, and the branchize consisting of feathery lobes on the posterior and left side of the back, with the heart, liver, and other viscera behind them in a common enclosure. The 6th order is named Pectinibranchiata aud is by fur the most numerous of the whole, embracing nearly all those which have spiral ‘shells of one piece and many with simply conical shells. The branchise composed of numerous segments ranged like the teeth of a comb, are attached in one or several lines to the lower surface of a cavity forming an opening between tho border of the mantle and the body, and occupying the last whorl of the shell. Order 7th Tubulibranchiata chiefly differs from the preceding in the animals being fixed to their place and hermaphrodite, whilst the sexes are distinct in Pectinibranchiata, but recent authorities with obvious propriety refuse to account these separate orders. Order 8. Scutibranchiata is really distinguished chiefly by the sexes being united in the same individual, whilst the shell is widely expanded without an operculum. The members of the order as arranged by Cuvier are not very closely related, and this order also may be properly combined with Pectinibranchiata. 28 MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. Order 9. Cyclobranchiata is distinguished by the branchiz, like little leaflets or pyramids, attached in a cordon under the border of the mantle, the sexes being united in the same individual. The animals are the lowest of the great Pectinibranchiate group, to which, however, they certainly belong. The technichal character resembles that of Inferobranchiata, but the organization is very different. The last four orders having the branchiz in the anterior portion of the body are now generally combined under the name of Prosobranchiata. Perhaps, it would be still better to make Cuvier’s name Pectinibranchiata, which well expresses the common character, embrace them all. They con- stitute the specially typical group among the Gasteropoda, and their further sub-division is a subject of great interest. Some late writers on the subject combining, as already explained, all the orders related to Pectinibranchiata under the name of Prosobranchi- ata, unite also Tectibranchiata with Nudibranchiata and Inferobranchiata under the common name of Opisthobranchiata, thus reducing the whole class to four orders. This, however, is liable to great objection from the decidedly distinct characters of Nudibranchiata, which seem mani- festly to claim for it rank as an order. If we only reduce Inferobranch- lata to Tectibranchiata, and give its natural and just extension to Pectinibranchiata, we have five well marked orders of which it seems evident that Nudibranchiata occupy the lowest place, and Pectini- branchiata, that which represents Gasteropoda among the orders. But Nucleobranchiata are remarkable for the high development of their organization, and for resemblance to the higher classes, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda, we may therefore place them first. Pulmobranchiata will without question stand second, and then we have the five orders reduced to their natural series. In forming his orders Cuvier relied on the different position of the branchiae, and on the comparative development of the reproductive system, the former being admitted as the leading character. Allowing the correctness of his opinion on each point, there are other considerations which justify the combinations now proposed, since, for example, the branchiae are essentially of the same kind in the whole of the Pectinibranchiata in the extended sense we have given to the term, and there are other points of resemblance uniting them as one great natural group, whilst the separation,or union of the sexual distinctions may assist in determining the comparative rank of the families, though not allowed to multiply orders by breaking up a great natural assemblage. ee Nk AS Salk AME AE lt MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. 29 Before we proceed further it is desirable to inquire what other kinds of characters are available in the present state of our knowledge for the arrangement of Gasteropod Mollusks, and how far we can determine their comparative importance. One of the most obvious characters is derived from the shell itself, its presence or absence, its form, its sub- stance, and its colouring. It is now universally agreed that shells con- sidered without reference to the animals are mere play things altogether destitute of scientific interest, and if valued for their beauty or variety destitute of higher claims on our attention; but when we consider them as a part of an animal—a hard deposit on his surface, moulded on his form, and expressing his external distinctions, we cannot but expect that the study of the hard covering may be also connected with that of the creature—that we may learn to make what can be well preserved an index to much which we have but occasional opportunities of exam- ining, and cannot well retain for reference—nay, even from comparison of the shells, to know the structure of many animals whose organization we have no opportunity of examining at all, though their shells may be in our collection. It is true indeed that form alone is not a constant and certain index to structure, and cases occur in which shells might be placed beside one another, from their very close resemblance, though when we are acquainted with the animal we find that they really belong to widely separated parts of a natural system, but such cases are not common, and in such instances, closer observation furnishes some clue to the discovery of their real affinities. A Gasteropod Mollusk has a soft elongated body with a calyptriform mantle on which the shell is moulded. Where the cone is short and wide below the shell is nearly or quite simple and limpet-like; where it is high and not very wide at the base, it is usually spirally twisted, so that the shell is turbinated. Monstrosities of some of the snails occur in which the spire is drawn out with only a slight spiral twist, and the normal condition of the Wentletrap (Scalaria pretiosa) shows the successive whorls prevented from touching and uniting, so that we see their separation, though the convoluted form is perfect. From these observations we may trace the relation between the most elongated spiral and the simplest expanded cap, and as it is obvious that the same deviations in this respect may occur in families otherwise differently coustructed, we understand the phenomenon of a water snail resembling a limpet, and a Sigaretus, a Venus’s ear, whilst the limpet-like snail occurring in fresh waters and being pulmobranchiate, and the Sigaretus Ee? od cae MET AMY Siete in oe 39 MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. wanting the nacreous lustre, and being apparently an animal feeder, are sufficient in these cases to prevent mistake. Among shell characters of most real importance are differences in the form of the mouth, especially the absence or presence of a channel and of appendages, and the mouth being circular or nearly so and com- plete all round, or pressed against the next whorl so as to become lunate, or for the circle to seem broken; the growth appearing to be uniform or interrupted, a special border being then formed to the mouth at the completion of each period, and the old borders remaining as ornaments on the shell; the absence or presence of tooth-like processes about the mouth, and of folds on the columella, and differences in the substance of the shell itself. Here, however, it must be noted that the channel in the border being accommodated to the opening of the Siphonal canal only indicates its existence and direction. This canal is connected with a burrowing habit, but it is possible for it to be present or absent in animals connected by much more important particulars of structure, so that we cannot implicitly rely upon it in our attempts at natural group- ing. The presence, number, and peculiar form of the Varices or remains of former borders of the aperture may be good generic characters, but could not lead to higher combinations. Folds on the columella are deserving of much attention as auxiliary characters. Tooth-like prejections of shelly matter are always of interest, but must be employed with great caution, more especially as our knowledge does not enable us to connect them with any structural peculiarity or special habit of the animal. Monoceros is scarcely now admitted as a genus, and its supposed species hardly even all belong to the same genus. Curious tooth-like projections variously placed around the aperture adorn numerous species of Helicidae and Auriculidae, but their systematic value, beyond characterising species, is very doubtful. A class of characters much and justly valued since attention has been called to it and offering great assistance in the determination of _ natural families, is derived from the operculum; its absence or presence, its substance whether shelly or horny, and the mode of its formation whether from a marginal or a central nucleus, as well as its figure. A still more important class of characters is derived from an organ characteristic of the higher (the cephalous) Molluscous animals and used by them in obtaining or preparing their food, which has been called their tongue or lingual ribband, but which needs an express name and should be spoken of by that which Huxley has proposed ; MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. bl Odontophore. The teeth are usually ranged upon it, in a median and two lateral tracts, which have been called the rachis and pleurae terms which are scarcely necessary, and, the first at least, not free from ‘serious objections. The Odontophore is sometimes short but often of great length, its edges behind the mouth being united so as to form a tube, which after passing for a short distance under the oesophagus is rolled or spirally twisted. It seems that the part in use is soon worn away and that the reserved portion is gradually pushed forward, the tube slitting’ ofen so as to afford a fresh surface. The form of the teeth both median and lateral, the number in each row and the number of rows vary in different families and different species, and are apparently adapted to the kind of food and the mode of procuring it employed by the animal. Hence, besides the use which may be made of the minuter differences as specific characters, the leading varieties, like the differences in the beaks of birds marking their kind of food or mode of appropriat- ing it, serve to distinguish families, and may now be said to be of great and unquestionable importance. Hven so late indeed as the publication of Mr. Woodward’s valuable manual, the extent to which they could be used seemed very doubtful, and he makes objections to their systematic value being estimated highly. Hesays: “It must be remembered that the teeth are essentially epithelian cells, and, like other superficial organs, liable to be modified in accordance with the wants and habits of the creatures. The instru- ments with which animals obtain their food are of all others most subject to these adaptive modifications, and can never form the basis of a philosophical system.” He adds this note, “‘ the carnivorous opossums have teeth adapted for eating flesh, but are not on that account to be classified with the placeatal carnivora.”’ It may be replied that our object being to bring together creatures of like organization and mode of living, the adaptive modifications of a common plan which determine the kind of food and mode of life are presisely what we ought to make use of, except for the highest divisions, and we find both the teeth of Mammalia, and, as already referred to, the beaks of birds, are of prominent importance in characterising even the great families. We should not allow resemblances or differences of the Odontophore of Mollusks to interfere with the classes or orders which depend on higher characters, nor ought we to use distinctions derived from this ene part alone, or we should create an artijicial system not perhaps better than others, and more difficult of application 32 i MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. as depending on microscopical observation ; but not to use along with others a character manifestly connected with distinctive habits of life, would be to negleet means within our reach for determining natural affinities, and as knowledge on the subject has rapidly increased would no longer be thought of. Greater characters taken from the brain and the absence of placentation, separate the Opossums from the Carnivora, but their dentition establishes an important relation of analogy, giving these animals the same position in the nonplacentated or Lyencephalous sub-class, which the Carnivora hold in the Gyrencephalous and the Insectivora in the Lissencephalous. The objections or doubts of Mr. Woodward have not then any force which should prevent general attention to the structure of the Odontophore as an aid in classi- fication. T confess that I canaot see the advantage gained by giving names to the principal varieties in the disposal of the teeth as has been done by Trosehel and Dr. J. E. Gray. Several of the varieties seem to me to be very slight modifications of each other; none of them could of itself alone give character toa natural group of animals, and I cannot perceive that the new terms afford any real assistance in stating the facts con- cisely and intelligibly. Along with the peculiarities of the Odontophore must be noticed the form of the muscle in which it is contained, and the absence or presence, form and markings, of what have been called the buccal plates. Important characters are also derived from the number of the tentacles, the position of the eyes, the form of the foot and other circumstances relating to the animal. It is to the proper combination and subordination of these characters, giving prominence to general form and habit in distinguishing families, and in doubtful cases placing the creature in the group to which, considering all the characters it seems to have the nearest affinity, that we must look for a good natural system. In the higher divisions we look for fewer but more important distinctive marks accompaned by a certain recognisable aspect of each group, and its expression of one of those tendencies of development, five of which have been pointed out as the sources of the leading differences under each general type. I cannot help here desiring to commemorate the obligations of all who study the Mollusca to Dr. J. E. Gray of the British Museum, for his important services to this branch of Science, as indeed to all depart- ments of Natural Science. pide Salve NS Te Cd eae ed RR TT OG Os MT RMR a UL oa nei PETA CPE RRB RENAN St eae OM CHUA NTe Suan ian OSM aA a TENS POR hn ie Oe bY MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. 30 T do not follow his system, and I may fancy that he at times sub- divides too much, and indulges too much in the invention of names; but we owe to him the pressing on our notice, the importance of attention to the foot, the operculum and the edontophore of Gasteropods; much assistance in estimating the value of shell characters, and the essential principle that knowledge of the animal, the operculum and the odontophore must always be united with that of the shell before we can be satisfied as to its systematic relations in a natural arrangement. This last principle is not always convenient in its application, and we are sometimes driven to rely for the time on resemblances, which cannot be accounted certain proofs of real affinity, but even then it is well to know where our information is deficient, and it is truly important that where knowledge is accessible we should be excited to seek it, not supposing our work to be done whilst essential points are neglected. Few indeed have contributed as much as Dr. Gray to the progress of this part of Malacology and let him be honored accordingly. I have already expressed the opinion that Cuvier’s orders of Gastero- pods were founded on the right principles, though increasing knowledge has shown that he divided somewhat too minutely for natural grouping. Those who have corrected his plan seem to have gone to the other extreme in uniting as one order the strikingly different Tectibranchiata and Nudibranchiata, which they have immediately to admit as sub- orders, and which every observer feels to be as well separated from each other, as either of them from the other received orders. Correcting this error we have, as already given, the five orders of Gasteropoda, and it remains to consider more particularly their families. As excelling in the organs of sense and in power, and as manifesting an approach towards the higher classes of the sub-kingdom, the Nucleobranchiata, though deviating most widely from the true Gasteropodous type, must rank as the first order. Those known are divided into two families: Firolidae with elongated bodies and either no shell, er a cap-like very delicate shell enclosing the branchiae with the heart and liver on the back of the animal; and Atlantidae with a shell into which the animal can withdraw and which has an operculum. Other forms probably exist or had existed but are not known to us. The nearest approach may possibly be found in Janthina among the Pectinibranchiates, which almost imitates the muzzle of Firolidae and resembles them in dentition , The branchiae partially protected by the shell are exposed on the back, and the animals are pelagic and floating with the operculum converted 2 (>) a4. MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. into a contrivance for carrying the ova. All this may indicate no more than a slight analogy, but it is curious and interesting. The best known animal of this order is the Carinaria whose delicate Argonanta-like shell is often seen in collections, and which has been often figured showing its habit of swimming with the fin, formed from the foot up- wards and the back downwards. The second order Pulmobranchiata has little direct affinity with the first, but takes this position from an idea that air-breathing marks more active life than water breathing, and from the certainty that the great order Pectinibranchiata occupies among the orders, the position which the class Gasteropoda takes among Mollusca, and the Molluscous sub- kingdom in the whole animal kingdom; whilst the lower place of the ‘remaining two orders seems hardly liable to doubt. The most numerous members of the order, the snails and their allies, have the sexes united, which, considered alone would place them below a large portion of the Pectinibranchiata, but the highest Pulmobranchiata have the sexes distinct and closely resemble the highest vegetable feeders among Pectinibranchiata, the Odontophore corresponding exactly. The present order presents a very natural series and the families are well established. T cannot indeed believe Oncidium the type of a family distinct from Limacidae, or separate Aciculidae from Cyclostomidae. With these -veductions the families are : 1. Cyclostomidae. . Auriculidae. . Helicidae, snails. . Limacidae, slugs. . Lymnaeidae, water snails. Cyclostomidae have a horny operculum, generally a circular mouth and an odontophore like that of Litorinidae, with the sexes distinct. Auriculidae have no operculum, the aperture elongated and denticu- lated; animal with two tentacles and sessile eyes behind them; a broad muzzle, united sexes, a horny buccal plate, and numerous teeth with a distinct median series. Helicidae have usually a well developed shell capable of containing the animal, the body is spiral distinct from the foot. There are almost always 4 tentacles, the upper pair bearing the eyes. There is a horny erescent-shaped buccal plate, the differences of which form valuable characters. The Odontophore is oblong with numerous similar teeth like a pavement. The number of species is very great, and the differ- ences of form striking. Or > 0 bo ON METONYMS. (oh) Hy) Luimacidae have the foot united with the body; tentacles and eyes as in the snails; mantle small, shield-shaped; shell small or rudiment- ary, usually internal or partly covered by the mantle; in Oncidium there is no shell, not even a rudiment, and the mantle completely covers the animal. Lymnaeidae inhabit water or wet places; have a thin horn-colored inopereulate shell with a sharp lip; the animal has only 2 tentacles the eyes being at their inner bases ; the mouth has a buccal plate, and the odontophore resembles that of Helicidae. Those who would satisfy themselves as to the value of the buccal plates and the form of the teeth as characters, should examine the observations on the Terrestrial Pulmonifera of Maine by Hdward S. Morse, published in 1864. The numerous and excellent figures here given bring the matter clearly before the reader. The able author may be too fond of multiplying families and genera, but he is an acute observer and has made an important contribution to science. It confirms our notion of the value of the character of the order drawn from the adaptation to air-breathing, that there is no common character of the Odontophore throughout the order, but we find its arrangements adapted to the special mode of life of the families, and even in some instances of sub-families or genera. We are also made to observe that the carnivorous character of the Odontophore does not necessarily indicate the highest position as to general development. ‘These facts will be useful to us in the difficult inquiry lying before us respecting the subdivision of the great order Pectinibranchiata. (To be continued). ON METONYMS, OR TRANSLATED AND QUASI-TRANS- LATED PERSONAL NAMES. BY THE REV. DR. SCADDING, HON. LIBRARIAN TO THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Most readers are aware that the names Hrasmus and Melanchthon are not the original native names of the persons who are thus usually designated in history and literature. They also probably know what the original names of these two distinguished men were. They know that Melanchthon is the German family name Schwartzerd, Blackearth, 36 ON METONYMS. in a Grecised form. They may remember, too, the anecdote of the popularity of his Loci Communes or Theological Summary, at Rome, while circulating as the production of one Ippofilo da Terra-neera, but its instant condemnation when discovered to be the work of the German reformer Philip Melanchthon. They may know likewise that the family name of Hrasmus was the Low-German one of Gerrit, in High-German Gerhard, fancifully and no doubt wrongly held to be a corruption of Gernhaber, an antique synonym of Liebhaber, of which Hrasmus, Beloved, was supposed to be a sufficient translation. Moreover it will be remembered by some that the prenomen of Hrasmus, namely Desiderius (which is intended to be identical in sense with Hrasmus the Beloved,) originated in the baptismal name of the little Gerrit, which was itself Gerrit, the same virtually as his surname: that, in fact, like Sir Cresswell Cresswell, the great scholar of Rotterdam was christened by his own family name, and that the reiteration that resulted was attempted to be rendered by the respectively Greek and Latin terms Desiderius Erasmus. (Both names were familiar enough at the time, as belonging to popular ‘saints,’ one being identical with the French St. Didier, the other with the Italian St. Elmo or Ermo.) Now there are many other less familiar examples of somewhat simi- larly translated or quasi-translated names to be met with in literary history; and as we have not been so fortunate as to light on any detailed collection of such instances, we have thought it might be of some interest and even cccasional utility, to make a record here of our own memoranda in this regard, incidentally jotted down from time to time. We have seen such works as Barbier’s Dictionaire des Ouvrages Anonymes et Pseudonymes, published in Paris in 1822; Wheeler’s Dictionary of the Noted Names of Fiction, published at Boston in 1865; and the Handbook of Fictitious Names by “‘ Olphar Hamst,’’ published in London in 1868. But in these we find no detailed list of the class of names now referred to; and which we have ventured to style Metonyms, translated or quasi-translated names. Salverte has a chapter on translated names; but the scope of his work (History of the Names of Men, Nations and Places, in their con- nection with the Progress of Civilisation) did not require him to enu- merate more than afew examples. In Lower’s Patronymica Britannica, the Latinised names are of a class to be met with only in the old Char- ters and legal records of England. Baillet’s Auteurs Déguisés, had the work been within our reach, might possibly have helped us. We ON METONYMS. on offer our collection simply as a contribution to a more complete list, for the use and information of the student who has occasion to consult the original authorities for the civil and literary history of the 16th cen- tury; and under correction, for we have not been able, in every instance, to recover the source of our notes. Hallam, Whewell, Disraeli, Dibdin and Brunet furnished us with some of them. Our travslated names will be those which, like the instances already described, convey in a Latinised or Grecised form the sense, real or supposed, or approximated to, of the vernacular name. Our quasi- translated names will embrace such as have, for convenience, been moulded into a Latin form, and have assumed in the process a shape under which the vernacular form is not, at first sight, readily recog- nised; as, for example, Linnzeus, for Linné, Grotius for de Groot. At the period of the ‘ Revival of Letters,’ when the Latin and Greek tongues came again to be familiarly understood among the literary men of Western Hurope, and to be used by them with elegance in the writing of history and other works, and in correspondence and even common conversation with each other, it was found that the proper names of persons (as also of places) constituted, in many instances, sounds harsh to the ear, and forms uncouth to the eye, in the midst of the flow and harmony of the lately-revived, so-called classical languages. The plan was consequently soon adopted of softening and harmonising the names required to be used, either by translating them according to their etymology, or by resuming the forms of the same names as they were before becoming barbarised in the fourth and fifth centuries, or by suffixing convenient terminations. For this smoothing-down of rough foreign proper names there was the authority and example of the great authors whose works were again becoming widely known. The Greek historians moulded to their own vocal organs the names of Persian and other Asiatic persons and places. Livy did the same with Htrurian, Oscan and Phoenician names. Czesar and ‘Tacitus did the same with places and persons in the West, the writers in each instance preserving in the metonym, material of high value now to the ethnologist and comparative philologist. The fastidiousness of taste generated by the newly-revived studies carried men too far when, as in some of the literary clubs or academies in Italy, they adopted the custom of addressing each other by venera- ble names that did not, even in sound, belong to them: just as, centu- ries before, under the influence of another partial ‘revival of letters,’ “y 38 ON METONYMS. Charlemagne had saluted his Chancellor Ange!bert as Homer, and Alcuin, the head of the Palace-school, as Flaccus. (It was character- istic of the age in which this earlier revival had happened, that Charle- magne himself was styled by a name not taken from Greek or Roman annals, but from the records of Holy Writ;—he was academically, so to speak, King David; while his superintendent of public works, and subsequent biographer, Eginhart, was addressed by the name of the ingenious nephew of Moses, Beseleel.) ‘These are examples of pseudo- nyms, not metonyms: conceits playfully indulged in by great men, but not worthy of much attention. It was quite another thing to Latinise or Grecise a name that had become barbarised: or, when harsh and uncouth-looking from its Teutonic or other foreign constitution, to translate it, according to received analogies, into a corresponding equivalent term, in communications by writing or word of mouth, car- ried on between literary men. The learned Greeks who found their way from Constantinople to Italy in the fourteenth and two following centuries, would readily shew their pupils how to transmute conveniently names that seemed uncouth; and to construct out of them others that would resemble those borne by themselves and by the Byzantine writers with whose works they were familiar. Here are the names of some of these literary emigrants: Johannes Argyropylus, John Silvergate; Antonius Eparchus, Antony le Préfet ; Nicolaus and Zachariah Calliergus, Nicholas and Zachary Fairwork; Georgius Gémistus or Pletho, George Fulman. Any one of these might be a metonym from the Teutonic or some other Western dialect, similar to those which we are about to enumerate. The names of the Byzantine writers are of a similar stamp: Johannes Stobeus, John of Stobi; Photius, Bright or Manly; Maximus Planudes, Astray ; Thomas Magister, the Teacher; Georgius Uhoroboscus, Swineherd ; Demetrius Triclinius, Butler, Buffetier; Theodorus Prodromus, Scout} Manuel Holobélus, Alclod; Georgius Syncellus, Fellowfriar, Confrére, Chum; Constantinus Psellus, Stammerer; Georgius Pachymeres, Clumsy; Theodorus Anagnostes, the Reader; Johannes Philoponus, Lovework,—to say nothing of earlier and more venerable names, Latin as well as Greek, simple and compound, all possessing visible vernacu- lar siguifications. Almost as familiar as the instances of Erasmus and Melanchthon, are those of Cicolampadius, professor of Divinity at Bale in 1528; Bucer, professor of Divinity at Cambridge in 1549; and Capnio, the very viet a) a ON METONYMS. 39 learned preceptor of Melanchthon. The first is properly Hussgen, cor- rupted from Hausschein, Houselight; the next is Kuhhorn, Cowhorn; and the last is Reuchlin, Smoke. Capito, a friend of Bucer’s, was really Koepstein, Headstone. Melissus, author of eight books of Mele- temata, Studies, printed at Frankfort in 1595, is Paul Biene, Bee (Melissa, bee). We have also a printer at Bern, named Apiarius. Cochlizeus, author of a Historia Hussitarum, and an opponent of the Reformation, was Wendlestein, Cochleea, Periwinkle, Winkle. Perizc- nius, author of Origines Babylonicz et Algyptiacee, was Voorbrock, Apron, perizon-e. In the cloisters at Bale, not far from the resting-place of Erasmus, is a tablet to his friend Episcopius; and near by are other more recent memorials to members of the same family, whereon the vernacular name of Bischoff is resumed. Pareus, author of three folio volumes of divinity, in 1593, was Wangler, wange being cheek in German, and pareia being cheek in Greek. Macropedius, a writer of Dramatic pieces for the young, was Langevelt, macro having reference to Lange, and pedius to velte, field, campus, pedion. Opilio was Schaefer, Shep- herd, opilio being shepherd, as though oevilio, from ovis. Lentilius was Linsenbarht, a supposed progeny of linse, German for lentils. Malleolus, a modest diminutive of Charles Martel’s name, was Hem- merlein, which is sufficiently English in sound to speak for itself. He was a divine of Zurich: some of his treatises were printed at Bale in 1497. Jerome Bock, Anglicé Buck, a naturalist, whose Kreuter-buch was printed at Strasbourg in 1546, appears on the title page of the Latin version of that work, as Hieronymus Tragus, the equivalent of his name in Greek. Manneken, author of a Complete Letter Writer in 1476, elevates his family-name by Latinising it Virulus, not Homun- eulus. Kammermeister, a distinguished commentator on the New Tes- tament, was Camerarius, Chamberlain. (His family-name was once Liebhard.) Loos, in Low-German, crafty, compiler in 1581, of Lllus- trium Germaniz Utriusque Catalogus, is Callidius. Kallison, a pupil of Melanchthon’s, became Callistus and Calixtus, Formosissimus. Ulric Molitor in 1489 was doubtless a Mueller; as also Crato Mylius, a printer at Strasbourg; anda Farinatorin 1477. Vermeulen is Molanus, and Walscemueller, Hylacomylus. The real name of Regiomontanus, the great mathematician at the close of the fifteenth century, was Mueller. Regiomontanus, Montrealer, is his designation as being a native of Konigsberg, Mont-real, in Franconia. Johannes de Tritten- 40 ON METONYMS. keim, a voluminous historical writer in 1546, is known as Trithemius- Jodocus Badius Ascensius, the learned printer, is no more than Josse Bade of the village of Asche, in Flanders. We meet with distinguished Hebrew scholars bearing the evident metonyms of Aurogallus and Acoluthus. Giles Overmann, translator inte Latin of the romance of the Ules- piegel (whence the French espiéglerie), in 1657, is Aigidius Periander. The metonyms in -ander are very numerous. An obvious one is Nean- der for Neumann. Of this name there were many men of note. The family name of the modern theologian Neander was Mendel. He was born a Jew, and assumed the name Neander on relinquishing the Jewish faith. Ona tablet in Westminster Abbey appears the following iuscription under the name of a Franciscus Newmannus :— Exuta jam carne, animarum in sede Receptus, vere Neander factus est. ‘One Stephen Neumann figures as Homo Novus. Megander is Gros- man. But Albertus Magnus is Albert de Groot. (His works consist of twenty-one folio volumes.) Theodorus Bibliander is Theodore Buch- mann. Xylander, editor of Greek and Latin authors in 1552, was, in the vernacular, Holzmann, Woodman. Then we have several Osian- ders, Heiligmanner, a name now degenerated into Osmann; anda medical writer of Hesse, Johannes Dryander, John Hichmaun. We may con- jecture what the originals may have been of Onosander, Ganander, Nicander, Cratander, Kyriander and Melander. The last was perhaps Schaefer again, Sheep-man. Matthias Flach Francowitz, principal author of the Heclesiastical History known as the Centuriz Magdebur- genses, was Flacius and Flaccus Illyricus. Valentinus Paceus was Hartung Frid. (Hart, valens; Friede, pace.) Conradus Dasypodius, a mathematician, and translator of ‘ Theodo- sius and Autolycus on the Sphere,’ in 1572, was Conrad Rauchfuss, Hairy-foot. Lycosthenes, compiler of a once well-known volume of Apophthegmata published at Geneva in 1633, is Wolf-hart, that is, as Kilian says, Fortis ut Lupus. Maurolycus also seems to speak for itself. Neoaétos is Neuenaar, aar being eagle, that is, aétos. Comes Neuenarius, Comes Nesetius, and Comes Nove Aquile, all mean Count Neuenaar. Pelargus is Storch, that is, Stork. The family-name of Joachim Fortius Ringelbergius, in 1516, was also Storch. An Abbot Anser bore the family-name of John Huss, Latinised. Luscinius was Nachtigall. Godofredus Rabus is Godfrey Raaban, Raven. In Ra- ON METONYMS. 4} banus Maurus we have a hint of how ‘raven’ may have been applied in some cases as a sobriquet. Maurus is ‘The Moor.’ Petrus Niger, a German, was the author of a work, Ad Judeorum Perfidiam Extir- pandam, printed at Hsslingen in 1475. Coracopetra was Rabenstein. Other names from colour are Cyaneus and Brunus. One from taste is Sapidus, a metonym however, probably, from Weise, Wiseman. Frederic Barba-rossa, i. e. russa, red, will be familiar to all. (Gildeber- tus is said to signify much the same Rutilus barb&.) There are many Lupuses; and a Canius, who was a Netherlander, de Hondt, the Hound. Wolfgang, a common prenomen, appears to have been simply furnished with the termination -us; although it is explained to be Lupi incessus, Wolfeait. Musculus, diminutive of Mus, is Mauslein, Little mouse. Crusius is a quasi-Latinisation of the. Low-German Kruys, Cross; also of Kraus. There are likewise a Crucius, a Cruciger and a Cruci- gerus. Van Horn became Ceratinus, ‘keras’ being ‘horn.’ Vander Steen was \ Lapide, ‘steen’ being ‘lapis.’ Erastus is Lieber, akin respectively to Hrasmus and Liebhaber, ‘liebe’ being ‘eros,’ love. Thomas Naogeorgus is Thomas Kirchmeyer, ‘naos’ being ‘ Kirch, ecclesia,’ and ‘ meyer,’ colonus-villicus, farm-bailiif. Several authors are named Cellarius; all probably Kellners, that is Cellarers: one, in 1661, published in Amsterdam an Atlas of the Heavens. There are three Opsopcei, in all likelihood Kochs, that is, Cooks. Jatinised names from trades or occupations are numerous. Pellicanus was Kurshner, Furrier, one dealing in pelles, peltries. Messenmaker, Cutler, is Cultrifex, in 1479, from culter, a knife. Hermanus Vigulus was Herman Topfer, Potter. We meet with Pis- cator, Fischer; Agricola, Pachter, Farmer; Serrarius, Sawyer, Holz- sager; Caspar Sagittarius, Archer, Bogenschiike ; with Latomus, Miner, Steinbrecher; with Sartor, and Sartorius, Taylor, Schneider; with a Pistor, Baker, doubtless Becker; a Ravisius Textor, Weaver, Weber; a Tinctor, Dyer, Farber; a Sutor, Shoewright, Schuster; and a Lapidanus, Stoner, Steiner: also with a Kaiser Karl Fidicen, who was surely a Fiddler, Geiger, or Lutist, Lother. A Felix Fidlerus or Fiedlerus occurs. The last epistle written by Melanchthon was to a Johannes Aurifaber, Goldsmith. It is signed “Philip Melanchthon, brevi moriturus,”’ p. 430, Hd. Elzev. 1647. Georgius Acanthius we may suppose to have been George Dorn, that is, Thorn. Rivinus, the botanist, we know, was Bachman, from bach, beck, rivulus, rivus; and Vander Boeken or Beken, Torrentius. Vander Bosch was Sy!- vius, and Fagius was Buchlein, diminutive of Beech. AQ ON METONYMS. Printers as well as authors allowed their names to appear in Latin and Greek forms. Several of the metonyms already noticed apper- tained to printers. Oporinus is Herbst, that is, Harvest. Hucharins Cervicornus, at Cologne in 1520, is Eucharius Hirschhorn, Staghorn. (We meet with Cornucervinus also for Von Hirschhorn.) Petrus Ceesaris, a Hleming, was Pieter Keysere. Petrus Perna was Peter Ham, Schinte. Grapheeus was probably Schreiber, and Cephaleeus ‘Hauptmann; Nicolaus Lupus, Wolf, was a printer at Lyons in 1499. We have not at hand the famous Epistole Obscurorum Virorum. Some amusing imitations of metonymised names would doubtless be found therein. It is unnecessary to remark upon such direct Latinisations as Zump- tius, Zuinglins, Vossius, Arminius (Hermansen); or on such obvious ones as Vredius for de Vree, Venius for Van Veen, Arimeeus for Van ~ Arum, Musius for Muys, or Cheerius fur Vander Keere, which in French is du Tour, that is, like Keere in Low-German, Turn or Cir- cuit. Dodonzeus, a physician and botanist in 1616, is Dodoens. Christian Gottlob Sachs was first Sachsius; then Saxius. Zypeus is Vanden Zype. Judex is the name of a Danish writer on Printing. (We lave the name Judge in English.) A Danish mathematician was named Nico- laus Raymarus Ursus. The Icelandic author of the Orkneyinga Saga, sive Historia Orcadensium, printed at Copenhagen in 1780, Jonas Joneeus, is, in effect, Jonas ap Jones. Reinier Gemma, surnamed the Frisian, must have been Jeweel, Jewel, in his own vernacular Low- German. A surgeon of Ghent is renowned in 1722 under the name of Palin- genius. This appears to have been a fanciful expansion of his real name, which was Palfin. In like manner, from a partial similarity of sound, the name of the Cretan grammarian Moscopulus was usurped by Peter von Musschenbrock, literally, Swallow-brake. Noviomagus is simply a local name for Nimeguen, anciently Nieuwmegen. His real name was Geldenhaur; as that of Pomeranus was Bugenhagen. My- conius we once supposed to be a Grecising of some word signifying Baldhead ; but Pipericornius, literally Pfeffercorn, Peppercorn, in his Chronicon Thuringiacum, says, Fuit Myconius alio nomine Mecum dictus; but what Mecum may be a corruption of, is not evident. Tabernzemontanus, a naturalist, whose Hicones Plantarum appeared at Frankfort in 1588, was so named from his having been born at TAO 9 Mega Mey em P 3S ce ii af ON METONYMS. 43 Tabernse Montane, that is, Bergzabern, a town in the Palatinate (stadt in der Pfalz). The famous name Paracelsus was probably intended to express a relation to Celsus, the great medical philosopher of the first century, and seems to be formed on the analogy of ‘ paradoxus,’ ‘contrary to opinion ;’ as though it would describe one who could astonish Celsus. Two of his Tracts are entitled respectively, Paragranum, Paramirum. It has however been imagined by some that ‘ Paracelsus’ has reference to ‘Hohenheim,’ a place from which his father derived an agnomen ; the family-name being Bombast von Hohenheim. The complete series of names possessed or assumed by Paracelsus himself was: Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Paracelsus Bombastus ab Hohenheim Hremita. He was born in 1493 at Hinsiedeln, the site of an ancient Swiss monas- tery: in monkish phraseology, the neighborhood was styled Helvetize Eremus. Hence comes the final term in the series of names borne by Paracelsus, Eremita. Theinflated and mysterious words adopted profes- sionally by Paracelsus are said to have been the original ‘ Bombast,’ as applied to language. Here is a brief specimen of a letter of his to Erasmus, who had consulted him at Bale in 1522: ‘ Quee mihi sagax musa et Astoos tribuit medica, candidé apud me clamans: similium judiciorum manifestus sum auctor. Regio hepatis pharmacis non indi- get, nec alize duee species indigent laxativis. Medicamen est magistrale arcanum potius ex re cdmfortativé specifica ex melleis abstersivis, id est, consolidativis.’ More follows. (The Astoos is probably the mys- tic familiar, Azoth, kept by ‘Bombastus,’ as Butler speaks, Hud. mi. ]. 628, “shut in the pummel of his sword.) Hrasmus appears to have been well pleased with the opinion given. In his reply he says: ‘Demiror unde me tam penitus noris semel duntaxat visum. Ainig- mata tua non ex arte medic&, quam nunquam didici, sed ex misero sensu verissima esse agnosco, &c. The great specific of Paracelsus was a tincture of opium: a remedy omnino laudandum: hence by popular corruption our familiar word ‘laudanum.’ In the metonymising of Italian personal names, the process is often simply to revert to the original form of the word. As when Perbuono becomes Perbonus; Giovinazzo, Juvenatius; Paolo Giovio, Paulus Jovius; Giovanni Giocondo, Johannes Jucundus; Feboni, Phoebo- nius, Vettori, Victorius; Settali, Septalius; Navigero, Naugerius. Thus, Accorsi, author of the ‘Great Gloss,’ a work on Law in six folio volumes, published in the 13th century, is also Accursius. Some- times a compound name is represented by a similar compound, as when owe ts] a! att, SPUN RAD, Cee fg yhy ; wo 44 ON METONYMS. Mezzobarba, the name of an aunotator on Occo’s Numismata Impera- torum. Romanorum, becomes Mediobarbus. Sometimes the name is Latinised by a translation of its meaning in Italian: as when Banchieri, Bankers, Exchange-brokers, became Cambiatores, and Ricci, ‘of the curled locks,’ professor of Belles Lettres at Florence in 1500, became Crinitus, and Pietro Capretto, an Italian mystic writer in 1492, became Petrus Heedus (kid). Giovanni Giglis is Johannes de Liliis, Giglis being from Giglio for Lilio, that is Lilium, Anglicé, Lily. Occasion- ally the name is Grecised in a similar manner: as when Forteguerra becomes Crateromachus, ‘Strong i’ th’ Fight,’ and Buonacorsi is sup- posed to be sufficiently expressed by Callimachus, signifying probably for the occasion, ‘Of graceful action in the Tournament.’ Johannes Victor Rossi, a Roman satirist, is, somewhat mixedly, Janus Nicius Krythreeus, and Giampietro Arrivabene, elegantly, Hutychius. Ritius represents Riccio; also Riz, Ris and Rit. One would have supposed that Galeotto, ‘ Galley-slave,’ would have choser some more elaborate metonym than ‘Galeottus.’ By entitling a work of his ‘De vulgo In- cognitis,’ he, in the 15th century, forestalled the ‘Things not generally known’ of Mr. Timbs. Loeal, territorial and family appellatious are expressed by appropriate local and gentile adjectives. Thus Rucellai, head of the Platonic academy at Florence, is Oricellarius ; Chiaramonti, Claramontius ; Lorenzo de’ Medici, Laurentius Mediceus; Ambrogio di Calepio, Am- brosius Calepinus. In Belcarius (Hist. Rer. Gallicarum), Ercole d’ Este becomes Hercules Atestinus. We have an interest on this continent in the name of Amerigo Ves- pucci. On the title page of his Novus Mundus, addressed to Lorenzo de’ Medici, it is metonymised into Albericus Vespuccius. Albericus was softened into Americus: Italianised, it became Amerigo. In old French he is called Emeric de Vespuce. This identifying of Amerigo with Albericus determines the prosodiacal quantity of the penultima of America in Latin, all the Teutonic proper names in -icus having it long; but custom has rendered it short in America. In a volume of Latin and other verse in the Bodleian, of the date 1761, we have the old soldier of the reign of George II. describing his exploits on this continent and speaking in good iambies of Americ sinus, et immanes lacus, Comata sylvis montium cacumina, Gravesque lapsus fluminum, urbium situs Et barbarorum corpora, et vultus truces, &e. ey hte, Uae shy ABST OS Se Maen ON METONYMS. 45 The familiar name of Columbus is the pure Latin form of the old North Italian and old French Colon, which in the latter language is also Coulon. Both are corruptions of Columbus, the masculine form of Columba, Dove. Peter Martyr looks as if it were a name belonging to our list of metonyms, but deceptively so. There are two Peter Martyrs. One the author of an Enchiridion de Nuper sub Carolo repertis Insulis, printed at Bale in 1521, and of the De Orbe Novo Decades octo, printed at Alcala in 1530: works of interest, both of them, to us on this continent. On the title page of the old translation of the first-mentioned little tractate his name figures as Pierre Martyre de Millan: and in a copy of the work, now lying before us, he is styled Petrus Martyr, ab Anglerié, Mediolanensis. The other Peter Martyr is the reformer so called, who was a native of Florence and professor of Divinity at Oxford in the reign of Edward VI. His family-name was Vermiglio or Vermeille, Latinised into Vermilius. Petrus Martyr was the name under which a church hard by his father’s house was dedicated. This suggested a baptismal name for the child. - Dante’s name is an abbreviation of Durante; and Durante, as an Italian family-name, is Latinised into Durandus. In the case of the poet, however, it assumes a kind of Greek form, Dantes, when meto- nymised. In Keble’s Preelectiones de Poeticae Vi Medic& he appears as Dantes Aligherus (to express Allighieri); and in the Poemata et Tnscriptiones of Landor we have Danten seecula quina transierunt Cum Florentia funebres honores Solvit manibus optimi poetee. ' In the church of St. Onofrio at Rome is to be seen the brief inscrip- tion over the remains of Tasso: Torquati Tasst OssA. Tasso we thus learn became Tassus, just as Bembo became Bembus. Paolo Sarpi, better known as Fra Paolo and Father Paul, historian of the Council of Trent, is Paulus Sarpus. But his name is often concealed under the anagram Pietro Soave Polano, formed from the words Paolo Sarpi Venetiano. (There is a writer on German Typography, named Paul Pater.) Aldo Pio Manuzio, the father of the Alduses, each, like himself, a learned printer either at Venice or Rome, is Aldus Pius Manutius. Aldo itself is said to have been Theobaldo abbreviated. The name of Tifi Odassi, a writer of Macaronic verse in the 15th century, has, like that of the artist Taddeo Gaddi, when uttered by Ttalian lips, an Hibernian ring. In Latin it is dignified into Typhys 46 ON METONYMS. Odaxius. This was probably a taking advantage of sounds. Giovanni Paolo Parisio in that way became Johannes Paulus Parrhasius, a name famous in its day, and liable to be confounded with that of the artist- pupil of Socrates. (In passing, it may be remarked that some Irish names submit readily to the Italianising and Latinising process. The well-known Montreal name Donegana looks as if it were an example of this; and on the title page of a Compendium, in Latin, of Irish Church-histury, anno 1621, we have it set forth that it was composed ‘® Philippo Osulleuano Bearro, Iberno.’) In Nicolaus Laurentius for Cola di Rienzi, we have a correction in Latin of a kind of slang once in vogue in Italy in regard to names,—the custom, that is to say, of speaking of persons of note by abbreviated, nursery-names. Giotti’s name is said to be a fragment of Ambrogiotto, that is, little Ambrogio or Ambrosius. Italian writers Latinised the Scottish name Crichton into Critonius. In Italian itself the famous Crichton was Giacomo Critonio. Buchanan makes it Crihtonius. Here we have helps to the pronunciation of the original name. In Latin versions of some of the treatises of Savonarola, that name is treated as purely classical. We have also his letters printed at Paris in 1674: Hier. Savonarolee Hpistole. He is ordinarily known as Hieronymo and Girolamo da Ferrara: and is frequently quoted as Hieronymus Ferrarius, that is, by his Christian and local names Latinised. Old English writers speak of him as Jerome of Ferrarie, and Jerom Ferrarie. The proud name of Julius Caesar Scaliger or Scaligerus, eminent in the literature of the 16th century, was properly J. C. della Scala, of the della Scalas de Bordone, who were allied, it was asserted by Julius, to the princely della Scalas of Verona. Some who were irritated by the arrogance and ostentatiousness of Julius, professed to know that his name was simply Bordone; and that della Scala denoted the sign of his father’s trade or the street where he lived. Joseph Justus, the illustrious son of Julius, took the trouble to re-assert a family connec- tion with the noble della Scalas. This drew forth from Gaspar Sciop- pius, at Mentz in 1607, a refutation, or supposed refutation of that claim—Sealiger Hypobolimeeus, (the supposititious Scaliger), hoc est, ilenchus Hpistole Josephi Burdonis, pseudo-Scaligeri de Vetustate et Splendore gentis Scaligeree. Sannazaranus is a quasi-Latinisation of Sannazzaro, St. Nazarius, author in 1502 of the Arcadia, a pastoral romance, which was, in part, the model of our own Sir Philip Sidney’s Arcadia. This writer is also spoken of by his academic pseudonym ON METONYMs. 47 Actius Syncerus. ‘The name of the Neapolitan poet Cariteo is the Ttalian form of his academic name, Chariteus. In this instance, the assumed name has caused the family-name to be forgotten. Among French metonyms, that of the Stephani will perhaps be the most familiar. Vernacularly, the Stephani were the Htiennes, Es- tiennes, or Stephenses, a succession of learned printers who, through- out the whole of the sixteenth century, did admirable service. Henry, Robert, and Henry, junior, of this name, have the honour to be some- times distinguished from each other in imperial fashion, as Stephanus L, IL, Iff. Charles, Paul and Antony Stephens were also printers, but of less note. Another familiar metonym to be noticed here, in connection with the Htiennes, although otherwise out of its place, is Scapula, probably Schulterblatt, Shoulder-blade. Not many years since, ‘Scapula,’ like ‘Donatus’ and ‘Calepinus’ previously, had almost merged its personal associations ia those of a book. A ‘ Donat’ was a grammar: a ‘Calepin,’ in French, was a note-book: and a ‘Scapula’ was, with us, a certain large Greek Lexicon. It had an origin not reputable. While Henry Stephens was bringing out his Thesaurus Lingue Greecee, an assistant in his printing-office, Scapula, secretly made an abridgment of that ponderous work, and subsequently pub- lished it at Bale. The lesser book, though itself of huge size, yet being the smaller of two evils,—(the greater being in the form of four folio volumes )—the sale of the latter was hindered, and the interests of Ste- phanus III. were so seriously interfered with, that his bankruptcy ensued. A Scapula, now, is philologically valueless. In the 16th century, we meet with the name Odet de Turnebu, borne by the author of a French comedy; and with Adrianus Turnc- bus, in the vernacular, Turnébe, a Greek scholar and critical annotator. This name is said to be, in fact, the Scottish name Turnbull, Gallicised first into Tournebceuf, and then partially Grecised into Turnebus, where -bus represents bous, that is, beeuf, although in verse the termi- nation is found short as well as long in quantity. The original Turn- bull, in the time of King Robert Bruce, was, according to the Scottish legend, called Ruel. In 1644 we find printed at Paris a volume in quarto entitled Adami Blacvodeei Opera Omnia, including Varii Gene- ris Poémata. We here hardly recognise, in its Latin guise, the fami- liar Scottish name of Blackwood. Marbceuf, a bishop of Rennes, Latinised his name into Marbodus. In Sammarthanus we have a base metonymisation of the name ‘de 48 ON METONYMS. Sainte Marthe.’ Two brothers of this name, Scaevola and Louis, began the Gallia Christiana, a Church-history of France, publishing four volumes in folio under that title, in 1656, a work that has since swollen, without being completed, to fourteen volumes in folio. With this name we may compare the probably more familiar ‘ Nostradamus ’— which is a similar base rendering of ‘de Notre Dame’—the name, in the vernacular, of the great ‘prophet’ of 1555, “médecin du Roj Charles IX., et l’un des plus excellents astronomes qui furent jamais,” so styled on the title page of the Lyons edition of his predictions in 1611. Lodelle’s epigram on this personage is well known :— Falsa damus cum nostra damus, nam fallere nostrum est, Et cum nostra damus, non nisi falsa damus. Hieronymus Natalis, author of Meditationes, & , in 1594, is Jerome Noél: that is: Noél having been, through the Provengal Nadal, Naél, originally Natalis, Noél is Latinised back into that form. Comitum Natalis, author of a work on Hunting, in 1681, is Noel des Comtes. Petrus de Natalibus, on the other hand, in 1493, is Pierre des Natalles. : In 1599 we meet with Guidonis Conchylii Poémata. These are the Poems of Guy Coquille, jurisconsult and poet. Cornelius 4 Lapide, author of ten folio volumes of Scripture-criticism in 1657, is Corneille de la Pierre. The great grammarian and dialectician, Ramus, slain in the massacre of St. Bartholomew, was in plain vernacular, Pierre de la Ramée. But Camus, Caylus, Simus, Datus, Reglus, Dumus, and some others of a like appearance, do not belong to our metonyms. Johannes Viator, a commentator on the book of Job, is Jean Péle- erin. Petrus Comestor, whose Historia Scholastica super Novum Testamentum was printed in 1473, was Pierre le Mangeur. Antonius Sylviolus is Antoine Forestier; and Sylvius is du Bois. Macarius is YHeureux. Dionysius Exiguus is Denis le Petit. Johannes Parvus is Jean Petit. Mercator is Mercier. Petrus Sarcinator is Pierre le Couturier. Auratus is Dorat. Calceatus is Chaussé. Clericus is le Clere Curtius is le Court. Clusius is de l’Hcluse. Crucius 1s Le Croix, Creuxius is Le Creux. (This Le Creux is the author of a Historia Canadensis, sen Nove Francie liber x, ad annum Christi MDLVI) printed at Paris in 1664.) Calvinus is Chauvin, Bald. Cognatus i8 Cousin. Paschasius is Pasquier. Regnius is le Roi. Renatus 18 Réné. Benenatusis Bienné, bookseller and printer in Paris in 1570. ON METONYMS. 49 Faber is Favre and le Fevre, 7. e. Wright or Smith. Aurifaber is Orfevre, ouvrier en or. Tannaquil Faber is Tannaguy le Fevre, father of the learned Madame Dacier. Belcarius (Rer. Gall. Hist., 4-5.) speaks of Jacobus vulgo Cor appellatus: Cordatum, he adds, quod Latinis aliud sonat [viz. Wise], quidam vocare malunt. This is the famous, so-called French Argonaut, Jacques Coeur, of the year 1480. (See an admirable portrait of him at the beginning of his Life, by Louisa Stuart Costello.) Johannes Vulteius, an epigrammatist of Rheims in 1557, is Jean Faciot, vultus and facies being akin. Omphalius is du Bellay, per- haps from a fancied connection with Umbilicus, through the Italian Ombelico, Bellico. Philibertus Hegemon, author of a book of Fables in 1583, is Philibert Guyde. Hadrianus Junius for Hadrian le Jeune seems to be a base metonym; as also are Pinus for du Pin and des Pins, and Feuardentius for Feuardent. A French copyist in 1844, is named Thomas Plenus Amoris: in English Fullalove occurs. Latinised local surnames are common: Nicolaus Vernuleus, author in 1656 of Johanna Darcia, vulgo Puella Aurelianensis, is Nicholas de Vernulz. Jacobus de Vitriaco is Jacques de Vitry. (We meet also with a Ph. R. Vitriacus.) Demontiosius is de Montjoisieu. Bellojo- eanus is de Beaujeu. Alanis de Insulis is Alaine de Isle. De Veteri Ponte is Vipont. De Capite Fontium is Cheffontaines. Porretanus is de la Porrée. Serranus is de Serres. lLicius is de la Lice. Baius, de Bay; Plovius, de Blonay. No remarks are necessary on Budeus for Budé, Fineus for Finé, Galleus for Gallé, Dureus for Duré or Dury, Danzeus for Danés, Cartesius for Des Cartes: on Petavius for Petau, Salmasius for Saumaise, Santolius for San- teuil: or on Muretus for Muret, Huetius for Huet, &c. Helvetius was probably, vernacularly, le Suisse, the Swiss. Theodorus Beza is Theodore de Béze, like our Beda for Bede. He was also fancifully transformed into Adeodatus Seba. De Thou, commonly known as Thuanus, President of the Parliament of Paris, in his’ Universal His- tory of the period 1546-1607, written in Latin, ingeniously translates the modern names, carrying the process to an extreme. With him, Chartier or Cartier is Quadrigarius, Charioteer; Entragues, Interam- nas; Des Marets, Paludanus, &c. In the Spanish and Portuguese languages, metonyms, when they occur, will be, in many instances, as in Italian, a return to a real or supposed ancient form. The Spanish name Sanchez thus becomes £ 50 ON METONYMS. Sanctius, and the Portuguese Hstago, Statius. Enzinas, the first trans- Jator of the New Testament into Spanish, is Grecised into its equiva- lent, Dryander, Oakman, Aikman. The first person who sailed round the world was a Spaniard named Sebastian Canus. A learned Spaniard, author of three folio volumes of Institutiones Morales, &c., named Azo- rius, died in 1603. An eloquent Spanish prelate who, dying at the age of 40, left twenty-seven folio volumes of Theology, was named Tostatus. Each of these appears to be a Latinised name. In Spain, during the Moorish occupation, Oriental and Western tongues were in close contact. From this fact we derive the advantage of having some difficult names moulded for us into convenient shape. Avicenna, for example, is more readily uttered than the full native name—Abu Ali Hussain Ben Abdalla Ben Sina. We speak of the great commentator on Aristotle as Averrhoes, instead of Ebn Roshd. Khases, a medical authority is, in full, Abu Beker Muhammed Ben Zacharia El Rasi. He is sometimes also Rhazeus. Albategnius is Muhammed Ben Gebir Albatani. Boabdilla is Abu Abdilah. Conversely, as we are informed, in Arabian writers Hippocrates figures as Bograt, Hipparchus as Abra- chis, and so on. In some Spanish documents referred to by Froude, the English name Hawkins appears as Achines. Oriental names and titles familiar to us through the Greek and Latin, as Xerxes, Darius, Ahasuerus, Porus, Chosroes, Sapor, would not be recognised by us in their vernacular forms. After the Greek civilisation had invaded the previously-isolated Palestine, a custom arose there of adopting for use in intercourse with western men, western names possessing, to some extent, a like sound. Hillel became Pollio; Joshua, Jason; Onias, Menelaus ; Silas, Silvanus; Saul, Paul; and Hebrew or Aramaic names were made to assume a Greek form, Eliakim becoming Alcimus; Amittai, Mattheus; Yeragon, Hircanus. Even translations of names occur: as when Hlnathan or Nathaniel becomes Dositheus or Theodotus. Ter- tullian’s untenable theory may here be referred to: Quis nescit, he asks in his Liber Apologeticus against the ‘Gentes,’ nomen Iovis 4 Iehova deductum; et Adonis ab Adonai, Iacchi & Jah, et Vulcani 4 Tubal Cain, et Muszei 4 Moyse, et Iani, quo Noahum intelligo, & Iain vino. ‘¢ By such devices,’ Huet said to Bochart, “the Hebrew or its dialect is made to furnish the origin of the names of King Arthur, and all the knights of the round table of Charlemagne, and the twelve worthies of France; and, if required, of all the Incas of Peru. Was it not won- RUMREME eter Me F UML ike bs yh a ca Li , ON METONYMS. 51 derful sagacity ina German whom I knew, who would prove that Priam and Abraham, Adineas and Jonas, were the same persons ?” In the case of Chinese names the process of Latinising has been of use. Western men would not be in the habit of speaking so readily of Confucius and Mencius had not some ingenious Latinist brought Kung- fu-tse and Meng-Tseu into those respectable forms. In like manner Tao-tze might be Taocius. (Somewhat similarly, Zerdusht or Zara- thustra has been moulded into Zoroaster.) Sclavonie proper names, as exemplified in some Polish and Russian esamples, look as if it would be difficult to make them presentable in Latin or Greek form. But to one familiar with the philological history of such names a legitimate mode of metonymising them would present itself. It is evident that such names as Przezdziecki and Oleszezynski, without manipulation, would look ill at ease in a page of Latin. Sar- biewski, we observe, is metonymised into Sarbievius, and the family of Leszynsky is spoken of by de Thou as the domus Lascinia. The real name of the Polish poet Acernus, who died in 1608, was Klonowicz. (A sister of the emperor Justinian, by birth a Meesian, was called in her native speech Biglinitza: in Latin she became Vigilantia.) Early Teutonic names have been subjected to the metonymising pro- cess. ‘I'o the Latinisation of such names as Merwig, Chlotwig, Die- trich, are due the familiar Merovens, Merovingian, Ludovicus, Louis, Theodoric. Deutsch or Teutsch itself was transformed in Italy into Theotiscus, whence the familiar, but (until lately) detested name Tedesco. Ona medal of Gregory VIII., commemorative of the mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew, we have the legend VconorronuM SrraGegs, 1572, where the word Huguenots, or Kid-genossen, Oath-bound asso- ciates, is metonymised, without being translated. Our ‘ Vortigern,’ however, is more euphonic than the Latinised names assigned him by Gildas and Nennius. In the former he is Gurthrigurnus: in the latter, Guorthigirnus. In England, the Latinisation of a proper name has seldom availed to supersede its vernacular form; nor does it appear that the practice of translating into expressions of equivalent meaning was in much favour. In a few instances, local epithets as designating individuals became familiar. Verulamius would be pretty widely recognised; but popularly, to this day, Francis, Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Albans, is simply Lord Bacon. Armachanus would be held to denote either the pre-Reformation reformer Richard Fitz Ralph, archbishop of 52 ON METONYMS. Armagh in 1347, who translated the Bible into the Irish language; or else the illustrious James Usher, archbishop of the same see in 1626. Malmesburiensis might be taken perhaps for Thomas Hobbes; or else for William of Malmesbury, whose real name was Somerset. Odericus Vitalis is always quoted under that Latinised form. He was born at Shrewsbury in 1075. (The name of the Continental Vitalis is said to be a conceit for Vita Lis, ‘Life is a Strife.”) Asserius Menevensis, the adviser of Alfred the Great, is usually Asserius; but he is some- times Azurius, from the Welsh asur, azure. He was a native of Wales. Giraldus Cambrensis is seldom Anglicised. Caius is Key or Kaye. Faber is, as we have seen, Wright or Smith. Carus may be a Latinisation of Car or Ker. (Buchanan so Latinises Ker.) Alabaster is Arblaster, 7. e. Arbalistarius, Low-Latin for a cross-bowman. Sylves ter is Boys, duBois. Nequam was probably, in the first instance, Neck- ham. With ‘William Rufus’ all are familiar. Czesar, as an English surname, has arisen from the disuse of areal family surname. Sir Julius Cesar, master of the rolls, in the reign of James I., thought fit to drop the surname borne by his Italian ancestors. His father’s name, on his migrating to England, from Previso, in 1550, was Cesar Adelmare- Dalmare, or Dalmarius. The first Earl of Chester, nephew of the Conqueror, was Hugh Lupus. Plantagenet comes near the Latin, de Planta Genista, ‘wearing the cognisance of the broom-spray.’ Duns Scotus means probably ‘ Duns of the northern dialect.’ He was born in Northumberland. LHrigena, on the face of it, is Erin-born. His full name was Johannes Scotus Erigena—a tautology probably, as in A. D. 880 Scotus alone would denote one ‘ EHrin-born.’ Pelagius is a Grecising of Morgan, Armoricus, ‘ of the sea-board.’ He was abbot of Bangor in a. D. 400. Reginaldus Polus and Poli Synopsis are combi- nations not unfamiliar to the English eye. Hach involves a Latinisa- tion of the common name Poole. Patrick Young, librarian to James I., metonymised his name into Patricius Junius. There is an author in 1602 of a Historia Britannize Insule ab Origine Mundi, named Richardus Vitus, who, at Basingstoke, where he was born, would have been vulgarly known as Richard White. (Among continental writers there is a Hugo Candidus. Rhabanus Maurus was, as we have already seen, famous in the ninth century, together with numerous Nigers before and since.) Bovill is Bovillus, Bullock. Erasmus so Latinises the name of his English correspondent Bullock. Lovell is Lupellus, diminutive of Lupus. Llewellin has been Latinised into Leonellus. ON METONYMS. ie Brunel also probably represents indirectly an animal name. The popu- lar satires in which beasts and birds are made to speak and act like men, brought into common use such terms as Reynard, Grimalkin, Bruin, Chanticleer, Partlet. ‘There was in circulation in the 12th cen- tury a Speculum Stultorum, entitled Brunellus; where Brunellus stands for a well-known patient but much abused quadruped. ‘The author of this production was an English monk named Nigel Wiroker.— Hrasmus makes Colet, Coletus, although the name, uncorrupted, is said to be Acolyta. Sir Thomas More, Hrasmus metonymises into Morus. Influenced by the sound, he playfully inscribes to the English Chan- eellor his famous satire, the Hncomium Moriz, ‘The Praise of Folly.’ ‘“Quze Pallas istuc tibi misit in mentem inquies?” he supposes More to say to him on the occasion; he replies: “ Primum admonuit me Mori cognomen tibi gentile, quod tam ad Morie yocabulum accedit, quam es ipse & realienus. Es autem vel omnium euffragiis alienissi- mus. Deinde suspicabar, hune ingenii nostri lusum tibi pracipué pro- batum iri, propterea quod soleas hujus generis jocis, hoc est, nec indoctis, ni fallor, nee usquequaque insulsis, impendio delectari, et omnino in communi mortalium vita Democritum quendam agere.’”’ Cecil, Lord Burghley, allowed his name to be converted into Cecilius, as though he had been descended from the gens Ceecilia of ancient Rome. The name was really Seysil, and previously Sitsilt. Belcarius, (de Beau- eaire, the reforming archbishop of Metz,) in his Rerum Gallicarum Commentarii, Latinises Seymour into Semerus. With him, Leicester as a title is Licestrianus, and Warwick, Varvicus. Erasmus styles the Marquis de Vere, Princeps Verianus. Payne Fisher, Oliver Cromwell’s poet-laureate, called himself Paganus Piscator. With Sleidan, in his translation (published at Amsterdam in 1656) of Froissart and Philip de Comines, Derby is Derbius, the Earl of Derby is Comes Derbius; Lancaster, Lencastrius; Gloucester, Cloces- trius; Harcourt, Haricurtius; Howard, Havartus; and St. Leger, Calangerius, where the English pronunciation of St. Leger is attempted to be expressed. The author of the so-called Chronicle of Turpin, first printed at Paris in 1527, makes Fergus, Ferragus and Ferracutus to be the same name. A quotation ina note to Browning’s Paracelsus speaks of ‘‘ Anglum quendam Rogerium Bacchonem.” This is Roger Bacon, the “wonderful doctor” of the 13th century to whose writings Paracelsus is reported to have been much beholden. 54 ON METONYMS. Hallam says of Buchanan’s Rerum Scoticarum Historia, “ Few modern histories are more redolent of an antique air.” Lit. Hist. ii. 356. The illusion is maintained by the classical sound of the proper names euphoniously metonymised, without regard, however, to their etymology. With Buchanan Ramsay is Ramszeus; Huntley, Hunt- lieus; Cunningham, Cunigamius; Andrew Ker, Andreas Carus; Colin, Calenus; Arthur, Arcturus; Bruce, Brussius; Eliot, liotus; Creighton, Crihtonius, &e. Wishart he ventures to make Sophocar- dius. The name of the early Scottish historian Hector Boethius is a Latinisation of Hector Boéce, Boeis, probably Boyce. Sometimes he is Beeotius. We have seen Boyd transformed into Bodius, Price into Priczeus, and Ross into Rosszeus. Alexander Ross, author of the curi- ous cento entitled Virgilii Evangelizantis Christias, thus Latinises his name: although at the close of his dedication ad Illustrissimum Pue- rum, Carolum, Magne Britanniz Principem, (afterwards Charles II.) he subscribes himself Alex. Ros (Dew). On the title page (ed. Lond, 1638,) there is a representation of himself, crowned with laurel, and blowing a trumpet: an epigram underneath, wate allusions to the con- ceit in Ros, explains the whole: Hee est Virgilii quam cernis buccina, nuper Muta, sed ad flatum nunc animata meum. Ilius hee laurus; jam nostra in fronte virescens Que, nisi Ros foveat, marcida laurus erit. Quid sine voce tuba est? vel quid sine Rors corolla? Buccina voce crepat, laurea Rors yviret. ‘Owen, the epigrammatist, is, on his own authority, and that of his encomiasts, at the beginning of his little volume, Audoénus. Andrew Borde, the original ‘merry Andrew,’ author of the ‘ Merrye Tales of the Madmen of Gotham,’ called himself, by a kind of Artemus-Ward effort, Andreas Perforatus (Bored). The title page of Howell’s ‘ Fami- liar Letters’ has a Ciceronian aspect by virtue of its first heading— Hpistole Hoelliane. Fuller, in his Worthies of England, (i 407) plays in his usual strain, on the name of Bp. Jewel. ‘It may be said of his surname, nomen, omen; Jewel his name and precious his vir- tues; so that if the like ambition led us Englishmen, which doth for- eigners, speciously to render our surnames in Greek or Latin, he may be termed Johannes Gemma, on better account than Gemma Frisius entitleth himself thereunto.” (Gemma Frisius we have already noticed.) ON METONYMS. 5D The ambition in ‘ foreigners’ here slightingly glanced at by Fuller, was at a later period satirised by Arbuthnot in the proposed ‘ Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus’; and by Sterne in his pretended quotations from Slawkenbergius, Metheglingius, &e. Almost the only names of Latin sound wont to be mentioned in modern English literature are those of the abstractions, Juniusand Sylvanus Urban. In the Poémata et Inscriptiones of ‘Savagius Landor’ the recent names of Brougham, Canning and Southey appear as Brogamus, Caninius and Sutheius. A few titular episcopal signatures of Latin form, also, continue to be familiar to the English eye; such as Oxon., Ebor., Winton., abbre- viations of the proper local adjectives in Latin. It is a note of the temper of the times, that a practice has crept in of writing, in the sense here referred to, Exeter instead of Exon., London instead of Londin. (short for Londiniensis). (According to old usage, ‘Toronto’ in this sense, should be written ‘Toronton ;’ ¢.e. Torontonensis; episc. being understood; on the analogy of Avenionensis from Avenio, Sulmonensis from Sulmo, &c.: and Colombon. for Colombonensis from Colombo in Ceylon.) It is not wholly alien to our subject to mention here that although Canadensis is a usually received term, in Science and Latin prose, Ferrarius, in his work on the ‘Culture of Flowers,’ printed at Rome in 1783, repeatedly employs Canadanus. He speaks of “ fraga Canadana insolite magnitudinis,” ‘Canadian strawberries of an extra- ordinary magnitude,’ and of a “vitis Canadana,” ‘a Canadian vine,’ as flourishing in the Gardens of the Barberini palace. (The word seems to be founded on the analogy that has produced Cuban from Cuba, Texan from Texas.) A local possessive formed in Latin from ‘Ontario,’ viz. Ontarius, may also have some interest. It occurs in the Bedleian volume of Academic verse of the time of George IL., before referred to: “ Jamque nove gentes et centum uberrima regna Se Britonum titulis ultro regalibus addunt. Ex quo preruptis scopulis plaga pinea vastum Obsidet Osvegum, sonituque per arva marino Lata fremit, lacuumque Ontaria maxima seyvit.” In 1551 Sebastian Castalio or Castellio produced a translation of al] the books of the Bible in flowing aad pleasant Latin. It is dedicated to our Edward VI. In it, the Jewish and other oriental names have a classic aspect, by being provided with suffixes and declined in accord- ance with the demands of the construction. Sir John Cheke said of 55 ON METONYMS. this translation: (vide p. xxxii. Introduction to Castalio)—‘ Mehercle, majorem percipio fructum in legendo Castellionem quam in volvendis omnium scriptorum commentariis: oratio facilis est, explicata, dilucida, suavis, concinna et diserta: verba pura et Latina et que propius natu- ram rationemque Greece Hebraiceeque locutionis attingunt.” For comparison, here is a passage from Castalio: ‘Pudet confractum Moabitam, ejulate quiritantes, nunciate ad Arnonem periisse Moabi- tam, sumptumque supplicium esse de terra campestri, de Helone, de Jasa,....denique de omnibus Moabitice terree oppidis tam remotis tam vicinis.” The corresponding passage in the Vulgate version runs as follows: ‘‘ Confusus est Moab, quoniam victus est: ululate et cla- mate, annunciate in Arnon quoniam vastata est Moab, et judicium venit ad terram campestrem; super Helon, et super Jasa, .. . . et super omnes civitates terree Moab, quae longe et prope sunt.” In 1661, Duport, regius professor of Greek in the University of Cambridge, turned the Psalms of David into Homeric Greek, exhibit- ing much ingenuity in metonymising the Hebrew names. The follow- ing might be a couplet from the Iliad: Shwva Kparepodpor’ Apoppatwy Baowja, Kai Bacdvowo péidovta, rehwpioy dBpipoy “Qyor. The reader of Aristophanes will remember how readily the Greek language lends itself to the manufacture of humorous compound terms. Modern Greek is equally adapted to the same purpose. A translation of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, published at Athens in 1854, renders the names given to the characters in that book, very well. Turnabout is Eumetabolos: Smoothman, Glucologos: Mr. Anything, Alloprosallos : Mr. Vain-confidence, Mettaiotharrhes: Giant Slaygood, Agathoctonos : Dare-not-lie, Phugopseudes: Standfast, Hustathes: Madam Bubble, Pampholux: Father Honest, Gero-Timios. This last epithet reminds one of the modern Greek term ‘caloyer,’ which possibly may have per- plexed readers of Childe Harold. It is the modern Greek Kalo-ger, pronounced -yer, Kalos gern, ‘the good old man,’ ‘the good father’: the word occurs in connection with a description of the monastery of Zitza in Albania : “The convent’s white walls glisten fair on high: Here dwells the calo-yer, nor rude is he, Nor niggard of his cheer.” Cua. Har. ii. 49. 57 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY : AN EXPOSITION AND CRITICISM. BY THE REY. J. CLARK MURRAY, PROFESSOR OF MENTAL AND MORAL PHILOSOPHY, QUEENS COLLEGE, KINGSTON. ARTICLE IV.— Criticism of Hamilton’s System, Continued. The -last article of this series was occupied with the criticism of Hamilton’s doctrine of consciousness, which may be regarded in the light of an introduction to his whole system of philosophy. The next subject, which I propose to discuss, is the doctrine of External Perception, inasmuch as it seems to me to involve a greater number of the most important principles of his philosophy than any other doctrine. Referring for the details of his theory of perception to the exposition of his system in the second article of this series, I think it necessary here merely to recall the general position, which he endeavours to defend and explain, that man has an intuition or immediate knowledge of a nonego or matter as existing in space. That we possess such an immediate knowledge, he maintains, is the natural or unbiassed testi- mony of human consciousness; and accordingly he names his own system Natural Realism. On the other hand, those who deny such an immediate knowledge of matter, but still maintain that matter really exists, are obliged to explain by various hypotheses our belief in its reality ; and these philosophers he accordingly proposes to name Hypo- thetical Feealists. The system of Hypothetical Realism is that which has found most general favour among philosophers, and it is that which Hamilton has set himself specially to overthrow. The present article will be devoted mainly to the criticism of his polemic against this system. (A.) The first point, which demands attention in connection with this subject, is Hamilton’s appeal to the natural testimony of human consciousness as being in favour of his position, that man has an intui- tive knowledge of an extended nonego. ‘That such is the natural testimony of our consciousness, he does not assert merely on his own authority, but he maintains to be proved by the admissions even of those philosophers who refuse to acknowledge the’ trustworthinezs of the testimony. 5 58 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. J. At the outset of this discussion, therefore, it is necessary to consider Hamilton’s citation of his opponents as admitting the fact of consciousness to which he appeals. A number of the most explicit statements conveying this admission are quoted in his Dissertation on the Philosophy of Common Sense, pp. 747—8,* and among these are to be found passages from the writings of Descartes, Berkeley, Hume, Schelling, Malebranche, Fichte, as well as of other philosophers. Ina passage in one of his lectures (Vol. I., pp. 289-92), where the same subject is discussed, Hamilton selects from these statements those of Berkeley and Hume; and we must therefore suppose that, at least when he wrote his lectures, these two quotations seemed to him the most suitable for his purpose. Yet it is impossible to avoid serious misgivings as to the propriety of citing either of those two philoso- phers as admitting the fact of the natural belief of mankind in the reality of the things which they perceive through the senses, while denying the authority of that belief The quotation from Hume, indeed, is, perhaps, less exceptionable than the other, but does not admit, when correctly interpreted, of being applied to the purpose for which it is adduced by Hamilton; but certainly there is no mode in which it is possible to justify his quotation from Berkeley. The passage quoted runs as follows: ‘“‘I do not pretend to bea setter up of new notions. My endeavours tend only to unite and place in a clearer light that truth, which was before shared between the vulgar and the philosophers: the former being of opinion, that those things they immediately perceive are the real things: and the latier, that the things immediately perceived are ideas which exist only in the mind. Which two notions put together, do, in effect, constitute the sub- stance of what I advance.” Now, even though Hamilton may not have comprehended the main drift of Berkeley’s philosophy, the above passage might have taught him that there is no sense in which his opponent could fairly be represented as rejecting the natural testimony of consciousness to our immediate perception of a material reality. On the contrary, that is a testimony to which, as Sir William Hamil- ton himself admits,; Berkeley may rightfully appeal, and actually “did appeal more confidently, perhaps more logically, than Reid.” Indeed, whatever judgment may be given as to the truth of Berkeley’s system, an impartial criticism cannot refrain from deciding that * See also Discussions, p. 92, note. + Reid’s Works, p. 817, note. SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 59 presents stronger claims to the name of Natural Realism than can be urged in favour of Hamilton’s. For (1) while the former attributes reality, in the sense in which he understands the term, to all sensible objects, the secondary as well as the primary qualities of matter indifferently, the latter limits our perception of reality to the primary qualities, though there cannot be a doubt that the natural instinct of mankind, unchecked by scientific reflection, is to believe, when a rose is before the eyes, that its color is not less real than its figure. Moreover (2) while the gist of Berkeley’s arguments is to prove that there is no unperceived reality underlying the objects of perception, Hamilton, in a measure, destroys the realistic aspect of his system by restoring, in his doctrine of the Conditioned, the unknown material sub- stance which his opponent relegates to the category of unfounded hypo- theses, contradicted by the natural convictions of mankind. It must thus (8) be evident further, and it will appear more fully in the sequel, that we are left in irremediable perplexity as to what Hamilton meant by reality in consequence of his recognising realities underlying those which are the immediate objects of perception, whereas the reality which Berkeley attributes to these objects, and which, he believes, is also attributed to them by the vulgar, has always a specific significa- tion. But whatever may be thought of these remarks on the compara- tive claims of the Hamiltonian and Berkeleyan philosophies to be regarded as systems of Realism, it does not admit of doubt that Berkeley can, in no fair view of his system, be represented as re- jecting the admitted belief of the human mind as the reality of the things perceived through the senses. The utmost that can be said is, that his understanding of what is meant by reality differs from Hamil- ton’s; but a different interpretation is very far from a total denial of the reality attributed to material things. The evidence wrung from Berkeley in favour of his Scottish opponent’s assertion is thus found to break down under examination ; and when we look into Hume’s evidence, we find that it can scarcely stand such a test any better. The passage quoted, it must be remembered, occurs in the Hssay on the Sceptical or Academical Philosophy; and the statements cited are written from the Sceptical point of view, asserting nothing dogmatically either for or against our natural beliefs, but merely poising against each other antagonistic conclusions of the human mind, so as to exhibit the instability of all purely speculative results. In the passage adduced by Hamilton the equipoise instituted 60 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. is between the natural belief of mankind in the reality of the pheno- mena presented in perception and the philosophical doctrine which attributes reality only to an unperceived substance underlying these phenomena. Now, although Sir William Hamilton does maintain the immediate objects of perception to be in some sense real, yet there is ‘another sense in which he persistently refuses to predicate real exis- ‘tence of anything but the unknown substratum of phenomena, for ‘which, in the passage under consideration, Hume asserts that there is ‘no proof. The sceptic therefore cannot be said to reject the above natural belief of men in any important sense in which it is not also ‘rejected by his opponent; and consequently his evidence cannot be admitted in the case in which it is adduced. It may, however, be allowed that Hume’s positive doctrine is ‘founded on a rejection of this natural belief, which he yet acknow- ledges to exist. The belief, to which Hamilton appeals, must be an original belief of the human mind; and he admits that his reasoning would be invalidated by disproving the originality of the belief.* Now, this is precisely what Hume endeavours to disprove. The belief of men, the existence of which he acknowledges, is one which he holds to be acquired ; and, as already mentioned in the first article of this ‘series, he employs an elaborate chapter in the Treatise of Human Nature in tracing its genesis. There is thus an additional ground on which it is imposssible to accept Hume’s evidence as testimony to the -existence of the belief, to which Hamilton appeals; and it is the more ‘remarkable that Hamilton did not see this, as one of the passages, to which he refers in this connection, seems to be in the chapter of Hume’s 7reatise, which endeavours to explain the origin of the belief. The remaining testimonies, it is to be feared, will all evaporate likewise before the light of examination. They all admit of being ‘explained as referring toa belief which is either not original or not rejected by the witnesses adduced in any sense in which it is not also ‘rejected by Hamilton in his doctrine of the Conditioned. ‘There is, for example, a brief quotation from the Cartesian De Raei, stating the ‘belief of mankind, “ Res ipsas secundum se in sensum incurrere.” ‘Can any one be far amiss in saying that Sir William Hamilton is among the philosophers who reject the doctrine that things in them- ‘selves (res tpsae secundum se, Dinge an sich) enter immediately into * Discussions, p. 92, note. ? SIR WILLIAM ITAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 61 the sensuous perceptions of the mind? Similarly the quotation from Stiedenroth’s Psychologie is capable of interpretation on either of the above suppositions, though one would require to be acquainted with the general doctrine of its author to explain with certainty the particular drift of this passage. It is unnecessary to dwell upon those passages to which Sir William Hamilton has referred without quoting them ; but one may well ask, though one can scarcely hope to answer, what inter- pretation, inconsistent with the doctrine of the Conditioned, it is possi- ble to put on the following quotation from Tennemann: ‘The illusion that things in themselves are cognisable is so natural, that we need not marvel if even philosophers have not been able to emancipate themselves from the prejudice. The common sense of mankind, which remains steadfast within the sphere of experience, recognises no distinction between things in themselves and phenomena; and the philosophising reason commences therewith its attempt to investigate the foundations of this knowledge and to recall itself into system.” * The witnesses, summoned with so much confidence by Sir William Hamilton, might therefore all be allowed to retire, on the ground that their testimony does not bear upon the point which it is adduced to prove, were it not that Sir William’s most distinguished antagonist allows the evidence of: a certain class of these witnesses. ‘ Those indeed,” says Mr. Mill, ‘“‘ who, like Kant, believe that there are ele- ments present, even at the first moment of internal consciousness, which do not exist in the object, but are derived from the mind’s own laws; are fairly open to Sir W. Hamilton’s criticism. . . . . . But, as regards all existing schools of thought not descended from Kant, Sir W. Hamilton’s accusation is without ground.’ + One cannot but feel at a loss in dealing with an assertion of this kind, not illustrated by any explanation, or supported by any defence; but the authority of the philosopher who makes the assertion claims for it some recognition in, this connection. Are we then, in deference to this authority, to admit that Hamilton is justified in compelling Kant and his followers at least to give evidence in his favour? I am obliged to acknowledge that I have altogether misinterpreted the drift of Kant’s philosophy, if Mr. Mill’s charge against it is well founded. Undoubtedly Kant holds that, even in our earliest perceptions, the relations of space and time, under * Examination of Sir W. Hamilton’s Philosophy, pp. 160-1. + Quoted in Discussions, p. 92, note. 62 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. which objects are perceived, as well as the categories of the under- standing, under which they are thought, are derived not from the objects, but from the mind’s own laws. Mr. Mill also holds that these elements in our knowledge of objects are derived from the mind’s own laws, and are not furnished by the objects themselves. The only differ- ence between his doctrine and Kant’s is in reference to the time at which these elements make their appearance in consciousness, the former maintaining, in opposition to the latter, that they are produced, not at once, but only after a more or less gradual process of association, although of course that process must have been accomplished before the period at which memory begins, and consequently at a period not very much later than that which is supposed in the theory of Kant. It is therefore an essential point in Mr. Mill’s doctrine regarding our know- ledge of matter, that the illusion of the externality, under which mate- rial things appear to us, is generated inevitably in accordance with the laws by which sensations and other mental states become associated ; and that this illusion, from the date of our earliest reminiscences, is so irresistible, that it can be dispelled only by the conclusions of psycho- logical enquiry—conclusions which are still so inadequately established, that they are rejected by a large number of those who are engaged in such inquiry. I do not on this account lay to the charge of Mr. Mill’s doctrine, that it exhibits, as Hamilton is fond of saying, ‘ our Maker as a deceiver, and the root of our nature asa lie.” It is competent for any one to maintain, and every scientific man does maintain, that there are illusions which the human mind naturally and inevitably creates, which it is the function of science to remove. But as this plea may be urged by Mr. Mill, it may with equal right be urged by the disciple of Kant. It matters not whether the mental forces, which give birth to the illusions destroyed by science, operate so slowly as to produce their results only after a comparatively long process, or so swiftly that their results emerge on the first outburst of mental activity. If indeed it were maintained by Kant that the human wind is so constituted as to be incapable of exposing the illusions to which it is naturally subject, his doctrine might be held liable to the accusation which Sir William Hamilton brings against it, and in which Mr. Mill joins But the creator of the modern German philosophy has not marred his system by such a flaw. If he holds that the mental faculties, from the very commencement of their exercise, originate illusory appearances, he holds quite as unequivocally that these faculties are themselves competent to SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 63 discover the illusory character of such appearances by a scientific criti- cism of the elements which constitute human knowledge. What, then, must we suppose, led Sir W. Hamilton to imagine that the statements of antagonistic philosophers, which we have now exa- mined, are to be interpreted as admissions in his favour? A solution of this question will probably be reached by examining the nature of the belief to which these statements refer, and by considering the _ manner in which that belief ought to be treated by the scientific student of the human mind. II. There cannot be a doubt that a belief, conviction, intuition, knowledge, consciousness, or whatever else one may choose to call it, of something external to, or different from, onese//, must be acknow- ledged to exist in the mind of every man. That in all my conscious- ness I am aware of that which is not I, apprehended as occupying space and as enduring in time, and that I cannot choose but be aware of it except by ceasing to be conscious,—this statement will be admit- ted by every human being to be the expression of a fact in his consci- ousness from the date of his most distant reminiscences down to the latest hour at which reflection is possible. Though it may be generally true, as Sir W. Hamilton more than once asserts after Varro, that there is no absurdity too great not to have found a supporter among any of the philosophers, I am confident that a special exception must be made in reference to the denial of this mental fact. At least it would have been interesting if Sir W. Hamilton, instead of collecting acknowledgments of this fact, had employed some of that curious learning, which has endeavoured to discover the “local habitation and the name”’ of the philosophical sect of Egoists, in hunting out any philosophers by whom the fact has been denied. The truth is, that this is not only one of the facts which the investigator of the human mind must study, but, when properly viewed, it is, as the most obtrusive fact in our mental history, also the prime fact in mental science, the explanation of, which inevita- bly drags in all the general questions suggested by the phenomena of human knowledge. On this account the fact under consideration necessarily occupies the most prominent place in the speculations of schools representing the most antagonistic tendencies of philosophical inquiry; and there are not wanting, in the writings of philosophers, most opposed to Sir W. Hamilton in their interpretation of the fact, statements, quite as explicit as any which he has penned, of the irresis- tibility and the immediacy with which in our ordinary consciousness __ a. i, Sots i oe ee oy Ore, (95 4 eee ee res Lt ee ee tee ee eee oe ys, x ‘7 sae = ta a. on 64 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. the intuition of an external objects makes its appearance. Could the Scottish philosopher desire, or could we find in his works, a clearer or more forcible expression of this intuition than is given in a passage from one of Schelling’s earlier writings,—a passage, which, if I have traced his reference correctly, is among those referred to, without being quoted, by Hamilton? ‘TI believe, no one will lightly deny that all trustworthiness of our knowledge rests on the immediateness of intui- tion. The philosophers of the highest genius speak of the knowledge of outward things as of a revelation which happens to us, not as if by that means they meant to explain anything, but to indicate, that it is in general impossible to bring about the connection between an object and its apprehension (Vorstellung) by means of intelligible conceptions. They name our conviction with regard to outward things a belief, either because the soul communicates most immediately with that which it believes, or, to express it in a word, because that conviction is a truly blind assurance, which does not rest on inferences (from cause to effect) or on proofs of any kind. Moreover one cannot see, how any opinion, which is produced only by means of arguments, can pass into the soul, can become the ruling principle of action and of life in such a manner as the belief in an external world. Whence comes this element of immediateness, and of insuperable certainty arising from immediateness, in our knowledge?” * This mental phenomenon then being one, whose existence is admitted by Sir W. Hamilton’s opponents as distinctly as by himself, it is evident that they did not consider such admission to be out of harmony with their theories of perception; and the impartial critic will, I am per- suaded, agree with their opinion. It is necessary therefore to point out the misapprehension which led Sir W. Hamilton to suppose that such an admission is irreconcilable with any theory but his own. One source of this erroneous impression has already been explained in treating of his doctrine regarding the authority of consciousness as the ultimate standard of appeal. It was then shown that he has failed to discriminate the general fact, that in an act of perception I am conscious, and the special fact, that in an act of perception I am conscious of an individual object. The former of these it would be the climax not of scepticism, but of madness, to question. It is easy enough moreover to state in * See Schelling’s Abhandlungen alr Hrlauierung des Idealismus der Wissens- chajislehre, U1. SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 65 popular language, which is satisfied with describing the superficial appearance of things, but it is far from easy to define with scientific exactness, the object of which I am conscious in an act of external perception. Let it however be supposed that this is not so difficult as it is In reality, we are still far from having determined with precision, what the testimony of consciousness is in such an act; and we are thus brought to a second source of the error into which Hamilton has fallen. We may suppose that every necessary precaution has been taken to discover and to describe exactly the phenomenon of consciousness which We are now discussing, and that, after the labours of numerous obser- vers and writers have been employed on it, we are now in a position to declare a certain statement universally accepted. Ié will, I believe, be acknowledged by all, though not perhaps in the very same terms, that external perception is an apprehension of something which appears at least to be different from the perceiving mind, as well as to be existent in time and in space; and that this apprehension bears from the very first so strong an appearance of immediateness, that it is taken by the unrefiective mind to be from the very first really immediate. Sir W. Hamilton’s theory is, that the testimony of consciousness is thus com- mitted to the doctrine of the real or original immediacy of external perception, and that conseqnenily the denial of this doctrine necessarily involves the rejection of that testimony. Now, in citing the authority of consciousness as in favour of any theory, there are certain laws by which Sir W. Hamilton taught his pupils to be guided. One of these, which he names the Law of Parsimony, enjoins “that nothing be assumed as a fact of consciousness but what is ultimate and simple.” In explaining this law he asks,* “ What is a fact of consciousness ? - - - - Inthe first place, every mental phenomenon may be called a fact of consciousness. But as we distiuguish consciousness from the special faculties, though these are all only modifications of conscious- ness—only branches of which consciousness is the trunk, so we distin- guish the special and derivative phenomena of the mind from those that are primary and universal, and give to the latter the name of facts of consciousness, aS More eminently worthy of that appellation. In an act of perception, for example, I distinguish the pen I hold in my hand, and my hand itself, from the mind perceiving them. This distinction is a particular fact—the fact of a particular faculty, perception. But * Lee. on Meiaph., vol. L, p. 260. See also Reid's Works, pp. 749-50. 66 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. there is a general fact, a general distinction, of which this is only a special ease. This general fact is the distinction of the Ego and the non-Ego, and it belongs to consciousness as the general faculty. When- ever, therefore, in our analysis of intellectual phenomena, we arrive at an element which we cannot reduce to a generalisation from experience, but which lies at the root of all experience, and which we cannot there- fore resolve into any higher principle,—this we properly call a fact of consciousness.’” We have here, then, a distinct statement of a rule by which we are restricted in appealing to the testimony of consciousness. The veracity of this testimony must not be supposed to be involved in the truth of the mental judgment contained in any phenomenon of consciousness. It is only when, after analysis, we have reached those facts which do not themselves admit of decomposition, that we are in a position to declare the veracity of our natural beliefs at stake, and on that ground to cite their authority. We may indeed make a narrower restriction, which would undoubtedly be admitted by Hamilton, that we are at liberty to cite the authority of consciousness only when, by means of the process which is more correctly called criticism than analysis, we have discovered those facts which have not merely resisted all attempts at decomposition hitherto, but must, from their characteristic attributes, be declared incapable of being decomposed. Now, it may safely be said that no one, who is inspired by an éarnest Jove of science, will hesitate to support Sir W. Hamilton in maintaining the unimpeachable veracity of such ultimate facts of consciousness, and the legitimacy of citing their evidence as an authority from which there is no appeal; but in order to render the citation of this authority valid in any particalar controversy, it must, on Sir William’s own showing, be first of all made out, that the fact adduced is truly u!timate and simple. In the present ease, therefore, it is not enough to have determined with scientific pre- cision the object of which we are conscious when consciousness has been developed into an act of external perception; it is absolutely requi- site to show that the differentiation of ego and nonego and the recog- nition of the nonego as occupying space have not been, and cannot have been, an evolution from simpler facts. Now, it will be found that Sir William Hamilton does adduce reasons, which must be acknowledged to be, if not perfectly conclu- sive, at least very forcible, to prove the ultimate character of the essential facts which are implied in external perception; and these reasons will afterwards demand our consideration. At present our SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 67 attention is limited to the question whether, in appealing to the authority of consciousness as establishing his theory of perception, he has fulfilled the conditions of his own test for determining the validity of such an appeal. Jt is evident, then, that, in order to meet the requirements of the prescribed test, his appeal should be made only after the fact appealed to has been shown ta be incapable of scientific interpretation except as one of the absolutely final results in the analysis of mental phenomena. From the circumstance that he adduces reasons to prove this with regard to the fact of external per-. ception, he might, at the first glance, be supposed to found his appeal on the conclusiveness of these reasons. Yet a more careful examina- tion will undoubtedly show that this is very far from being the ground on which he bases the validity of his appeal. In proof of this it might be deemed sufficient to refer the student of Sir William Hamilton’s writings to the impression produced by the general style in which he discusses this subject; but it is possible to point out several facts which establish incontrovertibly the above assertion. 1. It is important in this connection to notice, in the first place, the discussion, to which the twenty-fifth of his lectures on Metaphysics is devoted, on the objections to his theory of perception. That discussion is limited to two points, which he considers his opponents bound to establish in order to a successful polemic against his theory. We thinks that they were bound in the first place to adduce reasons sufficient to justify their rejection of the testimony of consciousness to our imme- diate knowledge of the nonego, and in the next place to substitute a legitimate hypothesis in room of the rejected fact. It is evident, from this account of its drift, that his discussion starts with assuming the original immediacy of perception ; and accordingly when we proceed to his criticism of the objections to his doctrine, we do not meet with the slightest expression of even a surmise, that the “ testimony”’ of consci- ousness under consideration might be rejected by some on the ground that perception can be explained by acknowledged psychological laws as a development from more elementary facts. , 2. It is further evident, that Sir W. Hamilton did not found his appeal to the veracity of consciousness in the present instance on the proved impossibility of analysing the phenomenon of perception, from his citation of the admissions made by his opponents. These admissions have been considered already, and it has been seen that they amount to 68 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. no more than a statement of the fact of perception as it appears in the consciousness of every man. Sir W. Hamilton, however, mistakes this statement for a concession of the very point at issue between him and the great majority of his antagonists, and it is on the ground of such a mistaken concession that he declares the testimony of consciousness to be in favour of his theory. 8. But the most conclusive evidence that Sir W. Hamilton has in the present instance forgotten the conditions which make an appeal to the testimony of consciousness valid, is the fact that he makes such an appeal at all. For such an appeal is altogether needless, if the condi- tion under which alone it may be made is fulfilled. To make the appeal allowable, the fact appealed to must be shown to be an absolutely elementary fact in human consciousness; and when this is done with regard to perception, the whole question at issue between the Natural Realists and their opponents is set at rest. It is wholly unnecessary. to plead the veracity of the primitive beliefs, out of which the phenomena of human consciousness have been generated; for the controversy, raised by the opposition to Natural Realism, is not, whether it is legiti- mate to set aside any of these beliefs, but whether the conviction, involved in external perception, is to be reckoned in the number of such beliefs at all. To appreciate Sir W. Hamilton’s position fully, however, we must consider this question in the state in which he took it up. It had from the first been urged against the philosophy of Common Sense, that it is only a retreat from unpalatable conclusions of science to the unscrutinised beliefs of mankind; and Sir W. Hamilton, referring to this charge, acknowledges that it comes home to some philosophers of the Common Sense school. ‘In this country in particular,’ he says,* ‘some of those who opposed it (the argument of Common Sense) to the sceptical conclusions of Hume did not sufficiently counteract the notion which the name might naturally suggest; they did not emphatically proclaim that it was no appeal to the undeveloped beliefs of the unreflective many; and they did not inculcate that it presupposed a critical exami- nation of these beliefs by the philosophers themselves. On the con- trary, their language and procedure might even sometimes warrant an opposite conclusion.” It cannot therefore be pleaded in Sir William Hamilton’s favour, that the rock, on which he has struck, is one whose * Reid’s Works, p. 752. SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 69 dangers have been made apparent only by researches subsequent to his own. Itis a xrock on which, we have just seen, he acknowledges that some previous investigators of his own school had been shipwrecked ; and it is consequently difficult to see how he should have run upon it so directly himself. There is room enough for conjecturing what can have led him into a course, against which he has uttered such unequivocal warnings ; it is possible that the true cause is to be found in what may be regarded as one of the great misfortunes—perhaps Ferrier was right in regarding it as “the one mistake,’ “—of his philosophical life, that he should have dedicated his powers to the service of the Common Sense school as represented by its most characteristic exponent, Dr. Reid. Whether external perception be a primitive intuition of the human mind or not, it was idle to refer to the ordinary and irresistible convictions of mankind except to discover the fact which it is the office of mental science to explain. To refer to these convictions, as if they superseded all the recognized processes of science, was to foreclose the very inquiries, which constitute the science of mind, into the nature and the origin of mental phenomena. Sir W. Hamilton, therefore, by accepting this philosophy as the highest effort of speculation, unfortu- nately bound himself to shape his theory of perception into harmony with it, and was accordingly forced to disallow the question with which the above quotation from Schelling concludes, “ Whence comes this element of immediateness and of insuperable certainty in our know- ledge?”’ To him our knowledge of external things 7s immediate; we know, and have a right to ask, nothing beyond that fact. If the areu- ment from common sense be, as is maintained by Hamilton, merely a reference to the ultimate and simple facts of human consciousness, then the Common Sense school is indistinguishable from other schools of speculation ; for there is no philosophy which does not professedly seek to discover by what smallest number of ultimate and inexplicable facts the phenomena of the universe may be explained, or which dreams of denying these facts after they have been discovered. But when any circle of inquirers distinguish themselves by their habit of appealing to common sense, it is difficult to understand for what purpose such an appeal can be habitually made, unless it be to array the unscientific’ opinions that are universally current among men against speculative conclusions which cannot be rebutted by the recognized methods of * Ferrier’s Lectures and Philosophical Renvains, vol. I., p, 489. ) +e hy 4 Mit Sy tn ay . / oe 70 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. science. The ordinary opinions of men will always oppose obstacles enough to the progress of scientific thought ; and it is unfortunate that Sir W. Hamilton should even have made an appearance of countenan- cing that kind of oppusition to the advancement of the science, in whose service few lives have been so faithfully spent. Still it is due to him to remember that the mistake he has made is in diametrical opposition to general principles of investigation which he has himself prescribed. Reviewing our discussion of the belief or conviction revealed in the perception of external things, we see that it is but one of the pheno- mena of the human mind which it is the office of mental science to study, and that therefore we should abandon science in favour of ordi- nary unscientific opinion, were we to foreclose at-once all inquiry into the origin, and composition of this’ belief by merely pleading that in the consciousness of all men it appears as a simple and ultimate fact. We have now, therefore, the way cleared for this inquiry, and for an exami- nation of Sir W. Hamilton’s contributions to its settlement. (B). In proceeding then to consider whether any scientific explana- tion can be given of perception, except by regarding it as one of the elements of which human consciousness is built up, it Is necessary to eliminate from the phenomenon all that is non-essential. Now, it will certainly be admitted by all that, in order to an act of perception, there must be something perceived, and perceived as something different from the perceiver. This is the highest generalization under which the objects of knowledge can be ranged; for in all knowledge there must be a knower and that which is known. But the object of external perception is, moreover, always perceived as here or there, as extend- ing from this point to that in various directions, as, it may be, moving from this position to that; in other words, it is always perceived as existing in space. I do not deny that it may be proved on scientific erounds legitimate to use the word perception for acts of knowledge, in which the object is known not under the relations of space; as, for example, to speak of perceiving the smell or the taste of an apple, the heat of a fire or the sting of a bee; but it will be allowed by all who understand the question we are now encountering, that it is advisable, till this question is settled, to apply the term in a stricter sense, only to those knowledges of which the object is perceived as occupying space. The objects of perception must also be perceived as existing in time, but this is a condition to which the objects of all consciousness are re- stricted. Still further, the objects of perception are perceived as offer- SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. as ing a resistance to the voluntary activity of the perceiver. Besides these four facts I know of no other constituent element of perception. . In strictness, therefore, there are only two facts essential, and at the same time peculiar to the mental phenomenon of sense—perception ; these are the facts, that the objects of perception are perceived as exist, in space, and as resisting our voluntary exertion. The perception of space and the perception of resistance present, consequently, a primary claim to consideration. But the more general aspect of perception, in which its objects are presented as different from the perceiver, is usually discussed along with the others, and it is so by Hamilton, who com- monly describes perception, in its most essential form, simply as an immediate knowledge of the nonego or not-self. It will, therefore, probably be found advantageous, at least in the present criticism, to follow the order thus pointed out, and commence our discussion with .this aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. J. It is unfortunately necessary, at the outset of this discussion, to insist most explicitly on a strict adherence to the precise meaning of the term nonego or notself. Clearly these words express nothing but the object of knowledge considered as different from the knower. If the object of knowledge admits of more specific determination, this is not implied in the designation of it as nonego.. The special inquiry, therefore, to which we are limited at present, seeks to discover merely how the ego becomes conscious of the nonego, how Z become conscious of that which is not I. Now, evidently, the consciousness of that which is not myself becomes possible only in contrast with the con- sciousness of myself, as the consciousness of self can emerge only in the simultaneous consciousness of notself. The inquiry, therefore, into the origin of our consciousness of the nonego reduces itself to the ques- tion, what originates in every human consciousness the antithesis of me and that which is not 1? Tivident though these statements seem to be, the looseness with which the correlative terms ego and nonego are used, shows that it is far from being unnecessary to direct attention to the facts stated. The most celebrated philosophical work, published within recent years, is undoubtedly the Examination of Sir W. Hamilton’s Philosophy by Mr. Mill; yet, in a chapter of that work entitled ‘The Psychological Theory of the belief in matter, how far applicable to mind,” there occur the following observations :* ‘‘ Although these two elements, an ego * See p. 204, 1st edition. 72 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. and a nonego, are in our consciousness now, and are, or seem to be, inseparable from it, there is no reason for believing that the latter of them, the nonego, was in consciousness from the beginning; since, even if it was not, we can perceive a way in which it not only might, but must have grownup . . . . I now propose to carry the in- quiry a step further, and to examine whether the ego, as a deliverance of consciousness, stands on any firmer ground than the nonego; whether, at the first moment of our experience, we already have in our conscious- ness the conception of self as a permanent existence; or whether it is formed subsequently, and admits of a similar analysis to that which we have found that the notion of notself is susceptible of.” Obviously it is here taken for granted that the consciousness of self may possibly be an original factor of the human consciousness, even though the con- sciousness of the notself arise only after a more or less prolonged pro- cess. In the sense in which nonego and notself are used by Mr. Mill, and which may be vindicated by a prevalent usage, this assumption may be perfectly justifiable ; for, though it is impossible to discover the self and the notself in our consciousness, using these terms in their most general, which is also their etymological, signification, yet it is possible that the self may appear in consciousness before a certain special form of the notself, before that special form which is distinguished by the characteristic of extension, and which we name matter. It is ex- tremely natural that matter should thus be identified, in ordinary philo- sophical language, with the nonego. There is no commoner figure of speech than that in which a characteristic belonging to the most prominent part of any whole is taken to denominate the whole itself; and the most numerous, certainly the most obtrusive, portion of the nonegos presented in consciousness is made up of material things, that is, of things existing in space. It not to be overlooked, moreover, that there may be sound philosophical reasons for using the word matter to designate the nonego in general, or in other words for describing objects known as constituting the matter of knowledge; for it may prove to be a result of mental inquiries, that all objects, that the whole matter of knowledge is formed by projecting our own mental states and thus making them things that may be contemplated by us as different from ~ ourselves. But it must not be overlooked, that the question in debate with regard to external perception concerns those nonegos which are presented to the ego under the conditions of space; and the qualities which are usually regarded as essential to matter, and which are accord- SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 73 ingly denominated primary all hinge upon these conditions. It is therefore of the. utmost importance to discriminate precisely and con- stantly all questions in reference to our consciousness of the nonego in general from those concerning the special group of nonegos distinguished by the attribute of extension. As we have found, in the most celebrated criticism of Hamilton, the absence of any discrimination between these two classes of questions, it will not surprise us to come upon the same confusion in his own writings. This want of precision could be adequately illustrated only by an extensive examination of his works; but one or two passages expose with special clearness the inexact use which he makes of the terms ego and nonego witn their equivalents. “It may dppear,” says he, for example, in Note D* appended to Reid’s Works, ‘not a paradox merely, but a contradiction, to say, that the organism is, at once, within and without the mind; is, at once, subjective and objective; is, at once, Heo and Nonego. But so it is; and so we must admit it to be, unless, on the one hand, as Materialists, we identify mind with matter, or, on the other, as Idealists, we identify matter with mind. The organism, as animated, as sentient, is necessarily ours; its affections are only felt as affections of the indivisible Ego. In this respect, and to this extent, our organs are not external to ourselves.” * In order to avoid the conclusion, that this quotation contains “ not a paradox merely, but a contradiction,” it is evidently necessary to under- stand by Ego something more than is expressed by the first personal pronoun,—to understand not me simply, but everything else that may be viewed as having a certain relation tome. More pertinent to the subject in hand is Sir W. Hamilton’s constant identification of the non- ego with matter. “ When I concentrate my attention in the simplest * Reid’s Works, p. 886, note *. Compare p. 858, note*. It is curious to come upon the same observation in Locke’s Hssay: “ Self is that conscious thinking thing, whatever substance made up of (whether spiritual or material, simple or compounded, it matters not), which is sensible, or conscious of pleasure or pain, — capable of happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far as that con- sciousness extends. Thus every one finds, that whilst comprehended under that consciousness, the little finger is as much a part of himself as what is most so. Upon separation of this little finger, should this consciousness go along with the little finger and leave the rest of the body, it is evident the little finger would be the person, the same person; and self then would have nothing to do with the rest of the body” (Book IL., chap, 27, 3 17). 6 ay efi. POST aa Ar | WL Apiyl We ae 74 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. act of perception,” he says,* ‘‘ I return from my observation with the most irresistible conviction of two facts, or rather two branches of the same fact ;—that I am,—and that something different from me exists. In this act I am conscious of myself as the perceiving subject, and of an external reality as the object perceived.” Then a few pages further on, “ The ego and nonego,—mind and matter, are not only given toge- ther, but in absolute coequality.” + These passages are cited not for the purpose of bringing home to Sir W. Hamilton the charge of denuding philosophical terms of their pre- cise signification. Unhappily the intensity of one’s regret at the want of precision arises from the fact of its being strongly palliated, if not justified, by very extensive usage. Possibly the inexactness with which the two universal factors of knowledge are spoken of in English, may arise from the unfortunate difficulty of finding for the knower a term which expresses clearly and exclusively the first person. I believe, it would be found advantageous if we could conveniently use for this purpose the first personal pronoun alone; for when we substitute such words as mind, soul or spirit, or even terms like the sel/, or the ego; in fact, when we use Z or me themselves as substantives with the definite article, we require a constant reminder to prevent ourselves from attach- ing to our language more than the pure self-consciousness. An advance, however, has been made towards clearness on this subject by the adop- tion of such terms as the self, the ego, &c., instead of the substantives, mind and soul. Though expressions like the self, le moz and even the I may be met with in some of the older English and French authors,t yet their introduction into general philosophical literature may be traced to the influence of the modern German philosophy, and is perhaps with justice ascribed by Krug || specially to Fichte’s Wissenschasisichre. We are thus placed into a more favourable position for appreciating the problem regarding the origin of self-consciousness, understanding by the self simply what we mean when we use the words J and me, and neither consciously nor inadvertently inserting into our meaning any- thing such as a nervous system, an organic body, or a spiritual substance, * Lectures on Metaphysics, Vol. I., p. 288. + Lbid., p. 292. +See Locke’s Essay, Book IL., c. 27, $$ 9 & 20; Pascal’s Pensées, Art. V., $ 18. || In his Philosophisches Lexicon, under the word Jch. Cardinal Wiseman traces the prevalence of trancendental philosophy among the Germans to the fact, that their first personal pronoun admits easily of being converted into a substantive. (See Renan’s De Vorigine de langage, p. 190, note.) SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 75 that it is not identical with the self, however intimately associated with it it may be. What interpretation then is mental science to adopt of self-conscious- ness? ITs it to be regarded as a fact which is required for the explana- tion of all the other phenomena of consciousness, but which is itself incapablé of being explained? Or can it be explained as a development from the recognized laws of a consciousness in which the distinction of self and notself has not yet made itsappearance? We have to consider what Sir W. Hamilton has done towards the solution of this problem. By referring to my previous article in the last number of this journal,* it will be found that his doctrine on this subject has been discussed at considerable length in connection with his analysis of consciousness. From that discussion it appears that he certainly maintains the self to be an essential factor of consciousness, consciousness being described ag a relation between the self and its modifications, in which the former recognizes the latter. It is also proved, however, from the drift of Hamilton’s doctrine of the Conditioned, that he does not regard the self as, in the act of consciousness, recognised by itself along with its modi- fications, the belief in it being merely a subjective necessity arising from the impotence of thought. The objections to this doctrine need not be here reproduced; but it is not out of place to notice the attempts, which have been made since Hamilton’s time, at a settlement of the question in dispute. We are especially called upon to notice the recent discussion of the subject by Mr. Mill, From repeated examination of the chapter in his work on Hamilton, which is devoted to this discus- sion, and to which reference has already been made, I have drawn only a deepened impression of the extreme fairness with which the difficul- ties of the problems discussed are appreciated and stated, even when apparently in most violent collision with the author’s general psycholo- gical principles; and it raises some hope of progress in the science of mind, when the separate problems, presented by mental phonomena, are dealt with in view of their own difficulties, rather than for the purpose of working out a general theory of psychology into all its details. At the same time there are formidable obstacles in the way of accepting Mr. Mill’s discussion as at all commensurate with the requirements of the phenomenon. | It has been already pointed out that Mr. Mill has raised a serious ey * See pp. 372-8. ) CAS SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. hindrance to his success by his inexact use of the terms, ego and non- ego. We are not surprised, therefore, to find him so far astray as to assert that we know nothing of the mind except as a series or succes- ‘sion of feelings, although he acknowledges that ‘‘our notion” of mind involves in it the conception of something that remains unchanged amid the changes of feeling through which alone we know it ; and this conception, he thinks, may arise from the same laws as the equivalent conception in our notion of matter. His words are,* “We have no conception of mind itself, as distinguished from its conscious manifes- tations. We neither know nor can imagine it, except as represented by the succession of manifold feelings which metaphysicians call by the name of states or modifications of mind. It is nevertheless true that our notion of mind, as well as of matter, is the notion of a permanent some- thing, contrasted with the perpetual flux of the sensations and other feelings or mental states which we refer to it; a something which we ficure as remaining the same, while the particular feelings through which it reveals its existence, change. The attribute of Permanence, supposing that there were nothing else to be considered, would admit of the same explanation when predicated of mind, as of matter. The ‘pelief I entertain that my mind exists, when it is not feeling, nor thinking, nor conscious of its own existence, resolves itself into the belief of a Permanent Posssibility of these states. . . . . Thus far, there seems to be no hindrance to our regarding mind as nothing but the series of sensations (to which must now be added our internal feelings), as they actually occur, with the addition of infinite possibili- ties of feeling requiring for their actual realization conditions which may or may not take place, but which as possibilities are always in existence, and many of them present. The Permanent Possibility of feeling, which forms my notion of myself,’”—andsoon. There is scarcely a point in this statement to which exception must not be taken, if we ‘anderstand by mind, self or ego simply me. So far am I from knowing myself always and only as a series or succession of feelings, that I never ‘know nor can conceive myself as such; and the assertion, that I am a series of feélings, is a contradiction in terms; it is tantamount to the assertion, that [am not I. What I am in reality, is not considered here; but I am never conscious of myself as being what I am repre- sented to be in the above description of Mr. Mill. It is true, Mr. Mill * Examination of Sir W. Hamiiton’s Philosophy, pp. 205-6. SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. aM qualifies his statement by the admission that ‘‘ our notion of mind is the notion of a permanent something,” which we “figure” as remain- ing the same while our feelings change. But this admission is wholly eviscerated of its import by its explanation. The permanent something, which we name the mind or self, is merely a permanent possibility; and our notion of mind is accordingly explained as being a notion not only of an actual series, but of an infinite (indefinite?) possible series of feelings. Now, I am indeed conscious of myself as permanent. and absolutely invariable amid all the changes of which I am conscious ; but that very fact excludes the conception of myself as a series, how- ever permanent may be succession of phenomena of which the series is constituted ; and such a conception does not become a whit more intel- ligible or true to the facts by explaining the series as one that is not * merely actual, but infinite in its possibilities. | There is indeed a sense in which Mr. Mill’s words might be under- stoed, in which they might also be regarded as but an awkward expres- sion of a truth. A feeling, considered as a concrete fact, is but a mind or self existing in a certain state. The description of the mind, there- fore, as a succession of feelings, might be regarded as amounting to no more than the assertion, that the mind is the mind in the successive states in which it exists or is capable of existing. One may well be justified in thinking that this could not have been Mr. Mill’s meaning, not only because no one is at liberty to reduce any of his statements to such a truism, but because such an interpretation of his language is wholly inconsistent with the drift of his discussion on this subject. Mr. Mill’s object is to explain how a series of feelings generate the notion of a permanent something to which they belong. Now, this object implies that he starts from the conception of feelings as phenomena in which there is, as yet, developed no consciousness of a permanent self that feels. Mr. Mill, therefore, in reality forces us back on the question, whether mental phenomena are, in their primitive form, undefined by any consciousness of self, and yet governed by such laws as to originate this consciousness sooner or later in all men. The affirmative answer to this question, according to Mr. Mill, makes two postulates, (1) that the human mind is capable of expectation, (2) that there are certain laws of association among mental phenomena. To these postulates reference will require to be made again in different - connections, and therefore they need only be stated here. It is, how- ever, worth while to notice that there is also postulated, as will appear 78 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. from Mr. Mill’s own admissions, a power of reminiscence with all that it implies. Tt must not be forgotten, moreover, that, in explaining the origin of selfeonsciousness in accordance with this theory, whatever ¢2rms may be used in accommodation to the necessities of human language, the theory supposes that mental phenomena, in their essential and original nature, are not referred to a self or mind. It is of the first importance to urge this precaution ; for, whatever may be the primitive state of mental life in man, all language is adapted to the expression of a mental condition in which selfconsciousness is an essential factor, and it is one of the most insuperable difficulties, if not a sheer impossi- bility in this controversy, to find terms which do not take for granted the very point at issue. What, then, has Mr. Mill contributed towards analysing the pheno- menon of selfconsciousness? His analysis, imperfect as he admits it to be himself, seems to me even more imperfect than he supposes, Confessedly he accounts for nothing in selfconsciousness except the notion of permanence, and it may be granted provisionally that so fay his account is satisfactory, as it is needless to raise any dispute on such a point. We shall discover immediately the aspect in which he thinks that his theory fails to explain selfconsciousness, but there is another obtrusive aspect in which it is also unsuccessful. What it attempts to account for is not the consciousness of self at all! It explains, let it be admitted, how the notion of a permanent something grows up in the human consciousness; let it also be admitted that it explains how the notion of a permanent something which is generated by sensutions alone becomes differenced in consciousness from that notion of a per- manent something which attaches itself to a// mental states; but how the one notion is drawn to the one pole, while the other rushes to the opposite pole, of an antithesis which runs through all subsequent con- sciousness, is not explained in any form in which the existence of the antithesis is not already assumed. Given the consciousness of myselt, which of course implies the consciousness of that which is not myself, it becomes quite conceivable that I should refer to myself all my mental states, while I connect with something that is not myself, the particular group of phenomena called sensations; but how the consciousness of these two contradictories is in the first instance created, I cannot find that Mr. Mill has made even an attempt to explain. He points out, it is true, but his explanation goes no further than to point out, how certain mental phenomena, namely the sensations, might, by the ac- SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 79 knowledged mental forces which produce classification, be grouped together and thus be distinguished as a subordinate species from the whole genus of the mental states. But, waiving altogether the leciti- mate doubt whether any classification is possible before self-consciousness arises, it is evident that the classification, described by Mr. Mill, not only could not originate the definite antithesis of me and that which is not I, but could not originate any contradictory antithesis whatever. I and that which is not I are, as contradictory, necessarily exclusive of each other; and to suppose that the distinction between a species and its genus could produce the consciousness of two things which are mutually exclusive, is to suppose that a process takes place for the pro- duction of this particular effect, which is never known to take place in any other instance. Such a hypothesis, one need not fear to say, will not be defended by the most distinguished exponent of the principles of scientific induction. This defect in Mr. Mill’s analysis of self-consciousness the theory of Professor Bain might be taken as an effort to supplement. With the latter indeed there is none of the diffidence regarding the possibility of analysing self-consciousness, which has been noticed as characterising the discussion of the subject by the former. Adopting a theory of Mr. Lewes’ Physiology of Common Life, Professor Bain attributes ‘‘sensa- tion or feeling, that is, consciousness” to all the nervous ganglia, though of course such a consciousness is explained as being in reality not the consciousness of the animal, of whose organism the ganglia form a part, but the consciousness of as many separate inferior animals as there are ganglia. ‘The process, by which these separate consciousnesses are gathered into one united consciousness, is explained by Professor Bain,* but need not be considered here. It is obvious, however, that, starting from such a doctrine, he must refuse, as he does with perfect explicitness, to recognize self-consciousness as essential to mental life, at least in its rudimentary forms; and he maintains even that the conscious distinction of the self and the notself is unnecessary to know- ledge, that a veritable act of knowledge may take place without any one being conscious that he knows. The remarks I quote are in refer- ence to the first proposition in Professor Ferrier’s Institutes of Meta- physics, that “along with whatever any intelligence knows, it must, as the ground or condition of its knowledge, have some cognizance of * The Emotions and the Will, pp. 600-1, 2nd edition. 80 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. itself.” “ What I dissent from,” he says,* ‘‘is the placing of sedf in the relationship of a factor or foil in aé/ our cognitions. I grant it to the fullest extent in the great cardinal cognition, subject—object, mind versus matter, internal and external. I maintain, however, that this is only one of innumerable cognitions of the human mind, although a very commanding one. Moreover, I grant that everything that we know ultimately takes a part in that great comprehensive antithesis, ranging jtself with one or the other pole. Still things might have been known although the subject-object distinction had never emerged at all; it being enough for cognition that any sort of contrast should exist. I can know light simply by the transition from it to darkness; light- darkness is a veritable cognition, a genuine stroke of knowledge, even — if carried no further. . . . . . We might remain for ever at this point, being distinctly aware of a number of qualities without attaining the subject-object cognition. It is true that we do not remain in any such narrow sphere, but carry on our knowledge further and further, until at last every conceivable quality is arrayed round one or other pole of the greatest cognition of all.” The starting point, then, of Professor Bain’s theory of the self is obvious. ‘The distinction, of which every knower is conscious, between himself and all that is not himself, is maintained to be merely one, though the most prominent, of the discriminations which arise in human consciousness, discrimination being regarded as the fundamental con- dition of all knowledge. But how does this, the most general of our discriminations, in the first instance originate? It is in reply to this question that Professor Bain seems to me to be more explicit than Mr. Mill. His theory, briefly stated, is as follows: The germ of the dis- tinction between self and notself is to be found in the difference between our feelings of movement and our sensations. There is a more marked contrast between these two classes of phenomena than between any two classes of sensations. In passing from the putting forth of energy to a sensation we are conscious of a wider transition than in passing from a taste to a smell or from a colour to a sound, and the result is a flash of clearer cognition. We are thus enabled to distinguish sensation as a whole from our feelings of movement as a whole, and our feelings of movement as a whole from sensation as a whole; whereas, if we had no sensation, we could distinguish merely feelings of movement from one * The Emotions and the Will, p. 597, 2nd edition. SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 8I another; were we without feelings of movement we could distinguish only different sensations. This is the germ of the distinction between self and not self; to develop it something more is required. This requi- site is found in the distinction between impression and idea, between the state of things called the present or actual and the subsequent state of things called the ideal. Actual impressions vary with our move- ments, and, to be obtained or retained, require that certain movements be performed, so that the actual state comes to be associated with our feelings of movement. In passing to the ideal state, on the other hand, the bodily movements necessary to secure the actual may be dispensed with. ‘There thus arises a contrast very marked, between the actual and the ideal, a contrast such as that of which we are conscious between the reality and the bare imagination, for example, ofa feast. This antithesis between the ideal and the actual, between imagination and reality, is expressed in such terms as internal and external, subject and object, self and not-self.* Here certainly there is no shrinking from the conclusions to which a general theory of mind has led. We feel ourselves in the pre- sence of the same unhesitating and unswerving directness with which Hume advances to his results. It is well for us that Professor Bain has unambiguously proclaimed the ultimate issue of a psychological analysi$ which professes the strictest adherence to the methods of modern science, even though we may be obliged, since our dreaming and our waking consciousness are made up of the same materials, to accept in their most literal signification the words of Prospero: ‘‘ We are such stuff as dreams are made of.’’ Yet one can scarcely avoid feeling that there are various grounds on which it is impossible to regard the above analysis of self-consciousness as fulfilling the requirements which modern science has taught us to recognise as essential to the scientific establisl- ment of any theory. It is, in the first place, a circumstance suggestive of doubt, that Professor Bain’s analysis is not the analysis adopted even by those psychologists who maintain the possibility, of decomposing self-consci- ousness. It must always remain extremely questionable, whether self- consciousness admits of analysis at all, as long as scarcely two of those who attempt the analysis ever arrive at the same elementary constituents. But, in the second place, an obstacle to the acceptance of such an * See The Emotions and the Will, pp. 5938-8, 2nd edition. 82 SIR WILLIAM ITAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. analysis is to be found in the want of definiteness as to the condition of mind previous to the birth of self-consciousness. This seems to me to affect peculiarly the theory of Professor Bain, from his very attempt to be more explicit on the subject by means of his doctrine, which ascribes consciousness to all the nerve-centres distributed throughout the nervous system. This phenomenon, which he names consciousness, is distin- guished, on the one hand, from that consciousness of which alone there is any recollection, and, on the other hand, from purely nervous action. The only consciousness, over which memory extends, and which can therefore be described, not by hypothesis, but from knowledge, is a consciousness in which the apprehension of self forms an universal factor. Moreover, the usual descriptions of consciousness all assume the presence of this factor; for it is commonly explained as the knowledge which a mind possesses of the states in which it exists. If I eliminate, from any of my-conscious states, the knowledge that I am in that state, what is the residuum? Nothing that I can conceive but the current of nerve-force which formed the correlate of the conscious state. But a nervous current is as destitute of all mental characteristics as a current of electricity, a thermal vibration or a sonorous wave. What then is this consciousness, which is neither consciousness, as usually understood, nor yet a purely physical state? It is not enough to say, that it issomething, but that what it is, cannot bedefined. We must know it at least sufficiently to be able to distinguish it from other things, before we can assert that it is capable of generating the antithe- tical notions of the self and the not-self. Finally, the notion, of which Mr. Bain gives an analysis, is not the notion of self. Granting, in accordance with the admission already made in the criticism of Mr. Mill’s analysis, that the grouping together of sensations in contrast with feelings of movement, of ideal states in contrast with the actual, could take place before the appearance of self- consciousness, it is a sheer begging of the question to claim for these contrasted groups identity with the two terms of the great antithesis which is now under consideration ; for there is in all this no light thrown upon the problem, how ideas and impressions—how feelings of movement and sensations—how, in short, all mental states come to be felt as mine,—how ‘‘I” become conscious of myself as existing in these states. It is only by allowing the element sought to slip imper- ceptibly into our analysis, that we can discover self-consciousness in the synthesis described by Professor Bain. There is certainly nothing in SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. 83 any of the elements which he exhibits, nor is there anything in their combination, that should oblige or even authorize us to identify such a combination with that of which we are conscious as our selves. We might indeed allow some probability to the above explanation of the manner in which self-consciousness arises, if we supposed that mental, like chemical, combination may produce effects whose properties are entirely different from those possessed by any of the combining ele- ments. Such an hypothesis is not to be discarded without examination; it requires only from psychologists a proof similar to that which is fur- nished by chemistry. Now, of an immense number of chemical com- pounds we know the composition with certainty, not only by being able to decompose them into their constituent elements, but also by our ability to reproduce the compounds by a combination of their elements, Even those organic compounds, however, which have not yet been reproduced in the laboratory of the chemist, still exhibit the most satisfactory evidence of their composition; the substances may be placed before the senses, and, under perfectly reliable tests, be shown to yield a definite number of recognisable elements. Can anything like this process be carried out in reference to the self? If it can, it cer- tainly has not yet been done. “1” cannot submit to any psychological reagents which compel me to give up the elementary mental stuff of which “I”? am constituted. Every analysis of ‘me’ is wholly hypo- thetical. Hver present in all human consciousness, ‘‘I” am still to science a mystery—an “open secret,’ and perhaps, from the very openness of the secrecy, a limit to the opening of secrets by man. It has been mentioned, that Mr. Mill admits a certain imperfection - in his analysis of self-consciousness. His admission amounts to this, that, while he professes to explain how the notion of self, considered solely as the notion of a permanent something, could arise, yet there is another element in the notion of self, and this element is not involved in the given explanation. ‘Tf,’ he says,* “we speak of the mind as a series of feelings, we are obliged to complete the statement by calling it a series of feelings which is aware of itself as past and future; and we are reduced to the alternative of believing that the mind or ego is something different from any series of feelings or possibilities of them, or of accepting the paradox, that something which ex hypothesi is but a series of feelings, can be aware of itself as a series. The truth is, * Exanvination of Sir W. Hamilton’s Philosophy, pp. 212-13, Ms 84 SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON’S PHILOSOPHY. that we are here face to face with that final inexplicability, at which, as Sir W. Hamilton observes, we inevitably arrive when we reach ultimate facts ; and in general, one mode of stating it only appears more incom- prehensible than another, because the whole of human language is accommodated to the one, and is so incongruous with the other, that it cannot be expressed in any terms which do not deny its truth. The real stumbling-block is perhaps not in any theory of the fact, but in the fact itself. The true incomprehensibility perhaps is, that something which has ceased, or is not yet in existence, can still be, in a manner, present; that a series of feelings, the infinitely greater part of which is past or future, can be gathered up, as it were, into a single present conception, accompanied by a belief of reality. I think, by far the wisest thing we can do, is to accept the inexplicable fact, without any theory of how it takes place; and when we are obliged to speak of it in terms which assume a theory, to use them with a reservation as to their meaning.” To the cautious nature of this statement no exception might be made, were it not that on its purport depends the whole science of mind, and, if it be taken in the full extent of its admissions, the general view of mental phenomena, suggested by what Mr. Mill calls the Association psychology, must be greatly modified. If it be admitted, as it seems to be in the above statement, that in self-consciousness we come upon an absolutely ultimate fact of mind, that is, upon a fact beyond which it is impossible to proceed in the process of scientific explanation ;—if the self cannot be decomposed into more elementary facts, and if this indecom posable fact is to be accepted without any theory regarding it, then Mr. Mill’s previous limitation of our knowledge of self must be abandoned. It can no longer be said, in the language of Hamilton, that mind is but the name for a connected series of phenomena, or, in the language of Mr. Mill, that we can know or imagine it merely by . the succession of its feeling. What I am conscious of when I use the words “I” and ‘“me,’’ is admitted to be incapable of explanation as an aggregation of mental states in accordance with the laws of sugges- tion. ‘“ I” am presented in consciousness with the same clearness and immediacy with which my “ feelings’? are given; my feelings are in fact “‘I” under particular conditions. If the consciousness of my mental states is to be regarded as the one intuition, whose certainty is the basis and the starting point of all other certainties, the consciousness of myself must be comprehended within that intuition. When we speak, therefore, of the self as an inexplicable fact, we must not sup- THE ECLIPSE AMONG THE HINDOOS. | 85 pose that we do not understand what we are conscious of when we think of our selves. The secret of the self is an open one; there is nothing which we can apprehend more clearly than the meaning of “{” and “‘me,’”’ when théy are used simply to express self-hood. All that is to be understood by the incomprehensibility of the self, is its incapability of decomposition. It is thus to be accepted as one of the elemen- tary facts, of which the mental life of man is constructed ; and as it is undoubtedly known not through the external senses, the knowledge of it may appropriately be called an intellectual intuztion. The discussion of the remaining points connected with Sir W. Ha- milton’s doctrine of perception will occupy a subsequent paper. THE ECLIPSE AMONG THE HINDOOS. A writer in Chambers’ Journal for October states that “ Huropean science has as yet produced but little effect upon the superstitious masses of India. Of the many millions who witnessed the eclipse on the 18th of August last, there were comparatively few who did not verily believe that it was caused by the dragon Rahu in his endeavours to swallow up the Lord of Day. And we ourselves, as we watched the eclipse from the flat roof of an Indian house, were struck with the poetical force of the story, when we observed, as it were, “the first bite” taken out of the sun’s disc, and gazed with awe at the in- creasing darkness. It easily appears that the dragons Rahu and Ketu are personifications of the nodes, ascending and descending. The astrologers of Europe seem to have inherited the tradition from their Aryan progenitors, for, strangely enough, the astrological name of the ascending node is Caput Draconis, and of the descending, Cauda Draconis. In like manner, it may be noted, we, as well as the Greeks and Romans, have inherited the Indian names of the constellations and of the days of the week. * * * “There are many Hindoos,” the same writer, nevertheless, in another place, says, ‘who are even now proving themselves no mean disciples of their Kuropean masters. Mr. Pogson, the eminent astronomer, thus writes from Madras, and his is no solitary experience: ‘The calculations of the eclipse for twelve important and conveniently accessible stations, situated within the limits of the totality, and of its partial phases at Madras, have all been carefully made by C. Ragonatha Acharya, the head native assistant at 86 As NOVEMBER METEORS. the Madras Observatory ; and it is simple justice to add, that the very considerable labour he has bestowed upon them was undertaken from pure attachment to science, and was accomplished solely in his leisure hours, without the slightest aid or advice from any one. The informa- tion afforded in his tabular results is all that can be required or desired for the prediction of the various phenomena of the eclipse.” We gather from the same Journal that none of the reports yet received from India, of the total eclipse of the sun in August last, describe a perfect ‘observation, as the monsoon was blowing at the time and clouds covered the sky. At some of the stations, however, there were breaks in the clouds, through which glimpses of the sun and moon were obtained, photographs were taken, and spectoscopic observations. Major Ten- nant, one of the observers, concludes, from what he saw, that the atmosphere of the sun is mainly of non-luminous or faintly-luminous gas at a short distance from the limb of the sun. And Captain Haig describes the red protuberances as “streaked flames.”’ NOVEMBER METEORS. We make the following extract from a communication of Professor Kingston to the Toronto Glove : The total number during the night just completed will be found to have exceeded that of November 13th and 14th, 1867. With the exception of about one per cent., the courses of the meteors were in directions from the constellation of Leo; most of them were accompanied by trains. and in several cases the track remained visible from two to four minutes after the disappearance of the meteor. The majority of the meteors, particularly in the early part of the night, were extremely brilliant, and several exhibited a variety of colours. The apparent superiority of this recent display was owing to the remarkably clear state of the sky during the greater part of the night, and the absence of moonlight; whereas in 1867 the sky was overcast till 1, a.m., and subsequently, when the clouds had partially or wholly disappeared, the visibility of the meteors were greatly im- paired by haze and bright moonlight. But for these causes the total number recorded last year would probably have been three times as great as in 1868. Number of Meteors counted at the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, on the nights of November 18, 14, 1867, 1868: ‘ 1867. 1868. ELON e MALAI MT Mayes Veen eee Velie aienel etety ied eteue aoe 0) 173 Midnight to 1 a.m. of November 14, ........... 20 320 IU PEN ae oy 2 cE NilittichestiavhletaMcane nee acon: 44 583 De NOM tO. Sane iP SL icbisroet louie meme mergte ne ie 123 = 489 Se ai to4 “ mu REC) Sue SL ONa lig isco a 560 375 eat tO. Dawns : RAVER BRO a iy eae ad aby et 1345 572 Nie TONGS Ss ie PTA a Nahin Gives dntcon alot 195 365 otek suse Ubi Mie Mamas craic ema AN) 2,286 2,486 87 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1866-67. The Council of the Canadian Institute have the honour to present the following Report of the proceedings of the Society for the past year, from 1st December, 1866, to 30th November, 1867 :— MEMBERSHIP. The present state of membership is as follows :— Members at commencement of Session, December Ist, 1866........ 384 “ Blected during Session 1866-67................ mene é 17 rs cy Dy Counciidurmo Recess, ISG... su. sneer nia ashe al 402 f Deduct WALLIS Haare cts ft/s oo aavarel clacatelais ote a siete sieve wich cretevadetatens 4 SN ut Inuclnrcasnpran ho iatav sala ss sioalt avatars) s,myalatoialstohsles the okkela, Wis ales ie 11 Neti ROVE MOWANIGe, «vaca jain at sla) velokaleielahi-: 91 “Rome: Its Ruler and Its Institutions, By John Francis Maguire, M.P. 8vyo. New York: D. & J. Sadlier. 1858.” The usual reports and scientific publications of Europe and this Continent, in continuation of the several series already on our shelves, have been received‘ e. g. the Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, the Linnean Society, ce. Especially to be mentioned, also, among these are— ‘ “The Patent Office Reports, Parts I. and II. of the United States: 1864-65. Full bound in sheep; the 2nd part consisting wholly of plates. Royal 8yo.” “The Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. Vols. VI. and VII. Royal 8vo. Unbound ; and the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. XIV. 4to. “The Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India. Six parts. Published at Calcutta, with numerous beautiful copperplate engravings.” So soon as the funds of the Institute shall be in a sufficiently flourishing condition there are many volumes of serial works and other publications in parts that require to be bound. Respectfully submitted. December 21st, 1867. H. SCADDING, Librarian. fe | 92 APPENDIX. DONATIONS OF BOOKS, &c., SINCE LAST ANNUAL REPORT. Marked thus * not bound. a mw : From the Royal Scottish Society of Arts, Edinburgh: ul VOLS ie YSaMNck eos OL, AO, fy lee IE Genacia coboabanaoconoeadoadbamcooDeKC *] i From L. Heyden, Esq., Toronto. May’s Constitutional History of England, Vol.1..... 5) dosedsde ihioaigo< 1 Rome; Its Ruler and Its Institutions—By John Francis Maguire, M.P. New NOV AIB HB jews miele erepialeiaiaiesewiow sisi es sie doicolier hada rexanay deveustsversarerene sew Martini Forbisseri Navigatio. Hamburgi, 1675 ..............0-.0-e.0e- all Consvetvdines Kanciw. By Charles Sandys, F.S.A., 1851 .............4. 1 Ashe’s Travels in America. Vols. 1,2 &3in1 vol. 1806; London, 1808, 1 Travels in America, by Rochefoucault, 1795, ’96 & 97. Vols.1,2,3&4.. 4 From the Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester. Memoirs of, Vol. II., 8rd Series, Vol. XXII., old, 1865 .................. 1 Proceedings of, 1862-3 and 1863-4 ......... opu goood ShodsandoddoodcouS al Do. USIGEOD sagsdodcnsooob000 aaea haku ayo ragniel se tejocsiel erstoreneneteetene al From the Geological Society of Dublin. Jonugnalvor viola lebarti2-) 1865-06. 2nd Sesslon mo omer cele ciciiesieieiee cision all Through the Smithsonian Institution, We ashington. Meteorologische Iaarbock Eerste Gedeelte Waarnemingen in Nederland. Uitgeven door het Koninklijt Nederlandsch Meteorologisch Instituut WiGre clit mwnlS 6 Oe IVIAME ie c en eie cccicreis sales Sie tete ola saam mieten ete nie. ome aera 1 Do. do. I We Ube 54 pedsa0so0cab0ass 1 Mittheilungen der Kaiserlich- cous tiple Geographischen Gesellschaft, &e. (Wann, USGee Baad Sa saab da 45 bo0dd0050000 spo586d0 sa50005bae Bolcaisiac 0) Ib Through ditto, from University of Christiania. Magnetismus der Erde Von Christopher Hansteen, &e. Christiania, 1819.. 1 Maps. Magnetischer Atlas, Gehorig Zum Magnetismus der Erde Von Christopher Jekenneiracia, 1reoine, Olvaisinenmen, WI) . 54 o5qncgs000d0oad0aos0os HOON 8D Paw Resultate Magnetischer, Astronomischer und Meteorologischer Beobachtun- gen, &c., 1828-1830. Von Christoph. Hansteen and Lieutenant Due. 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XVlil MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS GENERAL METEOROLOGICAL MAGNETICAL OBSERVATORY, Latitude 4-9 30’ 4” North. Longitude 5h. 17m. 33s. West. Elevation above Mean temperature ......... Difference from average (OT years)... Thermic anomaly (lat. 48° 40’) ...... Highest temperature... Lowest temperature ......... Monthly and annual ra: 1ges... Mean maximum temperature ......... Mean minimum temperature .. Mean daily range......... 20 Greatest daily range ... Mean height of the Barometer Difference from average (26 years)... Highest barometer .. Lowest barometer ... ’ Monthly and annual ranges... Mean humidity of the air................+ Mean elasticity of aqueous vapour...... Mean of cloudiness........... Difference from average (14 years)... Resultant direction of the wind......... a Velocity of the wind Mean velocity (miles per hour) Difference from average (19 years)... eeecccene Total amount of rain.. Difference from average (26-27 years) Number of days rain . Total amount of snow ..... Difference from average (24 years)... Number of days SHOW .....c.ssscecceces Number of fair days ..............- 000 Number of auroras Observed ...ss..ce00e Possible to see aurora (No. of nights)... Number of thunderstorms ............. JAN. Frs. Mar. APR. May. 17-59| 28-91! 26-61/ 39-46] 46-55 — 5°70!+ 5°96/— 3:31/— 1°73'— 5:03 —15°21)/— 5°79|—13-49|/—10-74 —11°55 43°8 44-0 46°8 65°5 65:0 — 4-8 0:2 3°0 25:4 24°6 48-6 43°83 43°8 40°1) 40°4 23°23] 34°32) 383.89] 47°73) 54:77 11°61) 21°59) 21°11} 383°79| 39°75 11°62} 12°73] 12°78] 18°93} 15:02 31°6 27°6 27°€ 27°2 26°3 29-5676] 29-6582|29-7123|29 -5277|29-4772 —-°0822) +--0315) + -1206} —-0721|—-1001 80-046} 30°332) 30-127 “99-958 30°093 28-920] 28-799) 28-912] 28-9380} 29-044 1-126} 1°583} 1°215} 1°028) 1:°049 82 81 78 73 72 0-086 | 0-182 | 0-116 | 0-181 | 0-233 0°73 0°82 0:72 0°62 0°69 + -01/+ 0°10/4 0-10/+ -06/+ 0-16 N 55 win 57 win 84 win 51 win 51 w 3°27 1°58 2°12 2°68 3°55 6°96 8°85 8-52 7°89 8-40 — 1°20/+ 0°46/— 0:31;— 0°18/+ 1-73 napp.| 1°328] 0-617] 2-147] 3-220 —1°266|—0°342! +) -012}—0°315|—0-002 1 8 6 12 18 42-0| 13-4) 33:4) 7.2 | Inapp. +27 -07|— 4°55|+23-97|+ 4-91/— 0-08 21 13 14 5 1 9 9 13 14 12 0 0 1 2 8 eee aa EEE NS) Se ee (PUPP) NRO NY 10 7 11 15 19 0 0 0 1 1 JUNE. | JULY. 61:30} 68-22 4+ 2°89|-+ 1-18 — 0°30/— 0:48 88-6| ~ 94:0 44-0] 48-2 44°6| 45-8 73°36] 77°63 55-61} 58-45 17-75| 19-18 28°0| 29-2 29-6175|29° 6054 +-0476|-+-0C66 29-°870| 29:935 29-143] 29-292 0-727) 0°643 val 66 0:429 | 0-458 0:45) 0°48 — 1-07} 0:00 s 84 EIN 42 w 0-48} 1°13 4-13] 5:45 — 1-06]+ 0°50 0:885] 1-965 —1-944/—1-543 8 12 22 19° 5 3 23 22 5 7 AT TORONTO FOR THE YEAR 1867. REGISTER FOR THE YEAR 1867. TORONTO, ONTARIO. Lake Ontario, 108 feet. Approximate elevation above the Sea, 342 feet. x1z AUG. ° 63-09 + 2°12 — 0-41 95-2 42-2 53°0 78°73 58°85 19-88 31:7 29-5920 — 0714 29°839 29-287 0-552) 21 SEPT. Oct. (o) fe) 57-92] 49-93 = 0:07/+ 4-20 — 3:58|— 3-87 87:0} 75:4 31:8} 81:0 55-2) 44-4 68°75| 58-85 49-43} 42°51 19-32] 16°34 29:7} 31:8 29-7143| 29-6647 +. +0539] +.-0208 30:117| 30-184 29-354| 29-051 0-763} 1-131 73 13 0-369 | 0-272 0:29! 0:48 — 09) tI} 0°14 N 37 Win 45 w 1-48| 1-51 5-43] 5-73 + 0°01;— 0-28 1-226] 1-970 —2°529|—0-56d4 9 11 — 0-87 21 20 13 5 28 20 4 2 Nov. 29-5844 —-0283 29-939 28-843 1-096 DEc. ) 21°63 — 4°58 —14°37 49-5 — 12°8 62°3 29-41 15-30 14-11 30°0 29-6468 —°0091 30°228 28-768 1-460 Year 1867. fo} 43°84 — 0.34 — 7.16 95-2 — 12°8 108-0 15-47 31:6 29-6140 —°0035 30°3382 28-768 1-564 Year 1866. ° 43-51 — 0°67 -— 7:49 94-0 — 14-0 108-0 14-99 40°8 29-6216 + 70041 30°940 28-807 2°133 Year ~ 1865. Lo) 44-92 + 0°74 — 6:08 90°5 — 10°0 100°5 15-43 36°9 29-6330 + °0155 30°354 28-707 1-647 26-599 —3°384 111 63-3 + 0°42 68 Year 1864. ° 44-70 + 0°52) — 6°30 94-0 — 15-0 109-0 14°57 37-4 29-5596 —-0579 30-327 28-671 1-656 29-486 —0°497 132 74:6 +11°72 70 180 Year 1863. ° 44-57 + 0°39 — 6°43 88-0 — 19°8 107-8 14°73 39-6 29-6536 + *0861 30°3502 28-704 1-798 Year 1862. — 44°35 + 0°17 — 6°65 14-43 37-0 29-6245 + 00738 30°469 28-805 1-664 N 48 w B} 3 4 As 25-529 —4:464 118 85-4 + 22°52 72 29-6008 —-0167 30-3380 28-644 1-686 26-995 —2:988- 136 74:8 +11°72 76 xx MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS TEMPERATURE. Averaze 1867. of Extremes, 27 years. (ot ek fo} fe) fe} Mean temperature of the year 43.84 44.18 | 46.36 in 746. | 42.16 in 56. Warmest month .. Reeees July. July, July, 1854. | Aug. 1860.. Mean temperature of the warmest month seeee : 68.22 67.04 72.47 64.46 Coldest month .. seooseee | JAnUAry, | February.| Jan. 1857. | Feb. 1848. Mean temperature ‘of the coldest month . Source 17.59 22.95 12.75 26.60 Difference between the temperatures of the 50.63 44.09 warmest and the coldest months ........... ies : Mean of deviations of monthly means from their respective averages cf 27 years, signs 3.07 2.35 3,62 in 1843./1.38 in 1864. of deviation being disregarded.. | tet of presiceiae deviation, without regard February.| January, | Jan 1857. Corresponding magnitude of deviation... 5.96 3.8 10.5 ae Warmest day ........ July 24. oa July 12, °45. |July 31, 44... Mean temperature of the warmest “day... 80.45 77.09 82.32 72.75 Goiseciayn ea eae ay Sen TT Dee. 12. 1a) Nguecions: aap | Deca za ate Mean temperature of the coldest day. —5.02 -1.23 —14.38 9.57 Date of the highest eR D Aug. 18. on Aug. 24, ’54.| Aug, 19, 740. Gighest temperature .. pare 95.2 90.7 99.2 82. Date of the lowest temperature salen a3 Dec. 13. Be Jan. 26, 59. | Jan. 2, 742. Trowest temperature oc... ..cccscseccecce cee eeseseeeees -12.8 ~-12.3 —26.5 1.9 Range o1 the year 108.0 103.0 118.2 87.0 BAROMETER. Average 1867. of Extremes. 26 years. Mean pressure of the year 29.6140) bed) 61% |) Cocojaat | arora Month of highest mean pressure ......... .|September |September} Jan. 1849. | June, 1864. Highest mean monthly pressure 29.7143 | 29.6604 29.8046 29.6525 Month of lowest mean pressure........ 06 May. June. |March, 1859.| Nov. 1849. Lowest mean monthly pressure .......scecsereeeeeee | 29.4772 | 29.5699 29.4143 29.5886 Average of 27 years. an F P Feb. 11, > , Date of highest pressure in the year............ Asan Bae Jan..8, 766. | Oct. 22, 745, Highest pressure...........c008 30.332 30.385 30.940 30.242 Date of lowest pressure in the year . { ae S37 Mar. 19. 59. | Mar. 17, °45. Lowest pressure ..... 28.768 28. 687 28.286 28.939 2.133 i 1.303 in Range of the year ...... 1.564 1,698 1866. i345. FOR THE YEAR 1867. XXi RELATIVE HUMIDITY. Average 1867, of Extremes. 20 years. Mean humidity of the year ...........cscesseeeeceeeee (fas 78 82 in 1851. | 73 in 1858 Month of greatest humidity ...............00.. eee January. | January. | Jan. 1857 Dec. 1858. Greatest mean monthly humidity ... 82 83 89 81 Month of least humidity .........-..... ae July.- May. Feb. 1843. Ree 1849, Least mean monthly humidity EAB OSDERSCO A JONOOERE 66 12 58 | EXTENT OF SKY CLOUDED. Average 1867. of Extremes. 14 years. Mean cloudiness of the year... 0.61 0.61 0.65 0.57 Must cloudy month ..... oto February. | November. ce oe Greatest monthly mean of cloudiness | ponepaereee 0.82 0.74 0.85 0.73 Least cloudy month . -|September| August. at xs Lowest monthly mean of eloudiness .. on 0.29 0.47 0.29 0.50 WIND. Result 1867. of Extremes. 19 years. | Resultant direction........0...+ N. 60° W. | N. 61° W. ae Kesultant velocity in ‘miles . oot 2.05 1.89 ae Mean velocity, without regard ‘to ‘direction. cece 7.00 6.89 8.55 in 1860./5.10 in 1953. Month of greatest mean velocity .... ...| December.| March, | Mar. 1860. | Jan. 1848. Greatest monthly mean velocity....... 10.32 8.83 12.41 5.82 Month of least mean velocity ....... June. July. |August, 1852 Sept. 1860. Least monthly mean yelocity ....... 4.13 4.95 3.30 5.79 Day of greatest mean velocity....... May 1. bob Mar. 19, ’59.| Dec. "3, 1845. Greatest daily mean velocity .... 20.99 23.05 31.16 15.30 Day of least mean velocity ...... Srey Aug. 7. la see Ap) - Least daily mean Velocity.........ss0ccesesesecsecreen> see Pe ash c. 6. 3 a ar. Oo» Hour of greatest absolute velocity............ Be aah hae a ‘ as Mer aoe Greatest Velocity ........2...csecee scence 36.8 40.02 46.0 25.6 Xxii MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS.. ! RAIN. | Average 1867. of Extremes. 27 years Total depth of rain in inches ..........+ cecmasl9 som | govoss | 4/48- 83 as i oe oe Number of days in which rain fell...... 20 110 109 130 in 1861. | 80 in 1841. Month in which the greatest depth of rain fell May. pepiamuer Sept. 1843. | Sept. 1848. Greatest depth of rain in one month... se 3.220 3.755 9.760 8.115. f ee dave oh ean ware mos May. | October. | Oct.1864. | May, 1841. Greatest number of rainy ‘days in one ‘Inonth... 18 13 22 il Day in which the greatest amount of rain fell April 4. on Sept. 14, ’48.| Sept. 14, 748. Greatest amount of rain in one day 6459 1.155 2.088 3.455 1. 000 Hour of heaviest rain ...........20 ‘| ae Greatest amount of rain in one hour............... 0.245 oe es aa SNOW. Average 1867. of Extremes. 24 years. ———— ————————— Total depth in the year in inches .................] 110.5 62.9 { ee Be ean Number of days in which snow fell ............... 84 59 87 in 1859. | 33 in 1848. Month in which the greatest depth of snow fell | J: anuary. ea: Feb. 1846. | Dec. 1851. Greatest depth of snow in one month ......... 42.0 18.0 46.1 eelONs Month in which the days of snow were most f January. | January.| Dec. 1859. Feb. 1848 frequent... cposgntogooss December.| December.| Jan. 1861. ; ; Greptest number of days of snow in one month 21 13 23 ays in which the erentest pmo of snow Jan. 20. = 1. is Mar. 21. oxo Feb. 5, 1863.| Jan. 10, 1857. fe nae Greatest fall of snow in one day ... recoDUeaceaaon =| 15.0 8.2 16.0 5.5 Pevou. KIL” “PRINTED FoR THE ©. BY Wo, CHEWaIne CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ——o—— EDITING COMMITTEE. ‘GENERAL EDITOR - - -- REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D. _E, J. CHAPMAN, LL.D., Ph. D. Prof. of Geology a rag Univ. Coll. Loronto. G..T. KINGSTON, M.A. Director of the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto. HENRY CROFT, D.C.L. Prof. a cee d&: Experimental Philosophy. niv. Coll., Toronto. REY. WM. HINCKS, F.L:S. Professor of Natural History, Univ. Coll. : Toronto. oe AR 2B cana M.A. DANIEL WILSON, IbAby D. Prof. of Nat. Philosophy, Univ. Coll., Toronto, a ea CRS M. BARRETT, M.D. The Canapran Jovrnax is printed exclusively for gratuitous distribution among the Members of the Canadian Institute, and such Institutions and Societies as the Council may determine; but Members may purchase extra copies at 50c. per number, and Provincial Literary and Scientific Societies - may obtain the Journal at the same rate, by an annual payment in advance. € > Rs Ds *.* Communications for the Journal to be addressed to the General Editor, Rey. Dr. Scapprine, 10 Trinity Square, Toronto. Communications on general business of the Institute to be addressed to W. Morrmmr Crark, Esq., Corresponding Secretary, or to Mr. Jamus Jounson, Assistant Secre- tary, Canadian Institute, Toronto. = tt a at tise = EF, abe os . (> Mr. Epwarp Attey, 12 Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, London, W., has been appointed the English Agent for the Institute. All European commn-_ nications are requested to be forwarded through him. THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No. LXVIII.—APRIL, 1869. a PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. BY THE REV. WILLIAM HINCKS, F.L.8., PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. Read before the Canadian Institute, Jan. 16, 1869. GENTLEMEN OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE: In assuming the chair, your calling me to which is, I assure you, regarded by me as a very high honour, though some circumstances in my own position made me at first reluctant to accept it, I must follow the usual custom in offering you a few considerations, suggested by the occasion. But in my choice of topics, I have been led in a somewhat unusual direction; and I can only hope that matters which seem to me to have a strong claim on our attention, may not prove unacceptable, or try your patience too severely. I propose to bring under your notice some thoughts on the nature, utility, proper aims and modes of operation of such Societies as this, in which many of us take so lively an interest. In pursuing the sub- ject, I may possibly offer opinions in which you may by no means all agree with me, but you will do me the justice to believe that they are not laid down dictatorially. They are thrown out for consideration and discussion. I pretend only to give you my own ideas as they have occurred to me, in comparing our condition and aims with those of other similar Societies, and endeavouring to form rational and practical 1 é $8 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. notions of what ought to be attempted and may be accomplished by such means as are in our power, as well as to estimate our actual state, our prospects, and our just claims upon the public. Since man is a social being, it is natural that he should seek aid from his fellow-creatures in most of his objects, and should be disposed to combine with some of them in most of his plans and labours. Civili- zation increases mutual dependence, and draws closer the: social bond, thus disposing us the more to that association, of which it greatly increases the power to secure advantages and facilities. Where popu- lation, wealth and high cultivation most abound, we are astonished at the multitude of distinct objects for which men have combined together in special socicties. Hvery where they find this the means both for improving in and enjoying their pursuits, with most economy as well as the greatest success. Hence Religion, the most important of the pursuits of an intelligent and accountable being, extends and strengthens its influences by association; and this method, though felt by all to be natural and almost necessary, was not left to be adopted by our own choice, but was from the first provided as part of a divine system, fitted to meet human wants. At the other extreme we see mere amusements cultivated by means of societies, and even the convenient supply of ordinary wants creating a demand for clubs, whilst every needed form of charity, every section of party politics, we may almost say every dis-. tinct profession or pursuit in life, has its own society. Is it then to be wondered at that the lovers of knowledge, which, next to religion, is the noblest and the most valuable of the pursuits of man, should also be disposed to enter into combinations, and should find in them both mutual encouragement and entertainment, and a most efficient means of extending scientific tastes, calling forth im this diree- tion the energies of those who needed only a slight stimulus to enlist them in a glorious service, inereasing the variety of rational and tnno- cent pleasures, which are so much needed amidst the labours of active life; and pointing attention to those practical applications of science which are of daily utility, and often of national importance? It would be wasting words to defend the principle or prove the value of scientific societies, but it unfortunately happens that in a complicated social state there are so many interfering objects that it is a real difficulty to fix the proper position and establish the just claims of each. Our Society takes the highest ground which can be occupied by such a body, in its aspiration to represent in some degree to the world the Lae ae Re ie oe ee ae “ood THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 99 learning and science of our portion of this Dominion. We desire to enroll amongst our members all those of our countrymen who engage in original research in any department of knowledge, and whe may be supposed to have occasionally some chance of extending the bounds of some science, solving doubis, usefully discussing disputed questions, putting forth theories worthy of consideration, or in any other way leaving the impress of independent thought and truth-loving inquiry on any of the subjects in which man is interested. If any one has observed a new object, a new fact, or a hitherto unperceived relation between objects or facts; if any one can interpret what is thought obscure, or by sober argument show the fallacy of what he deems erro- neous; if any one can devise a new application of science to art or human convenience; if any can throw the light of accurate and recon- dite learning, aided by acuteness and ingenuity, on the obscure records of past times, or by the suggestions of judgment and taste can elevate our enjoyment of beauty in nature and art, we desire all such to help us, that the record of our proceedings may be enriched, and our coun- try may be honoured in the productions of her sons. But we are not permitted to make such as these our only objects. In some states of society, especially in older countries, this might well be; but in the condition in which we live, our design of promoting knowledge implies an attention not only to its accumulation, but to the increase of its influence, by drawing around us and associating with us the intelligent and cultivated whom the various business of life does not allow to become masters in any one branch of learning or science, but who well understand the value of such pursuits, and can appreciate and enjoy what comes under their notice in respect to them. It is our aim and business to associate together all the higher culture of the country, for improvement and enjoyment, derived from the best sources. We are not insensible to, nor do we as individuals fail to recognise, the claims of societies specially intended to spread more widely through the com- munity means and incitements for improvement; but we choose for our sphere the higher departments and higher results of knowledge. We feel that ours is a distinct and an important object, and one worthy to be worked out with zeal and energy. TlLe young are too readily attracted by the gaieties of life, which they allow to absorb too much of their time; or if they are happy in forming domestic ties, they are sometimes held by them so closely as not only wisely to resist the interference of follies, but even to give up the most 100 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. valuable pursuits, which would call them for a few hours from home. But do they sufficiently consider thatif they have enjoyed the privilege of a liberal education, the keeping up and extending their knowledge is really necessary to make all they have already done available for their advantage in life, and that the pleasures derivable from the pursuit of knowledge and the cultivation of the mental powers, are incomparably higher and more durable than those afforded by the ordinary amuse- ments of the world? If on the other hand they are engaging in the various pursuits of life requiring active intelligence, without having been able to secure the advantage of the higher education, I would ask them how they could dispose of the same amount of time more profita- bly than in connection with this Society? It is when our youth are lovers and seekers of knowledge that our country is sure to flourish, whilst to the individual the pursuit is rewarded by the constant and varied gratifications it affords—gratifications which are inexhaustible, and independent of the changes of life, consequently above all price in the world which for a short time we occupy. It is especially to be desired for a Society of lovers and promoters of knowledge, that it should interest, attach and encourage those who are coming forward in life, to whom we look to fill the places of those who must soon withdraw from the scene; and in seeking means of extended influence, nothing deserves more consideration than what will be bene- ficial to them both by enriching their minds and calling forth their talents. I now proceed to a few words respecting the extent of subjects which various Societies, having in view the same general purpose as ours, include in their plans. Our Society has chosen its name in reference ‘to the French National Institute, which it is well known has a remark- ably wide range of subjects, including nearly all the departments of knowledge, but yet, being divided into classes and sections, is really in its working a collection of separate societies for all the different branches. We have placed no limits to our subjects, and have assumed the expe- diency of the cultivators of all the different branches of knowledge, uniting their efforts in one body. If we are right in this, as we think it will appear that we are, it must be from circumstances in the condi- tion of the country, which give such a plan the advantage on the whole, though many would prefer narrower associations, which undoubtedly have their own recommendations. The Royal Society, in its earlier stages, had no well-defined limits to its subjects, often intruding on what THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 101 properly belonged to the still older Society of Antiquaries, giving much space in its transactions to details of cases, monstrosities, materia medica and other matters strictly belonging to medical science, and including botany, zoology and mineralogy, as well as mathematical and physical science; but affording no precedent for combining with these literature or intellectual moral and social sciences. When we consider the low state of science in that age, the very limited number of its cultivators, and the difficulty of communication, we cannot wonder that some time elapsed before the Society displayed much of that power which has since made it a benefactor of mankind. Considering the kind of diffi- culties which have ever presented the greatest obstacles to our own useful progress, it is amusing, and not without its lessons of prudence, to read in the history of the Royal Society, in reference to the year 1673, that whereas a few years before there had been about 200 mem- bers, in this year the number was only 146; and of these, 79 were persons who had long neglected to pay their subscriptions. It is added : “This great number of defaulters gave much uneasiness to those who wished well to the Society; and the latter, besides making pressing application for the arrears, seriously contemplated an attempt to enforce payment by legal processes.’ This attempt, however, never went beyond talk. Greater care was exercised in the election of members; and as the Society gained strength and importance, defaulters were heard of no more. Those whose necessities or altered tastes make them wish to withdraw, can always do so in a decent and orderly manner, by signi- fying their intention at a proper time. There is only good ground for complaint when individuals wish to be regarded as members, and to enjoy the advantages, yet will not pay sums which, though small in themselves, are absolutely necessary to the working of the Society. I remember, when I resided in London, and had an opportunity of noticing such things, that in the public meeting-room of the Linnzean Society was suspended a board, on which were inscribed the names of all mem- bers above one year in arrear, and it was absolutely forbidden to issue the publications of the Society to any Fellow whose subscription for the current year was not paid up. You see, gentlemen, that we are not alone in having this difficulty to contend with, and that there are means for controlling it. But to return to the question of subjects. Among the new Societies which have arisen in many parts of Great Britain, extension of subjects has been carried to the utmost; whilst in the metropolis there has been 102 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. an abundant crop of those which are devoted to a single limited branch. A name frequently adopted, and in such a case peculiarly appropriate, is “Literary and Philosphical Soociety,” which at once points to the wide extent of the subjects open for discussion ; and where the simpler form of “ Philosophical Society” has been preferred, the members are allowed freely to roam through literature and learning, antiquities and arts, as well as mathematical and philosophical sciences. I myself can never forget many delightful evenings spent at the Literary and Philo- sophical Society of Liverpool, with Roscoe and Traill, Rathbone, Curry and the Yateses, and a host of others, eminent as physicians, lawyers, divines, or merchants, and well prepared to discuss matters of science, learning, literature, taste or social interest, in a manner at once agreeable and improving. Nor less do I recur with the truest enjoyment to evenings spent at the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, where Mr. Vernon Harcourt, Professor Phillips, Mr. Allis, the comparative anato- mist, my learned colleagues in the college with which J was then con- nected, Mr. Wellbeloved, who has thrown such light on the antiquities of York, and Mr. Kenrick, the acute and refined scholar and critic, with other able men, gave a never-flageing interest to the Society’s meetings. On the other hand, I can testify from my own experience, that a Society confining itself to a particular branch, which all its members are supposed to be more or Icss cultivating, does by no means secure the uniform interest of its meetings, and may frequently be a direct cause of their being dull and unattractive. If we try to reason on the subject, it will be evident that the Society whose plan is most comprehensive is most likely to afford something peculiarly interesting occasionally to every intelligent person, and to diffuse a taste for that varied culture which is at once ornamental and useful in a community, whilst a common organization saves the expense of many separate establishments. A common publication brings before the world what is judged most important in all the departments; and what is wanted in the way of special studies in any one science, is easily supplied by the votaries of that science holding additional special meetings as often as they deem useful, like the Sections of the Irench Institute, and availing themselves freely of the rooms and books of the general Society ; whilst, if they find it necessary for purposes of their own, they can provide themselves with funds by a small additional sub- scription from the members of the particular section. The working of our Medical section shows the practicability and the convenience of THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 103 this plan; there is a good opening already for several others, and it might have been better if this method had not been departed from in any case of the kind. Where a large and wealthy population, including many cultivators of almost every imaginary variety of human knowledge, is collected together within a comparatively small space, there is induce- ment to the formation of numerous distinct Societies, though even then the advantages are by no means unmixed; but in a new country, with a seattered and not on the average a very wealthy population, all that can be said of the importance of the higher culture, and the general benefit arisiog from its diffusion, favors comprehensive plans as alone likely to be successful, as alone having even a chance of any wide support, or of exerting any extended benciicial influence. The cases of private clubs, for particular studies and pursuits, literary or scientific, are no more touched by these remarks, than if their objects were musical or merely social; but the formation of formal societies for the cultivation of distinct branches of science or literature, cannot be otherwise than an act of hostility against a more comprehensive association, which is at the same time seeking and prepared to welcome the very communications which are thus turned into a new channel. The question is, which plan is on the whole best? I? our community is prepared to support various distinct scientific bodies, to enavle them to publish their papers and carry out their separate plans, they have a right to try experiments. I teli them plainly they will not meet with the support they seek; and whatever success they do obiain will be so much strength drawn away from the Canadian Institute, a Society which aims at a wider usefulness, and has claims on the patronage of every man in the country who loves and values knowledge and culiure—which offers to them all privileges, such as no limited body can pretend to afford. I come now to a question as to the extent of country over which such a Society as ours may advantagcously extend its operations. The Canadian Lastitute was desigued by its founders to embrace the whole proviace of Canada ag then understood, enrolling among its members the scattered lovers of knowledge, and collecting their communications as materials for iis journal. It has at present members in various parts of Ontario and Quebec, none of whom it would willingly part from ; but the new condition of public affairs forces us to re-consider our con- dition, and to form some judgment as to what course will be of most © public utility, and will best advance our objects. We might possibly aspire to extend our operations over the whole Dominion, or be reacy 104 ' ‘THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. at least to amalgamate with some new Society which might undertake to connect the science and learning of the whole Dominion in some eommon bond; but to this there exist such serious obstacles, that to hope to overcome them requires more enthusiasm than many of us possess, and after all the field would be too wide for a single moderate sized publication to do justice to all its parts, and the difficulty of agree- ing about a common centre of management, the distance of the parts and (for the present) the difficulty of communication, would interfere with the success of the experiment. Giving up as hopeless, and attended with certain serious evils this wider plan, it seems evident enough that we must not pretend to provide for any wants of the Pro- vince of Quebec, but must withdraw within the bounds of Ontario. Is it possible for us to extend our useful influences within these bounds, or does prudence counsel taking the opportunity of confining ourselves to providing for the wants of this city, and its immediate neighbour- hood? It seems to me that we have no right to confine ourselves within narrower limits than the Province of Ontario. So far as we are a publishing Society, the whole Province has an interest in knowing what we do, and studious men in all parts of it, have a claim on our pages, as being their proper access to the public for communications of a certain class, whilst it is obviously our object to make the journal express the highest thought and most original and important inquiry, carried on within our bounds, so far as their results can take a form suitable to our plans. The Province of Quebec has its own scientific journal, with which we cannot interfere ; but we should be sorry to see our own immediate citizens driven beyond our bounds to find means of making known their discoveries and opinions, and whilst the Province of Ontario ought to furnish abundance and variety of material—it may be safely affirmed that for a considerable time to come, the multiplica- tion of periodical publications, devoted to science and the more abstruse forms of literature, could only occasion pecuniary loss and the disap- pointment of all concerned. It may still be said that we have never obtained a large number of country members, and that it is natural that towns which are now rapidly rising in magnitude and importance, should provide intellectual resources for themselves, and have societies of their own. I answer it is desirable that they should, and they have our hearty wishes for their success; but since in union is strength, and since the attempt at separate publication could at present! only result in evil, why should not all local literary and scientific societies, whether \ \ \ \ THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 105 their subjects be more less extended, make themselves parts of our Society, contributing for each member the lowest admissible price for the journal which all should receive, and disposing of their remaining funds according to their own plans; holding their own meetings, and sending such contributions, as they judge proper, to the editing com- mittee of the Canadian Journal. There would then be no assumption of superiority in the central and older body. All would pursue the common object according to their own views of what is most useful or agreeable, and yet we should all be one body, and the journal would be a centre of interest to us all, as a common property which we should all desire to enrich. Ottawa, Kingston, Hamilton and London, either have already, or might at once have, societies which would be better in connection with ours, and other places are nearly if not quite ready to do something. Meantime our principle is that members out of Toronto only pay for the journal, which we think deserves the patron- age of all our intelligent citizens; yet they enjoy all other privileges of membership whenever they can avail themselves of them, so that it is discrediting both their understandings and their patriotism, to say that they have no interest in joining us. Allow me, in conclusion, to say a word or two on our own wants, and on possible improvements in our plans, in the immediate sphere of our action, independently of what I must always regard as one of our most important objects, the Society’s Journal. We can benefit and gratify our members through our library, our reading room, our museum and our meetings. For our efficient working in all these ways, we require a convenient and suitable building in a very accessible situation. This has long been an object of desire to us, and attempts have been made more than once, but the difficulties have been found too great— nevertheless if we wish to keep up our influence and fulfil our proper mission, we must I am persuaded determine to succeed, and by energy and spirit carry through the work. Our library which contains much that is valuable—several articles of great and remarkable value—is not to be considered safe, lying as it does in an ordinary frame building. Our museum such as it is, cannot be displayed, and of course cannot be increased. Our meeting-room is small for our ordinary meetings, which have not recently been very numerously attended, and if we did as we ought to do, would be utterly useless. We now possess a good site, central and large enough for any reasonable purpose, but we want premises which will enable us to 106 THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. develone our plans, and we ought to work diligenily towards securing them. Ove of our practical wants is inat our papers stould uive rise to more couversation, making our meetings wore social, aad cuah there shonld be wore time and opporiunity for general conversation. I am inclincd also vo think, that U a ecitain number of our meetings every season, were devoted to lectures by some of the members, on suitable subjeets, literary or scientitic, at which ladics might be iuviled to at.cnd, we snould thus make the characier and ovjecis of our Society beter known ; increase its useful influence, and contribute to the pleasure of our members. Our financial condition forbids any impor- tant immediate increase to our Library, or additional supply of our Reading Roow, though it is not so bad as to prevent something being done whicn I hope will be immediately considered; but, to speak the plain truth, if those who call themselves our members, and who all ought to be with us, would only regularly pay their annual contribu- tions, which if doe regularly would be to them but a small maiter, we should be well able to do many things which we now lament our inability to accomplish; and of course the more we did in this way, ithe greater would be the inducements to others to join us, as well as our own heneiié from our association. As to our Museum, it is at present use- less, and little else than a name. Personally, T am sirongly impressed with the folly and wasicfulness of multiplying museums in the same neigubourhood. The University of Toronto, which is a national insti- tution, and opens all its advantages as freely as possible to the whole publié, aims at a good geveral museum, both as a means of teaching the naiural sciences in University College, and as a place for consulia- tion of speeimens and improving study to all lovers of natural history, as well as a pleasing recreation to all visitors. It is a matter of public and national inicrest to improve this Museum, which, if it had any funds for iis inerease, would speedily become highly valuable. Jor us to attempt a duplicate general Museum, would be absurd; and the few interesting productions of distant countries possessed by us, ave really out of place with us, and wasted upon us. But there is something in this way which we might do, which would be both pleasing and useful: We might have a Natural History collection of the productions of our own Province. We might solicit our sporting friends to send us speci- mens of the mammalia and birds of our region. The fishes of our lakes and streams would not be less attractive, and a good deal more THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 107 novel. Our entomological friends would, I am sure, be proud to furnish us with our native insects. Our Curator would be happy ia calling forth all the zeal he could, in bringing together our molluscous animals ; and a botanical section might doubtless be organized, to make rural excursions to procure and preserve our native plants, from the noble forest iree to the minutcst moss, lichen or fungus. Such a collection would be a constant source of instruction amongst ourselves, and would be most interesting and attractive to all strangers. Iv would he without a rival, and could never be regarded as what is not wanted, or as a pretension to what cannot be well accomplished. The sooner we caa enter on this field the better, and I trust we shall enlist some good and active labourers amongst our members. Gentlemen, I have gone beyond what I intended; I will only further say, that as in my capacity of a private member, I have, from my inte- rest in your objects, and my real enjoyment of your meetings, been as constant an attendant as almost any of you, so, as far as health and streneth will permii, I hope to be generally with you, anxious io parti- cipate ia your proceedings as well as to render you any little service in my power. But except in my own loss, I can feel no uneasiness in beiag occasionally absent, being so well supvorted by the Vice-Presi- dents you have sclected. Jf any effort of mine can assist our progress towards the position which we ovght to occupy, you may rely on iis being cheerfully made; and I entreat yon all to give us, as often as you can, the acvantage of your presence wiih us, and by the aciive part you take in our proccedings, as well as by any communication you can offer, whether or not of a kind that you would like to submit to the pnbdlie in our journal, io snow that you value the Cociety, and wish to develope all its power of usefultess. 108 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS FOUND IN BRITAIN. IPA | RCI, BY THE REV. JOHN McCAUL, LL.D., PRESIDENT OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO, ETC. 76. “The Roman Wall, a description of the mural barrier of the North of England, by the Rev. J. Collingwood Bruce, LL.D., F.8.A., * 3rd Ed. 1867,” is a very handsome quarto volume, profusely illus- trated by excellent lithographs and woodcuts. In it ‘the author has endeavoured to bring the work up to the present state of our knowledge upon the subject ;” so that “this edition appears before the public as almost a new work.’’? The Inscriptions that have been found along the line or in the neighbourhood of the Wall “are laid before the reader in an extensive series of engravings.” * * * “Ina few instances the letter-press and the woodcut illustrations slightly differ. Where an inscription is nearly obliterated, independent on-lookers will come to } different conclusions as to particular characters. The writer has expressed in type such letters as he himself saw, leaving the engraving to represent the views of the skilful and conscientious artist, Mr. Mossman, who prepared most of the original sketches.” Not only are the illustrations considerably improved, but, also a large addition has been made to the number of the inscriptions that were figured in the second edition. Many of these, indeed, had previously appeared in the Archzologia diliana, Horsley’s Britannia Romana, &e., but they are here, generally, more distinctly or correctly given in superior representa- tions, whilst others have never before been published. Of the render- ings of inscriptions that have appeared in the second edition, or in the * Published by subscription, at three guineas, by Andrew Reid, Newcastle- on-Tyne. The price will probably place the edition beyond the reach of many, but the book is well worthy of a place in every public library. + This difference is often very perplexing to those investigators who, like myself, have seen only copies. Sometimes readings are given on the authority of personal inspection—and unquestionably in good faith—of which it may be said, in the words of Kirchhoff, relative to a Greek Epigraphist—“ Apparet—non- nulla quidem vidisse in lapide, que fugere testes ceteros, vidisse autem multa que scriptt extare nemo sanus sibi persuadeat.” ae a ee Nee FOUND IN BRITIAN. 109 Archexologia diliana, some are corrected and others are extended, and in some cases readings are given for the first time. In a considerable number of these, Dr. Bruce has been anticipated in the pages of this Jowrnal, and in “ Britanno-Roman Inscriptions,” e. gr. (in addition to those specified by him) in *Curatori, in p. 64, in the partial restoration of the fragmentary inscription in p. 65, in } Imaginifer in p. 68, in the readings { Parthicis Medicis, and Coh, 1. * A much improved woodcut is given in the third edition, of the stone bear- ing the inscription in which this word occurs. It now appears to be— D M AVR ?? ENO CVRATORI:ALAE ITASTVRSTIPXV AIO ? ENVSDEC OSPPCE ? COS Dr. Bruce expands it— Diis Manibus Aventino (2) cwratori ale IT Asturum stipendiorum XV, Alliomenus (2) Decurio. To the divine manes—to Aventinus the curator of the second ala of Astures, haying served fif- teen years, Aliomenus (?) the decurion [erected this monument]. In the second line Dr. Bruce has, inadvertently, omitted Aurelio, which seems to be clear. The reading of the other letters in the line is very uncertain, Antheno seems more probable than Aventino, In the fifth line I is within the O, and the letters in ligature after it seem to be ME, so that Aliomenus (or I. Jomenus ?) is not improbable. The appearance of COS at the end of the last line suggested to me the idea that the consular year was stated, but I have not been able to determine the names or name. OS, followed by PR (for the second P may be a relic of R), led me to think of Sosius Priscus, but this conjecture is not consistent with the remains of the other letters. + If I had seen the woodcut in the third edition, representing the altar, in which IMAG=Jmeginifer is found, I also should have read COH*II-DELMA =Cohortis II Delmatarum, but the woodcut in the second edition misled me, for in it the final syllables of the name of the cohort seem plainly to be ORVM, Hence I chose of the two cdhorts known to have been at Magna, where the stone was found, Hamiorum in preference to Delmatarum. As I have adverted to the Cohors Hamiorum, known only from British inscriptions, I may mention that I have but little doubt that it was named in Hadrian’s Diploma of 124. The let- ters are I..M-SALIN-: I would supply HA as the two missing letters. On the meaning of SALIN I can offer no feasible conjecture, but it has occurred to me that it may possibly be a mis-reading of SAGIT., 7. ¢., Sayittariorum. t In the third edition there is an excellent woodcut, representing this fragment. ary inscription, by which my readings (Canadian Journal, 1865) seem to be confirmed—seil. Antonino et (Par)thicis Medicis, and I’ Reterum. I had remarked, “It is plain from the epithets, Parthicis, Medicis, that the empe- 110 NOTES ON LATIN TNSCRIPTIONS Retorum in p. 237, in = Lingonum, pp. 348, 349, and in others which it is unnecessary to mention. Dr. Bruce would, doubtless, have stated these, as he has specified other similar cases in the same publi- cations; but the popular cliaracter of his work prevented him from specially noticing in every instance points that are of interest chiefly, if not solely, toscholars. ‘This adaptation to the general reader is, indeed, _a distinctive and very attractive feature of the book. On its claims in this respect to the attention of all who take an interest in the Roman period of British history, it would be both easy and agreeable to enlarge, but, as such a treatment of the subject would be inconsistent with my purpose in this series of articles, and unsuited to the wants of those for whom my Notes are intended, I shall limit my present remarks to the critical examination of those inscriptions which appear, as presented in this new edition, to be susceptible of emendation. 77. In some cases Dr. Bruce retains his former readings, although they seem to require correction. rors named were Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Verus, and that the date is con- sequently A.D, 165-169.” Dr. Bruce observes, “The inscription belongs to a period Letween A.D. 162, when the epithets, Medicis, Parthicis, were assumed by the emperors, and A.D. 169, when Verus died.” There can be no doubt that his determination of the period is incorrect. The only question regarding the date as fixed by me is whether 166 is not preferable to 165. The latter is justified by Orelli's n. 859. The remarks on this subject in Merivale’s “ History of the Romans under the Empire,” vii. p. 578, are not accurate. He says, “On the conclusion of peace in 166, he (Verus) hastened back to Rome, where Aurelius received him. with open arms, and threw a veil over his want of personal prowess of Parthicus, Armeniacus and Medicus, though Aurelius refused, ai first, a share in honours tor which he had not personally contended.’ To this is subjoined a note: “Of these and several triumphal designations, Medicus alone, ii is said, never occurs in medals or inscriptions, to avoid perhaps a possible misinterpre_ tation.” As Mr. Merivale’s account might produce an er1oneous impression, it seems necessary to state the facts. In 163, the title Armeniacus was offered to both Verus and Antoninus, The former accepted it, and it appears on his coins of the year, but the latter declined it for a time. In 164, Armeniacus appears on the coins of both. In 165, the title Purthicus was offered to both. Verus accepted it, and it appears on his coins of the year, but, Antoninus declined it for atime. In 166, they were both styled Parthicus and Medicus. On the coins of Antoninus we find only two of the titles, either Arm. and Parth. or Parth. and Med., but in some of those of Verus the three titles. The statement, noticed by Mr. Merivale in the note, is contradicted by the existence of several examples of Medicus both on coins and stones. . FOUND IN BRITAIN. Lil (a) In p. 170, we have the following inscription on an altar: FORTVNAE COHIBATAVOR CVIPRAEEST MELACCINIVS MARCELLVSPRAi. Fortune Coh. f. Batavorura cut praecest Melaccinius Marcellus Pree { fectus]. To Fortune the Ist Cohort of Batavians, commanded by Melaccinius Marcellus the Prefect. ie This expansion is the same as that given by Horsley, but as there is no authority for a gens Melucctnia, I think that the fourth line should have been read, AZ. Flaccinius, z.e., Marcus Hlaccinius, as Dr. Hunter read it. Hven if the second letter be Hi (not F), as Horsley thought, I should prefer Jf Mlaccinius, «. e., Marcus Elaccinius. Hlaccinius may be regarded as another form of Allecinius. In p. 314, we have another misstatement of the gens in a different form. There C. Cep. Charitino are expanded as in the second edition, Cato Copione Cha- ritino, instead of Caio Cepio Charitino. (b) In p. 248, we have the following epitaph: DM AVREFATAE _DSALONAS AVRMARCVS JOBSEQCON IVGISANCTIS SIMAEQVAEVI XITANNISXXXIII SINEVLLAMACVLA § Diis Manibus Aurelie Faice domo Salonas Aurelius Marcus D obsequio econjugis sanctissime que vixit annis xxxiti sine ulla macula. To the divine manes of Aurelia Faia, a native of Salona, Aurelius Marcus, a centurion, out of affection for his most holy wife, who lived thirty-three years without any blemish, [erected this].” I cannot accept the reading, obseg(uie) conjug(is), given by Dr. Bruce, as correct. ‘The letters on the stone are obseg conjugi, and should, I think, have been expanded obsequens conjugt. (c) In p. 278, an altar is figured, that bears the following inscription: DEOSANOTO SILVANOVE NATORES BANNES:S 112 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS Dr. Bruce expands and translates it as in the second edition: “Deo Sancto Silvano venatores Bannae sacraverunt. To the holy God Silva- nus the hunters of Banna have consecrated this altar.” This reading does not satisfy me. There is the same objection on the ground of Latinity to Dr. Bruce’s Bannae in the sense “of Banna,” as there is to his miles Pannonizx as “soldier of Pannonia,” in p. 231, and ezvis Pannoniz as ‘ citizen of Pannonia, in p. 220. If Bannae be the correct reading, the translation should be “at Banna.’ But I suspect that the word intended was Banneses for Bannenses, and that the Venatores were not mere sportsmen that hunted in that place or its neighbourhood, but that they belonged to the class of men that contended with wild beasts in amphitheatres, such as we know were in various parts of Roman Britain, e. gr., at Chesters, at Housesteads, at Caerleon, &c. Thus we have in Henzen’s n. 7209: Coll. Venator. Deen- sium qui ministerto arenario fungunt, where Deensium is the adjective formed from Dea, for the name of the place was Dea Augusta. (d) In p. 309, we have the copy of an inscription to which I have always attached much importance, since I first saw it in the second edition : “ DIFFVSI PROVINC BRITANNIAAD VTRVMQVEO EXERCITYS “ Diffusis provinciis [in] Britannia ad utrumque oceanum exercitus [ fecit). On the extension of the provinces in Britain to either sea, the army erected this. As the inscription shown above is incomplete, the reading of it is in part neces- sarily conjectural; that which is here adopted was proposed by Brand.” It seems plain to me that this reading must be rejected, not merely on account of objection to the Latinity, but also because there were no provinces to be extended to the two oceans, viz., those to the east and west of the island. If we compare with this inscription the ¢itulus given by Tacitus, Annals, ii. 22—debellatis inter Rhenum Albimque nationibus exercitum Tiberti Cesaris ea monumenta Marti et Jovi et Augusto sacravisse—we shall, I think, be inclined to regard this stone as erected by the army with a similar object as marking the completion of some important enterprise. It may be reasonably inferred that the word with which dijus’s agrees (with, probably, the names of the deities ‘Su Oe ene a); « FOUND IN BRITAIN. 113 to whom the dedication was made), was on the * upper portion of the stone that has been lost. The question is, what that word can have been. Hostibus or gentibus would be an obvious suggestion, but I am not aware of any example of diffusis used with either of these, and, besides, neither seems to accord with ad utrumque oceanum. Lam dis- posed to supply either copits or presidiis (which may be supported by Virgil, Mueid, xi. 465), or castris, stationibus or preetenturis, ands to regard this stone as a memorial of the completion of the occupation of the isthmus between Solway Firth and the mouth of the Tyne by a chain of military posts. Jarrow church, where the stone was found, was ata short distance from Wallsend, Segedunum, but on the oppo- site side of the Tyne. The stone seems to have been taken across the river. In accordance with these views, | would read the inserip- tion, (castris or preesidiis) diffusis (or diffus. in) provincia Britannia ad utrumque oceanum exercitus, t. e., on the completion of military posts in the province of Britain scattered along the line from one ocean to the other, the army of After exercitus was, I think, the name either of the emperor or of the general in command. See Tacitus, Annals, ii. 22. On the stone there is the fragment of a letter that may have been N or M, and under HRCI of EXERCITVS are traces of letters resembling ILV. (e) On the same page, we have an improved cut of a stone also found at Jarrow: OMNIVM FIL HADR ANICESCHAT VATIS INCRE TI P ININC i The letters CHSC in the third line, V and INC in the fourth line, and the first IN in the fifth line, are uncertain. Dr. Bruce remarks: * There may have been there, for any thing that we know to the contrary, some such terms as MVRO PERFECTO PRAESIDIISQVE; but this is, of course, mere conjecture. I at one time hoped that the other inscription found in Jarrow church, when more fully deciphered, would throw light on the completion of the Wall; for, so far as I could trace the characters, it seemed to record some- thing done by Commodus, Severus or Caracalla to something that bore the name of Hadrian. I even ventured to speculate that the word in that inscription after Hadriani might turn out to be cespititium, but, from the appearance of the inscrip- tion in Dr. Bruce’s improved woodcut, that speculation has not been realized, oy) a feos rae p ‘C5 Gee } 7 t 114 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS “ All that can be said of this inscription (which is still more imperfect) is, that it seems to have been erected in honour of all the adopted sons of Hadrian, of whom Antoninus Pius, his successor, was one.” The expansion that has been adopted by Dr. Bruce is, of course, omnium filtorum Hadriani. The cbvious question is, who were all these sons of Hadrian? He had none of his own, so that reference must be made to his sons by adoption, one of whom and the best known was Antoninus Pius. But who were the others? We know L. dlius Verus, but there our knowledge ends. It is plain that omnes cannot have been applied to two, and the only way to get over the difficulty is to supplement the adoption of Verus and Antoninus by the addition of M. Annius Verus and Lucius Verus, who were chosen by Hadrian for . adoption by Antoninus. Again, another question arises—how does it happen that Hadrian has none of the usual imperial titles? ven if the letters after ANI be CES, they cannot be regarded as standing for CAES = Cesaris, for this title would not have been placed in such a position. It seems probable to me that FIL is a misreading for FEL, the first three letters of FELICISSIMI. The name and titles of the emperor were on the upper part of the stone, which has been lost, and that emperor was, not improbably, Commodus, Severus, or Caracalla. (f) In p. 401, we have a copy of an inscription in Jambics, found at Carvoran. The last three verses are+ “< Tia intellexit numine inductus tuo, Marcus Cecilius Donatianus militans Tribunus in Preefecto dono Principis.” Dr. Bruce translates it thus: “Thus hath understood, overspread by thy protecting influence, Marcus Czci- lius Donatinus, a warfaring tribune acting as prefect by favour of the emperor.”’ The translation is the same as that in the second edition, with the exception of the words, ‘‘ acting as prefect by favour,” which are sub- stituted, as stated by Dr. Bruce in a note, in accordance with the inter- pretation proposed by me in Brit. Rom. Inscrip., p. 298. Nuwmine inductus tuo does not mean “ overspread by thy protecting influence,” but “led to this conclusion,” -“‘ persuaded” “‘ by thy divine influence.” Again, militans does not mean “ warfaring,” but simply “serving,” so that the meaning of militans Tribunus in Preefecto may be more clearly expressed by ‘serving not only as preefect, but also as tribune.” Donatianus (not Donatinus), whilst he was pre/fectus equitum, was allowed by the emperor also to hold the rank of iribunus militum, as Se = a pe Bstesd ets FOUND IN BRITAIN. 15) Henzen says—re preofectus honore tribunus. We have an example of this in the case of I Stiaccius Coranus (Orelli, n. 5017), who was Z’rib. Mil. Leg. 11. Aug. Preef. Equitum Alze Hispanorum in Britannia. We may infer from the inscription of Donatianus, that there was an ala at Magna whose name is unknown, or else that the legion in which he was tribune was there, and we have a memorial of the presence in that place of at least one legion. — (g) In p. 407, an altar, found at Chesterholm, is figured. It bears the inscription : DEONO NEPTV SARABO SINO Dr. Bruce reniarks : “It may be read DEO NEPTVNO SARABO SINO—to the God Neptune, of the bay of Sarabus. The second line not being long enough to hold the whole of Neptune’s name, the last syllable of it has been added to the first.” Dr. Bruce has omitted to mention where this “bay of Sarabus”’ is to be found, and to adduce an example of the metaplasmus of sinus from the 4th to the 2nd declension. 78. In some cases, Dr. Bruce seems to me to have made a wrong choice between two readings. In the inscription on an altar figured in p. 280, the names of two persons are found, w7z., Alb. Severus and Vic. Sevro. In Brit. Rom. Inscrip., p. 13, I suggested, instead of Albus Severus, and Victore Severo, as given in the second edition of the Roman Wall, Albius Severus and Victorio Severo, but Dr. Bruce retains his expansions. My ground for the changes is, that where we have abbreviations of names before cognomina, those ending in cus should be preferred, unless we have authority in each instance for other forms. Sometimes either may be used, as in nomina ending in nus, e. gr., Sallienus or Sallientus, Pupienus or Pupienius, Alfenus or Alfenius. In the inscription given in p. 220, Dr. Bruce retains his miles annos XVI, although Mr. Hedley’s militavit annos X VJ is the correct expan- sion, and similarly civis Pannonice instead of Mr. Hedley’s civis Pan- nonicus. In those inscriptions that have now for the first time appeared in the pages of ‘“‘The Roman Wall,” there appear to be similar errors in choice. (a) In p. 136, we have a fragmentary epitaph, of which one of the lines is ISNORICIANXXX. In Brit. Rom. Inscrip., I expressed the 116 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS opinion that the words before annorum XXX were civis Norict, 7. e., & citizen of Noricum. Dr. Bruce, however, retains Horsley’s Noricus as the name of the person. In support of my view, I may refer to cives Norica, in n. 825, * Rom. Inschrift.in Dacien,” by Ackner & Miiller. (0) In p. 286, Dr. Bruce remarks, relative to the date of an inscrip- tion figured in p. 235: “ Severus Alexander became sole emperor in 222, and was assassinated in 235.” In Brit. Rom. Inscrip., p. 156, I had fixed the year with, I think, certainty, to 225, the date of the consulship of Fuscus L. and Deczter. (c) In p. 381, two of Horsley’s inscriptions are joined, so as to form one, in the belief that the stone had been broken into two pieces. “DEOMATVNO PRO-SALVTE: BONOGENERIS HVMANIIMPE RAN PH C4444 HHH KR HK RK AVG:PR:PR:‘POSVIT AC: DEDICAVIT C:A:CACILIO? A??? Deo Maiuno pro salute | Antonini Cesaris nati]? bono generis humant impe- rante C**** [leo] Aug. Pr. Pr. posuit ac dedicavit C. A. Cecilius. To the God Matunus, for the safety of Antoninus Cesar, born for the good of the race of mankind; by order of , imperial legate and propretor. It was erected and dedicated by Caius Aulus Czcilius (?).” Dr. Bruce remarks : “The name of the emperor for whose welfare the dedication was made, and to ‘whom is applied the proud but not unprecedented title of “ born for the benefit of mankind,” is lost, in consequence of the fracture of the stone. It is here sup- plied, in accordance with a suggestion made to the writer by his friend, Mr. Roach Smith. There can be little doubt that one of the Antonines—probably Caracalla—was intended. The god Matunus is not elsewhere mentioned.” On the probability of the two stones being portions of one, and of the inscription being thus broken betwen them and a missing portion, I shall offer no remark, as I have not seen either of those that exist. My impression, however, is in favor of Horsley’s view, that the two . are not fragments of one stone; and, even if they are, I cannot accept the proposed restoration, for there is no authority for the bare form, Antonini Cesaris ; and I think that the emperor, whose name is lost, was not one of the Antonines, as I have never met with an example FOUND IN BRITAIN. 117 of natus pro bono reipublice or generis humani before the time of Constantine. With regard to the inscription on the lower stone, I adhere to the opinions stated in Brit. Rom. Inserip., p. 142, that “ im- peranie agreed with the lost name of the emperor, forming an ablative absolute. The name of the Leg. Aug. Pr. Pr., in the third and fourth lines, was in the nominative case, being the subject of poswit. C. A., in the last line, stand for c(wram) a(gente), or c(wrante) A(cilio).”” I must, however, withdraw my closing remark—*“ Acz/ are the first two syllables of Acilio, which was followed by the cognomen now obliter- ated,” for it now appears that the letters on the stone are Ozxcil, not Acil, as given by Horsley. Objections may reasonably be made, not merely to the order of the terms according to Dr. Bruce’s interpretation, but also to the * two preenomina of the person named in the last line. As to the usual order, see Orelli, nn. 83275, 3329. (@) In Brit. Rom. Inserip., p. 154, § 70 is devoted to the considera- tion of an altar, which Dr. Bruce expanded and translated thus: “ DIISDEABVSQVESE- CVNDVMINTERPRE- TATIONEMORACV- LICLARIAPOLLINIS COH[ORS] PRIMATVNGRORVM. “The first cohort of the Tungrians (dedicated this structure) to the Gods and the Goddesses, according to the direction of the oracle of the illustrious Apollo.” My remarks are :—‘‘I have no doubt that I, in CLARI, stands, as is common, for IT; and that CLARI is the well-known epithet which Apollo derived from Clarus (near Colophon in Jonia), where he had a celebrated temple and oracle. It is scarcely necessary to cite illustra- * There are several examples of two pranomina (see Marini, Atti Arval. i, p. 234) but they are not common any where, and are extremely rare in Britain. Tn the inscription given in p. 332, we have M.G. SECVNDINVS, which, if the reading be correct, can scarcely be read otherwise than Marcus Gaius. The single letter G, however, may stand for Gaius, meaning of the gens Gaia, Thus Dr. Bruce reads 8S. VAPOLLINARIS, in p. 361, as Sextus Valerius Apol- linaris, regarding BR in smaller letters above the V as standing for Brocavi. I doubt, however, whether it is not better to read VABR as standing for Vabriue, i.e., Sextus Vabrius Apollinaris. Seep. 205. As I have adverted to prenomina, I may mention that the centurion named in the inscription, given in p. 111, was, probably, not Marcus, but Manius Liburnius Fronto, although the character on the stone differs from that ordinarily used for Manius by having A, not V, as the addition to the M. 118 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS tions from ancient authors. Amongst the most obvious are, Virgil, Ain., iii, 360, “Que tripodas, Clariz lauros, qui sidera sentis,’” and Tacitus, Ann. ii, 54, ‘ Relegit Asiam appellitque Colophona, ut Clarit Apollinis oraculo uteretur.” Dr. Bruce, in the third edition, retains the reading clari and the translation “illustrious,” observing in a note on the word :—‘‘ Dr. McCaul prefers reading ‘Clari,’ from the well known epithet which Apollo derived from Clarus in Ionia.” It is, I think, but reasonable, under the circumstances, to ask Dr. Bruce for authority to prove the application of the epithet clarws—=“ illustrious” to Apollo, especially in connexion with one of his oracles. 79. I now proceed to consider some other inscriptions that have appeared in ‘The Roman Wall,” for the first time in the 3d edition. (a) In p. 211, an altar is figured, which bears the following inscrip- tion :— FORTVNAE 1p R C. IVL RALTICVS LEG VI VIC Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus: “ Fortune populi Romani C. Jul. Raiticus [C] leg. VI. Vie. To the Fortune of the Roman people Caius Julius Ralticus, a centurion of the sixth legion the victorious.” This expansion is the same as that given by Horsley. I am not satis- fied with it. I prefer Fortunee Primigeniz, or, possibly, Preenestine. T am inclined to think that the name was not Ralticus, but Reticus. i. e., that the third letter was E, not L. There is no ground for sup- plying centurio. Where the rank is not stated, it may be assumed that miles is omitted, of which examples are not rare. (b) In p. 234, a stone is figured that bears the following inscription : ID: MSALVTE PERVICAEH FILIAE. Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus :— “ Diis Manibus pro salute Pervice fiile. To the Divine Manes for the welfare of Pervica, our daughter.” To me it seems more probable that the letters before salute were MD.M, t.¢., Magne: Deorum Matri, or, possibly, ID.M, 7. e., Idee Matri. See Canadian Journal, x. p.97. Pervica seems to have been sick, and this stone was set up for the recovery of her health. FOUND IN BRITAIN. 119 (c) In page 245, an altar is figured, that bears the following inscrip- tion :— FORTVN AVDAC RO MANVSO LEGVI-XX AVG Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus: “* Fortune Audactus Romanus ) Leg. VI. XX. [Il] AVG. [Dedicated] to Fortune [by] Audactus Romanus, a centurion of the sixth, twentieth and second legions.’ He also offers the following remarks : “An altar, which belongs to this station (Magna), has been dedicated to For- tune by Audactus (?) Romanus, who seems to have held, no doubt successively, the office of centurion in all the British legions—the sixth, the twentieth and the second, styled the August.” This expansion is the same as that given by Horsley, except the sub- stitution of Audactus for Audacius, which Dr. Bruce declined accepting, probably because there is no example of a gens Audacia ; and yet his Audactus is almost equally unprecedented, and has the additional defect of beinga cognomen. On the erroneous opinion that the same person _ could not hold the office of centurion in different legions at the same time, it is sufficient to cite Henzen’s n. 6779, where we learn that the offices of primipilus in one legion and princeps in another were held at the same time by one person. The words are, tta wt in leg. X. primum pil. duceret eodem tempore princeps esset leg. VI, My view, however, of this inscription is, that it marks the erection of the altar, not by a centurion, but by the legions themselves. I would expand it, Fortune. Audacize Romans votum solverunt legiones VI, XX, II Augusta. In the third line there was, probably, *L or LL over II in the fourth. Audacie Romane may be in either genitive or dative, z.e., “To the Fortune of Roman Daring,” or “To Fortune, to Roman Daring.” I prefer the first. See Orelli, n. 2131. (d) In p. 270, two inscriptions, both found since the publication of the second edition, are figured. They are unfortunately imperfect. LVCA (1) IBRVTVS (2) AEFALAEAVGVSTAE DEC AL PET PETRIANAETORQ@OR DD *Tf the character read by Mr. Mossman as O is really 9, then VS) may be | votum solverunt centuriones, &e, 120 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS Dr. Bruce expands and translates them thus: (1) Junius ? Brutus Decurio Ale Petriane. Junius Brutus, a decurion of the cavalry of Petriaha. (2) Lucanus Prefectus Petriane Torquate Milliarie Civium Romanorum. Lucanus, Preefect of the ala styled Augusta and Petriana, rewarded with the torque, consisting of 1000 men, Roman citizens, dedicated this.” In the expansion of (1), I can searcely be taken as standing for IVNIVS. Was it the second upright of N, ¢.¢., IVN? . The trans- lation is likely to deceive, for there was a place in Britain called Petriane, whose site still remains unidentified. ‘‘ A decurion of the Petrian cavalry regiment,” or ‘‘of the cavalry regiment styled Petriana,’”’ seems preferable. In (2) LVCA certainly dves not stand for LVCANVS. It is more probably Zwea, the birth-place of the Praefect. The only peculiarity in either inscription is the use of the term éorquata in (2). Dr. Bruce remarks that ‘‘it does not occur in any other British inscription. Probably the prefect, for some deed of valour, on his part or that of his troops, was allowed, like Titus Manlius of old, to wear a twisted band of gold around his neck; or the torque may have been attached to the banner of the ala. The Ala Petriana occurs in the Riveling rescript * of the date of A.D. 124.” Iam inclined to think that neither of these explanations of the mode of indicating that the regiment had won the distinction of being torquata, is correct. I rather think that every man in it was entitled to wear a torque as a badge of honor, not improbably with some differences as to the metal. See Vegetius, li, 7, and Pliny, Hist. Nat., xxxili, 15. We have evidence, as Dr. Bruce mentions, that this ala was in Britain in A.D. 124, and a plausible inference from (2) suggests itself, that this corps was in the island at an earlier period, either befure or in the time of Trajan, for from Orelli, n. 516, we learn that this ala was styled bis torquata, ¢. e. twice decorated with the torque in his time; and the absence of bcs in this inscription may be regarded as proving that it was cut before the regiment won this badge of honor for the second time. Iam not disposed, however, to make this deduction, for reasons that will hereafter appear. Another inference, and of some importance, may, I think, be drawn from (2). The regiment is called * Dr. Bruce, apparently following Mr. Roach Smith, calls the Tabule honeste missionis, that have been‘found in Britain, ‘rescripts.” This term should not have been used, as it is likely to mislead scholars who have not examined the subject. No example of the documents styled Imperatorum Rescripta has been discovered in the island, nor any thing at all resembling them. SS FOUND IN BRITAIN. 121 Augusta. Now, there is no evidence that this title was borne by any ala known to have been in Britain, whilst there, except one, called only ala Augusta, in inscriptions found chiefly at Old Carlisle. Horsley identifies, on insufficient grounds, this a/a@ with the * ala I Herculea. I am inclined to identify it, on the authority of (2), with the ala Petriana and to regard the use of Augusta alone as manifesting the proud assump. tion that it was unnecessary to use any other designation to identify the corps, and distinguish it from other alz serving in Britain. It (the title Augusta) does not appear in the inscription given in Orelli, n. 516, where the regiment is called ale Petriane milliar. C. R. bis torquatw. Hence we must choose between two hypotheses, either that Awg. was omitted in this inscription, or dis in (2). Of these I think the latter much the more probable, and, identifying the ala Petriana with the ala Augusta, suspect that it got the title Augusta for services under Ulpius Marcellus. In the two earliest memorials of the ala Augusta scil. of the years 188 and 191, the words ob virtutem appellata added to Augusia seem to indicate that the title was then recent. Similarly on an altar of 242 we find 0b wrtutem appellata following Gordiana when this title of the ala had been recently obtained. This identification of the ala Petriana and ala Augusta, and the knowledge that the majority of the ’ memorials of both have been found at Old Carlisle, Carlisle, and Old Penrith, suggest the conjecture that we must place Petriana—as we cannot find a probable site for it within a reasonable distance from Amboglanna—in one of these places or in their neighbourhood. Long ago, Camden, on different grounds, regarded Old Penrith as Petriana. Old Carlisle seems to have stronger claims, and there are those, per- haps, who, notwithstanding the identification by many of Carlisle with Luguvaliiun, would assert the right of that city to the site, especially * There is great uncertainty about this Ala I Herculea, or Herculia as it is othemwise written. In that part of the Wotiiza which relates to Britain, it is said to have been at Olenacum, but in other parts of the same work it is said to have been at three different places, in Africa and Asia, It is not easy to reconcile these statements. It seems to me very improbable that there were several ale prime Herculee in the sense “first of the Hercu- leans.” I suspect that after ala prima had been originally the name of the people, and that when it got the title from Maximian, Herculea was put in place of that name. I should be disposed, therefore, to identify the ala prima Herculea of Britain with one of the ale prime that served in that island, e. gr ., Ala I Thracum, Ala I Pannoniorum, Ala I Tungrorum. 127) NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS as the station that may be assumed to have been there would otherwise be omitted in the list of posts per lineam valli. Is the name of the river Peterell in any way connected with Petriana? ‘And does the plural form— Petrianis’”’—indicate that the ala was quartered in more than one camp or station along its course? (e) In p. 61, Brit. Rom. Inscrip., I have noticed the different mean- ings of the term decurio. We have examples of the use of the term in the third edition of “‘The Roman Wall,’ on which some observa- tions may be useful. In p. 283, the abbreviations DEC PRINC are expanded by Dr. Bruce, Decurto Principum. There is no authority, so far as I am aware, for such an office, whether civil or military. Decurio principalis seems to me a preferable expansion. See Henzen’s Index, p. 153. In p. 127, Dr. Bruce finds another decurio in the inscription: Deo L. Sentius Castus leg. VI. D. P. He reads Decurio posut, and remarks in a note: “The letters D. P. can only be conjecturally ex- tended. Something is wanting to show the dedicator’s position in the legion: decurio (the commander of a troop of ten horsemen), the term here suggested, does this. The initials have sometimes been read dedicat pie.’ I have no doubt that the reading Decurio posuct cannot be justified. I would suggest de peculio. See Brit. Rom. Inscrip., pp- 61, 92, and Orelli, n. 4416. As to the remark— Something is- wanting to show the dedicator’s position in the legion ”—it is sufficient to observe that such an omission iscommon. See n.79 (a)., and p. 807. (f) In p. 283, a grave-stone is figured, that bears the following inscription : DM GEMELLIC: A> FLHILARIO:’S:H-FC Dr. Bruce’s remarks are : “In consequence of the incorrect representations of the inscription that have hitherto been given, the last two letters of the word Gemellica being separated from the rest, and a full stop after each, great has been the perplexity of #hose who have attempted to read it, and various the interpretations that have been given of it. Gemellica, it must be confessed, is a name which we have not pre- viously met with. Dis Manibus. Gemellica Flavio Hilario sepulchrum hoe fiert curavit, To the divine manes. Gemellica to Flavius Hilarius caused this sepulchre to be erected.” If the reading Gemellica be assumed as correct, I would read the inscription thus :—“Diis Manibus. Gemellica. Flavius Hilario secun- dus heres faciendum curavit.”” G'emellica may be in the nominative, or FOUND IN BRITAIN. 123 may stand for Gemellicw. Hilario is a name that occurs more fre- quently than Hilarius, and secundus heres is not uncommon. See Orelli, nn. 3416, 3481. The head, however, which is carved below the inscription seems to be rather that of a man with a beard, than of a woman with a head-dress. Hence I would suggest, instead of Gemel- lica, GEMELLI-C:-A., ¢. ¢., Gemelli custodis armorum; and this I regard as the most probable rendering. (g) In p. 325, Srd edition, we have the following account of a sepul- chral stone, there figured, which was found near the station at Breme- nium, High Rochester : «Besides the Varduli, we have a trace of the Breuci at this station, or at least of their prefect, who had formerly also been commander of a cohort of Lusita- nians. The funereal stone, represented in the annexed engraving, and which is now built into the chancel of Elsdon church, was found in 1809, in a field opposite the north-east corner of the station. The upper part of the inscription, unfortunately, came off in flakes, when the stone was raised, leaving a distinct impression of the letters on the clay. The number of the cohort on this slab is inaistinet; it is probably II, or perhaps IIL, but there is not room for III. The Breuci were a people of Pannonia. This is the only distinct notice that we have of them in Britain, unless tiles which have been found at Slack, in Yorkshire, bearing the stamp of COH. IIIT. BRE. refer to them. Probably the husband of Julia Lucilla was brought from Rome to supéerintend the roads in this district. He was evidently a man of considerable importance. This is the first time we meet with the office of ‘alimentarius’ in a British inscription.” The following is the inscription : LVSITANOR ITEM COHII BREVCOR SVBCVR VIAE FLAMINIAE ET ALIMENT SVBCVR OPERVM PVBL IVLIALVCILLACFMARITO BM VIX AN XLVIII MES VEE DXOXeV) Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus: “[D. M.] [Preefecti cohortis I] Aug[uste] Lusitanorum item cohortis II. (?) Breucor[um] Subcur[atoris] vic Flaminie et alimentlorum] Subcur[atoris] operum publficorum]| Julia Lucilla cluravit] f[iert] marito bene] mlerenti] vial it] an[nos] XLVILL menses] VI. dlies] XXV. 124 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS “To the divine manes —— of the prefect of the first cohort, the Augustan, of the Lusitani, also of the second cohort of the Breuci, subcurator of the Flami- nian way, and of the distribution of maintenance, subcurator of public works, Julia Lucilla had this erected to her husband well deserving. He lived forty- eight years, six months aud twenty-five days.” For this reading of the inscription, of which Hodgson gave a very incorrect copy, we are indebted to Borghesi, who proposed it in Bull. Inst. Archeol. for 1851, whence Henzen gives it in n. 6513. The only part of it that seems liable to question, after examination of the woodeut of Mr. Mossman’s drawing, is cohortis I Auguste Lusitanorwm ; and yet I have but little doubt that the reading is correct. Dr. Bruce’s idea that ‘we have in the inscription a trace of the Breuci at this station,” is not supported by examination of the words. Nor is his conjecture that ‘the husband of Julia Lucilla was brought from Rome to superintend the roads in this district,’ at all probable. We may, I think, reasonably assume that the offices given after item were not held by him at the time of his death or during his residence in Britain. He may have been, at the time of his death, }preefect of the first cohort of the Lusitani, although we have no evidence that this corps was ever in Britain. And yet I suspect that the office or offices that he held at that time were stated in the upper part of the stone, and that he was Zribune of some other cohort, perhaps L Vardulorum, for he seems to have been { Ru/finus, the tribune, for the health of whom, and of his wife Zwcez/la, an altar was erected at this station. See Horsley’s n. xcvi, and Brit. Rom: Inscrip., p. 140. The duties of curator viw and prefectus alimentorum were united in one office. Henzen notices the rarity of the office of subcuraior, and cites Dig. III, 5, 80, for examples in municipia. The deceased was subcurator vie Mlaminie et alimentorum et operum publicorum certainly in Italy, and probably at Rome. Dr. Bruce’s ex- + There is no ground for Dr. Bruce’s prefecti; the word, expressing the com- manding officer of both the cohorts, viz., of Zusitant and Breuct, may just as well have been érébunus, {In p. 895, Dr. Bruce’s Roman Wall, 8rd edn., we also find Rujinws, the name of the prefect of the ala called Augusta. This, possibly, may have been the same person. The commanding officer of an auxiliary cohort is styled either prawfectus or iribunus, but of an ala, preefectus equitum, or simply, but not usually, prefectus. There are examples, but extremely few, of tribunus being applied to the com- manding officer of an ala. My conjecture that the name of the deceased was Lujinus, and that he was tribune of the first cohort of the Varduli, seems to be borne out by faint traces of letters in the upper part of the stone, FOUND IN BRITAIN. 125 pansion of CF—curavit fieri—is not correct. The letters stand for Clarissima femina, and are not found elsewhere, so far as I recollect, in a British inscription. : (1) In p. 852, the altar is figured that bears the inscription, from which it was inferred that the ancient name of Risingham was Habitan- cum. Ihave treated the subject in the note, p. 147, Brit. Rom. Inscrip., and I now take it up again in consequence of a new reading of the text given in Dr. Bruce’s copy. The following is the inscription as given by him : MOGONTCAD ET-N-D-NAVG M-GSECVNDINVS BF: COSHABITA NCCIPRIMASTAT PROSEETSVISPOS Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus : “* Deo Mogonti Cadenorum et Numini Domini Nostri Augusti Marcus Gaius Secundinus Beneficiarius Consulis Habitanci prima statione pro se et suis posuit. To the god Mogon of the Cadeni, and the deity of our Lord Augustus, Marcus Gains Secundinous, a consular beneficiary at Habitancum, the first station from the Wall (?), erected this for himself and his family.” The objections to this expansion, which is the same as that given by Horsley, are, that there is no authority for Habitancum as the name of a place in Britain, and that we should have had prime stationis, 1. ¢., PRIMAH, not PRIMA. To these must be now added, that in the . fifth line the letters are CCI, not CI. This difference seems to me so important, that I do not hesitate, on this ground alone, to reject all previous expansions and interpretations, including that which I doubt- fully suggested in Brit. Rom. Inscrip., p. 147; but it is by no means easy to determine the true explanation of the unusual forms found here. The following inscriptions will, I think, help us in arriving at the meaning: Ht plebet collegi Concordia Augustianorum familie castrensis Alexunder Marcellianus et Encolphius Domitianus Cubiculari stationis prime D. D. UHenzen, n. 7191. Alio Aug. lb. Glauco Cubiculario stationis primee. Zaccaria, [stituzione antiquo-lapid. p. 829. L. Vibio Fortunato L Faruspici Aug. N. Magistro a studiis Proc. Ducenario Stationis hereditatiwm. Mommsen., Inscrip. Neapcl. n. 3948, See also Gruter, 575, 3, and de of. D. A. L. iii, 29, cited by Marini, Atti Arval. 504, a. It appears, then, that CCI may stand 126 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS for Cubicularii or Ducenarti. Of these the + latter seems to me the more probable. See Orelli, nn. 3182, 8342, and my { Notes, Canadian Journal, x, p.96. We may now reasonably infer that we have the genitive case, ducenarii, and we must find the word governing it. N at once presents itself, used, as it not unfrequently is, for nomine. Habita then remains, which seems to form with prima statione an ablative absolute. But what is the meaning of Benejiciarius Oonsularis habita nomine Ducenartt prima statione? Statio is used not merely as a military post, but also as the place where the payments to the emperors, e. gr., of taxes and duties on legacies, were made to officers appointed to collect them. See Henzen, nn. 6537, 6551, 6339. These statzones were often under the charge of ducenarit, and sometimes beneficiarzt were appointed to discharge the duties. On this point Forcellini com- presses much information in a few words. Hujusmodi beneficcartis militibus varia officia posterioribus temporibus assignata fuisse leguntur. Nam et exhibitio cursus publict et vectigalium exactio, reorum conqui- sitic, et ala wd genus munera vis demandabantur, ut est apud Tertull, de fug. in persecut. c. penult. lid. 8. Cod. Theodos. tit. 4 leg. 7, et Spar- dian in Adrian. cap. 2 ubi vide que adnotavit Salmas. With regard, then, to the words, Beneficiarius Consularis, nomine Ducenarii, statione, there can, I think, be very little doubt as to their signification; but the meaning of both prima and habita seems doubtful. The sense + Cubicularii is recommended by its connexion with stationis prime in the examples that I have given from Henzen and Zaccaria, and also by another noticed by Marini sci. a frumento cub. Caesar. N. Stat. I, taken from an inscrip- tion, which is given in full by Fabretti, p.369. If we adopt this reading, a wide field of speculation is opened out. Was this Cubicularius a chamberlain of the emperor or a chamberlain of apartments for the sick? If we take the first, then ‘ prima statione may he interpreted with Marini, “ wltima anticamera,” 7. e., the ante-room nearest to the emperor’s apartment; and we can readily associate this inscription with a supposed visit of an emperor, e. gr., Hadrian, to the post at Risingham, If we take the latter, we may suppose that there was a military hos- pital at this post, and that prima statione is equivalent to our “first ward.” The interpretation that I have given above seems to me preferable to either of these. { When I wrote the remarks to which reference has here been made, I was not aware that the inscription was given by Muratori, 895, 6, and noticed by Marini, Atti Arvali, p. 297. The first proposes Mensor ex castris or castrensibus Impera- toris, and the latter Mensor ex Circuitoribus. I adhere to my own suggestion as the most probable. FOUND IN BRITAIN. 127 may be, having held or managed the tax-station, numbered as first; or having held his first collection of taxes, 7. e. having for the first time discharged the duty, on behalf of the ducenarius, of collecting the taxes. Nomine ducenarii seem to signify “in the name of the duce- narius,” rather than “‘ with the name ducenartus.” On the significations attributed to habita, we may compare ambitiose avareque habitam Hispaniam in Tacitus, Annals, iti, 13, and the com- mon comitiis habitis, delectu habito. The use of prima with statio in the sense numbered as “first,” may be supported by statéonis prime, in the examples that I have given, but it must be borne in mind that statio there seems to mean ante-room. Moreover the order of the terms is different from that in the inscription. I know no example of static in the sense “collection of taxes,” but I believe such a use of it to be consistent with Latin usage, e. gr., such as that of tabule, not for ‘registers,’ but for “registration.” (7) In p. 350, an altar is figured, bearing the following inscription : NVM-AVG:ET GEN. COH. I-F VARDVLORVM CREQ KSVBAN TISTIO ADVENT OLEG:- AVG: PRP F-TITIANVSTRIB “ Numinibus Augusti et Genio Coh. I. Fide Vardullorum civium Romanorum eg. (X) sub Antistio Advento Legato Augustali Pr. Pr. F. Titianus tribunus posutt. To the deities of Augustus and the Genius of the first cohort, the faithful, of the Varduli, consisting of Roman citizens, having cavalry, a thousand strong, under the auspices of Antistius Adventus, imperial legate and propretor, Flavius Titia- nus the tribune erected this altar.” To this Dr. Bruce adds the following note : “Dr. McCaul, in the Canadian Journal for September, 1865, gives this inscrip- tion, and says, ‘I am persuaded that this stone was not found in England: from Orelli, n. 1270, we learn that C. Antistius Adventus was legate in Germany.’ Dr. McCaul on this occasion certainly errs. In a letter to Roger Gale, dated 17th May, 1735, Dr. Hunter, of Durham, says it was ‘found lately at Lanchester, within the ancient fortification, having its bottom broken off, and the initial letter of the last two lines.’ He further states, it was to be taken to Greencroft. Hutchinson’s Durham, vol. ii, p. 364. Hodgson, whose residence at Lanchester made him peculiarly familiar with its antiquities, quotes this passage and says: ‘It is yet at Greencroft.’ Poems, p. 99. It was removed from Greencroft to Chesters two years ago.” Ye ¥ Cole is 128 NOTES OF LATIN INSCRIPTIONS The following is the passage in the Canadian Journal, to which reference is made in the preceding note: “Found at Lanchester, Durham, according to Mus. Ver. ecccxlyv., 9, and Orelli, dnscrip., n. 3403. NVM:AVG-ET GEN-COH-II VARDVLORVM C-R-EQ:M:SVB-AN TISTIO ADVEN TO LEG: AVG: PR: PR- * * * TIANVS TRIB j.e., Numini Augusti et Genio Cohortis secunde Vardulorum civium Romano- rum Equitate Miliarie sub Antistio Advento Legato Augusti Pro Pretore—tianus Tribunus, I am persuaded that this stone was not found in England. From Orelli, n. 1270, we learn that C. Antistius Adventus was legate in Germany.” Dr. Bruce’s statement as to my view is positive, but surprisingly in- accurate. He seems not to have observed that the inscription as given by me from Orelli is not identical with that given by him from the stone that is now at Chesters. They differ in this very important par- ticular, that in mine the cohort is the second, in his the first. Now my opinion was almost wholly based on this difference. If Maffei’s and Orelli’s copies had given COH-I:VARDVLORVM, I should have unhesitatingly accepted their statement that this stone was found at Lanchester, for I knew that the first cohort of the Varduli had been in Britain (see Brit. Rom. Inscrip. pp. 139, 157, 160, 161), although I could discover no trace (on *stones) of the second having served there. I thought of emending II by reading I: F'-, ¢. e., prima fida, but in both Maffei’s and Orelli’s copies the characters II were dis- tinct, and the latter, moreover, placed a line over II, 7. e., II, clearly indicating the second. Moreover, I found that Maffei’s reading COH-II- had been accepted by Marini, Atti. Arval. p. 22, and Car- dinali, Diplomi, p. 157. My persuasion, then, as stated in the Cana- dian Journal, is confirmed, not disproved, by Dr. Bruce’s copy of the original, for no stone, bearing the inscription as given by Maffei and * In Trajan’s Diploma, A. D. 106, the second (if the reading of the Monu- menta Historica Britannica be correct) is mentioned as at that time serving in Britain, but no other memorial of it, so far as J know, has been found in the island, and I venture to suggest that the number in the plate is I not II. I cannot accept, with any confidence, the authority of that volume on epigraphic points. FOUND IN BRITAIN. 129 Orelli, and copied from them by me, has ever been found in England. If I had seen, or could have consulted the authorities cited by Dr. Bruce, viz., Hutchinson and Hodgson, I should, of course, have formed and expressed a different opinion.* JI searched al! the books to which I had access, where I might expect to find some account of the inscrip- tion, viz., Horsley’s Britannia Romana, Camden’s Britannia, ed. Gough, Monumenta Historica Britannica, Dr. Bruce’s Roman Wall, 2nd edition, Mr. Wright’s Celt, Roman & Saxon, and various periodicals, but I could discover no trace of it—not even of the name O. Antistius Adventus—in the lists of Governors of Britain. My examination on the subject was the more strict, as I suspected that a person named Antistius Adventus had been in the island, otherwise I could not ac-- count for the suggestion (in Monum. Hist. Brit., Index, p. cxlvi.) of these names as a reading for those of the person + now ascertained to * In some cases Dr, Bruce seems to have overlooked authorities that might easily have been consulted. In p. 390 we find the statement :—* Mr. Roach Smith suggests to the writer that the deity associated with Jupiter is V[V]LKANVS, Vulcan.” This isno new suggestion. The same view was taken in 1848 by the Editor of the Monumenta Historica Britannica, n, 24 6, and before that by the Rey. Mr. Mathews, in the Gentleman’sM agazine for 1842, p. 598. A more remark- able instance occurs in the note, p. 112, where Dr. Bruce remarks :— After much consideration, the author is, at length, constrained to adopt the views of Dr. Musgrave and of Henzen, and to read [V-V- applied to the 20th legion] Valeria, Victrix, The following examples seem decisive. Dion Cassius, speaking of this legion being then in Britain, denominates them Odadéperor cai Neywiropec; and in the continuation of Orellius by Henzen, Nos. 6680, 6871, we have Valerie Victric. and Valerie Victricis.” Dr. Bruce is mistaken as to Muserave’s opinion: it was, that the first V stood for Valeriana, not Valeria; and Henzen has not discussed the subject, In his Index he gives Valeria Victriz, as a matter of course, for no living Epigraphist on the continent of Europe, so far as I am aware, has given any other expansion for V.V. in connexion with the 20th legion. The passage from Dion Cassius, in illustration of the titles, has often been cited; and the reference to Henzen’s nn. 6680, 6871, in which the epithets are in extenso, was first given by me in note p. 4, Brit. Rom. Inscrip., where I have briefly discussed the subject in explanation of my rejection of the reading Valens Victriz adopted by Orelli, Horsley and Bruce. + I may, I trust, be pardoned for expressing my gratification that my conjec- tural reading — Oclatinio—has been found to be correct on re-examination of the stone. The only doubt that now remains is as to the group of tied letters between O and O, after Vangon. I adhere to the opinion that I expressed rela- tive to them, merely changing operibus perfectis into opere perfecto, as the last letter has been proved to be O, not S as it was formerly given. Is there any trace a the tail of R under the P? If so, the group will comprehend all the 130 NOTES OF LATIN INSCRIPTIONS have been Oclatinius Adventus. When I failed in finding any trace in Britain of Antistius Adventus, I of course turned to the records of other countries, and soon found that a person of this name, mentioned in Orelli’s n. 1270, had been legate of Augustus and Propreetor in Germany or Gaul. As I have adverted to the difficulties that I encoun- ter in treating inscriptions found in Britain, 1 may be permitted to observe that I have never seen the originals, and have been able to get but few rubbings or photographs, so that in examining unsatis- ' factory readings or interpretations, (and my notes are limited almost exclusively to such cases), I have usually to find out or conjecture the true reading from the illustrations or printed copies, or comments of ‘ authors, who often fail’to give correct representations of the originals, sometimes from accidental mistakes in copying, but not unfrequently from imperfect acquaintance with epigraphic language and forms, or even from want of common knowledge of ordinary Greek or Latin. (k) The use of the preposition swb with Consulibus, in the sense “under,” or ‘in the year of,” is well known. So also is its use with Legato Augusti, and in the tabule honestce missionis, in the sense ‘‘under the command of.” Dr. Bruce, I know not why, varies the translation of the preposition. In p.16, we have “under the direction of;” in p. 350, “under the auspices of;” in p. 322, “under the authority of; and in p. 114, ‘‘through the influence of’ ‘There is not one of the things mentioned in those pages, in which the legate seems in any way to have interfered. ‘“Under’’ seems quite sufficient as a translation, and, if it should be desirable to add to this, ‘‘ serving under” may be used in those cases in which military bodies or persons are named. (2) In p. 378, we find the following statement relative to Roman remains found at Papcastle :— “ Another altar has more recently been found, bearing a similar date, and dedicated by a Numerus Frisionum Aballavensium, a designation which it is exceedingly difficult to comprehend.’”’ The difficulty, to which Dr. Bruce refers, is not as to the meaning of the words, for they plainly signify ‘“‘the detachment of Frisiones stationed at Aballava.”’ The Fristz, or Frisiones, regarded by some as identical with the Frisia- nones or Frisiavones or Frisevones or Frixagi, are well known as a portion of the Roman auxiliary troops in Britain. The 1st cohort was jetters required—PERE and PERFECT—by taking the semicircular part of the P (or R) as representing C. in} FOUND IN BRITAIN. 131 there in A.D. 106, in A. D. 124, and at the beginning of the fifth century, as appears from the diplomas of Trajan and Hadrian, and from the Notitia. Aballava is also well known as a place in the island, although there are various opinions as to the identification of the site. In the Wotitia, a detachment of Moors, called Aurelian, is said to have been stationed there. Nor is there any difficulty as to the use of Aballavensium. We have similarly Numerus exploratorum Nemanin- gensium, Henzen’s n. 6731, Numerus Brittonum Triputiensium, Orelli’s n. 1627, and Numerus exploratorum Bremeniensium, Bruce’s Roman Wall, 3rd edn., p. 315. See Brit. Rom. Inscrip. p. 139. Dr. Bruce’s difficulty as to the inscription, I apprehend, is that if the same princi- ple,* by which High Rochester has been recognized as Bremenium, on account of BREMEN and BREM in inscriptions on altars found there, be applied in this case, we must identify Adallava with Papcastle. If this be adopted, the views as to Brampton and Watchcross must be abandoned, and great latitude must be given to the terms per lineam valli in the Notitia. For the present it must suffice to have noticed the difficulty. At some future time I hope to examine the general question relative to the stations after Amboglanna, and to offer some suggestions, that may, perhaps, be useful, even though in some casos expressed doubtfully, as I have not the advantage of personal knowledge of the localities. (m) In p. 414, we have the following inscription, on a stone at Netherby : cabs 4M TITVLLINIA PVSSITTA: CIS:-RAETA VIXSIT- ANNOS: XXXV MENSESVIII DIES: XV° Dr. Bruce expands and trarslates it thus :-- “< Diiis] M[anibus| Titullinia Pusitta cilvjis (?) Reta vixsit annos xxxv,. MeNses Vit, dies LV. “To the divine Manes, Titullinia Pusitta, a native of Leicester, lived. thirty- five years, three months, [and] fifteen days.” The inscription seems simple; almost the only doubtful point appears to be as to CIS, and of this, I think, Dr. B.’s expansion should be * See Brit. Rom. Inscrip., note, p. 188. 132 NOTES ON LATIN INSCRIPTIONS received. But it is astonishing that he should have entertained the interpretation of RAETA that he has piven se7/. ‘of Leicester.”” The Latin term for Leicester is Rate, not Rete. The word clearly desig- nates the woman as one of the people, called Aaeti, who lived near the Alps, about the region now called the Tyrol. We may, probably, find a reason for the presence of this female at Netherby, castra exploratorum, when we recollect that at Birrens or Middleby, Blatwm Bulgium, about 12 miles distant, there were Cives Feeti, serving in the 2nd cohort of Tungrians stationed there. See Brit. Rom. Inscrip. p. 244. But there is another interesting point in this epitaph, viz., the name of the woman—Titullinia Pussitta. Pussitia seems to be a term of endearment—“ little pet’’—perhaps, derived from the Latin *pusillus, pusa, to which also I would trace the name Pusinna in the following inscription given in the Roman Wall, 3rd edn., p. 261 :— D M DAGVALD:- MI ‘PAN: VIXIT: AN PVSINNA TITVL Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus :-— “D. M. Dagvald[us] miles] Pan[nonice] vixit an[nos] Pusinna[conjulx titul[um] [posuit]. “To the divine Manes.. Dagualdus a soldier of Pannonia lived years — -Pusinna his wife placed this memorial.” No exception can justly be taken to the phrase ¢itulwm posuit, for, as Dr. Bruce remarks, it is not uncommon in continental epitaphs. The — resemblance, however, of Pusinna Tvtul to Titullinia Pussitta, suggests the suspicion that we have in the two epitaphs the same names, with a slight variation in one of them. As some letters intervened between Pusinna and Zitul, and there seems to be on the stone the relic of an X before the latter, Dr. Bruce suggests conjux. Hven if we accept this, Titw/ may be the beginning of Z'véiullinia, the name of the ‘daughter, who united with her mother in the erection of the memorial. Although I have thought it better to mention this interpretation, I am inclined to prefer the obvious expansion—éitulum posuit. * Thus we have in Christian inscriptions (De Rossi, nn. 556, 572,) Pisinnus ” ‘and Pitinnus, and even Pitzinina (n. 404), the ancient form of Piecinina and Pizzinina. Should we trace to the same root our use of Pussie, as a pet name of a little girl’? FOUND IN BRITAIN. 133 As I have cited the epitaph of Dagvald, I may mention, in emenda- tion of Dr. Bruce’s expansion, that the Latinity of miles Pannonie in the sense “a soldier of Pannonia” is, as I have already remarked, objectionable. It is probable that on the missing portion of the stone was COH-I, ¢.e., COH:I:PAN, the first cohort of Pannonians, which, we know from one of Trajan’s diplomas, was in- Britain in 106. (x) In p. 147, a slab is figured, that was found in the ruins of the ancient bridge across the North Tyne. Unfortunately, only a very small portion of the inscription remains: Wiveua Vo DISS RANTEAELIO LONGINO PRAEF- EQQ Dr. Bruce expands and translates it thus : “ Restituit 2 curante Hho Longino Preefecto Hguitum, 7. e., restored under the inspection of Allius Longinus, a preefect of cavalry.” This is, no doubt, satisfactory, so far as it goes, and, probably, is all that can be made out with certainty. Some conjectural readings, however, have occurred to me that seem worthy of being mentioned. RAM * as the last three letters of ARAM, is an obvious suggestion, which should at once be accepted, if the stone were an altar or the part of one. But as it seems to be merely a panelled slab, we must look for some other explanation. ‘Were the letters RANA, the N and A being tied asthe Rand EH were? If so, we may supply Ala IT Thracum Vete, .ce., Veterana. The term ala may be regarded as certain, and if Veterana be admitted, the terms J Zhracwm may be inferred, for, so far as I know, this is the only ada that served in Britain that had this title. The Ala I Thracwm is mentioned in Trajan’s diploma of the year 104, and a memorial of it has been found at Watermore. In the diploma of Aurelius and Verus, of the year 167, this a/a is named as Ala I Thracum Veterana, and it was then serving in Lower Pannonia. See Cardinali, Diplomi, p. 239. My conjecture is that it got the title *On the supposition that the letters were RAM, other readings may be suggested. They may be the last three letters of lerram, 7. ¢., supra terram scil. i above ground (see Orelli, n. 589); or of straturam, the pavement (see Orelli, n. ~ 4130, Henzen, nn. 6609, 6612, and Reinesius, p. 298); or we may read structuram or fultwram (see Facciolati in verb), &c. Whatever we supply, we may assume that the ala (for the rank Prefectus Hqguitum implies that the corps was an ala) was the Ala JJ Asturum, which was stationed in the neighbourhood, at Cilurnum. = 134 AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. Veterana before it left Britain, and thus that the date of this slab must be placed between 104 and 167. This first cavalry regiment of Thracian had also the title Augusta, which was probably given to it by Nerva. See Henzen’s n. 5439. There is no memorial of it, however, in Britain, in which this title was used. At the time the Ala Petriana was called Augusta (see 79, d), the Ala I Thracum, so far as is known, was not in the island, nor is there any evidence that it was ever sent back there, unless, indeed, we identify the Ala J Thracum with the Ala Thracum Herculania, and that with the Ala I Herculia of the Notitia. AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. BY DANIEL WILSON, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ENGLISH LITERATURE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. Amid the varied literature of England’s eighteenth century, two - noticeable but very diverse features attract the attention of the curious student. First in time, as in real worth, is the rise of a spirit of sound literary criticism, beginning with Nicholas Rowe’s ‘‘ Shakespeare” in 1709, and expanding with ever increasing power and acuteness until a juster estimate of the great Elizabethan poets was followed by the revival of a taste for simple natural poetry. Pope’s school ended with the first generation of feeble imitators of that great master of poetic art ; and a growing conviction developed itself that the so-called ‘‘ Augustan Age” of Queen Anne might be fitly matched with that which Virgil and Horace adorned, and yet be inferior to more than one elder age of English literature. It was while canons of taste and principles of literary criticism were thus being reduced to form, that a series of literary maskings, or forgeries, ‘appeared, which could only have been _per- petrated in an age of recently revived taste for antique literature. Elizabeth, Lady Wardlaw, of Pitreavie, began the ingenious literary masquerade by her ‘“‘ Hardyknute,” a heroic ballad, professedly derived from an ancient parchment found in a vault of Dunfermline Abbey. By and bye Macpherson followed with his ‘‘ Fingal,” ‘‘Temora,” and other Gaelic epics; Percy, with his half spurious “ Reliques of Ancient AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. 135 English Poetry ;’’? Chatterton, with his “ Rowley Poems,” recovered from an old chest in St. Mary Redcliffe Church, Bristol, the work of an imaginary priest of the reign of Edward IV.; and so the decep- tions proceeded with more or less ingenuity and poetical genius. In prose also an equal success was achieved. Charles Julius Bertram, a youth of English descent at Copenhagen, palmed on Dr. Stukely his “De Situ Britanniz,”’ as a manuscript of Richard of Cirencester, a monk of the fourteenth century; and not only did it deceive that credulous dupe, but antiquaries and historians of the highest class continued to quote, and appeal to its authority, for nearly a century. The ingenious frauds culminated at last in the forgeries of Ireland, who not only pro- duced a contemptible play of his own writing, styled ‘“‘ Vortigern and Rowena,”’ as one of Shakespeare’s lost dramas, but had it accepted by Chalmers, Boswell, and other literary authorities, and actually produced as such on the stage at Drury Lane. The history of this peculiar phase of the literature of Hngland’s eighteenth century, with the volumes of critical controversy it gave birth to, curiously illustrates the transitional stage in which, while a better taste was reviving, the requisite knowledge had to be mastered, and the first principles of criticism were undetermined. Warton, Bryant, Milles, Walpole, Chalmers, and a host of other literary men, are found publishing volumes of controversy about professed antiques, which would now be discarded as spurious by the merest tyro in early literature. But just as the revival of learning had to precede the rise of an original native literature in the sixteenth century: so, in that eighteenth century the taste for the antique, with its spurious creations, preceded alike the return toa higher standard in poetry, and a just and critical estimate of early English literature. In this New World we are passing through an analogous stage, and accompanying it with the production of not a few spurious antiques, modeled to suit the taste of our own day; though European critics seem scarcely alive to what is transpiring in America’s nineteenth century. Vague fancies of the lost Atlantis; of analogies and synchronisms between Heyptian and Mexican antiquities; of Phoenician, Punic, or other remotest relations between the Old World and the New, had been floating dimly before the minds of American antiquaries: when the publication of the Antiquitates Americane by the Antiquaries of Uopenhagen, gave shape and consistency to this pleasant dreamland. It was no longer Heyptian hieroglyphics, or Punic inscriptions that had a : - ed ‘ : 136 AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. to be looked for. Was not Dighton Rock, in Massachusetts—which the Rey. Dr. Ezra Stiles, had shown in 1783, to be graven in the old Punic or Pheenician character and languages—proved by the Danish Antiquaries of 1837 to be in the Runic character and Norse language? The fancy was welcome to thousands. Learning and critical judgment were for the most part scant enough, but faith and zeal abounded ; and if a sceptical doubter appeared on American soil, the high court of final appeal at Copenhagen pronounced against him without fail. So the famous “ Grave Creek Mound Inscription” turned up opportunely on the banks of the Ohio, and gave occasion to a world of fine writing, and learned disquisition. An axe inscribed in linear characters was found at Pemberton, New Jersey, and submitted to the American Hthnological Society; and rumours of similar inscriptions, from time to time, furnished sensational paragraphs for the press. But after a while the Dighton Rock itself fell into disrepute. The believers in its Runic legend got laughed at for their credulity ; and the antiquaries of the West fell back on their old search for the lost Ten Tribes. Mr. David Wyrick of Newark took the lead in this revived quest, and ere long Harper’s ‘‘ Weekly Journal of Civilization” delighted its readers with a facsimile of ‘““The Ohio Holy Stone,” a masonic key-stone as it proved to be, graven in Hebrew characters, and older than the days of Solomon. But this was a bagatelle to what followed. The results of the indefatigable zeal of the Newark antiquaries showed what invaluable treasures await the researches of the American archeologist, when once rightly directed. The most marvellous disclosures were rumored from time to time. But wonders could go no further, when at length, in 1860, there turned up in an Ohio mound a new version of the Ten Commandments, graven on a tablet of stone, in antique Hebrew; and it became obvious, ere long, that the actual grave mound had at length been discovered in which Moses, the servant of the Lord, was buried, of which, for two thousand three hundred years, it had been truly said ‘‘No man knoweth of his sepulchre unto this day.” It was obviously difficult to achieve much more in this direction. The great American war, moreover, came ere long to cceupy men’s minds with more earnest thoughts; and so the mounds of the west were left once more “to dumb forgetfulness a prey.”” But the spirit of faith, and the uncritical credulity of an active but uncultured inquisitiveness, were by no means quenched. The lost Ten Tribes and their Hebrew AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. 1g chroniclings passed into disrepute, and American antiquaries of the sensational type resumed their search for runic inscriptions. With the thrilling incidents of the great conflict between North and South, the Potomac had become an historical river to the civilized world ; and so the antiquarian field of research changed its ground, and there appeared in June, 1867, in the Washington Union a wonder- ful account of discoveries just made in that neighborhood by “ Thomas C. Raffinnson, Fellow of the Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries of Copenhagen.” Professor C. C. Rafn was the great authority in the Antiquitates Americane, for the Northmen’s Vinland, Huitraman- naland or Whitemen’s Land, Irland il mikla, or Ireland the great, &c.; and so Raffinn-son now fitly followed up his discoveries. This learned Northern Antiquary was, it seems, on an exploratory tour in the States, though unheard of by the worshipful mob of lion- hunters; and so he writes to the Union, “ Permit me through your columns to publish the details of the discovery, near the city of Wash- ington, of the remains of an Icelandic Christian woman, who died in the year 1051, and of the inscription in Runic characters which marks her grave, the announcement of which has already spread by telegraph through the New World to the Old.’ The learned Antiquary proceeds accordingly to comment on the historical importance of a disclosure which confirms the discovery and extensive explorations of the Ameri- can Continent by the adventurous Northmen, five centuries before the landing of Columbus. It gives, he says, “another illustration of the great length of time it requires to write an accurate and truthful history ;”’ and he therefore craves the readers’ indulgence in favour of his present narrative, begging them ‘‘to await the publication, within the coming year, of the full account of my archeological researches in the Orkneys, Iceland, America, &c., wherein the more copious text will be accompanied with maps and drawings.” But a marvellous preliminary discovery has to be first related, quite in the old eighteenth century style, though surpassing even Lady Wardlaw’s recovery of an antique parchment from the Dunfermline Abbey vaults. “In 1863,” writes the Danish explorer, ‘in digging about the ruins of the ancient college at Skalholt—said to have been built in 1057 by Bishop Isleif,—in Iceland, the Latin MS., bearing. date 1117, and now known as the Skalholt Saga, was exhumed entire.”’ What opinion Huropean archeologists would be likely to form in reference to this idea of digging up a manuscript seven or eight 138 AMERICAN LITERARY FORGERIES. centuries old, as perfect as though it were an old coin or a flint arrow- head, might be easily predicated one would think. Of this, however, we shall be able to produce an illustration. But, for our New World antiquaries at least, while their zeal is unmatched, their knowledge is most frequently on a par with those of the eighteenth century critics from whom Ossian, Rowley, and Richard of Cirencester, obtained so undoubting a welcome ; and so this supposed exhumation of a perfect manuscript saga of the twelfth century was received with the same mild wonder as that with which Catcott or Barrett accepted from the Bristol charity-boy, lyrics, epics, and whole dramas of an unheard-of poet of the days of Henry VI.and Edward IV. In just such a happy stage of inno- cent faith, Jack-and-the-Beanstalk, Tom Thumb, and all the fairies and giants of the nursery, delighted our childhood. They are to be envied, for whom its pleasant dreamland has not yet faded into the light of com- mon day. An abstract is accordingly given, in the Washington Union, of the contents of the new found Saga. If any one among the genuine antiquaries and scholars of America, already familiar with the ——__ COMMUNICATIONS. The following list of papers, read at the ordinary meetings held during the Session, will be found to contain many valuable communications: 7th December, 1867.—Rey. Prof. W. Hincks, F.L.S., &e., “On the Molluscous Animals.” 14th December, 1867 (Medical Section).—* Discussion on the subject of Ventila- tion, with especial reference to Public Buildings.” 21st December, 1867.—The Annual Report of the Council was read by the Secretary, and adopted. Prof. D. Wilson, LL.D., “ Philological enquiry into the progress of the early Anglo-Saxons in Maritime Art.” 11th January, 1868.—President Prof. H. Croft, D.C.L., read the Annual Address. 25th January, 1868.—Rev. Prof. W. Hincks, E.L.S., &c.—Continuation of his communication on “ The Classification of Molluscous Animals.” Hon. G. W. Allan “ Exhibited the original document of the Articles of Capitulation of the Town of York (now Toronto), April, 1813. Signed Ss ee eee ee SO ee Oe 176 _ CANADIAN INSTITUTE. by General Dearborn and Commodore Chauncy for the United States, and by Lieutenant-Colonel Chewett, Major Allan and others, including the late Chief Justice Robinson, &c., on the part of the citizens and Canadian Militia.” 1st Februarg, 1868 (Medical Section).—Dr. J. Thorburn “ Introduced the subject of Small-pox and its treatment, referring to the best mode of preventing pitting.” Dr. Cumming read “ Sir J. Y. Simpson’s paper on Stamping out Small-pox.” Dr. Ogden “ Reported a case, A. B., a young woman et. 22, who became anemic about October last. The case is called ‘ What is it?’ ”’ Sih February, 1868.—A. E. Williamson, Esq., C.E., “The Tehuantepec route for a Railway across the Isthmus to the Pacific.” 15th February, 1868 (Medical Section).—< A Discussion on the code of Ethics for the Medical Asseciation of Ontario.” 22ud February, 1868.—Prof. D. Wilson, LL.D., “Remarks on the wisdom of Government with regard to their treatment of the Indians.” 29th February, 1868 (Medical Section).—“ Further discussion and adoption of a code of Ethics.” 7th March, 1868.—Prof. J. B. Cherriman, M.A., ‘“‘On the recent Theories of the Sun.” 21st March, 1868.—Prof. D. Wilson, LL.D., ‘“ Notice of dated traces of Nuropean Immigration to British America in the Seventeenth Century.” Stone found by Mr. Haliburton at Port Royal, Nova Scotia, bearing date 1606, was exhibited. Prof. E, J. Chapman, Ph. D., “ Gold assays critically considered.” 28th March, 1868 (Medical Section).—Dr. Hodder, “ Report of cases of Stone in the Bladder.” 4th April, 1868.—Rev. J. McCaul, LL.D., “On Leaden Seals found in England, at Brough-on-Stanmore and Felixburgh in Suffolk, belonging to the time when the Romans occupied Britain; Fragment of tesselated pavement dug - up near Chester; also an inscription found in Hadrian’s Wall near Hexham- and one found at Caerleon, Monmouthshire.” Rey. Dr. Scadding, “ Exhibited a fragment of Brick taken from a Roman Wall at Verulam, St. Albans; also a Coin of Carausius.” Mr. Williamson, “ Exhibited a very interesting collection of Shells and native curiosities from Vera Cruz, and other places in Mexico,” Professor Bell, from Nova Scotia, ‘‘ Made some very interesting and instruc tive remarks on the Nova Scotia Gold Fields.” Professor E. J. Chapman, Ph. 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(St “CUNLV Usd Wo ISAVAV WOE ATAVEL HAILVAVANOO ‘398T ‘ESNOAV WOM UULSIOGY TVOINOTOUORLEN OLNOYOL NO SHUVWad ‘TFS PUR ISTz ON} WO Scoey Avjog ‘urd g 4e Moquiva ‘739g *STOTZVAIOSO ATIMOY UOT, SAV PULA 94 LOZ syUV}MSIL pus 7 ‘Wad Z°WVSs “Nv 9 9 AjaueU ‘ATIep SUOTVATOSO X18 aso} SUIydooxo ‘sUvoTA ATIUpoTT, ‘SUOTJBATOSqO AvpUNg opnpouy you babes i me ae sJepunyy ‘9818 *m00u “THd0}8 repunyy “G30% 2Z0°S |TL"O1]8a'TF|po Fr |o8"s | “** |S0°99) cumsosy urd ‘W10}8 Jepunyy ‘WAgT “uL'e ‘M10}s zepuny} “43g poe Ss “goyrur 8°9 aotatey I { q eS <5 : ot 7 ee a i ame ok: XI. Hanon T 6. PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN iysTizUTE, BY W. C. CHEWEIT & 60., KING STREET & — ; CANADIAN INSTITUTE. : is EDITING COMMITTEE. _ GENERAL EDITOR - - - REV. HENRY SCADDING, DD. ies er 4 4 I G. Ay KINGSTON, M.A. Prof. of Geology ara. eee Univ. Coll. | Director of the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto, © Oe 1 AMG onto. . HENRY CROFT, D.C.L. REV. WM. HINCKS, F.LS. a eam : Professor of Rae Taser Univ. Coll. epee ae Ce Pilea us . re - J, B, CHERRIMAN, MAL] DANIEL WILSON, LL.D. ?-vof. of Nat. Philosophy, Univ. Coll., Toronto, © Professor of History and English Literature, | ee tet re At M. BARRETT, M.D. The Canapian Jougnat is printed exclusively for gratuitous. sistribatigh among the Members of the Canadian Institute, and such Institutions and Societies as the Council may determine ; but Members may purchase extra copies at 50c. per number, and Provincial Literary and Scientific Societies | may obtain the Journal at the same rate, by an annual PATA in advance oa Editor, Rey. Dr. Scapprxe, 10 Trinity Square, Toronto. Communications on general business of the Institute to be addressed to W. Mortimer Ciarx, Esq., Corresponding Secretary, or to Mr. James Jounson, Assistant Secre- tary, Canadian Institute, Toronto. - _——_—_—-- — —— (28 Mr. Epwarp Arey, 12 Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, London, WG, has been appointed the English Agent for the Institute, All European cone ; q . 4 & o Communications for the Journal to be addressed to the 3 nications are ie to be forwarded through him. . | ERRATA. . Page 241, eight lines from bottom, for *‘ Lord Stanley” read “ Lord Derby.” Page 251, nine lines from top, for “ Belzune” read “ Belzunce.” THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No. LXIX.—JULY, 1869. RICARDUS CORINENSIS : A LITERARY MASKING OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. BY DANIEL WILSON, Li.D., ! Professor of History and English Literature, University College, Toronto. Mr. Richard Gough, in his introduction to the ‘“ Archzeologia,” which was destined to be the enduring repertory of English Antiquities, labours to establish a becoming age for the Society of Antiquaries itself. According to him, that brotherhood of antiquarian devotees had its origin in the great era of religious and intellectual revolution to which Queen Elizabeth’s name is fitly applied, when men of the highest intellect, possessed by the new ideas of the age, were struggling for the world’s emancipation from the thraldom of antiquity. In the year 1572, a few eminent English scholars, under the auspices of Arch- bishop Parker and Sir Robert Cotton, assembled at the house of the latter, and formed themselves into a society for the preservation of the ancient monuments of their country. The British Museum Library is the enduring memorial of the labours of one of those conservators of national antiquities, in an age of revolution. But it is to a far different age, and to a very diverse reign, we must turn, for the actual founda- tion of the Society of Antiquaries. Not in the earnest, progressive era of Queen Hlizabeth, but in that most unearnest of centuries with which Queen Anne’s name is fitly associated : a body of gentlemen, not less ~ zealous, though of far inferior note to their precursors of the sixteenth 1 be! ii a 4 PS PA GY es a nrc) wea eh y' bors i Me Sp . we) i xs ue Paks ale Si Se Rr a Y uh 3 ‘ Me me Apa é i tee ee mL te Seege eae Oe ee eer he PONS He ERTL SA Sp ANSP ea Mee oH Venn ie SMR 178 RICARDUS CORINENSIS. century, began their meetings, in 1708, in the Young Devil Tavern, Fleet Street, London; and established a society for the study of antiquities, which has since rendered valuable service to letters and national history. It was not, however, till 1718, that they were thoroughly organised, with a staff of office-bearers, and a regular record of their proceedings. But from this we learn that their first President was Peter Le Neve, Esq., Norroy King-at-Arms, and their first Seere- tary Dr. William Stukeley, a fitting type of the antiquarian enthusiast of that eighteenth century. He was still a layman, a Fellow of the College of Physicians, devoted to the study of the natural sciences, a zealous botanist, an ingenious experimenter in chemistry, and an active cooperator in many curious anatomical dissections, with Stephen Hales, a fellow member of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Dr. Stukeley settled’ in his native county of Lincolnshire as a medica] practitioner, and acquired considerable professional reputation. But soon after he reached his fortieth year, his own health began to fail; and, on the persuasion, it is said, of Archbishop Wake, he aban- doned the medical profession and took orders. Soon after, in 1729, he was presented, by the Lord Chancellor King, to the living of All Saints, in Stamford; and thenceforth he devoted his leisure to the gratification of his favourite taste for antiquarian research. Much of his spare time had been given to such studies even in earlier years, when his profes- sional training, and the bent of his friend Hales’ tastes, tempted him in other directions. So early as 1720, he published ‘‘ An Account of a Roman Temple, and other Antiquities near Graham’s Dike, in Scot- land :” said “ Roman Temple” being the famous Arthur’s Oon, a singular bee-hive structure of squared masonry, twenty-eight feet in diameter, and with all its characteristics pointing to a very different age than that in which Roman temples were reared. A hint of the ~ Scottish historian George Buchanan, sufficed for the theory that it was the Templum Termini, a sacellum reared on the limits of Roman rule. Dr. Stukeley giving his imagination full play, conceived of it as the work of Agricola, and dedicated to Romulus, the parent deity of Rome; and in his enthusiasm pronounced it to be a fac simile of “‘ the famous Pantheon at Rome, before the noble portico was added to it by Marcus Agrippa.’’ Other works followed in the same vein, dealing with Stone- henge, Abury, the Druids, and British antiquities in general. He could use his pencil, as well as his pen, with facility; and grudged no outlay in the issue of copiously illustrated folios and quartos, according PPO iin Meccdah NAME Syrah est dae SIN HD RICARDUS CORINENSIS. 179 to the fashion of that age. Hence his reputation was extended far and wide, as one foremost among the antiquarian authorities of his day. But Stukeley’s day was one in which antiquarian zeal was little tem- pered by critical judgment. The historian Gibbon, while turning to account his “ Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valerius Carausius, Emperor of Britain,” adds in a note: “I have used his materials, and rejected most of his fanciful conjectures.” Few writers have more widely differed in every mental characteristic, than the calm, philoso- phic, sceptical historian of ‘The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,” and the fanciful, credulous, but enthusiastic author of the “Ttinerarium Curiosum.” He visited Oxford, in September, 1724, and one of its fellows, Thomas Hearne, has recorded the fact in his Diary, with this comment on his brother antiquary: ‘This Dr. Stukeley is a mighty conceited man, and it is observed by all I talked with that what he does hath no manner of likeness to the origi- nals. He goes all by fancy. . . . . In short, as he addicts himself to fancy altogether, what he does must have no regard among judicious and truly ingenuous men.” ON le erin, ee or 218 SILVER LOCATIONS OF THUNDER BAY. NOTES ON THE SILVER LOCATIONS OF THUNDER BAY. BY E. J. CHAPMAN, LL.D., PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. Much interest having been excited, within the last few years, by the discovery of rich silver deposits in the district around Thunder — Bay, Lake Superior, a brief account of the so-called silver locations of that region may not be unacceptable to our readers. 1. General Geology of the District :—The strata of the north shore — of Lake Superior belong to three distinct periods of formation. The lowest of these strata in geological position, and consequently the oldest, consist of highly crystalline gneissoid beds of Laurentian age. These (marked A, in Figure 2) form the high land which lies, as a general rule, a few miles inland from the lake-margin; although in many places the Laurentian strata come down bodily to the edge of the lake, or throw off spurs which approach the shore-line more or less closely. The second series of Lake Superior strata (marked B in the diagram- section, Figure 2) consist of green and gray slates and conglomerates; with interstratified beds of quartz-rock, &c., belonging to the Huronian group. ‘These Huronian strata, however, occur only here and there, as, more especially, at Michipicoten Harbour, Otter Head, Pic River, and along the back of Thunder Bay. Commonly, therefore, the strata of the third series (marked C in the diagram, Figure 2) immediately overlie the gneiss or other crystalline rocks of the Laurentian series. These higher strata form Sir William Logan’s division of the ‘ Upper Copper-bearing Rocks of Lake Superior.”” They belong, in themselves, to two probably distinct epochs, although conventionally referred to the horizon of the Calciferous Series of the east. They are thus regarded as altered strata of Lower Silurian age. They occupy most of the lower lands intervening between the elevated gneissoid region and the shore of the lake. Sir William Logan has subdivided these strata into two series : a lower, lying mostly west of Thunder Cape; and an upper series, ranging to the east of that landmark. Both are traversed by numerous dykes and masses of eruptive trap or greenstone; but, whilst the trappean rocks associated with the lower series are more or less compact in texture, and exhibit a marked tendency to assume a columnar or sub-columnar structure, those of the upper series are almost invariably amygdaloidal, and they rarely present a columnar aspect. The columnar condition of the lower series arises essentially rom the presence of joints or partings at right angles to each other, SILVER LOCATIONS OF THUNDER BAY. 219 the step-like outline (see Figure 8) so common in trap rocks, origina- ting from fractures along these natural cleavage or separation planes. This is the true explanation, it may be observed, of the step-like aspect presented by trap rocks generally. The Lower Group (C’) of the copper-bearing strata of Lake Superior consists largely of beds of black or dark-grey slate, and slaty quartzite, mixed here and there with layers of anthracitic chert, and associated with subordinate beds of dolomite, &c.; whilst the Upper Group (07) is made up principally of white and red sandstone, light-coloured conglomerates and limestones, and compact arenaceous marls, mostly of a pale yellowish-grey or pink colour. The silver and copper-bearing veins of the north shore of Lake Superior occur essentially in these altered Silurian strata: some outcropping in the lower, and others in the upper group. 2. The Shuniah Location:—This location lies about two miles due north of Thunder Bay, immediately west of Current River. It in- cludes three double lots, viz., 8 and 11, 9 and 12, and 10 and 13, comprising altogether 1,680 acres. Its central portion is situated, by barometric measurement, at an elevation of 518 feet above the mean level of the Bay. ‘To the north of this central portion of the location, ° the ground falls abruptly, and drains in great part into a small lake, known as Spruce Lake, which occupies a portion of lot 9, and from which a small creek flows through lots 10 and 13, and finally enters Thunder Bay. A sufficient water supply, for washing and dressing ores, could be obtained from this lake and creek, as well as from Current River, if the location were subdivided, and worked by different companies. ‘These lots contain, moreover, an abundant supply of good timber, suitable for mining purposes, and for fuel. ‘ The country-rock of the location consists of dark siliceous slates belonging to the lower portion of the Upper Copper-Bearing Series, described above (C1). A broad and well-defined vein runs in a nearly east and west direction through the southern portions of lots 8, 9 and 10, with a slight northern trend in the eastern part of its course. Where it has been exposed, this vein averages from 20 to 23 feet in width, and has a very slight underlie towards the north. In sinking upon it, therefore, the shaft might be carried down to a very great depth entirely within the substance of the vein itself. Crystalline and amethystine quartz, holding native silver in many places, caps the upper part of the vein to the depth of a few feet, whilst, under this, the gangue or yein-stone consists essentially of cale spar. The vein presents the usual brecciated structure exhibited by most of the Lake Superior veins, 220 SILVER LOCATIONS OF THUNDER BAY. angular portions of the country-rock, in places much altered by chemical action, being thickly interspersed amongst the gangue. In some places, these imbedded fortions of rock are of comparatively large size, forming the so-called “horses” of the miners. Here and there, the minute cracks, by which they are traversed, are coated with native silver and foliated silver glance. In the veinstone proper, especially near the south or foot wall, both native silver and silver glance occur throughout the entire depth to which the main shaft has been at present sunk (67 feet); and some rich pieces of ore have been taken from near the centre of the.vein at various depths. The vein carries also black and yellow zine blende, specks of galena and copper pyrites, iron pyrites, arsenical pyrites, crystals of colorless, smoky, and amethystine quartz, and cubes of pale green fluor spar. The yellow blende holds in most samples a small amount of silver; and, in one assay, a trace of gold, corresponding to about 2 dwts. in the ton, was obtained from it. Several cross lodes intersect or run into the main lode. These are at present altogether undeveloped, but they shew on the surface a gangue of quartz carrying small quantities of galena, blende, and pyrites. One enters the main lode on lot 9, and runs S. 78° to 80° H. Another, on lot 8, runs towards the N.H., and re-appears apparently on the east bank of Current River. These cross veins exhibit an average breadth of from five to seven feet, and, as they are well defined, a certain outlay might be legitimately expended on their development. As the expense of sinking upon them, however, would be considerable, it would be advisable to wait until the drifts upon the main lode reveal their comparative richness at the points of intersection. A shaft was commenced in the Autumn of 1867 on the main lode, on the dividing line of lots 8 and 9, but as this shaft was not well proportioned, it was stopped at a depth of about six fathoms, and another was commenced at a distance of 175 feet to the west, on lot 9. This has been carried down to a depth of 67 feet, but the work is now suspended. From the conformation of the surrounding district, there would appear to be little apprehension of trouble from water in continuing the shaft, but in case of any difficulty of this kind, an adit might easily be driven on zhe north side of the lode so as to drain all the workings above the level of 120 or 180 feet, measured from the surface outcrop of the vein. Many exceedingly rich peices of veinstone have been taken from both the main and eastern shaft, but it is not, of course, pretended that the vein, as at present developed, will yield pay-ore throghout its width, Pewee ‘ bel araa 22°0 20°3 18°6 20°9 JUNE ..... OD} HELE WO) (OG) 9) PCIE || Gy SILO 21°7 19°8 18-9 20°2 JULY . Sedna b |) PEO) ol PBR} eo) islets) iP a Bebo 20°2 19°3 18°7 19°6 PLUGUST 0 a0 cece OIRO MND) Diet OREN CAL [old erate) 20°5 18°3 18°8 20°2 SEPTEMBER ........| 2 25°8 | 2 27°8 | 2 30°7 | 2 34°6 21:0 17°7 18°3 20°2 OcTOBER . 22774 | 2 28°6 | 2 30°3 | 2 34°0 21°4 17°8 18°7 20°5 NOVEMBER ........ 2e27 265) 2) 286.) 2 31/50) 23455 20°7 18°3 18-9 19°4 DECEMBER...... Dh OG |) OP OASOE NT OeanloOje | 4 Bio) 20°2 18°2 19°8 19°6 Oo: on; o7 o7 oOo” Sun pane hanes | ° , YEARLY Muans..| 2 24:8 | 2 27-6 | 2 29-8 | 2 33-2 [75 21-1 |75 19-2 75 18°8 Ke 20°1 264 VALUES OF THE MAGNETIC ELEMENTS AT TORONTO. HORIZONTAL FORCE. TOTAL FORCE. MONTHS. EE 1865 © 1866 1867 1868 1865 1866 1867 1868 JANUARY ..........] 3°493 3°491 3°498 8-497 13°810 | 13°786 ; 13-785 | 13-816 FEBRUARY.... 2.000. 493 “491 *493 “501 807 “T87 “776 "819 AU NCIER 34 G5 55004000 +496 °491 “498 °495 °835 “789 “799 “791 APRIL Raitereietst *493 +495 *496 497 "819 °805 °793 * $25 WES OA EAS AAR SG RU OOS °496 °492 *503 “A907 “838 798 “816 "824 Awitio} a4Gs.casddna0ns “493 “497 “498 °499 *823 “810 “797 *825 Ajwitne igh sade Bobs Sido *494 *495 "499 "503 *804 “792 -800 *830 ATI GUSIO Jails crea oietete “491 -490 "498 “407 “795 "758 “797 "814 SEPTEMBER ........ “487 “494 494 -496 "789 “767 “775 *809 OCTOBER............| °485 *493 "496 496 “787 “762 “789 *820 NOVEMBER.......... *496 °493 *499 "407 “819 “768 -803 “803 DECEMBER..........] "492 *494 "500 *500 "794 773 *820 “819 YEARLY Mrans..] 3°492 3-493 3°497 13°783 | 13°796 | 13-816 ANNUAL MEANS OF THE MONTHLY DETERMINATIONS OF THE ABSOLUTE DECLINATION, INCLINATION, HORIZONTAL FORCE, AND TOTAL FORCE, AT TORONTO, 1841 TO 1868 INCLUSIVE. Horizontal YEARS. Declination. | Inclination. Total Force. YEARS, Force. fe) U Ones 1841 ‘ 1 14°3 75 16°6 gk so dWodgooa00 ou 1 18-9 16°4 1843 . 5b a0 14°7 Ba0ed 1844 .. obho5 14°8 lercroiaia Cieperevatel 1845 . 1 29°1 15°5 3°5443 13°929 1846 1 30°8 Seal °5381 13°898 1847 1 33°2 15°3 *5342 13-886 1848 .. 1 35-4 18°3 *5299 13°915 1849 . Q 1 36°9 18-8. *5328. 13°934 1850 . 1 38°6 20:0 *5280 13-934 1851 . 1 40°9 20°4 *5255 13-930 pocddsgp 0540 00 UGE “LY saldelsaua cd Godt) Mopibo'de 20°5 “5110 13-874 Seoudadoonudes. leh Ube) sohdigadecanaads 1 46-1/a) 22°2 Sleletelcie jaosas SH iAGsaouobice ney lists 1854 1 48-0/(b) 23°0 oddone Se tee SAddoago0dan nd Liste 1855 Il IOS (oy) 23°5 .5154/d) 13°937 bo doRaay adobe Lise 1856 1 56°3 24°0 +5049 13.905 Aododcogdanson JES 1857 2 00°5 24°3 “4883 13-844 cielo stele, cele eee COG 1858 2 04°5 24°4 -4900 13°852 oo0ou obo dI0G 50 itslts) 1859 2 07°4 25.0 , ‘4811 13°825 boco dodo dood es: Lite) 1860 2 10°6 24°5 4792 13-811 Salcioteleleloie eich OU) 1861 2 14:3 2378 “4839 13-817 1861 1862 DY isyiif 23°2 *4853 13°814 1862 1863 219-1 21°5 °4891 13°803 1863 ae Se Sedo dodo a8 2 21°9 20°9 °4932 13°811 bobo osnocoocoa Jit 1865 2 24°8 Dil-ate *4924 13°810 so bddo Koodo no, Listes 1866 2 27-6 19°2 -4930 13°783 pUoebO Ro Ondo oo. Jistae 1867 2 29-8 18°8 “4975 13°796 Hetaieiciaobianices: lucha 1868 2 33°2 20°1 “4979 13°816 do bb Oobouo odds 1868 (a) From determinations in July and August, (bo) From ce in Feb. Mar. Apr. & June } corrected for annual andl secular variation. 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Longitude 5h. 17m. 33s. West. Elevation above JAN. | Fes. | Mar. |, Apr. | May. | June. | Juzy. fe} je} fo} (e} ce) fe) Mean temperature .. 19-02} 17°18; 381-30} 38-04) 51-82} 61-99) 75-80 Difference from average (28 years)... — 4-06)/— 5:98/-+ 1°50/— 3-05|+ 0-42]4 0-47/+ 8-72 Thermic anomaly (lat. 43° 40’)... —13°78|—17°52)— 8-80 —12°16'— 6:28)— 2°61/+ 7:10 Highest temperature .......0.00ecsssseene 39°0} 45:0) 59:0} 64:0} 78:0} 84-2) 93-4 Lowest temperature .... secceevee |—= 7 °O/—— 11°5/— 15.6 9-2) 33-2 38-0 59-0 Monthly and annual ranges............] 46°0) 56°5| 74:6; 54:8) 39:8} 46-2} 34-4 Mean maximum temperature.........| 24:10] 26°57) 39.10] 46:13] 59-72] 70-60] 85-40 Mean minimum temperature .........| 11°85 8:23] 23°92} 29°74) 44°47) 52-32) 66°16 Mean daily ramge..........2.sssssesseeee 12°25) 18-34] 15°18) 16°39] 15-25) 18-28) 19-24 Greatest daily range . 30°0} 38:7) S846) 81-1) 25:4] 27-2) 27-4 Mean height of the Barometer ......... |29°5959|29°7440] 29°6690| 29-5872) 29-5205 |29-6591 | 29° 6003 — 0509] + °1162} -+-°0728 30°145 30-445 30°274 “30-097 29-907} 29-921) 29-782 28°975} 29-129) 29:049) 28-962) 29-190] 29-274) 29-340 —"0099}—-05381) +--0874/ + -00138 Difference from average (28 years)... Highest barometer ..........seeee00s cveeee Lowest barometer ...... Monthly and annual ranges.. a= 1°170} 1-316] 1°225) 1°185) 0-717; 0-647; 0°442 Mean humidity of the air......... 82 81 74 71 75 74 69 Mean elasticity of aqueous vapour...... 0:°092 | 0-086 | 0°140 | 0-170 } 0:299 | 0:422 | 0°619 Mean of cloudiness... 0°77{ 0:66] 0:58] 0-62) 0:67) 0-51) 0:59 Difference from average (5 years)... + :05/— °06/— °04)/+ -02/+ -13)/— -01/+ ‘ll Resultant direction of the wind......... s8w{|n69w/N2lwWiN63w| N388E/NI16z| 8 87E B Velocity of the wind ......... 3°97 3°23 2°12 2°43 3°16 0°85 0:72 Mean velocity (miles per hour) ......... 8:90 0°84 8-58 9-24 6°87 5-26 4°66 Difference from average (20 years)... |+- 0°80} 2:42/— 0:23}-+ 1-18]-+ 0-11/+ 0-12/— 0:31 Total amount of rain.. Inapp.| 0:040] 2-660} 0:990] 7-670} 2-217) 0-510" Difference from average (21-28 years) —1°219/—0-959! +1 -069]—1°461| +4:°449)—0-543|—2:943 Number of days rain ......... 2 1 7 7 16 11 5 it 3 ae | Total amount of snow ....... 14-6} 32°8 4-2) 5.3 Difference from average (25 years). — u at +15:03/— 6°19) + 2:82/— 0-08 9 Number of days snow .. oe 16 5 10 ae : Number of fair days .......ces0ccesesscoeee 10 12 19 14 nt) 19 26 Number of auroras Observed ........000 1 3 10 6 5 4 4 Possible to see aurora (No. of nights)...} 10 15 18 20 17 19 18 Number of thunderstorms ...........++0 at Si 1 aaa 4 4 5 AT TORONTO FOR THE YEAR 1868. REGISTER FOR THE YEAR 1868. TORONTO, ONTARIO. Lake Ontario, 108 feet. Approximate elevation above the Sea, 342 feet. xlix Year | Year | Year | Year | Year | Year | Year Ava. })Sepm. |. Oc | Nov: | Deo. | ages, | is67.| 1966. | 1865. |~1864. | 1863. | 1862, 6r-1s| 56-60! 43-36 36-15] 28-50] 48-33| 48-s4| 43-51] 4%-92] 4i-7o| 44-57| 44-35 + 1-13] — 1-38|— 3-52|\— 0-73|— 3-55]— 0-83|— 0.32|— 0-65/+ 0-76|+ 0-54/+ 0-41]4+ 0-19 — 1-39|— 4-90|—11-44|— 7-05|—13-50]— 7-67|— 7.16|-— 7-49|— 6-08|— 6-30/+ 6-43/— 6-65 84-4) 75-0| 67-6 50-5] 44-2) 93-4| 95-2) 94-0] 90-5] 94:0] 88-0] 95-5 46°8| 36:0] 24-0 20-1/— 3-2{— 15-6|— 12-8|— 14-o|— 10-0l\— 15-0|— 19-8|— 5-2 37-6, 39:0| 43-6] 30-4| 47-4] 109-0] 108-0] 108-0] 100-5] 109-0] 107-8] 100-7 76-91| 64:30] 49-79] 41-39] 29-07)... if i i 58-17| 50-12} 36-23| 31-70] 17-071 ... ao Bia Pons i Be i 48-74| 14-18] 13-56] 9-69] 12-00] 15-26] 15-47] 14-99] 15-43) 14-57| 14-73] 14-43 38°7| 26-4| 22-2] 23-2] 32-7) 38-7| 31°6| 40-8] 36-9] 37-4] 39-6) 37-0 29 -6440|29- 6599|29-7565|29-6490|29-6194] 29-6421 |29- 6140|29-6216]29-6330|29-5596|29-6536| 29-6248 4. -0218|—-0025| +-1119| -+-0373| —-0352] + -0248|—-0033| + -0043] + -0157|—-0577| + -0363| + -0075 29-915| 29-998| 30-158| 30-068] 30-027] 30-445] 30-332] 30-940| 30-354| 30-327| 80-502) 30-469 29-220| 29-334 29-152] 29-165| 28-924) 28-324| 28-768 28-807| 28-707| 28-671| 28-704] 28-€05 0-695| 0-664] 1-006] 0-903| 1-203] 1-621} 1-564| 2-133] 1-647| 1-656] 1-798) 1-664 70 | 77 77 | 81 83 m6 Poet ore ree decre oar TT 0-463 | 0-375 | 0-216 | 0-175 | 0-105 | 0-264] 0-252 | 0-248 | 0-259 | 0-263 | 0-266 | 0-262 0-55} 0-62] 0-63! 0-78] 0-75] 0-64] 0-61] 0-61] 0-61; 0-65} 0-61] 0-68 + -o7|/+ -14;-+ -o2]+ -04]4 -o1]+ 04] + 0-01] + 0-01] + 0-01/+ 0-05] + 0-01/+ 0-03 s58winv74win89win35wi|nv7l wi N57 win 60 win 73 Win 66 WIN 76 win 41 win 48 W 1-01] 0-88] 1-27} 2-10| 4-05] 1-47| 2-05] 2-s3| 1-98] 2-49] 1-34; 2-038 6-15, 6-68| 7-10/ 8-16 9-80] 7-69] 7-00| 7-41| 6-78) 7-40] 7-13| 7-38 + 1-0)|-+ 1-26) 1-11/-4 0-68|-4+ 1-35] + 0-79/+ 0-10|+ 0-51|— 0-12/+ 0-50|/+ 0-23/+ 0-43 re ! — —_ 1-562) 4-239] 1-365| 5-150| 0-005] 26-408] 19-041] 34-209] 26-599] 29-486] 26-483| 25-529 —1-460| +-0-578|—1-149| +-2-138|—1-673] —3-173|-10-540| + 4-628|2-982|—0-095|—3-098| 4-052 cE Uli alain a pO aR 103 | 100 | 126 | 11 | 132 | 130 | 118 n 2.0| 4:31 15-5] 78-7| 110-5] 52-1| 63-3| 74:6] 62-9) 85-4 : 4. 1-16] + 1-38 + 1-20] +13-91]+45-71/—12-¢9|— 1-49/4 9-81|— 1-89] 420-6 sek 2 10 18 go. | 84 | 69 | 68 1. 70H Th |) ire Teyana larson || sad 12 | 190 | 181 | 180 | 201 | 180 | 181 | 199 2 5 5 1 4 Bo) [ida tad WBelnm Ste nats ahd 20 | 19 wu | 12 | 1 {| 193 | 202 | 209 | 201 | 158 | 182 | 176 6 4 1 5 {| 98 | oa] ae amoon || loa a pemoe ] MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS TEMPERATURE. Average 1868. of Extremes. 28 years. fo) fo} fo) fo} Mean temperature of the year..........-..0.cscseeeee 43.33 44.16 | 46.36 in 746. | 42.16 in 56. Warmest month .. wee | July. July, July, 1868. | Aug. 1860. Mean temperature of the warmest month . aera 75.80 67.08 75.80 64.46 Coldest month .. ... | February.| January. | Jan. 1857. | Feb. 1848. Mean temperature ‘of the coldest month , aundté 526 17.18 23.08 12.75 26.60 Difference between the temperatures of the 58.62 44.00 warmest and the coldest months .......... 9 , Mean of deviations of monthly means from 1.33 in their respective averages of 28 years, signs 2.88 2.37 3.67 in 1843, 1853-64 of deviation being disregarded... Bis rbee Months of greatest deviation, without SS July. January, | Jan. 1857, tosign ...... Corresponding magnitude of deviation. Warmest day . Mean temperature of the warmest day. on5 3.8 10.3 17.59 84.50 Feb, 6, 55 Coldest day .. Waleneaewiansi-nalensiesninncls saeeeieeneese cc Jan. 22, °57 Mean Dante iF the cadet aay. “ne —1.29 -14.38 Date of the highest pelnnerabarays neo Aug. 24, 754 Highest temperature .. Bene: 90.9 99.2 Date of the lowest temperature ca eae Jan. 26, 759 Lowest temperature Rabetetenaensies ~12.3 —26.5 Range Of the year .....esceseseesveee 109.0 103.2 118,2 . |July 31, 44, 72.75 Dee. 22, 742. 9.57 : ane) ae 740. 2.4 Jai 2, 742. 1.9 87.0 ee eee BAROMETER. Average 1868. of Extremes. 27 years. Mean pressure of the year ....s.ceseecsscseeeeeeee. | 29.6421 | 29,6173 oe 38 ee Be Month of highest mean pressure .... October. |September| Jan. 1849. | June, 1864, Highest mean monthly pressure .. 29.7565 | 29.6624 29.8046 29.6525 Month of lowest mean pressure.. May. June. |March, 1859.| Nov. 1849. Lowest mean monthly pressure .......... 29,5205 | 29.5717 29,4143 29.5886 Date of highest pressure in the year..........- a rae u85 dan. 8, 766, | Oct. 22, 745. Highest presSure.........ccscsesssscecsscsesssersersvseeee | 80.445 30,383 380.940 30.242 Date of lowest pressure in sities YEAT ccccccssecee igpee: a nor Mar. 19. 59. ; Mar. 17, *45. Lowest pressure ......... sualgsnvsievelsneceseas oabtegecesen (Uma Gas 28.690 28.286 28.989 2.183 in 1.303 in Range of the year ...ccescscsesscsnscnecescneceeeeeees ees 1.621 1.693 1866, 1845. FOR THE YEAR 1868. ] recs RELATIVE HUMIDITY. Average 1868. of Extremes. 26 years. Mean humidity of the year ........ccssesscce ee ceenee 76 17 82 in 1851. | 73 in 1858. Month of greatest humidity ..................-..+.. | December.| January. | Jan. 1857. Dec. 1858. Greatest mean monthly aun cOpaaSIOaUS 83 83 89 81 Month of least humidity .. Eroosonteiccnendonn July. May. Feb. 1848. | April, 1849. Least mean monthly humidity. Maelo erctanelanalendtes 69 away (al 58 76 EXTENT OF SKY CLOUDED. Average 1868. of Extremes. 15 years. Mean cloudiness of the year.........sceccessecesers ove 0.64 0.60 {0.65 in 1864 |0.57 in 1856. Most cloudy month ...:.... seooseeeeees | NOVeMber. | November. mae a Greatest monthly mean of cloudiness crocoacsna 0.78 0.74 0.83 0.73 Least cloudy month ...... ac vee | JUDE. August. cto ae Lowest monthly mean of cloudiness coodcocnsetoun 0.51 0.48 0.29 0.50 WIND. Average 1868. of Extremes, 20 years. a eee Resultant direction... N. 57° W. | N. 61° W. Resultant velocity in miles Bob eae 1.47 1.89 xo Boe Mean velocity, without regard ‘to direction...... 7.69 6.89 8.55 in 1860./5.10 in 1853. Month of greatest mean velocliyay: on sesseseeee | Rebruary.| March, Mar. 1860. | Jan. 1848. Greatest monthly mean peony ocooeeceo “20 10.84 8.81 12.41 5.82 Month of least mean velocity .. aunees July. July. AEUEL 1852} Sept. 1860. Least monthly mean velocity .... cee 4.66 4.97 5.79 Day of greatest mean velocity... Sn March 21. Be Mas 10, 759. | Dec. 2, ee Greatest daily mean velocity .... somo 28 .63 22.95 31.16 15.30 Day of least mean velocity ....... ondoro March 9. ceo Bee on Least daily mean Velocity... ......ssecccesecseccesee ses 1.37 bn me ee Hour of greatest absolute velocity...........0.+. eae aes Bein, ees Greatest Velocity .........+secccesscnesnscescreces coecseeee 38.0 39.81 46.0 25.6 iT hit MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS. RAIN. ee Average 1868. of Extremes. 28 years. Total depth of rain-ininches: ss.ccssesseserceeeeeese | 26-408. |. 29.581 { 43.55 in | 19.041 in 1843. 1867. Number of daysin which rain fell........+.2. 0022. 103 109 130 in 1861. | 80 in 1841. Month in which the greatest depth of rain fell May. jSeptember| Sept. 1843. | Sept. 1848. Greatest depth of rain in one month..é............ 7.670 3. 66L 9.760 3.115" vee in which the days of rain were most} Iyray, gept.| October. | Oct. 1864. | May, 1841. Greatest number of rainy ‘days i in one month... 16 13 22 11 Day in which the greatest amount of rain fell | Nov. 17. coe Sept. 14, 43. Sept. 14, nate Greatest amount of rain in one ay Reatnccsesesncs 2.230 2.087 3.455 1.00 Sept. 8. Hour of heaviest rain ......cceveeesevsncee see coseee 11 tol2p.m ono eee ses Greatest amount of rain in one hour............... 0.715 ae 260 ees SNOW. . Average 1868. of Extremes. : ' | 25. years, Total depth in the year im inches sesso | 78.7 eis | Ca eee Number of days in which snow fell ............ ie 82 60 87 in 1859. | 33 in 1848. Month in which the greatest depth of snow fell | February. February. | Feb. 1846. | Dec. 1851. Greatest depth of snow in one month ............ 32.8 17.8 46.1 10.7, ee a danas the days of snow were mcst January. | January. pee i Feb. 1848. Greatest number of days of. snow in one ‘month 21 13 ees 8 Bays on viatel thelgreatest amount of aol Feb. 24. ... | Feb. 5, 1863.| Jan. 10, 1857. Greatest fall of snow in one OBY.cepecc:-creccccvnnece | 12.0 8.7 16.0 6.5 CONDUCTED BY THE EDITING COMMITTEE OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. = NOVEMBER, 1869. | TORONTO: PRINTED FOR THE CANADMAN INSTITUTE, BY COPP, CLARK & CO., KING STREET BAST. : ANADIAN INSTITUTE. Bris EDITING COMMITTEE. — «GENERAL EDITOR - - - REY. HENRY SCADDING, D.D. E. J. CHAPMAN, LL.D., Ph. D. G. T. KINGSTON, MA. Prof. of Geology a Tipensn: Univ, Coll. | Director of the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto. HENRY CROETR DC, REV. WM. HINCKS, F.LS. | prog of Chemisiny & Haperimental Pitas baat of Natural pe aa Univ. Coll. Univ. Coll., Toronto, J, B. CHERRIMAN, LA, DANIEL WILSON, LL.D. Prof. of N ut, Philosophy, Univ, Ooll., Toronto, a i i - Profe History and English Literature. See Coll., Toren, : va he Canapran Journat is printed exclusively for gratuitous distribution — | among ‘the Members of the Canadian Institute, and such Institutions and Societies as the Council may determine ; but Members may purchase extra ee ji copies at BOc, per number, and Provincial Literary and Scientific Societies : i | may obtain the Journal at the same rate, by an annual payment in advance — : oe Communications for the Journal to be hddveceed 46 #emteneen ) Editor, Rev. Dr. Scapprye, 10 Trinity Square, Toronto. Communications on general business of the Institute to be addressed to W. Morrmer Crark, Esq., Corresponding Secretary, or to Mr. Jamus Jonson, Assistant Secre- es Canadian oe Toronts . : ca Mr. eee eee, Tavistock Row, Covert Garderi, London, W., has been appointed the English Agent for the Institute, All European commu- | _ nications are requested to be forwarded through him, | e255 Fig. iL. Sketch-Plan of North-west Shore of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior SSS SSSQ—c_c5u 5 hie 2. . c o Diagran of Rock Formations on North Shore ot Lake Superior. Level of Lake Superior Big. ©. Step-like outline of Thunder Cape, as Seen from the South East. pH Or | Saxe lI62, Chewett & Co Lith. Toronto. THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No, LXX.— NOVEMBER, 1869. ANALYSES OF SOME CANADIAN MINERALS. BY E. J. CHAPMAN, PH. D. PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. 1. Graphite : from the township of Buckingham, on the Ottawa, Clot 19, range 5). The sample employed in this analysis was apparently very pure: soft, black, sub-foliated, and highly lustrous. Sp. gr. = 2-265. The moisture was determined by desiccation in an an at a temperature of 212°. The carbon was then burnt off by prolonged ignition in the muffle of an assay-furnace; and the*resulting ash was fused with car- bonate of soda in a platinum vessel, and decomposed in the usual way by chlorhydric acid. 6-314 grammes lost 82 milligrammes by com- plete desiccation, and left 1-1731 gramme of very faintly coloured ash after exposure to long continued ignition. The analysis thus yielded : Carbon...... 80-12 (f Seillloey) Gar Scones agooessos 12-86 Alumina ......0....... 4:33 Fe 5 (from Fe? 0%)... 1:07 FAS socise0ee 18-58 4 Lim ; 0-14 itagnena aosdbs Coehenose trace \UIOSS\eceeaeemeremrenall aia 0-18 Moisture ..... 1:30 Another sample (sp. gr. = 2272) yielded: moisture 1:14, ash 22-06, carbon (by difference, as before) 76:80. The composition of the ash was not determined. 1 266 ANALYSES OF SOME CANADIAN MINERALS. 2. Silver Glance ; from Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. The sample consisted of a small mass of distorted crystals (combina- tions of cube and octahedron), perfectly sectile and malleable. Sp. gr. = 7-31. Decomposition was effected by nitric acid; the silver weighed as Ag Cl; and the sulphur partly as S, and partly as Ba SO*. The analysis of 1-953 gramme yielded in per centage values : Suvi oli. Sknasctcoeee 13:37 STINE cnsondaos psd sa 86-44 Copper sa.cac-- faint trace 3. Magnetic Pyrites : from Madoc (lot 18, con. 2). Some carefully selected fragments, apparently quite free from FeS?, were taken for the analysis, and decomposed by chlorhydric acid with subsequent addition of nitric acid. They were strongly magnetic, and the mass from which they were separated exhibited well marked mag- netic polarity. Their sp. gr. was equal to 4-485; but most examples from this locality, in consequence of intermixed silica or siliceous rock- _matter, vary, as regards sp. gr., from about 4:2 to 4:3. The picked fragments yielded : Sal DMT Wiecee ances 39:98 litem preset te ese se net 52-66 The sample contained no trace of either nickel or cobalt. An assay of 50 grammes, for gold, left nothing on the cupel. In another examination, the sulphur was determined by decomposing a portion of the finely powdered mineral with nitre and carb. soda ina porcelain crucible. 1-155 gramme gave 3377 grammes of Ba SO, This is equivalent to 40-17 per cent. of sulphur. 4, Arsenical Pyrites: from Tudor, in Hastings county. This sample, if I may so call it, was not analysed, as it consisted merely of a few minute but well-defined crystals, given to me some time ago by my colleague, Professor Croft. Two of these little erys- tals, examined by the blowpipe, shewed unmistakably the re-action of cobalt; and the presence of this metal appears to be connected with a erystallographie peculiarity in these and other crystals of mispickel. The more common crystals of this mineral, consist, it is well known, of a rhombic prism combined with the planes of a side-polar or brachy- dome + 2. In these Tudor crystals, the brachydome in question is replaced by two of less obtuse type, namely, ¢ ¢ and Z. Now, the ANALYSES OF SOME CANADIAN MINERALS. 267 form 2, the summit angle of which equals 118° 30’, is a comparatively rare form, but it appears to be always present in the cobaltiferous vari- eties of mispickel, and in the allied species glaucodot. 5. Arsenical Pyrites : from Marmora. Assays of several samples of coarsely crystalline mispickel from this locality, have yielded me comparatively large amounts of gold. Insome specimens “ free gold” is present in visible specks and grains, but from samples in which no trace of gold could be perceived under the magni- fying glass, I have obtained returns varying from 1 oz. 3 dwts. 8 ers, to 3 oz. 8 dwts. 20 grs. in the ton of 2,000 lbs. of ore. 6. Prehnite: from Slate River, Lake Superior. The specimen analysed was obtained personally, in the summer of 1868, from Slate River, a rocky stream which enters the Kaministiquia about fourteen miles above the mouths of the latter on Thunder Bay. The specimen formed part of a narrow vein of more or less compact Prehnite, which cuts at that place the high cliffs of dark alum-bearing slate, or shale, forming the sides of the ravine through which the river flows. These slates belong to the lower portion of Sir William Logan’s ‘< Upper Copper-bearing Series of Lake Superior.” Near the Prehnite vein, a very remarkable dyke of dark grey Trap or Dolerite crosses the river. The stream has cut its way through it, and as the cliffs at that spot have been much wasted by atmospheric action, the dyke stands out like a wall, varying from about ten to thirty feet in height, with a width of about three feet. On the right bank also, where it retains its wall-like aspect to the edge of the stream, it has been hollowed out into an arch through which a man might pass without stooping. The Prehnite was only partially (or at least, very slowly) attacked by chlorhydrie acid. It was therefore decomposed by previous fusion with carb. soda, the water being of course determined separately. Sp. gr. = 2-882. The analysis yielded : SiliGa¢ onl Soa beh eae 43-41 AMINA, .22 > tenn ate at ater 23-80 Sesquioxide of iron........... 1-26 Sesquioxide of manganese... 0°53 LTE eh eg aed ep ees ap aoe 26-62 : TE A eas ae Pee ee +14 —2Ca0, APO, 3Si02, HO. — 2 oie wae 268 ANALYSES OF SOME CANADIAN MINERALS. 7. Manganese Ochre: from north-east side of Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. This is an earthy mixture of iron and manganese ochres containing an unusually small amount of water. I did not collect the sample per- sonally, but I am informed that it came from a bed of considerable extent on the shore of the Bay. When sent to me, it was in the form of a dry coarse powder of a dark brown colour. The colour is scarcely changed, after even long ignition in the air. The analysis yielded: Sesquioxide of iron .....%.... 33°68 Sesquioxide of manganese ... 22:18 itary ee aa EP a anne es saen . O81 @arbonic acids ccasccecsseas sone 3:78 UNWViater le ion! a, ANS head 8:82 Insoluble rock-matter .......-- 36:12 100:39 Tt is evident however that part of the manganese (with perhaps a portion of the iron) is present in the state of carbonate. ‘The analysis might therefore be written more correctly as follows: Sesquioxide of iron......... 33°68 Sesquioxide of manganese.. 16°54 Protoxide of manganese... 5:08 Prorat mane 508) _ oahu mangoes. 83 Carbonic acid .....ecec.sesse 378 Carbonate of lime...... 144 AFA TST Oe MUA ara BET NUBIA AREY 3°62, Insoluble rock-matter ...... 36:12 99-83 The water and carbonic acid are determined in a separate portion of the substance, the values, given above, being the mean of two deter- minations. Special tests for sulphuric and phosphoric acids shewed the presence of these bodies in very slight traces. The less exposed portions of this ochreous deposit would probably be found to consist very largely of carbonates. [269] RACH HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. BY DANIEL WILSON, LL.D. PROFESSOR OF HISTORY AND ENGLISH LITERATURE, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO, The significance of “‘ race’ as an element in the progress of diverse nationalities has acquired an importance in modern times, wholly unknown to early historians. The origin of races is still one of the mysteries of science, but the influences arising from the diversity of ethnical character were already in operation at the very dawn of history. Nearly two thousand years before the Christian era, the monuments of Hgypt recorded the relations of a dominant fair, or, as conventionally coloured, a red-skinned orthognathic race, with one of the very same Negro type as that which has been the servant of servants through all later centuries. Thus remote in the period to which such well defined diversities can be traced: their significance has been assumed by some as the index of a wholly independent origin; and hence the term “race” has come to be used necessarily with definitions or limitations. It may suffice here to borrow those of an author whose writings will furnish subject for some comment in the following pages. “Though I have frequently found it convenient to use the word race,” says Mr. Luke Owen Pike, in his Hnglish and their Oriyin, “1 wish it to be understood that I do not commit myself to any theory about the first. origin of the different races of mankind, I simply recognize the fact that there are various peoples possessing common ' characteristics in which they differ from other peoples, and which they hand down to their descendants with little change.” Thus far it may be assumed that all are agreed. No one, moreover, doubts that those differences are moral as well as physical; and not only influence the dealings of Englishmen with Hindoos, Maories, Caffres, and Red In- dians, but perpetuate the divisions of their common nationality, as English, Welsh, Scots and Ivish. On this continent, indeed, the interblending of such minuter ethnical divisions is more rapid; yet even here the term ‘‘ Anglo-Saxon,” so familiarly used, applies rather to a common language than a homogeneous race. 270 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR Races perish, nevertheless, as well as individuals. But some of the distinguishing characteristics of buried races have out-lasted the over- throw of nationalities, and the results of revolutions traceable to the very causes which they serve to illustrate, Hence the interest attaching to the collection and study of hnman crania. “Of all the peculiarities in the form of the bony fabric,’’ says Dr. Prichard, “those of the skull are the most striking and distinguishing. It is in the head that we find the varieties most strongly characteristic of different races.”” By such evidence we may review successive migrations and revolutions, even of prehistoric times: as the geologist finds the tide marks of still remoter ages petrified in the living rock. A skilled comparative anatomist and ethnologist, on forming a col- lection of crania from some old frontier burial-ground on this American continent, would experience little difficulty in arranging them, for the most part, according to ethnical classification. He would, indeed, meet with puzzling variations from his assumed types; and the greater his experience, the more readily would he admit that among crania collected from cemeteries exclusively pertaining to races apparently the most pure, examples are to be looked for irreconcileable with their preconceived head-forms: and which, if submitted to him without some such clue to affinity as the locality indicates, he would be unable to assign with cer- tainty to any specific race. Nevertheless, after all due allowance for such abnormal crania, there is, on the whole, a sufficiently well-defined prevalence of certain specialities in form and proportions, to guide the eraniologist in an approximate classification open to little dispute. As a general rule, it may be assumed that he is not likely to confound the Huropean with the American Indian skull, or either with that of the Negro; nor can he err in the classification, at least, of well marked examples of minor types, such as separate those of Huropean descent into French, German and English. He would find, accordingly, among the crania of the supposed frontier cemetery a brachycephalic, or short and broad skull, with largely developed maxillaries and zygomata, prominent superciliary rndges, a comparatively narrow and poorly developed frontal region, and flattened or truncated occiput, great facial breadth, both at the cheek bones and in the square, massive lower jaw, and prominence in the nasal bones. This he would recog- nise as the native American head: Micmac, Abenaki, Narraganset, Mohican, Iroquois, Massachusett, Powhattan, or the like, according to the locality of his researches, Tribal deviations from the assumed EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 20 typical American head might possibly help him in this minuter classi- fication ; but he would be in little danger of mistaking the head of the Indian for that of his Huropean supplanter. In the same old cemetery, whether north or south, the ethnologist would not fail to recognize among his collection of crania a type con- trasting in many respects most strikingly with the previous one. The face is indeed broad, by reason of the large malar bones and zygomata ; but the forehead is narrow and retreating, the nasal bones are small, the profile markedly prognathous, and the brain-case long and narrow, with prominent occiput. It tells of the Negro from Western Africa: Mandingo, Fanti, Yarriba, Fulah, or the like, intruded on the areas of extinct Indian tribes, found intractable alike by Spanish and English colonists in the enforced servitude of the plantations. Alongside of those lie, in certain localities, on the St. Lawrence, the Penobscot, and other rivers, a peculiar type, or types of head-form, divisible into a long ovoid, and a short, globular one: ascribed, after careful study, on the one hand to the Breton colonist, and on the other to the Franco-Norman, by whom at different periods French colonisation was effected in Lower Canada, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Maine. To the south of those localities, on the Hudson and the Delaware, another short oval or rounded form tells of oldand later emigrants from the upper and lower Rhine; but with them, in ever preponderating numbers, occurs a long oval form, divisible iato two classes, the one more uniform, the other with the frontal region longer and narrower: traceable to the Anglo-Saxon and Anglo-Celtic colonists who are making a new England and a new Britain of the Western Hemisphere. . Nor will the observant craniologist fail to recognise among his col- lected crania suggestive traces of hybridity. The native American type, with its characteristic features modified, tells by means of its longer form, less massive jaws, and slighter superciliary ridges, of the adopted half-breed, dwelling on terms of equality with the supplanters of his aboriginal ancestry; or the softened traits of the long, prognathous negro skull—far more abundant than the pure type-form,—show that no prejudice of race prevented the multiplication of a breed of slaves partaking no less of the blood of the dominant white than of the negro bondsman. Some localities are still purely French, or German; others are the reserves of civilised Indians, or plantations tilled exclusively by those of African descent; and in all of them the local cemetery tells the 272 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR tale of the rude forefathers of the settlement. In the great centres of modern industry and progress it is otherwise. There the Old Eng- lander and New Englander, Hollander, Swede, Saxon and Celt, have jostled and intermingled ; while the half-breed Indian and Negro have been driven out orabsorbed. But still the osteological evidence accords with the change; and the very vagueness of type, though with a predominant long oval, neither wholly Saxon nor Celtic, tells of the interblending of many old and later nationalities with the so-called An- glo-Saxon masters of the New World. In this, as inso many other ways, there lie buried beneath our feet the chronicles of past events, recorded in characters, long-enduring, if not ineffaceable ; and preserving for usa history decypherable by those who will give due diligence to their interpretation. The comparative recentness of the events thus recorded, and the consequently well defined traces of their diverse phases, render this ethnical chronicle of the NewWorld one of easy interpretation. Never- theless it illustrates what has been transpiring on old historic areas from the dawn of Assyrian, Phoenician, Greek or Roman history. The ancient cemeteries of France or Britain tell to the educated eye of the intelligent observer a similar tale of Turanian, Celtic, Roman, Germanic and other intrusions: all processes in the change which converted old Gaul into modern France, and Celtic Britain into Saxon Hngland. The Roman conqueror came into collision with the native Gaul and Briton. But when that event occurred the Christian era was close at hand; and we are becoming more and more familiar with the idea of pre-Celtic and non-Arian occupants of Europe in its prehistoric centu- ries. What we assume from the recovery of long buried evidence, as the succession of events in prehistoric Hurope, agrees with what has been produced in modern centuries by later’ western movements of the nations. On the American continent we still witness rude, savage aborigines, retiring and perishing before the advance of the very same predominant races by whom a similar change appears to have been wrought in Europe. Here, too, we are familiar with the meeting, and to some extent the intermingling, of races of the most. diverse types. The dark-skinned, wooly-haired, long and narrow- headed, prognathous Negro has been brought to supplant the red, or olive-skinned Indian, with coarse, straight black hair, orthognathic profile, and short, broad head. But ere the living type disappears, we ore invited to compare it with that of a distinct race, the so-called Mound ms EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. ° 273 Builders, supposed preoccupants of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and developers of a partial civilization there, before the advent of the Red Indian to the east of the Rocky Mountains, or south of the great lakes. This opinion rests, in part, on the evidence of numerous earth-works and remains of primitive art; but also on some rare exam- ples of a head-form still more compact and brachycephalic than the shortest of Red Indian skulls. But the prevalence of cremation in the sepulchral rites of this extinct race has hitherto rendered the researches of explorers of little avail for the craniologist. Examples of true mound-skulls: are as yet too few to justify absolute conclusions in reference to a well-defined type. To a considerable extent, indeed, it must be admitted that the assumed Mound-Builder type of head has been mainly deduced froma single, very remarkable, but possibly exceptional example. Whilst, however, increasing experience warns us of the danger of basing comprehensive ethnical classifications on a few examples, the significance of head-form, as a test of race, is widely recognized; and with the admission of the value of such type-forms, the modes of indicating them excite new interest. It is: not sufficient now that we are satisfied of the recovery of a human skull from the loam of the Neanderthal cave, in the limestone cliff overhanging the river Diissel ; or in the same breccia with the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, and hyena of the Engis cave, near Liége. We want, if possible, to know what ethnical evidence they supply; and ere lorg find M. Pruner-Bey demonstrating to the Anthropological Society of Paris an undoubted Celtic character for the one, while the other is compared by Lyeil with “the highest.or Caucasian type.” With the demand for this new class of facts, the mode of presenting them in the most accessible, trustworthy form, acquires an importance unthought of till now. A cast is, of course, the nearest approxima- tion to the original; but this is costly, cumbrous, and only available to aselect few. The oldest of all methods, that of: the pencil, can not be lightly undervalued. It is due to the labors of the Egyptian drafts-. man that we know beyond all question of the existence of race types of widest divergency, nearly three thousand seven hundred. years ago; and that the race which still differs most markedly from the European type has undergone no change during all that lapse of time. With results of such value traceable to the art:-of the old Egyptian painter, we are not likely to underestimate its enduring worth; and the appeal 274 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR to the eye afforded by engraving and wood-cut is abundantly appreci- ated by the modern anthropologist. By means of an accurate pencil, with the economical facilities of the wood-engraver, the most charac- teristic specialities of race, in physiognomy, form, or arts; or the distinctive peculiarities of any well-marked cranium: are easily repro- duced, and introduced as part of the text. Yet even this time-honored method, though it has stood the test of ages ina way none other has done, is not absolutely to be relied on. There is always a danger, on the one hand, of the draftsman slighting the essential niceties of detail, and so losing the most characteristic features; or, on the other hand, of the enthusiastic theorist exagger- ating supposed typical characteristics; or imagining in the object of his study the preconceived features he is in search of. The history of the “ Scioto-Mound skull,”—most remarkable among | the crania of the American ‘“‘ Mound Builders,’’—supplies an interesting illustration of the difficulties attendant on graphic representation of type-forms. The first volume of the “Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge,” in which Messrs. Squier and Davis presented to the world the fruits of their researches among the mounds of the great Mississippi valley, is illustrated with so much artistic skill, that the reader might not unreasonably repose implicit faith in their views of the remarkable skull, producesd in evidence of the physical characteristics of the race, to whose monuments and art-workmanship: the volume is devoted. The idea of a pre-Indian race, of a higher type, and superior mechanical and artistic skill to the forest-tribes of the New World, had a charm surpassing that of the rude Troglodytes and Flint-folk of Hurope’s prehistoric ages; and hence “ the counterfeit presentment’ of the old Mound Builders has left an impression on the American mind, not likely to yield to anything but the most incontrovertible evidence conflicting with the theories for which it has furnished a basis. Apart from any theory, it is a remarkable example of a cranium of extreme brachycephalic type, approaching very nearly to a correspond- ence in length, breadth and height; and is justly prized as one of the most valuable objects in the Morton Collection of the Academy of Sciences at Philadelphia. Its facial angle, internal capacity, and most characteristic measurements, are recorded by Dr. H. H. Davis, and have been repeatedly turned to account in discussing the significance of this interesting discovery. When brought into comparison with corres- ponding measurements of a skull of markedly dolichocephalice propor- EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 249 tions, such as the Negro type; or even with the native Iroquois cranium: _ the contrast is very striking. But Professor Huxley, when discussing the resulis of a similar comparison of the proportions of an Hnglish skull, noted in the catalogue of the Hunterian Museum as typical Cau- casian, with that of the Hneis cave, remarks that they only serve to show ‘that cranial measurements alone afford no safe indication of race.” He therefore resorts to the pencil, supplementing the metrical test by a series of outlines of typical skulls placed in juxtaposition, and thereby aims at a more reliable demonstration. Nor can it be doubted that, where available, drawings, measurements and description, employed in combination, are needed to supply an adequate substitute for the original. But the value of any system of measurement consists in its easy ap- plication, and equally ready reproduction; so that if its results can be rendered specific and determinate, they are available to an extent far beyond any other means of comparison; and are nearly free from chances of error such as affect the draftsman’s labors. This is abund- antly illustrated by the Scioto-Mound skull. A minute comparison of Messrs. Squier and Davis’s lithographs with the original reveals important discrepancies, which in no degree affect the accompanying measurements. After carefully comparing the skull with the views in question, I satisfied myself that the vertical view—so important for comparative purposes,—is specially inaccurate. In the original the peculiar characteristics of what I have elsewhere designated the truncated occiput, is seen in its extremest development, passing abruptly from a broad, flattened occipital region, including the posterior portion of the parietal bones, to the greatest parietal width, and then tapering, with slight lateral swell, until it reaches its least breadth immediately behind the external angular processes of the frontal bone. This remarkable parieto-occipital flattening has been produced, I con- ceive, by the use, in infancy, of the cradle-board, but without any pads or bandages affecting the forehead. The frontal bone is unusually high and well-arched; and hence I infer that the occipital modification has resulted without any purposed aim at a change of form, as in the case of the Flathead Indians. It illustrates the effect of persistent and greatly prolonged pressure on the occipital and parietal bones, in one direction, acting on a head naturally of extreme brachycephalic proportions and great posterior breadth. The views here given of it, vertically and laterally, have been executed from the original with ee ea 276 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR considerable care ;* and while they serve to indicate some important SCIOTO-MOUND SKULL :—LATERAL VIEW. peculiarities, either omitted or inaccurately presented in the engravings * The wood-cuts, originally executed to illustrate an abstract of Lectures on “Physical Ethnology,” delivered by me at the request of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, in 1862, have been kindly placed at my service by Professor Henry. EXPRESSION BY MZASUREMENTS 277 referred to; they also illustrate the uncertainty which must pertain to the most careful reproduction of typical forms by means of the pencil. Comprekensive deductions as to the characteristics of the supposed precursors of the Red Indians in the great river valleys of North America, have been based on the assumption—rendered all the more reasonable by the general skill and accuracy of Messrs. Squier and Davis’s illustrations,—that the well-executed lithographs of the Scioto- Mound skull did correctly represent the original. Seeing, then, the liability of the most artistic drawings to fail in scientific accuracy, it becomes obvious thatif a system of measurements can be determined and generally adopted, capable of producing results available as a test of comparative cranial form, it will prove alike easier in its application, and more trustworthy, than the pencil. The photo- graphic art, so reliable in many respects, has indeed come to our aid, and greatly facilitates the production of truthful drawings, but it does not solve all the difficulties in question, owing to inevitable exaggera- tion of the nearer points, and consequent misrepresentation of relative proportions on which so much depends. The Crania Britannica is an example of the illustrative process applied with a degree of skill and accuracy that could scarcely be surpassed; but the result is very costly, and consequently limited in the number of examples illustrated; whereas ethnical deductions, to be of much value can scarcely be founded on too many observa- tions: Whatever system, therefore, is simple, free alike from costly application and liability to error, and sufficiently definite in character to make its results, so far as they go, precise and definite, will best satisfy the aims of the comparative craniologist: and those the test of measurement professes to supply. But even if a metrical system be admitted to embrace more certainly than any other, the requirements here specified: the question still remains undetermined, what are the most useful measurements for giving expression to the specialities of head-forms. No detailed system has yet obtained universal acceptance ; and hence the value of some important contributions to science is dimin- ished, owing to the impossibility of bringing the results of different observers into comparison. Looking to the growing interest which attaches to this subject among Anthropologists, 1 have more than once proposed giving publicity to the early labours of a deceased friend in the department of craniometry, under the belief that the elaborate minuteness of detail adopted by him embodies some valuable suggestive 278 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR hints; but the distaste of editors—not to speak of inne columns and tables of measurements has as often deterred me.* Among a group of fellow-labourers in the investigation of Scottish archeclozy, whose memory [ now recall with many pleasant associa- tions and vain regrets, was the late Dr. Walter Adam, a gentleman of liberal tastes and accurate scholarship. I was indebted to him for codperation in various investigations, both literary and antiquarian; and when engaged, in the years 1849 and 1850, in collecting and mi- nutely studying ancient Scottish crania, with a view to determine various points, since discussed in the ‘“‘ Prehistoric Annals of Scotland,’ and subsequent publications: Dr. Adam put into my hands a series of measurements of French crania taken under the following circumstances. After enjoing the advantages of pursuing his studies under the care of the distinguished anatomist, Dr. Barclay, and completing the requisite course for his degree in Medicine in the University of Edinburgh, he Spent some time at the medical schools of Paris. Dr. Spurzheim, the favorite pupil, and later associate of Dr. Gall, the founder of the system of Phrenology, was at that period lecturing in the French capital, and Winning the attention of many enthusiastic students by the novelties of the new science he promulgated. From 1807 to 1813 Gall and Spurzheim lectured conjointly on their favourite subject to Parisian audiences, and thereby trained many followers by whom their opinions were spread throughout Hurope. Dr. Adam was fascinated for a time by the attractions of the lecturer, as well as the seductive promises of the science; and bringing its principles to bear in the direction of his own national predilections, he proceeded, under the guidance of Dr. Spurzheim, to select from a series of skulls in the University Museum, recovered from the Parisian Catacombs, a group illustrative of the Celtic head. * An abstract of the series of measurements referred to, prepared as a supple ment to the “ Inquiry into the physical characteristics of the ancient and modern Celt,’ (Canadian Journal, Vol. [X.), to which, as will be seen, it had a fitting bearing, was omitted, owing to the length of that paper. The present paper originated in a renewed attempt at their publication; but I have been compelled to limit myself to very brief selections, after preparing the whole tables for the press. + Dr. Walter Adam, Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh, and a member of various learned Societies, was a son of Alexander Adam, LL.D., Rector of the High School of Edinburgh, author of the “Roman Antiquities,” and other works. He died in 1857. EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 279 Here it is obvious that the great German craniologist undertook the same problem of ethnical classification which, in our introductory re- marks, has been applied in theory to an early frontier cemetery of the New World. But the problem becomes enormously complicated, when brought to the test in some great common bivouac of the nations, such as Paris has been through so many centuries, to Gaulish, Roman, Me- rovingian and Carlovingian Frank, Norman, and English occupants. Though the predominance of the Celtic element in the modern French is universally admitted, Paris is the least likely to yield evidence of its persistency; and reasoning a priorz, it would be difficult indeed to determine the probable classification of any chance skull recovered from the Parisian Catacombs. On what principle Dr. Spurzheim and his disciple did determine the celticity of these Parisian Crania I failed to ascertain. The interval which had elapsed since Dr. Adam pursued his cranial and phrenologi- cal investigations, under such a mentor, had greatly cooled his ardour ; and the note with which he accompanied the gift of his elaborate tables of measurements, after discussing other subjects of mutual interest, concludes with the remark: ‘You are welcome to light your fire with all about the Parisian Catacombs.” Aware, however, of my friend’s painstaking and accurate habits of observation, and the peculiarly favourable opportunities he enjoyed for such investigations, I carefully preserved the fruits of his labours as an interesting contribution to minute craniomety. He remarks of them: ‘The series of external measurements of Parisian crania were taken from skulls selected by Dr. Spurzheim, from a number in the museum of the University, as most illustrative of the Celtic French head. They will show you, I think, every possible measurement of the human cranium. In regard to the phraseology: in one respect, like Professor Owen, I had the benefit of the instructions of Dr. Barclay,-and also of Mr. Abernethy. The side-numbers refer to the crania themselves, in the University museum. So far as appeared, precision could be attained only by referring every dimension to the compression of the zygoma, the measurement being seven-eighths of what I consider the normal transverse of at least the Caucasian cranium,—that is half the length of the head,—the long admitted statuary scale.” It thus appears that, in aiming at an exhaustive system of craniometry, Dr. Adam combined the practical experience of Dr. Spurzheim with the teachings of the eminent Scottish anatomist, Dr. John Barclay, and 280 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR of Dr. Abernethy, the no less distinguished surgeon. The measure- ments finally adopted by him amount in all to seventy,—or more strictly to sixty-nine: No. 6 being left blank in the tables received by me- They furnish evidence of laborious industry, and are necessarily of a very comprehensive and minute character. Of their practical utility it is obvious that Dr. Adam latterly entertained grave doubts. But his industry had then been diverted into wholly different channels; and his faith in the special teachings of Dr. Spurzheim had long passed away. tis more important for us to note that he retained full faith in the tables embracing all that the craniometrist aims at. Lest, however, the remark quoted from a private note, that ‘‘ they show every possible measurement of the human cranium,” and so achieve the desideratum of an exhaustive metrical system, should suggest a false idea of the writer, it will not be out of place to add that Dr. Walter Adam partook largely of the modest and amiable virtues ascribed to his father. He was sensitive and retiring in his habits; and the decided terms here expressed are highly characteristic of his simple sincerity. His minute and somewhat formal accuracy, even in trifles, renders his detailed pro- portions of Parisian crania worthy of the utmost confidence; though it will not admit of literal acceptance that they embrace ‘‘ every possible measurement.” Whatever opinion the modern Anthropologist may form of the ne- glected system of Gall and Spurzheim, no doubt can be entertained as to the services rendered by them in his special department of study. The practical failure of their system of an assumed index of the “ phrenology” or mental characteristics of each individual, impressed on the surface of the skull, and representing certain supposed brain-organs of the mind, need not blind us to the valuable results of their labours in other directions, and especially in that of comparative craniology. Infinite as are the varieties of individual physiognomy, there is, nevertheless, a national type of face, difficult indeed to define, yet recognisable at a glance; and so also, amid endless deviations from any supposed national head-form, the hatter, in adapting his manufactures to different localities finds the variations from the common type of each range within comparatively narrow and constant limits. Assuming, then, the significance of diverse cranial conformations, and of certain relative proportions in the heads of different races, as indices of ethnical distinctions, various metrical tests have been suggested. Drs. Scherzer and Schwarz, who accompanied the Austrian exploring expedition in EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 281 the ship Novara, devised an elaborate system applicable to’ the whole human figure, ‘‘as a diagnostic means for distinguishing the Human Races,” and including thirty-one measurements of the head. By this ‘means they aimed, and as they believed, successfully, at determining a system adapted to the classification of men according to race-differ- ences. But so many difficulties beset the craniometrist, in the uncer- tainty as to determinate points, of uniform occurrence, from which to start in the various measurements; and deviations from any assumed normal arrangement in the direction and relative position of the sutures are so numerous, that: while one class of modern observers still aims at overcoming those sources of error by multiplying the details of mea- surement; the greater number—feeling somewhat as Dr. Adam did, the difficulty of interpreting the results of such minute labour,—incline to fall back mainly on the earlier and simpler tests of length, breadth, height, circumference, and internal capacity. Of the former class, Dr. J. Aitken Meigs merits special recognition. After a careful resumé of the labours of his predecessors, he has set. forth in ‘‘The North American Medico-Chirurgical Review” for Sep- tember, 1861, an elaborated scheme of cranial admeasurements, with “minute indications as to the fixed points on which each depénds. Including the face, and such special details as the diameters and shape of the foramen magnum, Dr. Meigs’ measurements amount in number to forty-eight. Among observers who have limited themselves to the few most notable calliper and tape measurements, Drs. Thurnam and Davis may fitly represent this second class. In their beautifully executed “Crania Britannica” they have only made some slight, though not unimportant additions to those employed by Dr. Morton, in the ‘“ Crania Americana :” relying, in part, on the pen for completing the work, by means of descriptive details; but still more on wood-cuts and full-sized lithographs. The plan of Dr. Spurzheim—like those of Drs. Scherzer, Schwarz and Meigs,—appears to have contemplated an exhaustive metrical system complete in itself. But Dr. Adam claimed to have embodied in his labours on the crania of the Catacombs the results of instruction derived from Barclay and Abernethy, as well as from Spurzheim The nomenclature and mea- surements, therefore, employed by him, under the special direction of the distinguished Parisian lecturer, cannot be wholly devoid of interest to the modern anthropologist, and may furnish suggestions of practica] value. They are classified as follows: 2 aaa ae ne he en ee 282 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR Measurements in the Mesial plan, (Hxternal rectilinear). I. Inio-glabellar measurements. 1. From inion to glabella. 2. From inion to fronto-nasal suture. 8. To centre table of frontal sinus. 4, From coronal process of occipital bone to naso-alveolar sinuosity. 5.” Os frontis, mesially. 6. (blank). II. Measurements from inial margin of foramen spinale. 7. From the inial margin of the foramen spinale to the coronal point of the occipital bone. 8. —to meeting of the coronal and sagittal sutures. 9. —to furthest point of os frontis. 10. —to fronto-nasal suture. Ill. Measurements on the mesial plan. 11. From glabellar margin of foramen spinale to coronal point of occipital bone. 12. —to coronal point of sagittal suture. 18. —to meeting of coronal and sagittal su- tures. 14. —to fronto-nasal suture. 15. —to latero-glabellar margin of right nostril. 16. —do. of left nostril. 17. —to naso-alveolar sinuosity. 18. —to inial sinuous margin of palatal bones. IV. Measurements parallel to the mesial plan. 19. From fronto- nasal suture to glabellar margin of floor of right nostril. 20. Do. of left nostril. 21. From basilar margin of right orbit to sinuous surface of right coronal maxilla. 22. From do. of left orbit to do. of left coronal maxilla. 23. From latero-glabellar sinuous margin of right nostril to inial surface of right coronal maxilla. 24. Do. left to left do. 25. From glabellar surface of right zygomatic enclosure to inial surface of right stylo-mastoid foramen. 26. Do. left to left do. V. Oblique measurements. 27. Cranium, from right fronto-malar suture to furthest point of left parietal bone. 28. Do. from left to right do. 29. Face, from inial sinuous margin of right malar bone to latero-glabellar sinuous margin of right nostril. 30. Do. from left to left do. . _ VI. Transverse Basilar measurements. 31. Distance between lateral surfaces of stylo-mastoid foramina. 32. Between lateral surfaces of carotid canals. 33. Do. mesial do. 34. Do. lateral surfaces of fora- mina ovalia. 35. Do. mesial do. 36. Do. lateral surfaces of cuneiform process of os occipitis glabellar. VII. Transverse Temporal measurements. 37. Distance between peripheral surfaces of mastoid processes. 388. Do. inial prolongations of zygomata. 39. Do. auditory ridges. 40. Do. peripheral surfaces or zygomata. 41. Do. central edges of zygomata. VIII. Transverse Parieto-coronal measurements. 42. Distance be- tween lateral surfaces of parietal bones. 48. Do. of squamous sutures, ae EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 233 eoronad. 44. Do. inial margins of os frontis at coronal suture. 45. Do. lateral ridges of os frontis. 46. Da. orbital processes of os frontis. IX. Transverse Facial measurements. Fronto-orbital. 47. Distance between fronto-malar sutures on margins of orbits. 48. Do. between mesial surfaces of orbits at fronto-nasal suture. 49. Do. between do. at lateral surfaces of nasal processes of coronal maxillee. Malo-maxillary. 50. Distance between inial sinuous margins of malar bones on line of middle of orbit. 51. Do. most prominent edges of lateral margins of orbits. 52. Do. lateral edges of orbito-maxillary foramina. 53. Do. between malo-maxillary sutures, basilar and elabel- lar. 54. Do. lateral surfaces of alveoli of coronal maxilla. 55. Do. lateral surfaces of palatal foramina. X. Measurements of Appertures. Orbits. 56. Distance between frontal and maxillary margins of right orbit in direction of mesial plane. 57. Do. of left do. 58. Obliquely between fronto-mesial and malo- basilar sinuosities of margin of right orbit. 59. Do. of left. Nostrils. 60. Distance transversely between mesial surfaces of gla- bellar sinuous margins of nostrils. 61. Do. of inio-palatal margins of nostrils. Foramen spinale. 62. Distance between glabellar and inial margins of foramen spinale. 63. Do. between lateral margins. 64. Periphery of os frontis in mesial plane from fronto-nasal to coronal suture. 65. Do. of sagittal suture. 66. Do. of os occipitis in mesial plane from termination of sagittal suture to inial margin of fora- men spinale. 67. Periphery of cranium from fronto-nasal suture to inial margin of foramen spinale. 68. Do. to glabellar margin. 69. Transverse periphery of cranium at right angles to mesial plane, between coronal surfaces of meatus auditorii. 70. Transverse periphery of cranium on level of orbital processes of os frontis and most inial point of os occipitis. Such are the minute details in the system of cranial admeasurements adopted by Dr. Adam, under the guidance of his experienced instructors. The principle which guided him in the course he pursued is further illustrated by the remark: “It is abundantly evident that, before proceeding to curvature, there must be accurate ascertainment of the abseiss and ordinate.”’? Hence the numerous transverse measurements introduced. But he retained to the last his faith in the assumed “statuary scale;” and, in discussing the views set forth by the late 284 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR Mr. D. R. Hay, in his ‘Science of those proportions by which the human head and countenance, as represented in works of ancient Greek art, are distinguished from those of ordinary nature,” he says: “ My impression is that Mr. Hay is quite correct; and I am led to it not less by the elegance of his outlines, than by the fixity of my said 40, (distance between peripheral surfaces of zygomata,) the measurement being seven-eighths of what I consider the normal transverse of at least the Caucasian cranium.’ But, he adds, ‘I have no thought of rely- ing on the method of a verages;” and so he has not deduced any mean results of the measure ments, otherwise carried out with such laborious accuracy, for the purpose of determining the characteristics of crania from the Catacombs of Paris, selected apparently, by Dr. Spurzheim, as the most typical examples of pure Gaulish or Celtic head-forms. Llike many another labourer in the same field of observation, Dr. Adam failed to discover the precise application of his metrical system either for ethnical or psychological purposes; and when, long after- wards, his carefully executed tables were handed over to me, it was as fruits of early labour chiefly designed to aid him in researches into the assumed relations of mental and cerebral development, and which he had ceased to regard as of practical utility. From the comprehensive series of measurements, arranged under the above heads, I have here’ selected such as will afford an opportunity of comparison with tables already furnished in former papers: and espe- cially with those produced as some means of testing the characteristics of the British or Celtic cranium. They are taken as indicating the greatest circumference, length, parietal and frontal breadth, and also the zygomatic diameter to which Dr. Adams assigned so much impor- tance, as the test of approximation to an ideal classic standard, or accepted statuary scale. The differences in specific points selected for deter- mining some of the measurements must be borne in remembrance in instituting any comparison with previous tables. They are as follows: A. (4.) From coronal process of occipital bone to naso-alveolar surface. B. (.) Os frontis mesially. C. (42.) Distance between lateral sur- faces of parietal bones. D. (87.) Distance between peripheral surfaces of mastoid processes. E. (40.) Between peripheral surfaces of zygo- mata. EF, (70.) Transverse periphery on level of orbital process of os ‘frontis and most inial point of os occipitis. EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 285 MEASUREMENTS OF PARISIAN CRANIA. No. | Sex. | A (4)| B (5) | C (42)|/D (37) E (40)| F (70) 1 Z M 3 4 M 5 M vi M 8 9 M 12 13 15 16 WD 23 M 25 M 26 ON M 29 M ol 32 34 M 36 M 37 M 38 39 M 40 4] M 50 M Mean. |Male. 6G Female “=| Total. 6.94 7.92 6.95 7.50 7.40 7.36 7.391 7316 7.356 4.45 4,70 4.00 4.45 4.46 4.38 3.94 4.60 4.16 4.30 4.14 4.52 4.40 4.64 4.40 4,20 4.36 4.26 4.20 4.34 4.57 4.62 4.33 4.60 4.22 4.20 4,24 4.54 4.451\5 .39 | 4,979 4.265) 5.390| 4.617 4.365) 5.680) 4.811 5.17 | 4.36 6.07 | 5.02 5.00 | 4.40 6.23 | 4.90 6.10 | 4.66 5.83 | 4.90 5.44 | 4.22 5.90 5.05 5.52 5.10 5.73 | 4.66 5.41 | 4.64 5.93 | 4.70 5.44 | 4.70 5.62 465 6.03 | 5.30 5.08 4.63 6.01 5.30 6.03 5.06 5.50 4.86 5.08 | 4.72 §.80 | 4.75 6.02 | 5.07 5.92 5.80 5.26 4.63 5.66 | 4.65 5.02 | 4.40 5.76 4.80 5.97 | 5.27 4 81 (4 et 5.83 | 21.00 4.85 | 20.75 5.88 | 20.56 533 | 20.50 5.14 | 21.00 4.52 | 18.50 5.82 | 20.00 5.03 | 19.15 5.04 | 20.3 4.50 | 19.00 “ &% 1 90.50 4.84 | 19.75 5.26 | 20.62 5.46 | 20.87 5.04 | 19,12 5.60 | 20.87 5.12,|. 20.62 4.93 | 2000 4.88 | 20.12 4.95 | 20,18 5.23 | 20.50. 5.28 | 19.81 4.91 | 20.87 4.83 | 19.50 4.64 | 19,50 4.96 | 20.06 5.52 | 20.31 | 5244] 20.427 4.882! 19.802 5.061) 20.149 The crania subjected to measurement number twenty-eight in all, of which fifteen are marked as male; and the remainder may be assumed, without doubt, to be female. systematically arranged throughout in the two sets, irrespective of their numerical order. The larger group, embracing fifteen, begins with No 87, and the first column is thus headed: ‘ Crania as numbered, and In the tables of Dr. Adam they are ax my ~ ee eee 236 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR the sex denoted by Dr. Spurzheim.” In the other group of thirteen erania, as exhibited on a separate series of sheets, the corresponding column is left blank; but a comparison of the two groups of measure- ments, and of the total mean proportions of each, adds confirmation to the assumption that a nearly equal number of male and female skulls had been selected, with a view to determine more accurately the typical characteristics common to the race. The means of determining this, as well as other points that may suggest further inquiry, are, in all probability, still accessible to Parisian craniologists. Other columns have been ruled, and some of them headed, though they remain otherwise blank. They help to illustrate the minutely exhaustive process aimed at, e.g. “ From fronto-nasal suture to glabellar margin of right nostril.”’ ‘Do. to glabellar margin of left nostril.” “ From latero-glabellar sinuous margin of right nostril to inial surface of right coronal maxilla.” ‘Do. of left, to inial surface of left.” The peripheral, or tape measurements, have also been originally projected ona much minuter scale, judging from the number of columns left blank under the general heading; but those of most importance are. recorded. The head-lines of unfilled columns also include the follow- ing: ‘Apparent age;” ‘Apparent strength of the individual:” “Form;” ‘Outline of foramen spinale;’’? and—specially suggestive of the phrenological impetus to which the whole measurements were originally due,—this heading: “Character, according to Dr. Spur- zheim.”” The loss of Dr. Spurzheim’s inductions relative to the mental cha- racteristics of the old sleepers in the Parisian Catacombs, as derived from external protuberances of their crania, is not greatly to be deplored. A point of more interest at the present time is happily recorded for us, in so far as measurements supply any clear indication of head-forms. The question of the typical form and proportions of the Celtic cranium has already been minutely discussed in this journal, The “ Inquiry into the physical characteristics of the ancient and modern Celt” attracted some notice at the time of its publication; was quoted in more than one Huropean journal, and reprinted entire in the London Anthropological Review. After drawing attention to one frequent source of error traceable to the neglect of this fact that a type, as an ideal abstraction, embodying the characteristics of both sexes, and embracing the mean of many variations, must not be determined from oie or two selected specimens: it was there shown that many of the EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 287 highest authorities among modern comparative anatomists and ethno- _ logists have given publicity to opinions all pointing more or less definitely to an-excess of longitudinal diameter, and an unusually long but low frontal development, as among the most marked characteristics of the Celtic cranium. F In this, recent observers only confirm from more extended investiga- tion, opinions advanced at an early period, including those of Prichard and Retzius, But other high authorities have shown an inclination to challenge such, as conclusions resting on no satisfactory evidence. Dr. Thurnam, in the Crania Britannica, quotes the distinguished Swedish naturalist and archzeologist, Professor Nilsson, as stating in a letter to him, in reference to the supposed Celtic type of cranium, that nothing seemed to him more uncertain and vague than that term; for, he says, hardly two authors have the same opinion on the matter. He accordingly urges on his correspondent the desirableness of some one in England undertaking the selection of a skull embodying what those enjoying the special advantages which he assumes to pertain to that country, shall agree upon as constituting the Celtic form of cranium. Of this he proposes that casts shall be taken, and so a type-form of the race be determined. : Although the statement of the Swedish naturalist as to an utter want of agreement relative to the typical characteristics of the Celtic eranium, can by no means be admitted; his requirement has not only been long felt as a desideratum, but repeated attempts have been made to realise it. And here we are reminded of our obligations to phreno- logy; for foremost among those who have laboured with this object in view stand its founders and early disciples. The observations of Dr. Adam on the crania of the Parisian Catacombs serve to illustrate some of the researches conducted by Dr. Spurzheim with this object in view; — and other no less definite evidence shows that the zealous phalanx of British phrenologists called into being by the teachings of Dr. Gall and his collaborateurs, followed his example, and systematically aimed at determining the characteristics of the Celtic, as well as other leading ethnical types. Certain crania and casts are referred to in the Phreno- logical Journal as selected from a number of the same tribe or nation, so as to present, as nearly as possible,"a type of the whole, in the collec- tion of the Edinburgh Phrenological Society; and among them is a cast marked as a “‘ Long Celtic skull.” Itis no less noticeable for narrowness than length; and especially for the elongated, narrow frontal region, 288 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR now accepted by many French and English anthropologists as a charac- teristic feature of the true Celtic head-form. Assuming the race assigned to the Parisian Crania to be correct, the idea thus indicated finds some apparent confirmation from the measure- ments now produced. Derived as those are stated to have been, from the Catacombs of Paris,-they might indeed, if selected from among the contents of that vast charnel-house as characteristic of the prevailing form to be found there, be fairly assumed as representing the typical French head. But as illustrations of the Gaulish or French-Celtic head-form, as contra-distinguished from Iberian, Burgundian, Frankish, Norse, or other type, their value depends wholly on the grounds of selection. But of these, unfortunately, we have no record; and can only surmise that Dr. Spurzheim had already satisfied himself that the long skull, with narrow frontal region, was the true Celtic one. Cer- tain it is that some such preconceived idea must have euided him when selecting crania from the great Parisian golgotha, in order that his Scottish disciple might gratify his natural predilections, while devoting himself to the mastery of the laws of mental idiosyncracy as indicated in the development of assumed cerebral organs, and the consequent modification of the osseous brain-case. Nor can we wisely allow the rejection of his favourite dogmas to prejudice us against the purely craniological observations of one whose opportunities were only equalled -by his diligence in the study of individual and ethnical diversities. Dr. Johann Gaspar Spurzheim studied in the University of Treves, near to which he was born, pursued his medical studies and graduated at Vienna, lectured in different cities of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, France and England; revisited Paris, and resided as a lecturer there from 1817 to 1825, when he returned to Britain. All the events of his age were calculated to suggest more strongly to his mind the exist- ence of essential ethnical differences between the true German and the descendant of the ancient Celt of Gaul; but nothing in his peculiar views as a phrenologist tended to bias his opinions in favor of a long, rather than a short Celtic head-form. But, strangely enough, after the lapse of more than half a century, the right of property in this idea of long-headed Celts, with other questions of a kindred type, has been brought into Chancery, and adjudicated upon in that high court of appeal: with results in which we may perhaps be allowed to claim some interest. In 1866 there isssued from the press of Messrs. Longman & Co., the well-known = Ee EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 289 London publishers, a work already referred to, by Mr. Luke Owen Pike, entitled “‘ The English and their Oriyin. A Prologue to Au- thentic English History.’ Mr. Pike, a graduate of Oxford, and member of Lincoln’s Inn, has devoted himself to literary and scientific pursuits; and specially taken an active part in the Anthropological Society of London, of which he is a Vice President. His “‘ Origin of the English” attracted considerable notice, was reviewed in various leading journals; and so, as would seem, tempted a literary rival, who had already contested the palm with him at the Histeddfod of their common Welsh nationality, to follow in his steps with his “‘ Pedigree of the English People.’”’ But the latter presented, in certain parts, so near a resemblance to its predecessor, not only in language, method and argument, but even in such errors as the most painstaking author is liable to, that the literary barrister summoned his rival before Vice- Chancellor James, on the 27th of April last, for having, in plain terms, stolen his ideas, his arguments, quotations, references, and even his very blunders, and made open merchandise of the whole as his own. It must be admitted that the defendant cuts a very sorry figure in court. Though we propose to have a word to say, before closing, in reference to certain claims of priority and originality set forth on Mr. Pike’s behalf: there is no doubt that his work was the honest result of much labour and research, handled in a scholarly manner; and with no other than the legitimate aims of authorship in view. As to his rival, he is a Doctor of Philosophy; conversant at least with the Welsh language ; and Professor, in Carmarthen College, not only of German, but of Ecclesiastical History, Mental and Moral Science, and General Literature. But notwithstanding such a comprehensive profession, his classical knowledge does not seem io have stood him in good stead. The property in certain criticisms in dispute between plaintiff and de- fendant, relative to Gildas, the old historian, of the sixth century as is believed, brought the latter’s name prominently into court. But the defendant, it seems, only knew him through Bohn’s translation; and is indeed quoted in court as stating that ‘‘ Gildas copied Bede,” though the venerable monk of Jarrow, whose labours are thus affirmed to have been turned to account sometime towards A.D. 550, belongs as a his- torian to the eighth century. The plaintiff’s counsel drew from him the admission that he resorted to Bohn’s edition ‘“ because he felt diffident of translating the Latin himself.’’ His own counsel, more bent on winning his cause, than careful of his client’s scholarly reputation, 08h S REE ape " i ¥ \ 290 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR asserted for him, at a later stage, in accounting for the true reading of a much contested erasure: ‘The fact is, my client’s book shows in many places that he had a most imperfect knowledge of Greek, and I believe did not know how to spell the word physiological.” No wonder, therefore, when Mr. Pike, in quoting from Livy about the rutilate come, or reddened hair of the Galli, fell into an error, his hapless imi- tator—as is the way with such poachers on literary preserves,—transferred _it, blunders and all, to his own pages. So, after prolonged trial, and much argument on both sides, the Vice-Chancellor decided that the plaintiff had made out his case, and was entitled to an injunction to restrain the publication ot his rival’s book; to a refunding of all money already obtained by its sale; to costs of suit; and, in fact, to all “‘ the damages in cases of literary piracy.” This trial has, not unnaturally, excited considerable interest in literary circles. Mr. Grove, Q.C., late President of the British Association, was Mr. Pike’s leading counsel; Dr. Beddoe, President of the Anthro- pological Society of London; its Honorary Secretary, Mr. C. Carter Blake, Lecturer on Comparative Anatomy at Westminster Hospital ; Dr. Rowland Williams; Mr. Watts, of the British Museum Library, and others: appeared as witnesses; and the Court had to listen to citations from Livy, Gildas, Pouchet, Retzius, Prichard, Blumenbach, and other authorities not usually supposed to carry weight in Chancery suits. We now propose to advert to one or two points in which readers of the Canadian Journal may claim some interest. Mr. Kay, Q.C., one of the defendant’s counsel, in cross-questioning Mr. Pike, as to the uses made by him of other authorities, asked ‘‘ whether he had not found the idea of getting information from hatters in Professor Wilson’s paper, published in the Anthropological Review?” His answer is, that the paper in question appeared in 1865, while certain letters produced in court in proof of. his researches on the same subject, bore the date of 1864. But, he states, “after seeing Professor Wilson’s paper, he added a note to what he had previously written, and men- tioned this agreement in method, with Professor Wilson’s name.” The idea of making the hat a test of the form and size of the head ig one so simple and obvious, that it would be childish to attach any. great merit to its first application for the purpose. When the mauso- leum of the poet Burns was opened in 1834, for the interment of bis widow, some little scandal was created by a Dumfries Bailie trying his hat on the poet’s skull, and publishing to the world the modest truth EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 291 that his own cerebral capacity, when gauged by this simple process, fell considerably short of that of the Ayrshire bard. When, however, dates are thus specifically assigned to our first publication, we may be pardoned correcting them. The paper referred to in the evidence above quoted, is the ‘“ Inquiry into the physical characteristics of the ancient and modern Celt,” which appeared in the November number of the Canadian Journal for 1864. It was forwarded, as usual, to the Anthropological and other Scientific Societies of London and elsewhere; in additicn to au- thor’s copies posted to English correspondents and friends: and in this way was transferred to the pages of the Anthropological Review. I might refer to earlier dates at which the subject was brought before the Canadian Institute; but it is sufficient that my views on this subject were published in 1864, and soon after attracted notice both in London and Paris; and among those are ideas of more importance in their bearing on the general question than the one referred to in Mr. Owen Pike’s note. The Honorary Secretary of the Anthropological Society, Mr. C. Carter Blake, when questioned by the defendant’s counsel, made this reply: ‘‘ He believed the fact that the modern English possess long skulls was first established by the plaintiff, (Mr. Luke Owen Pike), and that he had first combined the propositions that the Celtic skull was long, that the Teutonic skull was short, that the modern English skull is long, and that therefore, the English are descendants of the ancient Britons. That was perfectly new.” Now we venture to question whether that was perfectly new. Mr. Pike says, in answer to the defendant’s counsel: ‘‘ He believed his argument concerning the skull-form of the English, in relation with the skull-forms of the ancient and modern Teutons, and of the ancient and modern Celts, to be original. He had arrived at it by a long pro- cess of sifting evidence which was very contradictory.” But we had arrived at results, in many respects similar, after sifting much conflict- ing evidence: as set forth in the “Inquiry into the physical character- istics of the ancient and modern Celt,’ published in this journal in 1864, whereas Mr. Pike’s “ English and their Origin” did not appear till 1866. We cannot, indeed, do better than quote Mr. Pike himself in proof of this. In discussing the relative proportions of the average German and English head, he refers to the uniform experience of the hat manufacturer; and then adds, in the note already referred to: Sr ean HOVER Ste 292 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR “Since this portion of the Essay (7. e. his, English and their Origin) was written,” the above named paper has appeared in the Anthropolog- ical Review. “It fully confirms all that has been above stated with respect to the difference between English and German heads.” Mr. Pike’s reference is equally candid and courteous; and we should not have thought of pointing out that the confirmation of opinions already published in 1864, must be ascribed to him, not to us, were it not for such absolute claims to novelty and originality, incident, perhaps, to the necessities of a Chancery suit. But our first appeal to the special test referred to is of much earlier date, and then explicitly refers to the very point in question, viz., the contrast between the short German and long British head. For example, in treating of ‘‘ Kthnical forms and - undesigned artificial distortions of the Human Cranium,” (Can. Jour., Vol. VIT., p. 414, Sept., 1862), it is remarked: ‘‘My attention was originally directed to this familiar test [viz., hat manufacturers’ shapes] by a remark of the late Dr. Kombst, that he had never been able to obtain an English-made hat that would fit his head. He added that he believed such was the general experience of Germans, owing to the greater length of the English head. I subsequently found the shapes of a Yorkshire hatter to be shorter than some furnished me from Dub- lin; and I believe that such comparisons of the shapes most in demand in different parts of the British Islands and on the Continent, will supply important craniological results. Dr. Nott has employed the same means in his ‘Comparative Anatomy of Races,’ but only as a test of relative horizontal circumference.” Again, in the later paper of 1864, this occurs: ‘‘ One extensive hat manufacturer in Edinburgh states that the Scottish head is decidedly longer, but not so high as the English. In comparison with it the German head appears almost round.” When Mr. C. Carter Blake set forth in evidence, as one of Mr. Owen Pike’s contributions to ethnology, the deduction that “The English are descendants of the ancient Britons,” it is to be presumed that he. meant no more than Mr. Pike himself repeatedly indicates, namely, the predominance of the British as compared with the Anglo-Saxon ele- ment. He remarks, for example, (Lnglish and their Origin, p. 46), “‘We know from the laws of Ine, that there was a British population dwelling among the Saxons, and that its position was not very inferior to the position of the Saxons themselves. But in addition to these Saxonised British landowners, there must have been a considerable EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 293 number of captives belonging to the Lloegrian and other British tribes, all of whom helped to increase the proportion of British as compared with Saxon blood. And still further there must have been a number of Saxo-Britons of the half-blood, some at least of whom would have the full privileges of Saxons.” Again he says: (Lbid, p. 160) “It cannot be so readily admitted that the longer skulls belonged to the Anglo-Saxons of pure breed. Many of them are the skulls of women, who may have been the British wives of Saxon settlers. Without con- firming evidence of some kind, it cannot be allowed that a skull found in an Anglo-Saxon burying-place is the skull of an Anglo-Saxon of pure blood.” So writes Mr. Pike, in 1866; but in 1863, in discussing the very subject of the form of the British skull, we remarked: (Prebis- toric Annals of Scotland, 2nd Hd., Vol. I., p. 278). ‘‘The insular Anglo-Saxon race in the Anglian and Saxon districts, deviates from its continental congeners, as I conceive, mainly by reason of a large inter_ mixture of Celtic blood, traceable to the inevitable intermarriage of invading colonists, chiefly male, with the British women. But if the Celtic head be naturally a short one, [as affirmed by certain authorities], the tendency of such admixture of races should have been to shorten the hybrid Anglo-Saxon skull, whereas it is essentially longer than the continental Germanic type.’ Nor is this idea of the modern Briton being the representative of the Teutonic, no less than the Celtic races of early centuries, a novelty of recent date. In the first edition of the above work, (1851, p. 353), the Celtic races are spoken of as “‘ once more nomade, or mingling their blood with the more civilised tribes which are gradually securing a footing in the south-eastern portions of the island. The first stream of Teutonic colonization had set in, which, followed successively by the Romans with their legions of foreign aux- iliaries, by Saxons, Angles, Scoti, Norwegians, Danes, and Normans, produced the modern hardy race of Britons.’ The same argument is thus repeated in this journal: (Vol. IX., p. 379, 1804). ‘The Anglo-Saxon cannot be affirmed to be a pure race. Apart from later Danish, Norse and Norman intermixture: it differs mainly, as I conceive, from its Germanic congeners, by reason of a large admixture of Celtic blood, traceable primarily to the intermarriage of Anglian and Saxon colonists with British women. Such a process of amalgamation is the inevitable result of a colonisation chiefly male, even where the difference is so extreme as between the white and the red or black races of the New World. But the Anglo-Saxon intruder ee eg ane aeese = ¥ o 294 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR and the Native were on a par physically and intellectuaily ; and while the former was preéminent in all warlike attributes, the latter excelled ‘in the refinements of a civilisation borrowed both from the pagan Roman and the Christian missionary. There was nothing therefore to prevent a speedy and complete amalgamation. But if this was an admixture of a dolichocephalic with a brachycephalic race, the result should be a hybrid skull of intermediate form; whereas the modern Anglo-Saxon head is essentially longer than the continental Germanic type.’ That the immediate source of this long head-form is native, ?. é., British, is the aim of the whole argument. After marshalling a variety of evidence, in proof of a long head being characteristic alike of the ancient Gaul and Briton, the result, so far, is thus summed up: “Tt accordingly appears, thus far, from the various authorities referred to, that considerable unanimity prevails in the ascription of an excess of longitudinal diameter as one of the most marked characteristics of the Celtic cranium. A long but low frontal development, in which, as M. Pruner-Bey defines it, ‘The forehead of the ancient Celt gains ia length what it loses in height;’ a flattening of the parietals, and a tendency toward occipital prolongation, are all more or less strongly asserted as characteristic of the same head-form.” The conflicting evidence is next produced, and by treating the native element as the unknown quantity, in relation to results following from the assumed amalgamation of pre-Celtic and post-Roman races with the population on which the Romans intruded, this result is arrived at: ‘It thus appears that where the Celtic element most predominates, the longer form of head is found. It is also noticeable that there are indications of the Gaelic and Erse type of head being longer than the British. The results, as a whole, of the classification of the known and unknown elements in tabular form, appear to involve the assign- ment of dolichocephalic characteristics to the undetermined Celtic element both of the French and English head.” This forms the natural sequence of ideas involved in another ethnical proposition: that of absorption as contra-distinguished from absolute extirpation of races. This idea, suggested in different aspects, in rela- tion to other propositions, is thus summed up in my Prehistoric Maa , (1st Ed., 1862, Vol. II., p. 8340). ‘From all this it would seem to be justly inferred that ethnological displacement and extinction must be regarded in many, probably in the majority of cases, not as amounting to a literal extirpation, but only as equivalent to absorption. Such EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 295 doubtless it has been to a great extent with the ancient European Celte, notwithstanding the distinct historical evidence we possess of the utter extermination of whole tribes both of the Britons and Gauls by the mer- ciless sword of the intruding Roman.” In this sense I believe that, what is witnessed in actual process of accomplishment on this continent, where a certain percentage of ‘“‘ Red” blood is being taken up by the so-called ‘“‘ Anglo-Saxon” of the New World, has been the law within ancient historic areas; and that their modern occupants are, to some extent, the sum of all the ethnic elements that have seemed to displace each other in the long march of ages since the night of time. This is a proposition directly conflicting alike with ideas embodied in Dr. Knox’s. favourite. proposition, that ‘“‘ Race is everything,” and with that of Professor Agassiz of “the close connection between the geographical distribution of animals and the natural boundaries of the different races of men.”’ Do races ever amalgamate? Does a mixed race exist? are questions put by Dr. Knox, in order to be answered unhesitatingly in the negative. To me it rather seems that the question submitted to the ethnologist, at least within the whole historic area, is this: Does any unmixed race exist? Has any seemingly extinct race passed away, leaving no transmitted trace, or taint of blood to its suc- cessors? Hence, whentreating of allophylian precursors of the historic races of Britain, | remarked, in a passage, subsequently adopted by Dr. J. Barnard Davis as the motto for his prospectus of the Crania Britannica : (Prehist. Annals, 1st Ed., p. 193, 1851). ‘They are our ancestry, even though we may question our lineal descent; our precursors, if not our progenitors. From them we derive our inherit- ance and birthright; nor, among all the later mingling of races, can we assume that no drop of their blood mingles in our veins.” Let us then consider the various points embodied in the statement made by Mr. C. Carter Blake as to claims of originality, and priority of publication, in reference to certain ethnical British characteristics. (1) “The fact that the modern English possess long skulls was first established by the plaintiff,’ viz, in 1866. But in 1864, we had already published this statement: ‘ Amid considerable diversity in minute characteristics, the English heads appear to be divisible into two classes, of which one, characterised by great length, and slight excess of breadth in the parietal as compared with the frontal region, appears to be the Anglo-Saxon head; the other, also long, but marked by a sudden tapering in front of the parietal protuberances, and a narrow 296 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR prolonged frontal region, is the insular Celtic type.’ Mr. Pike, it may be added, does not assert an invariable uniformity in the English head- form. His own independent observations have been numerous, and extended over a wide area; and necessarily precluded any such hypo- thetical generalisation. He refers, for example, to Wiltshire as pre- senting the longest type of head; to a variety of types met with in — Wales; and to the predominance of “the Cymric type,” meaning thereby, however, not Welsh, but originally native to those countries from whence the Cymri came; and so asserts: ‘‘it is certainly to one branch of the Cymric stock that we owe the chief characteristic of our English heads.” Whilst, however, Mr. Pike repeatedly guards against the assumption that the word ‘“ Cymric’” is used as synonymous with Welsh, he defines among the results determined by his study of phy- sical characteristics: ‘‘That all the evidence which has been collected shows the Cymric skull to be the iong oval form, but slightly longer in proportion to its breadth than the typical English skull; that the ancieut Britons were remarkable for their lofty stature, no less than the modern English; and that this lofty stature is especially found among the most Celtic population of the West.” (2) Mr. C. C. Blake proceeds: ‘‘The plaintiff had first combined the propositions that the Celtic skull was long, that the Teutonic skull was short, that the modern English skull is long, and that, therefore, the English are the descendants of the ancient Britons.” (1866). But in 1863, I had ascribed to the brachycephalic crania of British tumuli, assumed by Dr. J. B. Davis to be Celtic, “an Allophylian, perhaps a Turanian” origin; (Prehist. Annals, Vol. I., p. 277); had shown that, while many skulls of the Anglo-Roman period approximate to this type, ‘on the other hand, the predominant skull-forms of the modern Welsh, the Highlanders of the most purely Celtic districts of Scotland, and the seemingly unadulterated population of the south-west of Ireland,” all differ from that type; had quoted Retzius as to the prevalence of the very long head-form in England proper, as well as in Wales, Scotland and Ireland; and then followed it up by the passage already given, asserting that the Anglo-Saxon deviates from the conti- nental Germanic type by reason of a large intermixture of native blood, traceable to British mothers. Again, when selecting examples of crania derived from the earliest native Christian cemeteries in the purely Celtic or Pictish regions of Scotland, I remarked: ‘even if allow- ance be made for considerable admixture with other races, Roman, EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 297 Saxon or Danish, still a general approximation to the native type-form, and its frequent reappearance in full development, are to be looked for.”’ When specially discussing the cranial characteristic of the British and Gaulish Celt, (Canadian Journal, Vol. IX., p. 401, 1864), ‘“ that the Teutonic skull was short,” is asserted, when discussing the very question of that Teutonic element affecting the native Celtidone; and, what is meant by “Celtic” and Teutonic or ‘ Germanic,” is thus de- fined: ‘‘Of the Germanic elements the Saxon is exclusively English ; the Anglian, and apparently the Frisian, Scottish. Of the Scandina- vian elements, the Danish predominates in England, the Norwegian in Scotland; and the latter was very slightly affected by any Norman element.’ Bearing this in view, the proposition of determining the Celtic element by comparison of the modern head-form and the diverse types traceable to the various native and immigrant races, is thus tested in relation to the Teutonic skull: ‘Taking the known elements as our guide: if all but the Celtic form can be determined, there can be no insurmountable difficulty in ascertaining its type. Assuming the modern German head asa key to the influences of Frank and other Germanic intermixture, it is decidedly shorter and more globular than the Anglo-Saxon head.” The very latest of those results, let it be observed, were published in 1864; and cannot therefore be properly said to confirm others which did not make their appearance till L866 ; though they are undoubtedly confirmed by them. Without, therefore, doubting in any degree Mr. Luke Owen Pike’s statement in court, that ‘‘he had devoted much labour, time and expense in collecting evidence for his argument from physical characteristics, which, whatever might be its value, he believed to be original ;” we may be permitted also to lay claim to the devotion of much labour, time and expense, with ends in view, in many respects similar; and to priority in the publication of results, in so far as they approximate to one another. ‘ The forms of head characteristic of diverse races present at successive eras in Britain, long constituted a favourite subject of research with me, as one means calculated to throw light on periods anterior to writ- ten history. The earliest results of such investigations were brought under the notice of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1850, in a communication entitled an ‘Inquiry into the evidence of the existence of Primitive Races in Scotland prior to the Celt.” In this I, for the first time, asserted the existence of an early 3 298 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR race, prior to the Brachycephale of the ordinary tumuli, for which I suggested the term Kumbecephalic, from their long, boat-shaped head. The evidence was subsequently challenged as inadequate to sustain so comprehensive a conclusion. But further proofs tend to confirm it; and since that date all faith in the Celtze being the primeval occupants of Britain has been effectually shaken by the disclosures of traces of Drift-folk, and other primevals, compared with whom British Celts are modern enough. Removal from the scenes of such explorations among Britain’s pre- historic traces prevented my following out the archaic researches referred to, to their legitimate results. But materials are accessible enough in Canada and the United States for pursuing the inquiry into the cha- racteristic type, or types of the modern British head; and in 1864 I was able to publish the conclusions, to which further observation has lent additional confirmation: that, amid many subvarieties to be found in the prevalent head-forms of the British Islands, the long British head is divisible into two sub-types, one of which is characterised by comparatively slight and gradual narrowing, in passing from the parietal to-the frontal region, and with good elevation in the latter; while the other passes somewhat abruptly from a wide parietal to a narrow, more elongated, and depressed frontal region, in which the loss in breadth and height is compensated for by the greater length. But in numerous examples the two types are so interblended as to confirm the idea of a far greater interfusion of Saxon and Celtic blood, than the popular use of the distinctive terms implies. During the past winter (1868-9) I had an opportunity of testing, by means of the conformateur, the head- forms of a whole battery of Artillerymen recruited in England. The prevalent form was a long oval, with some variations towards the narrower and longer frontal region; but there was no well-defined predominance of any single uniform shape; no determinate Anglo-Saxon or Celtic type; but intermediate forms, with greater or less preponderance of one or the other characteristic. In seeking to determine both the sources and predominant character of British head-forms, the labours of French ethnologists contribute valuable aid. It is not merely that we recognise the Celtic element as common alike to France and England: Briton and Breton; Gael and Gaul; Frank, Anglo-Saxon, Dane and Norman: have all contributed —though in very diverse degrees,—to mould the race and history of both countries. Hence any carefully conducted researches which fur- 008! Ga OCR staan Si Sen eae wo“ 4 cata) Pe Ge Si bse cu REA Gspm TC wy eal i EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 299 nish materials for comparison between the prevalent head-forms of the two countries are valuable, as means towards determining the constancy ef ethnical type-forms, or the degree and rate of change which they undergo under certain well defined circumstances, and within a known period. The elaborate tables of measurements of Parisian crania selected by Dr. Spurzheim as characteristic examples of the French Celtic head, appeared to me, accordingly, calculated to furnish a contribution of some value to the comparative craniologist. But their minuteness has defeated the purpose I entertained of adding the whole as an appendix to this paper. After preparing them for the press, the space required has proved to be much larger than could be spared for a subject of limited interest, especially when presented in a tabular form. As a contribution to minute craniometry, Dr. Adam’s elaborate tables would, I doubt not, have been welconied by those who have devoted special attention to this department of ethnical study. But the system on which they are based is set forth sufficiently clearly in previous pages; and the details already selected for comparison with other tables of cranial measurements furnish some illustration of the results. To those [ now add another selection of a different character. -No mode of comparison brings out more clearly some of the most important differences in skull-forms, alike in diverse races of men, and in the lower animals, than viewing them on the base. Professor Owen long since demonstrated the value of this method. Dr. Prichard illus- trates it in his “ Researches” by presenting such a drawing of the skull of one of Napoleon’s guards, killed at Waterloo, in juxtaposition with those of a pure blood Negro, an Hsquimaux, and an Orang, (Simia satyrus). The illustrations of the “Crania Britannica” also include similar full size views of a British skull, from a barrow on the York- shire Wolds; an Anglo-Saxon skull from a barrow on the Sussex Downs; and a Roman skull—that of Theodorianus,—from an inscribed sarcophagus at York. Dr. Davis remarks of the last: ‘‘The foramen magnum is 1.4 inch in its longitudinal diameter, and an inch across its middle,”—in this respect, exceeding in length, but falling considerably short of the mean breadth of apperture, as shown in the fifteen male Parisian ecrania of the following table. But the whole contour of the Roman skull when seen in this aspect is compact, and uniformly bal- anced, as compared with either of the others; and especially when viewed alongside of the Anglo-Saxon one, its greater posterior develop- ment is very remarkable. 3 — ens ep pte oe ann a gee eee eae 300 ° RACE HBAD-FORMS AND THEIR The position of the great occipital foramen in man bears an important relation to his whole structure, and the upright attitude which is natural to him. In the enormous development of the spinous processes of the Gorilla, for example, as compared with the comparatively slight vertebral column, on which the human skull, with its greater cerebral mass rests, we see the totally different functions of the climbing anthropoid and of man; and the same is illustrated by the relative position of the occipital foramen in the two. In this, indeed, as in other respects, the Gorilla diverges more remotely than others of the anthropoids, from man. But as compared with any ape or other animal which may be selected as the most nearly approaching to him in structure, the space between the occipital foramen and the extreme posterior point of the skull in man is great; while in most animals, as the horse, dog, sheep, and even in the howler monkey, (Jiycctes sentculus), there is no space behind the fora- men. In the highest type of man, the lofty and amply developed forehead is the characteristic feature ; but the point in which his cranium is most notably distinguished from that of the brute is the occiput, with its correspondizg cranial cavity and great posterior mass of brain. The dimensions of the occipital foramen have already been adverted sto. Its relative size in different races of men long since attracted the notice of the comparative anatomist. But indeed the dimensions of al- vthe foramina of the skull invite attention, when instituting comparisons ‘between crania of diverse races. The various nerves issuing from them are asserted by more than one competent observer to bave been found thicker and stronger in the Negro than the European; whereas, on the -eontrary, the occipital foramen of the Negro cranium has been repeatl edly noted as smaller. I have accordingly selected from Dr. Adam’s tables those measure- meuts which determine the size of the occipital foramen, and its relations -to other parts of the cranium. Comprehensive, however, as his mea- surements are, no attempt has been made to determine the relative positions of the zygomata and occipital foramen; though the place of the zygomatic arch in the basis cranii in man is only less characteristic ‘than that of the great foramen. In man, the entire zygoma is included in the anterior half of the base of the skull; whereas in the Baboon, Orang and Gorilla, it occupies the middle region, and from its greater development, measures fully a third of the whole antero-posterior -diameter. The dimensions of the zygoma in each of the Parisian -crania are minutely given; but they are not, in themselves, of sufficient EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 301 importance to be reproduced, apart from other measurements necessary to determine their relative value in reference to the whole dimensions of the head. But Dr. Adam has aimed, in Nos. 25, 26, at indicating the position of the zygomata, by ascertaining the place of each in relation to the stylo-mastoid foramen on the same side of the cranium. Those measurements are accordingly included in the following tables. In them, as in others of the measurements, the two columns represent the proportions of corresponding features on the two sides of the crania; and in so far as they differ, they indicate unsymmetrical development: This is proved to be the case in the majority of crania subjected to the test ; and confirms the opinion I have already deduced from extensive observations, that a perfectly symmetrical human head, in which the one hemisphere is the exact counterpart, or reverse of the other, is a rare exception, rather than the rule. Reference to the details of Dr. Adam’s system of measurements, as given on previous pages, with their corresponding numbers, will enable the reader to follow him in the few results selected here in their relation to the general system embraced in his comprehensive series. I have retained the order in which he has placed the crania, irrespective of their numbers; and also the spaces that occur in his tables. Possibly Parisian Anthropologists may be able, by reference to the originals, to perceive some reason for the subdivisions of the male and female groups, as indicated by such interruption of the continuity of the columns of figures. I have assumed the second group to be female crania, for reasons already assigned; and have added to each table the mean results and also the total mean of the two combined. The measurements selected are: 7. From the inial margin of the foramen spinale to the coronal point of the occipital bone. 8. From the same to the meeting of the corcnal and sagittal sutures. 11. From the glabellar margin of foramen spinale to the coronal point of the occipital bone. 13. From the same to the meeting of the coronal and sagittal sutures. 18. Hrom the same to the inial sinuous margins of palatal bones. 25. From glabellar surface of right zygomatic enclosure to inial surface of right stylo-mastoid foramen. 26. From left do. to left do. 62. Distance between glabellar and inial margins of foramen spinale. 63. Distance between lateral margins of do. wast Sy ee he a ee ae OL ta ee ee te ae 2 5 esis 3.60 3.64 3.72 3.80 3.90 RACE HEAD-FORMS AND THEIR MEASUREMENTS OF PARISIAN CRANIA. MALE CRANIA. 13 18 25 26 62 5.10 | 1.54 4.71 | 1.76 5.05 | 1.80 5.23 | 1.86 5.28 | 1.46 5.66 | 1.80 5.67 | 2.00 5.380 | 1.55 5.48 | 1.76 5.11 | 2.05 pase tee) 5.06 |! 1.80 5.40 [1.77 5.42 | 1.74 5.43 | 1.76 2.71 2.64 2.86 2.84 2.50 2.90 2.97 2.52 2.82 2.92 2.82 2.78 2.74 2.80 2.70 FEMALE CRANIA. 8 11 5.24 | 4.35 5.40 | 4.40 5.27 |.\%4.07 ie 3.86 5.63 | 4.50 5.386 | 4.33 5.70 | 4.40 5.10 | 4.25 5.17 | 4.387 5.74 | 4.52 13 18 4.70 | 1.70 5.00 | 1.82 4.80 | 1.52 4.80 | 1.70 5.24 | 1.65 4.77 | 1.60 5.32 | 1.64 4.72 | 1.86 4.77 | 1.70 5.17 | 1.85 4.66 | 1.61 5.386 |4.28 | 4.86 | 1.67 ee eee 4.53 | 1.68 | 25 2.70 2.67 2.97 2.82 2.50 3.00 2.86 2.52 2.65 3.02 2.84 2:76 2.76 2.72 2.718 26 5.25 | 4.23 | 4.75 | 1.44 1.44 1.25 62 63 1.20 Li 1.24 1.09 Leah 1.26 1.20 1.18 1.15 1.22 0.99 1a 1.20 1.07 1.18 63 2.40 | 2.40 | 1.33 | 1.18 2.80 | 2.80 2.97 2.62 2.73 2.66 2.64 2.65 2.83 2.84 2.88 2.43 2.38 2.68 2.94 2.58 2.71 2.64 2.64 2.80 2.80 2.87 2.88 2.58 2.43 2.70 1.30 1,28 1.28 1.07 1.12 1.15 cc 1.00 1.20 1.06 0.99 1.08 1.13 1.14 1.00 ry 1.09 EXPRESSION BY MEASUREMENTS. 303 TOTAL MEAN, MALE AND FEMALE. —— | | | | | | | 3.634} 5.609] 4.275] 5.076) 1.721) 2.727| 2.735] 1.832)1.1 34 The illustrations selected in the above tables from the very elaborate series of measurements, of which the system has been detailed in pre- vious pages, will suffice meanwhile to illustrate the character of. the whole. Still further, the details previously furnished may serve as a contribution towards the determination of the most reliable and useful data for a comparative system of craniometry. If by means of a uniform system we were enabled, through the independent labours of competent observers in various parts of the world, to accumulate a large amount of such minute measurements, in relation to the crania of specific races, or of well-defined regions, so as to admit of a comparison of results: we should, at least, ascertain thereby how far the mean results in relation to each helped to exhibit any notable specialities, By such means we might hope to eliminate from the whole certain constants presenting a specific ethnical significance. We can scarcely fail, at least, to determine thereby how far the expression of head- forms, by means of measurements, tends to exhibit the specialities of the individual skull, or to reveal the cranial characteristics of diverse races of men. ON THE CHANGES OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE, AND PRESSURE OF VAPOUR THAT ACCOMPANY DIFFERENT WINDS, AT TORONTO, FROM OBSERVATIONS IN THE SEVEN YEARS, 1860-66 INCLUSIVE. BY G. T. KINGSTON, M.A., DIRECTOR OF THE MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY, TORONTO. The object in the following paper is to shew the connection which subsists between the direction of the wind and the rapidity of the changes, whether of increase or diminution, which take place in the pressure of air and of vapour. The changes considered in the investigation are limited to étions in which the direction of the wind did not vary between two consecutive 304 CHANGES OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE observations by more than 222° on each side of one of the eight prin- cipal points; and as such comparative constancy in direction will usually occur only when the interval is short, it was found convenient to employ only the differences between 6 a.m. and 8 a.m., between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., and betweon 10 p.m. and midnight. The total change in the reading between two consecutive observa- tions being first diminished by the change due to diurnal variation, the remainders were then classed according to the direction of the wind in the interval, and their averages in each class taken, for the year collec- tively as well as separately for the two half-years. The average changes of barometric pressure which take eee in two hours, and found in the manner just described, are given below for each of the principal eight point of the wind’s direction. APRIL TO SEPTEMBER. N. NE. E. S.E. S. S.W. Ww. N.W. +-0085 —:0043 —-0113 —-0057 —-0084 —-0041 +-0132 +--0150 OCTOBER TO MARCH. N. N.E. EK. S.E. 5. S.W. Ww. N.W. +0087 —-0160 —-0334 —-0313 —-0222 —-0037 -+--0168 -+--0209 THE YEAR. N. N.E. KE, S.E. Ss. S.W. Ww. N.W. +0086 —-0103 —-0215 —-0164 —:0129 —-0089 +:0156 +0180 The most probable values of the changes corresponding to interme- diate directions of the wind are given by the following formule, where ¥, ¥ 3 represent the changes for the two half years and year, and 6 the angular distance of the point from which the wind blew, measured from the North towards the Hast, end expressed in degrees. APRIL TO SEPTEMBER. = + +0004 + +0125 sin (9 + 141929’) + -0044 sin (2 6 + 186° 297) an *0025 sin (8 8+ 14°27) OCTOBER TO MARCH. Wo = — *0075 + -0281 sin (0 ck 148° 14’) + -0024 sin G 6 + 160° 49) + 0014 sin (3 6 + 80° 157) THE YEAR. Vs = — 0028 + +0195 sin (0 + 148° 2/) + -0040 sin (2 0 + 174° 17/) + -0021 sin (3 6+ 10°47) PRESSURE OF DRY AIR. The average changes in the pressure of dry air in two hours with different winds, and the corresponding formule of intenpelion, are as follows. AND PRESSURE OF VAPOUR. 305 APRIL TO SEPTEMBER. N. N.E. E. ‘Subs S. Ss. WwW. N. N.W. +0146 —-0009 —-0128 —-0088 —-0122 —-0u46 ++-0195 +--0219 OCTOBER TO MARCH. N.W. N. N.E. E. S.E. 8. S.W. N. +:0110 —-:0182 —-0871 —-+0342 —-0240 —-0026 -+-0195 +:0240 THE YHAR. s.W. N. N. N.E. E. §.E. 8. . N.W. +-0128 —-0091 —-'0243 —-0194 —-0160 —-00U34 -+:0195 -++-0229 APRIL_TO SHPTEMBER. VY, =-++ *0021 + -0182 sin (6 + 185° 13’) + -0048 sin (2 @ + 193° 10’) +- °0034 sin (3 6 -++ 10° 187) OCTOBER TO MARCH. WY, = — 0077 + -0317 sin (0 + 149° 4’) + -0080 sin (2 6 + 156° 2’) + -0016 sin (8 9 -+ 217° 297) THE YEAR. Ws = — -0021-+ -0237 sin (9 + 144° 46’) + -0040 sin (20+ 174° 17’) + +0026 sin (B @ + 15° 39’) PRESSURE OF VAPOUR. The average changes in the pressure of vapour in two hours that accompany winds from the eight principal points, and the formule for finding the most probable change, with the wind blowing from any intermediate point, are given below : APRIL TO SEPTEMBER. N. N.E, E, §.E. Ss. S.W. Ww. N.W. —°0057 —'00384 +:0020 +-°00385 +0042 +-0001 —-0073 —-0069 OCTOBER TO MARCH. N.W. N. N.E. E. S.E. Ss. S.Ww. Ww. —-0025 +:0009 +:0037 +-0031 +:0017 —-0013 —-0032 —-0039 THE YEAR. S.W. N. N.E. E. S.E. Ss. Ww. N.W. —-0041 —-0012 +-0025 +--0034 +--0034 —-0007 —-0046 —-0054 APRIL TO SEPTEMBER. ¥, = — *00169 + +00607 sin (6 + 305° 49’) +. -00096 sin (2 6 + 88° 487) + -00110 sin (3 6 + 181° 27) OCTOBER TO MARCH. Y2 — — -00018 + *00385 sin (6 + 330° 267) + -00034 sin (2 9 + 287° 67) ++ -00022 sin (3 6 + 248° 267) THE YHAR. Ws —= — °00084 + -00479 sin (9 + 312° 437) + -00085 sin (2 @ + 86° 44’) + -00087 sin (8 @ + 216° 157) if in the nine foregoing formule, the variable angle (0) be made equal in succession to 0, 11° 15’ (11° 15’)x2, (11° 15'))x3, &e, Genie: : . (11° 15’) 31, the changes of pressure will be found which 306 CHANGES OF BAROMETRIC PRESSURE would most probably occur if the wind were to blow steadily for two hours from each of the thirty-two points of the compass. The results are given in the annexed Table. Table shewing the changes in Barometric Pressure, Pressure of Dry Air, and Pressure of Vapour, which take place in two hours, during winds Srom each of the Thirty-two points of the Compass. BAROMETRIC PRESSURE, North NbE NNE NEbDN NE NEbE ENE EbN Hast EbS ESE SEbE SH SEbS SSE SbE South SbW SSW SWbs SW SWbw WS W WbsS West WbN WNW NWbW NW NWbN NNW NbW April to Sept. +:0058 +:0029 —*0005 —"0041 —-0074 —*0099 —-0112 —*0113 —-0103 —-0086 —- 0068 —-0055 —-0052 —"0058 —-0071 —*0085 —-0093 —:0090 —:0071 —"00388 +:0005 +0052 +:0096 +-0131 +0153 +0162 +-0160 +:0151 +°0137 +:0121 +°0103 +:0083 Oct. to March, +0088 +-0035 —-0026 —-0092 — +0158 —-0220 —+0272 —-0310 —-0334 +0348 —-0340 —-0329 "0312 —-0293 —-0273 —+0250 —-0222 —-0187 —-0145 —-0094 —-0037 +"0022 +0079 +-0129 +-0168 +°0196 +-0211 +-0214 +:0208 +-0191 +0166 +0132 Year. +°0083 +0044 —-0001 —-0050 —-0100 —-0146 —-0184 —-0208 —-0218 —-0214 —-0199 —-0180 —-0160 —-0147 —-0132 —"0134 —-0131 —"0123 —-0106 —-0077 —-0036 +°0014 +-0066 +-0115 +-0154 +-0181 +-0194 +-0194 +-0184 +-0167 +-0144 +-0116 April to Sept. +0117 +-0082 +0040 —-0007 —"0054 —-0093 —+0120 —-0131 —-0127 —-0114 —"0098 —"0086 —"0084 —-0093 —-0109 —-0124 —*0131 —-0122 —-00938 — "0044 +-0018 +0084. +0146 +0195 +0225 +0237 +0234. +0222 +0204 +-0186 +-0166 +0144 Oct. to March. +-0110 +:0046 —°0027 —'0105 —"0182 —*0252 —°0309 —"0349 —*0372 —*0379 —"0373 —"0359 —*0341 —*0321 —*0298 —*0272 —*0239 —°0199 —*0149 —*0090 —*0027 +0038 +0099 +°0152 +0194 + -0223 +0241 +0247 +0242 + °0227 + °0200 + °0161 By examining the table it will be seen year the barometer rises with a wind from any point between S W b W PRESSURE OF DRy AIR. Year, + °0127 + *0083 + 0032 —-0027 —"0088 —-0146 —"0195 —*0228 —*0244 —*0243 —*0230 —*0211 —~0192 —‘0178 —*0170 —"0166 —*0161 —0149 —"0124 —"0086 —+0033 0028 “0091 “0148 0194 0224 0239 0239 -0230 0213 0190 0162 Ce ee Sept. PRESSURE OF VAPOUR. April to} Oct. to March. —"0056 |—-0019 —*0052 |—-0010 —*0045 “0000 —"0034 |+ -0010 —"0020 |+ °0019 —"0005 | + 0027 + 0009 | + °0033 + 0020 |+ -0036 + °0028 |+ *0037 + *0082 |+ °0037 + °0034 |+ °0035 + 0035 |+ °0032 + 0086 |+ *0029 + °0039 | + °0025 + .0041 | + -0021 + °0042 ;+ -0016 + °0040 | + °0010 + °0032 |+°0003 + °0019 |—-0004 + °0001 |—*0012 —*0021 |—-0019 —*0042 |—-0025 —0060 |—-0029 —'0073 |—-0033 —"0079 |—-0035 —"0079 |—-0037 —"0075 |—-0038 —"0069 |—-0038 —'0063 |—-0037 —*0059 |—-0035 —"0057 |—-0031 Year. —*0057 |—-0026 |—-0042 —*0037 —*0030 —"0021 —°0011 0000 0009 0017 0024 “0028 0032 0034 0036 0037 0037 “0036 0033 0027 70018 0007 ptttetteret¢t+ ere Ios eo So — a) eS oS Oo Oo —"0030 —"0040 —"0047 — "0052 —*0054 —"0054 —"0053 —*0051 —-0049 —*0046 that on the average of the AND PRESSURE OF VAPOUR. 307 (measured from left to right) to N b H, and that it falls with winds from NNE to SW. The same rule also holds (within a point) in summer and winter separately, and is true also with respect to the changes in the pressure of dry air. The pressure of vapour increases with a wind between H N H toSWbS and diminishes with a wind between SW and NE. On the average of the year, and during the winter half-year, both the rise and fall have an uninterrupted progression ; and the same is true in every case where the change is an increase; but in the summer half-year, besides the maximum rate of barometric fall which occurs with a wind from H, there is a second inferior maximum fall when the wind is from Sb W. There are also two maxima in the rate with which the pressure of dry air diminishes during the summer. They are of equal magnitude — -0131 and also occur with winds from K and 8 b W. The most rapid changes, together with the winds that accompany them, are shewn in the following tables : BAROMETRIC PRESSURE. SUMMER. WINTER. YEAR. ee oid), ee una) oer ae Most rapid rise -+--0162 WNW + -.0214 NWbW -+:0194 NWbW4W 4 —‘0113 E — 03843 EbS —-0218 i Most rapid fall ae MN PRESSURE OF DRY AIR. SUMMER. WINTER. YEAR. Change in c Change in c Change in a 2 hours. Wind. 2) hours. Wind. 2 hours. Wind. Most rapid rise -+-0237 WNW -+-02947 NWbW -+1-0239 NWbW4W F —'01381 1D) —‘0379 EbS —-°0244 aD) Most rapid fall i one ea PRESSURE OF VAPOUR. SUMMER. WINTER. YEAR. Change in : Change in ‘ Change in ‘ 2 hours. Wind. 2 hours. Wind. 2 hours. Wind. Most rapid rise -++-0042 S) +:00387 EbStiS -+-0087 SSESE Most rapid fall —-0079 WbN3N —-0088 NWiW —:0054 NWbW4W [308] HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. An address on higher education, inaugurating a series of lectures designed for ladies, was delivered by Professor Wilson, of University College, in the Music Hall, Toronto, on Friday, the 22nd October; and as it marks the commencement of a movement which, if carried out in the spirit in which it has been begun, is fraught with results of the highest importance, not only to this Province but to the whole Canadian Dominion, we have thought it well to give it permanent record in this journal. The gentlemen who have undertaken to conduct this first experimental course, preparatory to the organization of a permanent scheme on a more extended scale, should the results hold out any ade- quate encouragement for such a procedure, are Professors J. B. Cherriman, M.A., and D. Wilson, LL.D., of University College, and Professor Geo. P. Young, M.A., of Knox’s College, Toronto. The result, so far, we may add, has surpassed the expectations of the most sanguine promoters of the movement. Upwards of one hundred and fifty tickets have been taken by Jady-students in the three branches of Logic, Astronomy, and English Literature ; and the zeal and perse- verance manifested by them thus far in those studies, give abundant assurance of success. On the opening day the large lecture-room of the Mechanics’ Institute was crowded with an audience composed exclusively of ladies, to whom Dr. Wilson delivered the following address :— We meet to-day for the purpose of inaugurating a movement which aims at securing for ladies facilities for training in the higher depart- ments of mental culture, in some degree corresponding to those already available for young men. The liberal scale on which this province has provided for education in the higher departments of learning has already won for it an honourble preéminence among the states and provinees of this western hemisphere. But the ample provision thus secured for the training of young men, in letters, science, and philosophy, only renders thereby the contrast more striking and invidious, which leaves to the other sex nothing ‘beyond the Com- mon, and the Country Grammar School. The need of something more cannot be doubted. To what extent the want is as yet felt among ourselves, the present movement is designed in some degree to test. The duty has accordingly been imposed on me of presenting the subject ~ to your notice, with the view of acertaining whether there really exists eo HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. 309 among the ladies of Toronto, and of Ontario generally, such a desire for higher culture, and such a willingness to do the work of actual students : not by mere attendance on popular or semi-popular lectures; but by an actual grappling with the difficulties and pleasant toils indis- pensable to the mastery of all science and true scholarship, as to render it desirable to organize a scheme for their higher education. Among many signs of the times, we cannot overlook, as a very signi- ficant one, the movement in England, the United States, and elsewhere, for what it termed ‘“‘ Woman’s Rights.’”? It has been embalmed in the permanent literature of the age in “‘ The Princess”’ of Tennyson ; and enforced anew by the greatest of England’s poetesses in her ‘‘ Aurora Leigh.” Amid many follies, inseparable from any great movement, it has its undercurrent of genuine worth, replete with promise for the future. In our own Province it has recently manifested itself in a very practical form, in the successful assertion of equal rights for girls and boys to the advantages of the Grammar Schools; and with that secured, it need not surprise us to find it already being followed up by demands for a share in those higher privileges for which such schools are rightly regarded as preparatory. At the very initiation of a movement for the higher education of woman, aud so for securing for her similar advantages to those enjoyed by young men at Universities, it is important to recognise very clearly all that is implied in the distinction between school and college. It is not the number of pupils that constitutes the difference. The gathering together of scores, or hundreds of boys or girls into one great building, and giving it a high-sounding name,—though sanctioned by decrees of Parliament, or by charter under the Royal sign-manual itself,—will not in avy degree help to solve the problem. A considerable amount of all education must of necessity be acquired arbitrarily, and with, at best, but a negative volition. The child learns that indispensable preliminary to knowledge, the alphabet, without per- ceiving any utility in its troublesome phonetic symbols; spelling, read- ing, the multiplication table, and much else follow, and are mastered in like manner, at the dictation of others, with scarcely a thought of any ulterior use to be derived from them. Under the aptest and most gifted instructor the studies of school girls or boys must be carried on in obedience to his will, and guided by his perception of a higher aim, rather than their own. The reasoning faculty, as applied at times by a precociuus child to such rudimentary studies, retards instead of accele- 310 , HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. rating progress. It is altogether different with the college student. There that period is assumed to have been at length reached in which mere pupilage is at an end. The change of name from pupil to student is itself significant of this and much more. To every mind a time at length comes when it passes from the merely receptive to the perceptive stage; the aims and uses of study begin to be clearly recognised; the adaptation of preliminary acquirements as means to a higher end is seen ; and a willing hand is reached forth to grasp the keys that are to unlock rich treasures of knowledge. Whenever this stage of intellectual development has been reached, a change not only in the mode of instruction, but also in its place, its associates, and its teachers, is all-important. The child must quit its cradle, its go-cart, and all other appliances of the nursery, if it would not be retarded in the healthful growth of its limbs. And so it is with the mind. The school room is its fitting nursery, where it, too, developes dormant powers, and learns the use of growing energies, until it claims to stand alone, and to obey its own volitions. Then, the passing from school to college—from hails in which it has been compelled to receive, to those in which it is invited to acquire knowledge,—constitutes in the very change an educational element the importance of which can scarcely be overestimated. Tt is in this respect, I believe, fully as much as in any other, that woman’s mental culture is inadequately provided for. She is taught by all the conventional usages of society to regard education as a thing incompatible with womanhood. She emerges from the chrysalis state of the school-girl, to ‘come out” into a world brilliant with flowers, and butterflies, and all the gay realities of a life which recognises no place for intellectual culture. She puts away education with other “childish things ;” and, while the young man looks back on college life as the most covetable period of existence ; her happiest associations are with the day of her emancipation from school. Nor is this a mere passing fancy. It gives the key to all her conversation, and prompts the style in which she isaddressed. In her society good manners forbid the intrusion of the sciences ; if letters venture within her hearing, the pedant courteously translates his scraps of Latin for her benefit; the logician styles inconsequential reasoning Woman’s Logic, and is rewarded with a smile; the mathematician is free to take for granted that in her presence, «¢ The hard-grained muses of the cube and square are out of season ;” HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. 311 and as for political economy, the ‘ wealth of nations,’ and the science of government : it is unmannerly to name them in hercompany. She shrinks from a discussion of those principles on which national freedom depends; and resents the epithet /earned, as though high mental cul- ture were an unwomanly thing. The young man, on the contrary, is taught to regard the change from school to college as his “ coming out,’ and emerging into manhood. He learns to recognise it in the very transference from the state of pupilage, in which he was compelled to learn, and to learn whatever was prescribed for him : to that student- life in which he is assumed to covet learning for its own sake; is invited to accept the codperation of tutors to aid him in its mastery ; and, to an ever increasing extent, is admitted to exercise an intelligent discrimination in the choice of his studies. The practical importance of this distinction cannot, I believe, be exaggerated. J am accustomed yearly to watch with interest the com- mencement of this novel experiment on our University matriculants ; and to observe the change when they fairly catch the idea that school- boy life is at an end, and respond to the new incentives which appeal to them for intelligent codperation in the work of mental culture. From this all-important influence our present system of female educa- tion entirely excludes woman. Sooner or later every college student recognizes the change involved in this transitional stage between youth and manhood; learns to ‘put away childish things ;” to become his own instructor; and-to perceive that the ablest professor can do no more than supplement his own efforts: co-operate with him in so far as he is himself willing arduously to climb the heights on which alone knowledge is to be won. Nor is the influence on the teacher to be overlooked. The girl tarries to the close under the care of those who must bend all their faculties to the communication of rudimentary knowledge to the pas- sive, if not the reluctant mind; whereas the boy passes from such instructors to others, not necessirily superior in gifts or acquire- ments to many who are labouring with devoted zeal in the preparatory stages of youthful culture ; but who are elevated into a more genial, and, therefore, a more influential relationship, by learning to regard themselves as fellow-workers with the student: the pilots of a barque manned by willing hearts and hands, eager to urge it onward in a prosperous voyage. And let me here guard against the assumption that there is anything o 312 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. in this movement antagonistic to the Ladies’ Schools already in ex- istence in our midst. On the contrary, should this scheme succeed, it will give a fresh impetus to the higher branches of education in the schools; and call the best energies of their teachers into play, to train up pupils fitted to take advantage of facilities akin to those now sup- plied by the Universities for the other sex ; and which, by so doing, have already contributed largely to the improvement of the Grammar Schools. A competition among Ladies’ Schools, as to which shall turn out the best educated candidates for higher honours, could not fail to react on teachers and pupils with a stimulus wibelly wanting at present in our institutions for female education. . It is not, therefore, without reason that complaints are urged of the great disadvantages under which woman labours in relation to all higher culture. It is from no lack of appreciation of the excellence of some of our Ladies’ Schools and so-called ‘‘ Female Colleges,” that I affirm the want in Canada, and elsewhere, in the true sense of the term, of any college for ladies, to be one of the greatest impediments to the attainment of high culture by women. ‘The functions of school and college cannot be carried on in combination without grievous injury and impediment to true progress in the higher departments of study. Let us not be deceived by names. The institntion may bea mere school, though numbering its pupils by hundreds, and giving them its valediction with honours borrowed from the academic usages of medieval Europe; it may be an excellent college, with no more than ten diligent students toiling willingly, with the aid of their tutors, and leaving at length, neither with diploma of Spinsterhood in Arts, nor any like foolish anachronism ; but with the substantial scholarship : wanting which, all University degrees are mere frauds and badges of shame. Whilst, therefore, we may smile at the pleasant fancy of our Laureate :— “ Pretty were the sight, If our old halls could change their sex, and flaunt With prudes for proctors, dowagers for deans, And sweet girl-graduates in their golden hair :” we discern beneath the seeming jest, the real beauty of girl-gradu- ates in whom all that most gracefully adapts itself to the retiring virtues and true modesty of womanhood, shall prove perfectly com- patible with the highest mental culture, and a scholarship such as was HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. 313 no less becoming to the gentle lady Jane Gray, on whom was forced unwillingly the fatal crown, than to the masculine Hlizabeth, whose brow it wreathed with a fitness which first taught England how regally woman can reign. But this you will perceive to be the point to which my argument thus far leads :—If there is a genuine desire for such high culture, it is not to be accomplished by the mere lecturing of Professors to wil- ling audiences. Only in the belief that there are those among you prepared to become fellow-workers with us; and, as true students, to strive for some mastery in those departments of science and literature which have been selected for this first experiment: have my colleagues and myself undertaken, at some sacrifice, the pleasant duty of inaugu- rating a scheme which has in view greatly more comprehensive results. Nor will I allow myself to believe that while London and Edinburgh, Manchester, Liverpool and Glasgow, already furnish their hundreds of fair students, zealous in the pursuit of higher education, there are not to be found among the ladies of Toronto a sufficient number to en- courage us in proceeding with this movement. Do not be deceived, however, under the idea that a series of popular lectures is aimed at. These also have their legitimate uses and value, like fine music or beautiful statuary; and when, in addition to the refined gratification which they yield, we can reckon up a substantial return of some hundred dollars to one or other of our city charities, their practical value is beyond all dispute. But the present aim is not pleasure ; neither is it pecuniary reward; but profit of a strictly edu- cational kind. Apart from those branches of higher education which pertain to purely professional training, we see no reason why liberal provision should be made for stimulating our sons to the acquisition of Ancient and Modern Languages, Mathematics, the Natural Sciences, &c., while our daughters aro assumed to have completed all needful culture in the rudimentary acquirements of the school-girl. We pro- pose, accordingly, to try the experiment, on a very limited scale, of inviting ladies to undertake some of those studies which specially belong to a University course. If the plan is ultimately to succeed, a preparatory training must be aimed at in some degree resembling that involved in the requirements of University matriculation: not the least beneficial results of which will be its influence on the curri- culum and training of Ladies’ Schools. When this stage has been fully reached, lectures will be required, more numerous, and embracing a 4 314 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. much wider field than anything now attempted. Meanwhile, let me invite your attention to our present very limited aim. It has been decided to provide, during the present season, one brief course in each of the three departments of Literature, Mental Science, and Natural Philosophy. In.carrying out this plan, Professor Young proposes to take up Logic, presenting an analysis of Thought, as regu- lated by its formal laws, and the methods by which it is applied in the process of inductive research, and in the formation of our scientific beliefs. Professor Cherriman has selected Astronomy as one depart- ment of the comprehensive scientific studies pursued under his guidance in the University course, which admits of treatment within the brief period you are invited to devote to his lectures. He proposes to deal with the subject, so far as may be, exactly as he would treat it with his regular undergraduate class. Nor can I conceive of a more attrac- tive study. You will tread in the steps of Newton; review the triumphs of Leverrier and Adam,—anticipated by Mary Somerville ; —and follow out processes by which the problem of the true arrange- ment of the universe has been solved, and the combined results of all the progress achieved in Optics, Mechanics, and Mathematics, are brought to bear on those brilliant phenomena of the Heavens which attracted the devout wonder of Hebrew patriarchs and prophets, and baffled the science of Greece’s wisest philosophers. Among old questions which come up for fresh solution under altered circumstances, that one is being presented anew with peculiar force : What is civilization? If it consists in fine architecture, rich dresses, luxuriant viands, and all the material appliances which wealth can furnish, we have no lack of the evidence of high civilization in our midst. But if mental, and not material resources are to furnish the standard of our civilization, it becomes us to bear in memory :— “ What has tamed Great nations; how ennobling thoughts depart, When men change swords for ledgers, and desert The student’s bower for gold.” Yet inevitably, in young countries like this, the whole energies of the community are liable to be absorbed in the working-day business of life. We can scarcely spare, as yet, that leisure class, devoted to study for its own sake. Higher education is apt to assume, accord- ingly, too professional an aspect. We have as promising a set of young men among our undergraduates as any University could desire. Yet HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. aie I may venture to confess that I have often reflected with sorrow, on the contrast with which I was familiar in earlier days, when the young graduates of Hdinburgh were to be seen eagerly claiming a share in critical discussions and scientific researches ; whilst here, our Canadian Institute languishes in the hands of the same old exotics; and we look in vain for the new generation of scientific labourers, of which the University prize lists seem so full of promise. It will be mourned over; yet I fear it is inevitable that our best honour men shall desert science and letters; and press on, eager for the prizes in the real battle of life. But if it is premature to look for those evidences of a high civilization which belong to older nations, where the thinker finds his true sphere, and achieves his higher triumphs: there is one respect at least in which our civilization is in- disputable, and that is in the position accorded to woman. In her dower-rights, tenure of property, inheritance, and admission to all privileges and duties to which she may fitly aspire, much has been done by the yeomen of Canada, without pretence of chivalry, which neither a Bayard nor a Sidney could surpass. There is no country in the world where woman enjoys more leisure and independent freedom of action, than in this Province: emancipated as she is alike from sordid cares and the oppressive exactions of social conventionalities. If men toil with even undue ardour in the pursuit of wealth, they are well content that sisters, wives, and daughters enjoy its rewards. It is a new social organization in which, unconsciously, is being conferred on woman all which once pertained to the old world’s privileged orders. But let us not sacrifice thereby that womanhood which furms the fit counterpart to Hngland’s vigorous manhood. Let us not strive, as it sometimes seems to me is the result in neighbouring States, to clothe woman in all that is costly, surround her with all that is attractive and - luxuriant, and then leaving her to her own resources, exclaim: ‘‘ These be the lilies, glorious as Solomon’s: they toil not, neither do they spin!’ May we not rather look to you for the true leisure class, for whom the great world of thought lies invitingly open as your legiti- mate sphere ? I see in this, bright hopes for the future. A class of highly edu- cated women in our midst would do more to elevate the tone of feeling. and to awaken nobler aspirations in the intellectual manhood of this young country, than anytking else I can conceive of. I see no other means in any degree equally calculated to wean our young men of high 316 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. promise from the enslavement of professional pursuits: the mere trading drudgery—whether it be of commerce or medicine, of the counting-house or the bar,—which seems now their highest goal. Thave no thought, and equally little fear, of thrusting woman, by such means, out of her true sphere; of obtruding her into arenas which by their very requirements are the prerogative of the rougher sex; or of transforming her into the odious modern ideal of “a strong- niinded woman.” ‘That is no product of higher education: widening the intellectual horizon, refining and invigorating the mind, and, like the polish of the lapidary, bringing to light all the hidden beauty native to the gem. “Let her make herself her own To give or keep, to live, and learn, and be All that not harms distinctive womanhood. For woman is not undeveloped nian, But diverse. * a 2 Yet in the long years liker must they grow; The man be more of woman, she of man}; He gain in sweetness and in moral height, Nor loose the wrestling thews that throw the world . She mental breadth, nor fail in childward care, Nor lose the childlike in the larger mind ; Till, at the last, she set herself to man, Like perfect music unto noble words.” Tt is not therefore unmeet, nor in any degree utopian, that we should conceive of a true woman’s college rising in our midst, provided not Jess liberally than those already supplied for the other sex, with pro- fessors, apparatus, libraries, and all else needful to enable you to turn to wise account that enviable leisure which you possess to an, extent ‘wholly beyond the reach of us, who, whether mechanics, traders, doc- tors, lawyers, or professors, constitute alike the working classes of this young country. And if so, then I can look forward, with no ungenerous envy, to the ‘pleasures in store for you: the delight of study for its own sake; the true enjoyment of grappling with some of those higher problems of science which demand patient labour and long research ; but bring at length so abundant a reward. I have no fear that such resources will make you less learned in gracious household ways. Such elevated themes are in no degree incompatible with duties daily expected at your hands; nor with the tenderer obligations of care and loving sym- HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. a7 pathy which are so peculiarly your own. Still less wil! such elevated themes conflict in any degree with the highest of all duties; or with those earnest and devout thoughts which the study of God’s visible universe, or the investigation of the more mysterious realm of mind, is calculated to awaken. When, at length, amid the boundless works of creation, a being was made in the Divine image, gifted with reason, a living soul, he needed a companion of like endowments, that he might exchange with her the first utterances which give audable form to thought. henceforth the study of the Creator’s works blended with the worship of Himself; nor—when reflecting on the inconceiv- able vastness of that universe, of which our sun and all its planets are but star-dust; and of the power with which the human intellect grapples with its immensities: weighing the sun, analysing the fixed stars, determining the very chemical elements of the nebulae, and reducing to law and order the whole phenomena of the heavens ;—can I doubt that all which science has mastered is but a page in that ample volume of God’s works, on which the purified intellect shall, ina future life, dwell with ever growing delight, and ever ampler recognition of what God’s infinitude is. Such enjoyment of immortal intelligences cannot be incompatible with the devoutest reverence and worship; but will rather fitly form a part of it. Nor need we fear that, here, intellectual culture will prove irreconcilable with the practical ideas and duties of every- day life. God did not make man in his own divine image, only to place him in a world requiring fools for its government. England, the most practical of nations, has also proved herself the most intellectual. Her Bacon and Newton were no cloister-bred dreamers; nor does it surprise us—but, on the contrary, we accept it as the most natural of things,—to find a Derby or a Gladstone, amid the cares of a vast empire, sporting with the toils of highest scholarship; a Herschel stepping down from the lofty abstractions of pure science, to contend with them in the same literary arena; or a Grove or Mill, practically asserting the compatibility of the abstrusest scientific and metaphysical speculations, with their duties to clients in the courts, and constitu- encies in the legislative council of the nation. And if it be thus true that an earnest devotion to letters, or the pursuit of some of the abstrusest branches of science, in no degree conflicts with the cares of statesmanship and responsible professional duties : it is an insult to our common sense to tolerate the idea that 318 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. the highest mental culture need interfere in any degree with those domestic duties which so gracefully adorn true womanhood. I have dwelt on this point with some reiteration, because, so far as my experience goes, the sentiments | combat proceed more frequently from the lips of women than of men. There is a kind of conventional talk, not wholly unknown in our own Toronto circles, which speaks, with half a sneer of “‘ wise women,” “‘ blue stockings,”’ and the like ; but it receives its chief countenance from yourselves. Ladies shrink from the ascription of learning, as though ignorance sat as gracefully on them as modesty, or virtue itself. It rests with you to banish this lingering remnant of medieval barbarism. Frown it down as an insult to your sex; while there lingers on your ear the plaintive close of Brown ing’s noble dramatic lyric, ‘‘The Ring and the Book,” in which the widowed poet recalls his ‘‘ Lyric Love,’ and the rare gold-ring of verse of his poet bride, Elizabeth Barrett Browning: a lady of high scholarship, familiar with the classics of ancient and modern tongues, the greatest of all England’s poetesses, but with her memory treasured still more lovingly as wife and mother. And so it is when we turn from real to mimic life, and look on Shakespeare’s Portia: no longer the barrister in doctor’s robes; but the true wife, by whom, only to rescue her husband’s friend, had they been assumed. There are, indeed, such occasions in real life, as well as in the world of fiction, when an Elizabeth Fry, or a Florence Night- ingale, may overstep the ordinary limits of woman’s true vocation, and yet justify the act by its results. Of such we may fitly exclaim, in Portia’s words :— “ How many things by season season’d are To their right praise and true perfection.” Nevertheless the aim of higher culture for either man or woman, is not to develope such exceptional nobility; but by maturing their reasoning faculties, and widening their range of thought, to fit them better fur every worthy aim and duty of life. And now permit me to refer for a moment to my own special theme. In selecting from the wide field of English Literature, a department capable of being turned to useful account within the very brief limits of twenty lectures, I propose, while tracing out in some degree, the growth of the language, to note the national growth itself, as mirrored in the three great ages of Hnglish letters: that of Chaucer, of Shakes- peare, aud of Pope. And in doing so nothing will be more obvious HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. 319 than the fallacy of the popular idea, which conceives of the poet as an unpractical dreamer, living apart from all the daily round of homely duties : apostrophising the stars ; courting glimpses of the moon ; or inditing sonnets to his mistress’s eye-brows. The greatest poets have been among the most practical of men, and none more so than Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton. In truth, while it is well to find in the common round of daily life employment for those who appear to have no capacity for higher things: no idea is more opposed to the world’s experience than that they best perform those duties on which so much of the happiness of wise. men and women depends. When Wordsworth dedicates one of his noble sonnets to Milton, his climax shows his own estimate of such duties :— “Thy soul was like a star, and dwelt apart ; Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea; Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free: So didst thou travel on life’s common way Tn cheerful godliness; and yet thy heart The lowliest duties on herself did lay.” Perhaps it may seem to some of you that in an inaugural address for a scheme of higher education, these ‘lowliest duties’? might have been left unnoticed, as wholly outside of all we have now in view. Yet, therein lies the fancied impediment; the lion in our path: all the more difficult to combat because it is a mere creation of the fancy. There is indeed a class of men to be found, who speak, with seeming earnestness, as though some few additional improvements on the sewing machine were all that is needed to makea perfect world without woman at all. But such cynics may fitly be left to their own mechanical resources. Nor is there much more need that I should combat preju- dices of men of higher intelligence. It is your own prejudices that have to be overcome. Inthe prologueto “The Princess,”’ Lilia answers to the pictured nobleness of woman in the Olden Time, when asked : ‘“ Lives there such a woman now ?” - . “There are thousands now, Such women, but convention beats them down ; It is but bringing up: no more than that ; You men have done it. # - * *. * JT would shame yon all, That love to keep us children.” But Lilia is unjust. It is yourselves, not us, who do so: enlisting your own prejudices on the side of inferior education. ‘There is in the 320 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMAN. very nobleness of true womanhood so strong a sense of duty, that she learns to lock with jealousy on any movement that seems to tempt her away from those ministering services which will constitute her most honourable vocation while the world endures. It is not therefore, unmeet that I should aim by every argument to enforce the idea that, as high culture and profound scholarship interfere in no degree with man’s fitness for the roughest and most prosaic duties; but rather that the cultivated intellect quickens into renewed vigour every inferior power: sois it with woman also. The development of her highest faculties, her powers of reasoning, her range of observation, and compass of knowledge, will only make mind and hand work together the more promptly, in obedience to every tender impulse, and every voice of duty. Once satisfied of this, I doubt not your hearty codperation may be relied upon: without which all efforts on our part for the higher educa- tion of woman must be vain. Yet I feel assured that, in spite of every impediment, such a scheme lies among the inevitable purposes of the future. It may be rejected now; it may be delayed and frowned on still by the prejudices inherited from a dead past; but it cannot be prevented. Itis one of the grand promises which make thoughtful men almost envious of those who are now entering on the life, for some of us so nearly an accomplished thing. “Tts triumphs will be sung, By some yet unmoulded tongue, Far on in summers that we shall not see.” The thoughts of men are widening; and we stand in special need of this as an element which will accelerate the world’s progress onward and upward to noblest ends. Whether or no this generation shall, in our own province at least, share in any degree in the effort, or partake of its rewards, rests mainly with yourselves. THE AURORA AND THE SPECTROSCOPE. Those who are in the habit of watching the splendid auroral dis- plays occasionally witnessed in Canada, will read with interest the following article from the London Spectator :— ‘““ Men of science haye long felt that a strange secret lay hidden in the brilliant folds of the aurora. The magic arch, with its pointed streamers, shifting silently but swiftly across the heavens, pulsating mysteriously as though illuminated by the fitfully changing glow of some concealed furnace, and rendered supassingly beautiful by the brilliancy of its colours, has THE AURORA AND THE SPECTROSCOPE. 321 always had strange charms for men of thoughtful mind. And gradually a series of laborious researches had revealed the laws which associate this beautiful apparition with disturbances affecting the economy of our whole earth, and not indistinctly connected with the habitudes of the solar system itself. But recently a discovery has been made which is even more remark- able than any which had before rewarded the Jabours of physicists—a dis- covery at once instructive and perplexing, revealing a bond of union between the aurora and a phenomenon hitherto thought to be quite different in character, but leaving us still to learn what the exact nature of that bond of union may be. We had occasion recently to point out that a sudden disturbance in the sun in 1859 had been presently followed by intense magnetic action, the whole electric system of the earth quivering, so to speak, under the influence of the solar forces educed by the disturbance. And we mentioned that amongst the signs of this magnetic action brilliant dis- plays of the auroral streamers had been witnessed in both hemispheres on the night following the solar disturbance. This circumstance teaches us the true character of the aurora as strikingly as any which astronomers and physicists had patiently been gathering together curing the past half century. We learn at once that a relation subsists between the aurora, terrestrial magnetism and the central luminary of our scheme. When our skies are illuminated by the magic streamers, we may be sure that those of Venus and of Mars, of Jupiter and of Saturn, nay, even the skies of those unseen orbs which travel far out in space beyond the paths of Uranus and ‘Neptune, are lit up with auroral displays. When once it has been shown that we owe our auroras to solar action, we recognise the cosmical character of the display, and that, in a sense, the terrestrial magnetism on which it depends is a bond of affinity between our earth and its sister orbs. The auroral lights are undoubtedly to be ascribed to electric action taking place at a very considerable height, where the air is very rare indeed. It became, therefore, a question whether anything could be learned by analysing the auroral light, as the condition of that particular part of our atmosphere in which the electric action takes place. Spectroscopic analysis, that strange and powerful mode of research which has revealed so many unlooked-for facts, was accordingly applied to the light of a brilliant aurora. The result was rather surprising. Instead of a rainbow-coloured streak of light, such as would have appeared if the aurora were due to the existence of particles excited to luminosity by electric action, a single line of coloured light appeared. This indicated that the light is due to the incandescence of some gas through which the electric discharges in upper air take place. But this was not the circumstance which attracted surprise. Rather, this was to have been looked for. It was the position of the line which astonished our physicists. If the gas had been one which chemists are acquainted with, the bright line would have occupied the position proper to that gas, and would at once have indicated its nature. But there is no known ele- eee THE AURORA AND THE SPECTROSCOPE. ment whose spectrum has a bright line where this one appeared. The observation has been repeated over and over again, by Angstrom, by Otto Struye, and recently by Mr. Plummer, always with the same result,—we cannot tell what the substance may be to whose incandescence or luminosity the aurora owes its brilliancy. But now a most remarkable discovery has been effected. Angstrom has found that the mysterious line of the auroral spectrum exists in the spectrum of another object which had been thought to be wholly different in character. Ever since its discovery by Cassini, the zodiacal light has been an object of interest toastronomers. Gradually a theory had been formed respecting it, which had been sanctioned by the authority of such men, as Humboldt and Sir John Herschel. It was held that this appearance is due to the light reflected from a number of minute cosmical bodies travelling around the sun within the orbit of our earth. This theory had never been tested by spectroscopic analysis. Indeed, the zodiacal light shines so faintly that it was hardly hoped its spectrum could be rendered visible. But it was confidently anticipated that if the zodiacal light ever were thus analysed, its spectrum would be that which the theory required—that is, a very faint reproduction of the common solar spectrum. Now, at length, we hear from Angstrom, that the spectrum of the zodiacal light has been observed, and instead of being, as had been expected, a faint rainbow-coloured streak, it presents but a single line. Zhat line is the same that we see in the spectrum of the aurora! In other words, the light of the zodiacal gleam and that of the auroral streamers are due to the same sort of electric discharge taking place in the same medium. Without pre- tending to further interpret this startling result, we may indicate the promise it affords of explaining a number of phenomena which have long seemed most perplexing. When once we recognise the fact that electric action is effective in producing any of the celestial lights, we have a resource available to remove many difficulties. Astronomers were asking how com- ets, for example, could exhibit the spectrum of the incandescent vapour of carbon—that is, a spectrum indicative of the most intense heat, when, as in the case of Winneck’s comet (whose spectrum was of this nature), they were farther from the sun than the earthis. The action of the sun in exciting electrical discharges would be quite sufficient to account for this and similar phenomena. Again, it has long been recognised that the peculiarities of comets’ tails seem only explicable as due to electrical action ; but astronomers were unwilling to adopt such a theory without some posi- tive evidence in its favour. We now have such evidence; and it is most probable that the first long-tailed comet which is submitted to spectro- scopic analysis will establish the view which Euler put forth more than half a century ago, that comets’ tails have something in common with the aurora and the zodiacal light. It would indeed be strange if three of the most mysterious phenomena with which men of science are acquainted should find their explanation simultaneously. [323] BOOK NOTICE. History OF THE SETTLEMENT OF UPPER CANADA (ONTARIO), WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE To THE Bay [or] Quinté. By Wal. Cannire, M.D., M.R.C.S.H., Professor of Surgery, University of Victoria College, Author of the “ PRINncIpLES or SurGERY.” ‘Toronto: Dudley & Burns, Printers, 1869. 8vo. pp. xxxii., 671. Several attempts have been made from time to time in Upper Canada to form Historical Societies, but nothing as yet very tangible has come of them. In the United States such associations abound and are creditably sustained. The following are some of them; The Massa- chusetts Historical Society ; The New England Historico-Genealogical Association; The New Hampshire Historical Society; The Rhode Island ditto; The Long Island ditto ; The Iowa ditto; The Chicago ditto. The Canadian Institute receives regularly the Reports issued bya general institution of this class, the American Antiquarian Society. The publications put forth by these and a number of other associations of a similar kind, together with such works as Lossing’s Field Books of the Revolution, and of the War of 1812, are likely to preserve for the benefit of future generations in the United States much infor- mation relative to early settlements that would otherwise have been wholly lost. Although, however, our Upper Canadian Historical Societies have proved somewhat abortive, they have nevertheless given rise to some publications of importance. The volume, whose title is to be seen above, for example, has grown out of a paper prepared by Dr. Canniff, at the request of a Society organized at St. Catharines a few years ago. It treats especially of the first settlement of the country in the neigh- bourhood of the Bay of Quinté, a region of peculiar interest to the author, as being the place of his birth. The work opens with a sketch of Franco-Canadian History, and then proceeds with a narrative of the revolt of the Colonies which now constitute the United States of North America, that revolt having led to the immigration to Western Canada of many of its first inhabitants. The field traversed thus extends be- yond Canadian bounds, and is sufficiently wide. The specimens we shall give of the style and contents of the volume will consist of a few paragraphs descriptive of the several classes of refugees during the period, 1784-1790, with some account of their discouragements and encouragements, and modes of proceeding, on first entering the wilder- ness :— 3o24 BOOK NOTICES. THE FIRST SETTLERS. ‘“‘The settlers of Upper Canada, up to 1790, may be divided into those who were forced away from the States by persecutions, during and after the war; the disbanded troops; and a nobler class, who left the States, unwilling to live under other than British rule. ‘““To what extent were these pioneers fitted to enter upon the truly formid- able work of creating homes, and to secure the necessaries of life for their families? But few of them possessed ought of worldly goods, nearly all were depending upon the bounty of Government. In the first place, they were supplied with rations ; which consisted of flour, pork, and a limited quantity of beef, a very little butter, and as little salt. “They were also supplied with ‘clothes for three years, or until they were able to provide these articles for themselves. They consisted of coarse cloth for trowsers and Indian blankets for coats, and of shoes ; beside, each received a quantity of seed grain tosow upon the newly cleared land, with certain implements of husbandry. To each was allowed an axe, a hoe, and a spade; a plough, and one cow, were allotted to two families: a whip and cross-cut saw to every fourth family; and, even boats were provided for their use, and placed at convenient points ;’ and ‘that nothing might seem to be wanting, on the part of the Government, even portable corn mills, consisting of steel plates, turned by hand like a coffee-mill, were distributed among the settlers.’ We have learned they were also supplied with nails, hand-saws and other materials for building. ‘To every five families were given a ‘set of tools,’ such as chisels and augers, of various sizes, and drawing-knives; also pick-axes, and sickles for reaping. But, unfortunately, many of these implements were of inferior quality. The axe, with which the burden of the work was to be done, was unlike the light implement now in use, it was but a short-handled ship axe, intended for quite a differ- ent use than chopping trees and clearing land. Notwithstanding, these various implements, thoughtfully provided by Government, how greatly must they have come short in meeting the varied wants of the settler, in his isolated elearing, far separated from places whereat things necessary could be procured. However, the old soldier, with his camp experience, was enabled by the aid of his tools, to make homely and rude articles of domestic use. And, in farming, he constructed a rough, but servicable plow, and harrow, and made handles for his scythe. ' “Thus provisioned and clothed, and thus armed with implements of industry, the old soldiers advanced to the attack of a last enemy, the wild woods. Unlike any previous warfare, was this lifetime struggle. With location ticket in hand, they filed into the batteaux to ascend the rapids. A certain number of batteaux joined together, generally about twenty or twenty-five, formed a brigade, which was placed under the command of a suitable officer ; if not one who had in previous days, led them against the foe. It is quite impossible to conceive of the emotions whieh found a place in the breasts of the old veterans as they journeyed along wearily from day to day, each one bringing them nearer to the spot on which the tent was to be pitched for the last: time. Eagerly, no doubt, they scanned the thickly wooded shores as they passed along. Curiously they examined the small settlement, clustering around Cataraqui. And, it cannot be doubted, when they entered the waters of the lovely Bay of Quinté, the beauty of the scene created a feeling of joy and reconciliation to their lot, in being thus cast BOOK NOTICES. 325 upon a spot so rich in natural beauty, These disbanded soldiers, at least each family, had a canvas tent capable of accommodating, in a certain way, from eight to ten persons. These were pitched upon the shore, at first in groups, until each person had learned the situation of his lot, when he immediately removed thereto. But there were by no means enough tents to give cover to all, and many had only the friendly trees for protection. The first steps taken were to clear a small space of trees, and erect a place of habitation. We have seen what were the implements he had to work with—the materials he must use to subdue the forest tree standing before him. ‘“‘ Here, at the very threshold of Upper Canadian history, was initiated the ‘institution’ of ‘bees.’ ‘Hach with his axe on his shoulder, turned out to help the other,’ in erecting a log shanty. Small and unpretending indeed, were these humble tenements first built along the shores of the bay. The size of each depended upon the number tooccupy it. None were larger than twenty by fifteen feet; and an old man tells me that his father, who was a carpenter, built one fifteen feet long and ten feet broad, with a slant- ing roof seven or eight feet in height. The back-woodsman’s shanty, which may yet be seen in the outskirts of our country, is the counterpart of those which were first built; but perhaps many of our readers may never have seen one. ‘Round logs,’ (generally of basswood,) ‘roughly notched together at the corners, and piled one above another, to the height of seven or eight feet, constituted the walls. Openings for a door, and one small | window’ (always beside the door) ‘designed for four lights of glass, 7% 9, were cut out,’ (Government had supplied them with a little glass and putty ;) ‘the spaees between the logs were chinked with small splinters, and care- fully plastered outside and inside, with clay for mortar. Smooth straight poles were laid lengthways of the building, on the walls, to serve as sup- ports of the roof. This was composed ‘ of strips of elm bark, four feet in length, by two or three feet in width, in layers, overlapping each other, and fastened to the poles by withes.’ (The roof was sometimes of black oak, or swamp oak, bark,) ‘with a sufficient slope to the back, this formed a roof which was proof against wind and weather. An ample hearth, made of flat stones, was then laid out, and a fire back of field stone or small boulders, rudely built, was carried up as high as the walls. Above this the chimney was formed of round poles, notched together and plastered with mud. The floor was of the same materials as the wall, only that the logs were split in two, and flattened so as to make a tolerably even surface. As no boards were to be had to make a door, until they could be sawn out by the whip-saw, a blanket suspended from the inside for some time took its place. By and by four little panes of glass, were stuck into a rough sash, and then the shanty was complete.’ ‘Furniture for the house was made by the old soldier; this was gene- rally of the roughest kind. They had the fashion of exchanging work, as well as of having bees. Some of them had been mechanics in other days. A carpenter was a valuable acquisition, and while others would assist him to do his heavy work, he would in return do those little nicer jobs by which the household comforts would be increased. No chests of drawers were required ; benches were made of split basswood, upon which to sit, and tables were manufactured in the same style. The bedstead was constructed at the end of the cabin, by taking poles of suitable size and inserting the ends between the logs which formed the walls on either side. These would be placed, before the cracks were filled in and plastered.” 4 326 BOOK NOTICES. CLEARING THE LAND. “A log hut constructed, wherein to live; and such plain rough articles of furniture as were really necessary provided, the next thing was to clear the land, thickly covered with large trees and tangled bush. Many a swing of the unhandy axe had to be made ere the trees could be felled, and dis- posed of; and the ground made ready for the grain or root. ‘« A few years later, and the settler would, in the dry summer season, fire the woods, so as to kill the trees. By the next year they would have become dry, so that by setting fire again they would burn down. In this way much labour was saved. But sometimes the fire would prove unman- ageable and threaten to destroy the little house and log barn, as well as crops. Another mode of destroying the large trees, was to girdle them— that is, to cut through the bark all around the tree, whereby it was killed, so that the following year it would likewise burn down. “‘ A portion of the disbanded troops, as well as other loyalists, had been bred to agricultural pursuits; and some of them, at least those who had not been very long in arms, could the more readily adapt themselves to their new circumstances, and resume their early occupation. The axe of the woodsman was soon swung as vigorously along the shores of the well wooded river and bay, as it had been in the forests years before, in the backwoods of New England. ‘“‘Tt is no ordinary undertaking for one to enter the primeval forest, to cut down the tough-grained trees, whose boughs have long met the first beams of the rising sun, and swayed in the tempest wind; to clear away the thick underbrush, which impedes the step at every turn; to clear out a tangled cedar swamp, no matter how hardy may be the axe-man—how well accustomed to the use of the implement. With the best mode of pro- ceeding, with an axe of excellent make, and keen edge; and, combined with which, let every other circumstance be favourable; yet, it requires a deter- mined will, an iron frame.and supple muscle, to undertake and carry out the successful clearing of a farm. But, the refugees and disbanded soldiers, who formed the pioneers of Upper Canada, enjoyed not even ordinary advantages. Many of the old soldiers had not the slightest knowledge of the duties of pioneer life, while others had but an imperfect idea. Some scarcely knew how to fell a tree. Hardy and determined they were; but they possessed not the implements requisite to clear off the solid trees. We have seen tnat the axe furnished by government was large and clumsy, anb could be swung only with difficulty and great labour, being nothing more than the ship axe then in use. Slow and wearisome indeed, must have been the progress made by the unaccustomed woodsman in the work of clearing, and of preparing the logs for his hut, while he had, as on-lookers, too often a feeble wife and hungry children. * * * * * . “ Although deprived of all those comforts, which most of them had enjoyed in early life in the Hudson, and Mohawk valleys, and fruitful fields of Penn- sylvania, they toiled on determined to conquer—to make new homes ; and, for their children at least, to secure comforts. They rose early, and toiled on all day, whether long or short, until night cast its solemn pall over their rude quiet homes. The small clearing of a few acres gradually widened, the sound of the axe was heard ringing all the day, and the crash of the falling tree sent the startled wild beast to the deeper recesses of the wild wood. ‘The toilers were not all from the same social rank, but now in the zy BOOK NOTICES, 327 main, all founda common level; the land allotted to the half-pay officers was as thickly covered with wood. A few possessed limited means, and were able to engage a help, to do some of the work, but in a short time it was the same with all; men of education, and who held high positions, rightly held the belief that it was an honour to be a refugee farmer. “* At the close of the war a considerable number of the refugees found safety in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. But a certain number, not finding such prospects as they had hoped, resolved to try Canada. Con- sequently, for five or six years after the peace, this class continued slowly to flow, to swell the number of inhabitants of Upper Canada. Some of them tarried, or remained in Lower Canada; but the majority ascended the Bay of Quinté, and settled the new townships at the head of the bay; not a few would remain for a year or two in the townships already settled, working farms on shares, or ‘ living out,’ until the future home was selected. A good many of the first settlers in the sixth, seventh, and eighth town- ships, had previously lived for awhile in the fourth township. “The advance of the settlements was along the bay, from Kingston town- ship and Earnest town, westward along both sides. When the settlers in the first, second, third and fourth townships, had, to a certain extent over- come the pioneer’s first difficulties, those in the sixth, seventh, eighth, and ninth, were yet undergoing mostly all the same hardships and trials. Far removed from Kingston, they could, with difficulty, procure necessities, and consequently endured greater privation, and experienced severer hard- ships; but in time these settlers also overcome, and ended their days in comparative comfort.” What Dr. Canniff has accomplished in the volume before us for the district and region of his birth, we should like to see done by compe- tent persons elsewhere. The Bay of Quinté region is but one of the sections of Upper Canada taken possession of and brought into cultiva- tion at an early period. We have the Niagara District, the Home Dis- trict, the Talbot Settlement, the Huron Tract. Hach of these areas might furnish an industrious writer with the materials for a volume. Harly local annals are not only interesting to the inhabitants of the several regions in all subsequent time, but are also often of great use to the general historian. Every year, however, that such collections remain unmade, the difficulty{manifestly increases, of rendering them as full and complete as they ought to Le. Whenever a second edition is demanded by the public we should advise a thorough revision of Dr. Canniff’s work. The eye, at present, is offended by flagrant misprints. The diction in several places wants correction and finish. Our neighbours over the southern border are sometimes spoken of in the strain of a by-gone age. These ebullitions might with advaptage be omitted or recast. The very singular and un- accountable mutilation of the fine old historic name Bay of Quinté . should also certainly be remedied, wherever it occurs. This blemish is 328 BOOK NOTICES. not uniformly to be seen throughout the volume; but it unhappily ap- pears on the title page. Appellations like Bay of Quinté, Bay of Chaleurs, Bay of Fundy, imbedded in our every day speech, and asso- ciated with many a story of adventure in primitive Canadian life, must not be tampered with. A vicious rapidity of enunciation, noticeable occasionally in the rural districts of Canada, may produce to the ear the sound Bay Quinté (which we cannot refrain from saying, is to our- selves something dreadful ; Anglicised too, as probably, at the same time, Quinté would be). But the intention of the speaker, in such a case, is not to drop the “of.” He in fact does not omit it, but gives it the obscure sound represented by o’ in such expressions as John o’ Groat, Jack o’Lantern, Ten o’clock; which are expressions purely popular, not to be countenanced in the educated speech of the present day, except in sport; not to, be copied in the deliberate formation of local or personal names; and above all, in written and printed English of a serious character, not to be obtruded on the eye, in an additionally- clipped condition. lpi rsh [329] CANADIAN INSTITUTE. (Continued from p. 262.) THE TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. The Treasurer in Account with the Canadian Institute for the year 1867-68, from lst December, 1867, to 30th November, 1868. DEBTOR. Caghi Balance last yearasest ein clelsiapasalese eyaieistoteleys ap he/alate |e) ais hgecbe --. $26 8 “Received from Members..........-0+2eeeee8 os ae ei arakvateeeys 331 00 fe a3 for Rent....... SSA AR OO ORE OO OTIS e 41 25 ee es for Interest on Loan of $3,100, to 30th Noy., “186... 186 00 i) barltamentaryy Grant wleGe). dees siediae<<.c ce cee aeitels 750 00 by ee for sale of Journal....... j ee - Pe os aerate 2) fF I OCUMICTES ira craher nectanerstele suavslat giecave atetoret erate attr aveuere: erscnholecaibeatorsievenonueiers - 3,100 00 4 $4,468 08 CREDIT, Cash paid for Printing Journal, Vol. XI., No. 66, Dec., 1867. $82 75 G Editor Journal, Viol) Xe ees cee cieeinees 240 00 fe Wilorarypan dl) Mises jeroyeciasey sisi «leer afarslicieba\<'s/a1a1¢ 91 25 ef on Account of Institute :— alam Woah seeietevaree t's bedhead ciataile - $836 00 STINET ATCO apes crey es Tos assis ho ene Le SI 102 25 Wooden de: Eads Dnadiaess Spek eine aa es 68 25 Printing and Engrossing..............0. 14 50 Repairs hac ails ws lcelersleleyeeisiie a tel stelere -. %3 70 Postage, $2.22c.; oil, $1.90c.; cabs, $1.70c. ; brooms, 50c.; express, 90c.; lamp, 13c.; ‘dusters, 15c.; gum, 10c.; axe, $1.75c.; whitewashing, $1.25c.-; chimney-sweep- ing, 60c.; flour, 5c...........- Relate ated . 12 25 601 95 SOCUrITeS ec iereve ahaleytiatecel va Cue capac leer ares alevers ale oletelianscerer siete res 5,100 00 Cash in hand ........... asteu svete sind untle Med Salata ties 352 13 $4,428 08 SaMvEL SPREULL, Toronto, 1st December, 1868. Treasurer. —~—— The undersigned Auditors have compared the Vouchers for the above items with the Cash Book, and find them to agree. ‘The balance in hands of Trea- surer at date above given is three hundred and fifty-two dollars thirteen cents, G. H. Wrson, é W. J. MacDonett, I Auditors 3830 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. DONATIONS OF BOOKS, &., RECEIVED SINCE LAST ANNUAL REPORT. From the Smithsonian Institute. Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. XV., 1867 .......... 1 enaecadterinmnetone ORION From Prof. J. Hall, Albany. Twentieth Annual Report of the Regents of the University of the State of New York, on the Condition of the Cabinet of Natural History, 15th April, OS Gi Paicretercesis scutes sel ara tafe neeORHe fear <-alsteleiey tere Bouse sadam Shesce From J. Churchill & one London. On the Principles of Aesthetic Medicine...... m bisiwistinalediel. tela lene So poser Sac From Gustave Bossange, Paris. Hclebrological Observations made at Madrid, in Spain, 1867.. From United States Patent Ofjice. Patent Office Reportfor, Wea i866 22.0. 5). 65). am oye DOs OOS RAGE uals. Goic PAMPHLETS. From Koninklijk Nederlandsch Meteorlogisch Institute. Catalogue des Livres Publiés en Langues Etrangeres par L’ Academie Impe- riale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, &e., TS67 SAE A eae Abhaudlungen herausgegeben vom naturwissenschaftlichen Vereine Zu Bre- men, 1 “Bd. 2 Hefti, ©: Hid) Muller, V867\. 2: Jessen -seieemian eee sake an Catalogus Plus Quam 10, 000 dissertationum et Orationum Juridicarum, &c., Apud Fredericum Miller Bibliopolam Amstelodami, 1867............. Catalogus Plus Quam 2,700 dissertationum et orationum "Theologicarum, &e., Apud Fredericum Miiller Bibliopolam Amstelodami, 1867 ............ From R. A. Harrison, M.P. Miscellaneous Statistics of Canada, year 1866 ......... cee eee cece eee Report of the Commissioner of Crown Lands of Canada, year 1866 ........ From Scientific Society, University College. Inaugural Address Literary and Scientific Society, University College, 1866, From Mining Department. Report of the Chief Commissioner of Mines for the Province of Nova Scotia.. From the Royal University of Norway. Norwegian Buildings from former times, 1866 .........2...000.eeeueee An Etudes sur les Affinites Chimiques, par 1. m. Guldberg et P. Waage........ Foreningen til Norske Fortidsmindesmerkers Bevaring Aarsberetning, for USHE Sooodododad ogo dnc de dg Sous Ondo SEO OODDOOBODO EDO OOOO DAD ORDO Index Scholarum in Universitate Regia Fredericiana Centesimo Octavo Kjus SSEIMESULI MG Oiljelelstelelsatels[eleinresieieisiateleieissfeieieielaialkeieietetat= sadaaso00c0ec Ditto, Nono ditto, WIG GannocoscobooKnoudo be obdoodsddoboboCODCOGGOS Generalbereting fra Gustad Sindssygeasy for vA areb HS GGI sets siciele ae cisteeve Beretning om Bodsfoengslets i Aaret, 1866.............-.. jagdbecoONsS : Det Kongelige Norske Frederiks Universitets for Aaret 1866 Blefaitielsieieieenete Forhaudlinger i Videnskabs-Selskabet i Christiania Aar. 1865, Med 3 litho- grapherede Plade............. Sod dsoooocnaogaenooukaboo osc’ tees Ditto, ditto, Aar. 1866, Med. 2 dibteingaieambanaos iad, bees anes oie Ny Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne Udeives. afden physiographiske Fore- ning, i Christiania ved M. Sars, og Th. Kjerulf, femtende Binds forste EGY MARGE AS ong kao edeb boc bibs badd doabiddoborconsucuod. sieieleke Ditto, ditto, Femtende Binds audit Hefte @hristiania, 1867) see ceeeieiarel Meteorologiske Jagttagelser det Sydlige Norge, 1863-64—65~66, 1 a CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ae Udgivne af det kongelige norske Frederiks Universitet ved det Norske Me- teorologiske Institut, Christiania, 1867 ..........2eseeee eee e eee ees Ditto, ditto, Paa Fem telegrafstationer ved Norges Kyst Redercurde og Sam- menstillede af J. J. Astrand Bestyrer af Bergens observatorinm, Forste og Auden Aargang, dic. dC. 6... cee cece cece rece cette tte ec eenees Meteorolgiske Jagttagelser Paa Christiania Observatorium, 1866 ....... .. Morskinskinna: Pergamentsbog fra Forste Halvdel, &c., R. Unger, Chris- BUA oU SOG Ut setsyeteiedaves ny chaieites seeveh steekel/s alee cimiattor she ea toy came ouaKi Mela Nadel Laas Forelaesningar och Ofningar vid Carolinska Universitet tet i Lund Hostter- MOIMEM USC O) o ciavaievonossysue shel etn ayetonsten= AI A) A Ie CI ALA Ih 0-6 0 Acta Universitatis Lundensis, Lunds Universitets Ars-Skrift, 1865,— Mathematik och Naturvetenskap .............ceecceee eee erect aoe Ratts-och Stats Veteuskap; .. 00. ..00ca5 Secs cece cent seen esere snes Philosophi Sprakvetenskap Och Historia ...........+-.2 sees ee ees From the Author. Investigations of a Naturalist between Mingan and Watchicouti, Labrador, by Wm. Couper, Vice-President Quebec Branch Entomological Society Or Check, Qraone, Iih. Soscreoodstescoosbs obo mbondenl Gea elec Unknown—Supposed from the Author. A new Resolution of the Diameters and Distances of the Heavenly Bodies by common Arithmetic, accompanied with an Exhibit of the Variations of the Astronomers, and a Disproof of the Newtonian Theory of Universal Gravitation, by W. Isaacs Loomis, Piermont, Rockland Co., N. Y...... Discovery of the Origin of Gravitation and the Majestic Motive Force which generated the Diurnal and Yearly Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, in two Parts, by W. Isaacs Loomis ..... Ci Ae ta aeRO cE ABRNE MUR GET a Unknown. Catalogue de Dunod, Editeur: Ponts et Chaussees, Paris.........+++.-+.+5 From Dr. Hugel, Leipsig. Verhaudlungen des Naturforschenden Vereines in Brunn, V Band, 1866.... From the Society. Annual Report of the Minnesota Historical Society, read at the Annual Meet- ing, January 20, 1868.......cceee ese e eee e nsec crete etn cece ee ceees From MeGuiil College. Annual Calendar, McGill College, Montreal, Session 1868-69 ............ From the Chicago Historical Society. Tenth Annual Statement of the Trade and Commerce of Chicago, for the year ending 31st March, 1868 .........00. esc eee cece erences From the Society. Annual Report of the Leeds Philosophical Society, 186768 .............. From the Geological Survey of India. Palzontologia Indica. Figures and Descriptions of the Organic Remains procured during the progress of the Geological Survey of India, d&e.... V. 1-4, The Gastropoda of the Cretaceous Rocks of Southern India, by Fred. Stoliczka, Ph, D. 1867. Catalogue of the Meteorites in the Museum of Calcutta, 1867........ ..... Annual Report of the Geological Survey of India, and of the Museum of Geology of Calcutta, Eleventh Year, 1866-67 ......2-...-+.+- see Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. VI., Part I.: 9 Blandford, W. T., On the Neighbourhood of Lynyan, &c.,in Sind.... eS ss On the Geology of a Portion of Cutch............ 1 BBY CANADIAN INSTITUTE. ’ Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. VI. Part II: } Hughes, T. W. H. , On the Bokaro Coal Fields .......... s) iveveletatlstits Ball, V., On the Ramghur Moaleiel dase eee taiac eters teralete atte hice Blandford, W. T., On the Traps of Western and Central India ...... J From the Linnean Society. Wisttotthe Society SG ce ene ne cine ewe ie eR A teleedeye olsianaee cleo : The Journal of Proceedings (Session, 1866— 61, Nov. MAL) iets ne shisieiedel ae eel ae The Journal of the Society—Vol. IX., Zoology, Nos. 36, Sept. 14, 1867, to No. 40, April 28, 1868; Vol. X., Nos. 41 (May 30th), and 42, August 7 ....... see it if Botany, Vol. IX., No. 40, Aug, 23, 1867.... i ee f Vol. X., No. 41, Sept. 5, 1867, and Nos. 42, Feb. 21, 1868, to No. 47, June 238, USO Sic verare ateraiere tach tcletateteveiceateeuchene letlavetmenete Vol. IX. March 19, 1868. The Title, Contents and Index to Vol. IX From the Author. Seritti Varii di Cristofori Negri, Torino, 1867 ........... eee eeeee renee Relazione del Presidente Gon Cristoforo Negri Sullo Stato della Societa Geografica Italiana al 22 Guigno, 1868, de. FOS CIS Ce OIC ELE Ss Discorso vel Comm. Cristoforo Negri, Rieletto Presidente idole Societa Geo- grafica nell Adunanza, del 25 Gennaio, L868 i.e. sere From the Dublin University Zoological and Botanical Association. Proceedings of— Vol. I., Part 8, Nov. 1859; Vol. II., Part 1, Nov. 1860 ........-.e0e. Natural History Review and Quarterly Journal of Science, No, 4, Vol. VI., Oct. 1859; Nos, 25, 26, 27 and 28, Vol. VIIT...........00.- In Exchange for Journal. Journal of the Society of Arts, 1868 ............ gbedodsddedaedocooss. ‘«« of Education, Upper Canada (Ontario), 1868 soQ00g gnc dasoobocde « — Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, 1868 ...........cscceceeeess a5s The ee London, 1868 Lysp eisai ubeasters Tenens ee American Antiquarian Society, Boston, 1868 . ‘L Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, 1868......... Sreleohetens ug Boston Natural History Society, 1868 .......... aangans00an- Historical Recollections, Essex Institute, 1868 ...n.seencmccesctcseem cers Annales des Mines, Paris, Uo oocsacosoodsao dldoodscoaG soboddboadder Pharmaceutical Jour nal, 1868 Journal Royal Dublin Society, ISOS So tolcoda soot sooo obonbEGkaooudKOnS Transactions Academy Sciences, St. Louis, PEGG) ee ome nn ie Oe Annals of the Lyceum of Natural History, ‘New Y ais, WAGE Godososossanse Proceedings Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1268 . Anthropological Review; P8680 20. TG en SR ER et setae art a Ree Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Isec eer BH OCOD DIO Canadian Naturalist, 1868 ............... GabidaddooocsoboddoosbocnONee : Journal of Dental Science, 1868 ‘Canadian Entomological Journal, 1868 Proceedings of the Royal Physical Society, Edinburgh, Teeoeiees es wa Hay Pe te et et et et pt tt [333] CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY. TORONTO OF OLD: A SERIES OF COLLECTIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS. (Continued from page 262.) BY THE REY. DR. SCADDING. XIV.—KING STREET, FROM CHURCH STREET TO GEORGE STREET. We were arrested in our progress on King Street by St. James’s Church. Its associations, and those of the District Grammar School and its play-ground to the north, have detained us long. We now return to the point reached when our recollections compelled us to digress. Before proceeding, however, we must record the fact that the break in the line of building on the north side of the street here, was the means of checking the tide of fire which was rolhng irresistibly westward, in the great conflagration of 1849. The energies of the local fire-brigade of the day had never been so taxed as they were on that memorable occasion. Aid from steam- power was then undreamt-of. Simultaneous outbnrsts of flame from nnmerons widely-separated spots had utterly disheartened every one, and had caused a general abandonment of effort to quell the conflagration. Then it was that the open space about St. James’s Church saved much of the town from destruction. To the west, the whole sky was, as it were, a vast canopy of meteors streaming from the east. The church itself was consumed, but the flames advanced no further. A burning shingle was seen to become entangled in the luffer-boards of the beliry, and slowly to ignite the woodwork there : from a very minute start at that point, a stream of fire soon began to rise—soon began to twine itself about the upper stages of the tower, and to climb nimbly up the steep slope of the spire, from the summit of which it then shot aloft into the air, speedily enveloping and overtopping the golden cross that was there. At the same time the flames made their way downwards within the tower, till the internal timbers of the roofing over the main body of the building weve reached. There, in the natural order of things, the fire readily spread ; and the whole interior of the church, in the course of an hour, was transformed before the eyes of a bewildered multitude looking powerlessly on, first into a vast “burning fiery furnace,” and then, as the roof collapsed and fell, into a confused chaos of raging flame. The heavy gilt cross at the apex of the spire came down with a crash, and planted itself in the pavement of the principal entrance below, where the steps, as well as the inner walls of the base of the tower, were bespattered far and wide with the molten metal of the great bell. While the work of destruction was going fiercely and irrepressibly on, the Public Clock in the belfry, Mr. Draper’s gift to the town, was heard to strike the hour as usual, and the quarters thrice—exercising its functions and having its appointed say, amidst the sympathies, nat loud but deep, of those who watched its doom; bearing its testimony, like a martyr at the stake, in calm and unimpassioned strain, up to the very moment of time when the deadly element touched its vitals. Opposite the southern portal of St. James’s Church was to be seen, at a very early period, the conspicuous trade-sign of a well-known furrier of York, Mr. Joseph Rogers. It was the figure of an Indian Trapper holding a gun, and accompanied by a dog, all depicted in their proper colours on a high, upright tablet set over the doorway of the store below. Besides being an approprivte symbol of the business carried on, it was always an interesting reminder of the time, then not so very remote, when all of York, or Toronto, and its commerce that existed, was the old French trading-post on the common to the west, and a few native hunters of the woods congregating with their packs of ‘‘ beaver” once or twice a-year about the entrance to its picketted enclosure. Other rather early dealers in furs in York were Mr. Jared Stocking and Mr. John Bastedo. In the, Gazette for April 25, 1822, we notice a somewhat pretentious 334 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY: advertisement, headed ‘‘Muskrats,” which announces that the highest market price will be given in cash for ‘‘ good seasonable muskrat skins and other furs at the store of Robert Cole- man, Esquire, Market Place, York.” Mr. Rogers’s descendants continue to occupy the identi- cal site on King Street indicated above, and the Indian Trapper, renovated, is still to be seen—- a pleasant instance of Canadian persistence and stability. In Great Britain and Europe gener- ally, the thoroughfares of ancient towns had, as we know, character and variety given them by the trade-symbols displayed up and down their misty vistas. Charles the First gave, by letters patent, express permission to the citizens of London ‘‘to expose and hang in and over the streets, and ways, and alleys of the said city and suburbs of the same, signs and posts of signs, affixed to their houses and shops, for the better finding out such citizens’ dwellings, shops, arts and occupations, without impediment, molestation or interruption of his heirs or successors.” And the practice was in vogue long before the time of Charles. Yt preceded the custom of distinguishing houses by numbers. At periods when the population generally were unable to read, such rude appeals to the eye had, of course, theiruse, But as education spread, and architecture of a modern style came to be preferred, this mode of indicating “arts and oecupa- tions” grew out of fashion. Of late, however, the pressure of competition in business has been driving men back again upon the customs of by-gone illiterate generations. For the purpose of establishing a distinct individuality in the public mind the most capricious freaks are played. Tn our own streets we have, we believe, two leonine specimens of auro-ligneous zoology, between which the sex is announced to constitute the difference. The lack of such clear distinction be- tween a pair of glittering symbols of this genus and species, in our Canadian London, was the occasion of much grave consideration in 1867, on the part of the highest authority in our Court of Chancery. Although in that cause celebre, after a careful physiognomical study by means of photographs transmitted, it was allowed that there were points of difference between the two Specimens in question, as, for example, that ‘‘one looked older than the other ;” that ‘one, from the sorrowful expression of its countenance, seemed more resigned to its position than the other” —still the decree was issued for the removal of one of them from the seene—very pro- perly the later-carved of the two.—Of the ordinary trade-signs that were to be seen along the thoroughfare of King Street no particular notice need be taken. The Pestle and Mortar, the Pole twined round with the black strap, the Crowned Boot, the Axe, the Broad-axe, the Saw, (mill, tross-cut and circular,) the colossal Fowling-piece, the Cooking Stove, the Plough, the Golden Fleece, the Anvil and Sledge-Hammer, the magnified Horse Shoe, each told its own story, as indicating indispensable wares or occupations. Passing eastward from the painted effigy of the Indian Trapper, we soon came in front of the Market Place, which, so long as only a low wooden building occupied its centre, had an open, airy appearance. We have already dwelt upon some of the occurrences and associations con- nected with this spot. On King Street, about here, the ordinary trade and traffic of the place came, after a few years, to be concentrated. Here business and bustle were every day, more or less, created by the usual wants of the inhabitants, and by the wants of the country farmers whose waggons in summer, and sleighs in winter, thronged in from the north, east and west. And hereabout at one moment or another, every lawful day, would be surely seen, coming and going, the oddities and street characters of the town and neighbourhood. Having devoted some space to the leading and prominent personages of our drama, it will be only proper to bestow a few words on the subordinates, the Calibans and Gobbos, the Nyms and Touchstones of the piece. From the various nationalities and races of which the community was a mixture, tiese were drawn. There was James O'Hara, for example, a poor humorous Irishman, a per- fect representative of his class in costume, style and manner, employed as bellman at auctions, and soon. When the town was visited by the travelling cutters-out of likenesses in black paper (some years ago such things created a sensation), a full-length of O’Hara was suspended at the entrance to their rooms, recognized at once by every eye, even without the aid of the Shoot easy” inscribed on a label issuing from the mouth. There was Jock Murray, the Scotch carter; and after him, William Pettit, the English one; and the carter who drove the horse with the “‘spring-halt”: (every school-lad in the place was familiar with the peculiar twitch upwards of the near hind leg in the gait of this nag.) The negro population was small, Bvery individual of colour was recognizable at sight. Black Joe and Whistling Jack were two notabilities: both of them negroes of African birth. In military bands a negro drummer or TORONTO OF OLD. 335 cymbal-plaver was formerly often to be seen. The two men just named, after obtaining a dis- charge from a regiment here, gained an honest livelihood by chance employment about the town. Joe, a well-formed, well-trained figure, was to be seen, still arrayed in some old cast-off shell-jacket, acting as porter, or engaged about horses: once already we have had a glimpse of him in the capacity of sheriff’s assistant, administering the lash to wretched culprits in the market-place. The other, besides playing other parts, officiated occasionally as a sweep; but his most memorable accomplishment was a melodious and powerful style of whistling musica, airs, and a faculty for imitating the bag-pipes to perfection.—For the romantic sound of the name, the tall, comely negress, Amy Pompadour, should also be mentioned in the record. But she was of servile descent: at the time of which we write slavery was only just dying out in Upper Canada, as we shall have occasion to note hereafter more at large-—Then came the * Jack of Clubs.” Lord Thurlow, we are told, once enabled a stranger to single out in a crowd Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton, by telling him to take notice of the first man he saw bearing a strong resemblance to the ‘‘Jack of Clubs.” In the present case it was a worthy trader in provisions who had acquired among his fellow-townsmen a sobriquet from a supposed likeness to that sturdy court-card figure. He was a short, burly Englishman, whose place of business was just opposite the entrance to the Market. So absolutely did the epithet attach itself to him, that late comers to the place failed to learn his real name: all which was good- humouredly borne for a time ; but at last the distinction became burdensome and irritating, and Mr. Stafford removed in disgust to New York.—A well-known character often to be seen about here, too, was an unfortunate English farmer of the name of Cowper, of disordered intellect, whose peculiarity was a desire to station himself in the middle of the roadway, and from that vantage-ground to harangue any crowd that might gather, incoherently, but always with a great show of sly drollery and mirthfulness.—On occasions of militia funeral processions, observant lads and others were always on the look-out for a certain prosperous old cordwainer of York, Mr. Wilson, who was sure then to be seen marching in the ranks, with musket reversed, and displaying with great precision and solemnity the extra-upright carriage and _ genuine toe-pointed step of the soldier of the days of George the Second. He had been in the regular army, and it was with pride and gusto that he exhibited the perfection to which he had in other days attained. The slow pace required by the Dead March gave the on-looker time to study the antique style of military movement thus exemplified.—It was at a comparatively late period that Sir John Smythe and Spencer Lydstone, poets, were notabilities in the streets: the latter, Mr. Lydstone, recognizable from afar by a scarlet vest, brought out, ever and anon, a printed broadside, filled with eulogiums or satires on the inhabitants of the town, regulated by fees or refusals received. The former, Sir John Smythe, found in the public papers a place for his productions, which by their syntactical irregularities and freedom from marks of punctua- tion, proved their author (as a reviewer of the day once observed) to be a man supra grammati- cam, and one possessed of a genius above commas. But his great hobby was a railway to the Pacific, in connection with which he brought out a lithographed map: its peculiarity was a straight black line conspicuously drawn across the continent from Fort William to the mouth of the Columbia. In a tract of his on the subject of this railway he provides, in the case of war with the United States, for steam communication between London in England and China and the East Indies, by ‘‘a branch to run on the north side of the township of Cavan and on the south side of Balsam Lake.” ‘‘I propose this,” he says, ‘‘to run in the rear of Lake Huron and in the rear of Lake Superior, twenty miles in the interior of the country of the Lake afore- said; to unite with the railroad from Lake Superior to Winnipeg, at the south-west main trading-post of the North-West Company.” The document is signed “Sw John Smythe, Baro- net and Royal Engineer, Canadian Poet, LL.D., and Moral Philosopher.” The concourse of traffickers and idlers in the open space before the old Market Place were free of tongue; they sometimes talked, in no subdued tone, of their fellow-townsfolk of all ranks. Ina small community every one was more or less acquainted with every one, with his dealings and appurtenances, with his man-servant and maid-servant, his horse, his dog, his waggon, cart or barrow. Those of the primitive residentiaries, to whom the commonalty had taken kindly, were honoured in ordinary speech with their militia-titles of Colonel, Major- Captain, or the civilian prefix of Mister, Honorable Mister, Squire or Judge, as the case might be; whilst others, not held to have achieved any special clainfs to deference, were named, even 336 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY: in mature years, by their plain baptismal names, John, Andrew, Duncan, George, and so on, And then, there was a third marking-off of a few, against whom, for one vague reason or another, there had grown up in the popular mind a certain degree of prejudice. These, by a curtailment or national corruption of their proper prenomen, would be ordinarily styled Sandy this, Jock that. In some instances the epithet ‘“‘old” would irreverently precede, and persons of consid- erable eminence might be heard spoken of as old Tom so-and-so, old Sam such-a-one. And similarly in respect to the sons and nephews of these worthy gentlemen. Had the community never been replenished from ontside sources, few of them would. to the latest moment of their lives, have ever been distinguished except by the plain John, Stephen, Allan, Christopher, and so on, of their infancy, or by the Bill, Harry, Alec, Mac, Dolph, or Bob, acquired in the nursery or school. But enough has been said, for the present at least, on the humours and ways of our secondary characters, as exemplified in the crowd customarily gathered in front of the old Market at York. We shall now proceed on our prescribed route. The lane leading northward from the north-west corner of Market Square used to be known as Stuart’s Lane, from the Rev. George Okill Stuart, once owner of property here. On its west side was a well-known inn, The Farmers’ Arms, kept by Mr. Bloor, who, on retiring from busi- ness, took up his abode at Yorkville, where it has curiously happened that his name has been attached to a fashionable street, the thoroughfare formerly known as the Concession Line.—The street running north from the north-east angle of Market Square, now known as Nelson Street, was originally New Street, a name which was commemorative of the growth of York westward. The terminal street of the town on the west, prior to the opening of this New Street, had been George Street. The name of ‘“‘New Street” should never have been changed, even for the heroic one of Nelson. As the years rolled on, it would have become a quaint misnomer, involy- ing a tale, like the name of ‘‘New College” at Oxford—a College nearly five hundred years old. At a point about half-way between New Street and George Street, King Street was, in 1849, the scene of an election fracas which, in distant quarters, damaged for a time the good name of the town. While passing in front of the Coleraine House, an inn on the north side of the street, and a rendezvous of the unsuccessful party, some persons walking in procession, in addition to indulging in the usual harmless groans, flung a missile into the house, when a shot, fired from one of the windows, killed a man in the concourse below.—Owing to the happy set- tlement of numerous irritating public questions, elections are conducted now, in our towns and throughout our Provinces, in a calm and rational temper for the most part. Only two relies of eyil and ignorant days remain amongst us, stirring bad blood twice a-year, on anniversaries consecrated, or otherwise, to the object. A generous-hearted nation, transplanted as they have been almost en masse to anew continent, where prosperity, wealth and honours have everywhere been their portion, would shew more wisdom in the repudiation than they do in the recognition and studied conservation of these hateful heir-looms of their race. XV.—KING STREET—DIGRESSION INTO DUKE STREET. On passing George Street, as we intimated a moment ago, we enter the parallelogram which constituted the original town-plot. Its boundaries were George Street, Duchess Street, Ontario Street (with the lane south of it), and Palace Street. From this, its old core, York spread westward and northward, extending at length in those directions respectively (under the name of Toronto) to the Asylum and Yorkville; while eastward its developments—though here less solid and less shapely—were finally bounded by the windings of the Don. Were Toronto an old town on the European Continent, George Street, Duchess Street, Ontario Street and Palace Street, would probably be boulevards, shewing the space once occupied by stout stone walls. The parallelogram just defined represents ‘‘the City” in modern London, or ‘‘la Cité” in modern Paris—the original nucleus round which gradually clustered the dwellings of later generations. Before, however, we enter upon what may be styled King Street proper, it will be convenient to make a momentary digression northwards into Duke Street, anciently a quiet, retired thoroughfare, skirted on the right and left by the premises and grounds and houses of several most respectable inhabitants. Ag the north-west angle of the intersection of this street with George Street was the home of Mr. Washburn; but this was comparatively a recent erection. TORONTO OF OLD. 337 Its site previously had been the brickyard of Henry Hale, a builder and contractor, who put up the residence, possessing some architectural pretensions, on the south-east angle of the same intersection, diagonally across; occupied in the second instance by Mr. Moore, of the Commissariat; then by Dr. Lee, and afterwards by Mr. J. Murchison. (The last named was for a long time the Stultz of York, supplying all those of its citizens, young and old, who desired to make an attractive or intensely respectable appearance, with vestments in fine broadcloth.) A little to the north, on the left side of George Street, was the famous Ladies’ School of Mrs. Goodman, presided over subsequently by Miss Purcell and Miss Rose. This had been previously the homestead of Mr. Stephen Jarvis, of whom again immediately. Ad- vancing on Duke Street eastward a little way, we came, on the left, to the abode of Sir William Campbell. (The still extant brick mansion it of the late date of 1822.) Then on the right, one square beyond, at the south-easterly corner where Caroline Street intersects, we reached the house of Mr. Secretary Jarvis, a man of great note in his day, whose name is familiar to all who have occasion to examine the archives of Upper Canada in the administrations of Governors Simcoe, Hunter and Gore. A fine portrait of him exists, butit has been transmitted to relatives in England. Mr. Stephen Jarvis, above named, was long the Registrar of Upper Canada. Bis hand-writing is well-known to all holders of early deeds. He and the Secretary were first cousins ; of the same stock as the well-known Bishop Jarvis of Connecticut, and the Church- historian, Dr. Samuel Farmer Jarvis. Both were officers in incorporated Colonial regiments before the independence of the United States ; and both came to Canada as United Empire Loyalists. Mr. Stephen Jarvis was the founder of the leading Canadian family to which the first Sheriff Jarvis belonged. Mr. Samuel Peters Jarvis, from whom “Jarvis Street” has its name, was the son of Mr. Secretary Jarvis. On the left, one square beyond the abode of Mr. Secretary Jarvis, came the premises and home of Mr Surveyor General Ridout, the latter a structure still to be seen in its primitive outlines, a good specimen of the old type of early Upper Canadian family residences of a superior class ; combining the qualities of solidity and _ durability with those of snugness and comfort in the rigours of winter and the heats of summer. In the rear of Mr. Ridout’s house was for some time a family burial-plot; but, like seveia; similar private enclosures in the neighborhood of the town, it became disused after the estab- . lishment of regular cemeteries. Nearly opposite Mr. Ridout’s, in one of the usual long, low Upper Canadian one-storey dwellings, shaded by lofty Lombardy poplars, was the home of the McIntoshes, who are to be commemorated hereafter in connection with the Marine of York; and here, at a later period, lived for along time Mr. Andrew Warffe and his brother John. Myr. Andrew Warffe was a well-known employé in the office of the Inspector General, Mr. Baby, and a lieutenant in the Incorporated Militia. By one of the vicissitudes common in the history of family-residences everywhere, Mr. Secretary Jarvis’s house, which we just now passed, became afterwards the place of business of a memorabie cutler and gunsmith, named Isaac Columbus. During the war of 1812, Mr. Columbus was employed as armourer to the Militia, and had a forge near the garrison. Many of the swords used by the Militia officers were actually manufactured by him. He was a native of France ; a liberal-hearted man, ever ready to contribute to charitable objects; and a clever artizan. Whether required to “jump” the worn and battered axe of a backwoodsman, to put. in order a surveyor’s theodolite, orto replace for the young geometrician or draughtsman an instrument lost out of his case, he was equally au-fait. On occasion he could even supply an elderly lady or gentleman with a set of false teeth, and insert them. In our boyhood we had occasion to get many little matters attended to at Mr. Columbus’s. Once, on leaving word that a certain article must be ready by a particular hour, we remember being informed that “must” was only for the King of France. His political absolutism would have satisfied Louis XIV. himself. He positively refused to have anything to do with the “‘liberals’’ of York, expressly on the ground that, in his opinion, the modern ideas of government ‘‘ hindered the King from acting as a good father to the people.” An expressson of his, ‘first quality, blue!” used on a particular occasion in reference to an extra finish to be given to some steel-work for an extra price, passed into a proverb among us boys at school, and was extensively applied by us to persons and things of which we desired to predicate a high degree of excellence.— Over Colum- bus’s workshop, at the corner of Caroline Street, we are pretty sure his name appeared as here 388 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY : given; and so it was always called. But we observe in some lists of early names in York, that it is given as ‘Isaac Collumbes.” Tt is curious to note that the great discoverer’s name is a latimization of Colon, Coulon, Colombe, descendant each of colwmba, dove, of which columbus is the masculine form. XVI.—KING STREET, FROM GEORGE STREET TO CAROLINE STREET. We now retrace our steps to King Street, at its intersection with George Street; and here our eye immediately lights on an object connected with the early history of Edueation in York, Attached to the east side of the house at the south-east angle of the intersection is a low bullding, wholly of stone, resembling a small root-house. Its structure is concealed from view now by a coating of clapboards. This was the first school-house possessing a public character in York. It was where Dr. Stuart taught, afterwards Archdeacon of Kingston. The building was on his property, which became afterwards that of Mr. George Duggan, once before referred to. (In connection with St. James's Church, it should have been recorded that Mr. Duggan was the donor and planter of the row of Lombardy poplars that formerly stood in front of that edifice, and which figure conspicuously in the old engravings of King Street. He was an Trishman of strong opinions. He once stood for the town against Mr. Attorney-General Robinson, but did not get in. When the exigencies of later times required the uprooting of the poplar trees, now become overgrown, he warmly resented the remoyal ; and it was at the risk of griev- ous bodily harm that the Church-warden of the day, Mr. T. D. Harris, carried into effect the resolution of the Vestry.) Dr. Stuart’s was the Home District School. From a contemporary record, now before us, we learn that it opened on June the first, 1807, and that the first names entered on its books were those of John Ridout, William A. Hamilton, Thomas G. Hamilton, George H. Detlor, George S. Boulton, Robert Stanton, William Stanton, Angus McDonnell, Alexander Hamilton, Wilson Hamilton, Robert Ross, Allan MeNab. To this list, from time to time, were added many other old Toronto or Upper Canadian names ; as, for example, the following: John Moore, Charles Ruggles, Edward ‘Hartney, Charles Boulton, Alexander » Chewett, Donald MeDonnell, James Edward Small, Charles Small, John Hayes, George and William Jarvis, William Boukett, Peter McDonnell, Philemon Squires, James McIntosh, Bernard, Henry and Marshall Glennon, Richard Brooke, Daniel Brooke, Charles Reade, William Robinson, Gilbert Hamilton, Henry Ernst, John Gray, Robert Gray, William Cawthra, William Smith, Harvey Woodruff, Robert Anderson, Benjamin Anderson, James Givins, Thomas Playter, William Pilkington. The French names Belcour, Hammeil and Marian oceur. (There were bakers or confectioners of these names in York at an early period.) From the same record it appears,that female pupils were not excluded from the primitive Home Distriet School. On the roll are names which surviving contemporaries would recognize as belonging to the beau monde of Upper Canada, distinguished and admired in later years. A building-lot, eighty-six feet in front and one hundred and seventeen in depth, next to the site of the school, is offered for sale in the Gazette of the 18th of March, 1822; and in the advertisement it is stated to be “‘one of the most eligible lots in the Town of York, and situ- ated in King Street, in the centre of the Town.” To the left, just across from this choice position, was, in 1833, Wrage & Co.’s establishment, where such matter-of-fact articles as the following could be procured: ‘‘ Bending and unbending nails, as usual; wrought nails and spikes of all sizes [a change since 1S81(]; ox-traces and cable-chains; tin; double and single sheet iron; sheet brass and copper; bar, hoop, bolt and rod iron of all sizes; shear, blister and cast steel ; with every other article in the heavy line, together with a very complete assort- ment of shelf goods, cordage, oakum, pitch, tar and rosin: also a few patent machines for shelling corn.” (A much earlier resort for such merehandize was Mr. Peter Paterson’s, on the west side of the Market Square.) Of a date somewhat subsequent to that of Messrs. Wrage’s advertisement, was the depdt of Mr. Harris for similar substantial wares. This was situated on the north side of King Street, westward of the point at which we are now pausing. It long resisted the great conflagration of 1849, towering up amidst the flames like a black, isolated crag in a tempestuous sea; but at length it succumbed. Having been rendered, as it was supposed, fire-proof externally, no attempt was made to remove the contents of the building.— To the east of Messrs. Wragg’s place of business, on the same side, and dating back to an early period, was the dwelling house and mart of Mr. Mosley, the principal auctioneer and TORONTO OF OLD. 339 appraiser of York, a well-known and excellent man. He had suffered the severe calamity of a partial deprivation of the lower limbs by frost-bite ; but he contrived to moye about with great activity in a room or on the side-walk by means of two light chairs, shifting himself adroitly from the one to the other. When required to go to a distance or to church, (where he was ever punctually to be seen in his place), he was lifted by his son or sons into and out of a wagonette, together with the chairs. ; On the same (north) side was the place where the Messrs. Lesslie, enterprising and successful merchants from Dundee, dealt at once in two remunerative articles—books and drugs, The left side of the store was devoted to the latter; the right to the former. ‘Their first head-quar- ters in York had been further up the street; but a move had been made to the eastward, to be, as things were then, nearer the heart of the town. This firm had houses carrying on the same combined businesses in Kingston and Dundas. There exists a bronze medal or token, of good design, sought after by collectors, bearing the legend, ‘‘B. Lesslie and Sons, Toronto and Dundas, 1822.” The date has been perplexing, as the town was not named Toronto in 1822. The intention simply was to indicate the year of the founding of the firm in the two towns ; the first of which assumed the name of Toronto at the period the medal was really struck, viz., 1834, On the obverse it bears a figure of Justice with scales and sword: on the reverse, a Plough, with the mottoes, ‘‘ Prosperity to Canada,” “‘ La Prudence et la Candeur.”—A smaller Token of the same firm is extant, on which ‘‘ Kingston” is inserted between ‘ Toronto” and “Dundas.” 9S Nearly opposite was the store of Mr. Monro. Regarding our King Street as the Broadway of York, Mr. Monro was for a long time its Stewart. But the points about his premises that linger now in our recollection the most, are a tasteful flower-garden on its west side, anda trellised verandah in that direction, with canaries in a cage usually singing therein. Mr. Monro was Mayor of Toronto in 1840. He also represented in Parliament the South Riding of York, in the Session of 1844-5. At the north-west corner, a little further on, resided Mr. Alexander Wood, whose name appears often in the Report of the Loyal and Patriotic Society of 1812, to which reference before has been made, and of which he was the Secretary. A brother of his, at first in copart- nership with Mr. Allan, and at a later period, independently, had made money, at York, by business. On the decease of his brother, Mr. Alexander Wood came out to attend to the property left. He continued on the same spot, until after the war of 1812, the commercial operations which had been so prosperously begun, and then retired. At the tlme to which our recollections are transporting us, the windows of the part of the house that had been the store were always seen with the shutters closed. Mr. Wood was a bachelor; and it was no uncosy sight, towards the close of the shortening autumnal days, before the remaining front shutters of the house were drawn in for the evening, to catch a glimpse, in passing, of the interior of his comfortable quarters, lighted up by the blazing logs on the hearth, the table standing duly spread close by, and the solitary himself ruminating in his chair before the fire, waiting for candles and dinner to be brought in. On sunny mornings in winter he was often to be seen pacing the sidewalk in front of his premises, for exercise, arrayed in a long blue over-coat, with his right hand thrust for warmth into the cuff of his left sleeve, and his left hand into that of his right. He afterwards returned to Scotland, where, at Stonehaven, not far from Aberdeen, he had family estates known as Woodcot and Woodburnden. He died without executing a will; and it was some time before the rightful heir to his property in Scotland and here was determined. It had been his intention, we believe, to return to Canada. The streets that run eastward from Yonge Street, north of Carlton Street, named respectively ‘‘ Wood” and ‘‘ Alexander,” pass across land that belonged to Mr. Wood. Many are the shadowy forms that rise before us, as we proceed on our way ; phantom-revi- sitings from the misty Past ; the shapes and faces of enterprising and painstaking men, of whose fortunes King Street hereabout was the cradle. But it is not necessary in these reminiscences to enumerate all who, on the right hand and on the left, along the now comparatively deserted portions of that great thoroughfare, amassed wealth in the olden time by commerce and other honourable pursuits, laying the foundation, in several instances, of opulent families. Quetton St. George, however, must not be omitted, builder of the solid and enduring house on the corner opposite to Mr. Wood’s; a structure that, for its size and air of respectability ; 340 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY : for its material, brick, when as yet all the surrounding habitations were of wood; for its tinned roof, its graceful porch, its careful and neat finish generally, was, for a long time, one of the York lions.—Mr. Quetton St. George was a French royalist officer, and a chevalier of the order of St. Louis. With many other French gentlemen he emigrated to Canada at the era of the Revolution. He was of the class of the noblesse, as all officers were required to be; which class, just before the Revolution, included, it is said, 90,000 persons, all exempt from the ordinary taxes ef the country. The surname of St. George.was assumed by M. Quetton to commemorate the fact that he first set foot on English ground on St. George’s day. On proceeding to Canada, he, in conjunction with Jean Louis, Vicomte de Chaliis, and other distinguished emigres, acquired a large estate in wild lands in the rough region north of York, known as the “Oak Ridges.” Finding it difficult, however, to turn such property speedily to account, he had recourse to trade with the Indians and remote inhabitants. Numerous stations with this object in view, were established by him in different parts of the country, before his final settlement in York. One of these posts was at Orillia, on Lake Couchiching; and in the Niagara Herald of August the 7th, 1802, we meet with the following advertisement: ‘‘ New Store at the House of the French General, between Niagara and Queenston. Messrs. Quetton, St. George and Co. acquaint the Public that they have lately arrived from New York with a general assortment of Dry Goods and Groceries, which will be sold at the lowest price for ready money ; for from the uncertainty of their residing any time in these parts, they cannot open accounts with any person. Will also be found at the same store a general assortment of tools for all mechanics. They have likewise well-made Trunks: also empty Barrels. Niagara, July 23.” The copartnership implied was with M. de Farcy. The French General referred to was the Comte de Puisaye. The house spoken of still exists, beautifully situated at a point on the Niagara River where the earriage-road between Queenston and the town of Niagara approaches the very brink of the lofty bank, whose precipitous side is even yet richly clothed with fine forest trees, and where the noble stream below, closed in towards the south by the heights above Lewiston and Queenston, possesses all the features of a picturesque inland lake. Attached to the house in question is a curious old fire-proof structure of brick, quaintly buttressed with stone: the walls are of a thickness of three or four feet; and the interior is beautifully vaulted and divided into two compartments having no communication with each other: and above the whole is a long loft of wood, approached by steps on the outside. The property here belonged for a time in later years to Shickluna, the shipbuilder of St. Catharines, who happily did not disturb the interesting relic just described. The house itself was in some respects modernized by him ; but, with its steep roof and three dormer windows, it still retains much of its primitive character.—In 1805 we find Mr. St. George removed to York. The copartnership with M. de Farcy is now dissolved. In successive numbers of the Gazette and Oracle, issued in that and the following year, he advertises at great length. But on the 20th of September, 1806, he abruptly announces that he is not going to advertise any more: he now once for all, begs the public to examine his former advertisements, where they will find, he says, an account ot the supply which he brings from New York every spring, a similar assort- ment to which he intends always to have on hand: and N. B., he adds: Nearly the same assortment may be found at Mr. Boiton’s at Kingston, and at Mr. Boucherville’s at Amherst- burg, “‘ who transact business for Mr. St. George.” As we have, in the advertisements referred to, a rather minute record of articles and things procurable and held likely to be wanted by the founders of society in these parts, we will give, for the reader’s entertainment, a selection from several of them, adhering for the most part to the order fn which the goods are therein named. From time to time it is announced that there have ‘‘just arrived from New York,” ribbons, cotton goods, silk tassels, gown-trimmings, cotton binding, wire trimmings, silk belting, fans, beaded buttons, block tin, glove ties, cotton bed-line, bed-lace, rollo-bands, ostrich feathers, silk lace, black veil lace, thread do., laces and edgings, fine black veils, white do., fine silk mitts, love-handkerchiefs, Barcelona do., silk do., black crape, black mode, black Belong, blue, white and yellow do., striped silk for gowns, Chambray muslins, printed dimity, split-straw bonnets, Leghorn do., imperial chip do., best London Ladies’ beaver bonnets, cotton wire, Rutlandgauze, band boxes, cambrics, calicoes, Irish linens, callimancoes, plain muslins, laced muslins, blue, black and yellow nankeens, jeans, fustians, long silk gloves, velvet ribbons, Russia sheetings, India satins, silk and cotton umbrellas, parasols, white cottons, TORONTO OF OLD. 341 bombazetts, black and white silk stockings, damask table cloths, napkins, cotton, striped nankeens, bandana handkerchiefs, catgut, Tickenburg, brown holland, Creas a la Morlaix, Italian lutestring, beaver caps for children. Then we have Hyson tea, Hyson Chaulon in small chests, young Hyson, green, Souchong and Bohea, loaf, Hast India and Muscovado sugars, mustard, essence of mustard, pills of mustard, capers, lemon-juice, soap, Windsor do., indigo, mace, nutmegs, cinnamon, cassia, cloves, pimento, pepper, best box raisins, prunes, coffee, Spanish and American ‘‘segars,” Cayenne pepper in bottles, pearl barley, castor-oil, British oil, pickled oysters. Furthermore, china-ware is to be had in small boxes and in sets; also, Suwarrow boots, bootees, and an assortment of men’s, women’s and children’s shoes, japanned quart mugs, do. tumblers, tipped flutes, violin bows, brass wire, sickles, iron candlesticks, shoemakers’ hammers, knives, pincers, pegging awls and tacks, awl-blades, shoe-brushes, copper tea-kettles, snaffle-bits, leather shot belts, horn powder flasks, ivory, horn and crooked combs, mathematical instruments, knives and forks, suspenders, fish-hooks, sleeve-links, sportsmen’s knives, lockets, earrings, gold, topaz do., gold watchchains, gold seals, gold brooches, cut gold rings, plain do., pearl do., silver thimbles, do. teaspoons, shell, sleeve buttons, silver watches, beads. In stationery there was to be had pasteboard, foolscap paper, second do., letter paper, black and red ink powder and wafers. There was also the following supply of Literature: Telemachus, Volney’s Views, Public Characters, Dr. Whitman’s Egypt, Evelina, Cecilia, Lady’s Library, Ready Reckoner, Looking Glass, Franklin’s Fair Sex, Camilla, Don Raphael, Night Thoughts, Winter Evenings, Voltaire’s Life, Joseph Andrews, Walker’s Geography, Bonaparte and the French People, Voltaire’s Tales, Fisher’s Companion, Modern Literature, Hecentric Biography, Naval do., Martial do., Fun, Criminal Records, Entick’s ' Dictionary, Gordon’s America, Thompson’s Family Physician, Sheridan’s Dictionary, Johnson’s do., Wilson’s Egypt, Denon’s Travels, Travels of Cyrus, Stephani de Bourbon, Alexis, Pocket Library, Every Man’s Physician, Citizen of the World, Taplin’s Farriery, Farmer’s Boy, Romance of the Forest, Grandison, Campbell’s Narrative, Paul and Virginia, Adelaide de Sincere, Emelini, Monk, Abbess, Evening Amusement, Children of the Abbey, Tom Jones, Vicar of Wakefield, Sterne’s Journey, Abelard and Eloisa, Ormond, Caroline, Mercutio, Julia and Baron, Minstrel, H. Villars, De Valcourt, J. Smith, Charlotte Temple, Theodore Chypon, What has Been, Elegant Extracts in Prose and Verse, J. and J. Jessamy, Chinese Tales, New Gazzetteer, Smolet’s Works, Cabinet of Knowledge, Devil on Sticks, Arabian Tales, Gold- smith’s Essays, Bragg’s Cookery, Tooke’s Pantheon, Boyle’s Voyage, Roderick Random, Jonathan Wild, Louisa, Solomon’s Guide to Health, Spelling-books, Bibles and Primers.—Our extracts have extended to a great length: but the animated picture of Upper Canadian life at a primitive era, which such an enumeration of items, in some sort affords, must be our apology. Rendered rich in money and lands by his extemporized mercantile operations, Mr. St. George returned to his native France soon after the restoration of Louis XVIII., and passed the rest of his days partly in Paris and partly on estates in the neighborhood of Montpelier. During his stay in Canada he formed a close friendship with the Baldwins of York; and: on his depar- ture, the house on King Street, which has given rise to these reminiscences of him, together with the valuable commercial interests connected with it, passed into the hands of a junior member of that family, Mr. John Spread Baldwin, who himself, on the same spot, subsequently laid the foundation of an ample fortune._(It is a phenomenon not uninteresting to the retro- spective mind, to observe, in 1869, after the lapse of half a century, the name of Quetton St. George reappearing in the field of Canadian Commerce.) Advancing now on our way eastward, we soon came in front of the abode of Dr. Burnside, a New England medical man of tall figure, upright carriage, and bluff, benevolent countenance, an early promoter of the Mechanics’ Institute-movement, and an encourager of church-music, vocal and instrumental. Dying withoutia family dependent on him, he bequeathed his property partly to Charities in the town, and partly to the University of Trinity College, where a scholarship perpetuates his memory. Just opposite was the residence of the venerable Mrs. Gamble, widow of Dr. Gamble, formerly a surgeon attached to the Queen’s Rangers. This lady died in 1859, in her 92nd year, leaving living descendants to the number of two hundred and four. To the west of this house was a well-remembered little parterre, always at the proper season gay with flowers. 342 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY : At the next corner, on the north side, a house now totally demolished, was the original home of the millionaire Cawthra family, already once alluded to. In the ‘‘ Gazette and Oracle” for Nov. 29, 1806, the name “‘ J. Cawthra” is for the first time seen, appended to an advertisement, in which he informs the inhabitants of York and the neighboring country that he had just arrived from New York with a general assortment of ‘apothecary articles ;’ and that the public can be supplied with everything in that line genuine: also patent medicines: he likewise intimates that he has brought a general assortment of Dry Goods, consisting of “‘proad cloths, duffils, flannels, swansdown, corduroys, printed calicoes, ginghams, ecambric muslins, shirting, muslins, men and women’s stockings, silk handkerchiefs, bandana shawls, pulicat and pockethandkerchiefs, calimancoes, dimity and check; also a large assortment ot men’s, women’s and children’s shoes, hardware, coffee, tea and chocolate, lump and loaf sugar, tobacco, &e., with many other articles: which he is determined to sell on very low terms at his store opposite Stoyell’s tavern. York, Noy. 27, 1806.” ' Immediately across, at the corner on the south side, was a depot, insignificant enough, no doubt, to the indifferent passer-by, but invested with much importance in the eyes of many of the early infantiles of York. Its windows exhibited, in addition to a scattermg of white clay pipes, and papers of pins suspended open against the panes for the public inspection, a display of circular discs of gingerbread, some with plain, some with scolloped edge; also hearts, fishes, little prancing ponies, parrots and dogs of the same tawny-hued material ; also endwise in tumblers and other glass vessels, numerous lengths or stems of prepared saccharine matter, brittle in substance, white-looking, but streaked and slightly penetrated with some rich crimson pigment; likewise on plates and oval dishes, a collection of quadrangular viscous lumps, buff- coloured and clammy, each showing at its ends the bold gashing cut of a stout knife which must have been used in dividing a rope, as it were, of the tenacious substance into inch-sections or parts. In the wrapping paper about all articles purchased here, there was always a sowpcon of the homely odors of boiled sugar and peppermint. The tariff of the various comestibles just enumerated was well known; it was precisely for each severally, one half-penny. The mistress of this establishment bore the Scottish name of Lumsden—a name familiar to us lads in another way also, being constantly seen by us on the title-pages of school-books, many of which, at the time referred to, were imported from Glasgow, from the publishing-house of Lumsden and Son. ° A little way down the street which crosses here, was Major Heward’s house, long Clerk of the Peace for the Home District, of whom we have had occasion to speak before. Several of his sons, while pursuing their legal and other studies, became also ‘‘mighty hunters ;” distin- guished, we mean, as enthusiastic sportsmen. Many were the exploits reported of them, in this line. We give here an extract from Mr. MeGrath’s lively work, published in 1833, entitled “Authentic letters from Upper Canada, with an Account of Canadian Field Sports.” ‘‘ Ireland,” he says, “is, in many places, remarkable for excellent eock-shooting, which I have myself experienced in the most favorable situations: not, however, to be compared with this country, where the numbers are truly wonderful. Were I to mention,” Mr. McGrath continues, ‘‘ what I have seen in this respect, or heard from others, it might bring my graver statements into disrepute.—As a specimen of the sport,” he says, ‘‘I will merely give a fact or two of, not unusual, success; bearing, however, no proportion to the quantity of game. I have known Mr. Charles Heward, of York,” he proceeds to state, ‘‘to have shot in one day thirty brace at Chippewa, close to the Falls of Niagara—and I myself,” Mr. MeGrath continues, ‘‘ who am far from being a first-rate shot, have frequently brought home from twelve to fourteen brace, my brothers performing their part with equal suecess.”—But the younger Messrs. Heward hada field for the exercise of their sportsman skill nearer home than Chippewa. The Island, just across the Bay, where the black-heart plover were said always to arrive on a particular day, the 23rd of May, every year, and the marshes about Ashbridge’s bay, and York harbour itself, all abounded with wild fowl. ; TORONTO OF OLD. 343 XVII.—KING STREET, FROM CAROLINE STREET TO BERKELEY STREET. Returning again to King Street: Atjthe corner of Caroline Street, diagonally across from the Cawthra homestead, was the abode, when ashore, of Capt. Oates, commander of the Duke of Richmond sloop, the fashionable packet plying between Niagara and York. He was nearly connected with the family of President Russell, but curiously obtained no share in the broad acres which were, in the early day, so plentifully distributea to all comers. By being unluckily out of the way, too, at a critical moment subsequently, he missed a bequest at the hands of the sole inheritor of the possessions of his relative. Capt. Oates was a man of dignified bearing, of more than the ordinary height. He had seen service on the ocean as master and owner of a merchantman. His portrait, which is still preserved in Toronto, somewhat resembles that of George IV.—A spot passed, a few moments since, on King Street, is associated with a story ja which the Richmond sloop comes up. It happened that the nuptials of a neighbouring mer- chant had lately taken place. Some youths, employed in an adjoining warehouse or law-office, took it into their heads that a jew de joie should be fired on the occasion. To carry out the idea they proceed, under cover of the night, to the Richmond sloop, where she lay frozen in by the Frederic Street wharf, and remove from her deck, without asking leave, a small piece of ord- nance with which she was provided. They convey it with some difficulty, carriage and all, up into King Street, and place it in front of the bridegroom’s house ; run it back, as we have un- derstood, even into the recess underneath the double steps of the porch: when duly ensconced there, as within the port of a man-of-war, they contrive to fire it off, decamping, however, im- mediately after the exploit, and leaving behind them the source of the deafening explosion. On the morrow the cannon is missed from the sloop, (she was being prepared for the spring navi- gation): on instituting an inquiry, Capt. Oates is mysteriously informed the lost article is, by some means, up somewhere on the premises of Mr. , haming the gentleman who had been honoured with the salute, and that if he desired to recover his property he must despatch some men thither to fetch it.—We shall have occasion to refer again to the Richmond, when we come to speak of the early Marine of York Harbour. Passing on our way eastward we came immediately, on the north side, to one of the principal hotels of York, a long, white, two-storey wooden building. It was called the Mansion House— an appropriate name for an inn, when we understand ‘‘ Mansion” in its proper, but somewhat forgotten sense, as indicating a temporary abode, a place which a man occupies and then relin- quishes to a successor. The landlord here for a considerable time was Mr. DeForest. We then arrived at the north-west angle of King and Princes streets, where a second public well (we have already commemorated the first,) was sunk, and provided with a pump in 1824— for all which the sum of £36 17s. 6d. was paid to John James on the 19th of August in that year. In the advertisements and contracts connected with this now obliterated public con- yenience, Princes Street is correctly printed and written as it here meets tho eye, and not “Princess Street,” as the recent corruptionis. Let not the record of our early water-works be disdained. Those of the metropolis of the Empire were once on a humble scale. Thus Master John Stow, in his Survey of London, Anno 1598, recordeth that ‘‘at the meeting of the corners of the Old Jurie, Milke Street, Lad Lane and Aldermanburie, there was of old time a fair well with two buckets ; of late years,” he somewhat pathetically adds, ‘‘ converted to a pump.” Just across eastward from the pump was one of the first buildings put up on King Street : it was erected by Mr. Smith, who was the first to take up a building lot, after the laying out ot tke town-plot. On the opposite side, a few steps further on, was Jordan’s—the far-famed “York Hotel”—the hotel par excellence of the ; lace, than which no better could be found at the time in all Upper Canada. The whole edifice has now utterly disappeared. Its foundations giving way, it fora while seemed to be sinking into the earth, and then it partially threatened to topple over into the street. It was of antique style when compared with the Mansion House. It was only a storey-and-a-half high. Along its roof was a row of dormer windows. Specimens of this style of hotel may still be seen in the country-towns.of Lower Canada. When looking in later times at the doorways and windows of the older buildings intended for public and domestic purposes, as also the dimensions of rooms and the proximity of the ceilings to the floors, we might be led for a moment to imagine that the generation of settlers passed away must have been of smaller bulk and stature than their descendants. But points especially 344 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY. studied in the construction of early Canadian houses, in both Provinces, were warmth and comfort in the long winters. Sanitary principles were not much thought of, and happily did not require to be much thought of, when most persons passed more of their time in the pure outer air than they do now. Jordan’s York Hotel answered every purpose very well. Mem- bers of Parliament and other visitors considered themselves in luxurious quarters when housed there. Probably in no instance have the public dinners or fashionable assemblies of a later era gone off with more eclat, or given more satisfaction to the persons concerned in them, than did those which from time to time, in every season, took place in what would now be considered the very diminutive ball-room and dining-hall of Jordan’s. As the sidewalks of King Street were apt to partake, in bad weather, of the impassableness of the streets generally at such a time, an early effort was made to have some of them paved. Some yards of foot-path, accordingly, about Jordan’s, and here and there elsewhere, were coy- ered with flat flagstones from the lake-beach, of very irregular shapes and of no great size: the effect produced was that of a very coarse, and soon a very uneven mosaic. At Quebec, in the neighbourhood of the Court House, there is retained some pavement of the kind now described ; and in the early lithograph of Court House Square, at York, a long stretch of sidewalk is given in the foreground, seamed-over curiously, like the surface of an old Cyclopean or Pelasgic wall. On April the 26th, 1823, it was ordered by the magistrates at Quarter Sessions that ‘‘ £100 from the Town and Police Fund, together with one-fourth of the Statute Labour within the Town, be appropriated to flagging the sidewalks of King Street, commencing from the corner of Church Street and proceeding east to the limits of the Town, and that both sides of the streets do pro- ceed at the same time.” One hundred pounds would not go very far in such an undertaking, We do not think the sidewalks of the primitive King Street were ever paved throughout their whole length with stone. After Jordan’s came Dr. Widmer’s surgery, associated with many a pain and ache in the minds of the early people of York, and scene of the performance upon their persons of many a delicate, and daring, and successful remedial experiment. Nearly opposite was the property of Dr. Stoyell, an immigrant, non-practicing medical man from the United States, with Repub- lican proclivities as it used to be thought, who, previous to his purchasing here, conducted an inn at Mrs. Lumsden’s corner. (The house on the other side of Ontario Street, westward, was Hayes’ Boarding House, noticeable simply as being in session-time, like Jordan’s, the temporary abode of many Members of Parliament). After Dr. Widmer’s, towards the termination of King Street, on the south side, was Mr. Small’s, originally one of the usual low-looking domiciles of the country, with central portion and two gabled wings, somewhat after the fashion of many old country manor-houses in England. The material of Mr. Small’s dwelling was hewn timber. It was one of the earliest domestic erections in York. When re-coustructed at a subsequent period, Mr. Charles Small preserved, in the enlarged and elevated building, now known as Berkeley House, the shape and even a portion of the inner substance of the original structure. We have before usa curious plan (undated but old) of the piece of ground originally occupied and enclosed by Mr. Small, as a yard and garden round his primitive homestead ; occupied and enclosed, as it would seem, before any building lots were set off by authority on the Government reserve or common here. The plan referred to is entitled ‘‘A sketch shewing the land occupied by John Small, Esq., upon the Reserve appropriated for the Government House at York by His Excellency, Lt. Gov. Simcoe.” An irregular oblong, coloured red, is bounded on the north side by King Street, and is lettered within—‘‘ Mr. Small’s Improvements.” Round the irregular piece thus shewn, lines are drawn enclosing additional space, and bringing the whole into the shape of a parallelogram: the parts outside the irregularly-shaped red portion, are coloured yellow: and on the yellow, the memorandum appears—‘“‘ This added would make an Acre.” The block thus brought into shapely form is about one-half of the piece of ground that at present appertains to Berkeley House.—The plan before us also incidentally shows where the Town was supposed to terminate :—an inscription—‘‘ Front line of the Town’—runs along the following route: up what is now the lane through Dr. Widmer’s property ; and then, at a right angle eastward along what is now the north boundary of King Street opposite the block which it was necessary to get into shape round Mr. Small’s first ‘‘Improvement.” King Street proper, in this plan, terminates at ‘“‘Ontario Street ;” from the eastern limit of Ontario Street, the continuation of TORONTO OF OLD. 345 the highway is marked ‘‘ Road to Quebec,”-—with an arrow shewing the direction in which the traveller must keep his horse’s head, if he would reach that ancient city. The arrow, at the end of the inscription just given, points slightly upwards, indicating the fact that the said “‘Road to Quebec” trends slightly to the north after leaving Mr. Small’s clearing. XVIII.—_FROM BERKELEY STREET TO POWER AND TRINITY STREETS. We now propose to pass rapidly down ‘‘the road to Quebec” as far as the Bridge. First we cross, in the hollow, Goodwin’s creek, the stream that enters the Bay by the cnt-stone Gaol. On the knoll to the right was Pilkington’ 8 cottage, a, little group of low white buildings in a grove of pines and acacias, Parliament Street, which enters near here from the north, is a memorial of the olden time, when, as we have seen, the Parliament Buildings of Upper’ Canada were situated in this neighbourhood. In an early section of these Recollections we observed that what is now called Berkeley Street was originally Parliament Street, a name which, like that borne by a well-known thoroughfare in Westminster, for a similar reason, indicated the fact that it led down to the Houses of Parliament. The road that at present bears the name of Parliamenl Street shews the direction of the track through the primitive woods opened by Governor Simcoe to.his summer house on the Don, called Castle-Frank, of which fully, in. its place, hereafter. Looking up Parliament Street we are reminded that a few yards from where Duke Street enters, liyed at an early period Mr. Richard Coates, an estimable and ingenious man, whose name is associated in our memory with the early dawn of the fine arts in York. Mr. Coates, in a self-taught way, executed, not unsuccessfully, portraits in oil of some of our ancient worthies. Among things of a general or historical character, he painted also for David Wilson, the founder of the ‘‘ Children of Peace,” the symbolical decorations of the interior of the Temple at Sharon. He cultivated music likewise, vocal and instrumental; he built an organ of some pretensions,in his own house, on which he performed ; he built another for David Wilson at Sharon. Mr. Coates constructed, besides, in the yard of his house, an elegantly-fin- ished little pleasure yacht of about nine tons burden. This passing reference to infant Artin York recalls again the name of Mr. John Craig, who has before been mentioned in our account of the interior of one of. the many successive St. Jameses. Although Mr. Craig did not himself profess to go beyond his sphere as a decorative and heraldic painter, the spirit that animated him really tended to foster in the community a taste for art ina wider sense. Mr. Charles Daly, also, as a skillful teacher of drawing in water-colours and introducer of superior specimens, did much to encourage art at an early date, In 1834 we find Mr. Daly promoting an exhibition of Paintings by the “York Artists and Amateur Association,” and acting as ‘‘ Honorary Seceetary,” when the Exhibition for the year took place. Mr. James Hamilton, a teller in the bank, produced, too, some noticeable landscapes in oil. As an auxiliary in the cause, and a sgftteienat to the wants of artists at an early period, we name, likewise, Mr. Alexander Hamilton; who, in addition to supplying materials in the form of pigments and prepared colours, contributed to the tasteful setting off of the productions of pencil and brush, by furnishing them with frames artistically carved and gilt.—Out of the small beginnings and rudiments of Art at York, one artist of a genuine stamp was, in the lapse of a few years, developed—Mr. Paul. Kane; who, after studying in the schools of Europe, returned to Canada and made the illustration of Indian character and life his specialty. By talent exhibited in this class of pictorial delineation, he acquired a distin- guished reputation throughout the North American continent; and by his volume of beautifully illustrated travels, published in London, and entitled ‘‘ Wanderings of an. Artist among the Indians of North America,” he obtained for himself a recognized place in the literature of British Art. In the hollow, a short distance to the west of Mr. Coates’s, was one of the first buildings of any size ever erected here wholly of stone. It was put up by Mr. Hutchinson, It was a large square family house of three storeys. It still exists, but its material is hidden under a coating of stucco. Another building, wholly of stone, was Mr. Hunter’s house, on the west side of Church Street. A portion of Hugill’s Brewery likewise exhibited the same ead English-looking kind of structure. We now resume our route. 7 346 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY: XIX.—FROM POWER AND TRINITY STREETS TO DON STREET. We immediately approach another road entering from the north, which again draws us aside. This opening led up to the only Roman Catholic church in York, an edifice of red brick, substantially built. Mr. Ewart was the architect. The material of the north and south walls was worked into a kind of tasselated pattern, which was considered something very extraordi- nary. The spire was originally surmounted by a large and spirited effigy of the bird that admon- jshed St. Peter, and not bya cross. It was not a flat, moveable weathercock, but a fixed, solid figure, covered with tin. In this building officiated for some time an ecclesiastic named O’Grady. Mingling with a crowd, in the over curious spirit of boyhood, we here, at funerals and on other occasions, first witnessed the ceremonial forms observed by Roman Catholics in their worship; and once we remember being startled at receiving, by design or accident, from an overcharged aspergillum in the hands of a zealous ministrant of some grade passing down the aisle, a copious splash of holy water in the eye. Functionaries of this denomination are generally remarkable for their quiet discharge of duty and for their apparent submissiveness to authority. They sometimes pass and repass for years before the indifferent,gaze of multitudes holding another creed, without exciting any curiosity even as to their personal names. But Mr. O’Grady was an exception to the general run of his order. He acquired a distinctive reputation among outsiders. He was understood to be an unruly presbyter; and through his instrumentality, letters of his bishop, evidently never intended to meet the public eye, got into general circulation. He was required to give an account of himself, subsequently, at the feet of the ‘‘Supreme Pontiff.” Power Street, the name now applied to the road which led up to the Roman Catholic church, preserves the name‘of the Bishop of this communion, who sacrificed his life in attending to the sick emigrants in 1847. The road to the south, a few steps further on, led to the wind-mill built by Mr. Worts, senior, in 1831. In the pos- session of Messrs. Gooderham & Worts are three interesting pictures, in oil, which from time to time have been exhibited. They are intended to illustrate the gradual progress in extent and importance of the mills and manufactures at the site of the wind-mill. The first shows the original structure—a circular tower of red brick, with the usual sweeps attached to a hemispherical revolving top; in the distance town and harbour are seen. The second shows the wind-mill dismantied, but surrounded by extensive buildings of brick and wood, sheltering now elaborate machinery driven by steam-power. The third represents a third stage in the . march of enterprise and prosperity. In this picture gigantic structures of massive, dark-col- oured stone tower up before the eye, vying in colossal proportions and ponderous strength with the works of the castle-builders of the feudal times.—We are told by an inhabitant well known, that when out duck-shooting, now nearly forty years since, he was surprised by falling in with Mr. Worts, senior, rambling apparently without purpose in the bush at the Little Don: all the surrounding locality was then in a state of nature, and frequented only by the sportsman and trapper. On entering into conversation with Mr. Worts, our friend found that he was there prospecting for an object; that, in fact, somewhere near the spot where they were standing, he thought of putting up a wind-mill! The project at the time seemed suf ficiently quixotic. But posterity beholds the large practical outcome of the idea then brooding in Mr. Worts’s brain. In their day of small things the pioneers of new settlements may take courage from this instance of progress in one generation, from the rough to the most advanced condition. For a century to come, there will be bits of this continent as unpromising, at the first glance, as the mouth of the Little Don, forty years ago, yet as capable of being reclaimed by the energy and ingenuity of man, and being put to divinely-intended and legitimate uses.— Returning now from the wind-mill, once more to the ‘‘road to Quebec,” in common language, the Kingston road, we passed, at the corner, the abode of one of the many early settlers in these parts that bore German names—the tenement of Peter Ernst, or Ernest as the appellation afterwards became. Just opposite on the left was where Angell lived, the architect of the abortive bridges over the mouths of the Don. We obtain from the York Observer of December - 11, 1820, some earlier information in regard to Mr. Angell. It is in the form of a “‘ Card” thus headed: “‘ York Land Price Current Office, King Street.” It then proceeds—“‘ In consequence of the increase of the Population of the Town of York, and many applications for family accommodation upon the arrival of strangers desirous of becoming settlers, the Subscriber intends to add to the practice of his Office the business of a House Surveyor and Architect, to TORONTO OF OLD. 347 lay out Building Estate, draw Ground plans, Sections and Elevations to order, and upon the most approved European and English customs. Also to make estimates and provide contracts with proper securities to prevent impostures, for the performance of the same. KH. ANGELL. N. B.—Land proprietors having estate to dispose of, and persons requiring any branch of the above profession to be done, will meet with the most respectful attention on applicatton by letter, or at this office. York, Oct. 2.” [1820]. The expression, “‘ York Price Current Office,” above used, is explained by the fact that Mr. Angell commenced at this early date the publica- tion of a monthly “‘Land Price Current List of Estates on Sale in Upper Canada, to be circu- lated in England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales.” Near Mr. Angell, on the same side, lived also Mr. Cummins, the manager of the Upper Canada Gazette-printing office ; and, at a later period, Mr. Watson, another well-known master-printer of York, who lost his life during the great fire of 1849, in endeavoring to save a favorite press from destruction, in the third storey of a building at the corner of King and Nelson streets, a position occupied subsequently by the Caxton-press of Mr. Hill.—On some of the fences along here, we remember seeing, in 1827-8, an inscription written up in chalk or white paint, memorable to ourselves personally, as being the occasion of our first taking serious notice of one of the political questions that were locally stirring the people of Upper Canada. The words inscribed were—No Attens! Like the LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY, which we ourselves also subsequently saw painted on the walls of Paris; these words were intended at once to express and to rouse public feeling; only in the aosent instance, as we suppose now, the inscription emanated from the oligarchigak rather than the popular side. The spirit of it probably was ‘‘ Down with Aliens,’”—and, not “« Away with the odious distinction of Aliens!” A dispute had arisen between the Upper and: the Lower House as to the legal terms in which full civil rights should be conferyed on a considerable ortion of the inhabitants of the country. After the acknowledgment of Inde- pendence in 1783, emigrants from the United States to the British Provinces came in no longer as British subjects, but as foreigners. Many such emigrants had acquired property and exercised the franchise without taking upon themselves, formally, the obligations of British subjects. After the war of 1812, the law in regard to this matter began to be distinctly remem- bered. The desire then was to check an undue immigration from the southern side of the great lakes ; but the effect of the revival of the law was to throw doubt on the land titles of many Bia pitants of long standing ; doubt on their claim to vote and to fill any civil office, The consent of the Crown was freely given to legislate on the subject: and in 1825-6 the Parliament resolved to settle the question. Buta dispute arose between the Lower and Upper House. The Legislative Council sent down a Bill which was so amended in terms by the House of Assembly that the former body declared it then to be “‘at variance with the laws and estab- lished policy of Great Britain, as well as of the United States ; and therefore, if passed into a law by this Legislature, would afford no relief to many of those persons who were born in the United States, and who have come into and settled in this Province.” The Upper House party set down as disloyal all that expressed themselves satisfied with the Lower House amendments. Tt was from the Upper House party, we think, that the ery of ‘‘No Aliens!” had proceeded. The Aliens measure had been precipitated by the cases of Barnabas Bidwell and of his son Marshall, of whom the former, after being elected, and taking his seat as member for Lennox and Addington, had been expelled the House, on the ground of his being an alien; and the latter had met with difficulties at the outset of his political career, from the same objection against him. In the case of the former, however, his alien character was not the only thing to his disadvantage.—It was in connection with the expulsion of Barnabas Bidwell that Dr. Strachan gave to a member of the Lower House, when hesitating as to the legality of sucha step, the remarkable piece of advice, ‘‘ Turn him out, turn him out! Never mind the law !’— a dictwm that passed into an adage locally, quoted usually in the Aberdeen dialect. Irritating political questions have now, for the most part, been disposed of in Canada. We have entered into the rest, in this respect, secured for us by our predecessors. The very fences which, some forty years ago, were muttering “‘No Aliens!’ we saw, during the time of the last general election, exhibiting in conspicuous painted characters, the following exhortation: ‘‘To the Electors of the Dominion—Put in Powell’s Pump’”—a humourous advertisement, of course, of- a particular contrivance for raising water from depths. We think it a sign of general peace and content, when the populace are expected to enjoy a little jest of this sort.—A small compact. ° 848 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY: house, with a pleasant little garden in front, on the left, a little way on, was “occupied for &. while by Mr. Joshua Beard, at the time Deputy Sheriff, but afterwards well known as owner of extensive ironworks in the town. We then came opposite to the abode, on the same side, of Charles Fothergill, some time King’s Printer for Upper Canada. He was a man of wide views and great intelligence, fond of science, and an experienced naturalist. Several folio volumes of closely written manuscript, on the birds and animals generally of this continent, by him, must exist somewhere at this moment. They were transmitted to friends in England, as we have understood. We remember seeing in a work by Bewick a horned owl of this country, beautifully figured, which, as stated in the context, had been drawn from a stuffed specimen supplied by Mr. Fothergill. He himSelf was a skillful delineator of the living creatures that so much interested him. In 1832, Mr. Fothergill sat in Parliament as member for Northum- berland, and for expressing some independent opinions in that capacity, he was deprived of the office of King’s Printer. He originated the law which established Agricultur: al Societies in Upper Canada. In 1836, he appears to have been visited in Pickering by Dr. ‘Thomas Rolph, ‘when making notes for his “Statistical Account of Upper Canada.” “The Township of Pick- ering,” Dr. Rolph says, “‘is well settled and contains some fine land, and well watered. Mr. Fothergill,” he continues, ‘has an extensive and most valuable museum of natural curiosities at his residencé in this township, which he has collected with great industry and the most refined taste. Heis a person of superior acquirements, and ardently devoted to the pursuit of natural philosophy.” P. 189. It ‘was Mr. Fothergill’s misfortune to have lived too early 1 in Upper Canada. Many plans of his in the interests of literature and science came to nothing for the want ofa sufficient body of seconders. In conjunction with Dr. Dunlop and Dr. Rees, ‘it was the intention of Mr. Fothergill to establish at York a Museum of Natural and Civil History, with a Botanical and Zoological Garden attached ; and a grant of land on the Govern- ment Reserve between the Garrison and Farr’s Brewery was actually secured as a site for the buildings and grounds’ of the proposed institution. A prospectus now before us sets forth in detail a very comprehensive scheme for this Museum, or Lyceum, which embraced also a picture gallery, ‘for subjects connected with Science and Portraits of individuals,” and did not omit **Indian antiquities, arms, dresses, utensils, and whatever might illustrate and make permanent ali thut we can know of the ‘Aborigines of this ereat Continent, a people who are rapidly passing , away and becoming as though they had never been.” For several years Mr. Fothergill pub- “lished “The York Almanac and Royal Calendar,” which gradually became a volume of between ‘four and five hundred duodecimo pages, filled with practical and official information on the subject of Canada and the other British American Colonies. This work is still often resorted “to. 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Ve “conpucreD ai ; THE EDITING COWMITTEE OF THE CANADIAN insTiTU TE —+- ee eee APR) 1870. ee =< MTGRMIERER Gee oe “PORONTO: } PRINTED FOR THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE, BY COPP, CLARK & CO., KING STREET BAST. ie aN % SVS EAI Np OS STIS oct SRR RS paige a SE SURES a = - CANADIAN INSTITUTE. EDITING COMMITTEE. GENERAL EDITOR - - - REV. HENRY SCADDING, D.D. E. J. CHAPMAN, LL.D., Ph. D. G..T. KINGSTON, M.A. Prof. of Geology and Mineralogy, Univ. Coll. Toronto. Director of the Magnetic Observatory, Toronto. HENRY CROFT, D.C.L. Prof. of Chemistry & Experimenta Philosophy. v. Coll., Toronto | | @. B. CHERRIMAN, M.A. DANIEL WILSON, LL.D. | Prof. of Nat. Philosophy, Univ. Coll., Toronto Professor of History and English Literature, | ee Univ. Coll, Rorcnoe ee REY. WM. HINCKS, F.L.S8. Professor of Natwral History, Univ. Coll. Toronto. The Canapian Journat is printed exclusively for gratuitous distribution among the Members of the Canadian Institute, and such Institutions and _ Societies as the Council may determine ; but Members may purchase extra copies at 50c. per number, and Provincial Literary and Scientific Sccieties may obtain the Journal at the same rate, by an annual payment in advance *,* Communications for the Journal to be addressed to the General Editor, Rev. Dr. Scapprne, 10 Trinity Square, Toronto. Communications _ on general business of the Institute to be addressed to W. Mortimer Ciarx, Esq., Corresponding Secretary, or to Mr. Jamus Jonnsoy, Assistant Secre- tary, Canadian Institute, Toronto. ee — (S" Mr. Epwarp Attey, 12 Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, London, W., has been appointed the English Agent for the Institute. All European commu- nications are requested to be forwarded through him. THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No LXXI.—APRIL, 1870. THE: PRESIDENT’S. ADDRESS: BY THE REY. WILLIAM HINCKS, F.L.8., F.B.S., EDIN. PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO, Read before the Canadian Institute, Jan. 14, 1870. The President requests permission to insert in the Journal only an abstract of his address, considering a large portion of it as being, though in his opinion suitable at the time, of local and temporary interest ; whilst, as he is occupying in another way a portion of the present number of the Journal, he would gladly abridge where it seems to him that the full text would be now superfluous. 5 After acknowledging the honor again conferred upon him, and offer- ing remarks, arising out of the occurrences of the past year, on the condition and prospects of the Institute, expressing regret at the want of union of all the Literary and Scientific Societies of Ontario in one compact body, but in other respects taking an encouraging view of our affairs, he proceeded to speak of the general progress of Science, commenting particularly on matters relating to his own studies. He adverted to the efforts made in Great Britain to obtain from the Government some more efficient aid for the promotion of knowledge ; to the interesting and valuable results of recent deep-sea dredgings; to the observations of Darwin and others on the fertilization of plants, ia reference to cross-fertilization and the extent of the agency of insects ; 1 856 vi THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. to Col. Munro’s monograph on the Bambusidae, and Mr. Baker’s Synopsis Filicum from the papers of Sir W. J. Hooker. Here he took occasion to remark on the extent to which the combi- nation of species hitherto accounted distinct is carried by these writers, and he conceived that if sub-division has ofter been carried too far, there is at present a little danger of error in the opposite direction. A paragraph relating to the Darwinian hypothesis, it is Ce proper to give at length. In the whole field of Natural History, the satnoneees respecting Darwinianism is still occupying much attention. The new view is defended by several able men of known scientific eminence, whilst those who resist it lie under the disadvantage of being supposed to be influenced more by prejudice than reason. Yet in the sober English mind it cannot be said that the Darwinians gain a rapid or easy victory, and it is quite possible now that even if they cause some change in public opinion, they may by no means secure the prevalence of their own views. There are many minds to which any new doctrine, boldly maintained and pertinaciously urged, seems irresistible. Novelty alone is a strong recommendation, and there is an exceeding pleasure in being carried on by an advancing wave, and seeming to be among the fore- most in progressive improvement. It is all very well if the advance is real, but this experience only can test, and history shows us abundant examples of doctrines which have triumphed for a short period, only to pass speedily to the vault of oblivion. Novelty in opinion is neither a recommendation nor an objection. There is far too much yet to be done in the vast fields of knowledge, for it to be admitted as a sign of error. There are too many examples continually occurring of ingenious speculation, unsupported by sufficient evidence, for it to rank as a pre- sumption of truth. A restless grasping after novelty is a serious fault ; setting it up as a bar against the examination of evidence is certainly ‘not a less injurious one. If we may implicitly believe a statement in the new periodical devoted to natural science, Nature, whilst the English are still discussing the possibility of Darwinianism being true, the Germans have so thoroughly adopted it that it has become the foundation for new systems—the starting point for fresh inquiries, This may appear to most of us tobe going somewhat too fast; but then Nature may be presumed to be the special organ of the extreme Dar- winians, and might be thought to see facts through a somewhat colored ees ; and supposing that there is no exaggeration in the statement, THE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. . 357 it might have been anticipated, from the general state of opinion in England, that the new hypothesis would there have to work its way through many difficulties which would never occur to those who are imbued with the German transcendental philosophy; and it depends on the light in which we regard that philosophy, whether we are to consider the Germans as enjoying an advantage, or as peculiarly exposed to error. I am obliged to confess that if my reason compelled me to adopt the Darwinian hypothesis, its opposition, as I understand it, to cherished and valued sentiments respecting creative wisdom and good- ness, and a perfect divine plan in nature, would cause me great pain. I do not accept this as any reason for not fairly examining the evidence, since, on the whole and ultimately, ¢ruth or knowledge of what really is, can alone benefit ourselves and our race ;—false opinions can never be beneficial or desirable; and nothing can more dignify a frail mortal than the earnest, disinterested, unprejudiced pursuit of truth, on as many subjects as possible, even to the latest period of life. Science has its own sphere, and its own means of inquiry; and if we can learn anything with a reasonable degree of assuraace, there can be no doubt that we, or those who follow us here, wiil enjoy the benefit. But such a feeling as I have acknowledged on the subject may justifiably quicken our perception of objections or difficulties, render us specially cautious in weighing arguments, and guard us against unsound though brilliant speculative plausibilities. Grant it to be proved that species are modi- fied by time and circumstances, and even that incidental variations of offspring may be permanently preserved, it would be very rash, observ- ing the essential differences of type in the grand divisions of organized beings, and the mutual relations of secondary groups as analogous modifications of each more general type, to affirm either that all beings have arisen by gradual change from a primitive element, or that the changes which do or may take place are merely those which happen to be preserved out of an indefinite number which may arise. Nothing is to me more evident than that both seemingly permanent specific and higher differences, and varieties which have no pretensions to perma- nence, depend on the comparative development of different elements of a common plan, from which it seems to follow both that the non- existence from the commencement of living nature of all the distinct plans of structure, is in the highest degree improbable, and that fhe tendency of development, sometimes in one direction, sometimes in another, among the same primitive elements, must produce an harmo- 358 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. nious system, whilst the preservation of the forms best adapted to a situation amongst a great number of variations arising without order must produce a confused mass of objects having no regular relations, and incapable of being reduced to a common system. Which of these actually prevails in nature, I cannot for a moment hesitate in deciding, and consequently I must maintain that if there is variation it must be within definite limits, and according to a fixed plan, so as to maintain a uniform order and harmony in the whole system. One more observa- tion I may venture upon, that the latest observations of facts lessen considerably the supposed necessity for enormous periods of time to allow of known geological changes, diminishing, therefore, the countless ages which are required by the Darwinians for the production of the existing system of nature. Declining any attempt, on such an occasion, to discuss senerally the arguments on the subject, he referred to ne Lionel Beale’s work on Protoplasm, and in conclusion noticed the work of his son, the Rev. Thomas Hincks, B.A., on British Hydroid Zoophytes, of which he laid a copy on the table for the inspection of the members present. AN ATTEMPTED IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS, AND IN THE NOMENCLATURE OF THEIR SUB-DIVISIONS. BY THE REY. WILLIAM HINCKS, F.L.S., F.E.S., Eprm., &c. PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO, PRESIDENT OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Pretiminary Norr.—In offering to those interested in Botany, and especially in the beautiful tribe of Ferns, through the Canadian Institute, some views and plans which he hopes may not be entirely worthless, the author has thought it desirable, as immediately addressing a Society of very varied scientific pursuits, who could not be supposed to be generally familiar with the subject brought before them, to give a very concise sketch of the progress of the knowledge of - Ferns, and of some peculiarities in their structure, which would not have been deemed necessary had the paper come before a society of botanists, but may, he hopes, be excused as not being inappropriate in the actual circumstances.: Ferns, as a distinct group, are well known even to those who pay least attention to the differences among plants, and are much admired both by observers of nature and by cultivators. Cues cee - IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. ° 359 Though entirely without flowers, the gracefulness of their varied forms, their feathered clumps of fronds, the curved growth of their’ young leaves, and the rich verdure often displayed by their mature foliage, early interest us all; and if they have become a peculiarly favorite and fashionable subject of culture for the glass-case in the drawing-room and for the hot-house, green-house and rock-work, this is no more than a homage naturally paid to eminent beauty, elegance and singularity, in a kingdom of nature which abounds in whatever ean charm the senses or gratify curiosity. We must by no means be content to take our ideas of ferns from the few species, beautiful and attractive as they are, which offer themselves to our notice in a climate which is far from being favorable to their erowth. Of thousands that are known, whilst a few small tropical islands may yield several hundred in each, the whole of this great Northern continent has only about seventy proper ferns; and fine as some of ours are, they fail to give us any assistance in forming a conception of the sometimes majestic, sometimes airy beauty of the tree ferns, the peculiar gracefulness of the climbing ferns, and the exquisite delicacy of the maidenhairs and the filmy ferns. There is something so specially characteristic in this race of plants, that with all their varieties of form and habit of growth, they have been uniformly recognised as a natural assemblage; and it seems an easy task, even for the least experienced, to distinguish a fern even from those plants which most nearly resemble it; but strikingly as this is the case, the task of reducing the numerous Species to genera, tribes and orders, has always been found a difficult one, and is far from being yet satisfactorily accomplished. Upon the genera I shall on this occasion offer no remarks, beyond a review of the principles upon which they ought to be founded ; but in respect to the higher groups, as to their order, mutual relations, proper limits, and the most correct and convenient mode of naming them, I propose laying before you the conclusions at which I have arrived, as the result of careful and long continued study, not without the hope of contributing something to the advancement of a favorite section of botanical science, though chiefly by putting into a better and more useful form the labours of others in the same field. It was ‘early believed that the dust-like substance, as it appeared to the unassisted eye, observed scattered or in masses, on the under surface of the leaves, or, as they are technically called, fronds of ferns, was of the nature of seed; but how it was produced, or how the germs were 360 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. fertilized, remained to our own times a great mystery; and even respecting the accompaniments and special arrangements of these essential parts, the progress of correct observation was very gradual- The first attempts at forming generic groups were founded only on the general figure of the frond, which never could afford any good results, since we have closely resembling forms of which the fructification is entirely different, and there can be no question which circumstance is most important. Linnzeus introduced as a character the shape and position of the heaps or bundles of capsules (now named sporangia), to which heaps the name sori is assigned. Sir James Edward Smith added the consideration of the membranous cover (called the zndustum) raised from the surface of the frond, folded back from its edge, or expanded at the termination of a vein, and where it occurs protecting the cluster of sporangia, whilst it has remarkable variations in figure, mode of attachment, and position in regard to the sorus. The importance of this character has led to many applications of it which improved observation has justified. Robert Brown first employed the venation of the frond, though using it rather for sectional divisions than for genera, Presl, and John Smith of Kew, have worked up this subject fully, making it a foundation for genera, which have been extensively adopted by recent writers, though Sir W.J. Hooker, in his great work, the Species Filicum, abandons many of them, and receives others only as sectional divisions. He had previously, in the ‘‘ Genera of Ferns,” in publishing the admirable microscopic drawings of Francis Bauer, with many valuable additions, given the characters of many new genera of Brown, J. Smith, Mayer, Presl, &c., without otherwise indicating his opinion than by a caution in the preface against his being supposed to adopt them all; but when he applied himself to his great work on the species, he was led to admit venation only as a character of subgenera or sections. His judgment has great weight, yet it must be acknowledged that the venation affords a striking, intelligible and convenient character, affording very natural sub-divisions; and if any should think that its use for distinguishing genera is inconsistent with the botanical rule that such distinctions must be drawn from the parts of fructification, let him recollect that the whole frond is a secondary growth, devoted to the reproductive function, in which vascular tissue, which had no existence in the primary plant, is introduced, and is so intimately connected with the production of the sporangia that it may well be accounted a part of the system of fructification requiring to be IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. 361 duly noticed. It may deserve consideration whether the figure and surface of the spores may not be employed with advantage. The structure of the sporangium is certainly of high importance, but gives characters for larger divisions than genera. Much importance has been attached by some writers to the mode of growth of the fronds, whether continuous with the candex or connected with it by a sort of joint, which would divide the whole assemblage into two great sections; but it appears to me that our experience of this character, in respect to higher plants, is greatly against attaching much value to it, and I cannot think its effect good in respect to natural affinities. I would therefore wholly reject it. In the order of their value, I would rank first characters derived from the sporangia; then. those from the sori and indusium, which, with the texture of the frond and general mode of growth, will abundantly determine the alliances, orders and tribes. Minuter particulars respecting the indusium, venation and position of the sorus on the vein, with any other good observations on structure, will duly limit the genera. 3 It is probable that the best determination of the tribes of ferns is that of Presl, though he was doubtless in error in making Hymeno- phyllaceze a separate order (just as Lindley was in giving the same distinction to Daneacez), and a few modifications of his tribes may perhaps be desirable, but he seems to have failed in appreciating the higher divisions, and his nomenclature is very objectionable in form, and demands correction. I cannot but wonder that in adopting Presl’s arrangement (with a great improvement in respect to higher divisions), in his excellent introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, Mr. Berkeley did not see the necessity for altering the terminations of the names. Lindley’s principle of making the names of the larger groups, called by him alliances, and, though not generally received by botanists, very generally natural and of great assistance to students, terminate in ales, those of the families called natural orders in ace, and those of tribes and subtribes in any other convenient form of Latin derivative adjec- tives, is so manifestly useful and reasonable that it may justly excite surprise that it is not universally adopted, and to extend the law of priority to the terminations of such names is altogether preposterous. Neither Pres] nor Berkeley meant to maintain that the tribes of ferns are of value equal to natural orders in other parts of the system; and even if they cannot see the merit of Lindley’s plan, it is exceedingly injudicious to set it at defiance, and seemingly attempt to cause confu- 862 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. sion by such a violation of it. If the tribes are good, let their names terminate, we will say, in ¢nez, and let the real orders or great families, when determined, bear names in acex. In Berkeley’s book we find the proper distinction laid dowa between the group containing Liverworts and Mosses, and I am persuaded he is right in adding Charales, which had been placed much lower, and that which contains Horsetails, true ferns, and Lycopodials, fully justifying Hndlicher’s distinction, adopted by Gray, but not noticed by Berkeley, of Anophytes or Anogens from Acrogens. Here also, in treating of the true ferns, the leading groups, which I regard as true natural orders, founded on the condition of the ring-ef the sporangium, are fully recognised, whilst the tribes are, as we have seen, derived from Presl’s work. Before further explaining my views of the arrangement and mutual relations of ferns, it seems proper to give a very concise, but, I hope, intelligible account of that grand discovery, which has altogether altered our conception of the nature of ferns, exhibiting them to us as not being, properly speaking, the real plants, but a secondary growth from the fertilized germ cell, by means of which the effect of the reproductive process is marvellously multiplied, and the original plant in which that process is perfected is very early superseded by a more highly developed form, in which gemmation produces countless sporangia, with their spores prepared for growth. Tt was long a great botanical puzzle to find anything in ferns repre- senting the stamens in higher plants. It was seen that the sporangia represented capsules, and contained spores, a name technically given to bodies capable of growth into a new plant like the parent, yet not, like the seeds of higher plants, enclosing an embryo. These spores obvi- ously resembled those of mosses, which, since Hedwie’s time, are known to be the product of fertilization by organs analogous with stamens. Where, then, were the staminodia of ferns? They were searched for diligently, but in vain, and ingenuity seemed exhausted. It was seen that the growing spore expanded itself into a cellular disk, mistaken by some for a sort of cotyledon, from some point in which the plant grew. At length the microscope was applied to the minute examination of this disk, and on its under surface were found specialised cells, some of them bearing abundance of pbytozooids or active sperm cells; others agaia being archegonia, single germ cells, so placed at the base of tubular passages built of cells, as to be accessible to the phytozooids, some of which were even seen to enter the tube, so as to come in contact with € IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. 363 the germ cell. This latter, thus acted upon, commenced growth, assuming the true fern form, its fronds producing in the proper place, according to their kinds, innumerable sporangia, bearing spores by which the same succession of phenomena would be repeated. It seems to follow that the cellular disk, small and unimportant as it appears, is the perfect plant in its most active condition, and that what we know as the ferns constitute a secondary growth, specially devoted to extend- ing the reproductive power by its production of spores; one fertilized archegonium, instead of itself becoming a spore, putting forth a plant producing spores not only in vast numbers but through successive years. Here we see fully displayed the difference, already referred to, between Anogens (Charals, Hepaticals and Muscals) and Acrogens (Equisetals, Lycopadials and Filicals). In the former the staminodia and archegonia are produced, together or separately, at certain points on the growing plant, and the fertilized archegonium developes a sporangium bearing numerous spores, the prothallus being transient, and the process in perennial species, being renewed from year to year: in the latter the staminodia and archegonia occur only in the tissue first developed fron: the growing spore, called the prothallus; and the product of fertilization is not a sporangium, but a plant bearing numerous sporangia with their spores as long as the plant subsists. It seems plain enough that this distinction is of such importance as to be properly regarded as the sign of aclass; and thus, giving that rank to Thallogens also, we have three classes of the flowerless plants, Cryptogamia of Linnzeus, Acotyledones of Jussieu. The classes named, though well distinguished cach from the others, and all of them of great extent, offering important variations within themselves, are so strongly bound together as spore-bearing plants, and as being destitute of vascular tissue, except in the case of the secondary growth in Acrogenze, where that tissue is of a special kind, differing in its nature and arrangement from that of higher plants, that any system not plainly recognising this connection of the three classes, as well as their differences, must be pronounced unnatural. Jussieu’s three great divisions—Acotyledonex, Monocotyledones aud Dicotyledoneze—though, of course, as any knowledge of nature would lead us to anticipate, there are transition forms near the boundaries, are real natural divisions, confirmed by a variety of important characters ; and his names, both in right of priority and as being derived from the principal character, ought to be preserved ; but these divisions cannot be compared with classes in the Animal kingdom. They represent the sub- 364 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. kingdoms or branches; and to obtain a truly natural classification of plants, we must determine within each well marked assemblages, corres- ponding with the position of classes, under which will stand the alliances and orders or great families, so as to embrace the whole kingdom. At present we will confine our attention to the sub-kingdom, Acotyledonez, and to its highest class, Acrogenz, of which we have noted the common characters. It manifestly contains three of those divisions which Lindley denominates alliances, and as custom in Botany has otherwise appropriated the term order, we can perhaps do no better than to adopt his name. Here, then, beginning with the lowest structure, we have, Ist. Hquisetales, with sporangia dependent from the peltate scales of little strobili: spores surrounded by a membrane splitting spirally into two bands. Stems branched, articulated, with fimbriated sheaths at the joints, and the branches whorled around them. One order. Hquisetacez. 2nd. Lycopodiales. Sporangia exannulate not dependent. Orders : 1. Marsileaceze: sporangia radical multilocular. 2. Lycopodiaceze : sporangia axillary, bi or tri-valvate. 3. Ophioglossaceze: sporangia bivalvate connate on the edge of the contracted fertile frond. Aestivation straight. 3rd. Filicales. Sporangia more or less annulate, aestivation circinate. Orders: : 1. Osmundacezx : sporangia with the ring obsolete or imperfect. Tribes : 1. Marattiinee: ring obsolete, sporangia more or less confluent. 2. Schizaeinze: ring terminal. 8. Osmundine : ring imperfect. 2. Cyatheaceze: Sporangia with the ring oblique or eccentric. Tribes : : 1. Gleicheneinz : sporangia sessile or nearly so, bursting longitudinally. 2.. Hymenophylline : fronds cellulari-reticulate. 3. Cyatheine: sporangia pedicellute, bursting laterally. V aS ee Be ay 7 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. OOS 3. Polypodiacese : Sporangia with the ring vertical and complete: * Sori naked. + Sori indefinite on certain parts of the frond. Tribes : 1. Taenitidine. Sori intra-marginal, linear, extending to the interstices. 2. Haemionitidinee. Sori on the veins. 3. Acrostichinee. Sori over the surface or some portion of it. + 7 Sori definite. Tribes : 1. Vittariinse. Sori in a marginal groove. 2. Grammitidine. Sori elongated, scattered. 3. Polypodiinz. Sori round, scattered. * * Sori indusiate. ° Indusium underneath the sorus. Hypindusiatee. Tribes : 1. Davalliinee. Sori marginal, indusium cup-shaped or bi- valvate. 2. Dicksoniinee. Sori submarginal or scattered, terminating a vein ; indusium lateral bivalvate. 3. Peranemine. ‘ Sori round, scattered; indusium lobed or fringed. °° Tndusium covering the sorus with lateral or central attachment. Hpindusiatee. ON IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. Tribes : 1. Adiantinee. Sori marginal. 2. Aspleniinee. Sori scattered, elongated. 3. Aspidiinee. Sori scattered round. I have mot noticed, in this arrangement, a group called Parkeriacces, — and usually enumerated in what I have called the order Osmundacez. My reason is, that this very small tribe seems to me to be founded on unsatisfactory data. There are but two genera. In one of these (Ceratopteris) the annulus is so nearly complete, being also vertical, that there is little pretence for placing it among the Osmundacez. In Parkeria the annulus apparently occupies a very small space on the sporangium, but as far as it goes it has the jointed appearance very perfectly, and in Bauer’s figure it is a little more extended, and shows more trace of a band round the sporangium than in Hooker’s own figure. The aquatic habit and the very curious spores common to both, forbid any separation of Parkeria from Ceratopteris. I conclude, there- fore, that though exhibiting transition characters, such as occur every- where in nature, they ought to stand among the completely annulate ferns, and, on account of the indefinite naked sori on the veins, should be placed in Hemionitidinz. This is the only tribe which I bave thought it necessary to add to those already characterised, but it seems to me well distinguished, and required to complete a system of analogies among the trives which is very pleasing and interesting. It was indeed noticed as a sub-tribe by Presl. The numerous proposed genera of Polypodiinae, most of which are entirely abandoned by Sir W.. J. Hooker, present great difficulties. I have myself no doubt of the propriety of admitting as characters the more definite distinctions of venation, and indeed where there is any distinct natural group, we should gladly seize upon any tulerable techni- cal character to set it apart under a distinct name, but some of the pro- posed genera rest on so slight a foundation that they cannot be sustained. A careful revision of this part of the subject by some writer possessing extensive materials and cautious judgment, not so much afraid of transitional forms or so strict in his adherence to the great old estab- lished genera often equivalent with tribes as now understood, as Hooker, yet prepared to exercise a rigid scrutiny into the merits of proposed IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. BOW genera by the application to them of sound and well considered princi- | ples is greatly to be desired. Of the few forms which Hooker has admitted as sub-genera or sections, there is one which he himself con- demns as wholly without sufficient distinctions, receiving it as he states on the authority of eminent men who regarded it even as a good genus. I refer to Phegopteris Presl, for adopting which £ cannot see any reasonable pretence. Yet Prof. Maton, in Gray’s Manual, last edition, not only acknowledges it as a genus but even places it close to Aspidiinae at some distance from Polypodium. This change I must strongly condemn, at least until Iam informed of some reason for it, which has hitherto escaped my attention. There was something plausi- ble in the idea that Struthiopteris and Onoclea represented a special mode of forming the fertile frond, one in Polypodiinae, the other in Aspidiinae, but as Hooker declares that he has seen the indusium of Struthiopteris, the two must now stand next to one another, separated only by the venation. Their reunion in one genus in the face of so great a difference in the fronds,seems hardly admissable, though con- sistent with Hooker’s course in other cases. But to what tribe do they really belong? Mettenius, the first observer of the indusium -of Onoclea, describes it as proceeding from underneath the sorus and forming a sort of broken cup, in strict conformity with which is Hooker’s figure in the ‘Genera’ from his own observations. This being so, Onoclea cannot belong to Aspidiinae, as the position given it by Hooker would seem to imply, and which is the common opinion. Still less does it approach Aspleniinae, where Presl places it. It seems certainly to belong to the Hypindusiate section of Polypodiaceae, and apparently to be nearest to Peraneminae, as the cup-like indusium is ragged and somewhat split in the margin. It may be doubted whether Cystopteris belongs to Aspidiinae, though I do not see where to place it better. The name may be called in question. Bernhardi’s genus had remained in neglect until it was adopted by Sir J. H. Smith, who thought fit to correct what he regarded as a bad kind of name, by an al- teration which retains the author’s idea but gives it a better form. Had this improved name (Cystea) been accepted it would have been better, and at that time the change might easily have been effected, but Sir J. H. Smith’s death followed closely on the publication of his fourth volume containing the ferns. Succeeding botanists have not supported him, and we have since been flooded with so many names of the same kind quite 368 IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. equally objectionable, that it is no longer practically useful to struggle against them. Only let it be recollected that Phegopteris, Dryopteris, Thelypteris, Oreopteris, were formed in the early times, and when Pteris was not a genus but an old general name for a fern, and they have all been received only as-specific names. The objection therefore did not apply to them, and compounds of received generic names being justly condemned, Sir Jas. H. Smith was right in his objection to Cystopteris, and in his position had good authority for changing it. The correction has failed through the wrong judgment of others, but the law of priority has no applicatioa in such a case, and respect is due to the learning and taste of the great botanist, who would in time have checked an evil practice. I shall conclude this paper with a note in respect to the proper naming of our Canadian Aspidiinze, which is called for by the differ- ences of opinion and practice amongst our best botanists. Without presuming to condemn the course pursued by others, I may venture to explain and defend that which, not without careful consideration, I have myself followed. Dr. A. Gray, in a former edition of his valuable Flora of the Middle and Northern United States, which is employed by so many of our Canadian botanists, divided our Aspidiine ferns between Dryopteris (Bory) and Polystichum, employing this last name in the limited sense now generally given to it, for Aspidiinze with a centrally attached indusium and free forked venation. lLastrea has been generally adopted in preference to Dryupteris, otherwise this method seems to me the right one; but the learned author, in his later editions, has recombined these genera with Aspidium. In a recent number of the Canadian Naturalist, a much esteemed friend, who is learned in the literature of ferns, as well as an enthusiast in their study in their native haunts, and an excellent judge of their minutest varia- tions, attempts to restore Polystichum in Roth’s sense, which would include all our Aspidiinz, except Cystopteris and Onoclea, if indeed this genus belongs to Aspidiinae. He thinks Roth’s name has the right of priority, the date of the Flora Germanica being the year previous to the part of Schrader’s Journal containing Swartz’s paper establishing the genus Aspidium. It is generally thought, though these eminent botanists worked independently, and might each justly claim originality, that Swartz’s paper was communicated before the ih oni tiga “= - an Sons IMPROVEMENT IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF FERNS. 369 publication of Roth’s Flora.* At all events, Swartz’s name has thus far almost universally prevailed; and the genus, as defined by him, needing sub-division, Polystichum has been adopted for a well marked portion of it, an arrangement which it would be very inconvenient now to disturb. Sir W.J. Hooker, refusing to accept venation as a generic character, limits Aspidium to species with a centrally attached indusium, and adopts Nephrodium for those with a kidney-shaped indusium attached at a point in the margin; but he gives Polystichum as a sub- genus or section of Aspidium, in the sense already explained as includ- ing free fork-veined species with a centrally attached indusium, and he employs Lastrea in like manner as a sub-genus of Nephrodium. TI have already said that I cannot admit the objection to the use of venation as a generic character in ferns, and I think the distinguished author of the “Species Filicum’’ would have done better had he raised his sub-genera to the rank of genera. His method, however, practically marks the distinction and employs the names. I cannot think that any number of botanists will sanction the restoration of Polystichum in its original sense, as taking the place in a great degree of Swartz’s Aspidium, since the other genera, as proposed by Roth at the same time, to complete his view of this group of ferns, hardly can be received; and if we admitted Polystichum as entitled to supersede Aspidium, our first business, in the present state of our knowledge, would be to sub-divide it into better limited genera, at the risk of causing inextricable confu- sion. In its more limited sease, Polystichum is needed, and our Flora affords fine examples of it. I would strongly recommend the adoption of the name Lastrea for the free-veined Aspidiinze with a kidney-shaped indusium attached by a lateral point, and Polystichum for free-veined Aspidiinze with a peltate or centraliy attached indusium, believing this plan to be justified on scientific principles, and practically the most intelligible and convenient. * I am aware of no ground whatever for the assertion made, I think too hastily, in the paper referred to in the Canadian Naturalist, that “Swartz copied Roth throughout, borrowed his genus, calling it Aspidium,” &c. Swartz’s Aspidium is not coextensive with Roth’s Poly- stichum, and so far as I can trace the evidence, his paper was written without knowledge of Roth’s work. CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. BY HENRY SCADDING, D.D., HONORARY LIBRARIAN OF THE CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Having a prolonged access to the famous Bodleian Library at Oxford, a short time since, I decided, while in the enjoyment of the much- valued privilege, to obtain a view of as many volumes as possible of early travels likely to contain references to Canada, and, in particular, to the neighborhood of the present site of Toronto. I found several works that I had never seen before, containing matter of the kind desired ; and I made a number of excerpts fromthem. I did the same afterwards in the magnificent library of the British Museum. Whilst pursuing my researches in the Bodleian, I lighted on a folio volume of Academic exercises of the year 1761, principally in the Latin and Greek languages, productions of members of the University of Oxford, on the occasion of the death of George the Second, and the accession of George the Third. The title of the book in full was “ Pietas. Universitatis Oxoniensis in Obitum Serenissmi Regis Georgii II, et Gratulatio in Augustissmi Georgii III, inaugurationem. Oxonili, é Typographeo Clarendoneano. MDCCLXI.” By a superscription of this nature, the cry of the old heralds on the demise of the Crowa was of course instantly suggested —“ Le roi est mort! Vive le roi!’—and one expected to find in such a record the eriefs, real and simulated, for the royal luminary just departed, plenti- fully mixed with prudential salutations to the young sun in the act of rising above the horizon. It was apparent at a glance that such an expectation was well-founded; and naturally the interest in a collection of pieces of the character indicated would have been limited, had not another circumstance happened to excite curiosity. On turning over the leaves, the eye was caught by words that looked strange in the midst of Latin and Greek texts, however familiar in a plain Hnelish guise. I saw “Canada” recurring again and again, and ‘“‘ America,” and other names to be read on maps of this western hemisphere, but inconceivable as appertaining in any way to the dead tongues of Greece and Rome. The explanation was this: the conquest of Canada had taken place just before the decease of George the Second. ‘The academic yersifiers of 1761, therefore, made a point of celebrating that CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. : Puce event and turning it to great account in their panegyrics of the reign just closed, introducing allusions to the same also in their loyal aspira- tions for the glory and fame of the new King. While the volume was at hand, I rapidly made selections of Tee containing the names that had Avected my attention, as a visitant from Canada, with one or two other passages possessing some interest of a _ cognate character. These memoranda, though absolutely of little value, I am desirous nevertheless of depositing, where, at all events, they may be consulted, should the exigencies of a Canadian student hereafter require authority for a Latinised or Grecised form of an American local proper name. I do not suppose that the old “learned” tongues are going wholly to die out amongst us. Such a result will be prevented by the select few who, it is not to be doubted, will, in a certain average, here as elsewhere, always emerge from the general community, possessed of a special aptitude for the mastery of languages. For the sake of those, comparatively few though they may be, who shall evince especial talent for linguistics, ancient and modern, our Canadian schools and colleges and universities will never cease to maintain a supply of instruc- tors and guides. Nor, on the score of essential knowledge, in respect to the composition of modern English speech, and in respect to the nomenclature adopted in every department of science, would it be safe wholly to omit means and appliances for acquiring familiarity with what used preéminently to be called the learned languages. We conceive too that the literature appertaining to those tongues ought not to be left out of any plan of general education, for the further reasons, as well set forth lately by the accomplished Inspector of Schools for the Province of Ontario, in his annual Report (p. 12), that “it gives enlarged views, helps to lift the mind above a hard materialism, and to excite interest and sympathy in the experiences of human life.” Our extracts may also serve to add a touch or two to the general picture of the times of George the Second. An interest in regard to the era of that King has of late been revived in the public mind—a period of English history that had become misty in the retrospect of the generality. One of Thackeray’s lectures on the ‘Four Georges” brought back George the Second and his surroundings to the popular imagination for a passing moment. The republication a few years back by Hotten, of Wright’s ‘Caricature History of the Georges,” contributed to the same result—a work containing “ Annals of the House of Hanover, compiled from the squibs, broadsides, window- 2 372 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. pictures, lampoons and pictorial caricatures of the time,” and accom- panied by nearly four hundred illustrations on steel and wood. Since then a series of papers entitled “ Historical Sketches of the Reign of George the Second,” in successive numbers of Blackwood, has reawa- kened the curiosity of the reading public on the same subject. Of the sketches in Blackwood, Mrs. Oliphant is the writer. They are now published in collected form, and have been reprinted in the United States. In Mrs. Oliphant’s volume, significantly enough, no chapter is devoted to the King himself, but one is given to the Queen, as being, - in point of sense, the better man; George’s good genius, while she lived, saving him and probably the nation from serious calamity. Sir Robert Walpole is sketched as ‘The Minister” of the era. Sir Robert has also lately been evoked from the shades for the contemplation of the modern public by Lord Lytton, in his rhymed comedy of ‘“ Walpole, or Every Man has his Price.”” Next we have Chesterfield, portrayed as ‘©The Man of the World” of the period; with pictures of Pope as “The Poet;” of John Wesley as ‘‘ The Reformer;” of Commodore Anson as “The Sailor;” of Richardson as ‘ The Novelist ;”’ of Hume as “The Sceptic;”’ of Hogarth as ‘“The Painter.” Chapters are devoted likewise to the Young Chevalier and Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In depicting this remarkable group, no special occasion presented itself for delineating the denizens of the colleges and halls of the universities, engaged at their literary work. The notes here offered will give a momentary glimpse of them thus employed. It is in another relation that they are referred to in the sketch of Wesley, ‘‘ The Refor- mer.” Wolfe’s career, in which we in Canada naturally feel a peculiar interest, was brilliant but very brief; otherwise we might have expected a chapter to have been assigned to him as “The Soldier” of the day. He also, or at least his name and fame, will come repeatedly before us in the course of our Oxford extracts. Of the whole era to which our attention is thus directed, it has been said, by a writer on the same subject in a late number of the Quarterly Review, that it was ‘a time of order without loyalty; of piety without faith; of poetry without rapture; of philosophy without science. In one word, it was an age without enthusiasm.” But then, as the same writer adds, “ the absence of enthusiasm is not necessarily fatal to the existence of a high sense of duty; a quiet, unobtrusive, religious spirit; an honest, if not a very profound, inquiry into the problems of human life, and the sources of human knowledge: while it is eminently favorable to that polished, CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 373 if cynical, literature which, while it makes emotion unpardonable, at least makes cant impossible.’ There was some enthusiasm, however, as we shall see; but it was of a barbaric, piratical cast; an enthusiasm, too, fortunate enough under the circumstances; for, it being too late to give heed to Polonius’s wise rule, ‘‘ Beware of entrance to a quarrel,” the only thing left to be done was to adopt the residue of his precept— (73 but being in, Bear ’t, that the opposed may beware of thee.” From her connection with Hanover through the Georges, England was much mixed up with the internal disputes of Europe; and so was brought, all the more frequently, into direct collision with her ancient Gallic foe. The national enthusiasm of the era accordingly took the form of hostility to France, and an idolatry of the statesmen who could best devise plans by means of which the commerce and power of France might be destroyed. In church and state, this spirit was rampant, conventionally if not really. In the seats of learning it was carefully cherished in the youth of the land; and not the least carefully, as our extracts are about to show, by the masters of colleges, by the professors and tutors— «____. in the Attic bowers, Where Oxford lifts to heaven her hundred towers.” It was not, however, while casually examining the volume in the Bodleian that I for the first time had experienced some surprise at suddenly seeing the new amidst the old—Canada and America mixed up with Latium and Hellas. Some years ago I happened to become the possessor of an old copy of the Pertegesis of Dionysius. This is a Geography in Greek hexameters, quite Homeric in style, and very plea- sant to read. Its author Dionysius was a Greek of Alexandria, and was employed, Pliny says, by one of the emperors, without specifying distinctly which, to make a survey of the Eastern parts of the world. He is supposed to have lived about the year A.D. 140. For the sake of distinguishing him from other notable persons bearing the same name, he is known from the title of his book: Perieges/s, as Dionysius Periegetes, t.e. the Cicerone, Valet de place, or Guide to remarkable localities. On turning over the leaves of my old copy of the Perivgesis, for the first time, I was startled at observing a sub-division of the poem headed in good Greek, Tept r7js “Apepixys 7 THs ert dvow Ivdixis yijs., 7. e., “Concerning America or the West Indies;’’ and a few lines down 374 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. appeared the familiar name of our own Dominion, expressed in Greek characters, and helping to form a foot in a Homeric hexameter of excel- lent rhythm. On closer inspection I discovered that Dionysius had found an Oxford oontinuator in the person of a writer on Geography rather eminent in his day, Hdward Wells, who, intending his edition of the Periegesis to be of practical use in the work of education, and to be committed to memory like the rules for the gender of nouns and the conjugation of verbs in the common grammars of the day, not only cor- rected the matter of Dionysius Periegetes, but also added to his poem some hundreds of lines, likewise in excellent Homeric Greek, descriptive of the portions of the earth disclosed to the knowledge of men since the days of Columbus. I transcribe as a specimen some of the lines which refer to America. It will be seen that Canada, Quebec, Hudson’s Bay, Boston, New York and several other familiar cisatlantic names, wear a singular aspect in the guise in which they here appear. We are to observe that when our pseudo-Dionysius wrote, Canada was still a French possession, and the territories down to Florida were English. *Apepixny io Oyos Otarépverat avorya. yatnv 2rewos, kat votiov 1évTou péoos 708 Bopetov, “Ov pa Te Tov Aapinvov é erovopiny éverovee Tov 7% Urepy “Apepuciy TeTavya per ott Bopetn, NépOe de Tov, votin’ epéw Tampara Bo opelny. Ape durds Bopenridas, “Yoroviy emt KOATO, "EvOa vén rérarar Kau (pts, ven evOa Bperavis. “Egetns PpayKav meOlov VeoV eKTETAVUOTALL, “Audis ebppetrao Kayddov aimd péeOpov" Ovvexa pay eg Erepos yaunv Kadeovce Kavddny "EvOas bmrép moropoy Kn Bexkidos éort a70AcOpov. Keiev t brep pyypva Popetddos Gppurpirns, “Ayyhav [ax po. vorovoe VEWovTat exyovot avepav" Ot pev vaterdovar vens Aumapov. méOov ° ‘AyyAns, "Evdas" dreypatov Boorwvidos éort model pov" Oi dé Te X&por, "We TTOAW “HBopdxouo VEOLO" Oi dé vens rédov Gyuporepov vatovat “Lépons* Oi d€ Te Tov Tevvov yainv Tapos tAnecoar, *EvOa8 edxripevov Pdaded pias mrohteOpov. Oi 0 avOs rediov Kat emdovypLov aor Mapias. Oi d€ Te mapGevuxijs TOO eresvupov ovdas dvacons, "Eva: _eTovUpLiny ‘TaxadBov éeort rroXOpov- Oi bé7 erikAnow Kapoou médov oe eeneoaee “AyyMaxéy 6 bmép iyeipowo mavictaro. avopav. “HEeins yon mapamérrata. avOeudcroa "Es vorov, ii mep dyxiados do0s Atyovorivov. 1004—1029. CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 379 That is to say: ‘‘ The land of America an isthmus, narrow, and midway between a southern and a northern sea, cuts in two: it, moreover, men ‘surname the Darien: above it expands the Northern America; below it, the Southern. I shall speak first of the Northern. On the boreal coasts that line the Hudsonian Gulf on the one hand, extends a new Wales; on the other, a New Britain. Then next expands the Franks’ new domain, on both sides the fair flowing Canada’s deep stream, whence men call it, in other words, the land of Canada. There on the river is ‘the city of Quebec. Thence southward far, along the boreal Amphi- trite’s shore, are distributed the descendants of Nnglish men. Some of them inhabit the fertile soil of a new England; there on the shore of the sea is the city of Boston; some of them, the country and city of York the new; some of them, the twofold region of a new Jersey; some of them, the once sylvan land of Penu—there is the well-built city of Philadelphia. Others of them again inhabit the soil and city named from Mary; and others, the area named from a virgin queen. There is the city surnamed of James; and others, the soil and city named from Charles, the most remote on tle continent, of English men. Next is spread out to the south the land of Flowers, where upon the seaboard is Augustine’s dwelling.” Tt will be noticed above, in the eleventh line, that the name ‘Canada’? is applied to the river St. Lawrence; and the statement is made that “the surrounding country takes its name from the river.” An occa- sion will arise in the course of the present paper to make some obser- vations on this and some other points in the extract. The usage of designating the St. Lawrence as the great river of Canada, was for a time in vogue among early writers. Again: at line 1503, we have an enumeration of the islands appertaining to the American continent. The lines relating to Newfoundland are given, the name of the “ fair-flowing’’? Canada occurring therein, again as designating the St. Lawrence, Nov 0 “Arhavridxod etpov poov @keavoto Maxpa ov hal TOpLOY és ‘Apeppioa yauay tiKcoLo:” *Hv6ad ert Tpoxoyow cippetrao Kavaoov, Nyoov ameipecinv veov evpovr exyovot ay OpOv Etipwrneiov, Tre€OOV ixOnecow é €pavvov’ ‘Opverar yap T audi par’ ixfvdecca Oddacca. 1303—1308. That is: “ Now speeding in thy bark afar, across the wide stream of the Atlantic ocean, come to the American land. There at the vast outlet: % sad 376 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. of the fair-flowing stream Canada, the offspring of European men have newly found an island of untold extent, a soil beloved of fishers, for round it roars a sea-especially abounding in fish.” Tn the edition from which I have made the above extracts, the whole - of the Periegesis, the continuation included, is accompanied by notes in Latin, and also by a line-for-line Latin version, after the manner of Clarke’s Homer, in former days. As in the case of the work just named, the Latin verbatim rendering, especially of compound terms, and stock epithets, is amusing. But with this the reader need not be troubled. Simply as a specimen which will recall the grotesque kind of help that a few years back was considered necessary for students in their acquisition of Greek, I transcribe four lines, in which the familiar word Canada quaintly occurs : Deinceps Francia nova extenditur, Utrinque ad pulchriflui Canade altum fiuentum : Quapropter ipsam etiam terram aliter vocant Canadam, Ubi super fluvium Quebeciz est oppidum. 1011-1014. The humorous parody of this kind of elucidation of a Greek text, in one of Bishop Heber’s youthful pieces, still preserved in his collected works, will probably be remembered, in which he speaks of ——kdewny Avkinv 7) Bidotova 7 Bpepnixapor, Kadxérolw, pirov cikoy dydvopos “Hpaurrovo- 512-516. accompanying the same with a version in the usual harsh, corduroy kind of Latin: —nobilem Lyciam, ant Bilstonem, ant Bremichamum Adris-civitatem, charam domum ob-vitutem-mirabilis Vulcani. and illustrating all by elaborate Latin notes, after the manner of Brunck, Hermann and Dawes; showing, for example, that here it was impossible the Asiatic Lycia could have been meant as some critics insanely con- tended; but that Wolverhampton, ‘ civitas a dupis nomen habeus,’ was the place, inasmuch as the author is speaking of English towns, or Bilston, and Bremicham (Birmingham), the latter a city, as the sup- posed obscure Greek poet speaks, ‘devoted to the manufacture of brass, and the home beloved of the very manly Hepheestus.”’ We now proceed to give our excerpts from the yolume in the Bod- leian. The pieces contained in that folio are not, as will be seen, the crude exercises of junior fledglings in the university. The occasion - € RA: tee: EA's fe: ; u Bay CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. OTT was so grave and dignified that it was deemed worthy to call forth the literary powers of the seniors, of professors and fellows and heads of colleges. Nevertheless, all the exercises have about them more or less of the school-boy ring, and in some of them possibly may be detected a tone not uninspired by a view of the substantial bounties at the dis- posal of the personages addressed or referred to. Our first specimen will be from a copy of Ovidian hexameters and pentameters, by the Vice-Chancellor himself, Dr. Joseph Brown. The selection was made for the sake of the allusion to the recent conquests in North America, and the rather bold assignation to our St. Lawrence of the style and title of an Indus: ‘“‘ Hach Indus,” the Vice-Chancellor says, ‘‘is now subject to the power of Britain.” The other must be the Indus proper, or else poetically the Ganges; and the allusion is to the virtnal conquest of all India by the victories of Clive. Under this impression the extract was made. ‘The sense may be different, as is noted below. The young King is thus apostrophised : O Princeps Auguste! vide que pondera Fame Sustineas, et que poscat avitus honor. Aspice queesitos alio sub sole triumphos; Accessit regnis Indus uterque tuis. Conciliare animos, populo imperitare volenti, Illa sit ambitio, palma sit ila Tibi. Hee tua bella geras, certos habitura triumphos, Civilis rixee Victor et invidieze. Seditio procul absit, et illetabile murmur, Atque omnes eequo feedere jungat amor : Tene magis salyum populus velit, an populum Tu— Sola sit hee nullo lis dirimenda die. ““O august Prince! see what a burden of glory thou sustainest, and what demands the honours gained by thy grandsire entail! Behold under another sky triumphs won! Lach Indus now is added to thy realms. To conciliate hearts, to rule a willing people—let this be thy ambition, this thy prize! Victorious over civil strife and envy, let such be thy wars, destined to a sure triumph. Avaunt sedition and joyless complaint ! let love unite all in one just league! Let this be the sole question-—never to be decided—whether thy people most wish thee well, or thou thy people !” In the composition of Dr. Musgrave, Provost of Oriel, who also chose the elegiac couplet, we have Canada and the St. Lawrence intro- 378 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. duced. These names occur in an address to the shade of the deceased King, George the Second, thus: Te penes arbitrium pelagi; Tibi, sospite classe, Neptunus gemini contulit orbis opes. Te Canade tremuére lacus, Laurentius ipse, Auspice Te, placidas velvit amicus aquas ; Quique tenent Nigrim Mauri, quique ultima Gangis Littora flava, tuo colla dedére jugo. ‘¢ With thee was the control of the sea: on thee, thy fleet kept safe, Neptune conferred the wealth of two hemispheres. Before thee the lakes of Canada trembled: under thy auspices the St. Lawrence itself, now a friendly stream, rolled down its waves appeased. The swart Moors, as well those who possess the Niger, as those who possess the scorched shores of the far Ganges, yielded their necks to thy yoke.’ The allusion to ‘‘ Niger”’ is to the capture, a year or two previously, of the forts St. Louis and Goree, on or near the river Senegal. The Rector of Exeter College, Dr. F. Webber, contributed some Aleaic stanzas. There is in the extract here given no reference to lceal names on this side the ocean. But we have in it a clever working out of the setting-and-rising-sun metaphor. He speaks of the recent royal death, and the recent royal accession, in these terms : Inter triumphos Georgius occidit ! Nec clarior sol oceano subit, Cum flammeo splendore preebet Indicium reditts sereni. At, uno adempto Lumine patrie, En surgit alter Georgius, altera Lux! et sui Regis renidet Auspiciis recreata Tellus. “ Amidst his triumphs fell our George! And never more brilliantly set sun in ocean, when with fiery glow it gives promise of fair return. But lo! no sooner is one luminary of the father-land taken away, than another springs up—another George: and reanimated by the omen of its King, the land regains its smile.” The Alcaic stanza was also selected by Dr. Randolph, President of Corpus, for his exercise. He celebrates the conquest of Canada, and pames the St. Lawrence. He addresses himself thus to the young King: He shows himself a careful student of Horace and a master of Latin. CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 319 Pacatus orbis consiliis tuis Irrupta gaudet feedera jungere, Gentesque Te, Rex, bellicose Compositis venerantur armis. Dediscit artes perfida Gallia ; Mansuescit Indus, scalpraque projicit, Laurentiique immite flumen Volvit aquas taciturniores. Mercator audax eequora transvolat, Plenoque cornu copia cernitur, Frandemque propulsat scelusque Rex animo et patria Britannus. “The whole earth, restored to peace by thy counsels, rejoices in forming inviolable leagues; and warlike nations, unitedly laying aside their arms, venerate thee, QO King! ‘Treacherous Gaul unlearns her wiles: the Indian ceases to be savage, and throws away his dread knife: St. Lawrence’s ruthless stream rolls down his waves less ravingly. The daring trader traverses the ocean, and Plenty with full horn is to be seen. ‘Trickery and guilt are utterly repelled by a King in soul, as by birth, a Briton.” We have, of course, in the closing expression, an allusion to the young King’s first speech from the throne, in which, it is said, he inserted with his own hand a paragraph stating that ‘he gloried in the name of Briton,” thus differencing himself from his immediate prede- cessors, who were German-born. The text of the paragraph referred to is as follows: ‘‘ Born and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Briton; and the peculiar happiness of my life will ever consist in promoting the welfare of a people whose loyalty and warm affection to me I consider as the greatest and most permanent security of my throne; and I doubt not but their steadiness in those principles will equal the firmness of my invariable resolution to adhere to and strengthen this excellent constitution in church and state, and to main- tain the toleration inviolable.” In some vigorous heroic verse, by a fellow of Magdalen, John Hall, “S. T. B.,” or Bachelor of Theology, we have an express reference to Wolfe, the plains of Abraham, and the conquest of Canada. The lines included in our extract are an indignant address to France : En! Tibi in Hesperiis quo cedunt, Gallia, terris Insidie, turpesque doli, cedesque nefandee ! Divisi impatiens regni, tu cuncta volebas Imperio premere et dominari sola per orbem. 380 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. At seva instantem non arma avertere cladem, Non rupes poterant, cum in prelia duceret ultor Worrtus accensas metuendo Marte catervas ! Ergo expugnatas arces, eversaque castra, Nequicquam meres, fractis ingloria telis. Ergo iterum vastata diu tua rura, Colone, Pace colas, nec te cultro jam terreat Indus Crudelis, Gallusque Indo crudelior hostes. Felix rura colas: hee Georgius otia fecit. “Behold, O Gaul! to what end thy plots and base wiles and nefarious blood-thirstiness have come, in the lands of the West. Refusing to endure a divided rule, thou didst aim, by military power, to subdue all things, and to lord it throughout the earth alone! But ruthless arma- ments availed not, nor rocky fastnesses, to avert from thee quick destruc- tion, when Wolfe, the avenger, brought into the field his cohorts, fired by dread-inspiring Mars. Here is the reason why thou, shorn of glory, thy weapons shattered, bewailest in vain stormed citadels, demolished fortresses! Here is the reason why thou, O colonist, now again tillest in peace thy fields devastated so long: and neither the inhuman Indian affrighteth thee with his knife, nor thy Gallic foe, than Indian more inhuman. All blest, till thou thy fields. For thee, this repose a George hath secured.” The production of John Smith Bugden, gentleman commoner of Trinity (‘‘ Coll. SS. Trin. Sup. Ord. Com.’’), is likewise in heroic metre. He moulds into shapely classic forms the names of Acadia, Louisbourg, Quebec, Ontario and the Mississippi. He represents the French King, Louis XV, on hearing of the decease of George II, as bidding his nobles not to imagine that that event would unfavorably affect the fortunes of England. The reference to our own Lake Ontario is espe- cially interesting. He thus speaks to them: Suetas torpere in preelia vires Creditis Angligenim, minuive ingentia ccepta? En superest sceptri, superest virtutis avite, Georgius, auspiciis eque felicibus, heres. Ile animis veteres odiisque sequacibus iras Implebit, belloque secundo quicquid agendum Restiterit, paribus cumulabit protinus armis. Federa nunc violasse pudet, nunc penitet ultrd Acadiz fines tetigisse, incertaque rura ! Occiduo tulerit quantos ex axe, videtis, Longzyvi dudum Regis fortuna, triumphos. CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 381 Ipsa jacet Lodoica solo convulsa, minzeque Murorum ingentes, disjectaque mcenia fumant. Umbriferis frustra se muniit ardua saxis, Vallosque implicuit vallis (victoria tanto Hostibus empta licet Ductore) arx fida Quebeci. Jamque nove gentes et centum uberrima regna, Se Britonum titulis ultro regalibus addunt. . Ex quo preruptis scopulis plaga pinea vastum Obsidet Osvegum, sonituque per arva marino Lata fremit, lacuumque Ontaria maxima sevit; Ad cultas procul usque oras, Missippia preeceps In mare qua refluum sublimi volvitur ore; Prelia magnanimi novus ille Georgius ultor Instaurabit avi, propriumque tuebitur _Indum Victor, et Hesperio laté dominabitur orbi. “< Think ye a torpor is coming over the practised power of the English race for war, or that the vastness of their designs is lessening ?- Lo! there survives a George, heir under equally happy auspices to his grandsire’s sceptre, to his grandsire’s valour. He will maintain the full measure of the ancient quarrels with supplies of energy and persistent hate; and whatever for a successful war remains to be done, he will forthwith, with armaments like the former, fully accomplish. It shames me now that I broke the treaty ; it _repenteth me now that I wantonly meddled with the boundaries of Acadia, and the tracts left undefined! Ye see what triumphs the fortune of the long-lived King hath lately wrested from the western world! Louisbourg is razed to the ground; its vast threatening walls, its shattered fortifications, smoke! In vain did the trusty fortress of Quebec, raised aloft on shadowy rocks, strengthen and environ itself with stockade upon stockade—paid for by the foe though that success. was, by the life of a commander so great! And now new tribes, and a hundred fertile domains, voluntarily swell the honours appertaining to the King of the British people. From the point where, on precipitous rocks, a region of pines surrounds the lonely Oswego, and with a sound like that of the sea, heard over a wide space, Ontario, greatest of lakes, roars and rages, even unto the cultured banks afar, where the swift Mississippi, with front upreared, plunges into the tidal sea,—he, this new George, this new avenger, will begin afresh his grandsire’s wars, will guard an Indus of his own, and will lord it far and wide within the Hesperian hemisphere.” ‘“‘ Anclicentim,’”’ in the second line, is, of course, a contraction for ‘‘ Angligenorum,” from Angligeni, a medizeval word for “ men English- 382 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. born.” Another term of the same era, for “‘ Englishmen,” is “Anoli- b) my ate) ? f=) genenses,” a word familiar by reason of the well known monkish distich, Chronica si penses, cum pugnant Oxonienses, Post paucos menses, volat ira per Angligenenses, a couplet quoted not long since in the British House of Commons, in relation to the agitations occasioned throughout the empire by Oxford controversies. It referred originally to faction fickts between Northern men and Southern men, between Welshmen and Saxons, which filled the streets and neighbouring fields with tumult and bloodshed. The treaty of which Louis is made to regret the violation, in line 8, is that of Utrecht. By the 12th article of the treaty of Utrecht, “all Nova Scotia, or Acadia, with its ancient limits, and with all its dependencies,” was ceded to the Crown of Great Britain. The French authorities afterwards contended that Nova Scotia comprehended only the Penin- sula, and did not extend beyond the Isthmus: whereas the charter of James I. to Sir William Alexander, and Sir William’s own map, as old as the charter, demonstrated that the ancient limits of the country so named included a vast tract of land, besides the peninsula, reaching © along the coast till it joined Néw Eneland; and extending up the country till it was bounded by the south side of the St. Lawrence. By the 15th article of the treaty of Utrecht, “the subjects of France, inhabitants of Canada and elsewhere, were not to disturb or molest, in any manner whatsoever, the Five Nation Indians, which, the article says, are subject to Great Britain, nor its other American allies.”” Not- withstanding, a writer in the Gentleman’s Magazine, for December, 1759, sets forth, “while the French usurpations went on so insolently in Nova Scotia, the plan was carrying on with equal perfidy on the banks of the Ohio; a country, the inhabitants of which, says that writer, had been in alliance with the Huelish above a hundred years ago, to which also we had a claim, as being a conquest of the Five Nations, and from which, therefore, the French were excluded by the 15th article of the treaty of Utrecht.” We observe from line 20 that Lake Ontario had by some means acquired a reputation for tempestu-: ousness. In the thirteenth of the Duddon Sonnets, Wordsworth also, at a later period, sang of ; H the gusts that lash The matted forests of Ontario’s shore, By wasteful steel unsmitten.” The adroit Latinist has, in line 22, made ‘“ Mississippi’? managea- ble, manipulating it into “ Missippia.” By “Indus,” in line 20, the CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 883 St. Lawrence is, as we suppose again, intended. It is possible, however, that here, and in the other places as well, where the word occurs in these extracts, ‘‘ Indus” may be ‘the Indian,” meaning the Indian races. Our next excerpt is from the exercise of Thomas Baker, “ Portionista,”’ as he is styled, of Merton. ‘‘ Portionista,’’ pensioner, or exhibitioner, has been strangely vernacularized at’ Merton into ‘“ postmaster.” The metre is epic or heroic. We again have allusions to the conquests of Cape Breton and Canada; and the St. Lawrence is named. The battle of Minden is celebrated ; and the capture of Goree. He compares the successes of George II. over France on the continent of Hurope to those of Edward III. He thus speaks: Vidimus Edvardi veteres revirescere laurus; Vidimus Angliace metuentes signa catervee Gallorum trepidare acies Germania prisce Conscia virtutis, Britonum mirata triumphos, Nuper Mindeniz obstupnit miracula pugne. Addam urbes Lybiz domitas, capteeque Bretonee Duplex obsidium; dicam superaddita nostris, Sub duce pro patria egregie moriente, triumphis Arya, ubi Laurenti in latum se porrigit cequor. ‘‘ We have seen-renewed the ancient laurels of an Edward. We have seen the Gallic armies tremble through fear of the standards of an Hnglish cohort. Germany, mindful of valour evinced of old, full of wonder already at triumphs won by Britons, lately stood amazed at prodigies achieved in the fight at Minden. I will add the reduction of African towns; the twofold blockade in the capture of Cape Breton : I will name the accession to our conquests, under the Chief who for his country so nobly fell, of the fields where the vast surface of the St. Lawrence spreads itself abroad.” This association of Minden with ‘‘ the fields where the St. Lawrence spreads itself”’ will remind the reader of a passage in Langhorne’s ‘Country Justice,” the last line of which has become a stock quota- tion. (He is speaking of a poor vagrant culprit, the child of a soldier’s widow) : Cold on Canadian hills, on Minden’s plain, Perhaps that parent mourn’d her soldier slain; Bent o’er her babe, her eyes dissolved in dew, The big drops mingled with the milk he drew, Gave the sad presage of his future years, The child of misery, baptized in tears. 384 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. In the lines selected from the hexameters of Henry Jerome de Sales, gentleman commoner of Queen’s, we have Niagara named, the St. Lawrence and the Ohio. He utters a lament on the death of the King: ~ Occidit heu patric columen! Te, maxime Princeps, Plebs, proceresque dolent, quin rusticus ipse per arva Auspiciis secura tuis et nescia belli, Sinceros fundens luctus lacrymasque, dolorem Exprimit, et raptos Britonum deplorat honores. Heu cito vanescit vite decus! heu cito rerum Transit honos! frustraé mandata Britannica classes Vidimus inyictas subjectum ferre per eequor ; Ingentes animos frustra miratus arenas Horribiles inter Mauros, desertaque tesqna Gallorum invalidas contundere viderat iras. Heu frustra sevi posita feritate tyranni Extremi ad fines orientis, et arva beata Auratis in que Ganges devolvitur undis, Ignotas Britonum nomen coluere per oras. Consiliis frustra prudentibus usus, et alta Omnipotentis ope, victricia fulmina laté Sparsisti: frustra partos sine cede triumphos Viderat horrisonis torrens Niagara fluentis, Nequicquam insidias Indorum vidit inanes Debellata Ohio, atque, zterni causa doloris, Subjectas tibi volvebat Laurentius undas. “Alas! the country’s stay hath fallen! Thee, great Prince, com- mons and nobles lament: nay, in the fields, rendered through thy ‘providence secure and undevastated by war, the very boor expresses his grief by unfeigned lamentations and tears, and bemoans the snatching away of the pride of the British people. Alas! how swiftly vanisheth life’s grace ! how swiftly passeth away the glory of earthly possessions ! In vain have we beheld invincible fleets bearing the behests of Britain across the subject main: in vain the Moor, amazed, amidst his horrid sands and desert wilds, beheld mighty spirits quelling the strong rage of the Gauls. Alas! throughout regions unexplored, to the bounds of the far Hast and the happy fields towards which Ganges rolls, with waters that bring down gold, in vain have barbarian chiefs, laying aside their ferocity, reverenced the British name! In vain, leaning on wise counsels and the help of the Most High, hast thou dealt thy victorious bolts far and wide! In vain, with dread-sounding billows, did the down-rushing Niagara behold bloodless victories won. To no purpose CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 385 did vanquished Ohio behold the ambuscades of savages made of none effect ; and, source of woe unending! St. Lawrence pour down his tide, subject unto Thee!” It will be observed that the penultimate syllable of Niagara has, in the above Latin lines, the quantity which it possessed when the name first fell on the ear of Europeans. The line in Goldsmith’s Traveller will be remembered : Have we not seen, at Pleasure’s lordly call, The smiling, long-frequented village fall? Beheld the duteous son, the sire decayed, The modest matron, and the blushing maid, Fore’d from their homes, a melancholy train, To traverse climes beyond the western main, Where wild Oswego spreads her swamps around, And Niagara stuns with thund’ring sound ? Like other native names, Niagara has been subjected to a process of abbreviation and shaping. It properly begins with a nasal On. The following forms of the word are to be read in early books on Canada : Tagera, Iagare, Jagera, Jagare, Jagera, Niagaro, Niagra, Niagro, Oakinagaro, Ochiagara, Ochjagara, Octjagara, Ohniagero, Oneageragh, Oneagoragh, Oneigra, Oneygra, Ongayerae, Oniagara, Oniagorah, Oniagra, Oniagro, Onjagara, Onjagera, Onjagora, Onjagore, Onjagoro, Onjagra, Onnyagaro, Onyagara, Onyagare, Onyagaro, Onyagoro, Onyagars, Onyagra, Onyagro, Onyegra, Yagero, Yangree. In the Jesuit elation for 1641, we have Onguiaahra. Our English system of accentuation misleads us in respect to the quantity of syllables in native words. The aborigines lay an almost equal stress on every syllable: thus it happens that, although their language, when reduced to writing, seems to consist of words of an unconscionable length, it sounds, when spoken, monosyllabic. Ohio, too, it may be observed, has here its middle syllable short. We find it short in other early productions. Like the shortening of the penult of Niagara, the lengthening of that of Ohio is an English modernism. Ohio occurs in the old books as Oio and Oyo. For the sake of a clever transfer into Latin of the idea of our national flag, we made an extract from P. Methuen’s production. Otherwise, in the lines presented there is nothing especially interesting. Indus therein seems to indicate the river; although again Indian or Hindoo may be intended. The writer was a gentleman commoner of Corpus Christi College. He is speaking of the late royal death: 386 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. Ah! quoties memori revocantes pectore, Regem Sublatum querent Britones, luctuque recenti Tam cari capitis quoties jactura recurret, Dum redit in mentem veri pia cura Parentis, Sancti juris amor, mitissima gratia sceptri, Et blandi mores, atque artes mille benigni Tmperii ?—At non sola dedit pax aurea laudem ; Nev minus emicuit memorabile nomen in armis, Per mare, per terras, quacunque sub auspice tanto Anglia victrices turmas metuenda per orbem Miserit, extremasque Indi tremefecerit oras, Sanguineumve Crucis signum (dirum hostibus omen !) Dant ventis agitare per equora lata carine, ‘Ah! recalling him, how oft, with faithful hearts, will Britons sigh for the King of whom they have been bereft: how oft with fresh grief will the loss of so dear a one come back, whilst to their minds recur his true paternal solicitude, his love of the sacred right; the gentle graci- ousness of his sway, his condescending manner, his countless modes of exercising a benignant rule! Yet not alone did golden peace win him renown: not less did his name shine forth conspicuous for deeds of arms, by sea and land; wherever, under guardianship so august, England, feared throughout the world, hath sent forth her victorious bands, and made tremble the remote shores of the Indus; wherever her ships unfold to the winds on the broad sea, the blood-red cross, to foemen, presage of woe!”’ A fellow-commoner of Trinity, John Cussans, contributed some Alcaics; and therein he imagines the shade of George IJ. in Hades meeting the shades of his son Frederick and of his own Queen Caro- line. The substance of their talk, which is about affairs in the upper regions, is briefly given. Whilst they converse, the ghost of Wolfe joins them for a moment. It will be remembered that George III. was not the son, but the grandson of George II. : Prolis frequentes ut juvat invicem Audire plausus! Ut, patrie memor, Uterque victrices Britanntiim Assidua bibit aure laudes! Nec longum; et altis gressibus Wolfius, Visa corona, se socium inserit ; Belli tumultus usitatos Victor adhuc meditatur Heros: Fractoque postquam milite Galliam Suetis fugatam cedere finibus eo [ee] ban | CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. Exzaudit, inceptisque culmen Appositum subito triamphis, Letus citato se rapit impetu, Nec plura quezrit: tum sua, conscia Virtute nixus, gesta crebré Dinumerat, patriasque laurus, “How it delighteth them mutually to hear the frequent commenda- tions of their descendant! Still mindful of fatherland, how each of them drinks in with eager ear the praises of the victorious British race ! Nor is the interval long before, observing the concourse, Wolfe, with solemn stride, joins them: the victor-hero even yet thinks over the turmoils of war to which he was used; and when he hears that Gaul, its military power broken, hath been made to flee from its wonted limits and to succumb; and that to the triumph begun by himself a crown was swiftly put, he, filled with joy, hurries away, and asks no more. Then, sure of his own conscious merit, he rapidly reckons up his own exploits and his country’s glories.” It will not be altogether out of place to mention here that Cruden dedicated the first edition of his well-known Concordance to the Queen Caroline, of George IL., and to give a specimen of the style he employs addressing her on the occasion : “ The beauty of your person,” he says, “ and the fine accomplishments of your mind, were so celebrated in your father’s court, that there was no prince in the Empire, who had room for such an alliance, that was not ambitious,of gaining a princess of such noble virtues into his family, either a3 a daughter or as a consort. And though the heir to all the dominions of the house of Austria was desirous of your alliance, yet you generously declined the prospect of a crown that was inconsistent with the enjoyment of your religion.” The talent and skill of several members of the magnificent college of Christ Church, graduate and undergraduate, noble, gentle and simple, were put in requisition. For one, we have Viscount Beauchamp, eldest son of the Earl of Hertford, expressing himself in dignified heroics. (His full name and style stand as a signature at the end of his composition in this wise: “ Franciscus Seymour Conway, Vice- Comes de Beauchamp, Honoratissimi Comitis de Hertford, Fil. natu maximus, ex Aide Christi.”) The piece is addressed Ad Regem, in the usual strain. We quote the passage which contains the word America: Aspice jam quantis se attollat gloria rebus Angligeniim! spoliis illic, frenoque potita Supposito victrix dominatur in equore classis; 888 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. Hic nova captivis fluitant insignia muris Americe; validas sensit Germania vires, Sensit et extremus septem per flumina Ganges, ce. de, “Lo! by what exploits the glory of the English race mounts high! Yonder, possessing itself of spoils and of the power of control, their victorious fleet dominates the subject ocean: here, from the captured fortresses of America their ensign floats, a novelty. Germany hath felt their prowess: remote Ganges along its sevenfold tide hath felt it.” Charles Agar, B.A., student of Christ Church, likewise addresses the King. He introduces the St. Lawrence by name: Jam Britonum genus omne simul Regemque Patremque Te solum vocat, afflictis succurrere rebus Qui poteris, reenoque graves impendere curas. Seu spectas vestris Libyz qua terra subacta Imperiis effundit opes, et: letius effert Libertas se pulchra, jugo vinclisque soluta Jam primim: seu qua sevo Germania fervet Milite, tot cedes nondum miserata suorum, Trarum impatiens: seu qua Laurentius amnis Litora jam tandem pacatis alluit undis, Hee tibi sint cure, Tuque hee servare memento, “‘ Thee solely, the whole British race salutes at once King and Father, as being able to give aid to their troubled affairs, and to bestow earnest care on the Empire. Whether thy glance is directed to where Libya, subjected to thy sway, pours forth her wealth, where fair Freedom bears herself all the more joyously for now being for the first time from yoke and fetter released; or to where Germany, with her fierce soldiery, rages, unable to restrain her wrath, unpitying yet the multiplied deaths of her own sons; or to where the Laurentian stream laves its shores at length at peace. Let these possessions be thy care: these possessions be thou mindful to guard.” Another member of Christ Church, Robert Bernard, a fellow-com- moner, vents his patriotic enthusiasm in senarian iambics. We give the sentence in which he finely personifies the St. Lawrence, as poets are wont'to do with noble streams. He applies to the Canadian stream the title of ‘‘ Father,” which it is awkward to attach in English to our river. We can say with propriety Father Thames, Father Rhine, Father Tiber; but from the associations connected with the proper name ‘St. Lawrence,” we feel that it is impossible poetically to prefix “Father”? to it, when designating our river. He alludes to pageants CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 389 exhibited in the streets during the rejoicings for successes in the Hast and West. The Latin signature at the end informs us that Mr. Lernard was the eldest son of a baronet. It thus runs: ‘‘ Robertus Bernard, Bar. Fil. Nat. Max., ex Aude Christi, sup. ord. com.’”’? He apostro- phises Britain : O prole gestiens virim, Britannia, Cui cerule per impotentia freta Dedere fasces imperi Nereides, Quali tuorum leta plausu compita, .Cum rapta Georgio viderent auspice Tropeea victis hostibus deducier ! Hic aurifer reconditos Ganges sinus Tibi reclusit ; hic pater Laurentius Ibat minori vortice; hie portus tuos Alacris subacto pinus intrat Hespero, ce. &e. “Q Britain! rejoicing in a progeny of true men, to whom over all the raging seas the green Nereids have given the fasces of empire, with what cheering from thy sons were thy streets made joyous, when, under the auspices of thy George, they beheld the trophies won from the vanquished foe borne along! Here for thee the gold-bearine Ganges disclosed its sinuous windings long concealed: here St. Lawrence (pater Laurentius) flowed, its whirling tide abashed: here, the Western world subdued, thy swift barks are seen entering its ports, now thine own.” John Wodehouse, also the eldest son of a baronet, and a fellow-com- moner of Christ Church, adopts the metre chosen by Mr. Bernard. He cleverly imagines a veteran narrating, over his cups, to his great grand- son, exploits destined to be performed during the reign of the new King. He expressly names America, and refers to its vast lakes: Festis diebus letus inter pocula Miles, revinctus lanred canum caput Hoe Rege gesta, vel triumphos nobiles Jactabit olim: et, Georgii senis memor, Qui militaret ipse patria procul, Quz dux et ipse gloriosa fecerint: Americe sinus, et immanes lacus, Comata sylvis montium cacumina, Gravesque lapsus fluminum, urbium situs, Et barbarorum corpora, et vultus truces, Et seva dicat arma, et usus horridos: Dum mira pronepos stupebit andiens, Et vera forsan credet esse fabulas, 390 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. “ Joyful amid his cups on festive days, his gray head crowned with laurels, the soldier will boast hereafter of his exploits under this King, and noble triumphs won; and, remembering the former George, who himself also waged wars far from fatherland, will tell of glorious deeds done by himself and his chief; will tell of the gulfs and huge lakes of America, of mountain summits clothed with forests, of sternly-rushing rivers, of finely seated cities, of the forms and murderous looks of savages, of their dire implements of war, their horrific customs: whilst his great-grandson, listening to these marvels, will stand amazed, and, it may be, deem fabulous that which is true.” We have in the Gentleman’s Magazine for March 1759, a glimpse, somewhat too realistic, of a group, of whom it is to be hoped some survived to fulfil the poet’s prediction : “On Tuesday, the 13th instant,’ we are told, “about eighty Highlanders, wounded at the battle of Ticonderago, in America, set out from Portsmouth in waggons, in order to be sent, some to hospitals for cure, others to Chelsea Hos- pital, and the rest to return to their own country. Some of them, it is added, were so lacerated by the slugs and broken nails which the enemy fired, that they were deemed incurable.” The Regius Professor of Medicine, Dr. John Kelly, also a member of Christ Church, gives proof that the cares of his profession had not caused him to forget how to construct hexameters. We extract the passage where he names America. He is eulogising the late King: Virtutis precepta secutus Impiger ille aderat qua dive causa vocabat Libertatis ; eam firma defendere dextra Unica erat cura: Americ quin barbara Pubes Jura Britannorum sevis agnovit in oris, Duraque consuerant mitescere corda, Georgt Presidio &e. ‘“‘Qbeying the dictates of valour, wherever the cause of god-like Liberty summoned, he was instantly present: her to defend with strong right hand was his one care. Moreover, under the guardianship of our George, the barbarian youth of America, in all their savage coasts, became acquainted with the laws of Britons, and their stern hearts erew familiar with gentleness.” Here is a brief extract from the production of another Christ Church man, John Crewe, senior, a fellow-commoner. He names Canada: En! nomen Britonum quaqua patet Orbis, ab Ortu Solis.ad Occasum, veneratur decolor Indus CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 391 ‘Qui Gangen potat, Canadzeve in montibus errans Incultus, certo sibi victum quzritat arcu. “‘Lo! wherever the wide world spreads, from rise to set of sun, the swart Indian reveres the British name: the Indian who quaffs the Ganges, and he who, wandering rude on Canadian hills, is ever on the search, with unerring bow, for food.” Once more: a member of Christ Church, a fellow-commoner, bearing a name of archaic tone, Chaloner Arcedeckne, appears as an encomiast of the late King, whose shade he addresses. While recounting the perils from climate experienced in the war on this continent, he names the St. Lawrence, thus : Tu, crescentem, Rex magne, Britannis Latitis extendens per inhospita litora famam, Tentabas nova bella; licet de montibus altis Concretas nive devolvat Laurentius undas, Pennatusque gerat miles furtiva sub aspris Bella latens dumis, et sylva tectus opaca. “Thou, great King, while extending for the British people, wider than ever, over inhospitable regions, their growing fame, didst engage in novel warrings, despite the St. Lawrence rolling down from vast heights his glacial masses, and the feather-cinctured brave, waging a stealthy warfare, lurking in rough thickets, protected by dense forests.” My last extract in Latin will be from some choriambic stanzas, after the mannner of Horace in the ode Scriberis Vario, and elsewhere.- The author is no less a personage than the Duke of Beaufort of the day. He was of Oriel. The signature runs thus: ‘‘Illustrissimus Princeps Henrieus, dux de Beaufort, é coil. Oriel”? We again have Canada expressly mentioned. Under the name of Agrippa, the right-hand man of Augustus, the elder Pitt is personified. The young King is adroitly converted into Octavius; and George II. is then, with some appropriateness, spoken of as the deified Julius. The whole composi- tion shows great tact and skill. The poem is addressed to the new King. We select the passage where Canada is met with, in very classic company : ; Nec te peniteat quod mediis novus Rerum undis subeas: En lateri assidet Agrippa eloquiis et consiliis potens, Octavi Juvenis, Tuo ! Sevi illo moderante impavida manu Belli freena, niger solibus Africus, 892 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. Semotze et Canadie barbarus incola, Duris pellibus horridus, Senserunt Britontim quid potuit manus, Fortund comite et Consilio duce: Dum portu latuit Gallia conscio, Ventis surda vocantibus Orbem jam dubiis undique preeliis Vexatum, ad Superos sidere Julio Evecto, ecce tuis, maxime Principum, Pacandum auspiciis vides! ‘‘ Grieve not that thou, a novice, art plunging into the very midst of the waves of public affairs. Lo! at thy side, O young Octavius, sits an Agrippa, powerful in speech and counsel. While he with fearless hand hath been cuiding the reins of ruthless war, the African, sunburnt to blackness, and the savage denizens of far Canada, acest covered . with undressed skins, have felt what a band of Britons, attended by good fortune and guided by prudence, could do. Whilst deaf to the winds inviting her forth, Gaul hath within her secret haven hidden herself, lo! thou, O greatest of princes, now that the star of Julius has risen to the skies, beholdest the whole globe, long harassed on every side by dubious strifes, destined under thy auspices to be reduced to peace.” In November 20-22, 1759, Admiral Sir Edward Hawke, at the head of thirty-three ships of the line and frigates, partly destroyed and partly drove back into the river Villaine, the Brest fleet : “Tn attacking a flying enemy,” Sir Edward, in his despatch, says, “it was impossible, in the space of a short winter’s day, that all our ships should be able to get into action, or all those of the enemy brought to it. The commanders and companies of such as did come up with the rear of the French, behaved with the greatest intrepidity, and gave the strongest proof of a true British spirit. Tn the same manner, I am satisfied, would those have acquitted themselves, whose bad-going ships, or the distance they were at in the morning, prevented from getting up. When I consider the season of the year, the hard gales on the day of action, a flying enemy, the shortness of the day, and the coast we were on, I can boldly affirm, that all that could possibly be done, has been done. Had we had but two hours more daylight, the whole had been totally Rosey or taken, for we were almost up with their van when night overtook us.’ From one of the exercises in Greek verse, I made a brief excerpt, because it exhibited the name of Canada, which, as we have seen before, falls very readily into the ranks, in the nomenclature of the Greek language. J. Wills, scholar of Wadham, laments the death of the King in a strain quite Theocritean, thus : Bees a. =~ CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 393 Ot rapa tov Tayyny tepov peAavexpoes “Ivdoi @avpalovro yépovt epuxvdéo, wavra ddpovrTa- Kat KANAAH Tdddovs exfap Bos dparo piyovras, Xeipas dpecapevyn Te Kal OpKia Tord TALOVTO. Airds 6, at, viv dder’, ddevKel Brer odeOpu PiAraros, at, Bacideds, wey drddAero xappya Bperavywy. ‘The swart Hindoos, on the banks of the sacred Ganges, wondered at the illustrious old man who conquered all things; and Canada, amazed, beheld the Gauls routed, stretching forth her hands and enter- ing into firm treaties. But He, alas! now hath perished, hath perished by a woeful stroke. The King best beloved, alas! the chief joy of the British race, hath perished !” “The chief joy of the British race hath perished!” Curiously enough, Thackeray, in his “‘ Four Georges,”"avers that the death of George II. was the beginning of an era of misfortune to England. “Tt was lucky,’ he says, ‘‘for us that our first Georges were not more high-minded men; especially fortunate that they loved Hanover so much as to leave England to have her own way. Our chief troubles began when we got a King who gloried in the name of Briton, and, being born in the country, proposed to rule it.” Here is a specimen of the scenes going on among “the swart Hin- doos,”’ along the Coromandel coast, in 1759. We quote from a report on the French side. On the 29th of April, Count Dache is off the town of Gondelour, in command of the French fleet, when a signal is given of the approach of an English squadron of nine ships. The narrative then proceeds: M. Dache immediately drew up in line of battle. At two in the afternoon the engagement began, and continued till night with great vivacity on both sides. The English retired to Madras, to repair the damage they had received. On June Ist, the English fleet, after being repaired at Madras, was again seen approach- ing. Count Dache immediately got under sail; but the English, rather than venture a second engagement, again retired to the coast of Madras. On the 26th of July, the English fleet again appeared; and on August 3rd, at one in the afternoon, an engagement began, ‘ which continued with the utmost fury for above two hours.’? The English squadron suffered greatly in the action; and Count Dache, the account says, would have had the whole advantage, had it not been for the accident that happened on board his ship and the Comte de Provence, by the combustibles or fire-arrows which the English, contrary to all the rules 394 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN, and customs of war, threw on board. The Comte de Provence was the first that suffered : all her sails and mizenmast took fire, and the flames spread to the quarter-deck, so that the whole ship would have been consumed, had not the captain of the Duc de Bourgogne shot in between the Comte de Provence and the English vessel, which conti- nued firing broadsides, after expending all her combustibles. It was with the utmost difficulty the captain of the Comée de Provence extin- guished the fire on board his ship. The same thing kappened to the Zodiaque, with this difference, that the fire having gained the powder- room, she was on the point of blowing up, but was saved by the sHeeat: of the officers. The French fleet retired, and anchored before Pondicherry on the following day. We were not again attacked. The number of French killed was 251; of wounded, 602. From a set of heroics conttibutéd to the Oxford volume by the Regius Professor of Greek himself, in the grand old tongue of which — he was the official guardian in the university, I made no extract, as no use was made therein of the local names with which I was immediately concerned. I noted, however, that the professor did not accentuate his Greek; and that he bore a name which some years back was imagined to have a sound somewhat unclassical, even in English; but which, by association, now possesses a fine ring. ‘The signature attached to the exercise alluded to was “8S. Dickens,” with the Academic suffixes of “§.T.P., ex Adde Christi, Ling. Greecee Professor Regius.”’ Ainong the poetical offerings at the tomb of the deceased King, and before the throne of his youthful successor, there were sever in English also, duly preserved and splendidly printed in the volume which has been engaging our attention. A few specimens of these are pow given, containing either the name of Canada or allusions to locali- ties with which Canadians are familiar. The first will be from a set of very good Spenserian stanzas, by “the Right Honorable the Earl of Donegal, M.A., of Trinity College.” The Genius of the Western World is represented as appearing to Columbus during his first adventurous voyage. Among other coming events, she reveals to him the conquest by the second George of the region which she represents, his sudden decease, and the fact that a young King would succeed him, and earry on triumphantly the work begun. She broaches by anticipation the Monro doctrine, but in the interest of Great Britain. She exhibits no prescience of the diminu- tion which the mee was destined speedily to suffer. The Genius speaks : CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 395 “Lo! then whate’er old bards, in mystic lore, Of regions blest, Hesperian coasts, have told, In me shall be revealed. From shore to shore, From Pole to Pole, one Empire I behold! From Albion’s cliffs a mighty King shall send Secure dominion: mid the brave career, Howe’er to death his honour’d eld descend A youthful prince shall seize his massy spear, » Shall rise his grandsire’s conquering race to run, To rule, to bless the realms the hoary Warrior won.” W.H. Reynell, scholar of New College, contributed a copy of verses in the style'and form of “‘Gray’s Elegy.” He poetically styles Canada, or New France, ‘‘ Laurentia.”’ In “royal towers,’ there is probably an especial allusion to Montreal and Louisbourg; also, it may be, to Quebec, and to the important forts, which had been captured from the French, of Beauséjour, Niagara, Frontenac, Ticonderoga, Crown Point and Isle Royal. After alluding to the military intervention of Great Britain on the continent of Europe, he proceeds : “Nor yet for you, Germania, fayour’d land, Alone her heroes fight, her blessings fall ; Another clime demands her“fostering hand, Glory commands: who hears not glory’s call? Happy Laurentia, to thy farthest shore, Lavish of life, a chosen band she led; And to those royal towers her standard bore, Whence fell Oppression, Gallic tyrant, fled.” In Wright’s Caricature History of the Georges, a portion of a sati- rical picture, of the year 1754, is given, in which the British lion is represented as plucking feathers from the tail of a Gallic cock; the feathers under the lion’s paw being severally inscribed with the names of the French forts in North America, ‘‘ Beau Séjour,” ‘“ Fort St, John,” “Crown Point,” “Qhio,” ‘“ Quebec,” &e. S. Bradbury, commoner of Wadham, adopted, in his exercise, the ordinary English epic measure. He expressly employs the epithet ‘‘Canadian.”’ All the successes of the British arms during the late reign are attributed to the King himself. Thus he speaks : “‘ Witness, thou sun, whose vivid beams are shed On every clime, how wide his conquests spread, Or on the Atlantic, or Pacific main, Or Libya, or the bleak Canadian plain.” 396 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. Henry Theodore Broadhead, gentleman commoner of Trinity College, wrote in blank verse. He employs the epithet ‘ Canadian.” With him “ Laurentia” denotes the river St. Lawrence. Ontario and Hrie ficure in his composition. He anticipates the re-establishment of peace, and the gratitude of the world to George III. He even conceives the existence, at a future day, of an “‘ Oxford” on “the Atlantic shores,” nay, a ‘‘fane to science sacred” on ‘‘ Ontario’s meads,” ‘‘ where nature revels most ;””? a devoted University, where, “‘a thousand ages hence,” professors, graduates and undergraduates would be, like himself and his compeers in their day, chanting the glories of one ‘“ born of Brunswick’s line.” ‘We shall observe, however, that Mr. Broadhead had not as yet been put in possession of accurate information as to the fauna and flora of the surroundings of his expected seat of learning. He sings of ‘Canadian bards” reclining beneath ‘the plantane or the citron grove,’ and of the “hunter youth” of the land feasting on “ the boar ’’—the boar, it is presumed, taken in the chase. * What realms remote Shall bless his potent influence, when the fiend, Insatiate War, with carnage gorged, shall drop The blunted spear, reluctant, at his word And gracious call! The tawny tribes that watch The lion’s footsteps, in the sultry sands Cf Afric printed ; the furr’d swains that pine Near Hudson’s frozen straits, in games uncouth, Around their midnight fires, shall meet to praise His name rever’d, who joins to distant Thames Laurentia’s thundering waves. In numbers wild, Wild above rule or art, Canadian bards, Beneath the plantane stretch’d or citron grove, Shall carol George’s acts: the hunter youth Shall listening stop in full career, and leave The boar untasted. The true hero scorns The warrior’s meaner fame, exults to spread Concord and harmony, and social life Guard and refine. The time may come when Peace, Diffusing wide her blessings, on thy banks, Romantic Erie, or Ontario’s meads, Where Nature revels most, may build a fane To science sacred; snatch the murderous knife From the grim savage, tame his stubborn heart With arts and manners mild, and gently bind In true Religion’s golden band, the States Of lawless, hapless wanderers. There may rise CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 397 Another Oxford, on the Atlantic shores Still fond, a thousand ages hence, to chaunt Some future hero born of Brunswick’s line.” The establishment of universities on this northern continent early entered into the schemes of phijanthropists. Harvard University was founded in 1636, and Yale in 1700. Bishop Berkeley’s name is asso- ciated with a chivalrous effort of the kind in the reign of George II. But his institution was to be set up in Bermuda, or “the Summer Islands,”’ for the benefit of “‘the youth of our English plantations.” Swift, in a letter to Lord Carteret, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, in 1724, introduces Berkeley and his scheme in the following humorous style: “« He (Berkeley) is an absolute philosopher with regard to money, titles and power, and for three years past hath been struck with a notion of founding a university at Bermuda, by a charter from the Crown. * * He shewed me a little tract, which he designs to publish, and there your Excellency will see his whole scheme for a life academic-philoso- phic of a college founded for Indian scholars and missionaries, where he most exorbitantly proposeth a whole hundred a-year for himself, forty pounds for a fellow, and ten fora student. His heart will break if his ‘deanery be not taken from him, and left at your Excellency’s disposal. * * Therefore do I humbly entreat your Excellency,” Swift continues, ‘‘either to use such persuasions as will keep one of the first men for learning and virtue quiet at home, or assist him by your credit to com- pass his romantic design, which, however, is very noble and generous, and directly proper for a great person of your excellent education to encourage.” Berkeley’s famous lines, written in prospect of the speedy establishment of his college, partake of the exalted ideas indulged in by the Oxford versifier : “There shall be sung another golden age, The rise of empire and of arts, The good and great inspiring epic rage, The wisest heads and noblest hearts. Not such as Europe breeds in her decay; Such as she bred when fresh and young, When heavenly flame did animate her clay, By future poets shall be sung.” - The establishment of a university formed, it will be remembered, a part of Governor Simcoe’s scheme for the organization of his new province of Upper Canada. To account for the epithet ‘ romantic,” applied to Lake Erie, we must have recourse to the early French Brit an) Sabet << , Ota ev, 398 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN, writers on America. La Hontan, in: his Memoires de ? Amérique Septentrionale, unaccountably says of that sheet of water: “ C’est assurément le plus beau qui soit sur la terre.” (Gi. 20.) Charlevoix, as he journeys along its northern coast, writes more calmly; but even he employs such language as the following: ‘‘In every place where I landed, I was enchanted with the beauty and. the variety of the landscape, bounded: by the finest forest in the world.” (ii. 2.) It is interesting to know that it was Charlevoix’s account of this. region that induced the distinguished pioneer of Canadian civilization, Col. Talbot, to form his settlement there. See ‘Life of Colonel Talbot,’ by Mr. Ermatinger, of St. Thomas, page 13; also Mrs. Jameson’s “‘ Winter Studies and Summer Rambles,” ii. 11. We come next to an extract, in vigorous blank verse, like the last, from a piece contributed by “Thomas Leigh, M.A., Magd. Coll.” He makes Britannia herself bemoan the sudden death of the King. She says: f What now avails That in the embattled field upon my spear Perch’d Victory, whilst o’er the subject main My conquering fleets have spread their canvas wing's From Ganges to the river on whose banks The scalping Indian, nursed in Murder’s arms, Quaff’d the ensanguined stream, which erst (ere Wolfe’s And Amherst’s heayen-assisted swords forbade) With British blood flowed purple to the vast Laurentine Gulf,” The Amherst here coupled with Wolfe is Major-General Jeffrey Awbherst, to whom Montreal was surrendered, September 8th, 1760. He was afterwards Lord Amherst. We have in the December number of the London Magazine, 1760, a ‘“ Martial Song” on the Taking of Montreal, with music: the whole ‘presented to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales.’ Ambherst is its hero. In a list of new publica- tions, given in the March number of the same volume of the London Magazine, an ode, entitled “ Canadia,” is mentioned; price 1s.; pub- lished by Dodsley: also “ Quebeck,” a Poetical Essay; price ls. 6d. In the blank verse of J. Fortescue, B.D., Fellow of Exeter College, we have some very strong expressions of regard for the late King. Posterity, it was predicted, would kiss the greensward once trod by him, at Kensington. The metaphor of the setting and rising sun is once more employed. Pitt is adroitly introduced; Canada is named, and CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 899 its conquest by Britain is patriotically declared to be a rescue from ‘¢ Gallic slavery.” Our extract thus proceeds: “No more thy walks, O Kensington, shall see A presence more august; nor shall thy plants Which grew beneath his fostering hand, perceive A kindlier influence. ‘Here he stood ’— ‘Here walk’d’—shall late posterity remark, And reverentially kiss the sacred ground,— ‘Planning with thee, O Pitt, successful schemes, Determining the fate of kingdoms; while Thy realms, O Canada, that too long groan’d The Gallic slavery beneath, restored To smiling freedom, own his gentle sway. Him as another sun the western world Revered declining, anxious for his fate, Till Thou, another orb, as heavenly bright, With every art and early virtue graced, The loss repairing, lead th’ auspicious Hours,’ ” Canada again is expressly named in the poem of ‘the Right Hon. the Earl of Abingdon, of Magdalen College.” He adopts the Pindaric style, and arranges his matter in a series of strophes and antistrophes. In a stanza relating to the triumphs of the reign of George II. in different quarters of the globe, he excitedly exclaims : “ Hark! hark! the feather-cinctured Muse that roves O’er Canada’s high-trophied shore, Calls to the sable nymph that dwells Amid the thunder-echoing cells Where Senegal’s rough waters roar,— Calls to the Muse sublime that: swells Her voice in Asia’s spicy groves, And oft her glowing bosom laves In the rich Ganges’ sparkling waves, To chaunt the triumphs that. haye crown’d The second George’s arms ; To chaunt the blessings they-have found In British virtue, ‘thro’ the world renown’d, And British freedom’s-unresisted charms.” ‘That the same ideas should occur to our versifiers:was, under the circumstanees, inevitable. We have several times already heard what «Thomas Foley, Gentleman Commoner of Magdalen,” says in his address to the shade of the departed King. The author was probably youthful. The excerpt is given for the sake of the name of Canada occurring therein: . 400 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. “George, thy giant race is run, Unclouded sets the British sun; Glory marks the parting rays, The vast Atlantic spreads its blaze From vanquish’d Canada to India’s main: Mighty Lord, on mortal sight Beams no more thy glorious light ; No more shall empire’s sacred toils, Asian triumphs, naval spoils, America’s extended reign, No more shall win thee from the realms of day ; Unfettered springs the soul, and spurns the abode of clay.” As a curiosity, the opening of Shute Barrington’s expression of Academie sorrow was selected. Canadians, proud as they are of their British descent, are nevertheless apt to forget the eponymous hero of their race. They may refresh their memories by a perusal of Shute Barrington’s address to the “‘ Genius of Britain.” He thus begins: “Genius of Britain! who with ancient Brute, Didst visit first this goodly soil, here fix Thy glad abode, with more than Argus’ watch To guard its welfare: say, for well thou know’st, When in thy pedple’s sorrow hast thou felt Thy deepest wound? When mourn’d thy heaviest loss?” It was not, he proceeds to explain, when Edward the Third, ever victorious over France, expired; nor when Elizabeth died; nor when William the Third departed this life; but when the late illustrious George deceased. As to Brute, the chronicles affirm that he was great- grandson of Aineas; and that in the year of the world 2855, he came to England from Troy, accompanied by certain Grecian philosophers ; that they settled first at Greeklade (Cricklade), in Wiltshire, and thence removed toa place called Ryd-ychen, a name, “ denotans,” says Antony & Wood, in his Historia et Antiquitates Universitatis Oxoniensis, p. 10, ‘‘vadum-boim, id est, Oxonium, apud Britannos.” At Totness, in Devonshire, I was shown, not long since, the “ Britstone,” which still marks the spot where Brute is said to have landed in Britain. The tide-water of the beautiful river Dart must have pushed farther inland in 2855 than it does at present. ‘The tradition indicates that here, at a very primitive period, traders from the Mediterranean exchanged commodities with the inhabitants of the Forest of Dartmoor and the ‘surrounding region. The whole signature of the writer of the verses of CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. A()} which a specimen has just been given, is as follows: ‘“‘ The Hon. Shute Barrington, M.A., Brother to the Lord Viscount Barrington, one of His Majesty’s Chaplains in Ordinary, and Fellow of Merton College.” He was afterwards a famous prince-bishop of Durham, and an early friend and patron of the late Bishop Phillpotts of Hxeter. Sir Gerard Napier, Bart., of Trinity College, furnishes some blank verse. Our extract was made for the sake of the adulatory reference to Pitt, who is represented as having begun to form, while yet a student at Oxford, plans ‘fatal to Gallia’s visionary hopes.” The elder Pitt had been a member of Trinity College, in that university. He himself, while there, had perpetrated Latin verse on the occasion of a royal death—that of George I. “Allen” is a river in Dorsetshire, which falls into*the Stour near Blandford. We gather from Sir Gerard’s words that certain members of the University had been honored with a request to write on the twofold occasion which Oxford in its loyalty desired to commemorate. He exhibits an affectionate appreciation of Oxford as a place of beauty, and as congenial to the pursuits of science. He thus speaks : “This humble strain, near Allen’s silver tide, That winds with vocal lapse its easy way To Blandford’s vale, from Rhedycina’s view Estrang’d, yet-mixing with the letter’d tribe, Mean suitor, I indite; nor of her call Unmindful, nor of that well-favour’d spot, Where late I traced the scientific page; Whose spacious walks and winding alleys green, With blended foliage sweetly interchang’d, Prompted to woo the solitary muse, And calm with noontide breeze intemperate heat. Blest haunt! where once, in speculative search, Industrious Pitt indulg’d the lonely step, And formed, deep-musing, the commercial plan, Fatal to Gallia’s visionary hopes: Who now his counsel sage with patriot zeal Dispenses, and unrivalled still attracts His Sovereign’s favour, and his country’s love.” The popularity of Pitt, at the time of the composition of these verses, was immense. It was the intention of the Corporation of London, that the bridge over the Thames, afterwards known as Black Friars, should bear the name of Pitt. The following is a translation of the inscription engraved on the plate deposited in the foundation- 402 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. stone of this bridge, on the 31st of October, 1760: “ That there might remain to posterity a monument of this City’s affection .to the Man who, by the strength of his genius, the steadiness of his mind, anda certain kind of happy contagion of his probity.and spirit (under the Divine favour and fortunate auspices. of George II.), recovered, aug- mented and secured the British. Empire in Asia, Africa and America, and restored the ancient reputation and influence of this country amongst the nations of Europe, the citizens of London have unani- mously voted this bridge to be inscribed with the name of WILLIAM Prrr??’ In a contemporary account of a royal visit to the city, in the year of the coronation, we have the following description of the reception given to Pitt by the crowd in the streets: ‘“ What was most remarkable,” the writer says (An. Reg. 1761, Chron. 237), “ were the prodigious accla- mations and tokens of affection shown by the populace to Mr. Pitt, who came in his chariot, accompanied by Harl Temple. At every stop, the mob clung about every part of the vehicle, hung upon the wheels, hugged his footmen, and even kissed his horses. There was a universal huzza; and the gentlemen at the windows and in the balconies waved their hats, and the ladies their handkerchiefs. The same, I am in- formed, was done all the way he passed along.” From the contribution of R. Heber, M.A., of Brase-nose Catan father of the well-known Bishop of Calcutta, Aes of the famous helluo librorum, Richard Heber, two lines were selected, on account of the familiar sound of one of them— “The brightest jewel in the British crown.” With us, I believe, this phrase is chiefly held to describe a colony of Great Britain, and Canada par excellence; but in the text where it is found, its application is to something quite different. It there appears as an apposition to an honorable prerogative enjoyed by the Sovereigns of England : . “ To reign in freeborn hearts is true renown, The brightest jewel in the British crown.” One more brief extract and we have done. There is again no reference by name to Canada or this continent therein, but it helps to illustrate the general contents of the volume which has been engaging our attention ; and is a specimen of a kind of production insipid enough, as it seems to us, but which was once in high repute not only in the CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 403 University of Oxford, but throughout England. The exercise of “the Right Hon. Lord Charles Grenville Montagu, second son of his Grace the Duke of Manchester, of Christ Church” (so runs the signature at its close), is a Pastoral, after the manner of one of the eclogues of Virgil. There is in the composition a curious mixture of the ancient and par- tially modern; of the classic and the Hnglish of the time of Chaucer. Two shepherds discourse: one of them dismally laments the recent death of him that was, as he speaks, ‘‘ hight of shepherds all, the King.” This old shepherd King is styled Tityrus. The successor to the pastoral monarch is then alluded to. One Dameetas, Colin, the speaker, says, has pointed him out to him—a youth, as he describes him, ce of peerless praise And modest mein, that ever generous mind betrays.” Dameetas himself, the shepherd observes, is one “ deeply skilled in wise foresight, and much of all admired for learned fame.’ The lines to which I confine myself are the address of Damecetas to Colin, on showing him the King: “ Colin, quoth he, thilk lovely Lad goes yon, Master is now of all this forest wide, (SY that great Tityrus his life hath done) And well shall keep: ne hence with sturdy stride Shall derring wolf our nightly folds annoy, Ne subtle fox, what time the lambs for dam ’gin cry.” Possibly this piece, with its antique, homely English, may have been relished as much as any in the volume by the young King, who in after years was popularly known as ‘Farmer George.” ‘ Thilk lovely lad goes yon”’ recalls the copper-plate frontispiece of the London Magazine for the year 1760, which represents the following scene, as explained to © the reader in the periodical itself: ‘‘ Britannia mourning over an urn, on which is the profile of his late Majesty. Justice and Religion are consoling her, by showing the person of our present most gracious Sovereign, accompanied by Liberty and Concord: PROVIDENCE is placing the British diadem on his head; Mercury, the god of Com- merce, with the Cornucopia at his feet, denoting the present flourishing state of our Trade. ‘The obelisk in the back-ground may serve to commemorate the death of his late Majesty.” All these symbolical objects are depicted with great spirit and grace: the young King is represented as a smiling stripling. 4 404. CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. George ITI. does not appear to have possessed the poetic sense very strongly. He expressed his regret that Milton had not written Paradise Lost in prose. In the spirit of complaisance, a “gentleman of Oxford” accordingly provided a version of the work in the form suggested by the royal taste. Occasionally a volume is to be met with in the old booksellers’ stalls, bearing the following title, ‘“ Milton’s Paradise Lost, State of Innocence and Fall of Man; rendered into Prose; with histo- rical, philosophical and explanatory Notes, from the French of Raymond de St. Maur, by a Gentleman of Oxford.” ‘This is the work. It is in octavo shape, and was printed at Aberdeen, in 1770. A poem on the death of George IT., by R. Warton, the Professor of Poetry, and the respectable author of the History of English Poetry, is preserved in the ‘‘ Hlegant Extracts.” From its contents, it appears to have been one of a number of contributions from Oxford. I am not sure that it was not the opening piece in the Bodleian folio. Warton indulges in the customary adulation of Pitt, and prays him to accept the volume as an appropriate offering from Oxford. ‘Lo! this her genuine love!”’ he says; and, writing from Trinity College, of which Society he was a fellow, he intimates that the gift will probably be all the more agreeable, as that was h7s college also—the college likewise, he takes occasion to say, where the great Lord Somers, the famous Chancellor and statesman of King William’s day, had studied; and where Harrington wrote his Oceana, a work, like the New Atlantis of Plato and the Utopia of More, descriptive of a transcendental human community. Thus he concludes, expressing the opinion that now, by the aid of Pitt, and under the auspices of the new King, the specula- tions of Harrington, on the subject of a perfect Commonwealth, are realized : | “Lo! this her genuine love |—Nor thou refuse This humble present of no partial muse, From that calm bower which nurs’d thy youth In the pure precepts of Athenian truth : Where first the form of British Liberty Beam’d in full radiance on thy musing eye; That form, whose mien sublime, with equal awe, In the same shade unblemish’d Somers saw: Where once (for well she lov’d the friendly grove Where every classic Grace had learn’d to rove) Her whispers wak’d sage Harrington to feign The blessings of her visionary reign; CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 405 That reign which now, no more an empty theme, Adorns Philosophy’s ideal dream, But crowns at last, beneath a George’s smile, In full reality this favour’d Isle,’’ Here my notes from the Bodleian folio end. We can gather from what has been presented, that which we gather also from the contemporary literature of the day, of every description, that in 1759, 760, ’61~64, Canada was occupying’a very large space in the public mind of England. The public imagination pictured to itself, after its own fashion, a con- quest of immense importance to the empire, and of immense extent; failing to master, nevertheless, after all, as events have proved, and still continue to prove, the true character and actual magnitude of the prize which had been won. Should England at a future time be stirred to put forth her strength for the retention, by force of arms, of this great region, it will be the tradition of the exultation of her people over the acquisition in 1759 that will move her to do so, more than the desire to hold possession of a domain unproductive of national advantage to herself directly—entailing, on the contrary, on herself several embar- rassments. Let the national pride be touched by a reawakening of the memories of the close of the second George’s reign, and the decision of England would be promptly expressed in the memorable language of good William the Fourth, when the Maine boundary question was in agitation,— Canada must neither be lost nor given away !”” We may be sure that Cambridge was not behind Oxford in its formal expressions of academic grief and joy on the demise of the crown in 1760. Cambridge was always held to be, in an especial degree, Hano- verian and Whiggish. Sir William Browne’s famous epigram will be remembered, on the Donation of Books by George I. to Cambridge, at the moment when, as it happened, a regiment of cavalry was being despatched to Oxford, in 1751 : “The King to Oxford sent a troop of horse, For Tories own no argument but force ; With equal care to Cambridge books he sent, For Whigs allow no force but argument,” This, it will be remembered, was in reply to Dr. Trapp’s wittivisiu on the same occasion, in the Oxford interest, which ran very irritatingly as follows: The King observing with judicious eyes, The state of both his Universities, 406 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. To one he sent a regiment; for why? That learned body wanted loyalty. To th’ other he sent books, as well discerning Tow much that loyal body wanted learning.” At the time of my last visit to the Public Library at Cambridge, my attention had not been turned to the point dwelt on in this paper. During the few hours that I was enabled to spend in that vast labyrinth of books, unsurpassed by the Bodleian itself in its air of venerableness and in the richness of its treasures, I was engaged in obtaining momen- tary glimpses of a Cicero de Officits, printed by Faust in 1466; a manuscript of the Bible, in English, of the year 1430; the Catholicon, printed in 1460, by Guttenberg; a copy of Coverdale’s Bible, and a multitude of Caxtons. Otherwise, a-volume of contemporary academic exercises of the date of 1760, fellow to that accidentally stumbled on at Oxford, might readily have been found. The shapes, style and flavour of the pieces would, without doubt, have resembled those of the samples that have been supplied to the reader with sufficient abun- dance from the ‘ Piectas Oxoniensis.”’ I find evidence of the existence of the Cambridge volume, in an epigram to be read among those in the *« Hlegant Extracts.” For the sake of a piquant antithesis, an epigram- matist will, as all the world knows, say almost anything. The assertion of this writer, therefore, that the Cambridge productions on this occa- sion were inferior to the Oxford ones, both being bad, has not much weight. It is entitled “The Friendly Contest,” and reads thus: “While Cam and Isis their sad tribute bring Of rival grief, to weep their pious King, The bards of Isis half had been forgot, Had not the sons of Cam in pity wrote; From their learned brothers they took off the curse, And proved their verse not bad by writing worse.” It is certain that Cambridge erected a magnificent statue of George the Second, of life size, in marble. It stands to this day on a pedestal in the Senate-house, on the left side as the visitor passes up to the Chancellor’s chair. The sculptor’s name was Wilton. I have spoken of this statue before, on more than one public occasion. It represents the King, according to the taste of the age, in the dress or undress of a Roman imperator. He leans on a truncated column, round which obliquely passes a series of medals commemorative of military successes ; and he encircles with his right arm a globe duly marked with meridian CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. AQT lines, and showing the Western hemisphere, across a goodly portion of which is engraven, in characters of a considerable size, the word CANADA. From the moment, long ago, when I made the discovery of this inscription, while in jest brushing off, ‘‘d@ da Niebuhr,” from the orb round which the arm of the King was thrown, some of the accumu- lated dust of years, this statue—which to persons in general is not especially attractive—became, to me, an object of peculiar interest; as, I think, it will also prove to any other Anglo-Canadian, who, when passing. through Cambridge, may, for the sake of seeing his country’s name in a situation so unique, step into the Senate-house and examine the statue which it contains of George II. The Latin and Greek pieces, from which we have been giving extracts, have rendered the idea of Canada in classic guise, and in the midst of classic surroundings, familiar to us. It happened that, like Stadacona, Hochelaga, Cacona, Kamouraska, Muskoka, and other now familiar names, Canada, in the lips of the first immigrants, underwent little or no change—none in the termination. In passing into Latin, it conse- quently required no manipulation to make it conform to the laws of that tongue. It became at once a feminine proper name of legitimate form, and admitted of “ declension,” like any other name of a country ending in a. In French, strangely, Canada is a masculine noun. We shall remem- ber that it used to be “ Bas Canada,” ‘‘ Haut Canada.” Had the word assumed, by some chance, a form resembling “ Acadie,” then it would have been feminine in French, on the analogy of the numerous feminine names of regions with that termination. And then in Latin» (as in English), it would have been Canadia, as from Acadie has come the beautiful word Acadia; and from Algérie, Algeria. (We have seen that there was a poem published in 1760, entitled ‘‘Canadia.’’) But entering the French language unchanged from the aboriginal tongue, it remains masculine. We may suppose “le pays” to be. understood before it; and that the full expression really is ‘the Canada country,” as we say, ‘‘the Lake Superior country,’ “ tha Hudson’s Bay country.’ The French poetic imagination must have suffered a certain degree of violence, when, as was recently the case, the ‘two Canadas”? were impersonated on the seal of the United Province by two tall, comely females. By a rule of French grammar, to this day “‘ Quebec” and ‘“ Ontario” are both of them of the male. 408 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. sex. Ona medal of Louis XIV. and elsewhere, the city of Quebec is ‘ Kebeca.’’) The most recent reappearance of “Canada” as a Latin word, is on ‘the massive and beautiful medal by Wyon, struck to perpetuate the memory of the confederation of the British North American Provinces. CANADA INSTAURATA is thereon to be read—CANADA RE-FOUNDED, CANADA RESTORED to more than its pristine significance, to more than its original comprehensiveness. The Dominion of Canada, according to the intention of the statesmen of the mother country, is to extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The name had never before such a wide application as this. ‘‘ New France,” the old synonym for Canada, was understood by French statesmen of the reigns of Louis XIV. and Louis XV., to cover a very large area. But the geographers of those days had not yet the data for mapping out the continent with any minuteness much to the west and north of the head waters of the St. Lawrence. New France was accordingly, in their conceptions, bounded in those directions probably by the limits of the basin of that river. The name ‘“ Canada”? has thus been destined to a wider and wider significance, in successive years. Asa territorial appellation, it was at the outset, as we all know, a mistake on the part of the first voyagers up the St. Lawrence. The natives, coming out to the ships from different points along the river, would point to their wigwams on the shore, articulating the word ‘‘ Kanata.” The new comers, under the influence of the old-world notion that every region must of necessity have a distinct appellation, imagined that they heard in the frequently repeated vocable, the name of the country into the heart of which they were penetrating. It was a mistake; for we do not find that the aborigines, either here or any where else, were in the habit of forming local generalizations. They designated particular spots from some striking physical feature, or from some occurrence happening there. For areas they had, in their primitive condition, no name, in the !uro- pean sense. Among the French, nevertheless, Canada became, in the manner just described, established as a regular territorial designation. The name attached itself also to the great river which had been their highway into the interior of the country. The Gulf had been named after St. Lawrence by Jacques Cartier, because he entered it on St. Lawrence’s day; but the river itself was known by the supposed desig- nation of a portion of the country through which it flowed. In the rude map accompanying my copy of the Periegesis of Dionysius, and CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 409 illustrating the additions of his continuator, the St. Lawrence is marked ‘‘ Blumen Canada;”’ and in the Greek text we have, as we have heard, the stream of the “fair-flowing Canada’? spoken of. In Hubert Jaillot’s old map of America, of the date 1692, examined by me in 1867, in the Library at Lambeth, the St. Lawrence is called ‘ Riviere du Canada.”’ In this map the sea along the whole coast of the present United States is also styled ‘‘ Mer du Canada.” Some of the old geographers undertook to teach that the country derived its name from the river, and so probably misled some of the writers in the Bodleian folio. Thus Gordon, in his “‘ Geography Anato- mized,” a work of repute, in its 6th edition, in 1711, in a section entitled ‘Terra Canadensis,” says the land is so called from the “ River Canada,” which divides it into two parts. The north part, he says, is called ‘Terra Canadensis Propria,”’ and contains Nova Britannia and Nova Francia. The southern part contains Nova Scotia, New England, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Carolina. ‘Terra Cana- densis Propria,” Gordon continues, being the northmost of all the rest, is esteemed none of the best; but being so slenderly known as yet, he candidly says, we pass on to Nova Britannia and the rest. And again: Morden, author of a quarto Geography bearing the date of 1680, at page 366, teaches to the same effect. ‘ Canada,” he writes, “so called from the river Canada, which hath its fountains in the undiscovered parts of this tract; sometimes enlarging itself into greater lakes, and presently contracting into a narrow channel, with many great windings and falls, having embosomed almost all the rest of the rivers. After a known eastern course of near fifteen hundred miles, it empties itself into the great bay of St. Lawrence, over against the Isle of Assumption [ Anticosti), being at the mouth 30 leagues in breadth, and 150 fathoms. deep. On the north side whereof, the French (following the track of Cabot) made a further discovery of these said northern parts, by the name of Nova Francia.” It is true that many countries and regions on this continent were named from rivers by the European immigrants, as Ohio, Arkansas, Delaware, Iowa, Tennesee; but not Canada. Morden’s expression, when he speaks of the river Canada “enlarging itself into greater lakes,” reminds one of Wordsworth’s allusion to the St. Lawrence in the Excursion, where he speaks of that Northern stream, That spreads into successive seas.” 410 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. In respect to the prosodiacal quantity of the penultimate syllable of “Canada,” we may notice that the pseudo-Dionysius quoted above makes it long, contrary to modern usage. He says, as we shall remember yainv kadéovor Kavddyv. In the exercises of the Oxford versifiers, on the contrary, the quantity of that syllable is held to be short. In this connection it may be remarked that in the Perigesis continued, and also in the pieces con- tained in the Bodleian folio, the first three syllables of ‘¢ America”’ form always « dactyl, in accordance with the popular pronunciation of the word. Nevertheless, by the old prosodiacal rule, ‘“ Derivativa eandem feré cum primitivis quantitatem sortiuntur,” the 7 is by nature long, as always in the Teutonic syllable ric or reic. America is from Americus, the latinization of the first name of Amerigo Vespucci. And Americus was a softened form of Albericus, as the name appears in my own copy of Peter Martyr De Rebus Oceanicis et Novo Orbe- Colonize 1574, where the editor Gervinus Calenius says the ‘ Divine Favour,” ‘terras novas majoribus incognitas, regibus catholicis, ductu atque auspiciis cum aliorum, tum imprimis Christophori Coloni sive Columbi, et Alberici Vespucii, patefecit.”’ One more observation relating to Canada in Latin guise must be subjoined. On the Confederation medal, bearing on its reverse the inscription Canada Instaurata, the Queen’s head is seen veiled and crowned. Posterity will understand the artist’s symbolism, and with more tenderness than some contemporaries manifested, will recall the touching devotedness of Victoria to the memory of the husband of her youth. The artist, in designing this interesting and grand head of the Queen, had doubtless in mind one of the medals of Livia, the Empress of Augustus, long ‘the mirror of Roman mothers,” as the Historian of the Romans under the Empire speaks (v. 165). There are three rather well-known medals of this Empress existing. On one of them she is represented simply as Empress, with the common legend Salus Augusta. On the second she is supposed to personify Justitia, Justice. On the third she is represented as Pietas. On this last the head is encircled with a tiara, and is veiled. This was struck by Drusus, her grandson, during his second consulship, as inscribed on the medal itself (DRVSVS. CAISAR. TI. AVGVSTI. F. TR. POT. ITER.), and represents Livia as the faithful widow of Augustus. It is curious to find in Tacitus (An. iii, 84) the record of an express quotation by SS CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. 411 Drusus at this particular period, of the example of Livia as formerly a devoted wite. ‘‘ Quoties,” he says, in a speech deprecating the threa- tened prohibition of public officers taking their wives with them into the provinces, “ quoties divum Augustum in Occidentem atque Orien- tem meavisse, comite Livia?” The legend, “Juventus et Patrius Vigor,” to be read on the Con- federation medal, is from the magnificent ode of Horace, usually entitled the ‘‘ Praises of Drusus”—the praises of the uncle, namely, of the Drusus who struck the medal in honor of Livia. The Drusi were a family in which bravery seemed to be hereditary. This is the burden of the ode. It was—the poet reminds the Roman people—one of this family that helped, as consul, to overthrow Hasdrubal at the Metaurus, B. C. 207, the event that brought about the final retirement of Han- nibal from Italy. Whoever it was that selected the legend for the medal, he has adroitly given a hint therein of the modern policy of Great Britain in relation to the colonies as they become populous and strong. They may be timidly anxious still to keep under her wing; but when full- fledged, they must be taught to undertake for themselves. Juventus et patrius vigor, as the words stand in ‘‘The Praises of Drusus,” are the qualities or instincts moving a now mature young eagle, at the very instant of his quitting the nest, to provide bravely for himself, however unwonted before was such an occupation. The young soldier, Drusus, step-son of Augustus, has no sooner quitted the home where he had been reared and trained, than, by a splendid victory, won amidst the defiles and fastnesses of the Tyrolean Alps, he lays the whole empire under an enduring obligation. He is consequently compared by the poet to the only just fledged but spirited young eaglet-— “Whom native vigor and the rush : Of youth have spurr’d to quit the nest, And skies of blne in springtide’s flush, Entice aloft to breast The gales he fear’d before his lordly plumes were drest,— Now swooping, eager for his prey, Spreads havoc through the flutter’d fold,— Straight, fired by love of food and fray, In grapple fierce and bold The struggling dragons rends even in their rocky hold.” The application is obvious. This famous fourth ode of the fourth book of the Odes was previously associated with Canadian history. A412 CANADA IN THE BODLEIAN. The inscription on the seal of the former Province of Lower Canada was from it— “ Ab ipso Ducit opes animumque ferro.” A part of it also is the Alcaic stanza familiar to recipients of pe at Upper Canada College, from the time of its foundation: “ Doctrina sed vim promovet insitam, * Rectique cultus pectora roboranti, Utcunque defecere mores Dedecorant bene nata culpe.” The inscription on the seal of the Province of Upper Canada was also from Horace: “ Imperi Porrecta Majestas * * * Custode rerum Cesare.” But this was from the fourteenth ode of the fourth book. Formerly Virgil was held to be a source of mystic oracular responses; but with colonial ministers Horace has evidently been the favorite for such pur- poses. One of them (Lord Lytton) has even given the world a trans- lation of the odes and epodes of Horace. The seal of the province of Quebec before the division of the country into Upper and Lower Canada may be seen figured on the title page of “The Laws of Lower Canada,’ printed at Quebec, by J. Neilson, in 1793. Its motto, “ Externe gaudent agnoscere metzx,’ which is to be found neither in Virgil nor Horace, seems to indicate the supposed pleasure with which the new monarch was welcomed after the con- quest. A king, crowned and robed, stands before a map unrolled, and points with his sceptre towards the St. Lawrence. The legend round the outer edge of the seal i is “¢ Stgellum Provinctze Nostree Quebecensis in America.” ON THE CAUSE OF GLACIER MOTION, BY JOSEPH L. THOMPSON. The cause of glacial action, or, as it is more briefly termed, the ‘glacial theory,’ has been a favorite subject of discussion among geologists, from Dr. Buckland downwards. ‘The effects of glacial action, though apparent enough in many imperishable markings and strize in the rocks and mountain-sides in various countries in both the ON THE GAUSE OF GLACIER MOTION. 413 old and new world, have now been satisfactorily explained. That the scratches and groovings referred to have been, and, indeed, only could have been caused by the action of rocks and stones imbedded in ice and forced over the surface of the earth, seems to have been admitted by all; but, how such immense masses of ice, extending over superficies of many square miles, should have been so impelled, has, I believe, hitherto been considered a mystery; at least, so far as I know, no-cause adequate for such tremendous results has been suggested. It may be considered presumptuous in one unknown to scieuce, to. venture to offer a solution of a mystery that has, till now, eluded the attempts of the scientific word; but I believe it to be better to try and do good, even with the certainty of failing, than to sit down in apathy without making the attempt. Jt is a well known fact that all glaciers have an onward, or progressive motion. The immense heaps of rocks, stones, mud, &c. (moraines), which mark the limits of glaciers, prove this beyond a doubt; as do also the differences between the summer and winter limits of the same glaciers. This motion is invariably in a direction from its source in the mountain to its extremity in the valley (for it is necessary to the forma- tion of a river of ice that it should be confined at each side, as its lateral expansion would deprive it of its distinctive character: a valley, there- fore, is an indispensable condition of a glacier), irrespective altogether of the inclination of the bottom of the valley; thus disproving the gravitation theory of Prof. Forbes, of Edinburgh, which for some time obtained favor among geologists, though, in my opinion, the theory of ‘Prof. Agassiz, of Switzerland, was, albeit short of the truth, neverthe- less,a much nearer approach to it. He imagined that the glacier being full of chinks, owing to its being composed of snow and ice, and on its being exposed to the action of the rays of the sun portions of the ice were melted, the water flowed into these chinks; and thus, by the alternate thawing and freezing of the water so lodged, the movement of the whole mass was effected. Surely never was the solution of a great scientifie difficulty so nearly attained: another step, and it had been solved. Itseems to me that the great defect in the learned Professor’s reasoning lies in this, that the progressive motion is ascribed to the alternate thawing and freezing of the water in the cavities in the glacier, and the consequent contraction and dilatation of the water, and, by that much unly, of the volume of the glacier! Now, if this were true, absolutely, it would apply with equal force to the glacier throughout its 414 ON THE CAUSE OF GLACIER MOTION. entire course; whereas, as all glaciers originate above the line of per- petual snow, it is obvious that however well this theory may apply to as much of it as the rays of the sun might affect so as to melt it, it is absolutely certain. that it could not apply to that portion where the ice does not melt. Another reason must therefore be sought for, that will apply to the glacier as a whole. I venture, then, with all deference, to submit the following as one that, whether it solve all the difficulties of this difficult question or not, is, I think, worth a moment’s considera- tion. The alternate thawing and freezing, that is, the expansion and contraction of the glacier, of the enormous mass of ice itself, consti- tutes the motive power of this extraordinary phenomena. The melting and congealing of the water in the chinks are opposing, not assisting, forces; because, although water in the act of freezing does expand, this takes place generally and in the greatest degree at night; therefore the contraction of the bulk of the water is not coincident with, but in opposition to the expansion of the volume of the glacier by the action of the sun, which takes place during the day; and the act of contract- ing, consequent on the diminished temperature, and therefore increased density, or, which is the same‘thing, diminished bulk, takes place at night, the very time that, according to Agassiz’s theory, the greatest dilatation of the mass ought to take place. These are antagonistic forces, whose effects must be neutralized. These, added to the stupen- dous vis inertiz of the glacier itself, show the amazing power of the apparently simple action of difference of temperature upon inert matter. The resultant is easily predicated. The mass, being once set in motion, moves in accordance with a known universal law of nature, i.e., that. expansive forces move in the direction of the least resistance, that is, downwards towards the lower and wider extremity of the valley. It | may be, and generally is, assisted by the formation of the sides and bed of the valley and laws of gravitation; though were these aids absent, it would still advance in that direction, because, being frozen and solid at the upper extremity, it could not move towards that. It is therefore shut up to go the other way, that is, in the line of the least resistance. This seems to me to be the rationale of the onward motion of modern glaciers; and I see nothing in it which will bar its application to a system or series of glaciers, however extensive, however great, the operation of the laws which reculate the movements of matter being absolute and invariable. | Lindsay, February 17, 1870. Te WWE © CORVRNG Eid: PIKE vs. NICHOLAS. In an article in the last number of the Canadian Journal, entitled s‘ Race Head-forms and their Expression by Measurements,” reference was made to a suit prosecuted in the English Court of Chancery, before the Vice-Chancellor, Sir W. M. James, in which Mr. Luke Owen Pike, a graduate of Oxford, and member of Lincoln’s Inn, author of “ The English and their Origin, a Prologue to Authentic English History,” charged Dr. Thomas Nicholas, a professor in Carmarthen College, with plagiarism, literary piracy, and appropriation of the contents of that work, in the production of his “‘ Pedigree of the Hnglish People.” The suit is one of great interest to literary men, as it raised questions involving the practical interpretation of the law of copyright, and the whole bearings of their vested rights in their own brain-work. There is something curious in the very prosecution of a suit for the restitution of a man’s rights in reference to his own published thoughts and inductions, which is calculated to arrest attention as a characteristic phase in the highly artificial development of modern civilization. In this respect the student of science stands at a peculiar disadvantage. The novelist or other caterer for popular tastes receives in general so abundant a pecuniary reward as to furnish no inadequate compensation, were his literary claims in any danger of invasion. But the laborious researches of the student of science rarely produce any more practical return for the cost of publication, than the reputation thereby acquired. It is not, therefore, to be wondered at if authors of scientific treatises should be found prone to evince even undue sensitiveness in reference to the misappropriation of the fruits of their literary toil. It chanced that the readers of this journal had a special interest in some of the questions raised in the suit of Pike v. Nicholas ; for while plaintiff and defendant figured in the reports of the trial as contending for originality of views, or priority of publication, in reference to sundry results of ethnical study and research, we had no difficulty in showing that many of those had been published by us years before, in the pages of this journal, as well as in original works. The occasion was a legiti- mate one for reclaiming our own; for more than one contributor to this journal has had repeated reason to complain of such ignoring of his 416 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. published views, and misappropriation of his labours. Soon after its publication, however, we received a letter from the defendant, Professor Nicholas, protesting against the article in question, in which, as he says, ‘with no purpose to injure, I am quite sure, but doubtless out of zeal for justice and literary honor, you do me and a book which I recently published (‘The Pedigree of the Hnglish People’), a great injustice. That book and its author, I am happy to tell you, have been fully vindicated before the High Court of Appeal in Chancery.” Dr. Nicholas further adds: “From what quarter you got the ex parte statement of facts on which you rely, I do not know; but it was clearly a quarter wholly unworthy of reliance. You have, however, based your remarks upon the facts given you, and taken Vice-Chancellor James’s judgment as just and final; whereas, as now proved, it was neither the one nor the other. That judgment was at once declared, by all mea acquainted with the two books, and capable of understanding the question, as absurdly unfair; and while you were making use of it in Canada to bring down upon the temporary victim a greater weight of odium, I was engaged here in vindicating, before the Lord Chancellor and Lord Justice Giffard, my own rights as an author, and collaterally your right to priority in the very matters in which you claim priority in your article of November last. As you will see from the pamphlet I send by this post,* the Vice-Chancellor’s judgment has been dismissed without hesitation, and the merits of my book, as an honest and independent production, properly vindicated. If you glance at the pamphlet, although the discussion is necessarily condensed and incom- plete, I think that you will see that the decree did me a gratuitous injury; and I trust that you will also see, on consideration, that the Canadian Journal, which has assisted in augmenting that injury, will only act fairly by making fully known to its readers the other side of the question.” The Canadian Journal cannot be justly accused of going beyond its legitimate province, in giving publicity to a judgment of the English Vice-Chancellor on an important question of literary copyright, in which its own contributors had special claims and rights involved ; nor can we, with propriety, be charged as having ‘‘ taken the Vice- Chancellor’s judgment as just and final.” Its finality was a question * An Examination of Vice-Chancellor James’s Judgment,” with an account of its dismissal by the Court of Appeal in Chancery, in the case of the book entitled ‘‘The Pedegree of the English People,” by Thomas Nicholas, M.A., Ph. D., F. G. 8. THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 417 wholly beyond our cognizance. As to its justice, our notice of the evidence was chiefly directed to show that much of the asserted claims to originality on which it was based, did ourselves injustice, and could not be sustained. That the decision of Vice-Chancellor James was appealed against, and has since been reversed, may indeed be reason for further review of the subject, in the light of new facts that have transpired, but at the date of publication of the article referred to, his judgment was the latest fact in the case; and, had we then known of the contemplated appeal: Mr. Luke Owen Pike, and not Dr. Nicholas, would have had most reason for objecting to a review which set forth reasons for denying the right either of plaintiff or defendant to claim originality in certain lines of research and induction, as set forth in the evidence, or to priority in publication of the results. In reality, it appears to us that Mr. Pike’s great error was his choice of the tribunal to which he appealed, the final award of which is now so triumphantly produced by his rival. His book bears abundant evidence that pecuniary results were not those he had chiefly in view though doubtless they would have been no unwelcome accompanimen, of successful authorship. The sweeping judgment of the Vice-Chan- cellor, even had it remained unchallenged, would have carried no such weight among those whose opinion we believe Mr. Pike chiefly values, as the verdict of competent scientific and literary critics. True, the immediate award of the press is subject to many chances of error, and to still more indirect influences than any court of law; and its judgment in not a few cases depends on the little coterie, or literary clique, which controls the magisterial We of critical journalism. Buta work possessed of any substantial merit outlives the first uncertain veerings of the critical weather-cock,’and is sure to receive its true meed in the end. In the case of any book that has a recognised scientific or literary authority a dozen years after its publication, what do all the reviews that heralded its original appearance amount to? ‘They may, indeed, have affected its immediate sale, and so, when unfavourable, have diminished the author’s chances of profit; but the final estimation of the book at its true worth is independent of such bias of prejudiced judgment. But Dr. Nicholas further asserts that the sources from whence our information was derived, whatever they were, were ‘‘ wholly unworthy of reliance.’ These sources are no mystery. They were the 7imes, of 418 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. April 29th, May 8rd, 25th, &e., and the Anthropological Review, of July, 1869. To all appearance, the one confirmed the other; and it will scarcely he assumed by impartial readers that we were producing a report ‘wholly unworthy of reliance,” when sustained by an agreement between journals so dissimilar in sympathies and aims. But if we had had any doubts before as to the employment of reasonable diligence in informing ourselves on the subject in question, they would be removed by the pamphlet of Dr. Nicholas; for we are there warned that “the statements in the London morning papers, in reference to this case, are by no means to be relied upon;” and no more reliable sources of information are named by him. His position in this respect was indeed surpassingly grievous. Hven his own counsel failed him, if they did not positively play into the hands of his opponents; for, as he says, ‘¢ My counsel, to my utter astonishment, withheld all the evidence as to common sources which I had prepared; believing, as it seems, that the case was safe enough without it; and made silly admissions and gratui- tous statements, as if on purpose to strengthen the other side.’’ Dr, Nicholas accordingly took up his own case in the Court of Appeal; and, in spite of the proverbial fate of the client who trusts to such counsel, he is able to report: “Though no lawyer, I pleaded my own cause on appeal, and had no difficulty in overthrowing the adverse decision.” But all this belongs to a subsequent date. When we wrote, the ‘admissions and gratuitous statements” of Dr. Nicholas’s own counsel (on his classical acquirements, for example,) were the sole record we could appeal to; and could scarcely be suspected, by us at least, of being set forth ‘on purpose to strengthen the other side.’? The author’s own pamphlet was not yet written; only the ordinary and usually reliable channels of news were accessible to us; and if neither the daily press, nor literary or scientific periodicals, were to be trusted in this peculiar case, our final resort could only be to the judgment of the Vice-Chancellor. As, however, the Anthropological Review is the organ of a Society, of which the plaintiff in the original suit is a vice-president, Dr. Nicholas may have some ground for his belief that its report is biased, at any rate in the selection of some of those unfortunate admissions and gratuitous statements, which naturally carried all the more weight till they were met by counter evidence in the subsequent appeal, owing to their actually forming part of the defendant’s own case, as set forth THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 419 for him by his representatives in court. It will be seen, for example, from a remark in Lord Chancellor Hatherley’s judgment, that he suffered under unjust imputations as to deficient scholarship ; in part, at least, owing to the line of defence adopted by his own counsel; in part also, probably, from erroneous inferences, based on the comparison instituted between the rival publications in the absence of all rebutting evidence. But on this point we have even now no adequate means of judging, and can only make the satisfactory atonement for all injustices resulting from the first trial and adverse judgment, by producing the later awards of the Lord Chancellor and Lord Justice Giffard, setting aside the Vice-Chancellor’s decree. So far as could be ascertained from the reports of the first trial to which wo had access—and apparently no better were available,—it appeared that sundry witnesses, of literary and scientific repute, were summoned by the plaintiff to testify their belief that certain opinions as to the physical characteristics of the British population, Saxon and Celtic, were new, set forth for the first time in Mr. Luke Owen Pike’s work, and arrived at by its author as the fruits of original and long- continued research. Without either calling in question the industry and research claimed for him, or doubting that his book was the honest result of much labour, we asserted very distinctly that the opinions claimed for him by his witnesses as having been set forth for the first time in his work, were neither original nor new; but that, on the con- trary, most of them had been published years before in this journal, or in other works there named. We, not unnaturally, assumed that the question of originality was submitted to the court as between plain- tiff and defendant. But in this it seems we were mistaken; though no indication of the plea of mere common sources as borrowers appears to have been introduced in the original defence. So far as Dr. Nicholas is concerned, it now seems he is perfectly contented to admit all that we then asserted, and indeed claims to have produced nearly the same in evidence before the Lord Chancellor, while still unaware of our assertion of our own literary rights. He has accordingly included among other documents forwarded tv us the following “verbatim extracts from the short-hand writer’s report,” along with copious extracts from the final judgment of the Higher Court, with a request for their publication in the Canadian Journal. In compliance with his appeal, we print them here, in full: 5 420 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. (“‘Prkn’s CLAIM TO ORIGINALITY IN THEORY ON LONG HEADS OF ENGLIsH.’’) Nicholas’s Pleadings, Dec. 4,’69, pp. 32, Physic. Charact. “Now, my Lords, it is a fact that, forgetting the contents of his book, the plaintiff (Luke O. Pike) has boldly laid claim to originality in this very matter, It is a fact that his friend Blake has sworn positively that the plaintiff advanced this theory, and that it was a novel theory. It is a probable fact that the Vice- Chancellor believed all this. I will give the proof. “On page 20 of the plaintiff’s evidence (short-hand writer’s) we have these questions and answers:—‘ Q. You applied that conclusion (that the early British were long-headed) to your argument as regards the origin of the early British?’ A. In regard to the origin of the early English @Q. So far as that went, is that, to your knowledge and belief, an original view? A. Yes—Q. Have you, in the - course of your reading, ever found that argument applied to that particular sub- ject? A. No, I cannot say that I have.’ “This distinct claim to originality was supported as follows by Mr. Blake: On page 26 of his evidence, in answer to a question by the Vice-Chancellor, he says, ‘Mr. Pike’s argument is, that the Celtic race had long skulls; that the Teutons had round heads and short skulls; that the modern Britons have long skulls, and therefore the modern English or modern Britons are descendants of the ancient Britons. Q. That is an ovel view, you say? A. That was novel.— Q. That was novel at the time Mr. Pike wrote his book? A. That was a novel view.’ And he finishes up on this question by saying, on the next page (27): ‘ All French writers on the subject asserted that the Celts had short skulls.’ “ Now, it is not my function to say here that this evidence is contrary to the truth. This evidence greatly influenced the mind of the Vice-Chancellor. I had not the opportunity given me of showing its inaccuracy by reference to books published prior to the plaintiff’s book, and which I had brought into Court. I am anxious now to refer to one or two of these, that your Lordships may judge of the truth or untruth of these depositions, “ As long ago as 1863, Dr. Daniel Wilson’s great work, The Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, made its appearance in a second edition; and in that work, known to all students of British Anthropo:ogy, vol. 1, p. 278, occur these words, in refer- ence to the modern English head-form: ‘The insular Anglo-Saxon race, in the Anglican and Saxon districts, deviates from its continental congeners, as I con- ceive, mainly by reason of a large intermixture of Celtic blood, traceable to the inevitable intermarriage of invading colonists, chiefly male, with the British women. But if the Celtic head be naturally a short one [a notion he is combat- ing], the tendency of such admixture of races should have been to shorten the hybrid Anglo-Saxon skull, whereas it is pega! longer than the continental Germanic type.’ “This was published three years before the plaintiff’s book. But I wish to rely rather on another publication, and for the reason that it can be proved to be in the plaintiff’s possession at the time he wrote his MS, in 1865, “The same learned writer, Dr. D. Wilson, whose views in the work already referred to had excited so much attention, published an elaborate article on the THE LAW. CF COPYRIGHT. 42] «Physical Characteristics of the Ancient and Modern Celt,’ in the Canadian Journal, of November, 1864, in which he at greater length developed the theory now in question, That journal is in the library of the Anthropological Society, of which the plaintiff is, and was then, a member. “But this is not all, He might be a member of the Society, and yet not peruse this book in its library. But that article was reprinted in the Anthropo- logical Review, of London, in February, 1865, just one month before the plaintiff forwarded his MS.; and that the plaintiff saw and perused the article in question, is proved thus: Each member of the Society, by right of membership, received the Review, as intimated at p. Ixix. of the Society’s Journal, of the same year: “The Anthropological Review has been punctually supplied to each Fellow quar- terly.’ “ But it is clearly proved, and set beyond all question, that the plaintiff had read this article, by the plaintiff himself, although at the same time he, curiously enough, disowns any obligation to it! In a note on page 170 of his volume, he says: ‘Since this portion of the Essay was written, there his appeared in the Anthropological Review, vol. iii. p. 52-84, an excellent paper by Prof. Wilson, of Toronto, on the Physical Characteristics of the Ancient and Modern Celt. He too has derived much of his information from the hatters. It fully confirms all that has been above stated.’ The employment of hatters may strike one as rather an original idea; but it is a curious and suggestive coincidence that the Canadian Journal (November, 1864), containing Professor Wilson’s elaborate measurements, furnished by hatters, British and American, had reached London before the date of plaintiff’s first correspondence with London hatters, Lincoln & Bennett, &c., (December 5th and 10th, 1864.) “This article of Prof. Wilson’s, then, being thus known to plaintiff when he wrote this Essay, let me show your Lordships whether it contained the theory on the English long head-form which the plaintiff claims as his own sole inven- tion. On page 61, Anthropological Review, vol. iii., 1865, Prof. Wilson writes thus: ‘On this subject Dr. Anders Retzius remarks: ‘During an excursion in Great Britain, in 1855, I was able to satisfy myself anew that the dolichocephalic form is predominant in England proper, in Wales, in Scotland, and in Ireland. Most of the dolichocephale of these countries have the hair black, and are very similar to Celts.’ The Anglo-Saxon cannot be affirmed to be a pure race. Apart from later Danish, Norse and Norman intermixture, it differs mainly, as I conceive, from its Germanic congeners, by reason of a large admixture of Celtic blood, traceable primarily to the intermarriage of English and Saxon colonists with the British women. Such a process of amalgamation is the inevitable result of a colonisation chiefly male, even where the difference is so extreme as between the white and the red or black races of the New World, But the Anglo-Saxon intruder and the native were on a par physically and intellectually ; and while the former was pre-eminent in all warlike attributes, the latter excelled in the refinements of a civilization borrowed both from the pagan Roman and the Christian missionary. There was nothing, therefore, to prevent a speedy and complete amalgamation, But if this was an admixture of a dolichocephalic with 422, THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. a brachycephalic race, the resalt should be a hybrid skull of intermediate form ; whereas the modern Anglo-Saxon head is essentially longer than the continental Germanic type.’ (After reference to the first edition of Dr, Wilson’s Prehistoric Annals, 1851,)— “J leave it to your Lordships now to judge of the originality of the plaintiff’s theory in this branch of it, viz., the origin of the modern English long-head, and of his idea of employing ‘hatters,’ as well as of the nature of the depositions made by him and his friends, C. Blake and Dr. Beddoe,” So far, therefore, it does not appear that there is anything to retract in reference to what was the essential point of the article in question, in its bearing on the authorship of opinions in dispute. Neither can we be expected to retract, or apologise for, the publication of Vice- Chancellor James’s judgment on this important question of literary copyright, although, at a date subsequent to our publication, the highest court of appeal reversed his decision. How far that reversal absolutely oversets the previous judgment, the reader can determine for himself. But Dr. Nicholas tells us in his pamphlet that “ fully a third of the Vice-Chancellor’s judgment consists of a careful statement of the plaintiff’s case, in the supposed words of the plaintiff himself. There is no corresponding adequate representation of the argument on my side. This at once indicates the leanings of the judge.” The leanings of his own counsel were, it would seem, in the same direction; that of the London morning papers, and of aoientite and literary sonmaale much on a par; so that any chance of our catching an impartial glimpse of the case would seem to have been hopeless enough. But objectionable assertions and admissions, referred to in the daily press, reported at some length in the Anthropological Review, and left uncontroverted, it would appear, in the Vice-Chancellor’s court, came under review before the Lord Chancellor, and are dealt with, in part at least, in his final judgment. We accordingly comply with Dr. Nicholas’s appeal for justice, so far as this journal is concerned, by printing the following abstracts of the judgments pronounced by the Lord Chancellor and Lord Justice Giffard. Both these extracts, and those previously produced from Dr. Nicholas’s own pleadings, are given verbatim, as furnished by him, and include all that he has seen fit to forward tous. As has been heads observed, he undertook his own ease in the Court of Appeal, having met, as he believed, with scant justice at the hands of his counsel in the former trial ; and to this the Lord Chancellor makes complimentary allusion in the opening sentence : THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 423 THE LORD CHANCELLOR’S JUDGMENT. Pike v, Nicnoras.—Dec. 1869, (Verbatim Extracts.) “In many cases we have to regret the absence of counsel, but in the present case we certainly have no occasion to express any regret in that respect. Thisis peculiarly a case reqniring such minute investigation and comparison as would render it difficult for counsel to find time to enter upon. “Tn no respect will it be found that we shall lay down general principles in any way contrary to those which are laid down by the learned Vice-Chancellor. If we have the misfortune to differ from him, it is entirely in the application of these principles to the particular works before us. It is confessedly one of the most difficult problems brought forward for the court to solve with reference to cases of piracy, when there is a common subject with which parties start, when there are common authors which are open to both of them, and when portions of the one work which are said to resemble portions of the other work may be deduced from those common authors to which each is at liberty to resort. “T shall first advert to the circumstances under which these works were com- posed, and then to the common sources to which it is open to either party to apply himself. I think that the Vice-Chancellor has not given sufficient weight to either of those two circumstances, ‘ “First, there was a common origin of subject, which it is very important should be borne in mind throughout in the consideration of this case. The subject was originated in the minds of both these gentlemen by the prize which was offered fur the best essay on the origin of the English Nation, &c. Therefore I find in the outset (as is to be expected) the writers of both these treatises taking exactly the same view in this respect, viz., that the ancient Britons largely preponderate as an element of the English nation. That being so, each of them would naturally begin to look about for the authors bearing on this question, ... There are a variety of authors on the subject, especially Dr. Prichard, to whom, in the first instance, both of them would have recourse... . the existing evidence of language, physical characteristics, customs and habits of life, &e. . . . Therefore, before approaching the question, whether or not one author has taken from the other, it must be borne in mind that a great deal of similarity will naturally be expected to be found in the works of authors writing on such subjects as these. - “Then, as to common sources. When once it is established that there are common sources, it will naturally be expected that there will be great similarity in the statement of the facts which are narrated in those common sources. Accordingly there may be traced throughout the work of the defendant a great similarity to the outline and plan of that of the plaintiff. With regard to that part of the case, I think the Vice-Chancellor has laid a great deal too much stress upon the fact of the division of the subject in the defendant’s work being similar to the division of the subject in the plaintiff’s work. Iam allowing at present that the defendant’s evidence—I mean what he has stated on his oath,—is not to. enter into the matter at all, but that we must look only 1o those documents 494 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. (defendant’s MSS. of the work) which are admitted on the part of the plaintiff to be genuine. The documents marked A and B must be admitted on the part of the plaintiff to be genuine, because the Vice-Chancellor has taken them as admitted. ... Looking to these documents, marked A and B, which are the MSS. of the original treatise. . . . I find in B those very elements drawn out, and I think very naturally drawn out, which we find in the plaintiff’s work... . But I think we must take the defendant, in his first treatise, ... before he could possibly have seen the plaintiff’s treatise, to have originated a division which was proper and peculiar to a subject of this character, I find in MS. B, physical, mental and moral characteristics referred to. . . . “Then, starting with this as regards the plan of the work (and this is the part of the case on which the Vice-Chancellor seems in some degree to have relied), we find in the undisputed document A, the same division, . . . We find alsoa reference to Prichard’s work, one of the common sources. It is carried on in B. . There is certainly enough in B to satisfy me that, without seeing the plain- tiff’s book [then not published], the author . . . had arrived at and mapped out a principle, ... including, under the head of ‘Physical Characteristics, the question of colour, in which is comprehended the skin and hair, and craniology, or form of skull. “ Now, as regards common sources, I apprehend that when once it is estab- lished that there are common sources, ... it amounts to nothing at all for the plaintiff to say, ‘the defendant has cited author after author who have been cited by me;’ because, when the common sources are referred to, it will be found that they both got them from the same common sources. ... Therefore, to find Lecebonius, Tacitus, Cesar and so on, cited, . . . really comes to nothing, when it is found they are both citing the identical passages which are for the most part to be found in Dr. Prichard’s book, to which both have recourse. “Here I was very anxious to learn whether either the plaintiff or the defendant had cited any author in addition to these referred to in this particular portion of the plaintiff’s work, which is supposed to be invaded on the part of the defen- dant. The defendant has quoted an author from Prichard (Calp. Flaccus) who is not quoted by the plaintiff. The defendant has added to his quotations a passage from Tertullian. . .. These circumstances show clearly that the defendant went to the original source. ... . “This really does remove a vast portion of the subject, which seems to have impressed the Vice-Chancellor very forcibly. ... If you refer to the common sources, then you reduce in a very material degree any legal consequences that can result from the circumstance of the books having similarity in treating of ‘these particular heads, . . . I think the defendant has satisfactorily explained all the passages contained in the common sources, except the second passage from Retzius. . . I had another doubt as to the words rutilatae comae. . . Prichard makes a mistake. All through he calls this ‘red hair,’ instead of calling it “reddened hair.’ The plaintiff says, ‘I did not fall into that error. From my Classical education: I see the force of the word rutilatae, and I translate that “‘peddened hair.”” THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 425 “ Then, can it be said that the defendant has done exactly the same thing? Of course I cannot assume that the defendant does not know Latin, . . . He has read to us several passages in Latin, sensibly and intelligibly, and in a manner which appeared to me to show that he understood what he was reading. I am bound, therefore, to say that he is acquainted with Latin; and if acquainted with Latin, I cannot say that he could not translate the word rutilatae ‘reddened,’ just as the plaintiff had. Besides that, he evidently seems to be well acquainted with German, and he says he has looked at the German translation of Livy, and he finds exactly the same translation of the word rutilatae as the plaintiff’s, viz.» ‘reddened ;’ showing, therefore, that from his own resources he might very well have been led to that. “ Therefore, I think the Vice-Chancellor has laid a great deal too much stress on these similarities, which are numerous, but which are well and properly accounted for. “T come next to the part of the case which relates to the two passages of the defendant’s book which have been enjoined by the Vice-Chancellor. The first passage is that with reference to Gildas, and with regard to Gildas the case ig reasonably clear to my mind. . . . It must be taken.as admitted ground, that on the one hand the defendant used the plaintiff’s book in writing his observa- tions on Gildas; and on the other, knowing that the subject is treated of in the Monumenta Historica Britannica, he went to that work, which he says they went toincommon.... “Then, however, says the plaintiff, ‘My observations on the character of Gildas, and his prejudiced and exaggerated views, are wholly taken by you.’ Upon this part of the case, again, I confess I am wholly with the defendant. I think the defendant has taken a wholly different view from that of the plaintiff. . He writes a line of argument which cannot fairly be designated the same as that of the plaintiff, but must be taken to be a line of argument of hisown.... “Where it seems to me, I confess, the Vice-Chancellor has failed to do justice to the defendant, is in this respect: he lays great weight on the common division of the subject, which I have already gone into, . . . He lays great stress on this and that author being cited. . . . ‘I cite Tacitus; so do you. I cite Licebonius; so do you, &c. And then the Vice-Chancellor winds up by asking, ‘If you did not get them from the plaintiff, where did you get them from?’ I think the answer to that question is, if there be a common source, that he got them from that common source, “But I think the Vice-Chancellor had great reason to entertain a very strong feeling of distrust. There is the Answer, which undoubtedly states the case in a manner which, if not intended to mislead, was calculated in the highest degree to doso. ... I think the passage in the answer [improperly drawn by counsel, and against his instructions, stating that the MSS. produced were in an unaltered state, although it was alsc expressly allowed that the subsection on Gildas had been written into the text, from being in the form of a note, since the plaintiff’s book had been published ;] I have referred to does justify us in saying that we ought not to give the defendant his costs, because it seems to me that that pas- sage has occasioned a great deal of the litigation, and that if the whole matter 426 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. had been stated in the answer in a straightforward manner, and clearly and at once, as it has been subsequently stated [and had from the first been stated, as far as the defendant was concerned], the plaintiff might possibly have stopped the suit altogether. . . . I am of opinion the bill should have been dismissed, but, under the circumstances I have referred to, dismissed without costs,” LORD JUSTICE GIFFARD. “T have only a few general observations to add to the judgment the Lord Chancellor has just delivered. Beyond all doubt, in this case the plaintiff under- took a more formidable task than was ever undertaken before in any copyright case. ... The task undertaken by the plaintiff was impossible, unless he could show that there were passages either actually copied, or copied with mere color- able alteration. It will not do to show merely one or two passages, but some material part of the book. . . . Then, upon referring to MSS. A, B, C and D, it is beyond all donbt that great labour and a large amount of time must have been employed, if the mere labour of writing those MSS. and nothing else is considered. But I am satisfied that the defendant bestowed a great deal of labour and time on these MSS. . . . Iam also satisfied of this—which, when you are dealing with a question of copyright with reference to books such as this, is of great importance,—that the book of the defendant is his own composition ; that, wherever he got the materials from, they were worked up by him into his own language. . . . Then that brings me to the conclusion that there has been really no such use made by the defendant of the plaintiff’s book, as entitles the plaintiff to an injunction. . . . As I said before, when we have a book which is really the composition of the defendant, written in his own language, and bearing in mind the circumstances attending the writing of these two books, it will be seen that the plaintiff undertook a task which was morally impossible.” The explanatory comments of Dr. Nicholas, inserted within brackets in the preceding extracts, we have allowed to stand, as furnished by himself, so as to do him all justice in setting forth his own case. But as he has characterised our previous notice as founded onan “ex parte statement of facts,” it could not surprise us if Mr. Pike should retort by calling this “an ex parte abstract of judgments;’’ for we find, on referring to the Z’imes of November 25th, that the Lord Chancellor is reported as stating, after disposing of much which had impressed the Vice-Chancellor, on the ground of common authorities: ‘‘In three cases, however, he was of opinion that the defendant was indebted directly to the plaintiff;”’ and Lord Justice Giffard closes his judg- ment in these words: ‘Considering that the defendant had certainly spent labour on the MS., and had pursued a certain amount of research, the amount borrowed was not sufficient ground for an injunction. On the other hand, there were assertions in the defendant’s answer which were not ingenuous, and which were even in some respects wholly THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 427 untrue. His Lordship was rejoiced that the court was able to mark its reprobation of such conduct by not giving the defendant, though suc- cessful, his costs. He trusted this would be a lesson to the defendant to act in future more frankly.” It is with reluctance that we supplement the previous abstract with those passages, from what we must assume to be an impartial report; but since we are appealed’to, we are bound, if possible, not to wrong the plaintiff in seeking to azcord justice to his rival. Not unnaturally, the decision of the Vice-Chancellor fluttered authors considerably, as it seemed to establish a proprictory right by mere priority of compilation, giving to the first miner in the quarry of published investigation aud research a right little short of that of the original author. It was not, therefore, without reason that the Athenzxum, in reporting that “the Vice-Chancellor’s judgment was dismissed,’ added, ‘‘Some authors will breathe more freely after this.” Various letters addressed to ourselves expressed the unusual interest which the trial has excited among literary men. One distinguished Bri- tish anthropologist thus comments on it: “I see in your paper on Race Head-forms, you take up Mr. Pike and the strange trial to which his publication and that of Dr. Nicholas have given rise. I was not sur- prised to see the decision reversed in this famous case. Had it remained unquestioned, there would not have been any safety. Nevertheless, I cannot help thinking that Dr. Nicholas got a great deal from Mr. Pike’s work.” While thus quoting the reports and opinions of impartial on-lookers, it is only fair to draw attention to an important element in the question, which is calculated to modify such a verdict. It is not a simple case of the publication of Mr. Pike’s “ English and their Origin,” ia 1366, and then of a work by Dr. Nicholas, in 1868, under the analogous titis of ‘The Pedigree of the English People,” with as great a correspon- dence in plan and arguments as in title. Were this the whole case, the undoubted priority of publication on Mr. Pike’s part would give him a strong claim to the preoccupation of the literary field, apart from any question as to absolute originality in views or research. But when it is seen that both publications originated in a competition at the Welsh Histeddfod, and are in reality only expansions of rival prize essays, written at the same time, on the same subject, and to a great extent based on the same authorities, it ceases to surprise us that much should be found common to both, which nevertheless is asserted to have been 428 THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. written by the one without any reference to the other’s work. Dr. Nicholas thus states the case: ‘‘ Some months before the appearance of my book, another, and smaller work, by Mr. L. O. Pike, had been published on a like theme. It is admitted on both sides that the sub- jects had been suggested to us by an announcement made by a public society. Both works were written simultaneously, but mine was the last published.” So far, Dr. Nicholas states what undoubtedly consti- tutes an important element in the dispute. The question, however, on which the plaintiff’s plea rests, as between him and the defendant— apart from any claims advanced by others to priority of publication,—is this: Did Dr. Nicholas avail himself to any extent of Mr. Pike’s essay in the final preparation of his own for issue in the form in which it appears, as published under the title of ‘The Pedigree of the English People?’’ To this question the Vice-Chancellor directed his special attention in the original judgment; and the reader possesses, in the extracts now furnished from the final award of Lord Hatherley and Lord Justice Giffard, some means of determining how far they designed entirely to set aside the previous verdict. In an appeal to the literary tribunal of the press, after an impartial recognition of all that requires to be allowed in reference to acces- sible sources of fact and opinion, undoubtedly turned to account by both writers, the rule must still be held good which gives to priority of publication, even in the work of compilation, certain rights of author- ship which cannot be contravened. Some, at least, of the claims of Mr. Pike to originality, and his charges of plagiarism in specific pas- sages, have not been sustained; but this fact still remains indisputable, as between plaintiff and defendant, that his “ English and their Origin” was published in 1866, whereas his rival’s “‘ Pedigree of the Hnglish People”’ did not issue from the press till 1868. As, however, we have quoted the comments of one distinguished British anthropologist, we shall add the more matured judgment of another, regarded as one of the most learned, as he has been one of the most laborious, amongst living British ethnologists. In thus complet- ing our review of the questions in dispute, with every desire for an impartial award, we produce the following opinion of Dr. R. G. Latham, alike with a view to its bearings on Dr. Nicholas’s claims of indepen- dent authorship, and in its more comprehensive relations to the law of copyright, in which every author has a personal interest : THE LAW OF COPYRIGHT. 429 “JT inspected,” says Dr, Latham, “at the request of Dr. Nicholas, his work entitled ‘The Pedigree of the English People,’ before its publication, and as it was passing through the press. I have studied it with interest since. I have especially compared it with Mr. Pike’s work on the same subject [‘ The English and their Origin’ ], and that with a view of comparing the two with the decision of the Court of Chancery in favour of the author of the work first published. My personal acquaintance with Dr. Nicholas, which is but slight, has had but little to do with the investiga- tion, which was undertaken mainly on grounds affecting literature in general. It touches every writer to know, as accurately as possible, how far a later work upon the same subject as an earlier one, from the same source, and from the same point of view, can be published without risk; in other words, how far, under a certain combination of circumstances, by no means uncommon, two works upon the same subject are possible, The matter has pressed itself upon the attention of literary men often enough before now; the domain of biography supplying the chief instances: for here, when we get two lives of the same person, from the same point of view, &c., a considerable amount of coincidence is compatible with absolute independence in the way of investigation. “ A question like the one discussed by the Messrs. Pike and Nicholas is much in the same predicament as a biography. The facts upon which an opinion can be founded are limited in number, have long been known, are in a very accessi- * ble form, and have been the object of much comment, Two writers, who make it their business to exhaust the matter thus at hand, must have much in common with one another. But it will be a great detriment to literature if the mere accident of priority of publication is to exclude the production of the work which possibly may merely differ from its predecessor by having been longer in the hands of either the author or the printer. “There are not wanting instances where, when two works are published on the same or similar subjects, the writer of the later one has taken pains to tell the reader that he has abstained from the perusal of the earlier one, with the express view of avoiding the charge of imitation or borrowing. As far as I can judge, it is the general opinion that, except with works of imagination, such disclaimers are condemned rather than approved; it being the duty of the writer to put his book in the best form he can, by reading everything on the subject to which he has access. “A single fact, statement, argument, or piece of evidence, common to Dr. Nicholas and Mr. Pike, which might not have occurred to the former writer if the latter had never existed, I, after a careful examination, have failed to find, Such is the fact. It might have been otherwise. There might have been in Mr. Pike’s work data which nothing but exclusive knowledge, extraordinary scholar- ship in the Welsh language, access to unpublished documents, new methods of criticism, &c., could give; and for such he might reasonably claim protection. But I unhesitatingly state that there is nothing of the kind. The facts and arguments of Mr, Pike’s work are the facts and arguments of a current, common literature, and not the peculiar property of any individual.” D. W. CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY. TORONTO OF OLD: A SERIES OF COLLECTIONS AND RECOLLECTIONS. (Continued from page 354.) BY THE REY. DR. SCADDING. XXII.—THE VALLEY OF THE DON.—FROM THE BRIDGE ON THE KINGSTON ROAD TO TYLER’S. Retracing our steps; placing ourselves again on the bridge, and, turning northwards, we see on the right, near by, a field or rough space, which has undergone excavation, looking as though the brick-maker or potter had been at work on it: aud we may observe that a large quantity of the displaced material has been spread out over a portion of the marshy tract enclosed here by a bend of the river westward. What we sce is a relic of an effort made long ago, by Mr. Washburn, a barrister of York, to whom reference has been made before, to bring this piece of land into cultivation. In its natural state the property was all but useless, from the steepness of the hill-side on the one hand, and from the ever wet condition of the central portion of the flat below on the other. By grading down the hill and filling in the marsh, and establishing a gentle slope from the margin of the stream to the level of the top of the hank on the right, it was easy to see that a large piece of solid land in an eligible position might be secured. The undertaking, however, was abandoned before the work was finished, the expense probably being found heavy, and the prospect of a return for the outlay remote. Ata later period Mr, O'Neill, with greater success and completeness, cut down the steep ridges of the bank at Don Mount, a short distance up, and filled in the marsh below. These experiments show how the valiey of the Don, along the eastern outskirts of the town, will ultimately be turned to account, when the necessities of the population demand the outlay. At present such improvements are discouraged by the length of time required to cover large surfaces of new clay with vegetable mould. But in future years it will be for mills and factories, and not for suburban and viila purposes, that the parts referred to will be held valuable. These marshes along the sides of the Don, from the point where its current ceases to be perceptible, appear to be remains of the river as it was at an epoch long ago, The rim or levee that now, on the right and left, confines and defines the meanderings of the stream in the midst of the marshes, has been formed by the alluvial matter deposited in the annual overfiowings. The bed of the stream has probably in the same manner been by degrees slightly raised. The solid tow-path, as it were, thns created on each side of the river-channel, affords at present a great convenience to the angler and fowler. Jt forms, moreover, as shown by. the experiments above alluded to, a capital breastwork, towards which the engineer may advance, when cutting down the adjoining hills, and disposing of their material on the drowned land below. Once more imagining ourselves on the bridge, and lookmg obliquely to the north-west, we may still discern close by some remains of the short, shallow, winding ravine, by which in winter the sleighs used to asceud from the level of the river, and regain, through a grove of pines and hemlocks, the high road into the town. As soon as the steady cold set in, every year, the long reaches and grand sweeps of the river Don became peculiarly interesting. Firmly frozen over everywhere, and coated with a good depth of snow, bordered on each side by a high shrubbery of wild willow, alder, wych-hazel, dog-wood, tree-cranberry and other specimens of the lesser brushwood of the forest, plentifully overspread aud interwoven in numerous places with the vine of the wild grape, the whole had the appearance of a fine, clear, level English coach-road or highway, bounded throughout its winding course by a luxuriant hedge, seen as TORONTO OF OLD. 431 such English roads and their surroundings were wont to be, all snow-clad, at Christmas-tide, from the top of the fast mail to Exeter, for example, in the old coaching days. ' Down the river, ‘thus conveniently paved over, every day came a cavalcade of strong sleighs, heavily laden, some with cordwood, some with sawn lumber, some with hay, a whole stack of which at once, sometimes, would seem to be on the move. After a light fall of snow in the night, the surface of the frozen stream would be marked all over with foot-prints innumerable of animals, small and great, that had been early out a-forag- ing: tracks of field-mice, minks and martens, of land-rats, water-rats aud muskrats ; of the wild-cat sometimes, and of the fox ; and sometimes of the wolf. Up this valley we have heard at night the howling of the wolf; and in the snow of the meadows that skirt the stream, we have seen the blood-stained spots where sheep had been worried and killed by that ravenous animal.—In one or two places where the bends of the river touched the inner high bank, and Where diggings had abortively been made with a view to the erection of a factory of some kind, beautiful frozen gushes of water from springs in the hill-side were every winter to be seen, looking, at a distance, like small motionless Niagaras. At one sheltered spot, we remember, where a tannery was begun but never finished, solid ice was sometimes to be found far on in the summer. In the spring and summer, a pull up the Don, while yet its banks were in their primeval state. was something to be enjoyed. After passing certain potasheries and distilleries that at an early period were erected a short distance northward of the bridge, the meadow land at the base of the hills began to widen out; and numerous elm trees, very lofty, with gracefully-drooping branches, made their appearance, with other very handsome trees, as the lime or basswood, and the sycamore or button-wood.—At a very early period, we have been assured that brigades of North-west Company boats, en route to Lake Huron, used to make their way up the Don as far as the “‘ Forks,” by one of which they then passed westward towards the track now known as Yonge-street : they there were taken ashore, and carried on trucks to the waters of the Holland river. The help gained by utilizing this piece of water-way must have been slight, when the difficulties to be overcome high up the stream are taken into account. We have conversed with an early inhabitant who, at a more recent period, had seen the North-west Company’s boats drawn on trucks by oxen up the line of modern Yonge-street, but, in his day, starting, mounted in this manner, from the edge of the bay. In both cases they were shifted across from the Lake into the harbour at the ‘‘Carrying-place ”—the narrow neck of isthmus a little to the west of the mouth of the Don proper, where the lake has now made a passage. We add one more of the spectacles which, in the olden time, gave animation to the scene before us. Along the winding stream, where in winter the sleighs were to be seen coming down, very summer at night would be observed a succession of moving lights, each repeated in the dark water below. TheSe were the iron cressets, filled with unctuous pine knots all ablaze, suspended from short poles at the bows of the fishermen’s skiffs, out in quest of salmon and such other large fish as might be deemed worth a thrust of the long-handled, sharply-barbed. trident used in such operations. Before the establishment of mills and factories, many hun- dreds of salmon were annually taken in the Don, as in all the other streams emptying into Lake Ontario. We have ourselves been out on a night-fishing excursion on the Don, when in the course of an hour some twenty heavy salmon were speared ; and we have a distinct recollection of the conspicuous appearance of the great fish, as seen by the aid of the blazing ‘‘jack” at the bow, nozzling about at the bottom of the streain. XXUT.—FROM TYLER'S TO THE BIG BEND. Not far from the spot where, at present, the Don-street bridge crosses the river, on the west side and to the north, lived for a long time a hermit-squatter, named Joseph Tyler, an old New Jersey man, of picturesque aspect. With his rather fine, sharp, shrewd features, set off by an abundance of white hair and beard, he was the counterpart of an Italian artist’s stock-model. The mystery attendant on his choice of a life of complete solitude, his careful reserve, his perfect self-resource in regard to domestic matters, and, at the same time, the evident wisdom of his contrivances and ways, and the propriety and sagacity of his few words, all helped to render him a good specimen in actual life of a secular anchorite. He had been in fact a soldier 432 ! CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY: in the United States army, in the war of Independence, and was in the receipt of a pension from the other side of the lakes. He was familiar, he alleged, with the personal appearance of Washington. His abode on the Don was an excavation in the side of the steep hill, a little way above the level of the river-bank. The flue of his winter fire-place was a tubular channel, bored up through the clay of the hill-side.. His sleeping-place or berth was exactly like one of the receptacles for human remains in the Roman catacombs, an oblong recess, likewise carved in the dry material of the hill. To the south of his cave he cultivated a large garden, and raised, among other things, the white sweet edible Indian corn, a novelty here at the time; and very excellent tobacco. He moreover manufactured pitch and tar, in a little kilu or pit dug for the purpose close by his house. He built for himself a magnificent canoe, locally famous. It con- sisted of two large pine logs, each about forty feet long, well shaped and deftly hollowed out, fastened together by cross dovetail pieces let in, at regular distances, along the interior of its bottom. While in process of construction in the pine woods through which the ‘‘ Mill road” passed, on the high bank eastward of the river, it was a wonderment to all the inquisitive youth of the surrounding neighbourhood, and was accordingly often visited and inspected by them. In this craft he used to pole himself down the windings of the stream, all the way round into the bay, and on to the landing-place at the foot of Caroline-street, bringing with him the produce of his garden, and neat stacks of piné knots, ready split for the fishermen’s lightjacks. He would also on occasion execute the function of aferryman. On being hailed for the purpose, he would put across the river persons anxious to make a short cut into the town from the east- ward. Just opposite his den there was for a time a rude causeway over the marsh. At the Season of the year when the roads through the woods were impracticable, Tyler’s famous canoe was employed by the Messrs. Helliwell for conveying into town, from a point high up on the stream, the beer manufactured at their Breweries on the Don. We are informed by Mr. William Helliwell, of the Highland Creek, that twenty-two barrels at a time could be placed in it, in two rows of eleven each, laid lengthwise side by side, still leaving room for Tyler and an assistant to navigate the boat. The large piece of meadow land on the east side of the river, above Tyler’s abode, enclosed by a curve which the stream makes towards the west, has a certain interest attached to it from the fact that therein was reproduced, for the first time im these parts, that peculiarly pleasant English scene, a hop-garden. Under the care of Mr. James Case, familiar with the hop in Sussex, this graceful and useful plant was here for several seasons to be seen passing through the successive stages of its scientific cultivation ; in early spring sprouting from the surface of the rich black vegetable mould ; then trained gradually over, and at length clothing richly the poles or groups of poles set at regular distances throughout the enclosure ; overtopping these supports ; by and by loading them heavily with a plentiful crop of swaying clusters; and then finally, when in a sufficiently mature state, prostrated, props and all, upon the ground, and stripped of their fragrant burden, the real object of all the pains taken. From this field many valuable povkets of hops were gathered; and the quality of the plant was pronounced to be good. Mr. Case afterwards engaged extensively in the same occupation in the neighbourhood of Newmarket. f About the dry, sandy table-land that overlooked the river on each side in this neighbourhood, the burrows of the fox, often with little families within, were plentifully to be met with. The marmot too, popularly known as the woodchuck, was to be seen on sunny days sitting up upon its haunches at holes in the hill-side. We could at this moment point out the ancient home of a particular animal of this species, whose ways we used to note with some curiosity. Here were to be found racoons also; but these, like the numerous squirrels, black, red, flying and striped, were visible only in the height of summer, when the maize and the nuts began to ripen. At that period also, bears, he-bears and she-bears, accompanied by their cubs, were not unfa- niiliar objects, wherever the blackberry and raspberry grew. In the forest, moreover, hereabout, a rustle in the underbrush, and something white seen dancing up and down in the distance like the plume of a mounted knight,, might at any moment indicate that a group of deer had caught sight of one of the dreaded human race, and, with tails uplifted, had bounded incontinently away. Pines of a great height and thickness crowded the tops of these hills. The paths of hurricanes could be traced over extensive tracts by the fallen trunks of trees of this species, their huge TORONTO OF OLD. 433 pulks lying one over the other in a titanic confusion worthy of a sketch by Doré in illustration of Dante; their heads all in one direction. Their upturned roots, vast mats of woody ramifi- cations and earth, presented sometimes a perpendicular wall of a great height. Occasionally one of these upright masses, originating in the habit of the pine to send out a wide-spread but shallow rootage, would unexpectedly fall back into its original place, when, in the clearing of the land, the bole of the tree to which it appertained came to be gashed through. In this case it would sometimes happen that a considerable portion of the trunk would appear again in a perpendicular position. As its top would of course show that human hands had been at work there, the question would be propounded to the new comer as to how the axe could have reached to such a height. The suppositions usually encouraged in him were, either that the snow must have been wonderfully deep when that particular tree was felled, or else that some one of the very early settlers must have been a man of exceptional stature.—Among the lofty pines, here and there, one more exposed than the zest would be seen, with a piece of the thickness of a strong fence-rail stripped out of its side, from its extreme apex to its very root, spirally, like the groove of arifle-bore. It in this manner showed that at some moment it had been the swift conductor down into the earth of the contents of a passing electric cloud. One trce of the pine species we Temember, that had been severed in the midst by lightning, so suddenly, that the upper half had descended with perfect perpendicularity, and such force, that it planted itself upright in the earth by the side of the trunk from which it had been smitten. Nor may we omit from our Temembered phenomena of the pine forests hereabout, the bee-trees. Now and then a huge Pine would fall, or be intentionally cut down, which would exhibit in cavernous recesses at a great distance from what had been its root end, the accumulated combs of, it might be, a half- century; those of them that were of recent construction, filled with honey.—A solitary survi- vor of the forest of towering pines that, at the period to which we are adverting, covered the hills on both sides of the Don, is still to be seen towards the northern limit of the Moss Park property. This particular tree has been gracefully commemorated in the columns of a local paper: OQ! tell to me, thou old pine tree, Now where the busy city stands, O! tell to me thy tale, Hard by that graceful spire, For long has thou the thunder braved, The proud Ojibeway smoked his pipe And long withstood the gale; Beside his camping fire. The last of all thy hardy race, And there, where those marts of commerce are Thy tale now tell to me, Extending east and west, For sure I am, it must be strange, Amid the rushes in the marsh, Thou lonely forest tree. The wild fowl had its nest. Yes, strange it is, this bending trunk, But the pale face came, our ranks were thinn’d, So withered now and grey, And the loftiest were brought low, Stood once amid the forest trees And the forest faded far and wide, Which long have passed away: Beneath his sturdy blow ; They fell in strength and beauty, And the steamer on the quiet lake, Nor have they left a trace, Then ploughed its way of foam, Save my old trunk and withered limbs And the red man fled from the scene of strife To show their former place. To find a wilder home. Countless and lofty once we stood ; And many who in childhood’s days Beneath our ample shade Around my trunk have played, His forest home of boughs and bark Are resting like the Indian now The hardy red man made. Beneath the cedar’s shade ; Child of the forest, here he roamed, And I, like one bereft of friends, Nor spoke nor thought of fear, With winter whitened o’er, As he trapped the beaver in his dam, But wait the hour that I must fall, And chased the bounding deer. As others fell before. No gallant ship with spreading ‘sail And still what changes wait thee, Then ploughed those waters blue, When at no distant day, Nor craft had old Ontario then, The ships of far off nations, But the Indians’ birch canoe ; Shall anchor in your bay ; No path was through the forest, When one vast chain of railroad, Save that the red man trod ; Stretching from shore to shore, Here, by your home, was his dwelling place, Shall bear the wealth of India, And the temple of his God. And land it at your door. A short distance above the hop ground of which we have spoken, the Don passed immediately underneath a high sandy bluff. Where, after a long reach in its downward course, it first im- 434 CANADIAN LOCAL HISTORY : ‘pinged against the steep cliff, it was very deep. Here was the only point in its route, so far as - we recall, where the epithet was applicable which Milton gives to its English namesake, when he speaks of— i “‘Utmost Tweed, or Ouse, or gulphy Don.” This very noticeable portion of the river was known as the “‘Big Bend.” (We may observe here that in retaining its English name, the Don has lost the appellation assigned to it by the French and the aborigines. The Grand River, on the contrary, has retained its French name, not- withstanding its English official designation, which was the Ouse. The Rouge, too, has kept its French name. It was the Nen; and the Indians, it is said, styled it The River of Easy Entrance (Katabokokonk). The Thames, however, has wholly dropped its French title, LaTranche. We may subjoin that the Humber was anciently called by some, St. John’s River, from a trader named St. John ; and by some, Toronto River.)—Towards the summit of the high bluff just men- tioned, the holes made by the sand-martins were numerous. Hereabout we have met with the snapping turtle. This creature has not the power of withdrawing itself wholly within a shell. A part of its protection consists in the loud threatening snap of its strong horny jaws, armed in front with a beak-like hook bent downwards. What the creature lays hold of, it will not let go. Let it grasp the end of a stout stick, and the sportsman may sling it over his shoulder, and so carry it home with him. When allowed to reach its natural term of life, it probably attains a very great age. We remember a specimen captured near the spot at which we are pausing, which, from its vast size, and the rough, lichen-covered condition of its shell, must have been extremely old. We also once found near here a numerous deposit of this animal’s eggs ; all white and spherical, of the diameter of about an inch, and covered with a tough, parchment-like skin. The ordinary lesser tortoises of the marsh were of course plentiful along the Don: their young, frequently to be met with creeping about, were curious and ever-interesting little objects. Snakes too there were about here, of several kinds: one, often very large and dangerous-looking, the copper-head, of a greenish brown colour, and covered with oblong and rather loose scales. The striped garter-snake, of all sizes, was very common. Though reported to be harmless, it always indulged, when interfered with, in the menacing action and savage attempts to strike, of the most venomous of its genus. Then there was the beautiful grass-green snake ; and in large ‘numbers, the black water-snake. In the rank herbage along the river’s edge, the terrified piping of a pursued frog was often heard. It recurs to us, as we write, that once, on the banks of the Humber, we saw a bird actually in the grasp of a large garter-snake—just held by the foot. As the little creature fluttercd violently in the air, the head of the reptile was swayed rapidly to and fro. All the small birds in the vicinity had gathered together in a state of noisy excitement ; and many spirited dashes were made by several of them at the common foe. No great injury having been as yet inflicted, we were enabled to effect a happy rescue. From the high sandy cliff, to which our attention has been drawn, it was possible to look down into the waters of the river ; and on a sunny day, it afforded no small amusement to watch the habits, not only of the creatures just named, but of the fish also, visible below in the stream ; the simple sunfish, for example, swimming about in shoals (or schools, as the term used to be) ; and the pike, crafty as a fox, lurking in solitude, ready to dart on his unwary prey with the swiftness and precision of an arrow shot from the bow. XXIV.—FROM THE BIG BEND TO CASTLE FRANK BROOK. Above the ‘‘Big Bend,” on the west side, was “‘ Rock Point.” At the water’s edge hereabout was a slight outcrop of shaly rock, where crayfish were numerous, and black bass. The adjoin- ing marshy land was covered with a dense thicket, in which wild gooseberry bushes and wild black-currant bushes were noticeable. 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West. Elevation sbove sss 05050500 SSS oo JAN. Aaa RM pli aaa Mean ‘Temperature......... 27-71 Difference from av erage te 29 years)... + 4.77 Thermic anomaly (lat, 48° 40/)......--- — 5:09 Highest temperature .. Beaeehes 45-0 Lowest temperature ...... wai, LO Monthly and Annual Ranges .. so | AAOND Mean maximum temperature ......... 34°59 Mean minimum temperature ......... 21°95 Mean daily range......... 2... 12°64 Greatest daily range ........ 33°6 Mean height of the Barometer.. . | 29°5662 Difference from average (28 years) .. |" 0784 Highest barometer .. 29-877 Lowest barometer ...... seceeeees | O9°074. Monthly and Annual Ranges Beeteesieos | 0-803 Mean humidity of the air.................. 80 Mean elasticity of aqueous Vapour......; 127 DES ON EEE ee ey — Meav of cloudiness .. ees ie 0°68 Difference from average ‘(a6 years) .. aj Oe! | Sues Oss Mi Resultant direction of the wind .. N72 W _& __ yelocity_of the wind... 3°40 Mean velocity (miles per hour) ......... 9°21 Difference from average (21 Deane ollar Sw Total amount of rain . 0-887 Difference from average (282 29 9 years) —0°288 Number of days of rain . 4 Total amount of snow.. ec 9-8 Difference from average (5 year 8) — 6:16 Number of days of snow .............- 12 Number of fair days .........cceceessneeee 14 { Number of Auroras observed ............ 2 Possible to see Aurora (No. of nights)... 14 Number of Thunderstorms .............- 0 (IN 34 Ww 20°31 15:01 23°0 29-5162 —*1159 30°088 28°85 1°245 80 4-18 10.04 + 1°51 0-165 —0-800) Mar. | Apr. ; May. Sl Galena oan 23-06| 40°05) 50°77 — 6:79|— 0°94/— 0°64 —17-04|—10-15|— 7-33 46°8| 72:2| 74-2! — 5:4] 16.61 31-4) 52-2| 55°6| 42:8 81-21] 48-03] 58°83 15.73} 32°28] 42-75} 15-48] 15-75] 16-08) 27°6| 82:4] 30-4 29+ 64.96/ 29-5216) 29-4820 +.:0507|—+0751!—-0897 30-104] 29-912 29-803| 29°178| 28°895] 29-054} 0°926} 1:016] 0-749} 78 68 67 0-105) 0-173) 0-258! | | 0-60] 0°61! 0-87! = case c(h ak Site N 52 win 59 Win 20 w 2°86| 4°08} 2-38 8-02} 8-91) 6°55 — 0°78}+ 0°79}— 0-22) 0-985| 2°965} 2-805) —0°644| +0°565/—0°570 3 9 16 Coreen Mrmr } 15:0 0-5! Inapp. + 4°85|— 2°09/— 0-08 9 6 1 19 15 15 | 5 12 4 15 22 15 0 3 5 | JUNE. ° 58°42 —3ll — 6°18 81-4 JULY. | 29-5868 | +0121, eet mt 29-982) ; 29:074! 0-908 29°5576 — "0314 29°950 29-193 0-787 AT TORONTO FOR THE YEAR 1869. )xx1x REGISTER FOR THE YEAR 1869. TORONTO, ONTARIO. Lake Ontario, 108 feet. Approximate elevation above the Sea, 342 feet. H 1869. AUG. Serr. | Ocr. | Nov. | Dec. 1868. | 1867. | 1866. } 1865. | 1864. | 1863, on es o Oo fo} fe) fo} (o) 63-64} 60-67| 42-29] 32-74] 28-74) 43-13] 45-83] 43-84] 48-51) 42-92) 42-70) 44-a7 — 2-45/4 2-74/— 3-47|— 4-2/4 2-81f— 1-01/— -82\— 0-30/— 0-63/+ 0-78/+ 0°56|+ 0-43 — 4-86|— 0-83|—11-51|—10-46|— 7-26f— 7-87|— 7-67|— 7-16|— 7-49|— 6-08|— 6-30|— 6.48 89-0! 81-0] 69-8| 58-0) 45 93-4} 95-2] 94:0; 90-5! 94-0! 88-0 43-5} 34:4 18-7| 13-0 -l— 5-4|— 15-6|— 12-8|— 14-0|— 10°0|— 15-0/— 19-8 45:5} 46-6, 51-1] 45-0 -of 94:4] 109-0] 168-0] 108-0} 100-5) 109-0] 107-8 72°14} 69°35! 50-08} 38°26 55°62) 53°85) 35°75) 26°89 16°52} 15°50} 14:33) 11:87 24-0 24-2) 23-0 24°6 15:26] 15-47] 14:99] 15-43] 14:57| 14:73 38°7| 31:6] 40°8) 36-9] 37-4] 396 29+ 6421/29. 61-40] 29-6216|29-6830]29-5596|29- 6526 2| -+-0239/—- 0042] + -0034|-+ -0148|—-0586| + -0854. 30-445] 20-382! 30-940) 30-354) 30-327] 30-502 28-$24| 28-768] 28-807| 28-707| 28-671] 28-704 1-621] 1-564 2-133] 1-647| 1-656] 1-798 29-6654) 29.7639}29°5708) 29-5503): +0424] +--1016|—-0779!—- 0628 29-960); 30°045) 29-988) 30-104) = 29°338] 29-369) 29-144) 28-793) 2: 0°622} 0°676) 0-844) 1°311 -—_—| — 76 79 78 84 76 74 75 75 76 17 0-264) 0°252) 0-248} 0-259) 0:263) 0-266 0-64] 0-61] 0-61| 0-61] 0-65! . 0-61 + -03| -00/ 00]. -ool+ -04! -'-00 W 42 WiN 53 WIN 73 win 78 wis 80 wiN 64 WIN 57 wiN 60 WIN 73 WIN 66 WIN 76 Win 41 w 1:98 1°16} 38°72) 3.69 1:47 2°05 2°83) 1:98} 2:49 1-34 5°18 4°89} 6°73; 8-12 7°69} 7:00; 7-41 6-78; 7:40 7718 — 0°06)/— 0°59}+ 0°68}+ 0°61/— 0-08%+ 0°26 + 0°75}+ 0°06)-+ 0-47;— 0-16/+ 0°46/+ 0-19 4:273| 4°027} 0-962} 2-540 2-590 31°182} 29-408) 19:041) 34-209] 26°599| 29-486) 26+483 +1-303] +0°345|—1-511/—0-549) +.0-971¢-+-1°713|—0-061)-10° 428} +-4°740|—2°870}-+0°017 | 2-986 103 100 126 ablal 182 | 180 2:3} 10°2 p 84:6; 78:7] 12075} 52-1) 638°3) 74°6 62'9 + 1:42)+ 7:23)— 7-258+-18-27)-+13°37|4-45-17|—18-23}— 2°03}/4 9:27)/— 2°43 7 18 9 81 82 84 69 68 70 74 20 22 ae 9 180 190 181 180 201 180 181 4 9 3 1 47 50 43 14 55 34 44 Ixxx MEAN METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS TEMPERATURE. Average 1869. of Extremes. 29 years. ° fe} Oo fo} Mean temperature of the year ........esseseeee sence 43:13 44-14 46:36 in 46 | 42:16 in *56 Warmest month . A Rarcass July July. July, 1868 } Aug. 1860. Mean temperature of the warmest “nonth.. codons 64,48 67°38 75°80 6446 © Coldest month ...........004 «| March January | Jan. 1857. | Feb. 1848. Mean temperature of the coldest month sss... 23 06 22°94 12.75 26°60 Differeuce between the temperatures of the 41-42 44-44 warmest and coldest months a5%0 Mean of deviations of monthly means “from 3:67 1:33 in their respective averages of 29 years, signs 3:06 2-41 in 1843 1858, 1864 of deviation being disregarded .. : ates of epoatest di deviation without ie March | January | Jan. 1887. 4 Corresponding magnitude of deviation .. Sees 68 38 10°2 a Warmest day. secoeveese | Aug. 20 ao July 14, 68 | July 31, 44 Mean Sa of the warmest day .. 75°18 78:23 84:50 72:75 ? Uoldest day... abeansecuesshateitstetels March 4 Me. Epwarp Atrey, 12 Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, London, W., has been appointed the English Agent for the Institute, All European commu- nications are requested to be forwarded through hin THE CANADIAN JOURNAL. NEW SERIES. No LXXII.—AUGUST, 1870. THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. Paper read before the Canadian Institute, Toronto, March 12th, 1870. BY RICHARD. LEE, F.A.8.L. The following remarks must necessarily fall far short of any thing like a comprehensive summary of the leading features observable among the natives of Polynesia. The most that I can hope to accomplish in the brief space of a paper of this kind, is to note some of the most prominent matters that have fallen under my own observation, and to set forth some of the conclusions to which I have been led as to the future of the tribes under consideration. Under the term Polynesia or Oceanica I would include all the islands that lie between the 100th degree of west and the 125th degree of east longitude, and between the 40th degree of south latitude and the 30th degree of north latitude. We have here a large area occupied by various tribes of the Malay race, differing much from each other, but all retaining very marked evidence of a common origin. My personal knowledge of them is chiefly limited—though not entirely—to the islands of Tasmania, Australia, New Zealand, the Figis and the Navi- gator groups; and it is to these, and especially to the first named, that I shall ask your attention. I need not remind members of this society that the Tasmanians are now extinct, the last of the tribes having died in 1869. I first met with them in 1853, and when I saw them last, in 1855, they numbered only sixteen. The time had passed then for making inquiries which could Me of much value from an anthropological point of view. They 444 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. were living in an artificial state, and, although retaining many of their physical characteristics—not all—a part of their language, and all the recollection of their recent history, their distinctive character had become very materially modified. For many years, the history of the Tasmanian has been a dark blot upon British civilization. In 1815, their number was estimated at 5,000, which was probably far below the truth. Five years later there were only 340. This enormous loss was not due to disease, nor to military outrages—such as have recently disgraced American arms among the Indians of the West—but solely to the murderous propensities of the early settlers. The natives were always harmless, and have not unjustly been regarded as among the lowest or least advanced members of the human family. But their weakness was no protection against the barbarities of the white popula- tion, who were in the habit of poisoning them as vermin, or shooting them as legitimate game. The daughter of an army officer—one of those who went to the colonies with a grant of land, after the close of. the war with Napoleon—has described to me her recollections of the time when the neighbouring settlers, meeting in the morning at her father’s house and taking an early luncheon on the lawn, would go forth into the bush to shoot blackfellows. This lady was a well-read and accomplished woman, but she never regarded this kind of recreation as any thing more than a perfectly legitimate sport, and she could tell even with enthusiasm of the interest with which the female portion of such parties used to sit over their evening meal and listen to the sports- men’s narrative of a successful excursion. Under such circumstances it is no wonder that the tribes rapidly diminished, or that, in 1851, when the local government, ashamed of the conduct of the settlers, undertook to protect the aborigines, they were reduced to 196. Being removed to Flinder’s Island, they re- mained there till 1847, but—and I think this important—their number was then reduced to 47, of whom 13 were men. They were then assigned to an old convict station at a beautiful spot on the shores of D’Entrecarteaux’s Channel ; but here again they died away so rapidly that, as I have said, in 1855 there were only 16 left. . When the late Sir John Franklin was Governor of Van Dieman’s Land, he and Lady Franklin took a particular interest in the aborigines, and, on Lady Franklin’s nomination, a gentleman named Milligan was appointed “ Protector,’ with special instructions to devote himself to the preparation of a complete history, philological and general, of the THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 445 fast fading race. But these conditions were never fulfilled. Mr. Milli- gan’s favor with Lady Franklin was great, but his competency as an ethnologist was infinitesimally small. Perhaps too his salary was too liberal, for he lived at his ease in Hobarton and never honored the aborigines with more than an annual visit. He compiled a so-called vocabulary of native words, which I have no hesitation in saying is perfectly worthless to the philologist as well as to the ethnologist, and the very brief notes which he occasionally produced with reference to the general characteristics of the tribes are not one whit more reliable. Thus was lost a splendid opportunity of giving to anthropology a com- plete history of this now extinct race, and, as a result, we really know very little about it. It has been supposed that while Australia was peopled direct from the north through the islands of Timor and Rotti, Van Dieman’s Land derived its population from the islands of the Pacific. This was Dr. Latham’s opinion; but I have not been able to discover sufficient reason for the supposition. I am more disposed to think that the people originally came across Bass’s Strait from the eastern portion of Australia, now known as Gipp’s Land, through that chain of islands which connects the line of the Blue Mountains and Australian Alps with the mountains of Tasmania. In my intercourse with the natives of both places, I have found nothing which militates against this view ; neither have I been able to detect any thing which seems to call for the theory that has received the powerful support of Dr. Latham. When attention was first given to the natives of Van Dieman’s Land, it was found that the tribes on the east differed in some respects from those on the west. They spoke the same language, but in dialects differing so much that the two people could with difficulty understand each other. Their customs were also different in some details. These points do not however indicate any difference of origin. The interior of Tasmania is of such a character that it would hardly have been pos- sible—at any rate it was highly improbable—that the tribes on the east coast should have had any intercourse with those of the west. They were separated by an almost impassable barrier of mountain and. forest, with an impenetrable undergrowth of scrub; so that it would have been very remarkable if some distinctive marks had not grown up in a series of generations. These distinctions however were completely lost when the whole aboriginal population was sent to Flinder’s Island, and, except by their pedigree, it was impossible to ascertain with 446 _ THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. which tribe the natives whom I knew in D’Entrecarteaux’s Channe! were connected. In color the Tasmanians were not as dark as the Australians gene- rally are, but in the Malay race it does not do to place too much stress. upon the color of the skin or the character of the hair. I have met with many Australians who were of a lighter complexion than were the last of the Tasmanians. These people were indolent and dirty in their habits, and never made much advance towards the boundary of civiliz- ation; but I am not disposed to place these facts entirely to their own credit. They were badly treated, and neglected even to the last, and never had any opportunity of displaying any capabilities which in my opinion they certainly possessed. A question has been raised whether the Tasmanians knew the use of fire before it was introduced to them by Europeans. Some have answered this question in the negative; others have told us that the tribes in the south knew it, but not those in the north; and Mr. Milligan says that they knew the use of fire, but could not produce it. The belief of the natives themselves was almost similar to that of the Maories and other Polynesians, who profess to have been familiar with the use of fire since the early days of the world’s history, when Mani took some from Mahuitta, an old woman who lived far down in the inner regions of the earth. From the direct evidence of the natives themselves, which of course may be taken as of more or less value, I am satisfied that the use of fire was known to the Tasmanians before the island was visited by Huropeans. ; We cannot regard the extinction of the Tasmanians as of so much scientific importance as if those people had met with different treatment from the colonists; but when we cross: Bass’s Strait we are met with the remarkable fact that within 20 years many tribes in that part of the island, which now constitutes Victoria, have entirely disappeared ; even though they have at no time experienced ill usage from the set- tlers. In the east some tribes are still to be found, but throughout the greater part of Victoria the natives have mostly gone. It is necessary that I should here explain the sense in which the word ‘tribe’? must be received. It has a different meaning from that which it would have when used in reference to the American Indians. I have heard it sometimes asked whether the tribes of Australia are not smaller and more numerous—other things being the same—than are the tribes of this country. In one aspect they are, but in reality they are not. The whole of Australia is deficient in water and animals, consequently the THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 447 means of living are precarious and difficult to attain. Nor is there any thing in the country with which the natives could trade. Their life therefore is a mere existence, and oftentimes they are on the verge of stavation. This scarcity of food naturally tends to the subdivision of the people. They live chiefly on roots, seeds, insects, and fish, and to obtain these in sufficient quantities they travel in small parties. These are distinct communities. They do not habitually intermix, but they have no objection to do so if the general interests render it expedient, or if circumstances render it possible. They may be on friendly terms or not with other similar sets, but as a rule feuds are rare among them. They have enough to do to get their living without fighting, although it is also highly probable that their very scanty fare has a general ten- dency to mollify their disposition. When then we speak of the Yarra Yarra tribes, the tribes of the Goolwa, or of the Murrumbidgee, as we usually do, the word tribe must be understood as applying to the various subdivisions of the people I have described. There are some very marked differences between the natives of the extreme north of Australia and those of the extreme south, but there are no distinet nations, or tribes, as there were and to some extent still are among the North American Indians. I have found different customs prevailing among different tribes, different dialects of language may also be detected between distant tribes, but still no decided line can be drawn between neighbouring parties. It would be less difficult to do this, perhaps, in the north than in the south ; but even there I doubt the practicability. We ought rather, I think—in our present state of knowledge—to regard the Australian aborigines as one nation, divided, it is true, into many sections, which for convenience we call tribes, but which present no greater difference of an ethnological character than are to be found in the several counties of England at the present time. Australia possesses a magnificent climate ; equalled in no place in the northern hemisphere with which I am acquainted, and surpassed only on some of the smaller islands of the Pacific. The natives there- fore have no great need of clothing, and accordingly they wear none. The trees are evergreen, and, although they do not possess a dense foliage, a few boughs always suffice to give shade and shelter to the aborigines. If clothing were a necessity, I do not know where it could be procured. Wild animals are scarce, and the natives, unlike the Maories and many other of the Polynesians, have no knowledge of tex- tile fabrics of any kind. The only tools with which they are acquainted 448 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. are the spear. the boomerang, and the waddy; and their skill in using these has been greatly exaggerated. Some of them are dexterous im spearing fish; but I have frequently put up a mark at five and twenty paces and set four or five natives to work at it with their spears, but I have no recollection of them ever having hit it. When fighting takes place too, it is not an uncommon thing to hear of a battle lasting several hours, and ending without any body being much the worse. They dislike coming to close quarters, so that the waddy, as a weapon of war,. is very harmless when compared with the tomahawk of the Indian.. It is used especially for killing small animals, and it is also a legitimate instrument for keeping the women in order. That a people of so pri- mitive a character as the Australian should be familiar with such an instrument as the boomerang is a point which to my thinking demands careful investigation at the hands of the anthropologist. But this instrument is not in such general use as is frequently supposed. I have more than once met with tribes who could not muster a boome- rang among them. It may therefore readily be supposed that skill in the use of that weapon varies much. To throw it accurately towards a mark and to make it return to within a few feet of the thrower, requires considerable practice. I have met with natives who could do this with unerring certainty, but they are not the majority. I have seen a parrot brought down from the top of a high tree, and in a second or two afterwards the boomerang lying at the feet of the thrower ; but it must not be supposed that this sort of thing is done every day, or by all the natives. The man who did it had no rival within my experience among his countrymen, and perhaps if I had never met him and witnessed his skill on many occasions I should never have credited the boomerang with so much value as, in good hands, I know it to possess. It is right I should mention that these remarks, so far as they refer to the incapacity of the Australians, are more applicable to the tribes of the south than to those of the north. Independently of any physical differences, the latter are more warlike than the southerners. Although living in a warmer climate, they are more active and energetic, yet. with this exception, [am not aware that we ought justly to credit them with any higher or more civilized endowments. My old friend Burke, who, with his companions, Wells and King, was the first white man to cross the Australian continent, and who: perished on his return to Cooper Creek through the culpable blunder- ing of one of his own party, found the natives exceedingly troublesome: THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 4A9 as he approached the Gulf of Carpentaria; and Leichardt and his followers fell victims to the spears of the same tribes a little more to the eastward. But as a contrast to this, when Burke and his two companions were left to starve at Cooper’s Creek, they were sustained for many days by the generous kindness of the natives whom they found in that locality. I do not attribute these differences of character to differences of origin. Inthe north the natives are better supplied with food, and their ranks are frequently receiving accessions from the wild tribes of the archipelago, and probably from the Malagar peninsular itself; in the same manner, though in a less degree, as the Philippine Islands receive reinforcements from China and the other Asiatie coasts. The character of the average Australian is noted rather for its nega- tive than for its positive features; by which I do not mean that these people are incapable of improvement. As a rule they are indolent and apathetic. They dislike any thing that gives them trouble, and still they are patient and persevering. They will pass two or three days without food rather than exert themselves to find a daily supply, unless at least it is close at hand and can be had without much effort. If they are in want of fire, they will often prefer to travel for another day or two, in the hope of getting some from their neighbours, than take the trouble to “make” it for themselves. Yet they will plod along over many long miles under a burning sun, without food, to change their location; or they will spend weeks diligently carving out a boom- erang or a waddy, with a few rough stones. I have always found these people faithful and trustworthy companions. I have travelled among them through a wide area of country, and almost always alone. I have associated with many tribes and met with them at different times under very varied circumstances, and I have always found them uniformly friendly and kind, ever ready to render me a service even at their own personal inconvenience. They have a keen sense of honour. They will enter upon undertakings of hardship or danger for a master or one whom they regard as a friend, and they will not hesitate to risk their lives in his service. They are submissive and ever ready to do a kind- ness to a friend, if they find him in need or distress. But while this is the result of my experience among them, I must add that in all my intercourse with aborigines tribes in any part of the world, I have ever made it an invariable rule to treat them with kindness and conjidence. I believe that to trust in their right intentions will go farther to win their friendship than a very large amount of bribery, and the effect is 450 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. assuredly more profound and lasting. I can say now, with the most complete satisfaction, that during the several years in which I haye been brought into communication with native races—men and women whom the world calls savages—I have never experienced from them one act of enmity or ill-will, nor any display of feeling which would prevent me from going again among any of the Polynesian tribes with a sense of the most perfect security. It is quite true that we hear from time to time of horrible massacres and cruelties perpetrated by Australian natives upon the families of settlers in the far interior. These reports are perfectly correct. But T have had favorable opportunities many times of enquiring into them, and I am quite confident that native attacks upon Huropean settle- ments have never been made without provocation first offered by the colonists. The ill-treatment which the natives are called upon to sub- mit to is oftentimes simply horrible. In Queensland, at this moment, they are being slaughtered indiscriminately and with the most dis- graceful cruelty under the sanction of the government. And although the Australians will endure a great deal and are not easily roused, yet’ it is unreasonable to suppose that they will bear all kind of oppression with impunity. When they take the resolve, they resent an injury with all the unsparing cruelty of a barbarous race—heedless of age, Sex, or innocence—every thing but color, It suffices them to know that a white man is their mortal enemy; not he alone pays the penalty, but his family, his household, his property, al! suffer for the offence. It has been supposed by many that no tribes of mankind have been found who were without religion of some kind. But a German mis- slonary who went among the Australians many years ago, said that they had no idea whatever of a supreme being. Mr. Parkes, a member of the New South Wales Legislature, who is also a good authority, draws attention to the fact that there is no word in their language for either justice or sin; and Dr..Lang, than whom no one perhaps has had better opportunities’ for arriving at the truth, although it must be added that his judgments are sometimes prejudiced, said that not only had they no idea of a supreme divinity, “but they had no object of worship, no idols, nor temples, nor sacrifices ; nothing whatever in the shape of religion to distinguish them from the beasts.” I have examined this question with some care and I must say with the same result. I have not succeeded in meeting with any Australian who had a religion, in the strict meaning of the word. They have no belief in THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 451 or knowledge of a good spirit. Still less can it be said that they have ever conceived the idea of a supreme ruler or creator. But they are not without a belief in the supernatural. The South Australians, for example, have faith in the existence of a spirit or fiend, whom they call Moorundun. In Van Dieman’s Land he was known as Namma. But they do not worship this ideality. I never could learn that the Aus- tralians had any conception of prayer, propitiation, worship, or sacrifice. Yet Moorundun is held in extreme awe. He is an evil spirit, ever working mischief, but especially dangerous at night. Hence the reason why the Australians will never move about, if they can help it, after dark ; an objection by the way which is equally shared in by many other of the Polynesians, and especially by the Maories. Moorundun is supposed to be a “black fellow” of huge size who lives in the bush, and is accompanied and aided by myriads of small imps who live in the scrub and on the boughs of the trees. The air and water are also supposed to be peopled by similar creatures, whose whole purpose is to annoy and injure mankind and to aid their master in his diabolical propensities. Moorundun is a notorious liar, the truth is unknown to him. His great object is to steal women and children. The latter he devours ; the former he devotes to the gratification of his own plea- sures, and then either restores them to their tribe or eats them. He is a consummate thief, sly and revengeful, ever uttering obscene and abusive language, imprecations, and lies. The belief in a future existence varies among the natives. Some entertain the idea that after death they go to a happy country, where there is an abundance of fish and kangaroo to be had without trouble; others think that they are destined to be changed into white men ; a creed which contrasts strangely with that of some African tribes; and many of them have no belief at all. In like manner, I should mention that the belief in Moorundun or his equivalent is by no means universal, and it is worthy of note that where his existence is not acknowledged the character of the natives is the more favorable. His disciples are apt for instance to imitate that spirit in untruthfulness, although I do not know whether we are to regard this as an indication of propitiary intentions. Among the good traits in the Australian character there is one that needs special notice at my hands, because it has been referred to very prominently by some of the female philosophers of this present day. The rapid disappearance of many aboriginal tribes, which seems to be 452 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. almost peculiar to Anglo-Saxon colonization, has deservedly attracted a great deal of attention, though not as much as it deserves; and it is no easy matter to discover the causes of the phenomenon. But Miss Nightingale, who in this matter had no experience whatever to justify her opinion, declared before a meeting of the Social Science Congress, a few years ago, that the chief cause of the disappearance of aboriginal tribes is to be found in their unchastity. Asa theory this is mani- festly worthless; but as a question of fact it is utterly untrue. I do not mean to affirm that absolute moral purity prevails among the Australians, but there is no such thing as that indiscriminate inter- course between the sexes which some persons like to imagine. Hvyen polygamy is not an established institution ; and although marriage can have no relation to religion where no religion exists, it is much more highly esteemed by most of the Australian natives than it is in many so-called Christian communities which I might name. It is no uncom- mon occurrence to find old people who have lived together as man and wife from their youth, with a constancy which would shame very many couples who have solemnly pledged themselves at the altar of the Church. Such charges as those made by Miss Nightingale, and which have been repeated by other female reformers of society, are therefore not only gratuitous but unjust. The Australians have few traditions, or if they have any it is extremely difficult to get at them. But it is worthy of note that among many of them there is a tradition of a time when the world was under water, very much resembling that which was found by Humboldt to exist among the South Americans, and not materially differing from the Mosaic account of the deluge. I am compelled by want of time to omit the notice which I should like to have given of the language of the Australians, which has many beauties and is not difficult to acquire; but I may be allowed to point out the wide field which opens out before the Anthropologist who would devote himself to the philo- logy and thence to the traditional history of these people. I cannot but think that such an enquiry would be rewarded with interesting and valuable fruits. There is a custom prevalent among many tribes to which hard names have sometimes been applied, although it is one very partially known. An incident which once happened to myself will illustrate it. Ona bright summer day, it may be sixteen years ago, I was wandering far in the interior of Australia. After the morning meal, usually taken at THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 453, sunrise, I had rested perhaps two or three hours on a shady knoll, revelling in that wondrous feeling which can be enjoyed only under a luxurious atmosphere and in the midst of an absolute solitude. At last, mounting my horse, I travelled some eight or ten miles, when I fancied I heard distant sounds which I at once recognized as coming from a band of natives. My curiosity was aroused, and turning aside through a low dense scrub that skirted a piece of elevated land, then crossing the brow of a hill, I saw before me one of those beautiful tracts of country which so often surprise the traveller amid the arid plains of Australia. Far away extended the landscape, studded with trees, and here and there darkened with a piece of denser vegetation. Immediately beneath me lay a little valley, covered with luxuriant herbage and bordered with a fringe of eucalipti. In the midst was a small group of natives, by whom I soon found that my presence had been already recognized. I rode towards them and was met by two of their number, who, after the interchange of a few civilities, led me on to their companions. They numbered between thirty and forty, the majority being females. All were entirely naked, and exhibited physi- eally a much higher type of the race than I had seen farther south. As I approached them, the noise which at first attracted my attention ceased, and the whole party gathered round me. But having given them to understand that I intended to pass a few hours in their com- pany, they proceeded with their ceremony, not heeding my presence. At the foot of a large tree, sat or rather lay, supported against a log, an old man. His face, chest, arms and hands, had been burnt. The. flesh still unhealed lay bare and festering under the glaring sun and the unceasing irritation of innumerable flies. In addition to this he was suffering from disease of the lungs, and it was with evident pain and difficulty that he breathed. Two women bathed the old man with pipe clay water, and the rest of the party assembled round him and indulged in the wildest gesticulations, which were accompanied at intervals with a strange monotonous cry that occasionally changed into a weird almost unearthly tumult of shouts. I at once divined what was to be the end of all this, and, after watching the proceeding for some time, I rode away again into the bush. Here, at a distance of two or three miles, I rested till evening. When the sun had set, and the full moon was well above the horizon, I once more mounted my horse and retraced my steps. I had at first some difficulty in finding the exact spot where I had left my friends. All was perfectly still and 454 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. silent. But after looking about for some time, a huge “ black fellow” suddenly stood at my side, his dark proportions seeming magnified in the shadowy light of the moon. The whole tribe was close at hand, but my companion, whose instinct seemed to tell him the object of my visit, took me aside to a recess among the trees, where lay the body of the old man. His eldest son had knelt upon his chest, while two women had strangled him with a strip of bark. . This custom of killing the old and helpless is not universal, but it prevails very generally. Age is respected, but as soon as a native be- comes a burden to himself and to his tribe he gladly and not without a degree of pride submits to being put to death. When we remember the mode of life of these people, there is more real kindness than cruelty in this custom. It arises certainly from no savage tendency to violence ; and although at a superficial glance there may be something horrible about the idea, we ought to take all the circumstances into consideration before we pass a decree of condemnation upon it. The tribes live by travelling from place to place. They have certain favo- rite haunts, but they cannot remain long upon one location. They have no means of carrying with them those of their companions who are permanently disabled, and so they have established an institution which saves such from starvation. The principal tribes of the other parts of Polynesia are of a higher type than the Australians or the Tasmanians. This remark applies especially to those portions of the population which have sometimes been described by the term Poiynesian, as distinct from the Melane- rian. ‘The latter merge into the former at about the longitude of the Figis, where we find a people possessing the characteristics more or less of both divisions. ‘Time however will not permit me to dwell as T would wish upon many of the details of character, custom and lan- guage, of these interesting people. I must content myself with only such general observations as are suggested upon a consideration of their probable future. I ask to be allowed to make only one exception, for the purpose of expressing my conviction upon the subject of canni- balism, for which the Figians and .Maories especially are rated in many books and in missionary records. Ido not believe in cannibalism. I did believe in it once; but that was before I had lived among the so- called cannibals. As my knowledge of these increased, my belief in the custom diminished ; till now there is none left. By cannibalism I understand the use of human flesh as an article of food; made so, THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 455 ‘not of course by necessity, but through choice and custom. I do not deny that many of the Polynesians eat human flesh, but they do it rather as a conscientious duty than as a social habit. When they kill an enemy there are certain portions of his body which they eat. They do this to dishonor their foe and to quiet their own consciences. They have accomplished all that duty and the ethics of war require, when they have tasted a mouthful of the fat that is near the kidneys; and if they go farther and make a feast upon the greater part of the body it is because they are over-elated with victory, or because they are giving way to a more than ordinary hatred of the man whom they have over- come. Perhaps too they may sometimes go upon much the same prin- ciple that a white man adopts, when, having drunk one glass of whisky punch, he goes on drinking other glasses of whisky punch, until he gets much more than either does him good or improves his reputation. If this be cannibalism then the Polynesians are cannibals; but it is not the sense in which the word is constantly being applied, and in which I claim that it has no existence in many places where it has been said to prevail. My opinion therefore is that if any one becomes food for a Polynesian it is his own fault, and not merely a consequence of his going among these people. Let me now more particularly but still very briefly advert to a sub- ject which in many of its bearings is of the greatest interest to anthro- pologists, I wish I could say to society generally. I allude to the future of the Polynesian race. I need not here dwell upon or even pause to illustrate the fact, which is so prominent in the history of Anglo-Saxon colonization, that aboriginal tribes seem destined to disap- pear before a higher civilization, when that is presented by our own people. Numerous evidences of this will occur to the minds of all present, of which perhaps not the least important, although the most recent, is the rapid diminution of the Negro, which is now and has been since the civil war going on in the United States. I think how- ever we must acknowledge as a law in this matter, that the disappear- ance takes place in the direct ratio of the lower mental and physical development of the aborigines, and it is upon this that I am inclined in a great measure to shape my conclusions. In this country for example we see a fusion of the Indian with European blood, and at present we have no data upon which we can determine whether the mixed race will be perpetuated. But among the aborigines of Aus- tralia we see no such tendency. I have met with the offspring of black 456 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. women and white men, but they are very rare in Australia, and I am not aware that any members of a second generation exist. In my belief the Australian aboriginal is destined to disappear as completely as have the tribes of Tasmania; although in holding this view I do not wish it to be understood that I regard him as a being so low in the scale of humanity as to be incapable of improvement. Different indi- viduals among them present different degrees of capacity for mental culture, but many of them are open to considerable elevation. I cannot say that in their natural state they are wanting in tenacity of purpose. They will track a foe with the most untiring diligence, and in many other things display a remarkable perseverance and singleness of end. But when civilization attempts to deal with them they show an equally great deficiency in the power of application. They are often good and intelligent farm servants, and, if properly managed, they seldom fail to acquire in a short time some rudiments of religion and general educa- tion. They are remarkably susceptible to religious impressions, and submissive and trusting to their teachers. Their memories are reten- tive. The schoolmaster has no difficulty in getting them to recollect what they have once grasped, but he finds it a very difficult task to fix their attention. Their faculty of observation is great, but all the good qualities which they possess seem to fade away directly we seek to apply them to the teachings of civilized life. Their precarious mode of subsistence militates of course very strongly against any great phy- sical development, but when well fed they evince considerable powers of endurance. They become clever stockmen and daring riders. I knew a member of the Murrumbidgee tribe who was one of the best jockeys in New South Wales. It will also be remembered that England was recently visited by a company of aboriginal cricketers; and these men worked out a by no means discreditable record, both with some of the best English clubs in Australia, and with many clubs in England. The government of Victoria has always exhibited a marked desire to protect and utilize the native tribes. They have also been generally well treated by the settlers of that colony. A few years ago, an effort was made to give as many of them as would avail themselves of the offer some knowledge of agriculture and the art of earning a living. For this purpose a large tract of fine land on the banks of the Goul- burn was set apart for them. ‘Tools, seeds and instructors, were pro- vided, and many natives came to the spot and proved themselves exceedingly handy with the various implements placed at their dis- THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. A457 posal. But they showed no steady application. Fixture in one locality did not accord with their ideas of freedom, and after they had remained on the land a short time they all disappeared and went back to their primitive mode of existence. In South Australia, a different plan was adopted. The missionaries who went among the aborigines had suc- eessively failed to accomplish any thing. They were at first listened to with attention, because the natives regarded them as members of their own tribes risen from the dead, and they listened as to men of autho- rity. But they soon discovered that the practice of the white men did not accord with their precepts, and in this way they lost confidence. Then failing to see any immediate benefit to be derived from an adhe- rence to the teaching they received, they soon learned to treat it with a feeling little removed from contempt. But, in 1859, the “ Abori- ginal Friends’ Association” appointed a resident agent in one district, who hit upon a different expedient. He kept religion in the back ground at first, and, selecting three of the most intelligent tribes— those of Corong, Goolwa and Point Malcolm—he devoted himself to learning their habits. They lived chiefly by fishing, and he at once set to work to teach them improved means of taking fish. In this and by similar ways he succeeded very quietly in making himself necessary to them. They valued him, for they lived better now than ever they had lived before, and with far less labour. At last, when by these means he had completely won their confideuce, he began to instil into them moral precepts, and they listened to him and profited. They had had their feeling of gratitude—always strong in the native breast—aroused, and thus the way was cleared for the fair reception of other culture. I must however add, that all experience seems to indicate that we cannot eradicate from the Australian mind a longing to return to the aboriginal state. I have known natives who have been steadily em- ployed for years upon one station, suddenly and without any apparent reason, strip off their clothes and go to rejoin their tribe. I am pre- pared to give due weight to the consideration that where the Austra- _ lians have proved quite intractable in the hands of their teachers, there has been as much want of tact on one side as want of capacity on the other; but we possess absolutely no reason fur thinking that the natives are capable of any, even moderately great, mental effort, still less of any hich degree of intellectual culture. At the same time, however, I wish it to be distinctly understood that I cannot endorse the opinion that they are incapable of considerable advance in civilization. 458 THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. The-natives of New Zealand, the Figis, and the Navigators’ Islands, must be very differently regarded. An unfair prejudice has grown up against the Maories, in consequence of the wars which have so long agitated New Zealand, but I say most emphatically that that war would never have occurred but for the disgraceful conduct of the New Zealand colonists. Language too strong cannot be used in condemna- tion of the treatment which the Maories have received at the hands of our people, who have deceived, misled, plundered, butchered them, with unmitigated atrocity, and then asked the world to sympathize with them when the Maori turned upon his oppressor. I know not one redeeming feature in the policy of the New Zealand colonists towards the natives, though if any palpable proof were needed to show that the Maori is worthy of a better destiny than extermination, it is the manner in which he has sustained the contest against his European tyrants. Implicit faith may be put in the honor of a Maori. His word is irrevocable. I confidently believe that no amount of injustice inflicted upon him by one whom he has promised to protect would induce him to swerve from his pledge. But the whole treatment of the colonists towards him has been a systematic course of trickery and deception, and even under that he never offered violent resistance until he had received an amount of provocation which was far beyond what would have sufficed to drive any civilized community to arms. The prejudice against him is therefore unjust. The Maori is capable of a high degree of mental culture, probably as capable as any abori- ginal in the world, and many Europeans. He is a successful agricul- turist, a shrewd diplomatist, and oftentimes a successful merchant, an honest (that is to say a trustworthy) lawyer, and an eloquent politician. Of the Figians we know less. They have not had the same advan- tages, and disadvantages I fear I must say, of intercourse with Euro- peans; but I am strongly inclined to the conviction that the talent they undoubtedly possess as traders, and in the developement of the resources of their rich and beautiful island, may be taken as some - evidence that they are capable of holding a much higher position than they now possess in the scale of humanity, I might say in the scale of natioas. They are easily taught. They are endowed with many quali- ties which render them fully capable of social and political organization, upon our own basis, as well as of self-government. And I think that a series of independent nationalities throughout the Pacific, composed of now existing materials, should be the object sought to be attained THE NATIVE TRIBES OF POLYNESIA. 459 by those nations which claim to be civilized. If England should colo- nize these islands, extermination, with perhaps some interfusion, would certainly follow sooner or later; and a similar result would be as sure and more rapid if America were to succeed in her schemes of annexa- tion. But left to themselves there is character, intelligence, capability, in the natives of Figi or Samoa which fully qualify them for an inde- pendent position in the world and an honorable status among the nations. But I have already exceeded my legitimate limits, and extended my remarks beyond the time which I had a right to claim from this society. To convey a general insight into the character of the people I have been considering, I fear I have laid myself open to the charge of discursiveness, and perhaps failed to satisfy those who looked for the technical details of racial distinctions. These however I preferred to omit, rather than to treat them imperfectly; and hence I must ask the society to regard the observations I bave made, not as an attempt at a complete review of the Polynesian tribes, so much as the preface to a more elaborate notice of the character of these people, which may be worthily considered by some more competent anthropologist than myself. 2 [460] ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. BY JAMES LOUDON, M.A., MATHBMATICAL TUTOR AND DEAN, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO. Among the questions which have agitated the learned world since the revival of classical studies there is one still remaining, unsolved and perhaps insoluble, the correct pronunciation of the Latin language. With the scanty materials which have descended to our time, it becomes us to be cautious rather than confident; and yet there is perhaps no subject upon which scholars express themselves with greater temerity than this concerning which we know so little. The glory of ancient Rome has long been dimmed. Her pomp and state—her invincible arms—her haughty spirit, have passed away ; her very language is num- bered with the departed dialects to be spoken no more amongst the nations of the earth. Had some prophetic voice foretold to the senate that, in the progress of ages, the time was approaching when alt these things should be accomplished, we may imagine the scorn and contempt which would have overwhelmed the seer. On that memorable occasion when the doom of conspirators was the subject of debate, when Cicero vehemently demanded their execution, and when Cesar and Cato deni- ed or jeered at the immortality of the soul, the fate which awaited Rome could not have found a place in their wildest dreams. That fate over- took her in its appointed course, levelling her pride with the dust, and reminding nations of the truth which Edmund Burke applied to indi- viduals—‘‘ what shadows they are and what shadows they pursue.’ I have said that the Latin language is no longer a living tongue. Prouder, however, than the memory of ten conquests, nobler than her works of art, the monuments of Roman intellect remain, the de- light and admiration of a distant age. Being dead Rome yet speaketh, to the eye, if not to the ear. She became the fruitful mother of a family of nations, but her language has fared ill with posterity. Heclesiastics adopted it, literary men employed it as “the language of the learned.” In it were composed the prayers of the Western Church, and the writings of the fathers and divines of that communion. But it was not the Latin of the ancient Republic or the early Empire. Its vocabulary was extended without being enriched; the strictness of ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 461 grammatical structure, and the purity of style concerning which the old Roman was so sensitive, fell a prey to the barbarism of the times. The best known work of the medieval period, the celebrated treatise, ‘‘ De “Imitatione Christi,’ can hardly be said to have been written in the same language as that in which Cicero, or Horace, or Tacitus expressed their thoughts. The use of Latin as a spoken language, by those who knew nothing of the principles of pronunciation, has tended further to debase it. A certain moribund vitality has indeed been secured for it, but only at the expense of elegance in diction and correctness in ex- pression. One of the consequeaces has been, that a number of theories of pronunciation have been devised, none of which will stand the test of intelligent scrutiny. In the following paper it is proposed to examine those theories of pronunciation in which the attempt is made to indicate the quantities of syllables by means of accents and vowel sounds. It seems certain that when the Latin language was spoken with classic purity—when Roman arms and Roman literature were achieving their claims to imperishable renown—sound, accent and quantity, all had their share in the pronunciation of every word. Before entering upon the main question, it seems advisable to consider the nature of each of these three elements. From the explanation I propose to give, it will appear that quantity is not to be confounded with sound; but, on the contrary, is entirely independent of it. In order to guard against misunderstand- ing, it will be understood that by the term ‘‘ quantity”’ is here meant duration of time—those syllables having the same quantity which are pronounced in the same time. In every language the sounds of wordg depend upon and are limited by (1) the capabilities of the human voice. These evidently vary in different races. For an Nnglishman of our day it is perhaps impossible to attain a correct pronunciation of the French u, the German or Gaelic guttural ch, or the Spanish 7. It may be that the organs of speech have undergone considerable modification in the progress of time, and that here we might encounter a difficulty in acquiring a correct pronunciation of Latin, even if our knowledge of it were otherwise accurate. (2) The sounds of the letters which form the alphabet of the language. (3) Variations of these sounds and the formation of other sounds by diphthongal or consonant combinations. These may be roughly stated as representing all the articulate sounds which the vocal organs of the particular race or nation are able to utter ; although in all languages, several sounds are expressed by one 462 ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. letter, and, on the other hand, some of the sounds have redundant or, at any rate, equivalent representatives. It would be beside the purpose of the present paper, even if it were possible, to attempt an exposition of the nature and range of the sounds employed by the Romans. The vowels, their most important letters, we know had, each of them, a variety of sounds. These variations, however, did not arise from any connection between sound and quantity. They were regulated rather by the manner in which the letters were combined, and further by the custom of the time. We may reasonably infer the latter to have been the case from the fact that similar changes have been undergone, and are even now in progress, in modern languages—a conclusion which is confirmed by the early Grammarians. In treating of the sounds of letters these writers are invariably silent as to any distinction between long and short vowels, so far as sound is concerned. Indeed there are passages in which it is expressly stated that there is no such distinction. Probus, for example, says, ‘‘ A autem et / naturam sux vocalitatis, sive correpte, sive productee, custodiunt.” Moreover many instances are cited of words changing their accent or their quantity, but no mention is made of any corresponding alteration in the vocal character of the syllable. Does it not, in fact, seem extremely improba- ble that all words which include syllables of doubtful quantity, or syllables whose quantity depends on position, should have two pronun- ciations almost totally distinct ? There are, it is true, some statements in the writings of the Grammarians which, at first sight, appear to con- flict with this conclusion; but the apparent discrepancy will, J think, disappear upon a closer examination of the various passages. One example may suffice. Capella says: ‘“ HN vocalis duarum Greecarum vim possidet. Nam cum corripitur « Greecum est ut hoste; cum pro- ducitur 7 est ut ab hac die.”’ The meaning of this quotation depends entirely upon the significance of the word vim ; that it refers here only to quantity may be gathered from the use which Victorinus makes of the corresponding word potestas :—‘ Potestas est que in ratione me- _ trica valet cum aut producta aut correpta est.” In fact Capella could not have meant by vim any distinction in sound, for in his time 7 and e had become identical in that respect, as Soxtus Hmpiricus informs us: —‘ Correptum Eta (ait) fieri Epsilon, productum contra Epsilon fieri Bia.” On the whole it is fair to conclude that sound and quantity have no necessary connection whatever; but are in their nature distinct, the one from the other; and further that the vowel sounds depended upon ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. ° 463 their combination with other letters, and changed with the varying custom of the times. The principal or alphabetical sound of each of the vowels cannot now be ascertained; but, following those who have most deeply investigated the subject, we may assume as extremely probable that @ was.pronounced like the a in papa, e like the circum- flexed e in the French béte, 7 as the 7 in might, o like the o in note and not, and w like the oo in boot. With respect to the consonants, there is not so much room for doubt; for the most part they have a well established pronunciation in all languages, which is only modified by position. It is clearly established that c and g were never soft as they are sometimes made before vowels, and that j had the sound of y in youth, as it still retains in the Italian. With reference to the second element—accent — the Grammarians are more explicit. They have left us a complete set of rules according to which the proper syllables may be correctly accentuated. These rules form part, as far as they go, of a system of elocution. They indicate those changes in the pitch of the voice which give force and effect to spoken language. The following are some of the rules relating to the use of the acute and circumflex accents :— (1) A monosyllable takes the acute or circumflex according as its vowel is long or short by nature. (2) In dissyllabic words, the accent is on the penult. (3) In words of more than two syllables, the accent is put on the penult if it is long either by nature or position; the acute is put on the ante-penult, if the penult is short. To these rules there are many exceptions which it is unnecessary to mention here. To these principles of accentuation two German critics, Lipsius and Vossius, have taken exception, but the reasonable- ness of the rules is apparent, and the fact that they were formally acknowledged as early as the days of Quintilian may serve as a sufficient vindication of the Grammarians. The third element, that of quantity, depends upon the length of time occupied in the utterance of a syllable. Originally some long vowels appear to have been distinguished from short vowels either by duplica- tion as aa, ee, or by capital letters as £ When these rude expedients © were abandoned, they were replaced by the ordinary marks —u, by doubling the following consonant, as in classis, summus,» etc, or a similar result was secured by other means. In all cases, however, Lee pee ee eee et 464. ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. whether these marks of quantity were present or not, a long syllable occupied twice the time of a short one in enunciation. So sensitive were the ears even of the common people to this element of speech that, as Cicero tell us (De Orat. c. 50): ‘If the smallest offence be given by an actor so that any sound is made too short by contraction or too long by extension whole theatres burst into exclamations.”’ To enable us to pronounce a word as the Latins did, therefore, it will be necessary for us to discover the proper mode of expressing in its enunciation the sound, accent and quantity of every syllable—a problem we cannot hope to solve with any approach to exactness. It is obviously impossible tq construct a set of rules for the guidance of future generations in the pronunciation of any language. Such a system of Orthoépy would require a language invariable for all time ; for its canons, to be available, must be illustrated by examples taken from the language it is framed to teach—a condition of stability which ean no more be fulfilled in language, than its opposite quality, perpetual motion, can be devised in the department of mechanics. How signally such a set of rules must fail of its object will be evident if we consider that the proper application of the directions of the early Grammarians is involved in the greatest mystery. The only possible means, it seems to me, of devising approximately intelligible rules for the pronunciation of any language would be found in some mechanical method of expres- sing the element of speech—an expedient only practicable when man succeeds in inventing an adequate instrument. It would be useless now for the most acute theorist to strive to pronounce the Latin tongue as it flowed from the lips of Cicero. The most we can hope to accom- plish is to frame, for our own times, a system by which one or more of the elements of pronunciation may be, in some degree, expressed or inferred. The rules in any such system would of course vary with the object proposed and the conventions on which the means for effecting that object are founded. The mode of indicating the first element should find clear and unambiguous expression in every system. ‘The precise meaning of any Latin we may have occasion to use can be adequately conveyed to others in speech only by a consistent and established set of sounds. The most important element to us is quan- tity ; but any attempt to express it intelligibly in speeeh is extremely difficult, inasmuch as it finds no piace in the vocalization of any modern language. «Moreover this difficulty is further complicated by the attempt to confound sound with quantity, and to present them to the ON LATIN PRONUNOIATION. 465 student as dependent, the one upon the other. It will be found, I think, upon careful examination that the methods employed in England and America to express quantity necessarily fail to effect that object, because they are the fruit of incorrect generalization from a few of the rules laid down by the Grammarians to govern a totally different ele- ment—that of accent. ‘So far as regards the representation of the first element in the same country, it is immaterial for all practical purposes whether it be attempted to reproduce the ancient Latin sounds or not. In fact each country now reads Latin according to the analogy of its own language and the fruitless attempt to discover the original sounds is wisely abandoned. There is, however, no reason why natives speaking the same language should not have one uniform system, each word being pronounced in a fixed way, just as educated men pronounce their native tongue. As it is, the number of systems in vogue in America and England is a source of great perplexity, which is not by any means relieved when we consider that there are many who employ no system at all. T’o secure uniformity it would be necessary to frame laws for the sounds of vowels and dipthongs—a matter of considerable difficulty in consequence of the variety in the pronunciation of the same vowels and dipthongs in different words. ‘Take for instance the sounds posses- sed by o as exemplified in note, rod, how, move, dove, or by the diphthong e¢ in height, freight, receipt, their. Similar variations in the case of other vowels and vowel combinations will readily occur to the mind; it is unnecessary therefore to adduce them. Of the entire number of these variations in Nnglish vowel sounds, it will be found that there are two sounds of each vowel occurring more frequently than the rest. These may be denominated the prevailing sounds of the vowel, and are usually known to us as the open and close vowel sounds. In attempting to arrange a complete set of vowel sounds for the Latin, several courses are open tous. In the first place, we may adopt for the purpose the prevailing vowel sounds as they are employed in Hng- lish, selecting, in any particular case, the one we should be most likely to use if the word were English. Or secondly, we may rigidly adhere to one uniform set of sounds in all cases. TWinally, we may adopt the system prevailing in some foreign country. Of these three plans I am inclined to prefer the second, provided the sounds chosen were such as to assimilate our pronunciation to the systems in vogue on the continent of Europe, a step which would tend in some degree to the adoption of 466 ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. an uniform system throughout the educated world. Obviously the sounds best suited to such au object (with one exception, that of 7) would be those already mentioned as being perhaps the nearest approx- imations to the ancient Latin, ¢ being pronounced like the Hnelish e. The consonants and dipthongs present like difficulty; the sounds of the latter being indicated either by the’ prevailing sounds in English, or, better still perhaps, by enunciating their component vowels very quickly one after the other. Ina system constructed in this way to express the first element alone, no regard being had to the other two, the syllables would be pronounced in monotones of the same length. It has been assumed that the laws of accents as given by the Gram- marians are valid, but there still remains an obstacle in the way of a proper understanding of this element, because the variation in the pitch of the voice in pronouncing differently accented syllables is unknown. If, however, we suppose that it was not materially different from that which takes place in speaking the modern languages, we can, at any rate, mark the presence of the acute accent in words of two or more syllables by accenting the syllable on which it occurs, in the same manner as syllables are accented in Hnglish. When, for instance, we place the accent on the first syllable of into, over, under, etc., the pitch of the voice is higher than in articulating the unaccented syllables; so also when we pronounce the words arrest, detect, excellent, arbitrary, illicit; and generally it may be shewn that the voice is higher in pronouncing syllables, accented according to the English method, than it is in the utterance of the unaccented syllables. It is not intended here to assert that clevation of the pitch is the essential element in HMnglish accent. Loudness or stress is much more evident, although the nature of its connection with the former it does not seem easy to explain. It is only necessary for the present purpose to establish that in Hnglish accent we have an elemeut, though a subordinate one, sub- stantially identical with that which, we are told, was the essential characteristic of accent in Latin. If now, sound and acceut being considered as independent elements, syllables be pronounced according to a system embracing only these, they will no longer be uttered in monotones, yet the time of each will be the same; in other words quantity is still wanting. There are examples in Hnglish which are apt to mislead us on this point, inasinuch as the times of the accented syllables are longer than in the unaccented ones. It will be observed, however, that in such cases, although a change ip time takes place ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. 467 along with the acute accent, it is not a necessary concomitant. The concurrence is merely accidental, and the accent is usually expressed in all the modern languages without any accompanying change of time. In Latin, on the contrary, the enunciation of syllables occupied times materially different, but the longer syllables were not necessarily those marked with the acute, as they sometimes are in English. Since the versification of the Latins depended entirely upon the quantity of the syllables—in other words, upon the relative time occu- pied in their utterance—it is of the utmost importance that this element should be well understood, and, as far as possible, clearly defined in any modern system of pronunciation. There is, however, a great and per- haps insuperable difficulty in the way of any fitting expression of it. Quantity in the ancient sense of the term, has ceased to be essential to what may be styled the mechanical department of poetry; in the thythm of the modern languages it is absolutely wanting. So com- pletely has this element disappeared, in the progress of time, that in music, living and fresh as that ‘ divine art”’ is and must ever be, most people are unable to judge with accuracy of duration, even after con- siderable training. Whether, therefore, the attempt in our day to discriminate quantities be futile, or the systems framed to accomplish the object fail from ignorance of the true principles of pronunciation, it is certain that our methods afford no assistance in expressing this chief element in Latin pronunciation. It seems probable that the idea of pronouncing according to accent owes its origin to the manner in which the liturgy of the Church of Rome is read or intoned, and that, by a mis-conception of the system, people have been led to confound accent and quantity. That some error of this description lies at the bottom of modern mistakes regarding pronunciation seems clear when we find that according to prevailing systems it is proposed to indicate quantity, (1) by accent, (2) by giving the vowels different sounds according to their length. From the clear and easily defined distinction already pointed out between quantity and accent, the success of any method of this kind is antecedently improbable. It would not be more unreasonable to assert that time in music can be represented by varia- tions in the pitch. ‘Taking the first of these schemes, it is plain from an examination of the laws of accents, even supposing them to be invariably true (and they are not), that it is only possible to infer the quantity of the penults in words containing at least three syllables. Such a system.is evidently worthless as an exposition of quantity, but 468 ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION. it seems unobjectionable, if designed merely to explain accentuation, and if it be conceded that the quantity of one syllable only can be inferred in certain cases with tolerable accuracy. The faulty applica- tion of the laws of accents has led modern theorists far astray on the subject of Latin pronunciation. Their mistakes have resulted in the penult being considered the only syllable whose quantity they care to express, whereas it has not been observed that in such cases they are really expressing the accent and inferring the quantity. It is to be lamented that the odéum phalologicum has so completely blinded edu- cated men as to induco them to sneer at the ideas of quantity enter- tained by those whose patient erudition and honest investigation of the truth are at least equal to their own. The second proposal which is the complement of the first is open to the still stronger objection, that it rests upon an arbitrary assumption, neither appropriate nor effective, and for which, it may be added, there is no semblance of authority. If we take the sounds representing the lone vowels which I have ventured to mark (a, e, 2, 0, u,), there seems no sufficient reason why they should be regarded as differing in point of time from the so-called short vowels (a, e, 4, 0, u,), which can be equally prolonged. There is no difference so fur as the expression of quantity is concerned by the mere change of vowel sounds in such words as the following :—mivet, modvit; fructtis, fructis; bine, béta; bibo, bimus; labor, labor. According to this theory we ought to say STS, maritimus, Ae, domus, cogito, colonus, quis, quis, and soon. Hven were this system capable of perfect and universal appli- cationi it could only enable us to infer with probability instead of expressing with accuracy what the Latins meant when they spoke of the quantity of a syllable. At any rate, it could only be serviceable as a supplement to the fallacious method of indicating quantity by accent. In addition to the objection that systems like these are purely factitious — conclusions drawn from suppositions and arbitrary pre- mnises—it is only necessary to point out that the sounds of short vowels are generally the same as those which become long by position or dipthongs. The 7 for instance has the same sound in maritimus and littera ; the e in béne and peudo is, so far as sound is concerned, iden- tical. This objection might, of course, be removed by ascribing to the vowels long by position the sounds of the long vowels, but the insuper- able difficulty would still remain, that such a contrivance would fail * ON LATIN PRONUNCIATION: 469 because it is not universally applicable. The practice of those who advocate the theory is the most effective argument against it. How, for example, would they pronounce such words as these :—spéi, rél, fierl, vis, fis, sis, die, hiemis, Iliadis, Hamadryades, lugeo, liceo, stlipeo, ribeo, fierat, cbemo, coalesco? Moreover, how do they pro- pose to distinguish words of doubtful or variable quantity, e.g. Oyclopes and Cyclopes; prdpago and propagine; mgvet and movit; fugit and figit ; hic amdr, hoc studium, ectc., and Omnia vincit amor, et... . Until they are able to adapt their rules to every case which may arise in the language of a people so ardently attached to rhythm and so morbidly sensitive of false clocution as the Romans, they can lay no claim to the possession of a perfect system. In conclusion let me briefly state the positions I have attempted to establish :— (1) That the quantity cannot now be expressed with any approach to accuracy in modern speech, and that if discerned at all, it can only be by inference from the other elements. (2) That conclusions drawn from accent can only be valid when applied to the penultimate of words of more than two syllables. In all other cases the quantity must remain wholly indeterminate so far as pronunciation is concerned. (3) That in attempting to construct a system of pronunciation adapted to our wants, the scanty knowledge we possess only warrants us to require (a) that the acute accent shall be expressed in accordance with the law as laid down by the Grammarians, and (5) that one of the two sets of sounds previously suggested shall be fixed as the uniform standard of enunciation wherever the Latin language is read or spoken. The practical results of these desultory observations may appear to be of little value; but when we consider the dogmatic positiveness with which untenable views upon this subject have been asserted, it will not appear an idle work to sweep away the rubbish even at the cost of exposing the poverty of the knowledge we possess. In a department where it is now impossible to extend the limits of the information at our command, it is no small task to distinguish certainty from fanciful invention. The chaff may add to the mass, but it is only the wheat which can be sifted with profit, and treasured, be it much or little, in the garner of the world. 470 ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF STRATFORD, ONTARIO. BY C. J. MACGREGOR, M.A., MEAD MASTER OF TITE GRAMMAR SCHOOL. Stratford, where the observations which form the groundwork of the following papers were made, is situated in 43° 25! N. lat., and long, 80° 58’ W., at an (approximate) elevation of 1182 feet above the sea level. The surface of the adjacent country is generally level or slightly undulating; and as the water-shed of the western section of the Province of Ontario passes within a few miles of the town, its position gives a more than ordinary interest to the meteorological observations taken there. The instruments (supplied by the Chief Superintendent of “ODAC ae ae ene TOSS ot aa AM Edueation) are fixed in position in a shed attached to the north side of — the Grammar School building, and are properly protected from being unduly influenced by radiation. ‘The hours of observation are 7 A.M- and 1 and 9 p.M., which are probably not the best (meteorologically) that might have been chosen, but which were, I believe, selected to suit the convenience of the Grammar Schools, in connection with which a system of meteorological observations has for some years been in operation. In this paper I propose to show the principal steps employed in computing the normal temperatures, together with some of the more important results. The materials employed in the construction of the formule for computing the normal temperatures, are derived from observations made by me during the years 1861-’69, inclusive, and are given in the following tables : MONTHLY MEANS OF TEMPERATURE AT STRATFORD. TA. M. Yerar.| Jan. | Fev. | Mar, |Aprin.| May. | June.| Juny.| Aug. | Snpr. | Oct. | Noy. | Dec. | YEar fo} fe) jo} fe) fo} (o} oO (eo) Oo je) fe} fe) 186L | 16-48 | 21-85] 22°89] 38-06 | 43°65) 58°37 | 62-56] 60°18 | 52°60 |44°56/32-56/ 28-65) 40-20 1862 | 17-81] 16-86} 23-08 | 86°96 | 48-34) 57°12] 62-06] 61°85 | 54°35 |/44-44)82-54) 26-27 / 40-14 1863 | 25-30] 1S-54| 21-53) 37°25) 50°83] 55:91) 20s | 59°8L| 49-21 1389-45/34-72)21-66/39-70 1864 | 16:93 | 19-84 23-52] 36°80 | 50°58] 56°25] 6219 | 62-87 | 51-52 )40-11}33-02)22-42/39-67 1865 | 13:06] 17-00] 29-28] 40-55 | 48-78] 62-75] 61-13] 59-54] 58-22 /39-48/34-61]24-20/40-71 1866 | 16°19 | 16-42) 22-81] 39-48 | 42-65) 57-93] 65°80) 55-15 | 49°55 |44-19/33-84|20-93)/388-74 1867 | 14°37 | 24°85] 21-60 | 36-50] 41-91] 61°83} 61-47 | 59-77 | 52°88 |42-48/34-04/18-29)/ 39-17 1868 | 14:68] 11:48 | 26-52) 34:94] 49-06] 58-31] 69-35] 60-67 | 51-13]37-72]32-41]18-86/38-76 1869 | 24:32] 21-02] 16-68 | 85-37 | 47-17] 54-15) 60-94] 59-76 | 53-24 137-25] 28-49) 25-04) 38°62 Means]! 17°68 | 18:65] 23-09} 37°32) 47-00 58-07 | 63-06 59°96 | 52°53 |41-08}32-92]22-92)/39°52 ry ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF STRATFORD, ONTARIO. 1 PLM. A471 Mar. APRIL. 22°60} 24°81 Means JUNE. (e) 63°76 68-05 65°TL 69°71 72°93 754 72°05 68°22 62°89 68°43 JULY. (e) Ti:72 pia bents} 71AL 7514 | 70-21 | 75°55 72-04 $3°01 68°91 Chae M. .| Dre. Year 0} 27°79 fo) ° 34°75] 45°16 29°32) 47-90 48°27 24°45) 47-80 27°68, 4° 25°14 23°55 | 47-65 22°86 |47°15 28°62 27°12 ll JAN, oo ot Oo 1866 1867 1868 1869 Means]! 19°46 26-58| 40-15 May. ° 44°59 51°58 53°42 54°74 $121 46°87 43°61 51:80 49°91 49°75 JUNE. ° 59°84 58°59 JULY. ° 63°54 68°aL 63:62 64°68 62°82 67°58 63°81 72°60 63°62 65°09 Fes. io} 24°55 19°87 21°70 22°A2 1°04 20°06 27-87 14:78 23°70 19°91 Means 21°78 Mar. o} 26°77 27°15 24°89 26°87 33°40 25°51 24°97 31°31 20°81 26°85 JULY. ° 65°94 63°57 65-70 67°34 64°72 69°64 €5:°77 74:99 64-49 67-13 AUG. Srp. | Oct. Q ° 56°47 |49- 58°06 | 47°73 54°28 | 43°53 55°56 |43° 63°31 |42°97 §3°59 |47- 56°83 48-01 54°55 |41-03 58°55 |40-10 56°80 44-87 Nov. 9 34°37 34°22 37°67 34°99 36°85 36°75 36°33 34°24 30°78 35°13) 3|20-01/41- Dec. | Yrar fo) fo} 31°57 |42°23 27°32) 42° 24°18/42-10 23°25 |42- 23°51/43- 21°87 /41-27 20°89}41°73 26°38 /41- 24-33/41°88 Dec. | YEAR ° 43°55 43°37 43°35 43°22 44-31 42°32 42°85 20°58 |42°32 26-66) 41°95 24°79) 43°02 fo) 31°66 27°64 24°54 23°37 25°13 22°60 20°91 I may state that no observations were made in July, 1863 and 1864, in consequence of my absence from home; but I have been able to obtain approximate values for these months from a comparison with the records of the Observatory at Toronto, furnished to me by Prof. Kingston- The mode adopted is explained in the following investigation : Let T be the mean temperature of eleven months (omitting July) at Toronto for a given hour; /\ the excess of the July temperature ie hy! yt ‘ 7 ‘ : eu Pea The vs \} “e | ire 472 ON THE CLIMATOLOGY OF STRATFORD, ONTARIO. above ‘I; T, and /\, analogous quantities for Stratford. Then approximately = = Fa and therefore A\, = i < T. A and Tare 1 known from the Toronto records, T, from Stratford, and therefore /\ , is known approximately ; consequently the July temperature for the spe- cified hour = T, + (, nearly. The observation hours at Toronto not being the same as at Stratford, the mean of 6 and 8 a.m. was used for 7A.M., 2 P.M. for 1 p.m., and 10 for 9 P.M. It is not strictly correct to assume that the above plan will give the true mean temperatures at Stratford for July, 1863~64; but as the error in the nine-year mean will be probably small, the advantage of utilising the observations taken during the remaining months of these years will overbalance any slight departure from strict accuracy in the July temperatures. From the nine years’ mean for each hour, and for the three hours combined, the following formulee are derived, in which ¢ represents the temperature fur that hour on any proposed day, and z aa angle propor- tional to the number of days from January L5th: 7 AM. t= 39°.52 + 22°.46 sin (2+261° 25’) + 1°.22 sin (2 a + 142° 0’ + 0°.51 sin (8 x + 217° 47’) + 0°.37 sin (4 x + 48° 55’) + 1°.08 sin (5 x + 350° 58’) —0°.14 cos 6 x. 1 P.M. t= 47°.67 + 25°.45 sin (@ + 263°.23) + 0°.21 sin (2 a + 119° 3’) + 0°.25 sin (8 « + 182° 18’) + 0°.38 sin (4 x + 60° 4’) + 0°.95 sin (5 a + 857° 35’) — 0°.26 cos 6 x 9 P.M. t = 41°.88 + 22°.41 sin (a + 262° 38’) + 0°.52 sin (2 a + 187° 21’) + 0°38 sin (8 x + 234° 38’) + 0°.48 sin (4a -++ 80° 44’) ++ 0°.91 sin (5 « + 342° 45’) —0°.18 cos 6 a. THREE-HOUR Mans. ¢ = 43°.02 -+ 23°.44 sin (@ + 262° 31’) + 0°.64 sin (2x + 138° 49’) + 0°.36 sin (38 x + 215° 55’) + 0°.39 sin (4 a + 43° 57’) + 0°.97 sin (5 x + 350° 32’) —0°.19 cos 6 x. From these formula, tables have been constructed of the normal temperatures at the hours 7 a.M., 1 P.M.,and 9 p.m., and of the normal means for the three hours combined. Of the four tables constructed, the latter only is here shown. a ON THE CLIMATOLOGY ‘OF STRATFORD, ONTARIO. 473 The following are the days when the maximum and minimum of each hour occurred : MAXIMUM. MINIMUM. Day. Temp. Day. Temp. fo) lo} ARNE H rere tarentetars derrielie coy LA encOacL Hees, Srey GPS Mio very ctertetcreieren eter alt ats 14, (BOR 10, 22°6 QR Ws oGos'golnodo-od00.00 ila, 7 Gol Palak IOs Mean of three hours... is,» Oye by | NG)58) NORMAL DAILY MEANS OF TEMPERATURE AT STRATFORD, FROM OBSERVATIONS AT 7AM, 1P.M., AND 9 P.M., IN THE YEARS 1861-69. Day| JAN. Frs. |Marcu.| Aprit. | May. | June.| Juty.| Auac. | Sepr.| Ocr. | Nov. | Dec. o) fe} Q (eo) to) fo) {o} eo) fe) [e) [o) ik ANo |) PAlo@ 23-1 B4°3 | 47-1 | 57:0 | 66°2 | 66-1 | G1-O | 50-4 | 89-2 | 29-7 2 20°6 | 21-1 23-2 384°8 | 47-4 | 57°32 | 66-4 | 66°0 | 60-8 | 50°C | 39-0 | 29-4 3 20°5 | 21-1 23°4 30°3 | 47-7 | 57:7 | 6€-5 | 65-9 | 60-6 | 49°6 | 38-7 | 29-0 4 20°4 | 21-2 23°6 3a°9 | 48-0 | 58-0 | 66-6 | 65°S | 60-4 | 49-2 | 38-4 | 28-7 5 PAN f Pilo} 23°8 36-4 | 48°3 | 58-3 | 66-7 | 65°7 | 60-1 | 48°8 | 38-2 | 28:3 6 20°2 | 21°38 23-9 36°9 | 48°5 | 58-7 | 66°8 | 65-6 | 59-8 | 48-4 | 87-9 | 28-0 7 20°2 | 21-4 24-2 37-4 | 48°8 | 59-1 | 66-9 | 65-5 | 59-5 | 48-0 | 87-6 | 27-6 8 20°1 | ‘21-4 24-4 37-9 | 49°1 | 59-5 | 66-9 | 6Gd°4 | 59-2 | 47-6 ee | 2732 9 20-0 | 21°5 24-7 58-4 |.49°4 | 59-9 | 67-0 | 65°2 | 58-9 | 47-2 | 87-0 | 26:9 10 20:0 | 21:6 24-9 38-9 | 49°7 | 60°3 | 67-1 | 65-1 | 58-5 | 46°8 | 86-7 | 26:5 11 19°9 21°6 25°2 39-4 50°0 | 60°6 | 67-1 | 65-0 | 58-2 | 46-4 | 86-4 | 26-2 12 19-9 | 21-7 25-5 89-9 | 50°3 | 61-0 | 67-1 | G4°9 | 57-8 | 46-0 | 86:1 | 25-8 13 19-9 | 21-7 25-9 40-3 | 50°6 | Gl:4 , 67-1 | 6G4°7 | 57-5 | 45°6 | 35-7 | 25-5 14 19-9 | 21-8 26°2 40-8 | 50°8 | GL-7 | 67-1 | 64°6 | 57:1 | 45-2 | 85-4 | 25-2 15 19:9 | 21-9 26°5 41-3 | 5L-Ll | 62:1 | 67-1 | 64:4 | 56-8 | 44-9 | 85-1 | 24-8 16 20-0 | 21-9 26-9 41-7, | 51:5 | 62-4 | 67-1 | 64°38 | 56:4 | 44-5 | 84-8 1 24-5 17 20-0 | 22-0 2-3 42-1 | 5178 | 62°8 | 67-1 | 64-1 | 56-0 | 44:1 | 84-5 | 24-2 18 20:0 | 22:0 27-7 42-5 | 52-1 | 63:1 | 67-0 | 64°0 | 55-7 | 43°8 | 34-2 | 23-9 19 20-1 | 22-1 28:1 42-9 | 52-4 | 63:4 | 67-0 | 63°8 } 55-3 | 48:4 | 38-9 | 23-6 20 PANO. || PR 98-5 | 43-3 | 52°7 | 63-7 | 67-0 | 63:6 | 54-9 | 43-0 | 88:5 | 23°3 21 20°2 | 22-2 28-9 43-7 | 53-1 | 64:0 | 66-9 | 63:4 | 54-5 | 42-7 | 33-2 | 23-0 22 20°2 22°3 29°4 44-1 53°4 | 64°38 | 66°8 | 63°2 | 54-1 | 42-4 | 32-9 | 22-8 23 20°3 22°4 29°38 44-4 53°8 | 64:6 | 66°8 | 63:0 | 53°7 | 42°0 | 32:5 | 22-5 24 20:4 22°5 30°3 44-3 54:1 | 64-8 | 66:7 | 62°8 | 58-3 | 41-7 | 82-2 | 29-2 2 20°4 22-6 30°38 45-2 54°5 | 65-1 | 66-6 | 62-6 | 52-9 | 41-3 | 31-8 22-0) 26 20°5 22-7 31-2 45-5 54°9 | 65-3 | 66-6 | 62-4 | 52°5 | 41-0 | 31-5 21-8 27 20-6 22°8 31:8 45-8 59°2 | 65°5 | 66:5 | 62°2 | 52-1 | 40-7 | 8-2 | 21-6 28 | 20-7 | 22-9 | 32-3 | 46-1 | 55-6 | 65-7 | 66-4 | 62-0 | 51-6 | 40-4 | 30-8 | 21-4 29 29-8 82-8 46-5 | 56°0 | 65°9 | 66-3 | 61°7 | 51-2 | 40-1 | 30-5 | 21-2 30 20°8 33c3 46°38 | 56°4 | 6:1 | 66-2 | 61-5 | 50 8 | 39-7 | 80:1 | 21-0 3L 20-9 33°8 56°7 66:1 | 61-3 39°5 20°8 (To be continued.) ATA ON 'THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AT TORONTO, IN THE YEARS 1859-68. BY G. T. KINGSTON, M.A, DIRECTOR OF THE MAGNETIC OBSERVATORY. The normal temperatures employed as standards of reference in the ‘Toronto tables to the end of 1868, and published in the Canadian Journal, were derived from the well known paper on the “ Periodic and Non-periodie Variations of Temperature” published by Gencral Sabine in the Philosophical Transactions for 1853. During and prior to the time when the observations were made on which Gen. Sabine based his conclusions (1841-52), the mean temperature of January exceeded very decidedly the mean of February in other parts of North America as well as at Toronto. Testimony to this effect is given by Dove, in the remarks that accompany his isothermal charts, where he describes the isothermal lines as moving southwards from January to February. Observations of later years, however, show a preponderance in the temperature of February. At Isle Jesus (near Montreal), 1853-62, Feb. was warmer than Jan. by.. 3-4 Qe eC eens cialetein atelaie topes TPSGOR GT ieictaieias eevee) Mtehehs ievaieisperewlelotenetereitens 3°6 Si JOnin, Nex AMS 444 55 GISGIEMa S oohcodcoscocmadadodcobooocaddc 3°6 (Ebaliinaa mee ms cla Hohe st TL SOTHO Qe cieiicave avevatetoucllel arate tailate tere i seete mene eS} Stratford, Ontario ........... TEGCTIOO yr We ee ERO Napa oiatarodavens tt repaietenete 19 ENOLOMUOW eo eietel Nietels tele cieiers Us WGROOIL godescasooovacadcosedcoddooane 18 That the change in the time when the greatest cold occurs in Toronto has been a progressive change, is shown by comparing the means of January and February in groups of five years: fe) 1841—45, Jan. warmer than Feb. by 26 1856-60, Jan. colder than Feb. by 0°3 1846-50, ce T3 ce (Ts “cc 2°6 1861-65, ce 6c (v9 ce ce 1'°5 if 1851-55, ce ce (19 “¢ (79 0:9 1866-69, (T¢ (a9 ce ce of a1 Again, in addition to the change that has been noticed in the epoch of greatest cold, it appears further, as far as concerns Toronto, that the winters and springs have become to some extent colder, and the summers ON THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AT5 and autumns warmer. Thus, comparing two sets of quarterly groups, separated by an interval of ten years, we have as follows : WINTER. SPRING. SUMMER. AUTUMN. o) (e) fo) fo} 1841~"50...... 25°1 41:0 64°7 46°4 1861-"68...... 23°4 40°3 65°6 47-4 Change ...... —1'7 —0°7 +0°9 +1°0 The old tables of normals being thus manifestly inapplicable to the” observations of recent years, I decided to construct new tables, and employed for the purpose the observations of the ten years 1859-68, collected into monthly means for each of the six ordinary hours of observation, as shown in Table I. TABLE I. Monthly Mean Temperatwres at Toronto, at each of the six ordinary hours of observation, derived from the ten years 1859 to 1868, inclusive. Hour JAN.| FEB. Intar. AprR.|MAy.|JunE| Juty| Aue.| Sep. | Oct.| Nov.| Dec. |vEAR (oe) fe) (0) fo} fe) (o) eo) fo) o (o) o) (oe) fo} 2P.M. ...... |24°75|26°68' 34-11/45-70)57- 28/67 °75|74°35)72°78|63°67!51-°62)41-14/28-10)48-99 4P.M. ....., |24°30/26°63 34:°05/45°55|57°10)67°52|74°17|72:42|63°07|50°77/ 40°09) 27°22)48-57 UO Gig dogo oe |PANERS 23-25|29-54 39°32149-56|58-72|64°85|63°23|55°44/44-96|36°76|24°55| 42-63 Mite 2535. 5 | 2074 22°67 | 28°46 38°33/48-06|57°16 | 63°40|61°72)54°02)44-03| 36°16) 23°86)41°55 DUN ad BAe en 19°60) 20°69 26°14|36°31/47°45)57-38)/63°01|60°34)52°25 42°42/35°19)| 23:26) 40°34 8 A.M. ...... |19°66/21°15 28°00|39°65)/51°62/61°90)68°00)65°85|56°93 45-03)35 -99|23:23'43:08 Mean........ |21°74123°51 30:°05!40°81151-°84161°74167°96166:06157°56' 46°47137°56125-04144°19 Taking each hour separately, and adopting in the first instance the ordinary hypothesis that the monthly means represent the temperatures proper to the middle days of the respective months, six formulee were constructed of the form : | T,—T,+T, sin(nX30+C,)+17, sin (2nX30-+C,)+ &e.&e. T, cos 6nX30; the January mean being the temperature corresponding to the 1dth of January, regarded as the origin or zero of time; I’, the temperature at the time (n), the unit of time being the twelfth part of a year; and CN er DCR as cere T,; C,, C,,...C, constants derived from the twelve monthly means. The value of these constants are as follows: Ty qT, T, T, i, T, T, C, C, C, C, C, fe} fe) le) 10) fo} (o} e} ‘ } é ie) d 9) et fe} é 2p.m. 43°99 24:70 0°48 0°66 0°62 0°51 0°22 26157 2718 26217 1010 36 0 4p.mM. 38°57 24°76 0°69 0°64 0.65 0°49 0-22 26254 2719 26559 1136 3440 10p.m. 42°63 21°43 0°33 0°80 0°66 0°52 0°29 261' 7 3633. 26759 359 § | 2613 Midt.. 41°55 20°95 0°30 0°87 0°74 8°58 0.26 26040 3839 26925 525 21 9 G6 A.M. 40°34 21:36 0°89 0°85 0-67 0°56 0-27 960.38 12831 27635 359 9 22:56 Sa.M. 43°08 24°03 0°48 0°64 0°66 0°58 0°28 262 4 10411 16016 0 26 34 The accuracy of the computation of each formula being tested by the reproduction of the twelve monthly means on the substitution of 0, 1, 2, d&e., 11, for (n) ; the differences (disregarding sign,) between the actual 3 476 AT TORONTO, IN THE YEARS 1859-68. means and those given by the formule having an average value of -01, and in no instance exceeding .02, the coefficients T,, T, , &c., were then modified by applying corrections made necessary by the erroneous assumption that the means of each month are the temperatures proper to their middle days. The modified coefficients are given below: T, rT, tT, qT, T, ° [e} ° Oi ° 2°P, M. 24°98 0°50 0°73 0°75 0°69 4p. M. 25°04 0°72 0°71 0°79 0°65 10 P. M. 21°68 0°3 0°89 0°80 0°70 Midt. 21-19 0°3 0°97 0°89 0°79 6 A. M. 21°61 0°93 0°94 0°81 0°76 8 A. M. 24°31 0°50 0°71 0°80 0°79 The temperatures for every day in the year, computed from the six modified formule, have been employed as normals or standards, with which to compare the observations at the ordinary hours since January 1869 inclusive, the averages of the six normals on each day being taken as the normal daily means referred to in the monthly tables in the Canadian Journal. The normal daily means are given to tenths in Table II. TABLE II. ' Normal Daily Means of Temperature at Toronto, from sia datly observations in the. ten years 1859 to 1868, inclusive. Day.| JAN. | Fes. | Mar. |Aprit| May. | Junu.| Juty.| Auc. | eprt.}| Ocr. | Nov. | Dsc. |Day {o) {o) (eo) o) fe) fe) (o) fo) (o) fo} {o) fo) 1 | 21:3 }) 22-6 | 25.6 | 35.6 | 46.8 | 57-5 | 66.3 | 68-1 | 62:5 | 51-0 | 42:2 | 30:5 1 2 | 21°3 | 22-6 | 25.8 | 36.0 | 47.2 | 57:8 | 66.5 | 68-0 | 62-2 | 50-6 | 41°9 | 30:0 2 3 | 21-3 | 22.7 | 26.0 | 36.4 | 47.6 | 58-1 | 66.7 | 67-9 | 62-0 | 50.2 | 41:7 | 29°6 3 4 \ 21-2 | 22.7 | 26.3 | 36:7 | 47.9 | 58-4 | 66.9 | 67-9 | 61-7 | 49.9 | 41:4 | 29-1 4 5 | 21-2 | 22.8 | 26.5 | 37.1 | 48.3 | 58-8 | 67.1 | 67-8 | 61-4 | 49.5 | 41°2 | 28°6 5 6 | 21-2 | 22.8 | 26.8 | 37-5 | 48.6 | 59-1 | 67.2 | 67-7 > 61-1 | 49.2 | 40:9 | 28:2 6 7 | 21-2 | 22.9 | 27.0 | 37-9 | 49.0 | 59-4 | 67.4 | 67-6 f 60-7 | 48-8 | 40°6 27°77 7 8 | 21-2 | 23.0 | 27.3 | 38.3 | 49.3 | 59-7 | 67.5 | 67-4 | 60-4 | 48.5 | 40°3 | 27°3 8 9 | 21-2 | 23-0 | 27-6 | 38-7 | 49-7 | 60-0 | 67-7 | 67-3 | 60-0 | 48-1 | 40°0 | 26°9 9 10 | 21-3 | 23-1 | 27.9 | 39-0 | 50-0 | 60-4 | 67-8 | 67-2 | 59-6 | 47-8 | 39°7 | 26-4 | 10 11 | 21-3 | 23-2 | 28.2 | 39.4 | 50-4 | 60-7 | 67-9 | 67-0 | 59-2 | 47-5 | 39°3 | 26°0 | 11 12 | 21-4 | 23.2 | 28-5 | 89-8 | 50-7 | 61-0 | 68-0 | 66-9 | 58-8 | 47-2 | 39;0 | 25°6 | 12 13 | 21-4 | 23-3 | 28-8 | 40-2 | 51-1 | 61-3 | 68-1 | 66-7 | 58-4 | 46-9 | 38°6 | 25°3 | Io 14 | 21-4 | 23.4 | 29-1 | 40-6 | 51-4 | 61-7 | 68-2 | 66-6 | 58-0 | 46-6 | 388°2 | 24°9 | 14 15 | 21-5 | 23-5 | 29-4 | 40-9 | 51-8 | 62-0 | 68-2 | 66-4 | 57-6 | 46-3 | 37°8 | 24:6 } 15 16 | 21-6 | 23-6 | 29-7 | 41-3 | 52-1 | 62-3 | 68-3 | 66-3 | 57-2 | 46-1 | 37-4 | 24:2 | 16 17 | 21-6 | 23-7 | 30-1 | 41-7 | 52-5 | 62-6 | 68-3 | 66-1 | 56-8 | 45-8 | 3870 | 23°9 | 17 18 | 21-7 | 23-8 | 30-4 | 42-1 | 52-8 | 62-9 | 68-4 | 65-9 | 56-4 | 45-5 | 36°6 | 23°6 | 18 19 | 21-7 | 23-9 | 30-8 | 42-4 | 53-2 | 63-2 | 68-4 | 65-7 | 56-0 | 45-3 | 36:2 | 23°3 | 19 2 21-8 | 24-0 | 31-1 | 42-8 | 53-5 | 63-5 | 68-4 | 65:5 | 55-5 | 45-0 | 35-7 | 33:1 | 20 21 | 21-9 | 24-2 | 31-5 | 43-2 | 53-9 | 63-8 | 68-4 | 65:3 | 55-1 | 44-8 | 35°3 | 22°8 | 21 22 | 21-9 | 24-3 | 31-8 | 43-6 | 54-2 | 64-1 | 68-5 | 65:1 | 54-7 | 44-5 | 34:8 | 22°6 | 22 23 | 22°0 | 24-5 | 32-2 | 43-9 | 54-6 | 64-4 | 68-4 | 64-8 | 54-3 | 44-3 | 34:4 | 22-4 | 23 24 | 22-1 | 24-6 | 32-6 | 44-3 | 54-9 | 64°6 | 68-4 | 64:6 | 53-8 | 44-0 | 33°9 | 29°92 | 24 25 | 22:1 | 24-8 | 32:9 | 44-7 | 55-2 | 64-9 | 68:4 | 64°4 | 53-4 | 43°8 | 83:4 | 22°0 | 25 26 | 22-2 | 25:0 | 33°3 | 45-0 | 55-6 | 65:2 | 68°4 | 64-1 | 53-0 | 43°6 | 32:9 | 21:9 | 26 27 | 22-2 | 25-2 | 33-7 | 45:4 | 55-9 | 65:4 | 68-3-| 63-8 | 52°6 | 43°3 | 39°5 | 21-7 | 27 28 | 22°3 | 25°4 | 34:1 | 45°7 | 56-2 | 65-6 | 68-3 | 63°6 | 52:2 | 43°1 | 32:0 | 21°6 | 28 29 | 22-4 34°4 | 46-1 | 56°5 | 65-9 | 68-2 | 63°3 | 51°8 | 42°9 | 31°5 | 21°5 | 29 380 | 22°4 34°8 | 46°5 | 56°9 | 6G6°1 | 68-2 | 63:1 | 51°4 | 42°6 | 31:0 | 21-4 | 30 BL 2225 35°2 57-2 68-1 | 62°8 42°4 214 | 31 ON THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AT TORONTO. 477 The days when the temperature attains its extreme and mean values for each hour, and the values of the maxima and minima are shown in the following table: MINIMA. SPRING MEAN. MAXIMA. AUTUMN MEAN. Day. Temp. Day. Day. Temp. Day. fo) (o) 2PoMe... dane i) 12453 Apvil 23. July 25. 75:0 Oct, 23. 4P.M.... OMzoRt 22. 24. 74°8 22, 10 P.M. ... 6. . 20°8 24, 23. 65°4 25. Midt. .... Dd. ) 20% 24, 22 16359) 26. GeAV ME Ree 82 19:2 26. 18. 63°3 25. Nag) gto Fat O2, Baa). 21. 68°4 Dr. Six hours. Gr 21-2 24, 22. 68:5 23, In order to show better the position of the principal epochs in the annual period in former and in later years, [ have drawn up in tabular form a comparative view of the times of occurrence of the extreme and mean values of the normal daily means, and of the maximum and minimum values of the normal daily means at Toronto in the years 1841-52, and in 1859-68, and at Stratford in the years 1861-’69.* MinIMa. SPRING MEAN. MAXIMA. AUTUMN MEAN. Day. Temp. Day. Day. Temp. Day. {e) (0) Toronto, 1841-’52.... Feb. 14. 23:4 April 19. July 28. 66°9 Oct. 15. Toronto, i859-’68.... Jan. 6. 21°72 24. 22. 68:5 23. Stratford, 1861-69 .. 15; 19"9 19: Was | Oat 20. I propose next to enquire as to the extent to which any modification has occurred in the probable variability of the daily and monthly means of temperature, and also in the times when a departure of the actual from the normal daily means is found systematically to prevail. These points will be considered in another paper. _ * Nore.—I am indebted to Mr. C. J. Maegregor for the particulars relating to Stratford. [478] aA Bis FOR CALCULATING THE WEIGHT AND YIELD, PER RUNNING FATHOM, OF MINERAL VEINS. By HK. J. CHAPMAN, Pu.D., PROFESSOR OF MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, TORONTO ; AND CONSULTING MINING ENGINEER. The weight in tons and average richness of mineral veins are usually given per running fathom: that is, per parallelogram measuring six feet in length, and six feet in depth, by the mean width of the vein, whatever the latter may be. The following table will enable these results to be calculated very rapidly, provided the specific gravity of the vein matter (mixed ore and gangue), and the average per-centage of metal or mineral carried by the vein, be previously ascertained. The table has been calculated on the supposition that the sp. gr. equals unity, and that the average yield in metal is equivalent to one per cent. The values given in columns I1I. and Iv. must thus be multiplied by the sp. gr. of the vein matter; and those given in column v. must be multiplied also by this quantity, and the resulting product must finally be multiplied by the averave per-centage of metal or mineral as ascer- tained by estimate or by actual assay. The values in column v. corres- pond to both the British ton of 2,240 lbs., and the American ton (chiefly used in Canada) of 2,000 lbs. Where the width of the vein is in feet and inches, the values of the two, as given in the table, must of course be added together. EXAMPLE.—A vein averages 3 feet in width, with sp. gr. equal to 3:8, and per-centage of metal equal to 2-6. Required the weight in British and American tous, and the yield (exclusive of loss in mechani- cal and furnace treatment) per running fathom. 3 tons (see the Table) X 3:8 —114 British tons (nearly). 3°36 tons (see the Table) X 3:8 = 123 American tons. 67:30 Ibs. (see the Table) X 3:8 & 2°6 = 665 lbs. Each fathom, therefore, of a vein of this strength, will contain 108 A TABLE CALCULATING WEIGHT, &C. OF MINERAL VEINS. 449 cubic feet ; will weigh 113 British, and 12% American tons; and will earry 665 lbs. of metal. if Il. Til. IV. V: Width of Vein. d Weight in Weight in cubic Feet per | Suslish Tons | Amexioan Tons apetet in ibs, av. Feet. Inches. Havhom: per Fathom. per Fathom. [pee Widnes 1 3 0:0833 0:0933 1:87 2 6 071666 0-1866 3°74. 3 8) 0:2500 0:2800 5°61 4 12 0°3333 037338 7:48 5 15 04166 04666 9°35 6 18. 0°5000 05600 11°22 7 21 0°5833 0°6533 13:09 8 24 0°6666 0:7466 14°95 9 27 0°7500 08400 16°83 , 10 30 0°8333 0:9333 18°70 11 33 0°9166 1:0266 20°57 1 36 1 ton. 2p aleile, 22°43 2 32 2G | . 2:24 44:87 3 108 Se 3°36 67°30 4 144 Aas 4-48 89°74 5 - 180 Dies ae 5°60 ulmeitey 6 216 OR 6-73 134°61 7 252; Teas 7:84 157-04 8 288 Site | 8-96 179-48 9 324 One 10°08 201-92 10 360 LOM 11°20 224°35 ag Settee f [480] Ree Vi Ves ALASKA AND ITS Resources. By Winutam H. Daun, Director of the Scientific Corps of the late Western Union Telegraph Hxpedi- tion. Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870. There lies on the extreme north-western region of the North American continent an isolated tract of country, bounded on three of its sides by the Arctic and North Pacific Oceans and Behring Straits, and on its fourth by an imaginary geographical parallel separating it from British North America. Until little more than three years ago this region ficured on our atlases—as on all but the very newest it still does,—as Russian America. But it attracted no attention; and the details of its geographical features or physical characteristics were, for the most part, little better defined than those around Baffin’s Bay or Barrow Straits. The progress of modern science, stimulated to fresh enterprise by international rivalry, has had its share in bringing this terra incognita under survey, and reducing to some trustworthy extent of detail the facts pertaining to its physical geography and aboriginal inhabitants. In 1858 the first submarine Atlantic Telegraph was successfully laid ; and though the rejoicings at its accomplishment were speedily arrested, ' and the derangement of its continuity rendered necessary the recon- struction of the whole costly work : nevertheless the practicability of the enterprise was demonstrated beyond all doubt, and the success which has sinee so triumphantly crowned this noble enterprise was anticipated as only a question of time. Meanwhile, in remote San Francisco, relations had been established with Russian America, chiefly with a view to secure a monopoly of its ice trade: when, in 1864, the idea was started of constructing a telegraph line from San Francisco to Behring Strait, crossing that Arctic channel by a submarine cable, and thence by overland line to meet the Russian government telegraph, already carried to the mouth of the Amoor River. The Western Union Telegraph Expedition was accordingly inaugurated in the follow- ing’ year on a creditable scale; and indeed with a complement of semi- military commissions, uniforms, flags, and badges, very unusual in any peaceful scientific exploration. Happily those showy adornments, inci- dent to the recent military experiences of the United States, were’ REVIEWS. 481 compatible with the intelligent liberality, which added to the expedition an astronomer, naturalist, artistic draftsman, &c. Major R. Kennicott, an experienced Arctic explorer and naturalist, undertook the explora- tion of the Yukon region; and on his death, in 1866, in consequence of excessive privations and hardships incident to his labours, the author of the volume now under review assumed the vacant post of director of the scientific oe and prosecuted the work, so far, to a successful issue. Mr. William Healey Dall is even now only entering on his career though he has already achieved such substantial results. We remem ber him not many years ago, as an intelligent boy, quiet ard thoughtfu in his ways, already manifesting a taste for natural history, and a love for reading of all sorts. He was then resident in Toronto. His edu- cation has since been completed at Boston, and the special scientific studies which fitted him for the work he has recently brought to a termination, were carried on chiefly under the direction of Professor Agassiz, at Harvard. The Western Telegraph Company, in the service of which his labours were undertaken, proved a ‘failure, and after expending nearly three millions of dollars, the telegraphic project had to be abandoned. ‘The route for the proposed line was ill chosen, and in spite of remonstrances on the part of Mr. Kennicott, was per- sistently adhered to. Mr. Dall remarks, ‘ Had it been over the well trodden paths from St. Paul, Minnesota, through the Hudson Bay Territory, to Fort Yukon, there is reason to believe that the line might have been built at a less cost than the amount wasted on the west coast, in the mountainous regions and dense forests of British Colum- bia.’ But while as a commercial speculation the enterprise led to total failure, the liberal policy of the Directors in the organization of the expedition has prevented its proving barren of results. Much geographical and scientific information has been procured by its means, and the observations thus made in this novel field of research are accurately recorded in the large and handsome volume now referred to. No doubt the project helped, with other causes then in operation, to draw attention to the hitherto unheeded region. In the same year in which Major Kennicott died, negotiations were entered into for the purchase of Russian America. Mr. Dall states, without vouching for the truth of the story, that a company of American citizens applied to Mr. Seward to assist them in. purchasing the country to carry on a fish, fur, and timber trade, and that he, finding Russia willing to sell, 482 REVIEWS. secured the territory, not for the private company, but for the nation. If the country was to pass from the possession of Russia it must needs be transferred to some other recognized government, unless it were to be organized into an independent state. The idea of an American trading company holding it as a possession foreign to the United States of which they were citizens, would have developed novel relations, requiring an entirely new chapter in international law. If such an © idea was ever entertained, the projected company no doubt dis- covered that they could exercise no more absolute lordship than that which the fur traders of the neighbouring Hudson Bay territory have so long done under the supremacy of the British crown. Hence the necessity of applying to the American Secretary of State, whose official correspondence relative to the transfer of Alaska from ‘“‘ His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias,’ is printed here in amplest detail. The acquisition was regarded for a time by the American press as one of Mr. Seward’s most sagacious feats of statesmanship; and when, after a little, this had been dwelt upon with characteristic laudation, American writers ran to an opposite extreme; and the worthlessness of ‘‘Walrussia,’”’ as it was jestingly styled, with its boundless ice-fields, sea-lions, walruses, and polar bears, became a favourite theme for the satirists of the political press. Mr. Dall discusses the value of Alaska to the United States as a territorial acquisition, and does his best to demolish such unpatriotic satirists. He will no doubt find no lack of sympathy with vaticinations so much more accordant with the wonted tone of American writers, when aiming at forecasting their national future. ‘¢T have seen,” says Mr. Dall, ‘ with surprise and regret, that men whose forefathers wielded the axe in the forests of Maine, or gathered scanty crops on the granite hill-sides of Massachusetts, have seen fit to throw contempt and derision on the acquisition of a great territory, naturally far richer than that in which they themselves originated, principally on the ground that itis a cold country.” To this complaint he makes indignant response, and then proceeds; ‘ Two hundred and fifty years hence there may be a New England where there is now a trackless forest. The time may come when we shall call on our Pacific fishermen to man our fleets; on the lumbermen of Alaska and our hardy northern trappers to don the blue, and strike another blow for unity and freedom.’’ With all the bloody horrors of Saarbruck and Woerth, Wiesenburg, Gravelotte, Forbach, and Sedan, fresh in our REVIEWS. 4838 minds, we would fain hope that the next two hundred and fifty years have something better in store for that coming time than chassepots and mitrailleurs; that the fleets of the future will really be manned by “nacific fishermen,” and its armies marshalled ta contend only with the unhewn forests and the unmined wealth of regions that invite to such peaceful conquests. The visions of science, at any rate, more readily accord with such aspirations; and its devotees—though enlisted for a time in the service of war,—flatter themselves that the very per- fection of its destructive implements which science is now achieving is accelerating the time when men shall leave war to the savage and the brute. Not in our time assuredly is that happy day to dawn; but science is even now helping “To drill the raw world for the march of mind, Till crowds at length be sane and crowns be just !’”’ Meanwhile his mind must be cast in a narrow mould who cannot sympathise with the youthful ardour of our author; as he tips his pencil with rainbow hues, and pictures the brightest future for a region he has made so peculiarly his own. We may leave to the men of ‘two and a half centuries hence to judge of its truthfulness, while we con- tent ourselves in the belief that the world at large can scarcely fail to be benefited by the transfer of this great storehouse of fish, timber and fur, undoubtedly of ice, probably also of mineral wealth, to an enter- prising people favourably situated for turning its resources to the best account. Mr. Dall’s volume is less a narrative of travel through scenes rich with strange revelations of wild tribes and a still wilder region, than a journal of personal experiences, and a careful accumulation of all that could be gleaned relating to the geography, history, natural products, and fauna, of this new country, alike from his own observation and from old maps, journals, voyages, books of travel, and all other accessi- ble sources. A journey pursued under the restraints necessarily pertaining to the commission entrusted to this exploring party, precluded much of the adventure which gives a popular charm to the ordinary traveller or hunter’s story. Nevertheless there is material enough in this volume to have been wrought up into a sufficiently attractive narrative for the shelves of the lending library had such been the author’s aim. He has preferred a different course; and if his columns of statistics, lists of natural history, comparative vocabularies, 484 REVIEWS. or pages of chronological annals and official correspondence, repel some of the ordinary class of readers, they will tempt others to study his volume long after works of more immediate popularity have been for- gotten. It embodies the fruits of labour and research, the amount of which can only be fully appreciated by those who have themselves undertaken to gather, classify, and present in an accessible shape, like comprehensive data about a region hitherto visited chiefly by the rude trapper or seal-hunter. The account of the Eskimo and Indian tribes of Alaska supplies many curious details ; and this, as well as other departments, is illus- trated by careful drawings. Here, for example, we have the subter- ranean dwelling, or ¢opel:, of the Unaleets, a tribe of the great Innuit family inhabiting the coasts. These topeks are built almost entirely underground, ‘‘ with the entrance more or less so, and the roof furnished with a square opening in the centre for the escape of smoke and admission of light. They are built of spruce logs, without nails or pins, and are usually about twelve or fifteen feet square. The entrance is a small hole, through which one must enter on hands and knees, and is usually furnished with a bear or deer skin, or a piece of matting to exclude the air. Outside of this entrance is a passage-way, hardly larger, which opens under a small shed at the surface of the ground, to protect it from the weather.” This timber underground dwelling of the Unaleets presents a striking analogy to the more durable Weem of the prehistoric savage of North Britain. They belong to a people in the very same primitive stage; for the accumulated midden heaps of the latter disclose the bones of the whale, along with the gdible molusks of the neighbouring coast, and implements of flint and bone not less rude than any which Mr. Dall depicts in illustration of the infantile native arts of Alaska. Mr. Dall draws attention to other interesting illustrations of the close analogies between primitive and modern savage arts. He remarks, for example, on page 237, ‘The Innuit have a custom of making, on flat pieces of bone, rude drawings of animals, hunting parties, and similar things. These drawings are analogous to those discovered in France in the caves of Dordogne, and the preceding sketch of the drawings on either side of two bone knives, illustrates their general character.” The illustrations referred to exhibit a native in his kyak spearing a goose; a deer hunt; wolves in pursuit of deer; and apparently a native dance. But while these examples are highly curious as illustrations of REVIEWS. A485 the imitative faculty so characteristic of the natives of the new world, they present in their rudeness a very marked contrast to the artistic skill of the prehistoric cave dwellers of the Dordogne valley and other similar French sites of primeval art. The famous etching on a plate of ivory of the mammoth, for example, found by M. Lartet, when in company with M. Verneuil and the late Dr. Falconer, in the Perigord caverns, is characterised by a graphic vigour and freedom of touch that would do no discredit to the yencil of Rosa Bonheur. Mr. Dall further adds, ‘‘I have seen an ivory bow, used in connec- tion with a drill, and made of an entire walrus tusk, which had depicted on each of the four sides every pursuit followed by the Innuit from birth to interment. These facts. have a peculiar interest, as showing some similarity between the customs of the present Orarian tribes and those of the ancient European cave-dwellers. Similar drawings are common everywhere among the Innuit, while I have never seen among the Tinneh tribes of the northwest any similar specimens of art.” The term ‘‘Orarian” here used, we may as well explain, is a new generic term designed to embrace in one group all the tribes of Eskimo stock, and thus distinguish the Innuit, Aleutians, Asiatic Hskimo, as well as those of Greenland and Davis Straits, from the Red Indian stock. They are the coastmen (/. ora) of the Arctic world. The skin-canoes of diverse forms, so characteristic of the Arctic fisherman, are illustrated by careful drawings; and exhibit the practical ingenuity of the native boat-builders in some of its most striking aspects. They are of three kinds, including one adapted by the Russians from the Aleutian Kyak. ‘One is a large open boat, flat-bottomed, and consisting of a wooden frame tied with sealskin thongs, or rémnz, and with the skins of the seal properly prepared, oiled, and sewed together, stretched over this frame and held in place by Walrus-skin line, or mdéhout. This kind of boat is known among all the Innuit by the name odmiak, and is called a bidarrdé by the Russians. Another, a smaller boat, for one man, is made essentially in the same way, but covered completely over, except a hole in which the occupant sits, and around the projecting rim of which, when at sea, he ties the edge of a water-proof shirt, called a kamldyka by the Russians. ‘This is securely tied around the wrists and face also, the head being covered by a hood, so that no water can by any means penetrate to the interior of the boat.” This kyak, as it is called by the natives of the western coast, has long been familiar to us by its use among the Greenland Hsqut- 486 REVIEWS. maux, and attracted the attention of Dr. Pickering, when in use by the Aleutian Islanders, as so perfectly adapted to the requirements of the Arctic fisherman, that ‘‘it seemed almost to enable man to take a place among the proper inhabitants of the deep.” It is altogether beyond the compass of our limited space to follow the author in his elaborate geographical, chronological, geological, and natural history details, extending in all to 628 closely printed pages. But a few characteristic extracts may serve to show our readers the value of this repertory of novel facts in these varied departments of research. Whilst in the Yukon territory he remarks (page 19), ‘‘our attention was attracted by the numerous graves. ‘These are well worth the careful attention of the ethnologist; many of them are very old. The usual fashion is to place the body, doubled up, on its side, in a box of plank hewed out of spruce logs and about four feet long; this is elevated several feet above the ground on four posts, which project above the coffin or box. The sides are often painted with red chalk, in figures of fur-animals, birds and fishes. According to the wealth of the dead man, a number of articles which belonged to him are attached to the coffin or strewed around it. Some of them have kyaks, bows and arrows, hunting implements, snow-shoes, or even kettles, around the grave or fastened to it; and almost invariably the wooden dish or kantag, from which the deceased was accustomed to eat, is hung on one of the posts. There are many more graves than present inhabitants of the village, and the story is that the whole coast was once much more densely populated.”” The same evidences of a decreasing Hskimo population have been recorded by Kane and other explorers as still more noticeable on the eastern coast, and these, along with the decline and ultimate destruction of the ancient Scandinavian colonies of Green- land, have been supposed by some writers to point to a gradually increasing severity of climate throughout the whole Arctic circle. Inhospitable, however, as the whole Yukon region is, it has its charms for its own children, as that “land, of every land, the pride,” not less keenly appreciated by them than by those of earth’s most favored spots. They call themselves, in proud pre-eminence, the men of Yuhen ; and as for the Yukon boys, they would appear, according to Mr. Dall’s account, to enjoy a more enviable lot even than the children of that republican Paradise where, according to some authorities, the repeal of the fifth commandment has been enacted by juvenile acclamation. Writing up his journal on the 29th of April, he says: “The weather” REVIEWS. 487 has become exceedingly warm, and the little children enjoyed them- selves on the broad river-beach, building houses with pebbles and making mud pies, much as their brothers and sisters do all over the world when a vacation or a holiday releases them from restraint and the mother’s watchful eye. I never saw a young child punished in Russian America, except the well-grown boys of the i:ussian bidarshik. They behave quite as well as civilized children, and grow up with quite as much respect for their parents. An Indian baby, unless sick, never cries, and why should it? It has no one to rub soap in its eyes, and never feels the weight of the parental hand. The mother makes it a doll, if a girl, out of bits of squirrel skin and fur. If a boy the father builds for him a little sable trap, a miniature cache, in which to put his shining pebbles and jother childish treasures, or a tiny fishtrap in which the mother takes care that a choice bit of ukali, a rabbit’s head, _ or a piece of reindeer fat, shall be caught in some mysterious way. As soon as they can toddle about they are instructed in the mysteries of setting snares, and the pride with which the boys or girls bring home their first grouse, or even by great good luck an unfortunate rabbit, is fully shared by the parents. Their dresses are ornamented with the choicest beads; the sweet marrow or tongue of the fallen reindeer is reserved for them by the futher successful in the chase. They travel hundreds of miles with the dog-sleds, and from these little children I have often obtained dozens of mice or small birds, caught near some solitary lodge far away among the mountains, which rumor had informed them I would purchase with beads or trinkets. They carried these proudly home again as their own earnings and the prize of their own industry. [always paid something for such specimens, even if quite worthless, to encourage them to perseverance, and in this way I obtained many invaluable specimens.” In addition to numerous inte «ting notes of personal observation, such as those produced here, scattered through Mr. Dall’s journal of travels on the Yukon, and in the Yukon territory, to which the six chapters of Part I. are devoted: he takes up, in Part IL. the geography, history, inhabitants, and resources of Alaska, resorting for informaticn on those subjects to all available sources, of which a numerous list of works, including those of Russian and other early explorers, is furnish- ed in the appendix. ‘To overy one, therefore, interested in any branch of the subject this volume furnishes a ready digest of nearly all availa- ble information. 488 REVIEWS. Some of the brief extracts given above suffice to show the attractive climpses of ingenuity and artistic skill which it discloses among the rude tribes of Alaska. Of these the Thlinkets comprise various tribes, such as the Ahimsyans, the Haidahs, the Koloshes, and the Yakutats : all noted by earlier explorers for their talent as carvers in wood and bone. They also work in native copper, and covet silver and other white metals, preferring them to brass or gold. The following account of their religious ideas will illustrate still more curiously the mental and moral characteristics of the native tribes of the northwest. “The Thlinkets do not believe in a Supreme Being, for good or evil. Their feeble polytheism presents no features worthy of the name of religious belief. Yehl, or Yayhl, is the maker of woods and waters. He put the sun, moon and stars in their places. He lives in the east, near the head waters of the Nasse River, whence the Thlinkets say they origin- ally came.’”? The Thlinket narrative of the creation, or the mundane revelation of the heavenly bodies, is embodied in the following myth : ‘‘'Phere was a time when men groped in the dark in search of the world. At that time a Thlinket lived who had a wife and sister. He loved the former so much that he did not permit her to work. She sat the whole day doing nothing. Wight little red birds, called Aun by the Thlinkets, were always around her. One day she spoke to a stranger. The little birds flew and told the jealous husband. So when he went into the woods to build a canoe he shut her up in a box. He killed all his sister’s children because they looked at his wife. Weeping, the mother went to the seashore. A whale saw her and asked the cause of her grief, and when informed, told her to swallow a small stone from the beach and drink some sea-water. In eight months she had a son, whom she hid from her brother. This son was really Yehl. As he grew he became a great expert in shooting with a bow and arrow. It is said the mother made herself a mantle out of the skins of humming-birds which he had brought down. He killed birds of large size, and dressing himself imtheir skins, flew about to different places, having many adventures. “The only one worth relating is the most glorious of his deeds, that of putting the light in its place. At that time the sun, moon and stars were kept by a rich chief in separate boxes, which: he allowed no one to touch. Yehl heard of it and desired to have them. This chief had an only daughter, whom he loved and spoiled to such a degree, that he examined everything she ate and drank before he would allow REVIEWS. 489 her to partake. Yehl saw that only a grandson of the old chief could obtain the light, and in the form of a blade of grass he was swallowed, and made his next appearance in that character, and was soon beloved even more than his mother. Once Yehl commenced weeping and nothing would appease him but the boxes in which the luminaries were kept. After a long siege of crying the grandf{uther gave him one of the boxes to pacify him, and he went out of the house playing with it. Seeing he was not observed, he opened the box, and lo! there were stars in the sky. Great were the lamentatious of the old man over the loss of his treasure, but he loved his grandson too well to scold him, and actually permitted himself to be cheated out of the moon in the same way. But with the box containing the sun he was more careful, and only after refusing food, and making himself sick, did Yehl succeed in imposing on the affectionate old man, That was finally given to him, with the strict injunction not to openit. But, turning himself into a raven, he flew away with it, and on opening the box light shone on the earth as it does now. But the people astonish- ed by the unwonted glare, ran off into the mountains, woods, and even into the water, becoming animals or fish.” To this same creative power, Yehl, is ascribed the great gift of fire, which he is said to have brought from an island in the Ocean. But we have produced enough to show the value of the volume as a contri- bution to ethnclogy. The comparative philologist will find fresh materials for study in the classified vocabularies of various tribes; and the naturalist is furnished with copious lists of mammalia, marine and fresh-water fishes, birds, insects, and plants, many of them new to science. Last of all, the practical reader will find attractions suited to his tastes in its details of the gevlogy and mineral resources of the region ; of its fishery and fur trade; its hides, oil, and walrus ivory, with other marketable materials, such as the whiskers of the sea-lion— as large as a quill, and sometimes fifteen inches long,—which are trans- ported to China, and there find a ready sale: the Chinese paying a high price for them to use as toothpicks. But we have said enough to commend the book to all readers capa- ble of appreciating its additions to our knowledge in various departments of the wide field thrown open to the well-trained eye of a competent observer entrusted with the scientific exploration of new regions. Its author is now engaged as one of the staff of the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, and will no doubt invite our attention hereafter by other contributions in his favourite branches of study. Deaw:: 490 REVIEWS. THe Propuecy or MERLIN, and other Poems. By Joun READE. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1870. In every age characterised by special literary vigour, the leaders of thought are seen to find a school of followers to whom their produce- tions give law. So was it when Pope was the ruling power; when Scott’s lays revived the romantic epic of Spenser; or when Byron for a time won all ears to his musical verse. Nowthe Poet Laureate rules supreme wherever poetry commands an appreciative audience, and the echos of his rich music are readily traced in the notes of our minor poets. It is no slight, however, on a poet to rank him as pertain- ing to the school of which the living master of song is the recognised head; and it is with no purpose of disparagement that we trace, not merely in the theme of the chief piece in the volume of poems, the title of which heads this article, but also in its forms of versification and modes of thought: evidences of training in the school of Ten- nyson. As such, were the volume issued from the English press, it would present no special claims on the attention of a Canadian literary journal; but as a poet issuing his work from the Canadian press, Mr. Reade may claim some critical notice at our hands. ' Literature as yet is necessarily one of the rarer products of our young country ; but we are not on that account prepared to welcome any com- monplace production of a provincial versifier, as though mediocrity acquired a higher value in the colonial dependency than in the mother land. We are, indeed, perhaps prone to under-estimate our native literary productions, as presumably inferior to those begot in the great centres of intellectual vitality. Governed by old-world principles and canons of taste, we are as speedily nauseated here, as persons of discernment are in any other region of the world, by volumes issuing from the press, presenting to the eye page after page of fair typography duly arranged and sub- divided, indicating here long stretches of epic narrative, and there can- tos, strophes, and fragmentary stanzas in every variety of prosodiacal metre; but all of which, when tested as vehicles of ideas intended to delight the human fancy or intellect, are found to be mere shapes and forms; like Gratiano’s talk, amounting to ‘‘an infinite deal of no- thing ’’—hiding, it may be, in whole bushels of chaff, a few grains of wheat, not worth the search when you have found them. It is because the little volume whose title appears above is decidedly REVIEWS. 491 not of the disappointing class to which so much that offers to the eye the semblance of poetry belongs, that we have taken the trouble to select a few specimens of its contents. We have referred to a clear - recognition of Tennysonian models both in subject and forms of versi- fication. As to the former, it is impossible to read of Sir Bedivere and Arthur, of Avalon, and— “Camelot, and the sweet fellowship Of noble knights and true, and beauteous dames Who have no peers in all the living world;” and make no comparison with the “‘Idyls” which have recalled to our generation ‘ the blameless king” and the knights of his hall. But also we have the most characteristic of Tennyson’s favourite metres. Here, for example, in the piece entitled ‘‘Shakspere, April 23rd, 1864,” is the peculiar arrangement of quatrains so familiar to every reader of ‘‘In Memoriam,” but missing to a great extent the special beauty of that verse-as handled by Tennyson. Mr. Reade thus writes for the anniversary of the birthday of Hngland’s great dra- matist :— “ And singing thus, he passed his days— Not without honour, it is true— Yet hardly understood by few ; And these were slow in giving praise. And men had lived in mist so long, Some could not bear his blaze of light; But shut their eyes, and said ’twas night, When it was just the noon of song. But when his soul shook off its clay, And hied, its labour done, to God, Throughout the land that he had trod *Twas felt: ‘A king has died to-day!” The idea is not inexpressively set, but the fine characteristic of this quatrain arrangement,in the Laureate’s verse, is that it does not develop into a series of four-line stanzas, but flows over and interlinks in con- tinuous music, partaking rather of some characteristics of the Terza Rima. We are led, in passing, to ask what tempts our Canadian poet to adopt the whim of an English antiquary and critic in his spelling of Shakespeare’s name? Mr. Charles Knight discovered, or fancied he discovered, in the deciphering of one of his autographs, the form of A oeg adopted by him in his edition of the poet’s works; and Sir 492 REVIEWS. Frederick Madden has maintained the same orthography in a letter prin- ted in the “Archzologia.”” But what gain is there in the change? very one acquainted, not only with MSS. but with the printed litera- ture of the 16th and 17th centuries, knows how unfixed was the orthography of all proper names. Turn we, however, to the poet’s name as printed during his own life time; and probably under his own supervision, and there we are left in no doubt as to what he and his contemporaries made of it. We have in 1599, “ The Passionate Pilgrim, by W.Shakespeare,”’ in 1609, “ Shake- speare’s Sonnets,” and in 1616—the year of his death—‘ The Rape of Lucrece, by Mr. William Shakespeare.” So also his friends and post- humous editors, Eeminge and Condell, when aiming, as they say, ‘without ambition either of self-profit or fame: onely to keepe the memory of so worthy a friend, and fellow alive, as was our Shakespeare.” Or, best authority of all, let us turn to Ben Jonson’s graphic pun: “ Look how the father’s face Lives in his issue: even so, the race Of Shakespeare’s mind and manners brightly shines In his well-turned and true-filed lines: In each of which he seems to shake a lance, As brandished at the age of ignorance.” But this isa digression. Let us now invite the reader’s attention to a few specimens culled from the pages of our Canadian poet, in illustration of his style and mode of treatment of the subjects he has selected for his verse. j In the “ Prophecy of Merlin,” the piece from which Mr. Reade’s volume takes its designation, the familiar poetic artifice is adopted of putting in the mouth of an ancient seer, by supposed anticipation, an account of recent events and present times. Sir Bedivere, sole survivor of the Knights of the Table Round, mourning for the depar- ture of his adored King, is favoured by Merlin with a prophecy of the fortunes that will befal! Britain while yet Arthur should be slumbering on unseen in Avalon. It is necessary first to glance at what Merlin declares in regard to himself. He says— “Mine is the blazonry of prophet souls Whose lineage finds in God its kingly head. To me, what was, and that which is to come, Are ever present, and I grow not old With time, but have the gift of endless youth.” REVIEWS, 493 Out of Britain, after enduring much from the “‘ ereat white Dragon ; of the stormy North,” the ‘“ Tigers of the Sea,” and other ravagers,— Hi Merlin foretells that a nation by a happy amalgamation of friend and foe, was destined to arise :— ° “Like a strong oak amid the forest trees, Which, growing slowly, ceases not to grow, But fastens firmly, as it aims aloft And spreads its branches far on every side, _A shelter to the stranger of all lands.” In every king that should reign over the people, thus originating from such a complex union, some reflection, as it were, of Arthur would ; be recognized :— “ And if there be a king of soul impure— Or if there be a king of hand unjust— Or if there be a king who weighs himself Against the nation’s weal (such kings there are, And ever shall be, until Arthur wake),— It is the real king the people serve, The Blameless Prince that never can do wrong, And not the false usurper of his name.” In the series of British rulers there were to be queens; and when the third of these had “ slept for many years,’ a fourth was to arise, ‘‘ heir to the ripe fruit of long centuries.’” She was to be ‘ fair, _good and wise,’ and to be loved ‘‘ by all the land of Britain, and by many lands on every sea.’ In her day the nation was to enter on an era of increased light, and to enjoy the benefit of extraordinary dis- coveries and inventions. + —— “The earth and air Shall yield strange secrets for the use of men,— The planets in their courses shall draw near, And men shall see their marvels, as the flowers That grace the meads of Summer,—time and space Shall know new laws, and history shall walk Abreast with fact o’er all the peopled world :— For words shall flash like light from shore to shore, And light itself shall chronicle men’s deeds. Great ships shall plough the ocean without sail, And steedless chariots shoot with arrowy speed O’er hill, and dale, and river, and beneath The solid floor we tread,—the silent rocks Shall tell the story of an infant world,— 494 REVIEWS. The falling leaf shall shew the cause of things i Sages have sought in vain—and the whole vast Of sight and sound shall be to man a school Where they may learn strange lessons; and great truths, That long have slept in the deep heart of God Shall waken and come forth and dwell with men, As in the elder days the tented lord Of countless herds was taught by angel-guests.” A Prince “of goodly mien and face, from o’er the sea” shall wed this queen, and “ loving her, be loved by all the world.” Sir Bedivere at once adopts the idea that this is the Blameless Prince himself, return- ing, according to general expectation, from his long sleep in Avalon, “to crown the glories of the latter world.”” Merlin admits that, if not Arthur himself, he would be one whose aims in respect to Britain would be like those of the British hero-king. The coming Prince in after time was to take “‘ the purpose’ of Arthur— —<“ From the dim shrine where it had lain Scarce touched by dreamy reverence, many an age, And hold it in the daylight of his life.” What ‘ the purpose’ of the ancient King had been is fully told : —In deeds of war,— The rage of battle, and the clangorous charge Of mailed knights, and flash of hostile swords, And flying spears, and din of meeting shields, And all the use of man-ennobling might, For Christ and for his Cross, to wrest the land From heathen foes—did Arthur win his fame. For this, by marvels, was he chosen King ; For this he sent his heralds to all parts Of the divided realm, to summon forth All bravest, truest knights of Christendom, From rude and selfish war to Camelot, That they might be one heart around himself, To send new life-blood through the sickly land, And purge it of the plague of heathenness. . And had not the foul falsehood of his house Broken athwart the true aim of his life, And set the Table Round against itself, Ere now the heathen Dragon had been crushed, Never again to raise its hideous head O’er the fair land that Christ’s Apostle blessed.” REVIEWS. 495 The predestined impersonation of the ‘“ Blameless Prince” is not to work alone in the fulfilment of his high aims: “ She whom his heart had won, With loving aid, shall ever at his side (Till death them part) sustain him in his thought. And these two, nobly mated, each to each The sweet and ripe completion, shall be named With loyal love and tenderest respect By knight and lady, poet, sage and priest, In mart and camp, in palace and in cot, By babbling grey-beard and by lisping child, Wherever British banner is unfurled.” Success is to crown the joint efforts of queen and prince: “So shall the land grow strong with bonds of peace, Till men believe that wars have ceased to drench The earth with bloody rain; and Art shall smile On myriad shapes of beauty and of use, And Wisdom shall have freer scope, and push ~ The boulders of old Folly from her field ; And men shall walk with larger minds across The limits of the superstitious past, And cull the gold out of the dross of things, Flinging the dross aside; and then shall be New hopes of better changes yet to be, When harmony shall reign through all the world, And interchange of good for common weal Be only law.” Our space forbids more specimens of the quality of the ‘‘ Prophecy of Merlin.” It must suffice to say that in the vision of supposed future events, the memorable Exposition of 1852, the wars that speedily followed, and the death that subsequently spread such gloom over the Empire, are all sketched with gracefulness and skill; though the reader can scarcely fail to recall, and perhaps to contrast in danger- ous parallel with the latter, the exquisite dedication of ‘The Idyls”’ to our widowed Queen : “ Her, over all whose realms, to their last isle, Commingled with the gloom of imminent war, The shadow of his loss moved like eclipse, Darkening the world.” 496 REVIEWS. Our Canadian share in such world-wide sympathies is thus vee introduced, in answer to Sir Bedivere’s inquiry : ““. bliss. ciccwieleloe uae aie eee 1 mode Gilhaizewim: three vols. vol. Wl.) 1.4) -teeine «aa ceracie seein il Weiland: Ornamental sPlamtine S000 0'% occ. soe oer oe ee eee 1 hewModermiGardener’s' Calendar........---«:.<2-0.:- sere oo ee eee 1 Short introduction of Grammar to be used to attain to the knowledge of EMegairim OMS arr falay” Vales cusece 691 saps so: phn ever ops De evalac stave sysycaeie eee 1 WatrRESthes UT DIS MOMs eek eiccs ciel eeie shee cles epels Syayehete ects ie eenaenar a 1 Menodede lyOraisonm Mentale 022.5 tise cic a sien es eee ee 1 History of the Revolutions of the Roman Republic.................. 1 hiddiswbrachicevwwols: Mend glee cree aay uate eaten acre eg a 2 aWiSManO ee rAG LICE LOL AW EISE) oS. fue sie se khic she, eyste are eee loin ee ake ieee 1 lementstof. Greek Grammar 3. soe 5 52 si vies + see bre soe erat eee aes af dinttlembourmulrelan ds fo clay.c ee ae se; oc ce ie) = ace eps oe sie unnuthelofaas octets eee 1 Biographical and Historical Sketches, by T. B. Macaulay ............ 1 Ceeimahniis Cem Caeoda es abscuausososgeanec beds condgodesoe ans 1 Wave (Clomany ales Velde Ot UY SGA WENA Gb os be abes soso ne S aes oscccoe: 1 The Unknown, or Lays of the Forest, by W. F. Hae SOM Ne 1 Maritaor, Rates Of Duby, dC...) c's a a emielelecieeeeamyas cere tee eee Kssai sur la Population de L’Amériqiue Tome Premier .............. 1 Ke ‘i Gf Seconds ies.qcee =e. ccate eae if i os Quan eae sac tenance ee eee 1 vA i. ei Olinger ea oie ede eee eee 1 The Canadas cers by sommuGalt 1.20. f ioe: ws selon + ake orn ei eee 1 Canadian Almanac, 1837 ......... A ig plete ojslel ieians Medals hele aulhie etenelenete 2 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 507 VOL. Statement respecting the Harl of Selkirk’s Settlement upon the Red River in North America, its destruction in 1815 and 1816, and the Massacre of Governor Semple and his family .............-...-- List of the Library—Young Men’s Christian Association........ eh From J. M, Brodhead, Washington. ‘Geology of New Jersey, by the authority of the Legislature, George H. Cooke State Geologist PEGG Wie foam) cee net. ciel ciele tra ater aneaatet ‘Geological Survey of New Jersey in Case, Strect’s Maps ...........-. Report of J. Ross Brown on the Mineral Resources of the States and Territories West of the Rocky Mountains, 1868...........-.....-. Mineral Resources of the States and Territories West of the Rocky Mountains, by Rossiter W. Raymond, Special Commissioner of Mining Statistics, Treasury Department, 1869...... ........-. ¥ From the Boston Natural History Society. Entomological Correspondence, (Harris) ..............2..+.-+-5---> From J. Terry, Esq. Statistical Sketches of Upper Canada, for the use of Emigrants, by a Bac lewOOUSTMAT eu ie ce Syaleteual zuma Wehae, ola'e io iat saul dave mete ace af Ca ane From the Author. ; Discoveries in Science by the Medical Philosophers, &c, by Sir G. Duncan Gibb Bart. ot halktamd. Mo AL I Tee Gers). eee oe From the Author, Dr Paine. The Institutes of Medicine, by Martyn Paine, A.M., LL.D., M.D...... From the Office of Routine and Record. Siainwwesiont Camercy Glas Wiles WO). odo ouateedadcasaneoree Sodec PAMPHLETS RECEIVED FROM lst DEC., 1868 TO 30mm NOV., 1869. From the Author. Catalogue of the Reptiles and Batrachians found in vicinity of Spring- field, Mass., with notices of all other specics known to inhabit the Stauber nay cls aN AUT em ao Sun SCH ORs EE a CS le ney ee Prom the Institute. Address of the President, Peabedy Institute, Baltimore, Feb. 12, 1869. . From the Society. Proceedfngs of the Portland Society of Natural History ; vol. i part IT From the Author. Discoveries in Sciences, by the Medical Philosopher. An oration deliver- ed on 97th anniversary of the Medical Society of London, Monday, Sth March, 1869: by Sir G. Duncan Gibb, Bart., M.A., M.D., EA DGS: SoGh i ceil a lotta Mes ats sialacte) Sr ahr e eR Maa tet see 5. 1 508 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. From the Author, Samuel Keefer, Esq. Report of the Clifton Suspension Bridge at the Niagara Falls....... i From the Library. Catalogue des Livres anciens, 4 la Libraire Tross a Paris, 1869, No. IV. 1 Discorse del Com. Christophors Nigri, Pres.: della Societa Geog. Italiana 1 : From L. Heyden, Esq. The Shade of Alex. Pope; a Satirical Peom with notes, 1799......... 1 A Discourse delivered in the Scotch Church, Montreal, by James Sommerville wMSW A pi cess Ot ale ae Aeigidt ed ulate eke | wi CeO he SR al i Remembrances, or a Collection of the Standing Orders of the Legislative Council Province of Lower Canada, SiR) be 420s. eee ee eee 1 Memoirs of the administration of Lower Canada by Sir Gordon Drum- mond weer orayApril. LSiostio USthy dune, L620 2505. eel. seer 1 Atdiministrationiot dons ea iNe BurtonylS 24s. eye ee eLoRtae 1 Speech of George Richard Robinson, &c., 1832..............5-...5.- 1 Speeches of Dr. John Rolph & Chris. Hagarman, Esq., His M. Surveyor- Cemeral—_Cleray eserves. Go taste aiclislals onisrsie yee tke oie oleae eae 1 Sermon by HE. Ryerson before the Conference of the M. Church, 1837.. 1 Observations on the advantages of introducing capital and promoting immigration into the Seignories of Lower Canada, by W. N. Wrawiondvalomd Ons, USO cok swe ctecaeyh oe lt o orate dledete es oe ree 1 An Act to amend the Laws for the Regulation of the Trade of the British IROssessionsyabroddelGA) eis 03. or. cis 5) oS ature le. are lence oe teens I Glaimsjon the Clergy ito Mithes; Ge. I880 75.452 eet eee 1 Concise History of Tithes, by Joseph Storrs Fay ; 1828............., 1 intormationson migration: L832.) 0 yyeoct «ls. < 6 nal cia oe vores) siiee eee 1 Report of Select Committee on Petition of N. Sparks, and others, 1843 1 University College, London, Faculty of Medieine; 1846-7............ 1 District Connell! Bills Qiith, Aueust VS4 vie oe se ee ] Address of Hon. F. Hincks to the Reformers of Frontenac; 1944...... il Comparative view of the Climate of Upper Canada in relation to agricul- tune aby pe Ne Eind | MOA. G4 I oly Sutil ieee Oh a 1 Report of Select Committee to inquire into the Issue and Sale of City Debentures aim MUCHO es vay esa ea oe ae OMe Da Uae 1 Rlieht ofthe Camisards, by Rev: C..G. Barth, D.D.2 i225... 2. See 1 Remarks on the State of Education, Province of Canada; 1848....... 1 Commentaries on the Present Bankrupt Act; 1848................. 1 Victoria College—The Principal's Inaugural Address; 1842.........., ii Campagna of Rome, by W. 5. Bucknell; 18290....-........---. 2.0. 1 History, as a condition of Social Progress, by Samuel Lucas, A.M., 1853. 1 Report of the Windsor and Sturgeon Bay Road Committee; 1845..... 1 Hints to the People on Profession of Medicine; 1862...............- 1 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 509 VOL Sketch of the Life of Baron Metcalfe; 1846...............:.0...5.5. 1 The Eastern Oriel opened, by H. Scadding, M.A.; 1842.. ........... 1 A few words upon Canada, &e., in the great Exhibition; June 4, 1851. 1 The Woodland Warbler, &., by A. L. Spedon; 1857............... 1 On the Moral and Civil Condition of the British Provinces in North America, by Thos. Hailes Snow, Niagara, U. C.; 1841........... 2 Speeches relating to Rebellion Losses; February, 1849.............. 1 Charter and Rules of the Bank of Montreal; 11th March, 1842........ 1 Library of the Legislative House of Assembly Canada; 1842......... 1 Report on Laws relative to the Practice of Physic, Surgery and Mid- : wifery in Lower Canada; 25th October, 1852................... 1 Reva Cs Shimeall’s’ Chart. September, 1833... 05... + sa ncaa cee 1 Nebraska, a Poem, Personal and Political; 1854.................... 1 Puseyism Examined, by H. Merle D’Aubigné, D.D., 1848............ i AMeeictoncal Bssay on Mr: Addison, L883"). ..44- 4... eeer ee eee 1 A Plan of Settlement and Colonization British N. American Provinces, byaelastsbitz Gerald Hisqes lo. 0) i.) aus bec ises ee yee glee aire 1 Catalogue of Books in Various Departments of Literature, 1836....... wah Marriage with a Deceased Wife's Sister? GhO40 2 oye ey chen seen yeners 1 Some Remarks upon Sir Chas. Bagot ; 1843 Sere . a en HMRC IA SS Ut Ih Address intended to be delivered in the City Hall, Hamilton, February 7th, 1851—Subject: Slavery, by Paoli Brown, Hsq ................. 1 Message of the Lieutenant-Governor ; 30th January, 1886............ 1 Legion Letters on Responsible Government; 184£.................. 1 Appeal on the Common School Law, &e., by A Dallas, Toronto, 1858.. 1 Concise Sketch of the Intended Revolution in England—Hints to avert UNRUH ere cc ahaik ae stic biel Gtapayo bite Wis cet. coy's, MEL = ieee age a 1 Outline of a plan of National Currency, by G. H. Pell, London ; ee 1 Rules of the Law Society, Upper Canada; 1833...................-. 1 Amended Charter of the University of King’ Si Collezc-e 82 2e eerie if ieport on tae state of the Provinces [838.1442 ae ae oe 1 Special Report of a Normal School; 1847..... ss 2! aeng. 6 ler a Ae ea if The Employment of the People and Capital of Great Britain in her Colonies, by the author of ‘‘ The Clockmaker ;” 1849............ if The Life and Character of the Duke of relleios een by Lord Ellesmere ; MS Oe ree eae fie a ctl Mais ap asad ane Spier awe, © See eae ee 1 The Life and Dying Declaration of Martin Kehoe; 1854............. 1 Miontcesl Brokers: Circulars: 18430). ace. ae ee | lk Sens ee eae 2 Advantages of Emigration to Canada, by Wm. Cattermole; May, 1831. 1 An Act to amend the Laws for the Regulating the Trade of British POSSESSIONS a OTOad 2) LBAO oi.) Sah eta cvays occ een peys evan ete eae nae A Executive Orders of Convocation, Osgoode Hall; 1835............... 1 Colportage in Canada; 1854........ Bead Aun, wl sf bcos Soa tenSuU ACO Naferes net aoe ea 1 510 CANADIAN INSTITUTE. Pablevorthe Rates of Duties, der Vaan Aico ee ine Ministerial Crisis, &c., by a Reformer of 1836; 1844................ 1 ithewRectories of Upper Canada (830r Oe yh ee ne ee il 1st and 2nd Reports, Settlement of Hastern Townships; 1851........ i Public Instruction of Prussia, by J. Orville Taylor; 1896...... ..... i Proceedings Grand Lodge of Tennessee; 1851.... 0.0. ........ 4s 08s 1 Stavwtesomoamadancos LBL TL CeCe We Ue ee ee 1 Rules of the Society of St, Vincentrofi Parl 03 ais pe sceacsc sane eee 1 Emigration Practically considered, by A.C. Buchanan; 1828............. iL Statistics of the'Common Schools; L807... 0... ...20.s..0.coscevenesenesenasieaee 1 Letter to Sir R. Inglis, Bart., M.P., by the Bishop of Exeter; Jan.20,1852 1 iistgonenizes Provincial Bxcaibition)s) USS0 cence, ence sae iene nee eae 1 Speech of Hon. Robt. Baldwin, East Riding of Halton; 1846............ pe it Minutes of the Municipal Council, U. C. York and Peel, IstMeettng, 1854 1 Report of Committee on Finance; January 1840...........0.0-..2seconeneaces 1 Canada and New Brunswick Bonaire AUD ETS sccieeis cee ete sei ee eee 1 Papers Clergy Reserves Carfada, Parts I, UD. .......:....0cssccsa0-secensaeotee 2 Dispatches from Sir F. B. Head, Bart., K.C., relative to Canada, 1839.. 1 Appendix A. to the Report of the affairs of British North America, from the Earl of Durham........ H aduicacjesin cratic sicsenteciadaslssnenen solies asia 1 Ditto, Appendix B., 1; Appendix C.,1; Appendix D. & H., 2..... ...... 4 herarn Canadas sin) Heb. ead: ard May, 183 (ct. veceysee-s-tcerene ceca i Papers Relating to Canada Lands ; 21st April, 1837. Messrs. Thomp- SOMA MU CIMeT KoA e]LOM, fe heiitescinen cess ce ener state seinarsaee steiner eine ct Enea 1 Correspondence relative to Emigration to Canada; 1841..............:000- 1 Report of the Chairman of the Board of Works; 1846 daSunAGy Peporsaccon ss 1 Quarterly Returns made by the Dep. Post. General ; February 24, 1849 1 Halitax Railway, and Public Works; 18407 00... c. <2 ..c.sssencecaereemeieaet 3 Public Accounts, Province of Gane SAG oe actesmevoevecactcantcet cyte teetee 1 Parliamentary Papers, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 18, 14, 15, 16, 18/1920, 9193, 9495. 96./07,"08) 09 BON SI he Wi aae ae 26 Ist and 2nd Reports of Select Committeeon Public Income and Expen- ditwmeronthe Province r) LS HO on edoscbencesapeepsacee nasi seen Eee 1 Message relating to King’s College University ; 1845...........csccsecseenee 1 _ Surgical Instruments—Catalogue of Albany Medical College............... l Minutes of Home District Council, Ist half year; 1848..............:,00008 1 Report of the Superintendent of Education, Lower Canada; 1848......... 1 Papers, Public Works Canada; 21st August, 1848...........::00c02 seeeeeee 1 Report of the Commissioners of Public Works; 12th July, 1847......... 1 Correspondence Relative to the amounts of the Indian Department; 1847. 1 Report of the affairs of the Indians of Canada; 1847...........-:csesseseeees 1 Report of the Executive Council and Indian Department in U. C., 1840 1 Tariff of Fees to be taken by Clerks of the Peace... .... Sienna aaemerue ndeaae Hl CANADIAN INSTITUTE. 511 Ihe St. Lawrenceand Atlantic Railroad: 184.7 yo sioclessdasedvcsvecccscotsusas al Return, address relative to Clergy Lands, 1846.......ccaccossesesessessceeseess 1 New Rules of Practice, New Rules of Pleading, 1856 .........ceecesecsereees 1 Journal of the Legislative Council of Upper Canada, 1885 .............0000 1 : From the Author. On Hydrofleuric Acid, by G. Gore, F.R.S., Edgbaston, Birmingham, Eng. 1 On the Geology and Mineralogy of the County of Hastings, C. W., by iC Wiallbridge- Anoust S600. a csenscentesc ners enee eee doagdadecetoc a From the Institute. Second Annual Report of the Provost to the Trustees of the Peabody institutes Baltimore, dune, drd4l8G9u lose: oss cree ae crenata ul From the College. Annual Calendar McGill College, Montreal, Session 1869-70 ........sse0000 1 From University of Christiania, per Smithsonian lnstitution, Washington, Sitzungs-Berichte der Naturwissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft isis in Dres- den, Jahrgang, 1868, Nr. 4; 6 April, Mai, Juni. .............cccseeeane 1 From C. Bd. Milter, Bremen, per Smithsonian Institution. Abhaudlungen herausgegeben yom, &c., Zu Bremen, 2 Bd. 1 Heft.1869. 1 From the University of Christiania. Mémoires Pour Servir 4 la connaissance des Crainoides Vivants par MCHA EU SANS SOS, venaasuscceissnossayiesesaniecanes daeddesosensadsddensstenrae 1 - Selje Klosterleoninger, &c., of O. Kreofting Kaptejn, 1866- 1867 sane nobognes if Det Kongelige Norjte, eon EGTA. artists Sane aoa RO clasts cea Name aoe ait ene 1 Beretning on Den International Boulogne Sur mer, 1866 ...........eeseenee 1 Tre akademiske Taler Univ. Aarsfest, 2nd Sept. af M. J. Monead, 1863. 1 Les Péches de la Norwege par Herman Baars, Boulogne Sur Mer, 1866. I Beretning om, &e., Juni, 1865, til Juli, 1868, ditto Juni, 1862, til Juni, SGo Christiania (eens ae ee Dell els eal a 2 MepiwWet IndrehTSGi.a hoe su oie ils wale ie ela me a euae Oe teal eee e 1 Traite Klémentaire des Fonctions ialliptiques par Dr. O. J. Broch, 1867. 1 Index Scholarum Univers. Fredericianz, 1868....................-. 2 Baahushens Fisferier lst Sept. 1868, of Oskar Andersen, 1868........ 1 Nyt Magazin for Naturvedenskaburne, &c., Vid.M.Sars og Th.Kjerulf, ke 1 Foreningen til, &c., 1867...... Csi Qloy slic sie Sake cpa a anaes cre 2) don ubaeae aeeaa 1 Beritninesom: de; aarit, VS i's oi. 6 c/seeis deer alc eee oi ie ater) eres 1 Generalberetmine:: dc. ,aarit L8G G3) vee hace iere ela chao al ae 1 Forhandlinger i Miidencieue Selskabet Aar., [86753 (a vetec ot ain ene 1 Pe eristre til Christiania Viden., 1858-1867 5). 2 0. scrres tel Pelee 1 Meteorologiske Jagttagelser Christiania Obs., 1867........... af egeeans il INorskiMeteorolopisk Aarborfor LSC] ic). ] —}]—91Ir)—} — Sis > |b cs 0°0 MSA | UTTED | “UBD | Z6 | 68 | 96 | 86 I86L|6SL'|Szz'|Ggt Ioo FI+}c0 9e/0°9e 8s 0°11 a IN aN 06 | G6 | 68 | 88 JG20°|EZL"|2F0°|1F0F44°OI—]89O1|8 "#2 |0'r OF1 TQN)}2qQN/ONN TI 68 | 16 | G8 | 06 [FS0'|SF0"\0S0"|FL0 ISL FI—l29°9 Ie" £9 0°0 FQN ING MN) “CURD | 76 | 18 | 86 | G6 f69T"|FZL"/01G|L81 JOS O1+}48°1g12°90 |g*9e 0°0 SQ 9 [a q XS) “UBD | ZR | 96 | FL | SL [OFL|ZeL'|zert‘|seo Wee's +ico-6zlo Fe lo°1e Geysl9sesqa MS (MA q AS 6L | GL | €8 | 64 [OSL |8SL|LEL"|Z80°}S8°9 +129" LZ|L°ze |c°6s Oe PMP SISGdMS! 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Wiztiam, F.L.S. : On Molluscous Animals .........cce ec ccen eres cect eset teres President’s Address (1869) ......... ee Uae tate nara late Tee ASCO s.c.0 r te (USTO) i erevolaterans OU ORM GRIGG Om Scan Ou tof bie An Attempted Improvement in the Arrangement of Ferns... Inscriptions, Latin, found in Britain ............. ees eee eee cere Kineston, G. T., M.A.: Monthly Absolute Values of the Magnetic Elements at Toronto. ... On the Changes of Barometric Pressure, and Pressure of Vapour, that accompany different Winds at Toronto........ Bbbus soo acc Note relative to the Meteorological Reports for January, 1869..... On the Annual Distribution of Temperature at Toronto, in the Years USEOWe |G oh ocaomooAdotoousegoueda DO pooodoHodnodoues sdoc Latin Pronunciation, On ..........- RISES Naa CREAT ON Sis oh Len, R., F.A.S.L.: The Native Tribes of Polynesia,....... eieaherate ai vat clad drekelor ae senaaeate 534 INDEX TO VOL. XII. PAGE Wocalmistony, Canacian wie tel yetteaiae lelela also eralain ats 149, 227, 388, 480, 514 Loupoy, J., M.A.: On Latin Pronunciation................. RoW yt ave Sian ste eleccte soe 460 Macerecor, C, J., M.A.: On the Climatology of Stratford, Ontario.............+- Sa oieers 470 Magnetic Elements, Monthly Absolute Values of, at Toronto.......... 263 McCaut, Rey. Joun, LL.D.: Christian Epitaphs of First Six Centuries ...... ........ss0.00. if Notes on Latin Inscriptions found in Britain....... oognagooS ao000 97 Medical Science, On state of, in Ontario................-.-- apatewerete 207 Metonyms, or Translated and Quasi-Translated Personal Names....... 35 Meteors; November, US6'p 1868 soe 4 sccm «in sisieler wtelsiealeiefove eleletolnlatore’s 86 METEOROLOGY: May (1867) Meteorological Table for Toronto (p. 96) ....... i June < as SAMOA cot ie Rescate iii July as sf SCR ite tT faut Peter Vv August cf Stans t wage Ms Re es vii September “ sf ey evel eteie\ 4 ate a(s ‘al ni = ix October i a 2 aodcandnooacaes xi November ‘“ ay eine wooed co8e6 Sonne xiil December “ if : Severe ster ele einer XV Mean Meteorological Results for 1867.............02eeseecceeee xviii January (1868) Meteor glee Table for. Toronto (p. 176). oo) oa FeV MATAVHIM ok eli eal eel GoLite, aout lnetecSiotevs agafas okakekere XXV March f iS SH hs a Ncbevedefenoterer St bas XXVil April “i ie SEWN Js en OG Oona Oc xxix May FOO eR gin toteeteie Sodocd0000 XXXi June Hi ss ke wig. Maer atolerere ete vavare Xxxill July a ie Se Put SIRI A Alteraneettelatatte everett ceeke XXXV August 8 oom RR Maeharin cc oe Gia 0.0 0-6 XXXVil September (1869) Bictegnelo ical Table is Toronto (p. 264)....... XXxIx October oo BRAM Boa bec c xl November “ e Sondcdodedsouse xliii December “ i noddddooaO0OdNS xlv General Meteorological Register for 1868........+0...eeeeeeees xlvil January (1869) Meteor blog ical Table fon Toronto (p. 354)....... liii IE DEU AT VG ge lnie dso vi, GRO TCT: Whe RSIS HL, Sie nareeMoretagstsice elelakotelare lv March | it eh eM lS Aveta asin sooo 4 lvii April rs ‘i SA moh Aileraeteieieicior= te emits lix May fe ef PONISI Sictohe i sheieita yee yens Ixi June ‘i rs isUodloobayoucse ]xiij July i Ra Wa ATC euasset ted he ee eaten Ixv August % i Sb bia ds sels ee eae te Sav INDEX TO VOL, XII. 535 Merrorotoay (continued): PAGE September (1870) Meteorological Table for Toronto.............. lxix October R eat Vy) Ci POS cae gna nan ee eae os Bcrehn nd bo-ail November ‘ “ ne dpi RVs do. bean December “ 8 RM AMRURMn Ce enc Bins ASR Ixxvi January, 1869, On the Meteorological Reports for ............0.. 443 January (1870) Meteorological Table for Toronto (p. 338) ........ Ixxxiii February “ ‘3 Mn MMM meet chae Bas 5 Ixxxv March sf £4 PERI. HON Ne cS rai Te teen eee Ixxxvii April if e ae NEM Va EEE ICI SIN (ots Sie Ixxxix Mineral Veins, a Table for Calculating their Yield........¢.......... 478 Minerals Canadian) vAmalysis Of) 0. 015.5 sjecs ss si/eleleactere ne eela eres Stotaliore 265 PROMS OA AUNT ALS jects ccseleueiciwinibrs iol atery Naloveiy dea reiarereraneae a Wie SAAN 26 Morray, Rey. J. Cuarn, M.A.: On Sir Wm. Hamilton’s Philosophy ................ ital srereve eee 57 Polynesia, Native Tribes of........... ayetrcerojoieiereters speichapeecavets eyakevattuens 443 residents Address, 1869.6). 0..sce uss cece nc FAAS Conc oaade asin 97 e ae USO esganoe doddooeooboddD0DS GOObE Gonoasonoo 355 Pressure, Barometric, &c., at Toronto........ SuuoDboocoopnboo. wees 303 PRocEEDINGS OF CANADIAN INSTITUTE: Annual Report for 1866-7........... ayexeloval st xoroieistyecentetostertelctete 87 Communications UNO ae Dee erase Dlonoo ens bo ob oogo0et 87 Treasurer and Auditors’ Report for 1866- 4 dobobococos Subbcsa .. 88, 262 Librarian’s re panes tekstals GAEe Gon obooGoL o'ac 90 Appendix ‘i Dp egoben ode onedoosoesd 92 Annual Report for 1867-8...... sr afeey chet ene s, sicio)S suarouaretareharseke aes 175 Communications HsMilMiavehecisicrsy a earacatt cate eceicsayocecatenake o2oGo000000 175 Annual Report for 1868-9............. Boadongoosaoo0CN pboocS 439 Communications Babaitanaysreneeyele Hiolotaieloistsisis BORO OU aaanO DIOS ot 439 Treasurer and Auditors’ Report ........... doaocoocdonocsocnns 440 Librarian’s Report .......... Sododieoucoron Aboood SUddHOHOOERDS 442 Wonapions since last Report... ¢...iceess ce sess ve pond ceond~ bus 499 REVIEWS : Dr. Cannifi’s History of Early Settlements on Bay of Quinté...... 323 Walley Alaskasand its! RESOUTCES << 20> s,c1e's+ » a)e\evcles erasers ciealateele 480 Reade’s Prophecy of Merlin ......... He Gowie Soar a/etakel atervattalnsayae 490 inicardus) CORMeNSIS | OM.) 66. sats sve. vee BREE Doc Nod dsc aoe 0 177 Scappine, Rev. Henry, D.D.: Metonyms, or Translated and Quasi-Translated Personal Names .. 35 Local Canadian History: Toronto of Old..........149, 227, 333, 430, 514 Canada in the Bodleian ............... sreyejnieraclarsleter sratenorlattereeeyole 370 236 iNDexX TO VOL. XII. Stratford, Ontario, On Climatology of....... HEB OH ro cau) aiid Beth Tompson, JosePH L. : On the Cause of Glacier Motion .......-....--2005 seeeee: : Toronto, On Temperature at, 1859-68.... 1... eeeeeerecerees Ainci Wuson, Pror, Dantet, LL.D. : American Literary Forgeries .............-- HOARE sland aia ges ap Ricardus Corinensis: a Literary Masking of the Eighteenth Century Race Head-Forms, and their Expression by Measurement......... Higher Education for Women........--. sess eres ences ce eceee The Law of Copyright—Pike v. Nicholas...........ssseeseeeee JN NSIRG Anatol sits) IRCSOMNATES 15 A HORS Sona ooR dad 5 Saab aliy ands aoe RECENT IMPORTANT WORKS. TREATISE ON NAVAL ARCHITEOTERE By Commander Richard Meade, U. S. N,$ TOPOGRAPHICAL DRAWINGS FOR ORFICERS or ee ARMY, NAVY, CIVIL ENGINEERS, de. By J. Enthoffer, $22 50 THE ROYAL ENGINEER. By The Right Ho, Frets B, Head, $3 5. THE ARTS IN THE MIDDLE AGES, By Paul Leeroix. Illustrated a Nineteen Chromo Lithographic Prints, by Kellerhoven, $12. A SYSTEM OF MINERALOGY. By James D. Dana, New eailion, $9. FIGUIERS WORLD BEFORE THE DELUGE. i is new edition, es ; revised, and much original matter added, $5. y ; SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. Wish Ce Colored Plates, and asin, “ _ by H. Roscoe, F.R.S., $6. THE OCEAN WORLD. A a Get be Sean stants with beautiful Mustrations, $5. — ea CHRISTIANITY AND GREEK PHILOSOPHY. by BE LAY SERMONS, ADDRESSES AND REVIEWS. | F.R.S., $1 25. ANGLO-SAXON READER. By Francis A. Bath, $1 Ee THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE AND. THe ee OF Ne BEUST, §2 50. i if POLITICAL SKETCH OF MEN AND vB» now 1866 TO 1870 By cross, DD., $3. y eas ie Hele an Englishman, : 50. For Sais By ‘COPP, CLARK & co. PUBLISHERS, BOOKSELLERS AND STATIONERS, _17 & 19 KING STREBT BAST, TORONTO. CONTENTS. . oe ee eter . pace} Tap. NATIVE, pees OF porn : Janie er Ypefore the coer Institute, oo March 12th, 1870, by Ricuanp Lee, F.A.S.L.. th eeeeae Bocooee Se SE-ORaoe faci onsen “443 ; oN LATIN PRONUNCIATION. By Tames Lovpoy, M.A., Mathematical. Tutor “and : By Mans - Dean, University College, Toronto EEG NO SET SOE ESE ree ChE oe Soon oar ee 23. 460 F ae on THE CLIMATOLOGY OF STRATFORD, ONTARIO. By C. Je Beco oe M. A. let as tec: ‘Head Master of the Grammar School..+.++.++1+e++0100+ eas ao ae. 0a lee es pw phe ese (CHIDO 470 : IY. 0 N THE ANNUAL DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE AT SonontG IN THE Re _ YEARS: 1859-"6S, By G. T. Krnoston, M.A, Director of the Magnetic Observatory 474 eS ae A TABLE, FOR CALCULATING THE WEIGHT ‘AND YIELD, PER RUNNING Bt) sae Bey OF MINERAL VEINS. By E. J. ‘CuarMaN, Pu.D., Professor of i _ Mineralogy and Geology, in University College,’ ‘Toronto; and Consutting Mining q 4 ‘eek oe ee hee ae a ilagertr eye s Fee ee Cece ree sees dee ce ween see ah : a ean its es By William H. pall Director of the Scientitie ogee of the late Western Union Telegraph Expedition, Boston: Lee & Shepard, 1870. 480 oe Prophecy of Merlin, and other Poems. = John Reade. Montreal: Dawson Brothers, 1870 ee rr ee ee ee SC a a dees ee eee eee Rath. 490 2 She INSTITUTE: | | CR: Librarian’s Report....-.+.....- eke ione sy eieanrn sie ee on SERIO PONE CINY by Dan) Soe US, 499 VIL, CANADIAN ae ORY Be: the Rev. ‘Dr. Gee Bas ccace 1 Oe ane Fanny Metal abe for Trot. bees egdete eens Love en ye tes J0ase gs DXERUT ‘Remarks on : ere. seen ee ee we apes above esas Wis le eh Siem. 1xxxiv _Pobrary Meteortogia! Babe for Foros eee ee ee en ee we oe sree eee anes IXxxV _ Remarks on — Less i ‘ | Maye Meteorological Mable for Toronto... eee Sos Paiiaes nesses at sages inne ate oy Ixxxvii on ee eee Reais ie sees cor pase eee ee ee ee ee Ixxxviil ; “Ari Meteorological Pale for Toronto. eres ee ee ee ee AT soe ee Ixxxix SK Meee tag errs ‘Remarks on 4 aS sre seaiee ¥ saa laie 8 sete ee eee nee Srrearenricreeins SF 2 : ig ners TITLE. Pn a ae a So ee ee eC SNR aceon kee ee eh ne ee we we 46 ‘ =o JARO RIS AROCLOR REI EY Beebe ne vee nee Ixxxvi _ INDEX Smiedean op Cos oaOoT: rev ev wees ssiuper ee © vase ee reese PRS Pt ee th te te ee ee eR ee Ee eR Re Re ee ee Oe Fis oobeety : eis 2 3 -